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$Unique_ID{bob00366}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Japan
Science and Technology}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{International Society for Educational Information, Inc.}
$Affiliation{Embassy of Japan, Washington DC}
$Subject{japan
research
technology
development
international
united
science
states
now
major}
$Date{1989}
$Log{}
Title: Japan
Book: The Japan of Today
Author: International Society for Educational Information, Inc.
Affiliation: Embassy of Japan, Washington DC
Date: 1989
Science and Technology
Overview
The history of modern science and technology in Japan dates back to the
latter part of the nineteenth century, when the newly opened country began
actively to study the knowledge that Europe had to offer. The Japan of that
period was poor in material resources, and the only way it could progress
socially and economically was through technological advances achieved by its
people-its only real resource.
The essential dependence of Japan on technological progress is no
different today from a century ago. What has changed is Japan's place in the
international community, where it now ranks as one of the world's major
industrial countries. In view of its standing, Japan must promote research of
a sort that will contribute to the solution of problems that are global in
scale.
This basic stance was formalized in the General Guideline for Science and
Technology Policy, which the Government approved in March 1986. The three
major planks of this program call for Japan to (1) conduct basic research and
other creative activity that will promote the advance of science and
technology in the future, (2) develop science and technology in ways that are
in harmony with the human beings and society that they are supposed to serve,
and (3) stress the international side of scientific endeavor in response to
the need for Japan to contribute to the rest of the world in this area.
Stages of development
The 1987 White Paper on Science and Technology charts the course of
Japan's scientific and technological development in the period since World
War II in four 10-year periods. In the late 1940s and early 1950s the
emphasis was on rebuilding the war-ravaged structure of scientific endeavor
and acquiring technology from abroad. The following 10 years were a period of
consolidating the structure and moving toward independent research. The late
1060s and early 1970s featured projects of mammoth scale, along with a new
concern with the assessment of technology. And since the latter part of the
1970s, Japan has devoted much attention to the energy problem and has
stressed creativity in scientific work.
Japan has now achieved a considerable degree of technological prowess,
particularly in the area of advanced technology. The country's scientific and
technological endeavors continue to be characterized by their almost
exclusive orientation toward civilian use and by the fact that they are funded
largely by the private sector.
R&D funding and personnel
In fiscal 1955 (April 1955-March 1956) Japan's total spending on
research and development was (Yen)40 billion, or 0.84% of the country's gross
national product. This share of GNP was smaller than the figures for the
Federal Republic of Germany, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom,
and the United States, and the amount spent accounted for a mere 1% of the
total for these five countries plus Japan. By fiscal 1985, however, the
spending on R&D in Japan had reached (Yen)8.1 trillion, or 3.2% of GNP; the
amount accounted for 16% of the six-country total, and the share of GNP was
second only to that of the United States.
The lion's share of R&D spending in Japan is by the private sector,
which accounts for 80% of the total. One recent feature is that businesses
are continuing to increase their R&D outlays even in periods of declining
sales. They are also actively undertaking basic research activities aimed at
increasing the high-technology content of their production.
The number of researchers at work in Japan stood at 448,000 in 1985,
second only to the United States' 790,000. One difference from the other
major countries is the large share of engineering graduates, who make up
about half of the total number, and the relatively small share of those with
scientific degrees. In terms of the number of papers published in major
academic journals, the United States enjoys an overwhelming lead; Japan is
just now catching up with the Soviet Union and the major West European
countries. In the number of patents granted domestically, Japan ranks first;
in the number granted abroad it lies in third place behind the United States
and the Federal Republic of Germany. In its technology trade, meanwhile,
Japan has recorded a surplus on payments for new contracts since 1972, but
its overall balance, including payments under earlier agreements, is still
heavily in the red.
International cooperation
Progress in science and technology and the increasingly large scale of
some research projects have made international cooperation indispensable in
a variety of fields. Examples include mammoth undertakings like fusion
research and space development; areas that require action on a global scale,
such as environmental protection; basic research designed to create new
intellectual property for all the people of the world; and other types of
science that deal with areas that are common issues for all humankind, like
the fight against diseases.
Japan has entered into 19 agreements on scientific cooperation with 18
other countries and is also expanding its participation in multilateral
cooperative endeavors conducted regionally or through international
institutions. At the Venice summit in 1987 Japan proposed a "Human Frontier
Science Program" as a joint undertaking by the major industrial democracies.
Within the country, efforts have been made to promote interchange
between Japanese and foreign scientists. In 1982 it became possible for public
universities to appoint non-Japanese as full-time instructors, and in 1986
the Law on the Promotion of Research Exchange came into effect, under which
foreign researchers could become members of the research staff of Japan's
civil service. The number of researchers coming to Japan from abroad has been
rising; in 1986 it reached 43,686, an 80% increase over five years before.
The number of Japanese researchers traveling abroad in the same year was
55,586, up 120% over 1981. Starting in 1986 the Japan Information Center of
Science and Technology began providing information on domestically published
research through a data base for foreign users, and the following year it set
up an international online network linking its data base with similar data
bases in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States.
Japan is also extending technological assistance to the developing
countries through its official development assistance programs, the provision
of equipment, the dispatch of experts from Japan, and the acceptance of
trainees.
Large-Scale Projects
Japan is currently undertaking numerous large-scale technological
development projects, some of which are introduced below. Both private
industry and the research institutes of universities and the Government are
involved. While many of the projects are in areas that other countries are
also pursuing, some involve active cooperation between Japan and other
countries through exchanges of information and researchers.
Nuclear energy
As of 1987 there were 35 commercial nuclear electric power reactors
operating in Japan, accounting for about 16% of the country's electricity
generation capacity and about 29% of the total electricity generated. The
current goal, based on the two major premises of assuring safety and
strengthening disaster-prevention systems for nuclear emergencies, is to
achieve a complete nuclear fuel cycle within the country. For this purpose
the private sector is now engaged in the construction o