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  The Linux Bootdisk HOWTO
  Tom Fawcett and Graham Chapman
  v2.1, 18 August 1996

  This document describes how to create Linux boot, boot/root and util¡
  ity maintenance disks. These disks could be used as rescue disks or to
  test new kernels.  Note: if you haven't read the Linux FAQ and related
  documents such as the Linux Installation HOWTO and the Linux Install
  Guide, then you should not be trying to build boot diskettes.

  1.  Introduction

  1.1.  Why Build Boot Disks?

  Linux boot disks are useful in a number of situations, such as:

  ╖  Testing a new kernel.

  ╖  Recovering from disk or system failure. Such a failure could be
     anything from a lost boot sector to a disk head crash.

  There are several ways of producing boot disks:

  ╖  Use one from a distribution such as Slackware. This will at least
     allow you to boot.

  ╖  Use a rescue package to set up disks designed to be used as rescue
     disks.

  ╖  Learn what is required for each of the various types of disk to
     operate, then build your own.

  I originally chose the last option - learn how it works so that you
  can do it yourself. That way, if something breaks, you can work out
  what to do to fix it. Plus you learn a lot about how Linux works along
  the way.

  Experienced Linux users may find little of use in this document.
  However users new to Linux system administration who wish to protect
  against root disk loss and other mishaps may find it useful.

  A note on versions - this document has been updated to support the
  following packages and versions:

  ╖  Linux 2.0.6

  ╖  LILO 0.19

  Copyright (c) Tom Fawcett and Graham Chapman 1996.

  Permission is granted for this material to be freely used and
  distributed, provided the source is acknowledged.  The copyright
  conditions are intended to be no more restrictive than version 2 of
  the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software
  Foundation.

  No warranty of any kind is provided. You use this material at your own
  risk.

  1.2.  Feedback and Credits

  We welcome any feedback, good or bad, on the content of this document.
  Please let us know if you find any errors or omissions. Send comments,
  corrections and questions to Tom Fawcett ([e-mail]) or
  Graham Chapman ([e-mail]).

  I thank the following people for correcting errors and providing
  useful suggestions for improvement:

               Randolph Bentson
               Grant R. Bowman
               Scott Burkett
               Cameron Davidson
               Bruce Elliot
               HARIGUCHI Youichi
               Bjxrn-Helge Mevik
               Dwight Spencer
               Cameron Spitzer
               Johannes Stille

  1.3.  Change History

  v2.1, 18 August 1996. Changes in this version:

  Summary: this was a major cleanup to reflect changes between kernel
  version 1.2 and 2.0. Specific changes are:

  ╖  Chg: replaced shell scripts and directory listings.

  ╖  Chg: removed most of the text of "oversize ramdisk" FAQ question.

  ╖  Fix: mkfs -i should have been mke2fs -i.

  ╖  Fix: missing parameter name in dd command to zero rootdisk device.

  ╖  Fix: remove accidental extra parameter from mke2fs command to
     create rootdisk filesystem.

  ╖  Chg: minor changes to reflect less reliance on the Bootkit utility.

  ╖  Chg: change section cross-references to refer to section title, not
     number (sometime I'll add hypertext links...)

  ╖  Add: use cpio as an alternate way of copying files.

  ╖  Add: tips for removing unnecessary device special files.

  ╖  Add: FAQ question - what to do if nothing happens at boot time.

  ╖  Add: various minor changes.

  v2.0, 12 June 1996. Changes in this version:

  ╖  Add: additional author and maintainer, Tom Fawcett.

  ╖  Add: section 6.3, Ramdisk Usage.

  ╖  Add: section titled Advanced Bootdisk Creation, which describes how
     to take advantage of ramdisk changes in kernels 1.3.48+

  ╖  Chg: rewrite section on /lib directory.

  ╖  Chg: various minor tips on changed ramdisk usage.

  Version history:

  ╖  v1.02, 25 June 1995 - minor changes.

  ╖  v1.01, 6 February 1995 - minor changes.

  ╖  v1.0, 2 January 1995 - first release in standard HOWTO layout.

  ╖  v0.10, 1 Novemer 1994 - original version, labelled "Draft".

  2.  Disks

  2.1.  Summary of Disk Types

  I classify boot-related disks into 4 types. The discussion here and
  throughout this document uses the term "disk" to refer to diskettes
  unless otherwise specified. Most of the discussion could be equally
  well applied to hard disks.

  A summary of disk types and uses is:

     boot
        A disk containing a kernel which can be booted. The disk can
        contain a filesystem and use a boot loader to boot, or it can
        simply contain the kernel only at the start of the disk.  The
        disk can be used to boot the kernel using a root file system on
        another disk. This could be useful if you lost your boot loader
        due to, for example, an incorrect installation attempt.

     root
        A disk with a file system containing everything required to run
        a Linux system. It does not necessarily contain either a kernel
        or a boot loader.

        This disk can be used to run the system independently of any
        other disks, once the kernel has been booted. A special kernel
        feature allows a separate root disk to be mounted after booting,
        with the root disk being automatically copied to a ramdisk.

        You could use this type of disk to check another disk for
        corruption without mounting it, or to restore another disk after
        a disk failure or loss of files.

     boot/root
        A disk which is the same as a root disk, but contains a kernel
        and a boot loader. It can be used to boot from, and to run the
        system. The advantage of this type of disk is that is it compact
        - everything required is on a single disk.  However the
        gradually increasing size of everything means that it won't
        necessarily always be possbile to fit everything on a single
        diskette, even with compression.

     utility
        A disk which contains a file system, but is not intended to be
        mounted as a root file system. It is an additional data disk.
        You would use this type of disk to carry additional utilities
        where you have too much to fit on your root disk.

        The term "utility" only really applies to diskettes, where you
        would use a utility disk to store additional recovery utility
        software.

  The most flexible approach for rescue diskettes is probably to use
  separate boot and root diskettes, and one or more utility diskettes to
  handle the overflow.

  2.2.  Boot

  2.2.1.  Overview

  All PC systems start the boot process by executing code in ROM to load
  the sector from sector 0, cylinder 0 of the boot drive and try and
  execute it. On most bootable disks, sector 0, cylinder 0 contains
  either:

  ╖  code from a boot loader such as LILO, which locates the kernel,
     loads it and executes it to start the boot proper.

  ╖  the start of an operating system kernel, such as Linux.

  If a Linux kernel has been written to a diskette as a raw device, then
  the first sector will be the first sector of the Linux kernel itself,
  and this sector will continue the boot process by loading the rest of
  the kernel and running Linux. For a more detailed description of the
  boot sector contents, see the documentation in lilo-01.5 or higher.

  An alternative method of storing a kernel on a boot disk is to create
  a filesystem, not as a root filesystem, but simply as a means of
  installing LILO and thus allowing boot-time command line options to be
  specified. For example, the same kernel could then be used to boot
  using a hard disk root filesystem, or a diskette root filesystem. This
  could be useful if you were trying to rebuild the hard disk
  filesystem, and wanted to repeatedly test results.

  2.2.2.  Setting Pointer to Root

  The kernel must somehow obtain a pointer to the drive and partititon
  to be mounted as the root drive. This can be provided in several ways:

  ╖  By setting ROOT_DEV = devicename in the Linux kernel makefile and
     rebuilding the kernel (for advice on how to rebuild the kernel,
     read the Linux FAQ and look in /usr/src/linux). Comments in the
     Linux makefile describe the valid values for devicename.

  ╖  By running the rdev utility:

               rdev filename devicename

  This will set the root device of the kernel contained in filename to
  be devicename. For example:

               rdev zImage /dev/sda1

  This sets the root device in the kernel in zImage to the first parti¡
  tion on the first SCSI drive.

  There are some alternative ways of issuing the rdev command. Try:

               rdev -h

  and it will display command usage.

  There is usually no need to configure the root device for boot
  diskette use, because the kernel currently used to boot from probably
  already points to the root drive device. The need can arise, howoever,
  if you obtain a kernel from another machine, for example, from a
  distribution, or if you want to use the kernel to boot a root
  diskette. It is probably a good idea to check the current root drive
  setting, just in case it is wrong. To get rdev to check the current
  root device in a kernel file, enter the command:

               rdev <filename>

  It is possible to change the root device set in a kernel by means
  other than using rdev. For details, see the FAQ at the end of this
  document.

  2.2.3.  Copying Kernel to Boot Diskette

  Once the kernel has been configured then it must be copied to the boot
  diskette.

  The commands described below (and throughout the HOWTO) assume that
  the diskettes have been formatted. If not, then use fdformat to format
  the diskettes before continuing.

  If the disk is not intended to contain a file system, then the kernel
  can be copied using the dd command, as follows:

               dd if=infilename of=devicename

               where   infilename is the name of the kernel
               and     devicename is the diskette raw device,
                       usually /dev/fd0

  The cp command can also be used:

               cp filename devicename

  For example:

               dd if=zImage of=/dev/fd0
       or
               cp zImage /dev/fd0

  The seek parameter to the dd command should NOT be used. The file must
  be copied to start at the boot sector (sector 0, cylinder 0), and
  omitting the seek parameter will do this.

  The output device name to be used is usually /dev/fd0 for the primary
  diskette drive (i.e. drive "A:" in DOS), and /dev/fd1 for the
  secondary. These device names will cause the kernel to autodetect the
  attributes of the drives. Drive attributes can be specified to the
  kernel by using other device names: for example /dev/fd0H1440
  specifies a high density 1.44 Mb drive. It is rare to need to use
  these specific device names.

  Where the kernel is to be copied to a boot disk containing a
  filesystem, then the disk is mounted at a suitable point in a
  currently-mounted filesystem, then the cp command is used. For
  example:

               mount -t ext2 /dev/fd0 /mnt
               cp zImage /mnt
               umount /mnt

  Note that for almost all operations in this HOWTO, the user should be
  operating as the superuser.

