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359
Engineers

Nature of the Work

Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and
mathematics to the economical solution of practical technical
problems.  Often their work is the link between a scientific
discovery and its application.  Engineers design machinery,
products, systems, and processes for efficient and economical
performance.  They design industrial machinery and equipment for
manufacturing goods and defense and weapons systems for the Armed
Forces.  Many engineers design, plan, and supervise the construction
of buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems.  They also design
and develop consumer products and systems for control and automation
of manufacturing, business, and management processes.

   Engineers consider many factors in developing a new product.  For
example, in developing an industrial robot, they determine precisely
what function it needs to perform; design and test components; fit
them together in an integrated plan; and evaluate the design's
overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety.  This process
applies to products as different as computers, gas turbines,
generators, helicopters, and toys.

   In addition to design and development, many engineers work in
testing, production, or maintenance.  They supervise production in
factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, and test manufactured
products to maintain quality.  They also estimate the time and cost
to complete projects.  Some work in engineering management or in
sales, where an engineering background enables them to discuss the
technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its
installation or use.  (See the statements on engineering, science,
and data processing managers and manufacturers' and wholesale sales
representatives elsewhere in the Handbook.)

   Most engineers specialize; more than 25 major specialties are
recognized by professional societies.  Within the major branches are
numerous subdivisions.  Structural, environmental, and
transportation engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil
engineering.  Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as
motor vehicles, or in one field of technology, such as propulsion or
guidance systems.

   This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering,
is followed by separate sections on 10 engineering branches:
Aerospace; chemical; civil; electrical and electronics; industrial;
mechanical; metallurgical, ceramic, and materials; mining; nuclear;
and petroleum engineering.  Branches of engineering not covered in
detail, but in which there are established college programs include:
Architectural engineering the design of a building's internal
support structure; biomedical engineering the application of
engineering to medical and physiological problems; environmental
engineering a small but growing discipline involved with
identifying, solving, and alleviating environmental problems; and
marine engineering the design and installation of ship machinery and
propulsion systems.

   Engineers in each branch have knowledge and training that can be
applied to many fields.  Electrical and electronics engineers, for
example, work in the medical, computer, missile guidance, and power
distribution fields.  Because there are many separate problems to
solve in a large engineering project, engineers in one field often
work closely with specialists in scientific, other engineering, and
business occupations.

   Engineers often use computers to simulate and test how a machine,
structure, or system operates.  Many engineers also use
computer-aided design systems to produce and analyze designs.  They
also spend a great deal of time writing reports and consulting with
other engineers.  Complex projects require many engineers, each
working with a small part of the job.  Supervisory engineers are
responsible for major components or entire projects.

Working Conditions

Many engineers work in laboratories, industrial plants, or
construction sites, where they inspect, supervise, or solve onsite
problems.  Others work in an office almost all of the time.
Engineers in branches such as civil engineering may work outdoors
part of the time.  A few engineers travel extensively to plants or
construction sites.

   Many engineers work a standard 40-hour week.  At times, deadlines or
design standards may bring extra pressure to a job.  When this
happens, engineers may work long hours and experience considerable
stress.

Employment

In 1992, engineers held 1,354,000 jobs.  Just under one-half of all
engineering jobs were located in manufacturing industries mostly in
electrical and electronic equipment, aircraft and parts, machinery,
scientific instruments, chemicals, motor vehicles, fabricated metal
products, and primary metals industries.  In 1992, 713,000 jobs were
in nonmanufacturing industries, primarily in engineering and
architectural services, research and testing services, and business
services, where firms designed construction projects or did other
engineering work on a contract basis for organizations in other
parts of the economy.  Engineers also worked in the communications,
utilities, and construction industries.

   Federal, State, and local governments employed about 190,000
engineers.  Over half of these were in the Federal Government,
mainly in the Departments of Defense, Transportation, Agriculture,
Interior, and Energy, and in the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.  Most engineers in State and local government
agencies worked in highway and public works departments.  Some
engineers are self-employed consultants.

   Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities,
and in rural areas.  Some branches of engineering are concentrated
in particular industries and geographic areas, as discussed in
statements later in this chapter.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

A bachelor's degree in engineering from an accredited engineering
program is usually required for beginning engineering jobs.  College
graduates with a degree in a physical science or mathematics may
occasionally qualify for some engineering jobs, especially in
engineering specialties in high demand.  Most engineering degrees
are granted in branches such as electrical, mechanical, or civil
engineering.  However, engineers trained in one branch may work in
another.  This flexibility allows employers to meet staffing needs
in new technologies and specialties in short supply.  It also allows
engineers to shift to fields with better employment prospects, or
ones that match their interests more closely.

