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                        ONE FOOT IN THE WORLD

                        Buddhist Approaches to
                         Present-day Problems


                            LILY DE SILVA

                   The Wheel Publication No. 337/338


                     BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
                     Kandy      1986     Sri Lanka

              Copyright 1986 Buddhist Publication Society

                       DharmaNet Edition      1994


        This electronic edition is offered for free distribution
            via DharmaNet by arrangement with the publisher.

               Transcribed for DharmaNet by Maureen Riordan

                          DharmaNet International
                   P.O. Box 4951, Berkeley CA 94704-4951






                             PREFACE


The dispensation of the Buddha includes not only monks and nuns,
but male and female lay followers as well. All these four groups
comprising the Buddhist community have but one ultimate goal. That
goal is the attainment of Nibbana.

Though Nibbana means final liberation from the world, while walking
along the path to liberation a Buddhist has to live in the world
and deal with the conditions of worldly existence. This problem is
likely to be felt especially acutely by the lay Buddhist, who may
find that the demands and attractions of secular life tend to pull
him away from the path to deliverance. However, the Buddha was not
unaware of or unconcerned about this dilemma confronted by his lay
disciples, but gave it his careful attention. He taught his lay
followers how to organize lay life in accordance with the ethical
principles of the Dhamma and how to lead successful lay lives
without deviating from the path of rectitude.

As lay Buddhists, we must be ever vigilant so that in our pursuit
of worldly goals such as wealth, pleasure, and success we do not
lose sight of our spiritual goal.

Care should be taken especially to avoid the violation of the basic
moral principles summed up in the Five Precepts, as such violation
leads to regression on the path. We must often remind ourselves that
the first two of the four stages of holiness can be attained by those
still leading a married life; that there have been non- returners of
the third stage who continued to remain in lay life though observing
celibacy; and that the texts record instances of laymen who even
attained arahatship prior to their deaths. The Pali Canon contains
ample evidence of exemplary laymen and laywomen, such as
Anathapindika, Visakha, and the parents of Nakula, to mention only the
most prominent. Therefore a layman should make every endeavor to
follow the way to the end of suffering in this very life itself, by
leading a life of moderation and self-discipline and by practicing
meditation with the aim of developing insight into the ultimate truths
of life and death.

The essays in this booklet explore various facets of experience
from lay life which require the attention of the lay aspirant to
deliverance. They deal particularly with those which have become
more pronounced and urgent in our contemporary materialistic and
secularized world. My wish is to share these ideas with others who
also may be attempting to follow the Buddha's path in the lay life,
and are thus walking with one foot on the way to Nibbana and one
foot still in the world. I hope these essays will assist them to
understand and overcome the problems they may face in their day-to-
day lives.






                      A LAYMAN'S HAPPINESS


Life in the modern age has become particularly trying and
problematic. Though it remains a fact that the standard of living
has generally improved, man is still suffering immensely under the
weight of present-day living. The physical condition of man has
been reduced to such a pathetic level that he succumbs to untimely
death by killer diseases such as cancer, heart failure, diabetes,
etc. to an unprecedented degree. Mentally, he is so tension-ridden
that he has forgotten the art of relaxing, and he cannot even enjoy
sound sleep without the aid of tranquilizers. In this set up
interpersonal relations have become so brittle and vulnerable that
the divorce rate has become alarmingly high, thus letting loose a
whole series of other social problems such as uncared-for children,
juvenile delinquency, suicide, etc. Thus life has become a
problematic burden and a solution to make life more tolerable and
enjoyable is a great pressing need.

As the world of the Buddha is of everlasting value and universal
applicability, and as the Buddha preached not only to monks and
nuns but also to the lay public as well, it is useful to find a
teaching of the Buddha which is relevant to our present-day
problems. In the //Pattakammavagga// of the Anguttara Nikaya (A II,
69) the Buddha preached a sutta to Anathapindika on the fourfold
pleasures of a layman. It is our considered opinion that this sutta
offers adequate insight to meet the demands of the present-day
problems as well. The four types of pleasure listed there are:
//atthisukha//, the pleasure of having material wealth; //bhogasukha//,
the pleasure of enjoying material wealth; //ananasukha//, the
pleasure of being debtless; and //anavajjaskha//, the pleasure of
being blameless. Let us take these for discussion one by one and
see how these sources of pleasure can be harnessed for leading a
happy life in the present-day world.


//Atthisukha// -- Man should not only have a righteous means of living,
avoiding blameworthy trades such as dealing in meat, liquor,
poison, firearms and slavery, he should also entertain a wholesome
attitude towards his righteous occupation. For instance, if a
doctor welcomes epidemics in the locality in order to make much
money, or a trader hopes for natural calamities to send market
prices up, the money earned by such unscrupulous individuals is not
righteous money as their intentions are impure and foul. Also one
should not deceive or exploit others in carrying out one's
occupation. Exerting oneself with great perseverance, one should
earn one's living, and such hard-earned wealth is called righteous
wealth (//dhammika dhammaladdha//). Again one could have great
wealth, but if one does not experience a sense of contentment with
what one has, one cannot really enjoy //atthisukha// or the pleasure
of having. The amassing of wealth of such a person is like trying
to fill a bottomless vessel. This is one of the widespread maladies
we see in the present-day society. Inordinate expansion of wealth
becomes a source not of happiness, but of anxiety. Such wealth
exposes the possessor to the jealousies and maneuvers of other
unscrupulous individuals, hence the occurrence of blackmailing and
kidnapping from time to time. But if one does have a righteous
means of earning one's living and the correct attitude to wealth,
one can escape many of the hazards which money brings in its wake
to modern man.


//Bhogasukha// -- Wealth has only instrumental value and the proper
enjoyment of wealth is an art which is worth carefully cultivating.
Buddhism deplores both extravagance and miserly hoarding. One must
maintain a healthy balanced standard of living according to one's
means. If, in the enjoyment of wealth, one overindulges in sense
pleasures, one is bound to run into health hazards in a very short
time. If, for instance, one overindulges in food just because one
can afford it, one will soon be overcome by diseases such as heart
failure, high blood pressure and diabetes. Such a one will be faced
with the situation of "cutting his neck with his own tongue."
Moderation in food is a virtue praised in Buddhism and it is a
health-promoting habit. Often in the name of enjoying wealth, man
cultivates unhealthy habits such as smoking and drinking. It is
paradoxical that man, who actually loves himself most, should act
as if he were his own worst enemy by indulging in habits which
ultimately reduce him to a physical wreck. It is medically
established that smoking causes the highest percentage of lung
cancer, and that drinking causes irreparable damage to vital organs
of the body. If only one pauses to ponder over one's own welfare,
and if only one entertains at least some degree of compassion
towards oneself, one would not get into the clutches of these
vicious habits. Wealthy men often end up in the pitiful plight of
the ant fallen in the pot of honey. Such men did not know the art
of enjoying //bhogasukha//. The regard the body as an instrument for
pleasure, and they wear out and debilitate the body's capacity for
enjoyment in double quick time, long before the natural process of
wear and tear sets in. If we love ourselves, we have to treat our
bodies with proper care without taxing it with overindulgence and
deprivation. It is with the body that we can enjoy not only the
pleasures of the senses, but even the spiritual bliss of Nibbana.
Another aspect of the joy of wealth is the art of sharing. Without
being an //Adinnapubbaka//, a "never-giver," if one learns to share
one's riches with the less fortunate have-nots, one will have the
noble experience of being happy at the joy of another. At the same
time one will learn the love and good will of others, instead of
becoming the target of jealousy and intrigue.


//Ananasukha// -- The pleasure of being debtless is the third quality
discussed in our sutta. Economically if one can be completely free
of debt, one is indeed a very fortunate person. To be really
debtless in society one has to discharge one's obligations
scrupulously. As a wage earner one has to discharge one's duties
for which one is paid, otherwise one can be indebted to the wage
one gets. As a parent one has to fulfill one's obligations to one's
children. In our society children are taught to worship and look
after their parents, and it is well to bear in mind that parents
too have to qualify themselves for the honor they receive by being
dutiful parents. It should be emphasized that fathers who neglect
their families as a result of their addiction to vices such as
drinking and gambling fall far short of the ideal of debtlessness.
One can have the satisfaction of being debtless only if one has
fulfilled one's obligations in all social roles one has to perform.


//Anavajjasukha// -- The satisfaction of leading a blameless life is
the highest form of satisfaction that a layman can have. Every
society has a code of ethics to be followed by its members.
According to Buddhism the minimum code of ethics regulating the
life of its adherents is the //pancasila//, the Five Precepts[1]. If
one practices these virtues, one can have the satisfaction of
leading a righteous life to a great extent. Refraining from doing
to others what one does not like others to do unto oneself is the
basic principle underlying these virtues. Buddhism speaks of //hiri//
and //ottappa//, the sense of shame and the fear to do wrong, as
//deva dhamma// or celestial qualities. These are the basic qualities
which separate man from the animal kingdom. Unlike the animals man
has a conscience which makes him squeamish about doing wrong.
Buddhism recognizes blameless mental activity as well. Mental
activities which spring from greed, hatred and delusion are
unwholesome and blameworthy. Let us see how such mental behavior is
a source of unhappiness. Take for instance the case of a person who
is angry. What are the symptoms of anger? Hard breathing,
accelerated heart beat, faster circulation of blood, feeling hot,
sweating, trepidation, restlessness, etc. -- these are the physical
manifestations of anger. These are certainly not comfortable
physical experiences. Each time the cause of anger is remembered,
even though the physical manifestations of anger may not be that
marked, one feels quite restless and mentally ill at ease. We use
expressions such as "boiling with anger," "I got the devil on to
me," etc. to mean getting angry, and these sayings are literally
expressive of the situation. It is just not possible for one to be
angry and happy at the same time. An irritable person is truly a
very sad person, and what is worse he infects others around him too
with the same sadness. The cultivation of sublime modes of behavior
such as loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity
are truly conducive to happy living. Those who live with such
attitudes habitually are pleasant and amicable people who can be
happy alone as well as in company.

If we truly understand the significance of the four kinds of
happiness elucidated in our sutta, and translate them into action,
life will be much more pleasant and happy even in this modern age.





