1)stimulus: a change in the environment that necessities a response, or adjustment by an organism (ex. swirling dust)
response: the adjustment or change you make to a stimulus (ex. blinking your eyes)
2)Protists respond to a negative stimuli by moving away from it.
Protists respond to: light, irritating chemicals, temperature, touch, etc.
3)Yes, they grow towards the stimulus (ex. light).
photoropism: it means the organism grows towards the light. no
geotropism: it means the organism grows towards the ground. no
4)This is because animals have the most highly developed sensory systems of all organisms.
5)Three factors that affect an organism's response are the type, number, and complexity of an animal's sense organs. The way they affect the response is determined by the type, number, and complexity of the animal's sense organs.
6)positive: food, money
negative: a man pointing a gun at you
neutral: sound of traffic
7)In general, organisms go towards positive stimuli, and go away from negative one.
8)voluntary: eating a bowl of hot chicken soup
involuntary: watering of your mouth
learned: talking
9)When an animal receives a scare, it can either Fight, Flight (go away from), Freeze the/from organism that is scaring that animal. The animal releases adrenaline that gives it the strength to do one of those things.
pg. 136 #3,4,challenger)
3)automatic: i)blinking your eyes when dust gets in them ii)mouth waters when you smell food iii)moving your hand away when it gets burned
voluntary: i)eat a bowl of soup ii)drink water iii)watching TV
4)The stimulus. You need the stimulus to make a response.
b)No, it is not possible. This is because with an action, there is a reaction.
No, you need a stimuli to make a response, otherwise it is not really a response.
5)i)it comes out of the ground
ii)it crows
iii)it barks and chases the perpetrator
iv)it chases and eats a gazelle
b)i)the flooding of its home
ii)getting light
iii)the person breaking in
iv)its hunger
Challenger
It helps to keep the brain and heart from freezing.
pg. 146 #1-5)
1)i)taste ii)touch iii)sight iv)smell v)hearing
2)The protists can only sense chemical.
3)This effect is called sensory adaptation.
b)An advantage is that you aren't bothered by the smell. A disadvantage is if you are accustomed to the smell of smoke, the smell of smoke might not alert you if your house is on fire.
b)cone: when it is light out
rod: when it is dark out
c)They aren't as developed as some other organisms.
5)Eyelid: this is because your hell cells are very tough from being walked on. This causes them not to be very sensitive.
5-6-1993
pg.13 #1-6)
1)environment: everything in an organism's surroundings
biotic environment: all living things in an environment
abiotic environment: non living things in an environment
2)When you breathe, your body extracts oxygen from the air.
b) large animal eats
smaller animal
smaller animals larger animal dies and
eats plants fertilizes ground
soil grows plants
3)biology,ecology: they are the study of things on earth; ecology is the study of environment, biology is the study of animals
b)producers,consumers: they live off the environment; pro. manufactures food, con. can't manufacture other food, but eat other organisms
c)scavenger,decomposer: both live of off dead organisms; decom. break down the bodies of dead organisms
d)habitat,niche: have to do with were an animal lives hab.=enviro. space were an organism lives, niche = way an organism reacts with its environment
e)environment,ecosystem: were organisms live; enviro.= everything in an organism's surroundings, eco.= were organisms of a distinct group interact
4)a)auto b)hetro c) auto d)auto e)auto f)hetro
5)biosphere: layer of planet where living things exist and interact
b)lithosphere: solid portion of the Earth's surface
c)hydrosphere: layer of water that covers nearly 3/4 of the Earth's surface
d)atmosphere: mass of air surrounding the Earth
6)The scavengers come and totally eat the carcass. The decomposers decompose the carcass and it fertilizes the ditch.
pg. 18 #1-6)
1)herbivore: animals that consume only plant material (ex. cattle, sheep)
trophic level: how directly a consumer interacts with the producers of its ecosystem
food chain: a feeding sequence in which each kind of organism eats the one below it in the chain (ex. grass -> mouse -> wolf)
2)Because the producer provides the food for the consumers.
3)Herbivores, this is because you need the herbivores to feed the carnivores, and if there aren't enough herbivores, the carnivores will die out.
b)Producers, this is because the producers feed the consumers, and consumers will die if there is not enough producers.
4)omnivores,carnivore: they both eat animals; omnivores also eat plants
b)primary,tertiary: they both eat other organisms; primary eats at the first level, and tertiary eats at the third level
c)food chain,food web: they describe feeding sequences; food chain goes from one level to the next, web is interconnecting
6)There are six food chains. There are more because the three overlap each other.
b)grain, grass, berries
c)deer, mouse, grasshopper, rabbit
d)hawk, snake, owl, wolf
wolf is the top carnivore
pg.36 #1-8)
1)environment: everything in an organism's surroundings
environmental interaction: interaction within the environment for food and shelter
b)They relate to ecology because the purpose of ecology is to study the environment and environmental interaction.