   In addition to the standard engineering degree, many colleges offer
degrees in engineering technology, which are offered as either 2- or
4-year programs.  These programs prepare students for practical
design and production work rather than for jobs that require more
theoretical, scientific and mathematical knowledge.  Graduates of
4-year technology programs may get jobs similar to those obtained by
graduates with a bachelor's degree in engineering.  In fact, some
employers regard them as having skills between those of a technician
and an engineer.

   Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions but
is not required for the majority of entry level engineering jobs.
Many engineers obtain a master's degree to learn new technology, to
broaden their education, and to enhance promotion opportunities.

   Nearly 390 colleges and universities offer a bachelor's degree in
engineering, and nearly 300 colleges offer a bachelor's degree in
engineering technology, although not all are accredited programs.
Although most institutions offer programs in the larger branches of
engineering, only a few offer some of the smaller specialties.
Also, programs of the same title may vary in content.  For example,
some emphasize industrial practices, preparing students for a job in
industry, while others are more theoretical and are better for
students preparing to take graduate work.  Therefore, students
should investigate curriculums and check accreditations carefully
before selecting a college.  Admissions requirements for
undergraduate engineering schools include courses in advanced high
school mathematics and the physical sciences.

   Bachelor's degree programs in engineering are typically designed to
last 4 years, but many students find that it takes between 4 and 5
years to complete their studies.  In a typical 4-year college
curriculum, the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences
(mathematics, physics, and chemistry), introductory engineering, and
the humanities, social sciences, and English.  In the last 2 years,
most courses are in engineering, usually with a concentration in one
branch.  For example, the last 2 years of an aerospace program might
include courses such as fluid mechanics, heat transfer, applied
aerodynamics, analytical mechanics, flight vehicle design,
trajectory dynamics, and aerospace propulsion systems.  Some
programs offer a general engineering curriculum; students then
specialize in graduate school or on the job.

   A few engineering schools and 2-year colleges have agreements
whereby the 2-year college provides the initial engineering
education and the engineering school automatically admits students
for their last 2 years.  In addition, a few engineering schools have
arrangements whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts
college studying preengineering subjects and 2 years in the
engineering school and receives a bachelor's degree from each.  Some
colleges and universities offer 5-year master's degree programs.

   Some 5- or even 6-year cooperative plans combine classroom study and
practical work, permitting students to gain valuable experience and
finance part of their education.

   All 50 States and the District of Columbia require registration for
engineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who
offer their services to the public.  In 1992, nearly 380,000
engineers were registered.  Registration generally requires a degree
from an engineering program accredited by the Accreditation Board
for Engineering and Technology, 4 years of relevant work experience,
and passing a State examination.  Some States will not register
people with degrees in engineering technology.

   Beginning engineering graduates usually do routine work under the
supervision of experienced engineers and, in larger companies, may
also receive formal classroom or seminar-type training.  As they
gain knowledge and experience, they are assigned more difficult
tasks with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems,
and make decisions.  Engineers may become technical specialists or
may supervise a staff or team of engineers and technicians.  Some
eventually become engineering managers or enter other managerial,
management support, or sales jobs.  (See the statements under
executive, administrative, and managerial occupations; under sales
occupations; and on computer systems analysts elsewhere in the
Handbook.) Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or
business administration to improve advancement opportunities; others
obtain law degrees and become patent attorneys.  Many high level
executives in government and industry began their careers as
engineers.

   Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should have
creativity, an analytical mind, and a capacity for detail.  In
addition, engineers should be able to express themselves well both
orally and in writing.

Job Outlook

Employment opportunities in engineering have been good for a number
of years.  They are expected to continue to be good through the year
2005 because employment is expected to increase about as fast as the
average for all occupations while the number of degrees granted in
engineering is expected to remain near present levels through the
year 2005.

   Many of the jobs in engineering are related to national defense.
Defense expenditures will decline in the future, so employment
growth and job outlook for engineers may not be as strong as in the
1980's, when defense expenditures were increasing.  However,
graduating engineers will continue to be in demand for jobs in
engineering and other areas, possibly even at the same time other
engineers, especially defense industry engineers, are being laid
off.

   Employers will need more engineers as they increase investment in
plant and equipment to further increase productivity and expand
output of goods and services.  In addition, competitive pressures
and advancing technology will force companies to improve and update
product designs more frequently.  Finally, more engineers will be
needed to improve deteriorating roads, bridges, water and pollution
control systems, and other public facilities.