                      THE MECHANICS OF BONDAGE
                           AND SUFFERING


The Buddhist texts repeatedly describe man as being bound and
fettered to suffering. Many Pali words are used to describe this
pathetic situation, such as //samyojana//, //bandha// and //pasa//,
meaning bond, fetter, and snare, respectively. One sutta employs a
simple simile to illustrate the manner in which man is fettered to
//samsaric// life. According to this simile a black bull and a white
bull are tied together with a rope. In this situation it cannot be
said that the black bull is a fetter to the white bull, or that the
white bull is a fetter to the black bull. Actually it is the rope
with which the two are tied together that constitutes the fetter.
Similarly the external world is not a fetter to man, nor is man a
fetter to the external world. It is the desire for pleasure with
which man is bound to the external world that forms the fetter.
Desire is a very strong fetter which chains man to the external
world and thereby to the ever recurring cycle of births and deaths.
This strong fetter has six strands emerging from the six sense
faculties, namely, the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and the mental
faculty. The last mentioned faculty is called //mano// in Pali and is
regarded as the sense that unifies all other faculties.

The Pali word for sense faculty is //indriya//, a very interesting
word which reveals much about our human situation. //Indra// means
lord or king, and the sense faculties are called //indriyas// because
they dominate us so much. They act as our lords or masters and we
slavishly obey them. The eye wishes to see pleasant forms, the ear
wishes to hear pleasant sounds, the nose to smell pleasant smells,
the tongue to enjoy pleasant tastes, and the body to feel pleasant
tactile objects. The mental faculty which unifies all other sense
faculties, gets terribly disturbed as it is dragged in different
directions by the different sense stimuli, while it has to deal
with its own share of agitations in the form of hopes, memories,
and imaginations. The //Chappanaka Sutta// of the Samyutta Nikaya
beautifully illustrates the struggle of the six senses with an
eloquent simile. According to this simile, six animals having
different habits and diverse fields of action are tied together in
one knot by a strong rope. The six animals are a crocodile who
tries to run to the water, a bird who tries to fly in the air, a
dog who tries to run to a village, a fox who tries to flee to a
cemetery, a monkey who tries to go to the forest, and a snake who
tries to creep into an anthill. These six animals are constantly
struggling to reach their respective habitats. Similarly, the six
senses are constantly seeking gratification in their own spheres,
and the man who has no control over his sense faculties becomes
terribly confused.

Through our senses we are chained to sense stimuli. We are chained
to pleasant sense stimuli by the way of greed. We love to see
pleasant objects and we spend a great deal of time, energy, and
money in our endeavor to procure as many pleasant objects as
possible. We love to hear pleasant words; if someone speaks in
praise of us once we will often recall it with pleasure and be
attached to that pleasure. We love to eat tasty food. This is a
great weakness in most of us. Even when rich food is detrimental to
our health, the desire to please the tongue is so great that we
indulge in food even at the risk of our precious lives. This is how
we sometimes go to the extent of beheading ourselves with our
tongues. Man's desire to gratify his sex desire is also so intense
that he runs the gravest risk of suffering great pain and debility
with social diseases. AIDS (Acquired Immunity Deficiency Syndrome),
the present dreaded disease which is taking a very heavy toll of
human life in the West, is the latest severe penalty man is paying
for his unrestrained greed for sensuality. The plight of modern man
can be illustrated by the traditional simile of the ant fallen in
the pot of honey, bogged down and drowning in the very pleasures he
is trying to enjoy.

Just as much as we can become fettered by greed, so we can also get
trapped by dislike and hatred. Our aversion is aroused by
unpleasant sense stimuli. The stronger the aversion, the more
tenaciously we become fettered to the unpleasant object. Let us
take an example. Suppose we have seen a disgusting object just
before or during a meal. Our aversion may grow so strong that we
will reject even the most delicious food. If we see a worm in a
bean curry, our aversion to it may even make us give up eating
beans altogether, for each time we see beans we would be reminded
of the unpleasant experience. Let us take another example from
auditory experience. If somebody abuses us in front of a gathering,
we would indeed get very angry with the abuser. This incident would
come to our mind often and each time it came up we would experience
anger. When we recall the abuse over and over and inject negative
emotions of anger and hatred into this memory, we should know that
a fetter has been formed.

By these obsessions by greed and hatred generated through the
instrumentality of the senses, man's freedom of activity is limited
and demarcated. He becomes like an animal tethered to a post by a
rope, with its range of activity limited by the length of the rope.
Here egoism is like the post, as we are all tied to the idea of
self or "I". The rope stands for desire or aversion, for the
stronger the idea of self, the more selfish we become, and the more
selfish we become, the stronger grow our desires, likes, and
dislikes. So it goes on like a vicious circle. Let us work out the
simile in greater detail: when the rope of desire is strong, the
rope itself becomes short, restricting man's freedom of activity
proportionally. The man with a very strong sense of ego is like the
animal who is smothered by the tightness and the shortness of the
rope. The nature of this desire-rope is such that when negative
emotions of likes and dislikes are weak, the rope itself is not
only weakened but also lengthened, giving the human animal greater
freedom of activity. When negative emotions become weak, positive
emotions such as love and compassion emerge, expanding man's scope
of freedom. The entire message of the Dhamma can be summarized as
a method of rescuing human beings from the trammels of
egocentricity, negative emotions, and ignorance, and granting them
complete and unlimited freedom. In the language of our simile, it
is like cutting the rope and uprooting the post to which the animal
is tied.

The suttas also speak of another human tendency with regard to
sense pleasures: dwelling on past sensual pleasures while even
neglecting to enjoy present pleasures. The past sense objects have
already passed away and changed, but we become attached to our
memories of them and thus experience anguish. Another trap we fall
into because of our enjoyment of sense objects is the generation of
the three types of conceit. When we think that we have a greater
share of sensual pleasures than others, we develop a superiority
complex (//seyyamana//); by considering ourselves equal to others, we
develop the equality complex (//sadisamana//); and by thinking of
ourselves as being less fortunate than others in the enjoyment of
sense pleasures, we develop the inferiority complex (//hinamana//).
Thus, by using the measuring rod of sense pleasures to quantify
status, we become more and more self-centered and suffer the
consequences of all possible complexes. therefore the Buddha calls
sense pleasures the "snare of Mara," the Evil One.

A sutta in the Salayatana Samyutta explains the situation from a
different angle. When the sense faculties are unrestrained, the
mind gets corrupted, wallowing in the enjoyment of sense objects.
Such a corrupt mind does not find //pamojja//, delight in those
higher noble pursuits which elevate the mind.


When this //pamojja//, or spiritual delight is absent, pious joy
(//piti//) is also absent. When pious joy is missing there is no
//passaddhi//, physical and mental relaxation. He who is not relaxed,
lives in tension, frustration, and misery. This is what is called
in Pali //dukkha//, "suffering." Thus suffering is traced to non-
restraint in the sense faculties.

Looking at the problem from another perspective, the Salayatana
Samyutta traces the origin of the world to sense experience.
Depending on the sense faculties and sense objects  there arises
sense consciousness. The convergence of these three factors -- sense
faculties, sense objects and sense consciousness -- is called contact
(//phassa//). Contact generates feelings (//phassapaccaya vedana//). In
other words, if the object is delightful we experience pleasure in
making contact with it. Feelings give rise to craving
(//vedanapaccaya tanha//) as we tend to desire more and more of the
pleasant feelings. Craving generates clinging (//tanhapaccaya
upadanam//), when we try to possess the objects we crave for.
Clinging nurtures the growth of personal factors (//upadanapaccaya
bhavo//), which is turn causes birth (//jati//). Birth brings in its
wake all the ills of old age, death, grief, lamentation, etc. This
is called the arising of the world. Thus we construct our own
private worlds through the instrumentality of our sense faculties.

All this material goes to show that we are trapped to //samsara//
through the domination of our senses. If we allow them free rein,
we allow them to control us. Bondage and suffering are
proportionate to the extent that we allow our sense faculties to
dominate us. If we desire freedom and happiness for ourselves we
have to subjugate the senses and make them our servants.





                         UNDERSTANDING AND
                          MANAGING STRESS


Stress is a term adopted from engineering science by psychology and
medicine. Simply defined, stress in engineering means force upon an
area. As so many forces are working upon us in the modern age, and
we find it extremely difficult to cope under so much pressure,
stress is called the "disease of civilization." Philip Zimbardo in
his //Psychology and Life// traces four interrelated levels at which
we react to the pressures exerted upon us from our environment. The
four are: the emotional level, the behavioral level, the
physiological level, and the cognitive level. the emotional
responses to stress are sadness, depression, anger, irritation, and
frustration. The behavioral responses are poor concentration,
forgetfulness, poor interpersonal relations, and lowered
productivity. The physiological responses consist of bodily
tensions, which may lead to headaches, backaches, stomach ulcers,
high blood pressure, and even killer diseases. At the cognitive
level one may lose self-esteem and self-confidence, which leads to
feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. At worst such a person
may even end up committing suicide.

In order to understand stress let us consider the various
environmental factors which exert pressure on modern man. In this
atomic age the very survival of the species is threatened. Nuclear
war threatens every single human being on earth, irrespective of
whether one lives in a country with nuclear weapons or not.
Population explosion threatens man with severe food shortages; at
present even a large segment of human population is undernourished
while still others are dying of starvation and malnutrition.
Environmental pollution causes severe health hazards and mental and
physical retardation. Unemployment among the skilled is a growing
global problem. The pace of life has become so hectic that man is
simply rushing from one task to another without any relaxation.
This is really paradoxical in an age when labor-saving devices are
freely available and are in use to an unprecedented degree.
Competition for educational and employment opportunities is so
severe that it has contributed to a fair share to increase the rate
of suicide. Enjoyment of sense pleasures has grown so obsessive
that it has become like drinking salt water to quench thirst.
Constant stimulation of the senses is today considered a necessity,
and thus pocket radios with earphones, chewing gum, and cosmetics
are marketed everywhere. Sense stimulation goes on unrestrained but
satiation is far from achieved. It is no wonder that man, caught up
in all this, is terribly confused and frustrated, and his life is
intolerably stressful. This is the situation Buddhism describes as
"tangles within and tangles without, people are enmeshed in tangles."

