Countries of the World/COUNTRYS.BIN/dp/0020/00202.txt

Text File | 1991-06-24 | 30KB | 490 lines

$Unique_ID{COW00202}
$Pretitle{369}
$Title{Australia
Chapter 5A.   Social Structure}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Donald P. Whitaker}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{class
social
australian
middle
schools
society
upper
workers
egalitarian
income}
$Date{1974}
$Log{Table 13.*0020201.tab
}
Country:     Australia
Book:        Australia, A Country Study
Author:      Donald P. Whitaker
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1974

Chapter 5A.   Social Structure

     In contrast to the common image of the typical Australian as a robust
frontiersman, fiercely independent and scornful of established authority,
Australian society in the mid-1970s was overwhelmingly suburban and middle
class. On the one hand, although the society has a deeply rooted tradition of
egalitarianism, there are distinct social strata formed primarily on the basis
of income, occupation, and education who live in different neighborhoods and
identify themselves in terms of a loose class structure. On the other hand,
the notion of Australia as a classless society, a view to which some
Australians also subscribe, is borne out by the narrow range of economic and
social differences among the population.

     Particularly in the years before World War II, Australia had a society in
which, by and large, similarities among the population far outweighed
differences. Well into the twentieth century, nine out of ten Australians
traced their ancestry to the British Isles. Although there was a built-in
traditional cleavage between those whose roots were English Protestant and
Scots Protestant and those who were directly descended from Irish Roman
Catholics, most immigrants to Australia left much of their hatred behind them,
and no irreconcilable conflict ever emerged. Australia has never known even a
hint of civil war, and in fact no war of any kind has ever been fought there.
Australians popularly think of their nation as "the lucky country."

     The situation had begun to change somewhat in the latter half of the
twentieth century as unassimilated immigrants from southern and eastern Europe
imparted a distinctly ethnic quality to sections of the country's major cities
and as Australia's indigenous Aboriginals asserted their claims to equality
and individuality. By mid-1973 there was a distinct trend toward the
diversification of Australian life-styles.

     Despite the predominantly urban and suburban character of the society,
the image of Australians as enthusiastic outdoorsmen is not in the least
amiss. Australians are among the most devoted sports fans in the world, and a
love of outdoor activity reflects the country's frontier origins (see ch. 4).
Similarly, the tradition of a healthy distrust for established authority among
Australians is expressed in the relatively low status accorded politicians and
career public servants alike. Nevertheless, Australians look to public
institutions in general and government in particular to ensure the general
well-being of the population and to resolve conflicts in the society. Disputes
between labor and management, for example, are typically resolved by
quasi-judicial conciliation and arbitration rather than by direct negotiation
or strike (see ch. 13). So while there may be general public disparagement of
established authority, there is not only a heavy reliance on government to
provide public services there is also a general willingness to submit social
problems to institutional solutions.

THE EGALITARIAN TRADITION

     A strong tradition of egalitarianism has played a dominant role in
shaping Australian values and the way in which Australians view their own
society. Several sociological surveys have uncovered a significant minority of
the population that refuses to identify with any of the traditional classes
but maintains that Australia is a classless society. Although most Australians
do not hold this view, it is a firm indication of the importance of
egalitarianism as a widely held social value.

     Unlike the egalitarian tradition of the United States, which emphasizes
the equal opportunity of all members of the society to realize fully their
potential and ambitions, Australian egalitarianism stresses a high minimum
standard of well-being for the whole of the society and an outward show of
equality that minimizes privileges because of formal rank. The eminent
Australian historian William Hancock has summarized this tradition as it is
manifested in popular attitudes: "Australian democracy has come to look upon
the State as a vast public utility whose duty it is to provide the greatest
happiness for the greatest number."

     Four factors have been important in the formation of the Australian
egalitarian tradition: the relatively early development of a politically
effective labor movement, a chronic shortage of unskilled labor, a strong
undercurrent of anti-English sentiment among Irish immigrants, and the spirit
of cooperation that developed among the settlers in a harsh environment. These
factors have contributed to an egalitarian ideology that continues to color
Australian social values, relationships, and institutions.

     The vast majority of the nineteenth-century immigrants to Australia were
of British working-class origin, thoroughly disenchanted with the limitations
of the rigid English class structure. They developed a strong sense of
working-class solidarity that gave birth to a militant trade union movement
(see ch. 2). Thus, at a relatively early stage in the process of
industrialization, the Australian labor movement became a significant social
and political power in the society, and the relatively rapid successes of the
movement established a pattern of collective, broad-based action rather than
an individualistic striving for success. At the beginning of the twentieth
century, a pattern of resolving conflict by means of official arbitration had
been firmly established, and the basic precedent of a "fair and reasonable"
minimum wage for all had been set (see ch. 2). The Australian notion of
equality thus took the form of a preference for the well-being of all rather
than special privilege for an elite. Australians tend to resent any
pretensions of superiority and to be suspicious of those claiming special
status on the basis of abilities or skills.

     The strength of the labor movement in Australia has largely depended on a
recurrent labor shortage. Moreover, the egalitarian character of society was
partially determined by the fact that this labor shortage was mainly one of
unskilled labor. Because unskilled labor was so scarce, an unskilled worker
could command a wage that was almost as high as that of a skilled worker. This
resulted in relatively narrow income differentials among the major portion of
the work force. The minimization of economic distinctions within the labor
movement increased egalitarian working-class solidarity and has given some
credence to the Australian self-image of a classless society.

     Irish Roman Catholics initially had a great impact on the labor movement,
and they have retained a position of leadership in it. An underlying antipathy
among the Irish toward the formation of a Protestant English landholding
aristocracy made its mark on general public attitudes and probably had an
important influence on the tradition of disregard for formal rank and its
privileges.

     The egalitarian tradition also draws on sources other than the labor
movement. Romanticized versions of pioneer life in the Outback have had an
effect on social values in much the same way as the pioneering spirit and
traditions of the Old West have influenced American values. The harsh climate
and immense and lonely uninhabited areas of the interior forced workers there
to depend intimately upon each other for survival and companionship. This gave
rise to the uniquely Australian institution of "mateship," wherein each man
had a "mate" with whom he worked, traveled, and shared his belongings.
Mateship, described by one observer as a sort of male marr