Collection of Hack-Phreak Scene Programs/cleanhpvac.zip/cleanhpvac/HOMEWORK.ZIP/CHEMMI.TXT

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Date sent:        Sun, 28 Apr 1996 03:03:41 -0400



Yazan Fahmawi                            Sept. 30, 1995
T3 IBS Chemistry
Ms. Redman
Historical Development of
Atomic Structure
  The idea behind the "atom" goes back to the Ancient Greek society, where scientists
  believed that all matter was made of smaller, more fundamental particles called elements.
  They called these particles atoms, meaning "not divisible." Then came the chemists and
  physicists of the 16th and 17th centuries who discovered various formulae of various salts
  and water, hence discovering the idea of a molecule.

  Then, in 1766 was born a man named John Dalton born in England. He is known as the father
  of atomic theory because he is the one who made it quantitative, meaning he discovered
  many masses of various elements and, in relation, discovered the different proportions
  which molecules are formed in (i.e. for every water molecule, one atom of oxygen and two
  molecules of hydrogen are needed). He also discovered the noble, or inert gases, and their
  failure to react with other substances. In 1869 a Russian chemist, best known for his
  development of the periodic law of the properties of the chemical elements (which states
  that elements show a regular pattern ("periodicity") when they are arranged according to
  their atomic masses), published his first attempt to classify the known elements. His name
  was Mendeleyev, and he was a renowned teacher. Because no good textbook in chemistry was
  available at the time, he wrote the two-volume Principles of Chemistry (1868-1870), which
  later became a classic. During the writing of this book, Mendeleyev tried to classify the
  elements according to their chemical properties. In 1871 he published an improved version
  of the periodic table, in which he left gaps for elements that were not yet known. His
  chart and theories gained acceptance by the scientific world when three elements he
  "predicted"ùgallium, germanium, and scandiumùwere subsequently discovered In 1856 another
  important figure in atomic theory was born: Sir Joseph John Thomson. In 1906, after
  teaching at the University of Cambridge and Trinity University in England, he won the
  Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the conduction of electricity through gases. He
  discovered what an electron is using cathode rays. An electron is the smallest particle in
  an atom, whose mass is negligible compared to the rest of the atom, and whose charge is
  negative. Though scientists did not know it at the time, electrons were located in an
  electron cloud rotating around the nucleus, or center of the atom.

  Another prominent figure in nuclear physics is a man called Ernest Rutherford, born in
  1871. He also was a professor at the University of Cambridge, the University of Manchester
  (both of which are in England), and at McGill College in Montreal, Canada. His importance
  comes after the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by a French scientist named Becquerel.
  Rutherford identified the three main components of radioactivity: alpha, beta, and gamma
  particles. He also found the alpha particle to be a positively charged helium atom. Also,
  Rutherford was the first one to discover the true structure of an atom, it having a
  central, heavy nucleus with an electron cloud surrounding it. It was Rutherford that,
  through experiments such as passing alpha particles through a thin gold foil and watching
  some repel, discovered the second constituent of the atom (also the first component of the
  nucleus): the proton. The proton has a relative atomic mass of one and has a positive
  charge. Rutherford also went down in history as the first man to artificially cause a
  nuclear reaction when, in 1919, he bombarded nitrogen gas with radioactive alpha
  particles, which resulted in atoms of an oxygen isotope and protons. A unit of
  radioactivity, the rutherford, was named in his honor. A colleague of Rutherford's at
  Cambridge University was a man named James Chadwick discovered the third fundamental
  particle that makes up the atom: the neutron. This discovery led immediately to the
  discovery of nuclear fission and the atom bomb The neutron has a relative atomic mass of
  one, and has no positive or negative charge (i.e. it is neutral). It is found in the
  nucleus of atoms, along with the proton.         Chadwick was one of the first British
  scientists to stress the development of a possible atom bomb. His name was strongly
  associated with the British atomic bomb effort, especially during World War II. During the
  last two years of W.W.II (1943-1945) Chadwick moved to New Mexico, where he spent much of
  his time researching at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, a site chosen by the US
  government for nuclear weapon research. The first atomic bomb was developed here with the
  help of James Chadwick. Chadwick earned the Nobel Prize for physics in 1935. In the same
  era of the development of the atom lived a man, just across the North Sea from these three
  learned individuals, in Denmark. Neils Henrik Bohr, born in 1885, was also a considerable
  man when it came to nuclear and atomic physics. He moved to Cambridge University in 1911,
  working under J. J. Thomson, but soon moved to Manchester to work under Rutherford's
  supervision. He won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1922 for his theory on atomic structure
  (also known as the Quantum Theory), which was published in papers between 1913 and 1915.
  He based his work around Rutherford's conception of the atom. This theory, that suggests
  that electrons only emit electromagnetic energy when they jump from one quantum level to
  another, contributed tremendously to future developing of theoretical atomic physics. His
  work helped lead to the notion that electrons exist in shells and that the electrons in
  the outermost shell certify an atom's chemical properties. He later illustrated that
  uranium-235 is the singular isotope of uranium that undergoes nuclear fission. The Bohrs
  moved to England, and then to the US, where Bohr went to work for the government at Los
  Alamos, New Mexico, along with James Chadwick, until the first bomb's detonation in 1945.
  He disapproved complete secrecy of the nuclear bomb, and believed that its consequences
  would revolutionize the modern world. He wanted some sorts of international law to watch
  over the use of nuclear devices. In 1945 Bohr returned to the University of Copenhagen in
  Denmark, where he began developing peaceful uses for atomic energy, such as power plants
  using nuclear resources as opposed to fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases.
  Bohr died in Copenhagen on November 18, 1962. In Austria in 1887 a man by the name of
  Erwin Schr÷dinger was born. He became a physicist best known for his mathematical studies
  of the wave mechanics of orbiting electrons. His most famous and important contribution to
  the understanding of atomic structure is a meticulous and precise mathematical description
  of the standing waves orbiting electrons follow. His theory was published in 1926, and
  along with a German physicist's theory of matrix mechanics, their theories became the
  basis of quantum mechanics. Schr÷dinger shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in physics with the
  British physicist Paul A. M. Dirac for his contribution to the development of quantum
  mechanics. Through the centuries that have passed, minds have been boggled, countless
  questions have been answered, and many great minds conceived, however, there is no doubt
  that there is still much to discover about the atom, such as sub-atomic, elementary
  particles.
A whole new generation of great scientists is still to come, to explore and unlock the
universe's secrets.