While the above observations were made from the point of view of
modern studies and contemporary conditions, Buddhism makes similar
observations from a psychological perspective. Man experiences
stress and suffering because of five psychological states which
envelop his whole personality. They are called //nivarana// in the
Pali language, meaning hindrances. They hinder happiness and
overcloud man's vision of himself, his environment and the
interaction between the two. The thicker and more opaque these
hindrances, the greater the stress and suffering man experiences.
The thinner and more sparse these hindrances, the less his
suffering with a corresponding increase in happiness. These five
hindrances are the desire for sensual pleasures, anger, indolence,
worry and doubt. The Pali Canon illustrates the effect of these
hindrances with the help of five eloquent similes. The mind
overpowered by the desire for sense pleasures is compared to
colored water which prevents a true reflection of a thing on the
water. Thus a man obsessed with the desire for sense pleasures is
unable to get a true perspective of either himself or other people
or his environment. The mind oppressed by anger is compared to
boiling water which cannot give an accurate reflection. A man
overpowered by anger is unable to discern an issue properly. When
the mind is in the grip of indolence it is like moss covered water:
light cannot even reach the water and a reflection is impossible.
The lazy man does not even make an effort at correct understanding.
When worried the mind is like wind-tossed turbulent water, which
also fails to give a true reflection. The worried man, forever
restless, is unable to make a proper assessment of an issue. When
the mind is in doubt it is compared to muddy water placed in
darkness which cannot reflect an image well. Thus all the five
hindrances deprive the mind of understanding and happiness and
cause much stress and suffering.

Buddhism puts forward a methodical plan of action for the gradual
elimination of stress and the increase of happiness and
understanding. The first step recommended in this plan is the
observance of the Five Precepts comprising the abstention from
killing, stealing, illicit sex, falsehood and intoxicants. Stress
is greatly enhanced by guilt, and these precepts help man to free
his conscience of the sense of guilt. The //Dhammapada// says the
evil-doer suffers here and hereafter; on the other hand, the man
who does good deeds rejoices here and hereafter.

Buddhism firmly believes that evil increases stress while good
increases happiness. In addition to the observance of the Five
Precepts throughout life, Buddhism advocates the periodical
observance of the Eight Precepts by laymen. These additional
precepts attempt to train man for leading a simple life catering to
one's needs rather than one's greeds. A frugal mode of life where
wants are few and are easily satisfied is highly extolled in
Buddhism. It is the avaricious and the acquisitive mentality that
is responsible for so much stress that we experience.

The next step in the process of training is the control of the
sense faculties. When our sense faculties are uncontrolled we
experience severe strain. We have to first understand what is meant
by being uncontrolled in the sense faculties. When a person sees a
beautiful form with his eyes, he gets attracted to it; when he sees
an unpleasant object, he gets repelled by it. Similarly with the
other senses too. Thus the person who has no control over his
senses is constantly attracted and repelled by sense data, as
during waking life sense data keep on impinging on his sense
faculties constantly. When pulled in different directions by sense
stimuli, we become confused and distressed.

Our sense faculties have different spheres of activity and
different objects, and as each sense faculty is a lord in its own
sphere, and as they can severally and collectively dominate man,
they are called in Pali //indriyas//, meaning "lords" or "masters."
If we allow the sense faculties to dominate us, we get terribly
confused. If we assert ourselves and control our sense faculties,
we can have unalloyed pleasure (//avyasekasukha//), so called because
this pleasure is uncontaminated by defilements. It is also called
//adhicittasukha//, meaning spiritual pleasure. Whereas sense
pleasures increase stress, this type of spiritual pleasure reduces
stressfulness and increases peace of mind and contentment.

The third step in the management of stress is the cultivation of
wholesome mental habits through meditation (//bhavana//). Just as we
look after and nurture our body with proper food and cleanliness,
the mind too needs proper nourishment and cleansing. The mind is
most volatile in its untrained state, but when it is tamed and made
more stable it brings great happiness. Buddhism prescribes two
fundamental meditative methods of mind-training called //samatha//
and //vipassana//, calm and insight. The former is the method of
calming the volatile mind, while the latter is the method of
comprehending the true nature of bodily and mental phenomena. Both
methods are extremely helpful for overcoming stress. The
//Samannaphala Sutta// explains with the help of five appropriate
similes how meditation reduces the psychological stress caused by
the five hindrances. The man who practices meditation gains a great
sense of relief and it is this sense of unburdening oneself that
the similes illustrate. They are as follows: A man who has raised
capital for a business by taking a loan, prospers in business, pays
off the loan and manages his day-to-day affairs with financial
ease. Such a man experiences a great sense of relief. The second
simile portrays a man who has suffered a great deal with a
prolonged chronic illness. He gets well at long last, food becomes
palatable to him and he gains physical strength. Great is the
relief such a man experiences. The third simile speaks of the
relief a prisoner enjoys after being released from a long term in
jail. The fourth is the slave who gains freedom from slavery. The
fifth simile speaks of a well-to-do man who gets lost in a fearful
desert without food. On coming to a place of safety he experiences
great relief. When the stress caused by the five hindrances is
eliminated from the mind, great joy and delight arise similar to
the relief enjoyed by the men described in the similes. The best
and most effective way of overcoming stress is the practice of
meditation or mental culture. But as a prelude to that at least the
Five Precepts must be observed.

The cultivation of positive emotions such as loving-kindness
(//metta//), compassion (//karuna//), sympathetic joy (//mudita//), and
equanimity (//upekkha//) is another means of conquering stress.
Strained interpersonal relations is one of the common causes of
stress in household life and in the workplace. //Loving kindness// is
the positive wholesome attitude one can cultivate with benefit for
oneself and others in all interpersonal relationships. //Compassion//
is the emotion with which one should regard and help those in
distress. //Sympathetic joy// is the ability to rejoice in the joy of
another. It is difficult for a man of mean character to entertain
this attitude as the joy of another brings jealousy to the mind of
such a person. Where there is jealousy there is no unity, and where
there is no unity there is no progress. The cultivation of these
positive emotions stands for both material and spiritual progress.
//Equanimity// is the attitude to be adopted in the face of the
vicissitudes of life. There are eight natural ways of the world
that we have to face in life. They are gain and loss, fame and lack
of fame, praise and blame, happiness and sorrow. If one trains
oneself to maintain an equanimous temperament without being either
elated or dejected in the face of these vicissitudes, one can avoid
much stress and lead a simple life with peace and contentment. We
cannot change the world so that it will give us happiness. But we
can change our attitude towards the world so as to remain
unaffected by the stresses exerted by events around us. Buddhism
teaches the way to bring about this wholesome change of attitude.





                        THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO
                             GAIN AND HONOR


The world today has evolved various means of bestowing honor on
individuals whom society recognizes as worthy of being honored. The
Nobel Prize is considered one of the most prestigious, and there
are various other prizes and honorific titles that are bestowed
annually or from time to time on distinguished persons. In the
scholarly world the publication of felicitation and commemoration
volumes and the conferment of honorary degrees are the usual
methods of honoring academic celebrities. In society at large we
indulge in various devices in the public display of honor and
appreciation. Often we resort to overtly ego-boosting methods. As
the public display of honor and esteem has become such an important
phenomena in our social life, given much publicity over all the
media -- the press, radio and television -- it is timely to pause to
understand the Buddhist attitude towards the display and acceptance
of such public honor. The Pali Canon uses terms such as //labha//,
//sakkara//, //siloka//, //puja// and //vandana// to mean various
expressions of honor, esteem and reverence.

According to Buddhism the presence of ethical and spiritual
qualities is the primary criterion for eligibility for honor. The
Buddha, the Paccekabuddha, the Arahant and the universal monarch
rank as the highest personages who are worthy of honor and respect.
Honor paid to those worthy of honor is listed as a great blessing
in the //Mahamangala Sutta// (//puja ca pujaniyanam etam mangalam
uttamam//). The //Dhammapada// (vv. 105-6) declares that honor paid to
a perfected saint is far better than a century spent in the
performance of sacrifice. The same text reiterates that the merit
of one who reverences those worthy of honor cannot be measured (v.
195). In the domestic sphere parents are greatly honored and
esteemed. As they have done so much for the children, toiling
through a whole lifetime, they deserve to be appreciated, honored
and looked after by the children. There should be mutual honor and
respect between husband and wife. This quality helps to weave a
cohesive relationship to build a happy home for the rearing of
progeny. It is also a healthy age-old custom to honor and welcome
guests as is, for instance, maintained in the //Canki Sutta// (M. II,
167). Respect shown to elders is also highly commended as is well
illustrated by the parable of the //Tittira Jataka// (J. I, 218).
Thus noble spiritual qualities, parentage and seniority are
recognized as some of the main criteria deserving the display of
honor and respect.

Now let us turn our attention to the attitude to gain and honor by
those who receive them. Since the Buddha's immediate disciples were
monks, who by reason of their religious status regularly received
gains and honor from the laity, it is to be expected that his
statements on this subject are addressed primarily to the monks and
their concerns. Moreover, as the monks have committed themselves
fully to the quest for deliverance, the Buddha's advice to them
naturally takes their special vocation into account. However, while
recognizing the differences in their position, lay people can take
the Buddha's counsel to the monks as guidelines for their own
attitudes towards gain and honor.

The Pali texts show that it is possible to adopt one of the
following three attitudes: (a) One could eagerly appreciate and
enjoy the honor one receives, even actively seek it. (b) One could
turn away and refuse to accept the honor bestowed. (c) One could be
indifferent and entertain an attitude of equanimity towards such
honors. We shall take these one by one for discussion.

(a) The //Mahasaropama Sutta// (M.I, 192) elucidates the appreciative
attitude to gain and honor with the help of a simile. If a monk who
has entered the Order enjoys the gain and honor he receives and is
satisfied therewith, he is like a man who, being in search of
timber, is satisfied with the end trimmings of a huge tree. What he
looked for is timber, but what he is satisfied with is just twigs
and foliage. Devadatta (J.I, 186) is the classic example of one who
fell into utter ruin by enjoying gain and honor. He had developed
psychic powers, and he utilized these powers for convincing laymen
of his spiritual development. The most influential layman who was
thus convinced was Ajatasattu. The unconcealed display of
superhuman powers gave rise to much gain and honor for Devadatta,
so much so that in his utter stupidity he wished to kill the Buddha
and usurp Buddhahood, and he enticed Ajatasattu to kill his father
and usurp the kingship. The Buddha pronounced that it is for
Devadatta's utter ruin and downfall that he was endowed with so
much gain and honor, just as the plantain tree beats fruit for its
own ruin. (S.II, 241). The //Dhammapada// maintains that gain and
honor is one thing and the path to the realization of Nibbana is
another. Knowing this clearly a monk should not take delight in
gain and honor (Dh. 75). According to the //Milindapanha// (p. 377),
just as a ship has to withstand various forces such as the force of
strong currents, thunder and whirlpools, even so a monk has to
withstand the forces of gain, honor, fame and homage. If a monk
relishes these and gets a bloated ego, he flounders and sinks just
like a wrecked ship. The //Milindapanha// (p. 377) takes another
simile from naval experience. A ship's anchor is able to hold a
ship fast without letting it drift along, even in very deep waters,
even so a monk must remain anchored to his purpose with great
strength of character without letting the gain and honor that comes
in the wake of virtue carry him adrift. It is no doubt the duty of
the layman to honor and respect a virtuous monk, and also to
provide him with the requisites. It is the responsibility of the
monk to maintain a sane balanced attitude, without becoming elated.
Buddhism maintains that it is difficult for a man of mean spiritual
development to resist the enjoyment of gain and honor (//sakkaro
kapurisena dujjaho//, Thag. 1053). There is the great danger of
spiritual erosion when a man indulges and basks in the glory of
fame and honor. One develops a bloated ego and boastfulness creeps
into his character in the most surreptitious ways. Such men also
develop contemptuous attitudes towards others who do not get so
much honor. The //Labhasakkara Samyutta// sarcastically compares him
to the dung beetle who entertains contempt towards other dung
beetles for having less dung. The //Anangana Sutta// (M. I, 29-30)
shows the abhorrence and disgust towards a monk who undertakes the
religious life and difficult ascetic practices for the sake of
public generosity and popularity. Such a monk is compared to one
who places the carcass of a snake or a dog in a beautifully
polished brand new metal bowl. The bowl of higher life
(//brahmacariya//) is not meant for storing carcass-like immoral
intentions.