  2.3.  Root

  2.3.1.  Overview

  A root disk contains a complete working Linux system, but without
  necessarily including a kernel. In other words, the disk may not be
  bootable, but once the kernel is running, the root disk contains
  everything needed to support a full Linux system. To be able to do
  this, the disk must include the minimum requirements for a Linux
  system:

  ╖  File system.

  ╖  Minimum set of directories - dev, proc, bin, etc, lib, usr, tmp.

  ╖  Basic set of utilities - bash (to run a shell), ls, cp etc.

  ╖  Minimum set of config files - rc, inittab, fstab etc.

  ╖  Runtime library to provide basic functions used by utilities.

  Of course, any system only becomes useful when you can run something
  on it, and a root diskette usually only becomes useful when you can do
  something like:

  ╖  Check a file system on another drive, for example to check your
     root file system on your hard drive, you need to be able to boot
     Linux from another drive, as you can with a root diskette system.
     Then you can run fsck on your original root drive while it is not
     mounted.

  ╖  Restore all or part of your original root drive from backup using
     archive/compression utilities including cpio, tar, gzip and ftape.

  2.4.  Boot/Root

  This is essentially the same as the root disk, with the addition of a
  kernel and a boot loader such as LILO.

  With this configuration, a kernel file is copied to the root file
  system, and LILO is then run to install a configuration which points
  to the kernel file on the target disk. At boot time, LILO will boot
  the kernel from the target disk.

  Several files must be copied to the diskette for this method to work.
  Details of these files and the required LILO configuration, including
  a working sample, are given below in the section titled "LILO".

  2.4.1.  RAM Disks and Root Filesystems on Diskette

  For a diskette root filesystem to be efficient, you need to be able to
  run it from a ramdisk, i.e. an emulated disk drive in main memory.
  This avoids having the system run at a snail's pace, which a diskette
  would impose. The Ftape HOWTO states that a ramdisk will be required
  when using Ftape because Ftape requires exclusive use of the diskette
  controller.

  There is an added benefit from using a ramdisk - the Linux kernel
  includes an automatic ramdisk root feature, whereby it will, under
  certain circumstances, automatically copy the contents of a root
  diskette to a ramdisk, and then switch the root drive to be the
  ramdisk instead of the diskette. This has three major benefits:

  ╖  The system runs a lot faster.

  ╖  The diskette drive is freed up to allow other diskettes to be used
     on a single-diskette drive system.

  ╖  With compression, the ramdisk image on a disk can be substantially
     smaller than (eg, 40% the size of) the corresponding disk image.
     This means that a 1.44 meg floppy disk may hold a root containing
     roughly 3.6 meg.

  For kernels 1.3.48+, the ramdisk code was substantially rewritten.
  You have some more options and the commands for using the ramdisk are
  somewhat different. The section titled "Advanced Bootdisk Creation"
  discusses how to take advantage of these.

  You must configure your kernel to have ramdisk support, but the
  ramdisk is dynamically expandible so you need not specify the size.
  rdev -r is no longer used to specify the ramdisk size, but instead
  sets a ramdisk word in the kernel image.  The section titled "Advanced
  Bootdisk Creation" discusses this in more detail.

  If you have a kernel *before* 1.3.48, the following requirements
  apply. Note that this applies ONLY to kernels prior to 1.3.48.

  ╖  The file system on the diskette drive must be either a minix or an
     ext2 file system. The ext2 file system is generally the preferred
     file system to use. Note that if you have a Linux kernel earlier
     than 1.1.73, then you should see the comments in the section titled
     "File Systems" to see whether your kernel will support ext2. If
     your kernel is old then you may have to use minix. This will not
     cause any significant problems.

  ╖  A ramdisk must be configured into the kernel, and it must be at
     least as big as the diskette drive.

  A ramdisk can be configured into the kernel in several ways:

  ╖  By uncommenting the RAMDISK macro in the Linux kernel makefile, so
     that it reads:

               RAMDISK = -DRAMDISK=1440

  to define a ramdisk of 1440 1K blocks, the size of a high-density
  diskette.

  ╖  By running the rdev utility, available on most Linux systems. This
     utility displays or sets values for several things in the kernel,
     including the desired size for a ramdisk. To configure a ramdisk of
     1440 blocks into a kernel in a file named zImage, enter:

               rdev -r zImage 1440

  this might change in the future, of course. To see what your version
  of rdev does, enter the command:

               rdev -h

  and it should display its options.

  ╖  By using the boot loader package LILO to configure it into your
     kernel at boot time. This can be done using the LILO configuration
     parameter:

               ramdisk = 1440

  to request a ramdisk of 1440 1K blocks at boot time.

  ╖  By interrupting a LILO automatic boot and adding ramdisk=1440 to
     the command line. For example, such a command line might be:

               zImage ramdisk=1440

  See the section on LILO for more details.

  ╖  By editing the kernel file and altering the values near the start
     of the file which record the ramdisk size. This is definitely a
     last resort, but can be done. See the FAQ near the end of this
     document for more details.

  The easiest of these methods is LILO configuration, because you need
  to set up a LILO configuration file anyway, so why not add the ramdisk
  size here?

  LILO configuration is briefly described in a section titled "LILO"
  below, but it is advisable to obtain the latest stable version of LILO
  from your nearest Linux mirror site, and read the documentation that
  comes with it.

  Ramdisks can be made larger than the size of a diskette, and made to
  contain a filesystem as large as the ramdisk. This can be useful to
  load all the software required for rescue work onto a single high-
  performance ramdisk. The method of doing this is described in the FAQ
  section under the question "How can I create an oversize ramdisk
  filesystem?"

  2.5.  Utility

  Often one disk is not sufficient to hold all the software you need to
  be able to perform rescue functions of analysing, repairing and
  restoring corrupted disk drives. By the time you include tar, gzip
  e2fsck, fdisk, Ftape and so on, there is enough for a whole new
  diskette, maybe even more if you want lots of tools.

  This means that a rescue set often requires a utility diskette, with a
  file system containing any extra files required. This file system can
  then be mounted at a convenient point, such as /usr, on the boot/root
  system.

  Creating a file system is fairly easy, and is described in the section
  titled "File Systems".

  3.  Components

  3.1.  File Systems

  The Linux kernel now supports two file system types for root disks to
  be automatically copied to ramdisk. These are minix and ext2, of which
  ext2 is the preferred file system.  The ext2 support was added
  sometime between 1.1.17 and 1.1.57, I'm not sure exactly which. If you
  have a kernel within this range then edit
  /usr/src/linux/drivers/block/ramdisk.c and look for the word "ext2".
  If it is not found, then you will have to use a minix file system, and
  therefore the "mkfs" command to create it. If using ext2, then you may
  find it useful to use the -i option to specify more inodes than the
  default; -i 2000 is suggested so that you don't run out of inodes.
  Alternatively, you can save on inodes by removing lots of unnecessary
  /dev files. Mke2fs will by default create 360 inodes on a 1.44Mb
  diskette. I find that 120 inodes is ample on my current rescue root
  diskette, but if you include all the devices in the /dev directory
  then you will easily exceed 360. Using a compressed root filesystem
  allows a larger filesystem, and hence more inodes by default, but you
  may still need to either reduce the number of files or increase the
  number of inodes.

  To create an ext2 file system on a diskette on my system, I issue the
  following command:

          mke2fs -m 0 /dev/fd0

  The mke2fs command will automatically detect the space available and
  configure itself accordingly. If desired, the diskette size in 1Kb
  blocks can be specified to speed up mke2fs operation. The -m 0
  parameter prevents it from reserving space for root, and hence
  provides more usable space on the disk.

  An easy way to test the result is to create a system using the above
  command or similar, and then attempt to mount the diskette. If it is
  an ext2 system, then the command:

               mount -t ext2 /dev/fd0 /<mount point>

  should work.

  3.2.  Kernel

  3.2.1.  Building a Custom Kernel

  In most cases it would be possible to copy your current kernel and
  boot the diskette from that. However there may be cases where you wish
  to build a separate one.

  One reason is size.  The kernel is one of the largest files in a
  minimum system, so if you want to build a boot/root diskette, then you
  will have to reduce the size of the kernel as much as possible.  The
  kernel now supports changing the diskette after booting and before
  mounting root, so it is not necessary any more to squeeze the kernel
  into the same disk as everything else, therefore these comments apply
  only if you choose to build a boot/root diskette.

  There are two ways of reducing kernel size:

  ╖  Building it with the minumum set of facilities necessary to support
     the desired system. This means leaving out everything you don't
     need. Networking is a good thing to leave out, as well as support
     for any disk drives and other devices which you don't need when
     running your boot/root system.

  ╖  Compressing it, using the standard compressed-kernel option
     included in the makefile:

               make zImage

  Refer to the documentation included with the kernel source for up-to-
  date information on building compressed kernels.  Note that the kernel
  source is usually in /usr/src/linux.

  Having worked out a minimum set of facilities to include in a kernel,
  you then need to work out what to add back in. Probably the most
  common uses for a boot/root diskette system would be to examine and
  restore a corrupted root file system, and to do this you may need
  kernel support.

  For example, if your backups are all held on tape using Ftape to
  access your tape drive, then, if you lose your current root drive and
  drives containing Ftape, then you will not be able to restore from
  your backup tapes. You will have to reinstall Linux, download and
  reinstall Ftape, and then try and read your backups.

  It is probably desirable to maintain a copy of the same version of
  backup utilities used to write the backups, so that you don't waste
  time trying to install versions that cannot read your backup tapes.

  The point here is that, whatever I/O support you have added to your
  kernel to support backups should also be added into your boot/root
  kernel.

  The procedure for actually building the kernel is described in the
  documentation that comes with the kernel. It is quite easy to follow,
  so start by looking in /usr/src/linux. Note that if you have trouble
  building a kernel, then you should probably not attempt to build
  boot/root systems anyway.

  3.3.  Devices

  A /dev directory containing a special file for all devices to be used
  by the system is mandatory for any Linux system. The directory itself
  is a normal directory, and can be created with the mkdir command in
  the normal way. The device special files, however, must be created in
  a special way, using the mknod command.