2)pond water: abiotic: pond water is not alive
b)plant seeds: biotic: seeds are alive because they have the c)ability to grow
d)fossils: abiotic: this is because fossils are fossilized bones of e)dead animals
f)soil: abiotic: soil is not alive
g)soil organisms: biotic: this is because all organisms are living
3)autotroph heterotroph
grass grasshopper, salmon
seaweed grass snake, starfish
b)producer consumer
grass grasshopper, salmon
seaweed grass snake, starfish
c)The autotrophs were also the producers, and the heterotrophs were also the consumers.
4)Decomposers are the heterotrophs because they feed off of dead organisms and organism waste.
b)Scavengers are consumers because they feed off of dead organisms.
c)Because the scavengers and decomposers get rid of the waste and dead organisms.
5)A dead organism is a part of the abiotic environment because it no longer has life in it.
b)First, scavengers come and eat the meat of the dead organism, then a decomposer carries out chemical decomposition. Large, complex molecules of living things are broken down to smaller, simpler molecules.
c)If the corpses were indestructible, our roads and yards would be carpeted with dead bodies.
6)habitat: the environmental space in which an organism lives
niche: all the ways in which an organism interacts with its biotic and abiotic environments
b)Grass, plants, and a bison occupy different niches in the same habitat.
7The layer of our planet where living things exist and interact.
b)lithosphere: solid portion of the Earth (ex. rocks)
hydrosphere: the water portion of the Earth (ex. sea)
atmosphere: the air surrounding the Earth (ex. air)
c)The zones are different sections were many organisms live, but the ecosystem is a unit of the biosphere in which organisms forming a distinct group interact with each other and with their environment.
8)ecosystem: a unit of the biosphere in which organisms forming a distinct group interact with each other and with their environment (ex. pond)
b)Because green plants feed the other organisms in one way or another.
c)There would be more plants because they are used to feeding the other animals.
5-13-1993
Senses
Sight: photoreception
- cones and rods
- location?
- function?
Hearing: effects of vibrations in the ear?
- choclea?
- mechanoreception?
Smell: olfaction?
- chemoreception?
- location of receptors
Taste: location of chemoreceptors
- categories or types
- how do we taste spicy food
Touch: location of receptors (3 different types)
- varying ability
- does one receptor in the skin respond to all types of
touch, pressure, and pain?
Sight
photoreception: direction of light by sensory cells
cones: specialized eye cells for bright light and color reception
rods: specialized eye cells for vision at low light levels
Rods and cones are located on the retina.
Hearing
The effects of vibrations in the ear is that the vibrations travel through a series of small bones into a coiled, fluid-filled cone. The vibrating fluid moves the hair cells, nerve impulses are sent to the brain where they are interpreted as sound.
cochlea: a fluid-filled cone that helps detect sound
mechanoreception: the ability to detect motion
Smell
olfaction: the sense of smell
chemoreception: the ability to detect chemical stimuli
The olfactory receptors are located high in the nasal cavity in a human
Taste
The receptors are located in taste buds situated in crevices in the tongue, in humans.
Human taste receptors are limited to just four categories: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.
You taste spicy foods from the interaction of your sense of smell with these four basic taste.
Touch
In humans, touch receptors are located in the skin. The three types are Meissner's corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, Ruffini corpuscles.
There is a variety of touch receptors. They can sense heat, cold, pain, touch, pressure. The ability of touch is different between people.
No, different receptors respond to different types of touch, pressure, and pain.
Sensory Systems in other Organisms
- protists often respond by eating or avoiding like a baby
- Euglena have a pigment spot -> sensitive to light
- sense organs in organisms can be different from those in
humans
e.g. dogs, bats, dolphins respond to higher sound frequencies
e.g. birds of prey (ex. hawk) have a better sense of vision
e.g. insects have a better sense of smell
Coordinating Responses: Movement and Location
3 steps to sense and response:
1) sensory receptors
2) Organisms must be able to respond ex. move away
3) a coordinated system that links sensing and responding -> this is called nervous system
5-14-1993
Nervous System
- simplest nervous system is found in an organism called the
Hydra, a fresh water jelly fish
- when the Hydra is touched, it contracts
- sensory cells in the Hydra relay the message to neurons that
carry the message to muscle cells
- in complex animals, groups of neurons from nerves and sensory
cells are grouped together to form sensory organs
- the central nervous system consists of a nerve chord and a
brain
- Ganglia are clumps of nerve cells that coordinate nerve
signals in different parts of the body
Three Types of Neurons
1) Sensory neurons: carry signals from the sense receptors
2) motor neurons: carry signals to parts of the body (ex. muscle,
glands)
3) inter neurons: connect sensory neurons to motor neurons
When your hand touches a hot kettle, heat receptors in your fingertips detect this.