Monks are advised in the most emphatic terms to guard against
taking delight in gain and honor. The //Labhasakkara Samyutta// works
out a number of similes in great detail to illustrate the point (S.
II, 226-7). A young tortoise who defied the elders' advice is shot
with a splinter to which a string is attached and he is bound to be
caught by the hunter in no time. The hunter in the simile is none
other than Mara himself. The splinter is gain, honor and fame. The
string attached to the splinter is the monk's attachment to gain
and honor. Again, gain and honor are compared to a bait which
greedy monks might swallow to be utterly ruined in the hands of the
trapper Mara.


(b) Now let us turn to the attitude of the monk who refuses gain
and honor. Mahakassapa was an eminent monk who eschewed gain and
honor, and found delight in helping the poor to earn merit by going
to them for alms. Once the Buddha saw him begging his alms in a
locality where poverty-stricken weavers lived, in spite of gods
trying to procure for him a fine meal. On this occasion the Buddha
gave expression to an inspired utterance (//Udana//, p.11) in
appreciation of Mahakassapa's simplicity. Once a famous householder
named Citta was impressed by the explanation of a knotty doctrinal
point by a monk named Isidatta in a great assembly. Citta invited
Isidatta to reside in the locality and promised him hospitality
with all requisites. Isidatta seized the first opportunity to
quietly leave the locality without informing Citta (S. IV, 286-8).
Such was the scrupulous reticent behavior of those who understood
the pernicious nature of gain and honor.


(c) Generally the Buddha and Arahants do not fight shy of gain and
honor. They face it with the same equanimity as they face loss and
blame. The //Maha Govinda Sutta// (D. II, 223) records that gods
rejoice in the Buddha because of his attitude to gain and honor.
The Buddha has received gain and fame which a king would long to
have, but with no trace of elation whatsoever he fares along
partaking of only the basic requisites. The gods declare that there
was never a teacher of such calibre before. The lotus, though born
in the water, remains unsullied above the water. Similarly the
buddha and Arahants rise uncontaminated above the mundane
conditions of family, prestige, gain, fame, and reverence
(//Milinda, p.375). "The Unique Ones (//asamasama//) are worshipped
by gods and men. But they relish no honor. This is the norm of
Buddhas" (//Milinda//, p.95). Cullasabhadda, an //upasika//, observes
that while the world is elated and depressed by gain and loss
respectively, the true monks maintain an equanimous attitude in the
face of both.

Buddha declares that he has personally known, seen and understood
(//samam natam samam dittam samam viditam//, //Itivuttaka//, p.74) that
beings who have been overwhelmed (//pariyadinnacitta//) by gain and
honor, and also those who are obsessed by the lack of gain and
honor, at the disintegration of the body are born in states of woe.
The desire for honor and recognition is so insinuative that even
normally upright individuals can succumb to it. The Buddha says
that there are some who would not stoop so low as to tell a
deliberate lie for the sake of silver and gold, a beauty queen,
parents, children or even life, but who would do so to gain honor
and prestige. So vicious and pernicious are the snares of gain and
honor (S. II, 234, 243). Except Arahants, those of the highest
order who have reached the state of //akuppa cetovimutti// (S. II,
239) or unshakable mental emancipation, all those of lesser
spiritual development are said to be vulnerable in this respect. It
is no wonder that gain and honor is a powerful member of the army
of Mara (Sn. 438-9). It should be recognized by all those who value
spiritual progress as a disaster come in the guise of a blessing.




                    LIVELIHOOD AND DEVELOPMENT


Right livelihood (//samma ajiva//) is the fifth factor in the Noble
Eightfold Path. As a method of earning one's living is important to
every human being, whether a member of the clergy or a layman, the
correct understanding of right livelihood is crucial. For a monk,
complete dedication to the higher life constitutes right
livelihood. He then is rightly entitled to be supported by public
generosity. In this essay we shall confine ourselves to an inquiry
into the concept of right livelihood for the layman.

Right livelihood implies that one has to avoid a wrong means of
earning a living, known as //miccha ajiva// in Pali. This includes
trades which are directly or indirectly injurious to others, be
they animal or human, such as trade in meat, liquor, poison,
weapons and slaves. These are contrary to the basic five precepts
which all lay Buddhists are expected to abide by. In the world
today these trades, except perhaps the slave trade, are flourishing
industries, and much of the revenue to governments comes from these
industries. This shows to what an extent wrong livelihood is
prevalent in the world today.


Even a blameless means of living can become blameworthy if
practiced with inordinate greed and dishonesty. If a doctor in
private practice makes mints of money exploiting his patients, he
is guilty of wrong livelihood even though medicine itself is a
noble profession. A vegetable dealer who cheats in weights and
measures is similarly guilty of wrong livelihood. Honest scrupulous
service rendered without exploiting the public is considered an
essential feature of right livelihood.

Buddhism upholds the quality of having few wants (//appicchata//) and
the ability to be satisfied with little (//santutthi//) as great
virtues. One has to practice these virtues not only in consumerism
but in production too; in the modern world, however, these virtues
have been totally lost sight of in both these spheres. Therefore
governments as well as the private sector aim at ever increasing
development. Such development, however, has no limit. Each time a
target has been reached, the limit to possible growth recedes
further like a mirage. More and more is produced, more and more is
consumed. There is no satiation with development, nor with
consumerism. This is a limitless race in a limited world with
limited resources. Therefore mankind has to learn that the concept
of development as it is understood today cannot go on forever, it
is logically and practically impossible.

Nature seems to set its own limits to this process of escalated
growth. It appears that there are biological, psychological, social
and ecological limits to growth. The physical constitution of man
seems to revolt against this limitless growth. There is an array of
diseases man readily succumbs to today related to overconsumption
and overindulgence. There are pressure-related diseases too, which
affect both the human body and the human mind. Present-day
development taxes man's endurance enormously and he becomes a
psychological wreck due to the pressures of work, competition and
maintaining standards. Interpersonal relationships have become
superficial, brittle and sour, and this seems to be a sign that
society cannot withstand the weight of its material development. In
the external world too there are unequivocal signs which portend
impending catastrophe unless man changes his course of action.
There is air, water and land pollution everywhere, and this is
extremely injurious not only to human life but to all forms of life
in this planet. These are nature's ways of expressing her
disapproval of the methods and rate of production and consumption
man has chosen today.

Agriculture is recognized in Buddhism as a noble means of making a
living, but what has happened in this sphere? Prompted by
population pressures, and encouraged by the ever-expanding vistas
of scientific knowledge, traditional methods of tilling the land
have given way to mechanized industrial agriculture. Vast acres are
plowed by machines; chemical fertilizers are applied freely;
weedicides, insecticides and pesticides are used indiscriminately;
and large harvests are gathered. More and more research is going on
in agricultural engineering to produce better seeds which promise
higher yields. Though production has increased, prices remain at a
constant high level. In some countries when the price level
threatens to go down due to overproduction, the products are
methodically destroyed or dumped into the sea despite the fact that
large masses of people in the world today are undernourished and
some are actually starving to death. It is blatantly clear that the
whole industrialized agricultural policy is prompted by inordinate
greed and it is far from right livelihood.

From the Buddhist point of view this whole system is wrong. On the
one hand it has resulted in the erosion of moral and human values.
It has deprived man of sympathy for his fellow sentient beings as
is evident from the large-scale use of insecticides. Economic gain
seems to be the only criterion by which man is prompted to action.
Blinded by short-term economic gain, man seems to turn a blind eye
to the long-term repercussions of his aggressive policies on this
planet. In the wake of the avaricious and aggressive
industrialization, the crime rate has risen to an unprecedented
degree, and this is a clear index to man's moral degeneration. On
the other hand, the natural ecological balance of the earth has
been disturbed to an alarming degree. Chemical pollution of land
and water has affected bacteria, insects and fish. While some of
these forms of life useful to man have died or are dying, others,
especially insects dangerous to man have become resistant to
insecticides. As more and more effective chemicals are produced,
these creatures become immune to them and the vicious circle goes
on without any practical solution in sight. The natural fertility
and the organic balance of the soil also diminish as more and more
chemical fertilizers are applied throughout the years and thus a
vicious circle gets formed there too.

All this evidence clearly shows that man cannot dominate and
subjugate nature. In the long run nature emerges triumphant and man
becomes the loser. Instead man must learn to co-operate with
nature. Here we are reminded of an admonition given by the Buddha
that in amassing wealth man must exploit nature as a bee collects
pollen. The bee harms neither the beauty of the flower nor its
fragrance, similarly man must not pollute or rob nature of its
richness, beauty and its rejuvenating and replenishing capacity.
This is the real implication of right livelihood when it comes to
the utilization of natural resources.