  There is a shortcut, though - copy your existing /dev directory
  contents, and delete the ones you don't want. The only requirement is
  that you copy the device special files using the -R option.   (--
  Warning: The cp command supplied with the most recent version of
  fileutils (3.13) is reported not to respect the -R flag.--)

  This will copy the directory without attempting to copy the contents
  of the files. Note that if you use lower caser, as in "-r", there will
  be a vast difference, because you will probably end up copying the
  entire contents of all of your hard disks - or at least as much of
  them as will fit on a diskette! Therefore, take care, and use the
  command:

               cp -dpR /dev /mnt

  assuming that the diskette is mounted at /mnt.  The dp switches ensure
  that symbolic links are copied as links (rather than the target file
  being copied) and that the original file attributes are preserved,
  thus preserving ownership information.

  You can also use the -p option of cpio, because cpio will handle
  device special files correctly, and not try and copy the contents.
  For example:

               cd /dev
               find . -print | cpio -pmd /mnt/dev

  will copy all device special files from /dev to /mnt/dev. In fact it
  will copy all files in the directory tree starting at /dev, and will
  create any required subdirectories in the target directory tree.

  If you want to do it the hard way, use ls -l to display the major and
  minor device numbers for the devices you want, and create them on the
  diskette using mknod.

  Many distributions include a shell script called MAKEDEV in the /dev
  directory. This shell script could be used to create the devices, but
  it is probably easier to just copy your existing ones, especially for
  rescue disk purposes.

  Whichever way the device directory is copied, it is worth checking
  that any special devices you need have been placed on the rescue
  diskette. For example, Ftape uses tape devices, so you will need to
  copy all of these.

  Note that an inode is required for each device special file, and
  inodes can at times be a scarce resource, especially on diskette
  filesystems. It therefore makes sense to remove any device special
  files that you don't need from the diskette /dev directory. Many
  devices are obviously unnecessary on specific systems. For example, if
  you do not have SCSI disks, then you can safely remove all the device
  files starting with "sd". Similarly, if you don't intend to use your
  serial port then all the device files starting with "cua" can go.

  3.4.  Directories

  It might be possible to get away with just /dev, /proc and /etc to run
  a Linux system. I don't know - I've never tested it. However it will
  certainly be difficult, because without shared libraries all your
  executables would have to be statically linked. A reasonable minimum
  set of directories consists of the following:

     /dev
        Required to perform I/O with devices

     /proc
        Required by the ps command

     /etc
        System configuration files

     /bin
        Utility executables considered part of the system

     /lib
        Shared libraries to provide run-time support

     /mnt
        A mount point for maintenance on other disks

     /usr
        Additional utilities and applications

  Note that the directory tree presented here is for root diskette use
  only.  Refer to the Linux File System Standard for much better
  information on how file systems should be structured in "standard"
  Linux systems.

  Four of these directories can be created very easily:

  ╖  /dev is described above in the section titled DEVICES.

  ╖  /proc only needs to exist. Once the directory is created using
     mkdir, nothing more is required.

  ╖  Of the others, /mnt and /usr are included in this list only as
     mount points for use after the boot/root system is running.  Hence
     again, these directories only need to be created.

  The remaining 3 directories are described in the following sections.

  3.4.1.  /etc

  This directory must contain a number of configuration files. On most
  systems, these can be divided into 3 groups:

  ╖  Required at all times, e.g. rc, fstab, passwd.

  ╖  May be required, but no-one is too sure.

  ╖  Junk that crept in.

  Files which are not essential can be identified with the command:

               ls -ltru

  This lists files in reverse order of date last accessed, so if any
  files are not being accessed, then they can be omitted from a root
  diskette.

  On my root diskettes, I have the number of config files down to 15.
  This reduces my work to dealing with three sets of files:

  ╖  The ones I must configure for a boot/root system:

               rc.d/*  system startup and run level change scripts
               fstab   list of file systems to be mounted
               inittab parameters for the init process - the
                       first process started at boot time.

  ╖  the ones I should tidy up for a boot/root system:

               passwd  list of logins
               shadow  contains passwords

  These should be pruned on secure systems to avoid copying user's pass¡
  words off the system, and so that when you boot from diskette,
  unwanted logins are rejected.  (-- Note that there is a reason not to
  prune passwd and shadow.  Tar (and probably other archivers) stores
  user and group names with files.  If you restore files to your hard
  disk from tape, the files will be restored with their original names.
  If these names do not exist in passwd/group when they are restored,
  the UID/GID will not be correct.--)

  ╖  The rest. They work at the moment, so I leave them alone.

  Out of this, I only really have to configure two files, and what they
  should contain is surprisingly small.

  ╖  rc should contain:

               #!/bin/sh
               /etc/mount -av
               /bin/hostname boot_root

  and I don't really need to run hostname - it just looks nicer if I do.
  Even mount is actually only needed to mount /proc to support the ps
  command - Linux will run without it, although rescue operations are
  rather limited without mount!

  ╖  fstab should contain:

               /dev/ram        /               ext2    defaults
               /dev/fd0        /               ext2    defaults
               /proc           /proc           proc    defaults

  I don't think that the first entry is really needed, but I find that
  if I leave it out, mount won't mount /proc.

  Inittab should be ok as is, unless you want to ensure that users on
  serial ports cannot login. To prevent this, comment out all the
  entries for /etc/getty which include a ttys or ttyS device at the end
  of the line.  Leave in the tty ports so that you can login at the
  console.

  Inittab defines what the system will run or rerun in various states
  including startup, move to multi-user mode, powerfail, and others.  A
  point to be careful of here is to carefully check that the commands
  entered in inittab refer to programs which are present and to the
  correct directory. If you place your command files on your rescue disk
  using the sample directory listing in this HOWTO as a guide, and then
  copy your inittab to your rescue disk without checking it, then the
  probability of failure will be quite high, because half of the inittab
  entries will refer to missing programs or to the wrong directory.

  It is worth noting here as well that some programs cannot be moved
  from one directory to another or they will fail at runtime because
  they have hardcoded the name of another program which they attempt to
  run. For example on my system, /etc/shutdown has hardcoded in it
  /etc/reboot. If I move reboot to /bin/reboot, and then issue a
  shutdown command, it will fail because it can't find the reboot file.

  For the rest, just copy all the text files in your /etc directory,
  plus all the executables in your /etc directory that you cannot be
  sure you do not need. As a guide, consult the sample ls listing in
  "Sample Boot/Root ls-lR Directory Listing" - this is what I have, so
  probably it will be sufficient for you if you copy only those files -
  but note that systems differ a great deal, so you cannot be sure that
  the same set of files on your system is equivalent to the files on
  mine. The only sure method is to start with inittab and work out what
  is required.

  Most systems now use an /etc/rc.d directory containing shell scripts
  for different run levels.  The absolute minimum is a single rc script,
  but it will probably be a lot simpler in practice to copy the inittab
  and /etc/rc.d directory from your existing system, and prune the shell
  scripts in the rc.d directory to remove processing not relevent to a
  diskette system environment.

  3.4.2.  /bin

  Here is a convenient point to place the extra utilities you need to
  perform basic operations, utilities such as ls, mv, cat, dd etc.

  See the section titled "Sample Boot/Root ls-lR Directory Listing" for
  the list of files that I place in my boot/root /bin directory. You may
  notice that it does not include any of the utilities required to
  restore from backup, such as cpio, tar, gzip etc. That is because I
  place these on a separate utility diskette, to save space on the
  boot/root diskette. Once I have booted my boot/root diskette, it then
  copies itself to the ramdisk leaving the diskette drive free to mount
  another diskette, the utility diskette. I usually mount this as /usr.

  Creation of a utility diskette is described below in the section
  titled "Adding Utility Diskettes".

  3.4.3.  /lib

  In /lib you place necessary shared libraries and loaders.  If the
  necessary libraries are not found in your /lib directory then the
  system will be unable to boot. If you're lucky you may see an error
  message telling you why.

  Nearly every program requires at least the libc library:

               libc.so.X

  where X is the current version number.  Check your /lib directory.
  Note that libc.so.4 may be a symlink to a libc library with version
  number in the filename. If you issue the command:

               ls -l /lib

  you will see something like:

               libc.so.4 -> libc.so.4.5.21

  In this case, the libc library you want is libc.so.4.5.21. This is an
  example only - the ELF libc library is currently libc.so.5.xxxx.

  To find other libraries you should go through all the binaries you
  plan to include and check their dependencies.  You can do this with
  ldd command.  For example, on my system the command:

          ldd /bin/mount

  produces the output:

               /bin/mount:
                       libc.so.5 => /lib/libc.so.5.2.18

  indicating that /bin/mount needs the library libc.so.5, which is a
  symbolic link to libc.so.5.2.18.

  In /lib you must also include one or more loaders to load the
  libraries.  The loader file is either ld.so (for a.out libraries) or
  ld-linux.so (for ELF libraries).  If you're not sure which you need,
  run the "file" command on the library.  For example, on my system:

               file /lib/libc.so.5.2.18

  tells me:

               /lib/libc.so.5.2.18: ELF 32-bit LSB shared object ...

  so it needs an ELF loader.  If you have an a.out library you'll
  instead see something like:

               /lib/libc.so.4.7.2: Linux/i386 demand-paged executable (QMAGIC) ...

  Copy the specific loader(s) you need.

  Libraries and loaders should be checked carefully against the included
  binaries.  If the kernel cannot load a necessary library, the kernel
  will usually hang with no error message.

  3.5.  LILO

  3.5.1.  Overview

  For the boot/root to be any use, it must be bootable. To achieve this,
  the easiest way is to install a boot loader, which is a piece of
  executable code stored at sector 0, cylinder 0 of the diskette. See
  the section above titled "BOOT DISKETTE" for an overview of the boot
  process.

  LILO is a tried and trusted boot loader available from any Linux
  mirror site. It allows you to configure the boot loader, including:

  ╖  Which device is to be mounted as the root drive.

  ╖  Whether to use a ramdisk.

