Countries of the World/COUNTRYS.BIN/dp/0236/02365.txt

Text File | 1991-06-25 | 20KB | 356 lines

$Unique_ID{COW02365}
$Pretitle{361}
$Title{Mauritania
Chapter 2B.   Ethnic groups and languages}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Robert E. Handloff}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{groups
mauritania
social
maure
maures
black
group
african
society
descent}
$Date{1987}
$Log{}
Country:     Mauritania
Book:        Mauritania, A Country Study
Author:      Robert E. Handloff
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1987

Chapter 2B.   Ethnic groups and languages

     In 1987 six ethnic groups inhabited Mauritania: one of primarily Arab-
Berber (Maure) descent and the others of black African descent. In 1978 the
government estimated that 70 percent of the population was of Arab or Berber
descent and 30 percent of black African descent. Blacks, however, rejected the
government's figures, claiming their number was much higher. In any case, the
lack of reliable demographic data and a long tradition of interracial marriage
had blurred ethnic boundaries and made attempts at ethnic identification
imprecise.

     The Arab-Berber population encompassed peoples of North African origins,
most of whom were nomadic or seminomadic and who were unified primarily
through the use of various dialects of Hassaniya Arabic. Hassaniya is derived
from the beduin Arabic spoken by the Bani Hassan tribe, who extended their
authority over most of the Mauritanian Sahara between the fifteenth and
seventeenth centuries (see Arab Invasions, ch. 1). Hassaniya is not closely
related to other North African variants of Arabic, probably because the Arab
invaders of this southwestern portion of the Sahara remained relatively
isolated from the great Berber tribes of the northern Sahara. The primary
differences among the numerous dialects of Hassaniya are phonetic.

     The remainder of the population in 1987 comprised several groups of
varied African ancestry. Most were sedentary agriculturists who spoke African
languages. Family and kinship groups were the predominant social units. As
elsewhere in Africa, kinship groups were preserved by interaction and social
support, shared religious observances, and rituals celebrating stages of the
life cycle of individuals. The sharing of rituals reinforced group solidarity
and the values the kinship system embodied.

     Traditionally, one of the most common kinship groups throughout
Mauritania was the lineage, or descent group. Lineage organization is based on
the belief that relationships traced through males differ substantially from
those traced through females. The patrilineage, which traces descent through
male forebears to a male ancestor, is the most common unit of social
organization in Africa; matrilineages trace descent through female forebears
to one female ancestor. Both types of lineages include men and women,
sometimes five or six generations removed from the founding ancestor, but the
linking relatives are of one gender.

     Lineages generally share responsibility for socializing the young and
maintaining conformity to social norms. Lineage elders often meet to settle
disputes, prescribe or enforce rules of etiquette and marriage, discuss
lineage concerns, and preserve the group itself.

     Lineage ties emphasize the unity of living and deceased relatives by
descent through ritual observances and ceremonies. At times, however, lineages
break apart, either because of interpersonal rivalries or because they become
too large to maintain close ties. When such fission occurs, related lineages
usually maintain some ties and celebrate some occasions together. If their
alliance is important enough to be preserved for several generations, the
resulting confederation of lineages, usually termed a clan, often includes
thousands of individuals and may become a powerful interest group in the
context of a nation. In Mauritania, many aspects of lineage behavior and
expectation are important, providing lineage members with a sense of history
and social responsibility and defining the role of the individual in society.

Maures

      Maures trace their ancestry to Arab-Berber origins, although many have
intermarried among African populations over the centuries. Maures occupy
scattered areas across West Africa from southern Morocco to Gambia and from
the Atlantic Ocean to Mali. The greatest concentration of this group is in
Mauritania, which took its name from this dominant segment of its population.

  Maure society's complex social relationships are based on rigid hierarchical
social and ethnic divisions. Social distinctions reflect the interplay of
heritage, occupation, and race. Broadly speaking, Maures distinguish between
free and servile status on the one hand and between nobles, tributaries,
artisans, and slaves on the other hand. Non-Maure populations, termed "black
Africans" in this context, are not included in this ranking system.

     Two strata, the warriors (hassani) and the religious leaders (zawaya),
dominate Maure society. The latter are also known as marabouts (see Glossary),
a term applied by the French. These two groups constitute the Maure nobility.
They are more Arab than Berber and have intermarried little with black African
populations. Tributary vassals (zenaga) are below the hassani and zawya in
status but nevertheless are considered among the elite. They are descendants
of Berbers conquered by Arabs, and their Hassaniya Arabic dialect shows a
greater Berber influence. Although these three social strata are termed
"white" Maures (bidan), the zenaga have intermarried with other groups to a
greater degree than have the hassani and zawaya.

     Craftsmen and artisans in Maure society are described as members of
"castes" because they form closed groups whose members tend to intermarry and
socialize only among themselves. Bards or entertainers, called ighyuwa in
Mauritania and griots elsewhere in West Africa, are also considered to be
members of a caste. At the bottom of the social order are the so-called
"black" Maures, previously the servile stratum within Maure society.

     Myths of origin are used to reinforce perceptions of social status and
justify elements of this elaborate system of stratification. Craftsmen and
musicians in Maure society are said to be of Semitic (Arab) rather than Berber
or African ancestry. Imraguen fishermen, a caste group living in the vicinity
of Nouadhibou, are thought to be descended from the Bafour, the aboriginal
black population who migrated south ahead of the expanding desert. Small
hunting groups are considered to be the remnants of an earlier Saharan people
and may be of Berber origin.

White Maure Nobility

     In Mauritania the warrior and marabout elites have developed a symbiotic
relationship. Traditionally, warrior tribes protected the unarmed religious
leaders, while the marabouts provided political, spiritual, and moral support
for the warriors (see Arab Invasions, ch. 1). Under French rule, most warrior
tribes were pacified and became cattle herders and traders. Even though the
warriors' role changed gradually from one of physical protection to one of
political and economic control, the alliance of traditional warrior groups
with associated religious tribesmen survived.

Zenaga

     The zenaga, now the descendants of tributary vassals of the nobility,
tend to be ethnically and culturally more Berber than the hassani and zawaya.
They, too, are divided into warrior and religious tribes; but these
traditionally were assistants to the nobles, often as slaves. The zenaga still
work for the nobility, raising their livestock and looking after their
families.

     Traditionally, the zenaga paid both individual and group tribute to their
noble patrons. Although the French colonial administration banned tribute
(coutume), in some areas payment survived as late as the 1960s. Individual
tribute took the form of military or educational services; group tribute was
in the form of goods.

Artisans and Entertainers

     The two most prominent occupational castes in Maure society are skilled
craftsmen (or arti