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Computer Programmers

(D.O.T.  030.162-010, -018, -022, and .167-010)

Nature of the Work

Computers increasingly affect our daily lives.  They control the
temperature and air quality in office buildings, expand dramatically
the capabilities of our telephones, control manufacturing and other
business processes, and even control the scoreboards at major
athletic events.  Computer programmers write, update, and maintain
the detailed instructions (called programs or software) that list in
a logical order the steps that computers must execute to perform
these and other functions.

   In many large organizations, programmers follow descriptions
prepared by systems analysts who have carefully studied the task
that the computer system is going to perform.  These descriptions
list the input required, the steps the computer must follow to
process data, and the desired arrangement of the output.  (A more
detailed description of the work of systems analysts is presented in
the statement on computer scientists and systems analysts elsewhere
in the Handbook.) Some organizations, particularly smaller ones, do
not employ systems analysts.  Instead, workers called
programmer-analysts are responsible for both systems analysis and
programming.  Programmers in software development companies often
work without the contribution of systems analysts.  Instead, they
may work directly with experts from various fields to create
software either programs designed for specific clients or packaged
software for general use ranging from games and education software
to programs for desktop publishing, financial planning, and
spreadsheets.

   The transition from a mainframe environment to primarily a PC-based
environment has brought about a blurring of the once rigid
distinction between the programmer and the user.  Increasingly adept
users are taking over many of the programming tasks previously
performed by programmers.  For example, the growing use of packaged
software, like spreadsheet and data base management software
packages, allows users to write simple programs to calculate or
access data.

   Regardless of setting, programmers write specific programs by
breaking down each step into a logical series of instructions the
computer can follow.  They then code these instructions in a
conventional programming language, such as C and FORTRAN, or one of
the more advanced artificial intelligence or object oriented
languages, such as LISP, Prolog, C++, or Ada.

   Much of the programming being done today is the preparation of
packaged software, one of the most rapidly growing segments of the
computer industry.  Despite the prevalence of packaged software,
many programmers are involved in updating, repairing, and modifying
code for existing programs.  When making changes to a section of
code, called a routine, programmers need to make other users aware
of the task that the routine is to perform.  They do this by
inserting comments in the coded instructions so others can
understand the program.  Programmers using computer-aided software
engineering (CASE) can concentrate on writing the unique parts of
the program because the computer automates some of the more basic
processes.  This also yields more reliable and consistent programs
and increases programmers' productivity by eliminating some of the
routine steps.

   When a program is ready to be tested, programmers run the program to
ensure that the instructions are correct and will produce the
desired information.  They prepare sample data that test every part
of the program and, after trial runs, review the results to see if
any errors were made.  If errors do occur, the programmer must
change and recheck the program until it produces the correct
results.  This is called debugging the program.

   Finally, programmers working in a mainframe environment prepare
instructions for the computer operator who will run the program.
(The work of computer operators is described in the statement on
computer and peripheral equipment operators elsewhere in the
Handbook.) They may also contribute to a user's manual for the
program.

   Programs vary with the type of information to be accessed or
generated.  For example, the data involved in updating financial
records are different from those required to simulate a flight on a
pilot trainee's monitor.  Although simple programs can be written in
a few hours, programs that use complex mathematical formulas or many
data files may require more than a year of work.  In most cases,
several programmers may work together as a team under a senior
programmer's supervision.

   Programmers often are grouped into two broad types: applications
programmers and systems programmers.  Applications programmers
usually are oriented toward business, engineering, or science.  They
write software to handle specific jobs, such as a program used in an
inventory control system or one to guide a missile after it has been
fired.  They also may work alone to revise existing packaged
software.  Systems programmers, on the other hand, maintain the
software that controls the operation of an entire computer system.
These workers make changes in the sets of instructions that
determine how the central processing unit of the system handles the
various jobs it has been given and communicates with peripheral
equipment, such as terminals, printers, and disk drives.  Because of
their knowledge of the entire computer system, systems programmers
often help applications programmers determine the source of problems
that may occur with their programs.

   Many programmers develop packaged software.

Working Conditions

Programmers work in offices in comfortable surroundings.  They
usually work about 40 hours a week, but their hours are not always
from 9 to 5.  Programmers may report early or work late to use the
computer when it is available; occasionally, they work longer hours
in order to meet deadlines or fix critical problems that occur
during off hours.