  3.5.2.  Sample LILO Configuration

  This provides a very convenient place to specify to the kernel how it
  should boot. My root/boot LILO configuration file, used with LILO
  0.15, is:

       ______________________________________________________________________
       boot = /dev/fd0
       install = ./mnt/boot.b
       map = ./mnt/lilo.map
       delay = 50
       message = ./mnt/lilo.msg
       timeout = 150
       compact
       image = ./mnt/zImage
               ramdisk = 1440
               root = /dev/fd0
       ______________________________________________________________________

  Note that I have not tested this recently, because I no longer use
  LILO-based boot/root diskettes. There is no reason to suppose that it
  does not still work, but if you try it and it fails, you must read the
  LILO documentation to find out why.

  Note also that boot/root systems no longer rely on LILO, because since
  1.3.48, the kernel supports loading a compressed root filesystem from
  the same diskette as the kernel. See the section "Advanced Bootdisk
  Creation" for details.

  If you have a kernel later than 1.3.48, the "ramdisk = 1440" line is
  unnecessary and should be removed.

  Note that boot.b, lilo.msg and the kernel must first have been copied
  to the diskette using a command similar to:

       ______________________________________________________________________
       cp /boot/boot.b ./mnt
       ______________________________________________________________________

  If this is not done, then LILO will not run correctly at boot time if
  the hard disk is not available, and there is little point setting up a
  rescue disk which requires a hard disk in order to boot.

  I run lilo using the command:

               /sbin/lilo -C <configfile>

  I run it from the directory containing the mnt directory where I have
  mounted the diskette. This means that I am telling LILO to install a
  boot loader on the boot device (/dev/fd0 in this case), to boot a
  kernel in the root directory of the diskette.

  I have also specified that I want the root device to be the diskette,
  and I want a ramdisk created of 1440 1K blocks, the same size as the
  diskette. Since I have created an ext2 file system on the diskette,
  this completes all the conditions required for Linux to automatically
  switch the root device to the ramdisk, and copy the diskette contents
  there as well.

  The ramdisk features of Linux are described further in the section
  above titled "RAM DISKS AND BOOT/ROOT SYSTEMS".

  It is also worth considering using the "single" parameter to cause
  Linux to boot in single-user mode. This could be useful to prevent
  users logging in on serial ports.

  I also use the "DELAY" "MESSAGE" and "TIMEOUT" statements so that when
  I boot the disk, LILO will give me the opportunity to enter command
  line options if I wish. I don't need them at present, but I never know
  when I might want to set a different root device or mount a filesystem
  read-only.

  The message file I use contains the message:

       Linux Boot/Root Diskette
       ========================

       Enter a command line of the form:

             zImage [ command-line options]

       If nothing is entered, linux will be loaded with
       defaults after 15 seconds.

  This is simply a reminder to myself what my choices are.

  Readers are urged to read the LILO documentation carefully before
  atttempting to install anything. It is relatively easy to destroy
  partitions if you use the wrong "boot = " parameter. If you are
  inexperienced, do NOT run LILO until you are sure you understand it
  and you have triple-checked your parameters.

  Note that you must re-run LILO every time you change the kernel, so
  that LILO can set up its map file to correctly describe the new kernel
  file. It is in fact possible to replace the kernel file with one which
  is almost identical without rerunning LILO, but it is far better not
  to gamble - if you change the kernel, re-run LILO.

  3.5.3.  Removing LILO

  One other thing I might as well add here while I'm on the LILO topic:
  if you mess up lilo on a drive containing DOS, you can always replace
  the boot sector with the DOS boot loader by issuing the DOS command:

               FDISK /MBR

  where MBR stands for "Master Boot Record". Note that some purists
  disagree with this, and they may have grounds, but it works.

  3.5.4.  Useful LILO Options

  LILO has several useful options which are worth keeping in mind when
  building boot disks:

  ╖  Command line options - you can enter command line options to set
     the root device, ramdisk size (for kernels less than 1.3.48),
     special device parameters, or other things. If you include the
     DELAY = nn statement in your LILO configuration file, then LILO
     will pause to allow you to select a kernel image to boot, and to
     enter, on the same line, any options.  For example:

               zImage aha152x=0x340,11,3,1 ro

  will pass the aha152x parameters through to the aha152x scsi disk
  driver (provided that driver has been included when the kernel was
  built) and will ask for the root filesystem to be mounted read-only.

  ╖  Command line "lock" option - this option asks LILO to store the
     command line entered as the default command line to be used for all
     future boots. This is particularly useful where you have a device
     which cannot be autoselected. By using "lock" you can avoid having
     to type in the device parameter string every time you boot.  For
     example:

               zImage aha152x=0x340,11,3,1 root=/dev/sda8 ro lock

  ╖  APPEND configuration statement - this allows device parameter
     strings to be stored in the configuration, as an alternative to
     using the "lock" command line option. Note that any keywords of the
     form word=value MUST be enclosed in quotes. For example:

               APPEND = "aha152x=0x340,11,3,1"

  ╖  DELAY configuration statement - this pauses for DELAY tenths of
     seconds and allows the user to interrupt the automatic boot of the
     default command line, so that the user can enter an alternate
     command line.

  4.  Advanced Bootdisk Creation

  4.1.  Overview

  Previous Sections of this document covered the basics of creating
  boot/root disks, and are applicable to nearly all kernels up to the
  present (2.0, the latest stable kernel).

  Kernels 1.3.48+ involved a substantial rewrite of the ramdisk code,
  adding significant new capabilities.  These kernels could
  automatically detect compressed filesystems, uncompress them and load
  them into the ramdisk on boot-up.  Root filesystems could be placed on
  a second disk, and as of kernel 1.3.98 or so, ramdisks are dynamically
  expandable.

  Altogether, these new capabilities mean that boot disks can contain
  substantially more than they used to.  With compression, a 1722K disk
  may now hold up to about 3.5 megs of files.  As anyone who has created
  bootdisks knows, much time is spent pruning down the file set and
  finding trimmed-down versions of files that will all fit in a small
  filesystem.  With the new capabilities this is no longer such a
  concern.

  Unfortunately, creating bootdisks to exploit these new features is
  slightly more difficult now.  To build a compressed filesystem on a
  floppy, the filesystem has to be built on another device and then
  compressed and transferred to the floppy.  This means a few more
  steps.

  The basic strategy is to create a compressed root filesystem, copy the
  kernel to the floppy disk, tell the kernel where to find the root
  filesystem, then copy the compressed root filesystem to the floppy.

  Here's a simple ASCII drawing of what the disk will look like:

       |<--- zImage --->|<------ Compressed root filesystem -------->|
       |________________|____________________________________________|
                    Floppy disk space

  Here are the steps to create the boot floppy:

  4.2.  Creating a root filesystem

  The root filesystem is created pretty much the same way as outlined in
  Section 2.3 of this document.  The primary difference is that you can
  no longer create a root filesystem directly on a floppy -- you must
  create it on a separate device larger than the floppy area it will
  occupy.

  4.2.1.  Choosing a device

  In order to build such a root filesystem, you need a spare device that
  is large enough.  There are several choices:

  ╖  If you have an unused hard disk partition that is large enough
     (several megabytes), this is the easiest solution.  Alternatively,
     if you have enough physical RAM you can simply turn off swapping
     and build the filesystem in your swap partition.

     However, most people don't have a spare partition and can't afford
     to turn swapping off, so...

  ╖  Use a loopback device.  A loopback device allows a disk file on an
     existing filesystem to be treated as a device.  In order to use
     loopback devices you need specially modified mount and unmount
     programs.  You can find these at:

          ftp://ftp.win.tue.nl:/pub/linux/util/mount-2.5X.tar.gz

  where X is the latest modification letter.

  If you do not have loop devices (/dev/loop0, /dev/loop1, etc) on your
  system, you'll have to create them first.  The command

               MAKEDEV loop

  will do this.   (-- Older MAKEDEV scripts may not know about loop
  devices.  A MAKEDEV that can create loop devices is available in the
  directory ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/sources/sbin/ --)

  One you've installed these special mount/umount binaries, create a
  temporary file on a hard disk with enough capacity (eg, /tmp/fsfile).
  You can use a command like

               dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/fsfile bs=1k count=nnn

  to create an nnn-block file.

  Use the file name in place of DEVICE below.  When you issue a mount
  command you must include the option "-o loop" to tell mount to use a
  loopback device.  For example:

               mount -o loop -t ext2 /tmp/fsfile /mnt

  will mount /tmp/fsfile (via a loopback device) at the mount point
  /mnt.  A 'df' will confirm this.

  ╖  A final option is to use the ramdisk (DEVICE = /dev/ram or
     /dev/ramdisk).  In this case, RAM is used to simulate a disk drive.
     The ramdisk must be large enough to hold a filesystem of the
     appropriate size. Check your Lilo configuration file
     (/etc/lilo.conf) for a line like:

               RAMDISK_SIZE = nnn

  which determines how much RAM will be allocated.  The default is
  4096K.

  After you've chosen one of these options, prepare the device with:

          dd if=/dev/zero of=DEVICE bs=1k count=3000

  This command zeroes out the device.  This step is important because
  the filesystem on the device will be compressed later, so all unused
  portions should be filled with zeroes to achieve maximum compression.

  Next, create the filesystem with:

               mke2fs -m 0 DEVICE

  (If you're using a loopback device, the disk file you're using should
  be supplied in place of this DEVICE.  In this case, mke2fs will ask if
  you really want to do this; say yes.)

  Then mount the device:

               mount -t ext2 DEVICE /mnt

  Proceed as before, copying files into /mnt, as specified in Section
  2.3.

  4.2.2.  Compressing the filesystem

  After you're done copying files into the root filesystem, you need to
  copy it back out and compress it.  First, umount it:

               umount /mnt

  (Technically you can copy the filesystem without unmounting it first,
  but that's somewhat dangerous, and bad practice.)