It should be reiterated that the whole modern concept of
development, which seems to have nothing short of the sky itself as
the limit, is severely antithetical to Buddhist values. Buddhism
sets the limit at the other end: it advocates that we feed our
needs and not our greeds. Man needs the basic comforts of food,
clothing, shelter and medicine. It is the responsibility of the
rulers to provide avenues of employment so that the average man can
afford to have these needs satisfied with a fair degree of comfort.
As man is naturally prone to greed, Buddhism emphasizes the value
of having few wants (//appicchara//). Contentment (//santutthi//) is
also a much valued virtue in Buddhism. Care is taken to see that
these virtues do not degenerate into apathy and cause social
stagnation. Buddhism encourages the layman to be industrious, to
forge ahead in his chosen blameless occupation (//utthanasampada//).
Wealth earned by sheer perseverance, by the sweat of one's brow, is
highly praised as well gotten righteous wealth. It is even
recommended that a layman should invest half of his earnings for
improvement of his industry. Laymen are also exhorted to save
(//arakkhasampada//) their hard earned money, and to lead a
comfortable life consonant with earning capacity, avoiding both
extremes of miserliness and extravagance//over-indulgence. thus the
tension between having few wants (//appicchata//) and contentment
(//santutthi//) on the one hand, and industriousness
(//arakkhasampada//) on the other, helps to keep society at a
practically comfortable level of development which can be sustained
for a long time. When these economic ideas are reinforced with the
other moral values inculcated by Buddhism, a stable society with
harmonious interpersonal relations can be expected.

The modern concept of large-scale industries and factories also
does not agree with the Buddhist concept of right livelihood. These
large industries and mechanized labor have made a few people
enormously rich and thrown millions of employable people out of
employment. Thus wealth gets concentrated among a few factory
owners and businessmen while millions can barely eke out an
existence. Maldistribution of wealth is regarded in Buddhism as a
social evil which paves the way to crime and revolution. Moreover
machines have robbed man of his creativity and left him terribly
frustrated. This may be one of the reasons why the youth of today
have turned to drugs to find an easy escape route.

The concept of right livelihood works with the notion that man is
the central concern in economy as producer as well as consumer, not
the profit made in the process of products changing hands. The
skills and talents of the producer should be enhanced in the
process of production and he should have the satisfaction derived
from his output. The producer, not an employer above him or a
middleman, should get a fair return commensurate with his labor and
sufficient to afford him a decent living. The consumer, on the
other hand, should get quality and quantity for what he pays. In
sharp contrast to this ideology, the profit made by the employer is
the central concern today: both the producer and the consumer are
subservient to the profit motive. Therefore right livelihood would
opt for small-scale industries which would satisfy the creative
instinct of man and the basic needs of many more people, and would
also ensure a more equitable distribution of wealth in society. It
is better to have a large number of skilled cobblers than a well
equipped mechanized shoe factory.

As right livelihood is a part and parcel of the Noble Eightfold
Path, when it is rightly practiced it leads to the elimination of
greed, hatred and delusion (S. V, 5). Just as the river Ganges is
inclined towards the east, he who practices the Noble Eightfold
Path is inclined towards Nibbana. Thus the correct understanding of
right livelihood is essential for the Buddhist layman who is bent
on his spiritual welfare.




                        FACING DEATH WITHOUT FEAR


Death is the only certain thing in life. It is also the thing for
which we are least prepared. We plan and prepare for various other
things -- examinations, weddings, business transactions, building
houses -- but we can never be certain whether our plans will
materialize according to our wish. Death, on the other hand, can
come any minute, sooner or later; it is the most certain event in
life. Just as the mushroom raises itself from the ground carrying
a bit of earth on its hood, so every living being brings with
himself the certainty of death from the moment of his birth.

The Anguttara Nikaya (IV, 136) illustrates the uncertainty and the
evanescent nature of life with the help of a few evocative similes.
Life is compared to a dew drop at the tip of a blade of grass: it
can drop off any moment and even if it does not fall off, it
evaporates as soon as the sun comes up. Life is also as fleeting as
a bubble of water formed by the falling rain or a line drawn on the
water. The text points out that life rushes towards death
incessantly like a mountain stream rushing down without stopping.
The //Dhammapada// compares the fragility of the body to foam (v 46)
and to a clay water pot (v 40). Thus with various similes the
uncertainty of life and the certainty of death are emphasized over
and over again in the Buddhist texts.

It is accepted as a general truth that everybody fears death
(//sabbe bhayanti maccuno// -- Dh 129). We fear death because we crave
for life with all our might. It is also a fact that we fear the
unknown. We know least about death, therefore we fear death for a
duality of reasons. It seems reasonable to conjecture that the fear
of death, or the fear of harm to life, lurks at the root of all
fear. Therefore each time we become frightened we either run away
from the source of fear or fight against it, thus making every
effort to preserve life. But we can do so only so long as our body
is capable of either fighting or running away from danger. But when
at last we are on the deathbed face to face with approaching death,
and the body is no longer strong enough for any protest, it is very
unlikely that we will accept death with a mental attitude of
resignation. We will mentally try hard to survive. As our yearning
for life (//tanha//) is so strong, we will mentally grasp (//upadana//)
another viable place, as our body can no longer support life. Once
such a place, for example the fertilized ovum in a mother's womb,
has been grasped, the psychological process of life (//bhava//) will
continue with the newly found place as its basis. Birth (//jati//)
will take place in due course. This seems to be the process that is
explained in the chain of causation as: craving conditions
grasping, grasping conditions becoming or the process of growth,
which in turn conditions birth. Thus the average man who fears
death will necessarily take another birth as his ardent desire is
to survive.

Let us probe a little further into the process of death, going from
the known to the unknown. We know that in normal life, when we are
awake, sense data keep on impinging on our sense faculties. We are
kept busy attending to these sense data, rejecting some, selecting
some for greater attention, and getting obsessed with still other
things. This is an ongoing process so long as we are awake. In the
modern age man is reaching out and seeking more and more sense
stimulation. The popularity of the portable radio with or without
earphones, chewing gum, cosmetics and television is a clear
indication of the present trend for more and more sense
stimulation. By all this we have become alienated from ourselves;
we do not know our own real nature, or the real nature of our mind
to be more precise. Moreover, we go about our business in social
life wearing masks appropriate for each occasion. We often do not
show our true feelings of jealousy, greed, hatred, pride, or
selfishness. We hide them in socially accepted ways of formalized
verbal expressions such as congratulations, thank you, deepest
sympathies. But there are times when our negative emotions are so
acute that they come into the open in the form of killing,
stealing, quarreling, backbiting, and so forth. But generally we
try to keep these venomous snakes of negative emotions inhibited.

Now let us see what happens at the moment of death. We believe that
death is a process and not just a sudden instantaneous event. When
the senses lose their vitality one by one and they stop providing
stimulation, the inhibitions too fall away. The masks we have been
wearing in our various roles get cast off. We are at last face to
face with ourselves in all our nakedness. At that moment if what we
see are the venomous snakes of negative emotions of hatred,
jealousy, etc., we would be laden with guilt, remorse and grief. It
is very likely that our memories too will become quite sharp, as
all the sensory disturbances and inhibitions which kept them
suppressed have fallen off. We may remember our own actions
committed and omitted during our lifetime with unpretentious
clarity. If they are morally unwholesome we would be guilty and
grief stricken (S. V. 386), but if they are morally wholesome we
would be contented and happy. The //Abhidhammattha Sangaha// speaks
of the presentation of //kamma// or //kammanimitta// at the mind door
on the advent of death. This seems to be the revival in memory of
an actual action or action veiled in symbols at the onset of death.
It is said that rebirth will be determined by the quality of
thoughts that surface in this manner.

Death is as natural an event as nightfall; it is but one of the
manifestations of the law of impermanence. Though we dislike it
immensely we have to orient ourselves to accept its inevitability,
as there is no escape therefrom. The Buddhist texts advocate the
cultivation of the mindfulness of death often so that we are not
taken unawares when the event does take place. To face death
peacefully one has to learn the art of living peacefully with one's
own self as well as with those around. One method of doing so is to
remember the inevitability of death, which will deter one from
unwholesome behavior. The practice of meditation is the best
technique which will enable one to live peacefully with oneself and
others.

The practice of loving-kindness (//mettabhavana//) is an effective
method of meditation. One of its special advantages is the ability
to face death undeluded (//asammulho kalam karoti//).

In one sutta (A. III, 293) the Buddha explains how to prepare for
a peaceful death. One has to organize one's life and cultivate an
appropriate attitude for this purpose. The instructions given there
are as follows:

          (1) One should not be fond of a busy life involved
              in various activities.
          (2) One should not be fond of being talkative.
          (3) One should not be fond of sleeping.
          (4) One should not be fond of having too many companions.
          (5) One should not be fond of too much social
              intercourse.
          (6) One should not be fond of daydreaming.

Another sutta (A. I, 57-8) explains that if one avoids unwholesome
wicked activities through body, speech and mind, one need not fear
death. The //Mahaparinibbana Sutta// (D. II, 85-6) categorically
states that those who are evil in character face death with
delusion while the virtuous face death free from delusion. Thus if
one leads a simple virtuous life one need not fear death.

Once Mahanama Sakka (S. V. 369) disclosed to the Buddha that he was
worried where he would be reborn if he were to meet with a violent
death in a road accident. The Buddha explained that those who have
cultivated the qualities of faith, virtue, learning, generosity and
wisdom for a long time need not entertain such fears. To illustrate
the position further the Buddha employs a simile. If a pot of oil
or ghee is broken in deep water the potsherds will sink to the
riverbed and the oil or ghee will rise to the surface of the water.
Similarly in such a tragic situation the body would be discarded
and may be devoured by vultures and jackals, but the mind will rise
and progress upwards.

The account of the illness of Nakula's father (A. III, 295) is
another interesting episode regarding the Buddhist attitude to
death. Once Nakula's father was seriously ill and his wife noticed
that he was fretful and anxious. She advised him that death with
anxiety is painful and is denounced by the Buddha. Therefore he
must compose himself. Comforting him, she said that he might be
worried about the family income and the task of bringing up the
children after his death. She assured him that she was capable of
spinning and weaving and thus she could provide for the family and
bring up the children. He may be anxious that she would remarry
after his death. She said that he knows just as well as she that
she has never been unfaithful to him ever since they were married
at the age of sixteen, and she pledged that she would remain loyal
to him even after his death. Perhaps he may worry about her
spiritual development and she assured him that she would continue
to be earnest in her spiritual welfare. Therefore he must face
death, if need there be, with no anxiety. Such was her advice to
her husband who was fatally ill. It is said that he regained self-
composure and thereby good health too. The matter was later
reported to the Buddha, who commended Nakula's mother for her
wisdom and composure.