-> sends the message to receptors in your arm
-> brain and spinal chord's inter neurons
-> motor neurons -> arm muscles
Movement and Locomotion
- for protists and animals, responses usually involves some form
of movement
- all animals are capable of some sort of movement
- an animal's movement is controlled by its nervous system
locomotion: movement from one location to another
- Most animals have some form of locomotion. Locomotion can be
difficult to study because some animals move very quickly
Nervous and Locomotory Systems of the Earthworm
- earthworms respond to light, touch, moisture, and chemicals
- sense receptors are located under the skin
- central nervous systems of the earthworm is a double spinal
chord
- nerve chord is connected to two larger ganglia in the worm's
head - this is the brain
- there are smaller ganglia for each segment of the worm's body
5-18-1993
Nervous and Locomotory systems of the Earthworm
- continued
- Part II
- the ganglia enables the earthworm to move each segment
independently
- earthworm also has 2 sets of muscles -one perpendicular to
the other
-1) longitudinal muscles: when contracted, the worm becomes
shorter and fatter
-2) circular muscles: when contracted, the worm becomes thinner
and longer
- when the worm is moving forward, you can see a wave of
motion passing along the body of the worm
5-19-1993
Locomotion in other Organisms
- different types of locomotion: running, swimming, gliding, jumping,
hopping, crawling or pseudopodia (false feet)
amoeba
- animals have different body parts that aid in locomotion -e.g. spider monkey - tail, kangaroo - hind legs, bat - wings
Sensory Systems of Other Organisms
Protists: have chemoreceptors in cell membrane
- these receptors can also detect the presence of
other organisms
Euglena: have a pigment spot: sensitive to light
- Euglena can't see, but it will move towards the light
- when there is enough light, the Euglena will perform
photosynthesis
- different organisms possess sense organs that are more
sensitive than those of humans e.g. dogs and bats can detect
sounds of higher frequencies
birds of prey have a more sensitive sense of vision
insects have a more sensitive sense of smell
Photosynthesis
sunlight + H2O + CO2 -> glucose + O2
energy + H2O + CO2 <- glucose + O2
Altering and Adapting to the External Environment
- adaptations: features and behaviors that enable an organism
to suit or fit its environment
e.g. musk oxen of the Canadian Arctic: form protective circle,
strong grinding teeth, long digestive tube, thick hairy coat
- the environment can alter an organism, and the organism can
also alter the environment
Exchanging Materials with the Environment
- living organisms absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide
- land dwellers and aquatic organisms will exchange gasses with
their surroundings
- land vertebrates have lungs: open sacs inside the body,
connected to the outside by a tube
- aquatic vertebrate exchange gasses through their gills
- as water flows over the gills, dissolved oxygen diffuses into
the fish's bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses out
- insects have a system of air tubes called the trachea
extending throughout their abdomen. these trachea are
connected to spiracles (tiny breathing holes) on the body of
the insect
- warm-blooded species consume more oxygen than cold-blooded
organisms
- babies breathe much faster than adult humans
- your breathing slows down when you are asleep
- hibernating animals breathe very slowly
How Gas Exchange Alters the Environment
- cell respiration occurs in human cells:
oxygen + sugar -> carbon dioxide + water + energy
- oxygen is supplied by green plants undergoing photosynthesis
carbon dioxide + water + light -> sugar + oxygen
Exchanging Other Materials: Elimination and Excretion
- gases are not the only things exchanged with the environment
- animals also release liquid and solid wastes into the
environment
- these are acted upon by micro-organisms such as bacteria
that recycle these waste products by using the materials for
their own life process
- if too man animals congregate in one spot, their waste
production may exceed the recycling capacity of the
decomposers
- in Peru and California, bird droppings are harvested
pg.168 #1-5)
1)gas exchange: inside the animal's body, oxygen from the external environment is exchanged for the waste gas, carbon dioxide
2)gills - fish lungs - human trachea - grasshopper
b)fish - under water human - everywhere on land grasshopper - in grassy fields and lawns
3)The amount of oxygen required by an organism is determined by its size, if its asleep or not, and if its warm or cold blooded.
4)Respiration removes oxygen molecules from the air and replaces them with carbon dioxide molecules or vice versa.
b)They are cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
c)This is because one uses liquid and solid waste materials in the form of urine, feces, and sweat. They are released by excretion and elimination.
