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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1. LCLint User's Guide ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



                               LCLint User's Guide





                                   Version 2.4

                                   April 1998





                                   David Evans

                       Software Devices and Systems Group

                       MIT Laboratory for Computer Science



 LCLint is a tool for statically checking C programs.  With minimal effort,
LCLint can be used as a better lint.[1]  If additional effort is invested
adding annotations to programs, LCLint can perform stronger checks than can be
done by any standard lint.

Some problems detected by LCLint include:

     Violations of information hiding.  A user-defined type can be declared as
      abstract, and a message is reported where code inappropriately depends on
      the representation of the type.  (Section 3)


     Inconsistent modification of caller-visible state.  Functions can be
      annotated with information on what caller-visible state may be modified
      by the function, and an error is reported if the modifications produced
      by the function contradict its declaration.  (Section 4.1)


     Inconsistent use of global variables.  Information on what global and
      file scope variables a function may use can be added to function
      declarations, and a message is reported if the implementation of the
      function uses other global variables or does not uses every global
      variable listed in its declaration.  (Section 4.2)


     Memory management errors.  Instances where storage that has been
      deallocated is used, or where storage is not deallocated (memory leaks).
      (Section 5)


     Dangerous data sharing or unexpected aliasing.  Parameters to a function
      share storage in a way that may lead to undefined or undesired behavior,
      or a reference to storage within the representation of an abstract type
      is created. (Section 6)


     Using possibly undefined storage or returning storage that is not
      completely defined (except as documented).  (Section 7.1)


     Dereferencing a possibly null pointer.  (Section 7.2)


     Dangerous macro implementations or invocations. (Section 8)


     Violations of customizable naming conventions. (Section 9)


     Program behavior that is undefined because it depends on order of
      evaluation, likely infinite loops, fall-through cases, incomplete logic,
      statements with no effect, ignored return values, unused declarations,
      and exceeding certain standard limits.  (Section 10)


 LCLint checking can be customized to select what classes of errors are
 reported using command line flags and stylized comments in the code.

 This document is a guide to using LCLint.  Section 1 is a brief overview of
 the design goals of LCLint. Section 2 explains how to run LCLint, interpret
 messages produce, and control checking. Sections 3-10 describe particular
 checks done by LCLint.

  Contents


   1. Overview
   2. Operation
          Messages
          Flags
          Stylized Comments
             -  Annotations
             -  Control Comments
   3. Abstract Types
          Access
          Mutability
          Boulean Types
          Primitive C Types
             -  Characters
             -  Enumerators
             -  Numeric Types
             -  Arbitrary Integral Types
   4. Function Interfaces
          Modifications
             -  Special Modifications
             -  Missing Modifies Clauses
             -  Limitations
          Global Variables
             -  Controlling Globals Checking
          Declaration Consistency
   5. Memory Management
          Storage Model
          Deallocation Errors
             -  Unshared References
             -  Temporary Parameters
             -  Owned and Dependent References
             -  Kept Parameters
             -
             -  Stack References
             -  Inner Storage
          Implicit Memory Annotations
          Reference Counting
   6. Sharing
          Aliasing
             -  Unique Parameters
             -  Returned Parameters
          Exposure
             -  Read-Only Storage
             -  Exposed Storage
   7. Value Constraints
          Use Before Definition
             -  Undefined Parameters
             -  Relaxing Checking
             -  Partially Defined Structures
             -  Global Variables
          Null Pointers
             -  Predicate Functions
             -  Overriding Null Types
             -  Relaxing Null Checking
          Execution
          Special Clauses
   8. Macros
          Constant Macros
          Function-like Macros
             -  Side-Effect Free Parameters
             -  Polymorphism
          Controlling Macro Checking
          Iterators
   9. Naming Conventions
          Type-Based Naming Conventions
             -  Czech Names
             -  Slovak Names
             -  Czechoslovak Names
          Namespace Prefixes
          Naming Restrictions
             -  Reserved Names
             -  Distinct Identifiers
  10. Other Checks
          Undefined Evaluation Order
          Problematic Control Structures
             -  Likely Infinite Loops
             -  Switches
             -  Deep Breaks
             -  Loop and If Bodies
             -  Complete if-else Logic
          Suspicious Statements
             -  Statements with No Effects
             -  Ignored Return Values
          Unused Declarations
          Complete Programs
             -  Unnecessary External Names
             -  Declarations Missing from Headers
          Compiler Limits


 Appendices

 Appendix A.  Availability
 Appendix B.  Communication
 Appendix C.  Flags
 Appendix D.  Annotations
 Appendix E.  Control Comments
 Appendix F.  Libraries
 Appendix G.  Specifications
 Appendix H.  Emacs



 Figures


 References
 Acknowledgements

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.1. LCLint User's Guide - 1. Overview ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



1. Overview

The main goals for LCLint are to:


     Detect a large number of bugs in typical C programs, without producing an
      unacceptable number of spurious messages.  We are willing to accept the
      possibility that a few spurious messages are produced as long as it
      enables significantly more powerful checking and the spurious messages
      can be suppressed easily.