The suttas also discuss the advantages of the regular contemplation
of death (A. IV, 46-48; S. V, 344,408). The mind gets divested from
the love of life, and being intoxicated with the zest of life, men
commit various atrocities. That can be prevented by the habit of
practicing mindfulness of death. If we only remember that we have
not come to this world to stay forever, we would take care to lead
much better lives. If, when we take stock, we find wicked negative
emotions such as lust, hatred and jealousy in us, we should
immediately take steps to eradicate them as we would try to put out
the flames if our head were to catch fire (A. IV, 320).

Thus the Buddhist texts tirelessly reiterate the positive benefits
of the regular contemplation of the inevitability of death. It
helps one to lead a more wholesome life and also to face death, the
one and only certain event in life, with calm composure and
fearless confidence.




                                 THE HUMAN BODY

When alive the human body is the most precious and the most
mysterious object in the whole world. We regard it as beautiful and
spend much time, energy, and money to make it more beautiful. We
regard it as an instrument for pleasure and spend nearly all our
lives in procuring objects of pleasure. We assume it is a vital
part of ourself. It would be useful to discuss the validity of
these attitudes and assumptions from the Buddhist point of view.

The human body is the most intricate machine in the world. Each
human body is unique not only in appearance but also in its
biochemical structure, sensitivity of sense faculties, disease
resistance, disease susceptibility, etc., and hereditary laws alone
are incapable of offering a satisfactory explanation. Buddhism
holds that the body and its sense faculties have been so structured
as the effect of former kamma. From the dawn of civilization man
has tried to understand the mystery of the human personality and he
has given rise to various sciences and religions. In one sutta the
Buddha says that within this fathom-long sentient human body is
found the whole world, its origin, its cessation and the path
leading to its cessation. In a way this means that the world of
experience is within the human body. In another sense it means that
if one were to understand the mystery of the human body, that would
amount to understanding the mystery of the world. In fact the
external world is nothing but what we get to know through the
instrumentality of our sense faculties. If we understand the sense
faculties and sense data, we have understood everything.

The relationship of the body and the mind is most elusive.
According to the //Samannaphala Sutta// this relationship can be
understood only after the attainment of the fourth //jhana//. The
adept can then see consciousness established in the physical
constitution just as one can see a colored thread running through
the aperture of a transparent gem. Another sutta explains the
interdependency of body and mind through the simile of two bundles
of reeds placed against one another supporting each other.
Emotional changes in the mind affect body chemistry, and
fluctuations in body chemistry affect the mind. As a gross example
we can take the negative emotion of anger. Anger triggers off
glandular secretions which alter body chemistry considerably to
bring about changes such as trepidation, sweating, feeling hot,
etc. On the other hand, changes in body chemistry produced, for
instance by the intake of alcohol or drugs affect the mind to bring
about appropriate mood changes, euphoria and hallucinations.
According to a sutta in the Anguttara Nikaya (A. IV, 385 f.) all
thoughts are translated into sensations (//sabbe dhamma
vedanasamosarana//). This shows the extent to which the body is
influenced by the mind. Buddhism has clearly recognized this
interdependency and utilized that knowledge in its path to
liberation. The body is disciplined through morality (//sila//) and
is thus maintained at a reasonably healthy biochemical level. The
mind is disciplined with meditation (//bhavana//) to produce healthy
psychological changes and thereby reinforce a more healthy
biochemical composition of the body. This process goes on until the
attainment of Arahantship, when the biochemical composition has
undergone such a radical, irreversible change that an Arahant is
said to be incapable of certain physiological functions which are
antithetical to spiritual development but normal in average human
beings.

Though the sentient human body is most precious, no precious
material goes into its composition. It is precious because, through
its instrumentality, man is able to probe into the deepest
mysteries of the universe and of himself, into the meaning of life
and the enigma of death. When we stand by the ocean in the evening
twilight and gaze at the vast ocean as far as the horizon, or at
the star-studded firmament receding into infinity as far as the eye
can see, we are awe-struck by the magnitude of the universe.
Compared to that man is but an infinitesimal speck of dust in size.
But when we pay attention to the potentialities of man, it is he
who can even conceive of this mighty universe, it is he who can
unravel its mysteries. Though part and parcel of the universe,
though subject to natural cosmic laws, man has the capacity to
transcend the natural material world and can even reach Buddahood.
Therefore man is supreme and the sentient human frame is precious.

It is true that we generally look at the human body as a thing of
beauty. We speak of beautiful eyes, teeth, face, hair, and figure.
But Buddhism looks at the human body from a realistic point of
view. The body is a bag of filth, it is full of impurities. The
Buddhist texts dealing with the thirty-two parts of the body spell
out in detail its foul material constituents. If we only pause a
moment to consider attentively the state of the face prior to a
wash in the morning, we can gain a fair idea of the body's
repulsive nature. It exudes so much dirt from its major nine
apertures and numerous pores that it needs constant cleaning. Just
imagine how intolerable the body would be if we neglect to clean
what it discharges from the outlets even for a single day, let
alone for a long period. Great care has to be taken to keep the
body clean, so that it is not offensive to oneself and others. If
no regular cleaning is done, it can be the home of various
parasites, and thus a public nuisance. We have to understand the
real nature and the composition of the body in order to reduce and
eliminate our infatuation with it.

We have to feed the body very carefully throughout life. However
well the body is fed, it grows hungry over and over again. Hunger
is the worst disease says the //Dhammapada//. There is no end to
feeding the body until death. The stomach is like an open sore
which needs careful periodical dressing. Gross food is but one of
the nutriments the body needs according to Buddhism; contact with
the environment (//phassa//), volition (//manosancetana//), and
consciousness (//vinnana//) are the other three nutriments. All these
four forms of nutriment are essential for the continuance of the
body in health. The body also needs to be protected from heat,
cold, rain, injurious germs and external harm. We have to be ever
alert to protect the body from these various sources of external
danger. For these reasons Buddhism says that the body is a source
of great anxiety -- //bahudukkho ayam kayo//. Great is the hardship man
has to undergo just to keep the body viable, clean and healthy.

The body is endowed with sense faculties and they are ever in
search of pleasure. The eye is in search of pleasant forms, the ear
of pleasant sounds, the nose of pleasant smells, the tongue of
pleasant tastes and the body of pleasant tactiles. Most of our life
is spent in the pursuit of these pleasures. But it remains a fact
that the body texture is such that it does not tolerate excessive
pleasure. However desirable pleasure may be, the body falls ill
when overloaded with them. For instance, however palatable rich
food may be, when it is taken in excess, the body becomes a victim
of killer diseases. Similarly, excessive indulgence in sex causes
social diseases, of which the most dreaded today is AIDS. Acquired
Immunity Deficiency Syndrome, for which a cure has not yet been
found. Therefore restraint in the enjoyment of sense pleasures is
the best course of conduct for those desirous of health and long
life.

When we look at the body in its various postures of standing,
sitting, walking and lying down, we realize that the body can
tolerate these postures only for a very short time. Even if we are
sitting in the most comfortable seat, we continue to remain in the
same position without moving around only for a short time.
Automatically we move about adjusting our limbs to more comfortable
positions in a constant search for pleasure. But pleasure is short-
lived; pain raises its head and we move and adjust ourselves again
to eke out a little pleasure. Thus the search for pleasure goes on
and we delude ourselves saying that we enjoy life. The basic truth
is that the body is a source of misery, but we prefer to turn a
blind eye to this fact and cling desperately to fleeting pleasures.
The Buddha says that there is no doubt an iota of pleasure
//appassada//, but the misery is far in excess of this pleasure,
//bahudukkha//.

The body in its various stages of growth also brings much pain.
Birth causes excruciating pain both to mother and babe. The infant
is completely at the mercy of others around it. If its needs are
not duly attended to, it experiences much misery, which it
expresses by pitiful cries. Teething is a significant landmark in
the series of growing pains. All attempts to master the various
physical postures contribute their own quota of hardships to
infancy. Puberty and adolescence are also harassed by the growing
pains appropriate to those ages. Old age is particularly notorious
for aches and pains. The sense faculties are on the decline, sight
fails, hearing becomes short and other senses too diminish in their
acuity. Various joint pains and body aches become more constant and
the body strength ebbs away. Even the Buddha in his old age said
that his body was like an old worn-out cart which could be kept
going only with much repair. He added that he enjoyed physical
comfort only when he spent time in //jhanic// ecstasy. Such is the
nature of the body in old age. We cannot forget that the body is
prone to various diseases during all stages of its growth.

Though the body is thus a source of great misery we cannot afford
to hate it. To have a healthy attitude towards the body we should
avoid both extremes of being infatuated with the body and hating
it. We should have //metta//, a friendly attitude towards the body.
Realistically understanding its nature, we should avoid misusing it
as an instrument only for pleasure. We should be very careful not
to form habits which are injurious to the body, such as smoking,
drinking, and the excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures. The
body becomes a prey to self-inflicted diseases if we fail to
cultivate an attitude of friendliness towards it. If we want to
enjoy a reasonably healthy body as a vital part of our self. When
we say: "I am tall, I am fat, I am fair, I am beautiful or ugly,"
we really mean that the body has these attributes. But as we keep
on using the pronoun "I" we get caught in the grammatical subject
and assume the existence of an ontological subject such as the soul
or the ego. Therefore we establish a relationship of identity and
possession with the body. Thus the body becomes a vital part of the
self. The Buddha argues that if the body is really ours as we
assume it is, it should behave according to our wishes. It should
remain young, healthy, beautiful and strong as we always wish it to
be. But the body hardly behaves according to our wishes and we come
to grief when it goes against our wishes and expectations. The
Buddha points out that the body really does not belong to us, nor
is it really our self or a part of our self. We should therefore
give up craving for it, we should cease to identify ourselves with
it. Giving up craving for the body results in much happiness and
peace. In order to wean ourselves from our habitual identification
and ownership we have to impress the repulsive and alien nature of
our bodies into our minds with deep sensitivity, so that an
attitudinal change takes place in us with regard to the body.
Observation of the repulsive and misery-producing nature of our
bodies repeatedly, over and over again, is one sure way of gaining
the realistic perspective. This is the path leading out of misery.





                      SENSUALISTIC SOCIAL TRENDS AND
                        BUDDHISM IN MODERN TIMES[*]

[*] Paper read at the Conference on Buddhism and the Modern World,
Dongguk University, Seoul, Korea, 1976.