   Freshman engineering enrollments began declining in 1983, and the
number of bachelor's degrees in engineering began declining in 1987.
Although it is difficult to project engineering enrollments, this
decline may continue through the late 1990's because the total
college-age population is projected to decline.  Furthermore, the
proportion of students interested in engineering careers has
declined as prospects for college graduates in other fields have
improved and interest in other programs has increased.

   Only a relatively small proportion of engineers leave the profession
each year.  Despite this, three-fourths of all job openings will
arise from replacement needs.  A greater proportion of replacement
openings is created by engineers who transfer to management, sales,
or other professional specialty occupations than by those who leave
the labor force.

   Most industries are less likely to lay off engineers than other
workers.  Many engineers work on long-term research and development
projects or in other activities which may continue even during
recessions.  In industries such as electronics and aerospace,
however, large government cutbacks in defense or research and
development have resulted in layoffs for engineers.

   New computer-aided design systems enable engineers to produce or
modify designs much more rapidly than previously.  This increased
productivity might have resulted in fewer engineering jobs had
engineers not used these systems to improve the design process.
They now produce and analyze many more design variations before
selecting a final one.  Therefore, this technology is not expected
to limit employment opportunities.

   It is important for engineers to continue their education throughout
their careers because much of their value to their employer depends
on their knowledge of the latest technology.  In 1990, about 110,000
persons, or 7.5 percent of all engineers were enrolled in graduate
engineering programs.  The pace of technological change varies by
engineering specialty and industry.  Engineers in high-technology
areas such as advanced electronics or aerospace may find that their
knowledge becomes obsolete rapidly.  Even those who continue their
education are vulnerable to obsolescence if the particular
technology or product they have specialized in becomes obsolete.
Engineers whom employers consider not to have kept up may find
themselves passed over for promotions and are particularly
vulnerable to layoffs.  On the other hand, it is often these
high-technology areas that offer the greatest challenges, the most
interesting work, and the highest salaries.  Therefore, the choice
of engineering specialty and employer involves an assessment not
only of the potential rewards but also of the risk of technological
obsolescence.  (The outlook for 10 branches of engineering is
discussed in separate sections.)

Earnings

Starting salaries for engineers with the bachelor's degree are
significantly higher than starting salaries of bachelor's degree
graduates in other fields.  According to the College Placement
Council, engineering graduates with a bachelor's degree averaged
about $34,000 a year in private industry in 1992; those with a
master's degree and no experience, $39,200 a year; and those with a
Ph.D., $54,400.  Starting salaries for those with the bachelor's
degree vary by branch, as shown in the following tabulation.

Petroleum...................................................  $40,679
Chemical.....................................................  39,203
Mechanical...................................................  34,462
Nuclear......................................................  34,447
Electrical...................................................  33,754
Materials....................................................  33,502
Industrial...................................................  32,348
Aerospace....................................................  31,826
Mining.......................................................  31,177
Civil........................................................  29,376

   A survey of workplaces in 160 metropolitan areas reported that
beginning engineers had median annual earnings of about $31,000 in
1992, with the middle half earning between about $28,800 and $37,400
a year.  Experienced midlevel engineers with no supervisory
responsibilities had median annual earnings of about $52,500, with
the middle half earning between about $48,200 and $57,300 a year.
Median annual earnings for engineers at senior managerial levels
were about $87,000.  Median annual earnings for these and other
levels of engineers are shown in the following tabulation.

Engineer I...................................................$32,864
Engineer II.................................................. 37,232
Engineer III................................................. 43,368
Engineer IV.................................................. 52,520
Engineer V................................................... 63,596
Engineer VI.................................................. 75,504
Engineer VII................................................. 87,048
Engineer VIII................................................102,544

The average annual salary for engineers in the Federal Government in
nonsupervisory, supervisory, and managerial positions was $54,422 in
1993.

Related Occupations

Engineers apply the principles of physical science and mathematics
in their work.  Other workers who use scientific and mathematical
principles include physical scientists, life scientists, computer
scientists, mathematicians, engineering and science technicians, and
architects.

Sources of Additional Information

   A number of engineering-related organizations provide information on
engineering careers.  JETS-Guidance, at 1420 King St., Suite 405,
Alexandria, VA 22314, serves high school students as a central
distribution point for information from most of these organizations.
To receive information, write JETS-Guidance and enclose a stamped,
self-addressed business-size envelope.

   Societies representing many of the individual branches of
engineering are listed in this chapter.  Each can provide
information about careers in the particular branch.