     Support a programming methodology involving abstract types and clean,
      documented interfaces in standard C programs.


     Provide a gradual transition for programmers.  LCLint can be used like a
      better standard lint with minimal effort.  Adding a few annotations to
      programs enables significantly better checking.  As more effort is put
      into annotating programs, better checking results. A representational
      effort/benefit curve for using LCLint is shown in Figure 1 (not available
      in HTML format).  As different checks are turned on and more information
      is given in code annotations the number of bugs that can be detected
      increases dramatically.


     Provide enough flexibility so that LCLint can be used effectively with a
      wide range of coding styles.  Especially important is making it easy to
      use LCLint effectively to maintain and modify legacy code.


     Check programs quickly and with no user interaction.  LCLint runs faster
      than most compilers.  Libraries can be used to enable fast checking of a
      few modules in a large program.

  LCLint does many of the traditional lint checks including unused
 declarations, type inconsistencies, use-before-definition, unreachable code,
 ignored return values, execution paths with no return, likely infinite loops,
 and fall-through cases.  This document focuses on more powerful checks that
 are made possible by additional information given in source code annotations.
 [2]  Annotations are stylized comments that document certain assumptions about
 functions, variables, parameters, and types. They may be used to indicate
 where the representation of a user-defined type is hidden, to limit where a
 global variable may be used or modified, to constrain what a function
 implementation may do to its parameters, and to express checked assumptions
 about variables, types, structure fields, function parameters, and function
 results.  In addition to the checks specifically enabled by annotations, many
 of the traditional lint checks are improved by exploiting this additional
 information.

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.2. LCLint User's Guide - 2. Operation ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 2. Operation

LCLint is invoked by listing files to be checked.  Initialization files,
command line flags, and stylized comments may be used to customize checking
globally and locally.

The best way to learn to use LCLint, of course, is to actually use it (if you
don't already have LCLint installed on your system, download it).  Before you
read much further in this document, I recommend finding a small C program.
Then, try running:

lclint *.c

For the most C programs, this will produce a large number of messages.  To turn
off reporting for some of the messages, try:

lclint -weak *.c

The -weak flag is a mode flag that sets many checking parameters to select
weaker checking than is done in the default mode.  Other LCLint flags will be
introduced in the following sections;  a complete list is given in Appendix C.

2.1 Messages

The format and content of messages printed by LCLint can be customized by the
user. A typical message is:

sample.c: (in function faucet)
sample.c:11:12: Fresh storage x not released before return
  A memory leak has been detected.  Newly-allocated or only-qualified storage
  is not released before the last reference to is it lost.  Use -mustfree to
  suppress message.
   sample.c:5:47: Fresh storage x allocated
 The first line gives the name of the function in which the error is found.
This is printed before the first message reported for a function.  (The
function context is not printed if -showfunc is used.)

The second line is the text of the message.  This message reports a memory leak
- storage allocated in a function is not deallocated before the function
returns. The text is preceded by the file name, line and column number where
the error is located.  The column numbers are used by the emacs mode (see
Appendix H) to jump to the appropriate line and column location.  (Column
numbers are not printed if -showcolumn is used.)

The next line is a hint giving more information about the suspected error. Most
hints also include information on how the message may be suppressed.  For this
message, setting the -mustfree flag would prevent the message from being
reported.  Hints may be turned off by using -hints.  Normally, a hint is given
only the first time a class of error is reported. To have LCLint print a hint
for every message regardless, use +forcehints.

The final line of the message gives additional location information.  For this
message, it tells where the leaking storage is allocated.

The generic message format is (parts enclosed in square brackets are optional):

  [<file>:<line> (in <context>)]
  <file>:<line>[,<column>]: message
     [hint]
      <file>:<line>,<column>: extra location information, if appopriate

The text of messages and hints may be longer than one line.  They are split
into lines of length less than the value set using -linelen <number>.  The
default line length is 80 characters.  LCLint attempts to split lines in a
sensible place as near to the line length limit as possible.