Causes for Sensualistic Social Trends[2]
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Scientific and technological advancement has brought about
widespread changes in the lifestyle of modern man. Changes have
been so rapid and overwhelming during the 20th century, that this
century seems to far outweigh all other centuries put together in
this respect. Man's attitudes, values, goals and ideals too have
undergone radical change. Scientific knowledge regarding the nature
and evolution of the universe, man, society, culture and
civilization has unsettled many of the old certitudes and
undermined the very basis and authority of the Western theistic
religious traditions. With the loss of respect for authority and
tradition, the validity of moral values too came to be questioned.
Ever renewing scientific knowledge, which exposed traditional
beliefs one after another as superstitious or mythical, gave a halo
of superiority to modernity. Nurtured in such an environment, the
younger generation became alienated from the lifestyle of their
parents and the age-old generation gap assumed unprecedented
proportions.

While scientific knowledge rendered man a skeptic alienated from
his cultural heritage technology robbed him of his creative
ability. The machine with its vast powers of production reduced man
to a button pusher and threw millions of workers out of employment.
Their muscular and creative powers were left unharnessed, thwarted
and frustrated. As a result the indigenous folk arts and crafts of
all nations, which were in fact expressions of sublimated emotions,
became almost extinct. Man in his admiration for creativity and
feeble struggle for self-expression has now become an antique
collector.

The next force which completely overwhelmed modern man was the
tyranny of commercialization and advertising. When production
exceeded consumption man had to be persuaded into consuming more,
lest trade suffer with a backlog of unconsumed stockpiles.
Deliberate and calculated attempts were made to change traditional
frugality into an ethic of consumption. Mass media were utilized to
convince the people of the virtues and necessity of increasing
consumption to maintain the newly acquired standard of affluent
living. Research into motivational and behavioral psychology
betrayed the susceptibilities of man, and advertising agents made
capital by playing upon these weaknesses, namely, man's innate
greed for sensual pleasure, personal property and social prestige.
Unleashed as he was from his cultural moorings, and frustrated as
he was in his creative urge, modern man succumbed to the attractive
appeals of mass media and plunged into a life of self-indulgence.


Harmful Effects on Individual and Society
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Having thus briefly outlined the main causes responsible for modern
sensualistic social trends, it is useful to glance at the effects
they have produced on the individual and society of today. Venereal
diseases have become rampant; it is reported that there was an
increase of 300% within one decade in the United States. The ever
widening field of psychiatry shows that mental health is rapidly
deteriorating. Alcoholism and drug addiction are major health
problems. The crime rate is ever mounting. Bonds of wedlock have
become sadly brittle and the divorce rate is alarmingly high. The
family as a viable institution is threatened, according to some
sociologists, with extinction in the not too distant future.
Disruption of family life has affected child life most
pathetically. A British report of Health Economics published in
January 1976 informs us that babies are the most common homicide
victims in Britain since the early 1960s. They are battered to
death at times of family stress. Teenage drug addictions and
juvenile delinquency have become alarming problems of the day.
These social phenomena are directly related to man's attitude
towards sense pleasure and serious rethinking seems most urgent
today if man is to be saved from the imminent danger of self-
destruction through sensuality.


Can Buddhism Help?
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Buddhism has been a great civilizing force and a guiding principle
for millions of people during the last twenty-five centuries. It
would be useful to see what light Buddhism sheds on the present
chaotic situation, and what wisdom it offers for self-adjustment
under modern conditions and for healthy family and interpersonal
relations. Though criticism is often levelled that Buddhism is a
life-denying ascetic ideal, and that it is antisocial and
antipolitical, it should be remembered that Buddhism embraces in
its dispensation not only monks (//bhikkhu//) and nuns (//bhikkhuni//),
but also male and female lay followers (//upasaka//, //upasika//). The
intellectual and disciplinary training of the laity is as important a
concern in Buddhism as that of the monks. Therefore Buddhism offers a
social and a political philosophy, the goal of which is the creation
of a society where human rights are safeguarded, human enterprise is
the key to success, resources are well distributed and justice reigns
supreme. As Trevor Ling too maintains, Buddhism is not just a religion
or a philosophy, it is in fact a whole civilization, a full fledged
multi-faceted philosophy of life designed to meet the secular and
spiritual needs of man.[3]


Sensuality and Human Ambitions
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
According to Buddhism ambitions of man center on the acquisition of
wealth, pleasure, fame, longevity and happiness after death. (A.
II, 66-68). Accepting these as human aspirations and goals of human
endeavor, Buddhism advocates a way of life to help man realize
these aims. For the danger is ever present that man in his pursuit
of pleasure will in the long run defeat those very aims. Wealth and
sex are two important means of acquiring pleasure. A prudent
attitude towards them would go a long way for the realization of
the other three human ambitions as well. As most of the social ills
of today are attributable to the mishandling of these two, a
correct understanding of the Buddhist attitude towards them would
be most profitable.


Wealth
~~~~~~
The Buddhist attitude towards wealth is such that it has never
prescribed a ceiling on income. What it has prescribed is that
wealth should be acquired through righteous means and expended also
in a righteous manner. Wealth earned by the sweat of one's brow
without harming, deceiving or exploiting others is highly
commended. It is always emphasized that wealth has only
instrumental value. It should be utilized for (a) living in comfort
making one's family, parents, dependents and friends happy, (b)
insuring oneself against possible calamities through fire, water,
etc., (c) performing one's duties to relatives, guests and state,
and for religio-cultural activities, and (d) patronizing those
engaged in spiritual advancement. According to one's means, on a
large or very small scale, one should try to make the best use of
one's resources in the most righteous manner.

What is deplored in Buddhism is the excessive acquisitive greed and
the hoarding habit. While niggardliness is held in contempt,
frugality is extolled as a virtue. Wastefulness is a deplorable
habit and it is even regarded as anti-social. Once Ananda explained
to a king how the monks put the gifts offered to them to maximum
use. When new robes are offered the old ones are taken as
coverlets, the old coverlets are utilized as mattress covers, the
former mattress covers are used as rugs, the old rugs are taken as
dusters, the old tattered dusters are kneaded with clay and used to
repair cracked floors and walls (Vin. II, 291). Such was the
Buddhist monks' conscientious use of resources. The same frugality
has influenced the laity too and the famous episode of a wealthy
merchant who bade a servant to collect a drop of ghee off the
floor, lest it be wasted, is a very fine example. The same merchant
was so generous that his largesse surprised the recipients (Vin. I,
271). Though frugality and generosity appear to be incompatible,
they are recognized as commendable virtues in their own right to be
cultivated by one and all. When these simple virtues are compared
with the information revealed to us, for instance, by Vance
Packard's epochmaking eye-opener //The Waste Makers//, one begins to
wonder whether sanity and common sense have left the knowledgeable
man of science today. Some investigators estimate that American
consumption of the world's resources within forty years is equal to
what mankind has consumed during the last 4000 years. As the
earth's resources are not unlimited, it is high time that modern
man did some re-thinking and cultivated some economical Buddhist
habits at least out of sympathy for posterity. It is true that
oceanography opens unexploited resources to man, but it must be
remembered that the ocean too is not unlimited, whereas man's greed
knows no limit nor satiation.


Sex
~~~
Buddhism recognizes the sex attraction as a universal reality.
Among animals the sex impulse is regulated by nature and thus their
mating and breeding are seasonal. Among humans there is no such
natural mechanism, and man has by a long process of experiment and
adjustment arrived at certain taboos, rules and regulations to
handle his sex drive in a manner appropriate to himself and his
fellow beings. Though these rules differ according to times and
place, on the whole they have helped man to emerge from savagery to
civilization.

According to Buddhism monogamy is the ideal form of marriage, while
chastity and fidelity form ideal behavior before marriage. This
alone is not sufficient for success in married life. Mutual
confidence (//saddha//), morality (//sila//), self-denial (//caga//) and
prudence (//panna//) are emphasized as virtues which ensure conjugal
happiness and success. In other words, mutual confidence means
dependability, morality implies strength of character, self-denial
or the joy of selfless service to the beloved denotes emotional
maturity, and prudence shows intellectual maturity. These qualities
bring the spouses so close to one another, it is said, that the
relationship could persist even after death in a future existence.
Nakula's parents are portrayed in Buddhist literature as an ideal
couple who, in their old age, expressed the wish that their love
should survive death. The Buddha replied that the wish would
materialize if the above qualities are equally shared by both
partners (A. II, 61-61).

Marital bonds of modern man are so brittle and fragile because
these cohesive emotional forces are lost in sensuality. Much
emphasis is laid on carnal pleasure while personality adjustments
and emotional involvement which call for sacrifices and
selflessness respectively, are ignored or neglected. Though sex is
an important basic requirement in marriage, it is certainly not the
be-all and end-all of family life. Indulgence in sex for its own
sake never brings satisfaction, whence fulfillment? The
insatiability of lust is disdainfully illustrated in Buddhist
literature by the traditional simile of a dog licking a bone to
satisfy hunger. But sex as an expression of conjugal love is a
satisfying emotional experience. If sex was the only concern, man
need not have evolved an institution like the family. Animals too
satisfy their sex instinct, but nothing compared to the human
family has evolved in the animal kingdom. The important function of
family life seems to be to teach man a great moral lesson to
overcome his egocentric nature. Man starts life in his mother's
womb as the most selfish parasite. He then passes through the
emotional stages of self-love, conjugal love and parental love. As
a mature man and a parent he completely loses himself in the
service of his offspring. His self-denial is such he even
relinquishes his personal possessions, acquired through the toil of
a lifetime, in favor of them. Finally he makes an emotional self-
sacrifice when he gets a partner for his child to love and cherish.
In his old age he regards his offspring with equanimity and
contentment. This emotional maturity and fulfillment is utterly
impossible if sensuality is regarded as the goal of married life.



Fame and Longevity
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
These two ambitions of man depend to a very large extent, as
mentioned earlier, on the manner he handles his wealth and
pleasure. Special mention should be made that liquor, like
sensuality, is a great betrayer of all human ambitions. It has been
aptly remarked that a man's conscience is soluble in alcohol.
According to Buddhism both liquor and sensuality destroy man's
physical and mental health, drain his resources, spoil his public
image and distort his intellectual capacities (D. III, 182-184).


Happiness After Death
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
In this age of material pleasure, man is not much concerned with a
life after death. The Buddhist axiom is that a man reaps what he
sows. If one has led a useful moral life and reached old age with
a sense of fulfillment, contentment and equanimity, one has no
regrets. A well-spent blameless life has, according to Buddhism,
happiness beyond the grave. Such a person is said to progress from
light to brighter light (//joti joti parayano//, A. II, 86).


