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Text File | 1995-10-24 | 17.9 KB | 348 lines

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Chefs, Cooks, and Other Kitchen Workers

(D.O.T.  311.674-014; 313 except .131; 315.361, .371, and .381;
316.661, .684-010 and -014; 317; 318.687; and 319.484)

Nature of the Work

A reputation for serving good food is essential to any restaurant,
whether it prides itself on hamburgers and French fries or exotic
foreign cuisine.  Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are
largely responsible for the reputation a restaurant acquires.  Some
restaurants offer a varied menu featuring meals that are time
consuming and difficult to prepare, requiring a highly skilled cook
or chef.  Other restaurants emphasize fast service, offering
hamburgers and sandwiches that can be prepared in advance or in a
few minutes by a fast-food or short-order cook with only limited
cooking skills.

   Chefs and cooks are responsible for preparing meals that are tasty
and attractively presented.  Chefs are the most highly skilled,
trained, and experienced kitchen workers.  Although the terms chef
and cook are still sometimes used interchangeably, cooks generally
have more limited skills.  Many chefs have earned fame for both
themselves and the restaurants, hotels, and institutions where they
work because of their skill in artfully preparing the traditional
favorites and in creating new dishes and improving familiar ones.
(For information on executive chefs, see the Handbook statement on
restaurant and food service managers.)

   Institutional chefs and cooks work in the kitchens of schools,
industrial cafeterias, hospitals, and other institutions.  For each
meal, they prepare a small selection of entrees, vegetables, and
desserts, but in large quantities.  Restaurant chefs and cooks
generally prepare a wider selection of dishes for each meal, cooking
most individual servings to order.  Whether in institutions or
restaurants, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook ingredients
according to recipes.  In the course of their work they use a
variety of pots, pans, cutlery, and equipment, including ovens,
broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders.  They are often
responsible for directing the work of other kitchen workers,
estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies.  Some
chefs and cooks also help plan meals and develop menus.

   Bread and pastry bakers, called pastry chefs in some kitchens,
produce baked goods for restaurants, institutions, and retail bakery
shops.  Unlike bakers who work at large, automated industrial
bakeries, bread and pastry bakers need only supply the customers who
visit their establishment.  They bake smaller quantities of breads,
rolls, pastries, pies, and cakes, doing most of the work by hand.
They measure and mix ingredients, shape and bake the dough, and
apply fillings and decorations.

   Short-order cooks prepare foods to order in restaurants and coffee
shops that emphasize fast service.  They grill and garnish
hamburgers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs, and cook French fried
potatoes, often working on several orders at the same time.  Prior
to busy periods, they may slice meats and cheeses or prepare
coleslaw or potato salad.  During slow periods, they may clean the
grill, food preparation surfaces, counters, and floors.

   Specialty fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items
in fast-food restaurants.  They cook and package batches of food
such as hamburgers and fried chicken, which are prepared to order or
kept warm until sold.

   Other kitchen workers, under the direction of chefs and cooks,
perform tasks requiring less skill.  They weigh and measure
ingredients, fetch pots and pans, and stir and strain soups and
sauces.  They clean, peel, and slice potatoes, other vegetables, and
fruits and make salads.  They also may cut and grind meats, poultry,
and seafood in preparation for cooking.  Their responsibilities also
include cleaning work areas, equipment and utensils, and dishes and
silverware.

   The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depend partly
on the type of restaurant.  For example, fast-food outlets offer
only a few items, which are prepared by fast-food cooks.  Smaller,
full-service restaurants that offer casual dining often feature a
limited number of easy-to-prepare items, supplemented by short-order
specialties and readymade desserts.  Typically, one cook prepares
all of the food with the help of a short-order cook and one or two
other kitchen workers.

   Large eating places may have more varied menus and prepare, from
start to finish, more of the food they serve.  Kitchen staffs often
include several chefs and cooks, sometimes called assistant or
apprentice chefs or cooks, a bread and pastry baker, and many less
skilled kitchen workers.  Each chef or cook usually has a special
assignment and often a special job title vegetable, fry, or sauce
cook, for example.  Executive chefs coordinate the work of the
kitchen staff and often direct certain kinds of food preparation.
They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food
supplies.

   Work hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and
weekend work.

Working Conditions

Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modern equipment,
convenient work areas, and air-conditioning; but others,
particularly in older and smaller eating places, are frequently not
as well equipped.  Other variations in working conditions depend on
the type and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws
governing food service operations.  Workers generally must withstand
the pressure and strain of working in close quarters during busy
periods, stand for hours at a time, lift heavy pots and kettles, and
work near hot ovens and grills.  Job hazards include slips and
falls, cuts, and burns, but injuries are seldom serious.