The +parenfileformat flag can be used to generate file locations in the format
recognized by Microsoft Developer Studio.  If +parenfileformat is set, the line
number follows the file name in parentheses (e.g., sample.c(11).).

 2.2 Flags

So that many programming styles can be supported, LCLint provides over 300
flags for controlling checking and message reporting.  Some of the flags are
introduced in the body of this document.  Apppendix C describes every flag.
Modes and shortcut flags are provided for setting many flags at once.
Individual flags can override the mode settings.

Flags are preceded by + or -.  When a flag is preceded by + we say it is on;
when it is preceded by - it is off. The precise meaning of on and off depends
on the type of flag.

The +/- flag settings are used for consistency and clarity, but contradict
standard UNIX usage and is easy to accidentally use the wrong one.  To reduce
the likelihood of using the wrong flag, LCLint issues warnings when a flag is
set in an unusual way.  Warnings are issued when a flag is redundantly set to
the value it already had (these errors are not reported if the flag is set
using a stylized comment), if a mode flag or special flag is set after a more
specific flag that will be set by the general flag was already set, if value
flags are given unreasonable values, of if flags are set in an inconsistent
way.  The -warnflags flag suppresses these warnings.

Default flag settings will be read from ~/.lclintrc if it is readable.  If
there is a .lclintrc file in the working directory, settings in this file will
be read next and its settings will override those in ~/.lclintrc.  Command-line
flags override settings in either file.  The syntax of the .lclintrc file is
the same as that of command-line flags, except that flags may be on separate
lines and the # character may be used to indicate that the remainder of the
line is a comment. The -nof flag prevents the  ~/.lclintrc file from being
loaded.  The -f <filename> flag loads options from filename.

 2.3 Stylized Comments

Stylized comments are used to provide extra information about a type, variable
or function interface to improve checking, or to control flag settings locally.

All stylized comments begin with /*@ and are closed by the end of the comment.
The role of the @ may be played by any printable character.  Use -commentchar
<char> to select a different stylized comment marker.

2.3.1 Annotations

Annotations are stylized comments that follow a definite syntax.  Although they
are comments, they may only be used in fixed grammatical contexts (e.g., like a
type qualifier).

Syntactic comments for function interfaces are described in Section 4; comments
for declaring constants in Section 8.1. and comments for declaring iterators in
Section 8.4. Sections 3-8 include descriptions of annotations for expressing
assumptions about variables, parameters, return values, structure fields and
type definitions.  A summary of annotations is found in Apppendix D.

2.3.2 Control Comments

Unlike annotations, control comments may appear between any two tokens in a C
program.[3]  Syntactically, they are no different from standard comments.
Control comments are used to provide source-level control of LCLint checking.
They may be used to suppress spurious messages, set flags, and control checking
locally in other ways.  A complete description of control comments is found in
Apppendix E.

Most flags (all except those characterized as "global" in Apppendix C) can be
set locally using control comments.  A control comment can set flags locally to
override the command line settings.  The original flag settings are restored
before processing the next file. The syntax for setting flags in control
comments is the same as that of the command line, except that flags may also be
preceded by = to restore their setting to the original command-line value.  For
instance,

/*@+boolint -modifies =showfunc@*/
sets boolint on (this makes bool and int indistinguishable types), sets
modifies off (this prevents reporting of modification errors), and sets
showfunc to its original setting (this controls  whether or not the name of a
function is displayed before a message).

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3. LCLint User's Guide - 3. Abstract Types ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 3. Abstract Types

Traditionally, programming books wax mathematical when they arrive at the topic
of abstract data typesЕ Such books make it seem as if you'd never actually use
an abstract data type except as a sleep aid.

- Steve McConnell

Information hiding is a technique for handling complexity.  By hiding
implementation details, programs can be understood and developed in distinct
modules and the effects of a change can be localized.  One technique for
information hiding is data abstraction.  An abstract type is used to represent
some natural program abstraction.  It provides functions for manipulating
instances of the type.  The module that implements these functions is called
the implementation module.  We call the functions that are part of the
implementation of an abstract type the operations of the type.  Other modules
that use the abstract type are called clients.

Clients may use the type name and operations, but should not manipulate or rely
on the actual representation of the type.  Only the implementation module may
manipulate the representation of an abstract type.  This hides information,
since implementers and maintainers of client modules should not need to know
anything about how the abstract type is implemented. It provides modularity,
since the representation of an abstract type can be changed without having to
change any client code.

LCLint supports abstract types by detecting places where client code depends on
the concrete representation of an abstract type.