5-20-1993
Altering the Environment
- every organism alters its environment simply by living in it
- the impact of human activities on the environment is sometimes
beneficial, but often has unforeseen circumstances
- there has been an increase in atmospheric pollution, largely
due to the burning of fossil fuels
- fossil fuels increase the amount of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide in the atmosphere
- the amount of carbon dioxide present has increased by more
than 30% in the past 100 years. This has produced the
Greenhouse Effect.
- Acid rain is caused by the mixing of sulfur and nitrogen oxides
with water vapors.
Greenhouse Effect
- carbon from fossil fuels and the tropical rain forest combine
with oxygen to produce CO2
- the danger results from global warming of the atmosphere
- this may affect the ecosystems, and destroy some species
which can't adapt to warmer conditions
- Also, icebergs in the Arctic and Antarctic may melt causing
coastal flooding
- Since sunlight warms the Earth's surface more than the
atmosphere, the surface transfers heat to the atmosphere.
This heat is absorbed by gasses such as CO2 in the
atmosphere. As the amount of the atmospheric CO2 rises, the
amount of heat increases, thereby warming the atmosphere.
How Humans Alter the Environment
- humans can develop specialized dwelling (e.g. igloos). clothes (e.g.
astronauts), and heating and cooling methods that enable them
to survive in several different environments
- humans can replace fields and forests with highways and cities
- however, waste accumulation is a problem - how to dispose of
garbage and non biodegradable materials
How the Environment Alters Humans
- there are several differences that make some body features
better suited for a particular environment
- people with a lot of skin pigment, and therefore darker skin,
are protected from sunburns, and this is an advantage in hot
areas
- at higher altitudes, the environment oxygen levels are lower,
and therefore, people with a higher density of oxygen carrying
red blood cells are at an advantage, therefore, people living
in higher altitudes tend to develop more red blood cells
pg.184 #1-6)
1)They work as a group, they defend better as a group, and each member of the group has a specific job.
2)inherited variability: this means that you have inherited certain traits from your ancestors, but not everyone in your family has them
3)They can inherit structural and behavioral adaptation.
b)duck: migration (behavioral), oily back (structural), fly in flocks (behavioral)
polar bear: whit (structural), much fat (structural), padded feet (structural)
camel: humps (structural), large feet (structural), low body fat (structural)
4)It needs other termites to help it feed, breed, and defend itself.
5)caribou: hibernate?
geese: fly south for the winter
maple trees: start storing food in its branches and not feeding its leaves
6) The knowledge an organism has can help it to live longer and better and to adapt better.
5-21-1993
- physiological adaptations are adjustments to environmental
change involving a change in body chemistry
- however, there are limits to how quickly the human body can
alter in response to changes in the external environment
- for example, people could never adopt to oxygen levels above
6000m
Adapting to Environmental Change
- when an organism becomes so specialized, and accustomed to a
particular environment factor such as food, or climate then,
change in this environmental factor may result in death of
that species
- insects are most adaptable organisms
- some insects (cockroach) have survived almost 300mil. years
unaltered
- several factors responsible for insects power of survival
1)most insects undergo dramatic metamorphoses, as a result, juvenile and adult form eat different food, and survive in different conditions. If one food supply or environment was affected, it wouldn't destroy the entire population
2) insects also reproduce in very large numbers
3) short life span, therefore, many generations are produced in a short time, and mutations are quickly passed to the next generation.
- if an individual possesses a characteristic that gives it an
advantage in the environment, any offspring that inherit that
characteristic may have a better chance of survival. After a
few generations, the inherited characteristic could be more
widespread in the population
- peppered moth provides an example of process of adoption
- before 1845, most peppered moths had light colored wings with
dark markings
- however, with industrialization and pollution, city dwellings
became darkened from soot and smoke. The bark on trees also
became darker.
- now light color moth were at a disadvantage and its population
deminished
- pretty soon, dark color moths outnumbered light ones
- a structural adoption is an inner physical feature that
increases an organism's chance of survival e.g. curved talons
of on a hawk
5-25-1993
- behavioral adaptations: certain actions that increase an
organism's chance of survival
- hibernation: state of deep sleep in which an organism can
remain without food for weeks or months
- before hibernating, the animal eats a lot to accumulate extra
fat reserves
- during hibernation, the breathing and heart rates slow down
significantly
- in spring, the hibernating animal wakes up
- migration: animals moving to a different location due to an
environmental/seasonal change
- estivation: some desert animals become dormant in summer when
water is scarce
e.g. desert frogs, snakes, lizards
Adapting Through Social Structure
- social living arrangements make it easier for an animal to find
a mate, find food, and avoid danger
e.g. bee colony
- consists of a queen bee, infertile female worker bees that hunt for food, feed the young, and protect the colony. There are also male bees called drones that solely act as breeder, and they do not work at all. No individual bee can survive on its own because its structural and behavioral adaptations are so specialized.