  Next, copy data off the device to a disk file.  Call the disk file
  rootfs:

               dd if=DEVICE of=rootfs bs=1k

  Then compress it.  Use the '-9' option of gzip for maximal
  compression:

               gzip -9 rootfs

  This may take several minutes.  When it finishes, you'll have a file
  rootfs.gz that is your compressed root filesystem.

  If you're tight on disk space you can combine dd and gzip:

               dd if=DEVICE bs=1k | gzip -9 > rootfs.gz

  4.3.  Calculating the space

  At this point, check the space to make sure both the kernel and the
  root filesystem will fit on the floppy.  An "ls -l" will show how many
  bytes each occupies; divide by 1024 to determine how many blocks each
  will need.  For partial blocks, be sure to round up to the next block.

  For example, if the kernel size is 453281 bytes, it will need

               ceil(453281 / 1024) = 443

  blocks, so it will occupy blocks 0-442 on the floppy disk.  The com¡
  pressed root filesystem will begin at block 443.  Remember this block
  number for the commands to follow; call it ROOTBEGIN.

  You must tell the kernel where on the floppy to find the root
  filesystem.  Inside the kernel image is a ramdisk word that specifies
  where the root filesystem is to be found, along with other options.
  The word is defined in /usr/src/linux/arch/i386/kernel/setup.c and is
  interpreted as follows:

               bits  0-10:     Offset to start of ramdisk, in 1024 byte blocks
                               (This is ROOTBEGIN, calculated above)
               bits 11-13:     unused
               bit     14:     Flag indicating that ramdisk is to be loaded
               bit     15:     Flag indicating to prompt for floppy

  (If bit 15 is set, on boot-up you will be prompted to place a new
  floppy disk in the drive.  This is necessary for a two-disk boot set,
  discussed below in the section "Making a two-disk set".  For now, this
  will be zero.)

  If the root filesystem is to begin at block 443, the ramdisk word is

               1BB (hex)       443 (decimal)     (bits 0-10)
            + 4000 (hex)       Ramdisk load flag (bit 14)
              ----------
            = 41BB (hex)
            =16827 (decimal)

  This ramdisk word will be set in the kernel image using the "rdev -r"
  command in the next section.
  4.4.  Copying files to the floppy

  At this point you're ready to create the boot floppy.  First copy the
  kernel:

               dd if=zImage of=/dev/fd0

  Next, tell the kernel to find its root filesystem on the floppy:

               rdev /dev/fd0 /dev/fd0

  Next, you have to set the ramdisk word in the kernel image now
  residing on the floppy.  The ramdisk word is set using the "rdev -r"
  command.  Using the figure calculated above in the section titled
  "Calculating the space":

               rdev -r zImage 16827

  Finally, place the root filesystem on the floppy after the kernel.
  The dd command has a seek option that allows you to specify how many
  blocks to skip:

               dd if=rootfs.gz of=/dev/fd0 bs=1k seek=443

  (The value 443 is ROOTBEGIN from the section "Calculating the space"
  above.)

  Wait for the floppy drive to finish writing, and you're done.

  4.5.  Making a two-disk set

  If you want more space, you can make a two-disk boot set.  In this
  case, the first floppy disk will contain the kernel alone, and the
  second will contain the compressed root filesystem.  With this
  configuration you can use a compressed filesystem of up to 1440K.

  A two-disk set is created using a simple variation of the instructions
  above.  First, you must set the ramdisk PROMPT flag to 1 to instruct
  the kernel to prompt and wait for the second floppy.  The root
  filesystem will begin at byte 0 of the second floppy.

  From the section "Calculating the space" above, the ramdisk PROMPT
  flag (bit 15) will be set to 1, and the ramdisk offset will be zero.
  In our example the new calculation would be:

                  4000 (hex)      Ramdisk load flag (bit 14)
                + 8000 (hex)      Ramdisk prompt flag (bit 15)
                ------------
                = C000 (hex)
                =49152 (decimal)

  which would be used in the 'rdev -r' calculation as before.

  Follow the instructions of "Copying files to the floppy" above, but
  after issuing the 'rdev -r' command, put a new floppy in the drive and
  issue the command:

               dd if=rootfs.gz of=/dev/fd0

  The seek option is not needed since the root filesystem starts at
  block zero.

  5.  Samples

  5.1.  Disk Directory Listings

  This lists the contents of directories from my root and utility
  diskettes. These lists are provided as an example only of the files
  included to create a working system. I have added some explanatory
  notes where it seemed useful.

  5.1.1.  Root Disk ls-lR Directory Listing

  total 18
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 29 21:16 bin/
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         9216 Jul 28 16:21 dev/
  drwxr-xr-x   3 root     root         1024 Jul 29 20:25 etc/
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 28 19:53 lib/
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 24 22:47 mnt/
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 24 22:47 proc/
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 28 19:07 sbin/
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 29 20:57 tmp/
  drwxr-xr-x   4 root     root         1024 Jul 29 21:35 usr/
  drwxr-xr-x   3 root     root         1024 Jul 28 19:52 var/

  bin:
  total 713
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          7737 Jul 24 22:16 cat*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          9232 Jul 24 22:48 chmod*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          8156 Jul 24 22:48 chown*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         19652 Jul 24 22:48 cp*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         8313 Jul 29 21:16 cut*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         12136 Jul 24 22:48 dd*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          9308 Jul 24 22:48 df*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         9036 Jul 29 20:24 dircolors*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          9064 Jul 24 22:48 du*
  -rwxr-x---   1 root     bin         69252 Jul 24 22:51 e2fsck*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          5361 Jul 24 22:48 echo*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          5696 Jul 24 22:16 hostname*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          6596 Jul 24 22:49 kill*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         10644 Jul 24 22:17 ln*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         13508 Jul 24 22:17 login*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         26976 Jul 24 22:17 ls*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          7416 Jul 24 22:49 mkdir*
  -rwxr-x---   1 root     bin         34596 Jul 24 22:51 mke2fs*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          6712 Jul 24 22:49 mknod*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         20304 Jul 24 22:17 more*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         24704 Jul 24 22:17 mount*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         12464 Jul 24 22:17 mv*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         20829 Jul 24 22:50 ps*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          9424 Jul 24 22:50 rm*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          4344 Jul 24 22:50 rmdir*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root       299649 Jul 27 14:12 sh*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          9853 Jul 24 22:17 su*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin           380 Jul 27 14:12 sync*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         13620 Jul 24 22:17 umount*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         5013 Jul 29 20:03 uname*

  dev:
  total 0
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root           10 Jul 24 22:34 cdrom -> /dev/sbpcd
  crw--w--w-   1 root     tty        4,   0 Jul 24 21:49 console
  brw-rw----   1 root     floppy     2,   0 Apr 28  1995 fd0
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root            4 Jul 24 22:34 ftape -> rft0
  crw-rw-rw-   1 root     sys       10,   2 Jul 18  1994 inportbm
  crw-rw----   1 root     kmem       1,   2 Jul 28 16:21 kmem
  crw-rw----   1 root     kmem       1,   1 Jul 18  1994 mem
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root            4 Jul 24 22:34 modem -> cua0
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root            4 Jul 24 22:34 mouse -> cua1
  crw-rw-rw-   1 root     sys        1,   3 Jul 18  1994 null
  brw-rw----   1 root     disk       1,   1 Jul 18  1994 ram
  crw-rw----   1 root     disk      27,   0 Jul 18  1994 rft0
  brw-rw----   1 root     disk      25,   0 Jul 19  1994 sbpcd
  ***  I have only included devices for the SCSI partitions I use.
  ***  If you use IDE, then use /dev/hdxx instead.
  brw-rw----   1 root     disk       8,   0 Apr 29  1995 sda
  brw-rw----   1 root     disk       8,   6 Apr 29  1995 sda6
  brw-rw----   1 root     disk       8,   7 Apr 29  1995 sda7
  brw-rw----   1 root     disk       8,   8 Apr 29  1995 sda8
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root            7 Jul 28 12:56 systty -> console
  ***  this link from systty to console is required
  crw-rw-rw-   1 root     tty        5,   0 Jul 18  1994 tty
  crw--w--w-   1 root     tty        4,   0 Jul 18  1994 tty0
  crw--w----   1 root     tty        4,   1 Jul 24 22:33 tty1
  crw--w----   1 root     tty        4,   2 Jul 24 22:34 tty2
  crw--w--w-   1 root     root       4,   3 Jul 24 21:49 tty3
  crw--w--w-   1 root     root       4,   4 Jul 24 21:49 tty4
  crw--w--w-   1 root     root       4,   5 Jul 24 21:49 tty5
  crw--w--w-   1 root     root       4,   6 Jul 24 21:49 tty6
  crw-rw-rw-   1 root     tty        4,   7 Jul 18  1994 tty7
  crw-rw-rw-   1 root     tty        4,   8 Jul 18  1994 tty8
  crw-rw-rw-   1 root     tty        4,   9 Jul 19  1994 tty9
  crw-rw-rw-   1 root     sys        1,   5 Jul 18  1994 zero

  etc:
  total 20
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root         2167 Jul 29 20:25 DIR_COLORS
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root           20 Jul 28 12:37 HOSTNAME
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root          109 Jul 24 22:57 fstab
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root          271 Jul 24 22:21 group
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root         2353 Jul 24 22:27 inittab
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root            0 Jul 29 21:02 issue
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root         2881 Jul 28 19:38 ld.so.cache
  ***  Lots of things get upset at boot time if ld.so.cache is missing, but
  ***  make sure that ldconfig is included and run from rc.x to
  ***  update it.
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root           12 Jul 24 22:22 motd
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root          606 Jul 28 19:25 passwd
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root         1065 Jul 24 22:21 profile
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 29 21:01 rc.d/
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root           18 Jul 24 22:21 shells
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root          774 Jul 28 13:43 termcap
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root          126 Jul 28 13:44 ttys
  -rw-r--r--   1 root     root            0 Jul 24 22:47 utmp

  etc/rc.d:
  total 5
  *** I didn't bother with shutdown scripts - everthing runs on a
  *** ramdisk, so there's not much point shutting it down.
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         1158 Jul 24 22:23 rc.K*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         1151 Jul 28 19:08 rc.M*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root          507 Jul 29 20:25 rc.S*