   Work hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and
weekend work, while hours in cafeterias in factories, schools, or
other institutions may be more regular.  Half of all short-order and
fast-food cooks and other kitchen workers worked part time; a third
of all bakers and restaurant and institutional cooks worked part
time.  Kitchen workers employed by public and private schools may
work during the school year only, usually for 9 or 10 months.
Vacation resorts may offer only seasonal employment.

Employment

Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers held nearly 3.1 million jobs
in 1992.  Short-order and fast-food cooks held 714,000 of the jobs;
restaurant cooks, 602,000; institutional cooks, 406,000; bread and
pastry bakers, 146,000; and other kitchen workers, 1,233,000.

   About three-fifths of all chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers
worked in restaurants and other retail eating and drinking places.
One-fifth worked in institutions such as schools, universities,
hospitals, and nursing homes.  The remainder were employed by
grocery stores, hotels, and many other organizations.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Most kitchen workers start as fast-food or short-order cooks, or in
one of the other less skilled kitchen positions that require little
education or training and that allow them to acquire their skills on
the job.  After acquiring some basic food handling, preparation, and
cooking skills, they may be able to advance to an assistant cook or
short-order cook position, but many years of training and
experience are necessary to achieve the level of skill required of
an executive chef or cook in a fine restaurant.  Even though a high
school diploma is not required for beginning jobs, it is recommended
for those planning a career as a cook or chef.  High school or
vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business
administration are particularly helpful.

   Many school districts, in cooperation with State departments of
education, provide on-the-job training and sometimes summer
workshops for cafeteria kitchen workers who wish to become cooks.
Employees who have participated in these training programs often are
selected for jobs as cooks.

   An increasing number of chefs and cooks are obtaining their training
through high school or posthigh school vocational programs and 2- or
4-year colleges.  Chefs and cooks may also be trained in
apprenticeship programs offered by professional culinary institutes,
industry associations, and trade unions.  An example is the 3-year
apprenticeship program administered by local chapters of the
American Culinary Federation in cooperation with local employers and
junior colleges or vocational education institutions.  In addition,
some large hotels and restaurants operate their own training
programs for cooks and chefs.

   People who have had courses in commercial food preparation may be
able to start in a cook or chef job without having to spend time in
a lower skilled kitchen job, and they may have an advantage when
looking for jobs in better restaurants and hotels, where hiring
standards often are high.  Some vocational programs in high schools
offer this kind of training, but usually these courses are given by
trade schools, vocational centers, colleges, professional
associations, and trade unions.  Postsecondary courses range from a
few months to 2 years or more and are open in some cases only to
high school graduates.  The Armed Forces also are a good source of
training and experience.

   Although curricula may vary, students usually spend most of their
time learning to prepare food through actual practice.  They learn
to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food, and to use and care for
kitchen equipment.  Training programs often include courses in menu
planning, determination of portion size and food cost control,
purchasing food supplies in quantity, selection and storage of food,
and use of leftover food to minimize waste.  Students also learn
hotel and restaurant sanitation and public health rules for handling
food.  Training in supervisory and management skills sometimes is
emphasized in courses offered by private vocational schools,
professional associations, and university programs.

   Culinary courses are given by 550 schools across the nation.  The
American Culinary Federation accredited 70 of these programs in
1993.  Accreditation is an indication that a culinary program meets
recognized standards regarding course content, facilities, and
quality of instruction.  The American Culinary Federation has only
been accrediting culinary programs for a relatively short time,
however, and many programs have not yet sought accreditation.

   Certification provides valuable formal recognition of the skills of
a chef or cook.  The American Culinary Federation certifies chefs
and cooks at the levels of cook, working chef, executive chef, and
master chef.  It also certifies pastry professionals and culinary
educators.  Certification standards are based primarily on
experience and formal training.

   The ability to work as part of a team, a keen sense of taste and
smell, and personal cleanliness are important qualifications for
chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers.  Most States require health
certificates indicating that these workers are free from contagious
diseases.

   Advancement opportunities for chefs and cooks are better than for
most other food and beverage preparation and service occupations.
Many acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by
moving from one job to another.  Besides culinary skills,
advancement also depends on ability to supervise lesser skilled
workers and limit food costs by minimizing waste and accurately
anticipating the amount of perishable supplies needed.  Some cooks
and chefs gradually advance to executive chef positions or
supervisory or management positions, particularly in hotels, clubs,
or larger, more elegant restaurants.  Some eventually go into
business as caterers or restaurant owners; others may become
instructors in vocational programs in high schools, junior and
community colleges, and other academic institutions.