   Because programmers spend long periods of time in front of a
computer monitor typing at a keyboard, they are susceptible to
eyestrain and back discomfort and hand and wrist problems.

Employment

Computer programmers held about 555,000 jobs in 1992.  Programmers
are employed in most industries, but the largest concentrations are
in data processing service organizations, including firms that write
and sell software; firms that provide engineering and management
services; manufacturers of office, computing, and accounting
machines; banks; educational institutions, and government agencies.

   Applications programmers work for all types of firms that use
computer systems.  Systems programmers, on the other hand, usually
work for organizations with large computer centers and for firms
that manufacture computers or develop software.

   A small but growing number of programmers are employed on a
temporary basis.  A marketing firm, for example, may need the
services of several extra programmers to write and debug the
software necessary to get a new data base management system
running.  Once the software is functioning, however, their
services are no longer needed.  Rather than hiring these programmers
as permanent employees and then laying them off after the job is
done, employers increasingly are contracting with temporary help
agencies, consulting firms, or directly with programmers themselves.
Such temporary jobs usually last several months but some last a year
or longer.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

There are no universal training requirements for programmers because
employers' needs vary so much that computer applications have become
so widespread and varied.  Computer programming is taught at public
and private vocational schools, community and junior colleges, and
universities.  High schools in many parts of the country also offer
introductory courses in data processing.  Many programmers obtain
2-year degrees or certificates.  Two-year colleges are targeted
toward producing graduates for entry level jobs and may have strong
ties to the local job market.

   The majority of programmers hold a 4-year degree.  Of these, some
hold a B.A.  or B.S.  in computer science or information systems
while others have taken special courses in computer programming to
supplement their study in fields such as accounting, inventory
control, or other business areas.  College graduates who are
interested in changing careers or developing an area of expertise
may return to a junior college for more training.

   The level of education and quality of training that employers seek
have been rising due to the growth in the number of qualified
applicants and the increasing complexity of some programming tasks.
Bachelor's degrees are now commonly required; in the absence of a
degree, substantial specialized experience may be needed.

   Employers using computers for scientific or engineering applications
prefer college graduates who have degrees in computer or information
science, mathematics, engineering, or the physical sciences.
Graduate degrees are required for some jobs.  Knowledge of C and
FORTRAN programming languages is desirable since these are the most
common languages used in this area.

   Employers who use computers for business applications prefer to hire
people who have had college courses in management information
systems (MIS), programming, and business.  Knowledge of Cobol, C,
Fourth Generation Languages (4GL), CASE tools, C++ and other object
oriented programming languages is highly desirable.  General
business skills and experience related to the operations of the firm
generally are preferred by employers.  In the future, it may be
common for applications programmers to obtain a multidisciplinary
degree to provide adequate knowledge of the application area along
with programming skills.  A relatively small number of employers
promote workers such as computer operators who have taken courses in
programming to programmer jobs because of their knowledge of and
particular work experience with computer systems.

   Most systems programmers hold a 4-year degree in computer science.
Extensive knowledge of operating systems is essential.  This
includes being able to configure the operating system to work with
different types of hardware and adapting the operating system to
best meet the needs of the particular company.

   The Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals offers the
Certificate in Computer Programming (CCP) to those who pass a core
examination plus exams in two specialty areas.  College graduates
with little or no experience may be tested for certification as an
Associate Computer Professional (ACP).  Certification is not
mandatory but it may give a jobseeker a competitive advantage.

   When hiring programmers, employers look for people who can think
logically and who are capable of exacting analytical work.  The job
calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with
extreme accuracy even under pressure.  Ingenuity and imagination are
also particularly important when programmers test their work for
potential failures.  Increasingly, interpersonal skills are valued
because of the use of programmer teams and user support centers.
The ability to work with abstract concepts and do technical analysis
is especially important for systems programmers because they work
with the software that controls the computer's operation.

   Beginning programmers may spend their first weeks on the job
attending training classes.  After this initial instruction, they
may work alone on simple assignments, or on a team with more
experienced programmers.  Either way, they generally must spend at
least several months working under close supervision.  Because of
rapidly changing technology, programmers must continuously update
their training by taking courses sponsored by their employer or
software vendors.