  lib:
  total 588
  *** I have an ELF system, so I include the ELF loader ld-linux.so. if
  *** you are still on a.out, then you need ld.so. Use the file command to
  *** see which libraries you should include.
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root           17 Jul 24 23:36 ld-linux.so.1 -> ld-linux.so.1.7.3*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        20722 Aug 15  1995 ld-linux.so.1.7.3*
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root           13 Jul 24 23:36 libc.so.5 -> libc.so.5.0.9*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root       562683 May 19  1995 libc.so.5.0.9*
  ***  Must include libtermcap
  lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root           19 Jul 28 19:53 libtermcap.so.2 -> libtermcap.so.2.0.0*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        11360 May 19  1995 libtermcap.so.2.0.0*

  mnt:
  total 0

  proc:
  total 0

  sbin:
  total 191
  ***  I use Slackware, which uses agetty. Many systems use getty.
  ***  Check your /etc/inittab to see which it uses. Note that you
  ***  need (a)getty and login to be able to start doing much.
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         11309 Jul 24 22:54 agetty*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          5204 Jul 24 22:19 halt*
  ***  Must have this to boot
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         20592 Jul 24 22:19 init*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        86020 Jul 28 19:07 ldconfig*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          5329 Jul 27 14:10 mkswap*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         5204 Jul 24 22:20 reboot*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin         12340 Jul 24 22:20 shutdown*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         5029 Jul 24 22:20 swapoff*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     bin          5029 Jul 24 22:20 swapon*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        20592 Jul 27 18:18 telinit*
  -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         7077 Jul 24 22:20 update*

  tmp:
  total 0

  usr:
  total 2
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 29 21:00 adm/
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 29 21:16 lib/

  usr/adm:
  total 0

  usr/lib:
  total 0

  var:
  total 1
  ***  Several things complained until I included this and
  ***  the /etc/rc.S code to initialise /var/run/utmp, but this
  ***  won't necessarily apply to your system.
  drwxr-xr-x   2 root     root         1024 Jul 28 19:52 run/

  var/run:
  total 0

  5.1.2.  Utility Disk ls-lR Directory Listing

       total 579
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        42333 Jul 28 19:05 cpio*
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root       103560 Jul 29 21:31 elvis*
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        56401 Jul 28 19:06 find*
       -rw-r--r--   1 root     root       128254 Jul 28 19:03 ftape.o
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        64161 Jul 29 20:47 grep*
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        45309 Jul 29 20:48 gzip*
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root        23560 Jul 28 19:04 insmod*
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root          118 Jul 28 19:04 lsmod*
       lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root            5 Jul 28 19:04 mt -> mt-st*
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root         9573 Jul 28 19:03 mt-st*
       lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root            6 Jul 28 19:05 rmmod -> insmod*
       -rwxr-xr-x   1 root     root       104085 Jul 28 19:05 tar*
       lrwxrwxrwx   1 root     root            5 Jul 29 21:35 vi -> elvis*

  5.2.  Shell Scripts to Build Diskettes

  These shell scripts are provided as examples only. I use them on my
  system to create rescue diskettes. You may find it convenient to use
  them, but if so, read the instructions carefully - for example, if you
  specify the wrong swap device, you will find your root filesystem has
  been throroughly and permanently erased.... so just be darn sure you
  have it correctly configured before you use it!

  The upside of the scripts are that they provide a quick way to get a
  rescue set together, by doing the following:

  ╖  copy a kernel to a bootdisk, and use rdev to configure it, as
     explained above.

  ╖  adjust mkroot to your system and build a root disk. Use the
     directory listing above as a guide to what to include.

  ╖  use mkutil to throw your favourite utilities onto one or more
     utility disks.

  There are two shell scripts:

  ╖  mkroot - builds a root or boot/root diskette.

  ╖  mkutil - builds a utility diskette.

  Both are currently configured to run in the parent directory of
  boot_disk and util_disk, each of which contains everything to be
  copied to it's diskette. Note that these shell scripts will *NOT*
  automatically set up and copy all the files for you - you work out
  which files are needed, set up the directories and copy the files to
  those directories. The shell scripts are samples which will copy the
  contents of those directories. Note that they are primitive shell
  scripts and are not meant for the novice user.

  The scripts both contain configuration variables at the start which
  allow them to be easily configured to run anywhere.  First, set up the
  model directories and copy all the required files into them. To see
  what directories and files are needed, have a look at the sample
  directory listings in the previous sections.

  Check the configuration variables in the shell scripts and change them
  as required before running the scripts.

  5.2.1.  mkroot - Make Root Diskette

  ______________________________________________________________________
  # mkroot: make a root disk - creates a root diskette
  #         by building a file system on it, then mounting it and
  #         copying required files from a model.
  #         Note: the model to copy from from must dirst be set up,
  #         then change the configuration variables below to suit
  #         your system.
  #
  # usage: mkroot [ -d swap | ram ]
  #       where swap means use $SWAPDEV swap device
  #       and ram means use $RAMDISKDEV ramdisk device

  # Copyright (c) Graham Chapman 1996. All rights reserved.
  # Permission is granted for this material to be freely
  # used and distributed, provided the source is acknowledged.
  # No warranty of any kind is provided. You use this material
  # at your own risk.

  # Configuration variables - set these to suit your system
  #
  ####  set the device to use to build the root filesystem on.
  ####  ramdisk is safer - swap is ok only if you have plenty of
  ####  free memory. If linux can't swap then things get nasty.
  USEDEVICE="ramdisk"             # set to either "ramdisk" or "swap"
  RAMDISKDEV="/dev/ram"           # ramdisk device <==== CHANGE if using ramdisk
  SWAPDEV="/dev/sda7"             # swap device    <==== CHANGE if using swap
  FSBLOCKS=3072                   # desired filesystem size in blocks
  #
  ####  set name or directory where you have set up your rootdisk
  ####  model
  ROOTDISKDIR="./root_disk"       # name of root disk directory
  MOUNTPOINT="/mnt"               # temporary mount point for diskette
  DISKETTEDEV="/dev/fd0"          # device name of diskette drive
  LOGFL="`pwd`/mkroot.log"        # log filename
  TEMPROOTFS="/tmp/mkrootfs.gz"   # temp file for compressed filesystem
  # End of Configuration variables

  # Internal variables
  ROOTDISKDEV=

  case $USEDEVICE in
  swap|ramdisk)   :;;
  *)      echo "Invalid setting for USEDEVICE variable"
          exit;;
  esac

  clear
  echo "    ***************** W A R N I N G ******************

  Use this script with care. If you don't understand it, then
  exit NOW!"

  if [ "$USEDEVICE" = "swap" ]
  then
          ROOTDISKDEV=$SWAPDEV
          echo -e "\nThis script will temporarily remove the swap file $SWAPDEV"
          echo "and use the space to build a compressed root filesystem from"
          echo "the files in the directory tree below $ROOTDISKDIR. To do this"
          echo "safely you must have 8Mb or more of memory, and you should"
          echo "switch to single user mode via 'init 1'."
          echo -e "\nIf you have used a ramdisk since the last reboot, then"
          echo "reboot NOW before using this script."
          echo -e "\nIf the script fails, you may not have a swap partition. Run 'free'"
          echo "and check the total size to see if it is correct. If the swap"
          echo "partition $SWAPDEV is missing, do the following:"
          echo "  umount $MOUNTPOINT"
          echo "  mkswap $SWAPDEV"
          echo "  swapon $SWAPDEV"
          echo "to restore the swap partition $SWAPDEV."
  else
          ROOTDISKDEV=$RAMDISKDEV
          echo -e "\nThis script will use a ramdisk of $FSBLOCKS Kb. To do this safely"
          echo "you must have at least 8Mb of memory. If you have only 8Mb you should"
          echo "ensure nothing else is running on the machine."
          echo -e "\nWhen the script is complete, the ramdisk will still be present, so"
          echo "you should reboot to reclaim the memory allocated to the ramdisk."
  fi

  echo -e "
  Do you want to continue (y/n)? \c"
  read ans
  if [ "$ans" != "Y" -a $ans != "y" ]
  then
          echo "not confirmed - aborting"
          exit
  fi

  echo "Starting mkroot at `date`" > $LOGFL

  if [ "$USEDEVICE" = "swap" ]
  then
          echo "Unmounting swap device $SWAPDEV" | tee -a $LOGFL
          swapoff $SWAPDEV >> $LOGFL 2>&1
  fi

  echo "Zeroing device $ROOTDISKDEV" | tee -a $LOGFL
  dd if=/dev/zero of=$ROOTDISKDEV bs=1024 count=$FSBLOCKS >> $LOGFL 2>&1
  if [ $? -ne 0 ]
  then
          echo "dd zeroing $ROOTDISKDEV failed" | tee -a $LOGFL
          exit 1
  fi

  echo "Creating filesystem on device $ROOTDISKDEV" | tee -a $LOGFL
  mke2fs -m0 $ROOTDISKDEV $FSBLOCKS >> $LOGFL 2>&1

  echo "Mounting $ROOTDISKDEV filesystem at $MOUNTPOINT" | tee -a $LOGFL
  mount -t ext2 $ROOTDISKDEV $MOUNTPOINT >> $LOGFL 2>&1
  if [ $? -ne 0 ]
  then
          echo "mount failed"
          exit 1
  fi

  # copy the directories containing files
  echo "Copying files from $ROOTDISKDIR to $MOUNTPOINT" | tee -a $LOGFL
  currdir=`pwd`
  cd $ROOTDISKDIR
  find . -print | cpio -dpumv $MOUNTPOINT >> $LOGFL 2>&1
  if [ $? -ne 0 ]
  then
          echo "cpio step failed."
          cd $currdir
          exit 1
  fi
  cd $currdir

  fssize=`du -sk $MOUNTPOINT|cut -d"      " -f1`
  echo "Uncompressed root filesystem size is $fssize Kb" | tee -a $LOGFL
  echo "Unmounting filesystem from $ROOTDISKDEV" | tee -a $LOGFL
  umount $MOUNTPOINT >> $LOGFL 2>&1

  echo "Compressing filesystem from $ROOTDISKDEV into $TEMPROOTFS
          This may take a few minutes..." | tee -a $LOGFL