Job Outlook

Job openings for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are
expected to be excellent through the year 2005.  Growth in demand
for these workers will create many new jobs, but most openings will
arise from the need to replace the relatively high proportion of
workers who leave this very large occupation each year.  There is
substantial turnover in many of these jobs because their limited
requirements for formal education and training allow easy entry, and
the many part-time positions are attractive to persons seeking a
short-term source of income rather than a career.  Many of the
workers who leave these jobs transfer to other occupations, while
others stop working to assume household responsibilities or to
attend school full time.

   Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant
proportion of the lesser skilled jobs in this occupation.  The pool
of young workers is expected to continue to shrink through the
1990's, but then begin to grow.  Many employers will be forced to
offer higher wages, better benefits, and more training to attract
and retain workers in these jobs.

   Employment of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers is expected to
increase faster than the average for all occupations through the
year 2005.  Since a significant proportion of food and beverage
sales by eating and drinking establishments is associated with the
overall level of economic activity workers' lunches and
entertainment of clients, for example sales and employment will
increase with the growth of the economy.  Other factors contributing
to employment growth will be population growth, rising family and
personal incomes, and more leisure time that will allow people to
dine out and take vacations more often.  Also, as more women join
the work force, families increasingly may find dining out a welcome
convenience.

   Employment in restaurants is expected to grow rapidly.  As the
average age of the population increases, demand will grow for
restaurants that offer table service and more varied menus which
will require more highly skilled cooks and chefs.  The popularity of
fresh baked breads and pastries in fine dining establishments should
insure continued rapid growth in the employment of bakers.  However,
employment of short-order and specialty fast-food cooks is expected
to increase more slowly than other occupations in this group because
most work in fast-food restaurants, which are expected to have
slower growth than in the past.

   Employment of institutional and cafeteria chefs and cooks will grow
about as fast as the average.  Their employment is concentrated in
the educational and health services sectors.  Although employment in
both sectors is expected to increase rapidly, growth of
institutional and cafeteria cooks will not keep pace.  Many high
schools and hospitals are trying to make institutional food more
attractive to students, staff, visitors, and patients.  While some
are employing more highly trained chefs and cooks to prepare more
appealing meals, others are contracting out their food services.
Many of the contracted companies emphasize fast-food chains and
employ short-order and fast-food cooks instead of institutional and
cafeteria cooks.

Earnings

Wages of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers vary depending on
the part of the country and, especially, the type of establishment
in which they work.  Wages generally are highest in elegant
restaurants and hotels, and many executive chefs earn over $40,000
annually.  According to a survey conducted by the National
Restaurant Association, median hourly earnings of cooks were $6.57,
with most earning between $6.00 and $8.00 in 1992.  Assistant cooks
had median hourly earnings of $6.00, with most earning between $5.50
and $6.50.

   According to the same survey, short-order cooks had median hourly
earnings of $5.99 in 1992; most earned between $5.00 and $6.75.
Median hourly earnings of bread and pastry bakers were $6.25; most
earned within the range of $6.00 to $7.00.  Salad preparation
workers generally earned less, with median hourly earnings of $5.90;
most earned between $5.00 and $6.00.  Food preparation workers in
fast-food restaurants had median hourly earnings of $4.68, with most
earning between $4.25 and $5.30 per hour.

   Some employers provide uniforms and free meals, but Federal law
permits employers to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of
any meals or lodging provided, and some employers exercise this
right.  Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers who work full time
often receive paid vacation and sick leave and health insurance, but
part-time workers generally do not receive such benefits.

   In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to
unions.  The principal unions are the Hotel Employees and Restaurant
Employees International Union and the Service Employees
International Union.

Related Occupations

Workers who perform tasks similar to those of chefs, cooks, and
other kitchen workers include butchers and meatcutters, cannery
workers, and industrial bakers.

Sources of Additional Information

   Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local
employers and local offices of the State employment service.

   Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, as
well as a directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or
programs that prepare persons for food service careers, is available
from:

   The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association,
250 South Wacker Dr., Suite 1400, Chicago, IL 60606.

   For information on the American Culinary Federation's apprenticeship
and certification programs for cooks, as well as a list of
accredited culinary programs, write to:

   American Culinary Federation, P.O.  Box 3466, St.  Augustine, FL
32085.

   For general information on hospitality careers, write to:

   Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1200 17th
St.  NW., Washington, DC 20036-3097.