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$Unique_ID{COW01989}
$Pretitle{230}
$Title{Japan
Chapter 1D. World War II}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Rinn-Sup Shinn}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{japan
japanese
united
states
government
war
party
japan's
occupation
national}
$Date{1981}
$Log{}
Country: Japan
Book: Japan, A Country Study
Author: Rinn-Sup Shinn
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date: 1981
Chapter 1D. World War II
Impressive victories at the beginning of the war seemed to confirm the
expedience of the Japanese army's aggressive policies. The naval and air
forces of the United States were largely immobilized by the attack on Pearl
Harbor, except for main aircraft carrier units. Western strongholds from Hong
Kong to Burma quickly fell, and by mid-1942 Japanese might was supreme in the
western Pacific (see fig. 2).
The Tojo cabinet tightened controls on the nation and its overseas
territories, suppressing all opposition and what remained of civil rights. The
Imperial Diet lost any remaining partisan character, and prominent zaibatsu
members were appointed to high government posts concerned with centralized
economic controls. In most former European colonies that came under Japanese
rule, indigenous movements were sponsored, but they produced little friendship
for Japan. On the contrary, harsh Japanese exploitation and administration
engendered hatred and bitterness in most areas.
The initial military successes evoked patriotic fervor in Japan, and the
Tojo cabinet, despite its dictatorial methods, enjoyed popular support. The
military reverses that began with the loss of Guadalcanal in February 1943
made it evident that the military had miscalculated the strength of United
States forces, but there was little public knowledge of this misjudgment
because of tight press censorship. In November 1943, as United States military
pressure increased, the Tojo government attempted further centralization of
administrative and economic power.
A major turning point in the war was the loss of Saipan in July 1944; the
loss brought the Saipan-based United States bombers within range of Tokyo. The
resulting heavy air raids shocked the nation, forcing Tojo to resign soon
afterward. His successor, General Koiso Kuniaki, was charged with maintaining
the war effort while being prepared to open negotiations for a compromise if
peace appeared possible. But heavy bombing of the Japanese islands and the
landing by United States forces in Okinawa, the largest island of the Ryukyu
chain, caused the fall of the Koiso cabinet in April 1945. Admiral Suzuki
Kantaro, the new prime minister, was of the group that favored negotiation
rather than a fight to the death. And yet the new government was unprepared to
accept the unconditional surrender terms issued by the Allied powers in July
1945. Known as the Potsdam Declaration, these terms in essence called for
occupation of Japan, laying down of arms by Japanese forces, dismantling of
Japan's economic potential for war, and democratization of the Japanese
political system. On August 6, 1945, the first atomic bomb used in the history
of warfare was dropped on Hiroshima, and the second one was dropped on
Nagasaki August 9. On August 8 the Soviet Union had declared war against
Japan.
Japan accepted the terms of the Potsdam Declaration on August 14 after an
unsuccessful effort to modify them in order to preserve the special position
of the emperor. The decision involved the active, and possibly the decisive,
participation of the emperor who took an unprecedented step by himself
announcing the decision to the Japanese by radio the same day. His message
that the Japanese must accept total surrender and "endure the unendurable" was
accepted and carried out without demur. In addition to the power of the
imperial utterance and the tradition of obedience to authority, psychological
shock and physical weariness contributed to docile acceptance of surrender and
foreign military occupation. The militarism of the 1930s and 1940s had
collapsed.
Costs of defeat in human and physical terms were enormous. Japan lost
Korea, Taiwan, Manchuria, the Ryukyus, Bonins, southern Sakhalin, the Kurils,
and the League of Nations-mandated Micronesian territories in the Pacific.
Thirty percent of the Japanese were left homeless. Over 2.3 million soldiers
were killed or wounded in the years after 1937, and there were 800,000
civilian casualties. Most major cities except Kyoto were heavily damaged by
bombings, and many urbanites became homeless and destitute. The economy was
in ruins, left with 25 to 30 percent of prewar economic production capacity.
Merchant shipping, inland transportation, and textile equipment were virtually
wiped out. The yen was worth barely a fraction of its prewar value. The
repatriation of 6.5 million soldiers and civilians sharply increased the
demand for food, shelter, and essential consumer goods, already in acute
shortage.
Occupation and Reform (1945-52)
Demilitarization and democratization were the two immediate policy
objectives of the headquarters of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers
(SCAP), General Douglas A. MacArthur. His actions, under the guidance of the
United States government, were-to the relief of the Japanese people-more
moderate and less punitive than was favored by some of the Allied powers,
especially the Soviet Union. These actions were taken through the Japanese
civil authorities. MacArthur was under the nominal supervision of the
eleven-nation Far Eastern Commission in Washington and was advised in the
exercise of his authority by the Allied Council for Japan located in Tokyo,
composed of representatives of the United States, Britain, China, and the
Soviet Union.
Demilitarization was speedily carried out; demobilization of the former
imperial army, navy, and air forces was completed by early 1946. Political
reforms began in October 1945 when the SCAP issued a directive on civil
liberties-this came to be known as the Japanese "Bill of Rights." This order
severely limited the power of the Ministry of Home Affairs and the centralized
police system, ordered the release of political prisoners, and removed
restrictions on fundamental rights. Political parties revived. Among them were
the Japan Communist Party, which became legal for the first time; the Japan
Socialist Party, formed by survivors of the pre-1940 socialist groups; the
Liberal Party and the Progressive Party (no relation to the parties first
formed in the 1880s), major parties organized by conservatives who had
belonged to the pre-war Rikken Seiyukai and Minseito parties; and a number of
smaller political groups.
In October 1945 a new cabinet acceptable to the SCAP was formed by
Baron Shidehara Kijuro, who had left public life in the 1930s because of his
opposition to militarism. At MacArthur's urging, the government started
preparing a new constitution; the initial draft represented only a minor
departure from the Meiji Constitution and thus occupation authorities produced
a separate working draft, which, slightly modified, became the constitution
promulgated in November 1946, to take effect on May 3, 1947.
The 1947 Constitution, still in effect in 1981 without change, represents
a substantial departure from the Meiji Constitution of 1889 in that the
highest organ of government is the popularly elected bicameral National Diet.
The emperor, who on January 1, 1946, renounced his divinity, is retained as
"the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people," but sovereignty is
transferred from him to the Japanese people. Executive power is entrusted to
a cabinet formed by the parliamentary majority party and responsible to the
Diet. The courts are made independent of the other branches of government; the
Supreme Court is given power of constitutional review. Local self-government
is strengthened, and elective assemblies are created at every level of local
administration.
Civil liberties are strongly emphasized in the new