  #       We don't bother with gzip -9 here - takes more than twice as long
  #       and saves less than 1% in space on my root disk...
  dd if=$ROOTDISKDEV bs=1024 count=$FSBLOCKS 2>>$LOGFL | gzip -c > $TEMPROOTFS

  fssize=`du -k $TEMPROOTFS|cut -d"       " -f1`
  echo "Compressed root filesystem size is $fssize Kb" | tee -a $LOGFL

  echo -e "Insert diskette in $DISKETTEDEV and press any key
          ***  Warning: data on diskette will be overwritten!\c"
  read ans

  echo "Copying compressed filesystem from $TEMPROOTFS to $DISKETTEDEV" | tee -a $LOGFL
  dd if=$TEMPROOTFS of=$DISKETTEDEV >>$LOGFL 2>&1
  if [ $? -ne 0 ]
  then
          echo "copy step failed."
          exit 1
  fi

  if [ "$USEDEVICE" = "swap" ]
  then
          echo "Reinitialising swap device $SWAPDEV" | tee -a $LOGFL
          mkswap $SWAPDEV >> $LOGFL 2>&1
          echo "Starting swapping to swap device $SWAPDEV" | tee -a $LOGFL
          swapon $SWAPDEV >> $LOGFL 2>&1
  fi

  echo "Deleting $TEMPROOTFS" | tee -a $LOGFL
  rm $TEMPROOTFS

  echo "mkroot completed at `date`" >> $LOGFL

  echo "Root diskette creation complete - please read log file $LOGFL"
  ______________________________________________________________________

  5.2.2.  mkutil - Make Utility Diskette

  ______________________________________________________________________
  # mkutil: make a utility diskette - creates a utility diskette
  #         by building a file system on it, then mounting it and
  #         copying required files from a model.
  #         Note: the model to copy from from must first be set up,
  #         then change the configuration variables below to suit
  #         your system.

  # Copyright (c) Graham Chapman 1996. All rights reserved.
  # Permission is granted for this material to be freely
  # used and distributed, provided the source is acknowledged.
  # No warranty of any kind is provided. You use this material
  # at your own risk.

  # Configuration variables...
  UTILDISKDIR=./util_disk         # name of directory containing model
  MOUNTPOINT=/mnt                 # temporary mount point for diskette
  DISKETTEDEV=/dev/fd0            # device name of diskette drive

  echo $0: create utility diskette
  echo Warning: data on diskette will be overwritten!
  echo Insert diskette in $DISKETTEDEV and and press any key...
  read anything

  mke2fs $DISKETTEDEV
  if [ $? -ne 0 ]
  then
          echo mke2fs failed
          exit
  fi

  # Any file system type would do here
  mount -t ext2 $DISKETTEDEV $MOUNTPOINT
  if [ $? -ne 0 ]
  then
          echo mount failed
          exit
  fi

  # copy the directories containing files
  cp -dpr $UTILDISKDIR/* $MOUNTPOINT

  umount $MOUNTPOINT

  echo Utility diskette complete
  ______________________________________________________________________

  6.  FAQ

  6.1.  Q. I boot from my boot/root disks and nothing happens. What do I
  do?

  This is the most common problem experienced by first-time root disk
  users, and it can be quite tricky finding the cause. The basic problem
  is that there is very little that is exactly the same in all Linux
  systems, but to get a system to boot to the stage where it will talk
  to you requires several components to be present and correctly
  configured.

  The first thing to be understood is that creating a root disk is
  usually an iterative process. Requirements change as the kernel
  changes, and different distributions arrange things in different ways.
  The normal boot process is for the kernel to execute /sbin/init, which
  in turn reads /etc/inittab to find out what to execute next... but
  anything is possible, so to understand things you must RTFM,
  including:

  ╖  the man pages for init, inittab , agetty or getty, login, ldconfig.

  ╖  the kernel documentation in /usr/src/linux/Documentation.

  ╖  the /etc/rc.x scripts and /etc/inittab in your system.

  The general approach to building a root disk is to assemble components
  from your existing system, and try and get the diskette-based system
  to the point where it displays messages on the console. Once it starts
  talking to you, the battle is half over, because you can see what it
  is complaining about, and you can fix individual problems until the
  system works smoothly.

  Inittab is possibly the trickiest part because its syntax and content
  depend on the init program used and the nature of the system. The only
  way to tackle it really is to read the man pages for init and inittab
  and work out exactly what your existing system is doing when it boots.

  The recommended procedure for investigating the problem where the
  system will not talk to you is as follows:

  ╖  check that the root disk actually contains the directories you
     think it does. It is easy to copy at the wrong level so that you
     end up with something like /root_disk/bin instead of /bin on your
     root diskette.

  ╖  check /sbin/init is present, and /etc/inittab has a system
     initialisation entry. This should contain a command of the form
     /etc/rc.x, to execute one of the /etc/rc scripts. The specific
     script in the inittab must exist.

  ╖  check what the the /etc/rc.x script specified in inittab does
     exist.  All commands that it executes must be present on the disk.

  ╖  check that there is a /lib/libc.so and /lib/libtermcap.so, with the
     same links as appear in your lib directory on your hard disk.

  ╖  check that any symbolic links in your /dev directory in your
     existing system also exist on your root diskette filesystem, where
     those links are to devices which you have included in your root
     diskette. In particular, /dev/console links are essential in many
     cases.

  ╖  check that you have included /dev/tty1 on your root disk.

  ╖  check that you have included /dev/null, /dev/zero, /dev/mem,
     /dev/ram and /dev/kmem devices.

  ╖  check your kernel configuration - support for all resources
     required up to login point must be built in, not modules. Also,
     ramdisk support must be included.

  ╖  check that your kernel root device and ramdisk settings are
     correct. Refer to the Advanced Bootdisk Creation section for
     details.

  6.2.  Q. How can I make a boot disk with a XXX driver?

  The easiest way is to obtain a Slackware kernel from your nearest
  Slackware mirror site. Slackware kernels are generic kernels which
  atttempt to include drivers for as many devices as possible, so if you
  have a SCSI or IDE controller, chances are that a driver for it is
  included in the Slackware kernel.

  Go to the a1 directory and select either IDE or SCSI kernel depending
  on the type of controller you have. Check the xxxxkern.cfg file for
  the selected kernel to see the drivers which have been included in
  that kernel. If the device you want is in that list, then the
  corresponding kernel should boot your computer. Download the
  xxxxkern.tgz file and copy it to your boot diskette as described above
  in the section on making boot disks.

  You must then check the root device in the kernel, using the rdev
  command:

               rdev zImage

  Rdev will then display the current root device in the kernel. If this
  is not the same as the root device you want, then use rdev to change
  it.  For example, the kernel I tried was set to /dev/sda2, but my root
  scsi partition is /dev/sda8. To use a root diskette, you would have to
  use the command:

               rdev zImage /dev/fd0

  If you want to know how to set up a Slackware root disk as well,
  that's outside the scope of this HOWTO, so I suggest you check the
  Linux Install Guide or get the Slackware distribution. See the section
  in this HOWTO titled "References".

  6.3.  Q. How do I update my boot floppy with a new kernel?

  Just copy the kernel to your boot diskette using the dd command for a
  boot diskette without a filesystem, or the cp command for a boot/root
  disk. Refer to the section in this HOWTO titled "Boot" for details on
  creating a boot disk. The description applies equally to updating a
  kernel on a boot disk.

  6.4.  Q. How do I remove LILO so that I can use DOS to boot again?

  This is not really a Bootdisk topic, but it is asked so often, so: the
  answer is, use the DOS command:

               FDISK /MBR

  MBR stands for Master Boot Record, and it replaces the boot sector
  with a clean DOS one, without affecting the partition table. Some
  purists disagree with this, but even the author of LILO, Werner
  Almesberger, suggests it. It is easy, and it works.

  You can also use the dd command to copy the backup saved by LILO to
  the boot sector - refer to the LILO documentation if you wish to do
  this.

  6.5.  Q. How can I boot if I've lost my kernel AND my boot disk?

  If you don't have a boot disk standing by, then probably the easiest
  method is to obtain a Slackware kernel for your disk controller type
  (IDE or SCSI) as described above for "How do I make a boot disk with a
  XXX driver?". You can then boot your computer using this kernel, then
  repair whatever damage there is.

  The kernel you get may not have the root device set to the disk type
  and partition you want. For example, Slackware's generic scsi kernel
  has the root device set to /dev/sda2, whereas my root Linux partition
  happens to be /dev/sda8. In this case the root device in the kernel
  will have to be changed.

  You can still change the root device and ramdisk settings in the
  kernel even if all you have is a kernel, and some other operating
  system, such as DOS.

  Rdev changes kernel settings by changing the values at fixed offsets
  in the kernel file, so you can do the same if you have a hex editor
  available on whatever systems you do still have running - for example,
  Norton Utilities Disk Editor under DOS.  You then need to check and if
  necessary change the values in the kernel at the following offsets:

       0x01F8  Low byte of RAMDISK size
       0x01F9  High byte of RAMDISK size
       0x01FC  Root minor device number - see below
       0X01FD  Root major device number - see below

  The ramdisk size is the number of blocks of ramdisk to create.  If you
  want to boot from a root diskette then set this to decimal 1440, which
  is 0x05A0, thus set offset 0x01F8 to 0xA0 and offset 0x01F9 to 0x05.
  This will allocate enough space for a 1.4Mb diskette.

  Note that the meaning of the ramdisk size word changed in kernel
  version 1.3.48. This meaning is described in the section titled
  "Advanced Bootdisk Creation".

