Countries of the World/COUNTRYS.BIN/dp/0019/00195.txt

Text File | 1991-06-24 | 35KB | 571 lines

$Unique_ID{COW00195}
$Pretitle{369}
$Title{Australia
Chapter 2C.   Federation to 1945}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Donald P. Whitaker}
$Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army}
$Subject{australian
australia
government
party
war
alp
states
united
forces
british}
$Date{1974}
$Log{}
Country:     Australia
Book:        Australia, A Country Study
Author:      Donald P. Whitaker
Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army
Date:        1974

Chapter 2C.   Federation to 1945

The Australian Commonwealth to 1914

     The Commonwealth of Australia was created on January 1, 1901, after a
decade of effort in privately sponsored meetings, intercolonial conferences,
colonial legislative debate, and popular referenda. After approval of a draft
constitution by Australian voters, the British Parliament passed legislation
in 1900 to enable the commonwealth to come into existence.

     The Australian political system, as originally adopted, was a compromise
among sectional and economic interests. The major problem was the difference
on the tariff issue between protectionist Victoria and free trade New South
Wales. Early proposals for a federal system were not favored by either
conservative interests or labor groups, and popular support for the eventual
compromise was not great, judging from the low voter turnout in referenda, 30
percent in 1898 and 43 percent in 1899.

     The constitution gave the commonwealth or federal government certain
defined powers; all residual powers were given the governments of the six
colonies, which were renamed states. In this respect and in its separate and
independent judiciary, the political system resembled that of the United
States. Executive authority was established on the British model in a cabinet
headed by a prime minister responsible to the lower house of the bicameral
legislature (see ch. 8).

     Three political parties competed for power in the new commonwealth, the
Conservative Free Traders, the Liberal Protectionists Party, and the
Australian Labor Party (ALP). The Liberal Protectionists and the ALP proved
more effective politically in the first decade of the commonwealth's history
and were responsible for the basic legislative measures that to a large extent
set the pattern for Australia's future development.

     Legislation affecting economic and social matters included laws on basic
wages, protectionist tariffs, conciliation and arbitration in industrial
disputes, and immigration. A restrictive immigration law was enacted in 1901.
It avoided overt exclusion of Asians or other nonwhites on the basis of color
but required a dictation test in a "prescribed language" that effectively
prevented entry of all but a very few Asians. This was the formal beginning of
the White Australia Policy on immigration. Court decisions in cases arising
from early commonwealth legislation tended to favor states' rights and to
limit the power of the federal government.

     The tariff enacted in 1908 under a Liberal Protectionists government with
ALP support was called the new protectionism because it included benefits to
workers, such as wages, as well as to owners of industrial enterprises. The
concept of the fair and reasonable wage had already been translated into
concrete terms in a High Court of Australia decision of 1907, the so-called
harvester award, in which an implement manufacturer was held ineligible for
tariff protection because his wages did not meet "the normal needs of the
average employee regarded as a human being in a civilized community." Wages
were set by that standard but were held by the court to be subject to later
adjustment, the responsibility for which devolved on the Commonwealth Court of
Conciliation and Arbitration.

     The ALP came to power in 1910; it had also governed during two short
periods in the first decade of the commonwealth. ALP policies and its
legislative program were essentially a continuance of those of the Liberal
Protectionists in expanding social benefits. Laws establishing pensions and
maternity benefits were passed. In 1911 the Commonwealth Bank of Australia was
authorized under conditions that made it a commercial rather than a central
bank. The ALP also submitted to referenda four proposals for constitutional
amendments to give greater power to the central government. Three were
rejected. The only proposal accepted was assumption of state debts by the
federal government.

     Expansion of the Australian economy in the first decade of the twentieth
century was followed by an increase in immigration, which totaled 200,000 from
1911 to 1913 (population growth at that time was slowest in Victoria and
fastest in Western Australia). Wool production reached a new high level,
although the numbers of sheep had not quite regained the peak of 1891 after
the serious damage of drought years to the pastoral industry. Tariff
protection on a national basis encouraged an increase in the number of
factories, in manufacturing production, and in industrial employment. Most
industry was small scale, much of it concerned with processing agricultural
commodities. The Australian steel industry started in 1905 when a blast
furnace was built in New South Wales.

     The federal government's assumption of responsibility for Australia's
foreign relations immediately created a national view that diverged from
British policies. The Australians were especially concerned about Japanese
intentions. These intentions had given rise to a feeling of threat, especially
after Japan defeated Russia in 1905, even though the sentiment had been
somewhat lessened by the protection afforded by the Anglo-Japanese alliance of
1902.

     Events in Europe caused the British to reduce their naval strength in the
Pacific after 1905, and the Australians sought other means of security for
their almost defenseless country without, however, showing any sign of
lessening their attachment to the British crown. Steps were taken to create
both naval and land forces. An act in 1909 provided for compulsory military
training, and in 1910 the British Parliament authorized formation of the Royal
Australian Navy. The naval force was to consist of a battle cruiser, two light
cruisers, three destroyers, and two submarines. The ALP gave the policy strong
support, and in 1911 a destroyer was launched in Sydney, the first warship
built in Australia. All political parties concurred in the concept of a
citizen force organized in ground troops for national defense. The
enthusiastic welcome given to the United States Navy's Great White Fleet in
Australian ports in 1908 was evidence of the growing identity of interest
between Australia and the United States.

     Education, which remained under the control of the states, received
renewed attention with the prosperity of the early 1900s. The ideal of
equality of educational opportunity for all was furthered by state
establishment of secondary schools and teacher training schools and by the
start of regular instruction by correspondence for children in remote areas
where school attendance was impossible.

World War I

     The Australian colonies had furnished military contingents to assist the
British in the Sudan in 1885 and in the Boer War that started in South Africa
in 1899. Only New South Wales sent troops to join the imperial forces in the
Sudan, whereas all the colonies joined to send a total of 16,500 men to the
British command in the Boer War.

     Australia as part of the British Empire was at war with Germany upon the
declaration of hostilities by Great Britain on August 5, 1914. The extent of
Australian participation in the war was a matter for decision by the
Australian government, but government policy had in effect been decided two
days before the declaration by the government's offer to place the Royal
Australian Navy under the British Admiralty and to dispatch 20,000 men to
serve under British command anywhere desired.

     Popular support for Great Britain was strong. Australia was in the midst
of a campaign for a national election-hel