Sensuality and Intellectual Maturity
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Another noteworthy ill effect of self-indulgence is the inhibition
of intellectual capacities. Buddhism emphasizes that obsession with
sensuality prevents clear thinking, distorts vision, clouds issues,
inhibits wisdom and destroys peace of mind. While these
observations were made twenty-five centuries ago by the Buddha, the
inhibitory effect of sex on brain activity seems to be indicated
quite independently by medical research on the pineal gland.

In man, the pineal gland is a pear-shaped midline structure located
at the back of the base of the brain. This gland synthesizes a
hormone called melatonin which affects behavior, sleep, brain
activity, and sexual activity such as puberty, ovulation and sexual
maturation. While melatonin stimulates brain activity, it inhibits
sexual activity. Again it has been recognized that light, dark,
olfaction, cold, stress and other neural inputs affect the pineal
function. Exposure to light reduces the synthesis of melatonin and
depresses pineal weight. On the other hand light accelerates sexual
maturation activity.[4]

It will be useful to compare this medical information with Buddhist
ideology. Buddhism maintains that sense stimuli disturb mental
activity. If the sense doors are well guarded (//indriyesu
guttadvaro hoti//), i.e. if visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory
and tactile inputs are controlled, a corresponding degree of
concentrated mental activity becomes possible. //Cittassa ekaggata//
or the ability to fix the mind on one point is greatly determined
by the control of the sense faculties. In terms of physiology it
seems to mean that such sense control helps the synthesis of
melatonin in the pineal gland, which stimulates brain activity and
retards sexual activity. Thus, with the help of medical research it
seems possible to confirm the buddhist point of view that
sensuality inhibits intellectual maturity.


Sensuality and Culture
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
According to the //Agganna Sutta//, which gives an account of the
evolution of the world and society, the earliest inhabitants of the
earth were mind-made and self-luminous beings who subsisted on joy
and moved about in the sky. After a long time they tasted something
extremely flavorsome and were delighted with this new gustatory
sense experience. Craving entered into them and they went on
tasting food in this manner. Consequently their bodies became
coarser and coarser; they lost their radiance and the ability to
subsist on joy and to traverse in the sky. (D. III, 84-86).

Now what is important for us here is not the authenticity of this
evolutionary process, but the point that sensual desire has caused
the loss of higher mental and physical capacities which man is
supposed to have once possessed.

The //Cakkavattsihanada Sutta// (D. III, 69-74) deals with the
problem of social change. As a result of the unequal distribution
of wealth, poverty becomes widespread and moral standards
deteriorate rapidly. With moral degeneration there is a
corresponding decrease in physical beauty and length of life. As
time goes on and immorality settles down, society comes under the
grip of three derogatory phenomena, namely, perverted lust
(//adhammaraga//), wanton greed (//visamalobha//) and a wrong sense of
values (//micchadhamma//). Disrespect for family, religious and
cultural traditions becomes an accepted social phenomenon. When
moral degradation continues thus a time will come when the life-
span is reduced to ten years and the marriageable age goes down to
five. By that time food will undergo so much change that delicacies
such as ghee, butter, honey, etc. will vanish, and what is
considered coarse today will be a delicacy of that time. All
concepts of morality will disappear and language will have no word
to denote morality. Immorality will reign supreme with social
sanction. There will be no marriage laws nor kinship, and society
will fall into a state of utter promiscuity, as among animals.
Among such humans keen mutual enmity will become the rule, and they
will be overcome by passionate thoughts of killing one another. A
world war will break out and large-scale massacre would be the
result. After this mass blood bath, the few destitutes who are left
behind will find solace in each other's company and they will begin
to regard one another with kindly thoughts. With this change of
heart there will be a gradual re-evolution of moral values. Step by
step the good life will be restored, physical beauty will reappear
and the life-span will increase. Mental potentialities too will
gradually develop.

Such are the Buddhist ideas of social change. Society stands or
falls with the rise or fall of moral values.

It is noteworthy that some present-day sociological studies too
have revealed that morality and culture are causally connected.
William Stephens observes that primitive tribes have great sexual
freedom, premarital as well as extramarital, when compared with
civilized communities which have tight sex restrictions.[5] Dean
Robert Fitch has connected the decline of the Roman civilization
with the deterioration of their sexual morality.[6] The most
important contribution in this respect is made by J.D. Unwin in a
study called //Sex and Culture//.[7] He has conducted a survey of the
sexual behavior and the level of culture of eighty uncivilized
tribes and also those of six known civilizations. He concludes that
there is a definite relationship between permissiveness and
primitiveness, and sex restrictions and civilization. Sexual
freedom gives rise to what he calls a zoistic (dead level of
conception) culture where people are born, they satisfy their
desire, they die and are forgotten after the remains are disposed
of. They are not able to rationally find out the causal connection
between events. When afflicted by illness, for instance, they
resort to witchcraft and nothing more. When a certain degree of sex
restriction, occasional, premarital, or post-nuptial, is present,
the result is a manistic culture where ancestors are worshipped at
times of crisis, but without a definite place of worship. Strict
sex regulations as in monogamy produce a deistic culture with
definite places of worship. Culture in the sense of the external
expression of internal human energy resulting from the use of human
powers of reason, creation and self knowledge becomes possible only
with strictly enforced monogamous sex mores. The mechanism of this
operation is not known, just as it is not known how carbon placed
under different settings turns to coal or diamond.[8] All that can
be said is that there is a definite causal link between sexual
behavior and the culture pattern. As Unwin comes to this conclusion
after conducting exhaustive methodical investigations, it is
possible to maintain that scientific inquiries too have confirmed
the Buddhist point of view regarding the relationship between
morality and culture.


Sensuality and Environment
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The Anguttara Nikaya (I, 160) maintains that rainfall decreases
when society comes under the sway of perverted lust, wanton greed
and wrong values. Drought causes famine as a result of which the
mortality rate goes up. Though it is difficult to establish a
direct connection between immorality and lack of rain, an
interpretation of the five natural laws mentioned on the
commentaries might offer a plausible explanation.

In the cosmos there are five natural laws or forces, namely
//utuniyama// (lit. season law), //bijaniyama// (lit. seed-law)
//cittaniyama//, //kammaniyama//, and //dhammaniyama//.[9] These can be
translated as physical laws, biological laws, psychological laws,
moral laws, and causal laws. While the first four laws operate
within their respective spheres, the last law of causality operates
within them as well as among them. Thus the physical environment or
ecology affects living organisms, i.e. biology; this influences
psychology, which determines the moral force. The opposite process
also operates with harmful or beneficial results depending on the
nature or the forces at work. Perhaps the operation can be
illustrated with a concrete example. Man's greed for luxury, wealth
and power has caused the setting up of vast factories. They created
the problem of air, water and noise pollution, which have adversely
affected both fauna and flora.[10] The inadvertent modifications of
atmospheric properties and processes caused by human activities is
intensively studied by scientific bodies today. It is complained
that although the effects of pollutants and smog upon people,
plants and economic activities have been extensively studied,
relatively little attention has been paid to the effects of
pollution and smog upon climatic patterns. It is well known that
many climatic elements such as radiation, cloudiness, fog,
visibility and the atmospheric electric field are affected by
pollution. Temperature and humidity are influenced indirectly and
effects on precipitation are also suspected.[11] Science will
reveal in the course of time whether pollution is definitely
responsible for weather and climatic change, but it remains a fact
that the world is already confronted with an acute shortage of
water.

It is no secret that man uses his inherent powers of reason,
intelligence and creativity to change his environment for his
advantage. But man is not aware that the moral force he himself
creates brings about corresponding changes in his environment to
his weal or woe whether he likes it or not.


Conclusion
~~~~~~~~~~
Concluding this essay, it should be emphasized that there is a
Cosmic Moral Force which profoundly influences man. According to
Buddhism it is this Cosmic Moral Law or Force which makes the world
and mankind go on: //kammana vattati loko//, //kammana vattati paja//
(Sn. v 654). This Cosmic Moral Force is generated by none other
than man himself, for the Buddha maintains that human thoughts are
a moral force (//cetanaham bhikkhave kammam vadami//, A III, 410). It
is also more directly said that thoughts (or ideologies) make the
world go on (//cittena ni yato loko//, S. I, 39). Therefore man has
to discover his own inherent powers which are, at present, mostly
dissipated on alcohol and sensuality. The discovery of the
potentialities of //The World Within// is the most urgent need of
today as modern man living in //Sick Cities//, lost in a //Sexual
Wilderness//, unaware of //The Hidden Persuaders//, is being slowly
but surely reduced to a //Naked Ape//.[12]






                                NOTES

[1] Abstinence from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false
speech and intoxicants.

[2] Works consulted are: Vance Packard, //The Sexual Wilderness//
(London, 1968); Lord Annan //The Disintegration of an Old Culture//
(Oxford, 1966).

[3] Trevor Ling, //The Buddha// (London, 1973), pp. 17, 24 f.

[4] See G.E.W. Wolstenholme and Julie Knight, eds., //The Pineal
Gland// (London, 1971).

[5] //The Family in Cross-Cultural Perspective// (New York, 1963),
pp. 256-259.

[6] Quoted by Packard, //The Sexual Wilderness//, p.417.

[7] London: Oxford University Press, 1934.

[8] Ibid., pp. 424, 417, 412, etc.

[9] //Atthasalini//, PTS ed., p.272.

[10] Mitchell Gordon, //Sick Cities// (New York, 1963), pp. 92, 80.

[11] //Weather and Climate Modification: Problems and Prospects//,
Vol. II (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 1966) pp. 82-
108.

[12] References are to the titles of works by Gina Cerminara (New
York, 1957), Mitchell Gordon, Vance Packard (op. cit. and London,
1957), and Desmond Morris (New York, 1967).






                           ABOUT THE AUTHOR


Lily de Silva is a professor in Buddhist Studies at the University of
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Educated at the University of Ceylon,
Peradeniya, she obtained the degree of Bachelor of Arts with First
Class Honors in Pali and the Woodward Prize for Pali. She has taught
at the University of Peradeniya since 1959 and was awarded the Ph.D.
degree in 1967. Dr. de Silva is the editor of the //Digha Nikaya
Atthakatha Tika// (Subcommentary to the Digha Nikaya), published by
the Pali Text Society of London in three volumes. She is also the
author of //Paritta: The Buddhist Ceremony for Peace and Prosperity in
Sri Lanka// (National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo, 1981) and is a
regular contributor to Buddhist scholarly and popular journals. She
was a Visiting Scholar at the Center for the Study of World Religions,
Harvard University, in 1978-79.