  The major and minor device numbers must be set to the device you want
  to mount your root filesystem on. Some useful values to select from
  are:

       device          major minor
       /dev/fd0            2     0   1st floppy drive
       /dev/hda1           3     1   partition 1 on 1st IDE drive
       /dev/sda1           8     1   partition 1 on 1st scsi drive
       /dev/sda8           8     8   partition 8 on 1st scsi drive

  Once you have set these values then you can write the file to a
  diskette using either Norton Utilities Disk Editor, or a program
  called rawrite.exe. This program is included in several distributions,
  including the SLS and Slackware distributions.  It is a DOS program
  which writes a file to the "raw" disk, starting at the boot sector,
  instead of writing it to the file system. If you use Norton Utilities,
  then you must write the file to a physical disk starting at the
  beginning of the disk.

  6.6.  Q. How can I make extra copies of boot/root diskettes?

  It is never desirable to have just one set of rescue disks - 2 or 3
  should be kept in case one is unreadable.

  The easiest way of making copies of any diskettes, including bootable
  and utility diskettes, is to use the dd command to copy the contents
  of the original diskette to a file on your hard drive, and then use
  the same command to copy the file back to a new diskette.  Note that
  you do not need to, and should not, mount the diskettes, because dd
  uses the raw device interface.

  To copy the original, enter the command:

               dd if=devicename of=filename
               where   devicename the device name of the diskette
                       drive
               and     filename the name of the file where you
                       want to copy to

  For example, to copy from /dev/fd0 to a temporary file called
  /tmp/diskette.copy, I would enter the command:

               dd if=/dev/fd0 of=/tmp/diskette.copy

  Omitting the "count" parameter, as we have done here, means that the
  whole diskette of 2880 (for a high-density) blocks will be copied.

  To copy the resulting file back to a new diskette, insert the new
  diskette and enter the reverse command:

               dd if=filename of=devicename

  Note that the above discussion assumes that you have only one diskette
  drive. If you have two of the same type, then you can copy diskettes
  using a command like:

               dd if=/dev/fd0 of=/dev/fd1

  6.7.  Q. How can I boot without typing in "ahaxxxx=nn,nn,nn" every
  time?

  Where a disk device cannot be autodetected it is necessary to supply
  the kernel with a command device parameter string, such as:

               aha152x=0x340,11,3,1

  This parameter string can be supplied in several ways using LILO:

  ╖  By entering it on the command line every time the system is booted
     via LILO. This is boring, though.

  ╖  By using the LILO "lock" keyword to make it store the command line
     as the default command line, so that LILO will use the same options
     every time it boots.

  ╖  By using the APPEND statement in the lilo config file. Note that
     the parameter string must be enclosed in quotes.

  For example, a sample command line using the above parameter string
  would be:

               zImage  aha152x=0x340,11,3,1 root=/dev/sda1 lock

  This would pass the device parameter string through, and also ask the
  kernel to set the root device to /dev/sda1 and save the whole command
  line and reuse it for all future boots.

  A sample APPEND statement is:

               APPEND = "aha152x=0x340,11,3,1"

  Note that the parameter string must NOT be enclosed in quotes on the
  command line, but it MUST be enclosed in quotes in the APPEND
  statement.

  Note also that for the parameter string to be acted on, the kernel
  must contain the driver for that disk type. If it does not, then there
  is nothing listening for the parameter string, and you will have to
  rebuild the kernel to include the required driver. For details on
  rebuilding the kernel, cd to /usr/src/linux and read the README, and
  read the Linux FAQ and Installation HOWTO. Alternatively you could
  obtain a generic kernel for the disk type and install that.

  Readers are strongly urged to read the LILO documentation before
  experimenting with LILO installation. Incautious use of the "BOOT"
  statement can damage partitions.

  6.8.  Q. How can I create an oversize ramdisk filesystem?

  For kernels 1.3.48+, it is best to create a compressed filesystem as
  described in Advanced Bootdisk Creation. If your kernel is earlier
  than this, you can either upgrade, or refer to version 2.0 or below of
  this HOWTO.

  6.9.  Q. At boot time, I get error A: cannot execute B. Why?

  There are several cases of program names being hardcoded in various
  utilities. These cases do not occur everywhere, but they may explain
  why an executable apparently cannot be found on your system even
  though you can see that it is there. You can find out if a given
  program has the name of another hardcoded by using the "strings"
  command and piping the output through grep.

  Known examples of hardcoding are:

  ╖  Shutdown in some versions has /etc/reboot hardcoded, so reboot must
     be placed in the /etc directory.

  ╖  Init has caused problems for at least one person, with the kernel
     being unable to find init.

     To fix these problems, either move the programs to the correct
     directory, or change configuration files (e.g. inittab) to point to
     the correct directory. If in doubt, put programs in the same
     directories as they are on your hard disk, and use the same inittab
     and /etc/rc.d files as they appear on your hard disk.

  6.10.  Q. My kernel has ramdisk support, but initializes ramdisks of
  0K

  Where this occurs, a kernel message similar to:

       Ramdisk driver initialized : 16 ramdisks of 0K size

  appears as the kernel is booting. The size should be either the
  default of 4096K, or the size specified in kernel parameters
  ramdisk_size or ramdisk.  If the size is 0K, it is probably because
  the size has been set to 0 by kernel parameters at boot time. This
  could possibly be because of an overlooked LILO configuration file
  parameter:

       ramdisk 0

  This was included in sample LILO configuration files included in some
  older distributions, and was put there to override any previous kernel
  setting.  Since 1.3.48 it is irrelevant, because the ramdisk_size
  kernel parameter now sets the maximum ramdisk size, not the size
  allocated at boot time.  No ramdisk memory is allocated at boot time.

  The solution is to remove the LILO ramdisk parameter.

  Note that if you attempt to use a ramdisk which has been set to 0K,
  then behaviour can be unpredictable, and can result in kernel panics.

  7.  References

  In this section, vvv is used in package names in place of the version,
  to avoid referring here to specific versions. When retrieving a
  package, always get the latest version unless you have good reasons
  for not doing so.

  7.1.  LILO - Linux Loader

  Written by Werner Almesberger. Excellent boot loader, and the
  documentation includes information on the boot sector contents and the
  early stages of the boot process.

  Ftp from: tsx-11.mit.edu: /pub/linux/packages/lilo/lilo.vvv.tar.gz
  also on sunsite and mirror sites.

  7.2.  Linux FAQ and HOWTOs

  These are available from many sources. Look at the usenet newsgroups
  news.answers and comp.os.linux.announce.

  Ftp from: sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/docs

  ╖  FAQ is in /pub/linux/docs/faqs/linux-faq

  ╖  HOWTOs are in /pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO

  For WWW, start at the Linux documentation home page:

       http://sunsite.unc.edu/mdw/linux.html

  If desperate, send mail to:

               [e-mail]

  with the word "help" in the message, then follow the mailed
  instructions.

  Note: if you haven't read the Linux FAQ and related documents such as
  the Linux Installation HOWTO and the Linux Install Guide, then you
  should not be trying to build boot diskettes.

  7.3.  Ramdisk Usage

  An excellent description of the how the new ramdisk code works may be
  found with the documentation supplied with the Linux kernel.  See
  /usr/src/linux/Documentation/ramdisk.txt.  It is written by Paul
  Gortmaker and includes a section on creating a compressed ramdisk,
  similar to the section titled "Advanced Bootdisk Creation" of this
  HOWTO.

  7.4.  Rescue Packages

  7.4.1.  Bootkit

  Written by Scott Burkett. Bootkit provides a flexible menu-driven
  framework for managing rescue disk creation and contents. It uses the
  Dialog package to provide nice menus, and a straight-forward directory
  tree to contain definitions of rescue disk contents. The package
  includes samples of the main files needed. The package aims to provide
  only the framework; it is up to the user to work out what to put on
  the disks and set up the config files accordingly.  For those users
  who don't mind doing this, it is a good choice.

  Ftp from: sunsite.unc.edu: /pub/Linux/system/Recovery/Bootkit-
  vvv.tar.gz

  7.4.2.  CatRescue

  Written by Oleg Kibirev. This package concentrates on saving space on
  the rescue diskettes by extensive use of compression, and by
  implementing executables as shells scripts. The doco includes some
  tips on what to do in various disaster situations.

  Ftp from: gd.cs.csufresno.edu/pub/sun4bin/src/CatRescue100.tgz

  7.4.3.  Rescue Shell Scripts

  Written by Thomas Heiling. This contains shell scripts to produce boot
  and boot/root diskettes. It has some dependencies on specific versions
  of other software such as LILO, and so might need some effort to
  convert to your system, but it might be useful as a starting point if
  you wanted more comprehensive shell scripts than are provided in this
  document.

  Ftp from: sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/system/Recovery/rescue.tgz

  7.4.4.  SAR - Search and Rescue

  Written by Karel Kubat. SAR produces a rescue diskette, using several
  techniques to minimize the space required on the diskette.  The manual
  includes a description of the Linux boot/login process.

  Ftp from: ftp.icce.rug.nl:/pub/unix/SAR-vvv.tar.gz

  The manual is available via WWW from:

  http://www.icce.rug.nl/karel/programs/SAR.html

  7.4.5.  YARD

  Written by Tom Fawcett.  Yard produces customized rescue diskettes
  using the compressed ramdisk option of more recent kernels (1.3.48+).
  Yard was designed to automate most of the instructions in Section 4,
  above.  In addition, Yard checks your file selections (loaders and
  libraries, and /etc/fstab, rc, and passwd) to make sure you've
  included everything needed to make a bootable rescue disk.  Yard needs
  Perl 5 and LILO, and works with kernel 1.3.48+.

  Ftp from: sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/system/Recovery/yard-1.n.tar.gz

  A companion set of customized rescue specifications is available for
  use with Yard.

  Ftp from: sunsite.unc.edu:/pub/Linux/system/Recovery/yard-prefabs-
  n.tar.gz

  7.5.  Slackware Distribution

  Apart from being one of the more popular Linux distributions around,
  it is also a good place to get a generic kernel. It is available from
  almost everywhere, so there is little point in putting addresses here.