   For skilled workers, the prospects for advancement are good.  In
large organizations, they may be promoted to lead programmer and be
given supervisory responsibilities.  Some applications programmers
become systems programmers after they gain experience and take
courses in systems software.  With general business experience, both
applications programmers and systems programmers may become systems
analysts or be promoted to a managerial position.  Other
programmers, with specialized knowledge and experience with a
language or operating system, may work in research and development
areas such as artificial intelligence or CASE.

Job Outlook

Employment of programmers is expected to grow faster than the
average for all occupations through the year 2005 as computer usage
expands.  The demand for programmers will increase as organizations
seek new applications for computers and improvements to the software
already in use.  The rising demand for information, further
automation of offices and factories, advances in health and
medicine, and continuing scientific research will stimulate the
demand for skilled programmers.

   One important area of progress will be data communications.
Networking computers so they can communicate with each other is
necessary to achieve the greater efficiency that organizations
require to remain competitive.  Expert systems and other artificial
intelligence principles and languages will increasingly be used in
the years ahead, becoming productivity-enhancing tools available to
programmers.  Programmers will be creating and maintaining expert
systems and embedding these technologies in more and more products.
As this trend continues, knowledge of C++ and other object-oriented
languages will become increasingly important.

   Employment, however, is not expected to grow as rapidly as in the
past as improved software and programming techniques, including CASE
and 4GL, simplify or eliminate some programming tasks.  Someone who
can apply CASE tool programming along with design and systems
analysis is able to produce applications quickly and more cheaply.
Employers are increasingly interested in workers who can combine
both of these skills.

   In addition, the introduction of data base management systems is
allowing users to take over many of the tasks previously performed
by the programmer.  Greater use of packaged software such as word
processing and spreadsheet packages also may moderate the growth in
demand for applications programmers.

   Although the proportion of programmers leaving the occupation each
year is smaller than in most occupations, most of the job openings
for programmers will result from replacement needs.  Most of the
programmers who leave the occupation transfer to other occupations,
such as manager or systems analyst.  Opportunities will exist
throughout the economy, but jobs for both systems and applications
programmers should be particularly plentiful in data processing
service firms, software houses, and computer consulting businesses.

   Because the number and quality of applicants have increased,
employers have become more selective.  Competition has increased for
entry level positions, affecting even applicants with a bachelor's
degree.  Graduates of 2-year programs in data processing and people
with less than a 2-year degree or its equivalent in work experience
are facing especially strong competition for programming jobs.  Many
observers expect opportunities for people without college degrees to
diminish in coming years as programming tasks become more complex.
Prospects should be good for college graduates who are familiar with
a variety of programming languages, particularly newer languages
that apply to computer networking, data base management, and
artificial intelligence.

   Many employers prefer to hire applicants with previous experience in
the field.  Firms also desire programmers who develop a technical
specialization in areas such as structured methodology programming,
multimedia programming, graphic user interface, or 4th and 5th
generation programming tools.  Therefore, people who want to become
programmers can enhance their chances by combining work experience
with the appropriate formal training.  Students have various
options: Holding a summer or part-time job in a data processing
department, participating in a college work-study program, or
undertaking an internship.  Students can greatly improve their
employment prospects by also taking courses such as accounting,
management, engineering, or science allied fields in which
applications programmers are in demand.

Earnings

Median earnings of programmers who worked full time in 1992 were
about $35,600 a year.  The lowest 10 percent earned less than
$19,700, and the highest 10 percent, more than $58,000.  On average,
systems programmers earn more than applications programmers.

   In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for programmers with
a college degree or qualifying experience was about $18,300 a year
in 1993; for those with a superior academic record, $22,700.

Related Occupations

Programmers must pay great attention to detail as they write and
debug programs.  Other professional workers who must be
detail-oriented include statisticians, engineers, financial
analysts, accountants, auditors, actuaries, and operations research
analysts.

Sources of Additional Information

   State employment service offices can provide information about job
openings for computer programmers.  Also check with your city's
chamber of commerce for information on the area's largest employers.
For information about certification as a computer professional,
contact:

   Institute for the Certification of Computer Professionals, 2200 East
Devon Ave., Suite 268, Des Plaines, IL 60018.

   Further information about computer careers is available from:

   The Association for Computing Machinery, 1515 Broadway, New York, NY
10036.