To declare an abstract type, the abstract annotation is added to a typedef. For
example (in mstring.h),

typedef /*@abstract@*/ char *mstring;
declares mstring as an abstract type.  It is implemented using a char *, but
clients of the type should not depend on or need to be aware of this.  If it
later becomes apparent that a better representation such as a string table
should be used, we should be able to change the implementation of mstring
without having to change or inspect any client code.

In a client module, abstract types are checked by name, not structure.  LCLint
reports an error if an instance of mstring is passed as a char * (for instance,
as an argument to strlen), since the correctness of this call depends on the
representation of the abstract type.  LCLint also reports errors if any C
operator except assignment (=) or sizeof is used on an abstract type.  The
assignment operator is allowed since its semantics do not depend on the
representation of the type.[4]  The use of sizeof is also permitted, since this
is the only way for clients to allocate pointers to the abstract type.  Type
casting objects to or from abstract types in a client module is an abstraction
violation and will generate a warning message.

Normally, LCLint will assume a type definition is not abstract unless the
/*@abstract@*/ qualifier is used.  If instead you want all user-defined types
to be abstract types unless they are marked as concrete, the +impabstract flag
can be used.  This adds an implicit abstract annotation to any typedef that is
not marked with /*@concrete@*/.

Some examples of abstraction violations detected by LCLint are shown in Figure
2.



 3.1 Access

Where code may manipulate the representation of an abstract type, we say the
code has access to that type.  If code has access to an abstract type, the
representation of the type and the abstract type are indistinguishable.
Usually, an abstract type is implemented by a single program module that is the
only code that has access to the type representation.  Sometimes, more
complicated access control is desired if the implementation of an abstract type
is split across program files, or particular client code needs to access the
representation.

There are a several ways of selecting what code has access the representation
of an abstract type:

     Modules.  An abstract type defined in M.h is accessible in M.c.
      Controlled by the accessmodule flag.  This means when accessmodule is on,
      as it is by default, the module access rule is in effect.  If
      accessmodule is off (when -accessmodule is used), the module access rule
      is not in effect and an abstract type defined in M.h is not necessarily
      accessible in M.c


     File names.  An abstract type named type is accessible in files named
      type.<extenstion>.  For example, the representation of mstring is be
      accessible in mstring.h and mstring.c.  Controlled by the accessfile
      flag.


     Function names.  An abstract type named type may be accessible in a
      function named type_name or typeName.  For example, mstring_length and
      mstringLength would have access to the mstring abstract type.  Controlled
      by the naming convention (see Section 9).


     Access control comments. The syntax /*@access type,+@*/[6] allows the
      following code to access the representation of type.  Similarly,
      /*@noaccess type,+@*/ restricts access to the representation of type.
      The type in a noaccess comment must have been declared as an abstract
      type.


  3.2 Mutability

 We can view types as being mutable or immutable.  A type is mutable if the
 value of an instance of the type can be changed by passing it as a parameter
 to a function call.[7]  For example, the primitive type int is immutable.  If
 i is a local variable of type int and no variables point to the location where
 i is stored, the value of i must be the same before and after the call f(i).
 Structure and union types are also immutable, since they are copied when they
 are passed as arguments.  On the other hand, pointer types are mutable.  If x
 is a local variable of type int *, the value of *x (and hence, the value of
 the object x) can be changed by the function call g(x).

 The mutability of a concrete type is determined by its type definition. For
 abstract types, mutability does not depend on the type representation but on
 what operations the type provides. If an abstract type has operations that may
 change the value of instances of the type, the type is mutable.  If not, it is
 immutable.  The value of an instance of an immutable type never changes.
 Since object sharing is noticeable only for mutable types, they are checked
 differently from immutable types.

 The /*@mutable@*/ and /*@immutable@*/ annotations are used to declare an
 abstract type as mutable or immutable.  (If neither is used, the abstract type
 is assumed to be mutable.)  For example,

   typedef /*@abstract@*/ /*@mutable@*/ char *mstring;   typedef /*@abstract@*/
 /*@immutable@*/ int weekDay; declares mstring as a mutable abstract type and
 weekDay as  an immutable abstract type.

 Clients of  a mutable abstract type need to know the semantics of assignment.
 After the assignment expression s = t, do s and t refer to the same object
 (that is, will changes to the value of s also change the value of t)?

 LCLint prescribes that all abstract types have sharing semantics, so s and t
 would indeed be the same object.  LCLint will report an error if a mutable
 type is implemented with a representation (e.g., a struct) that does not
 provide sharing semantics (controlled by mutrep flag).

 The mutability of an abstract type is not necessarily the same as the
 mutability of its representation. We could use the immutable concrete type int
 to represent mutable strings using an index into a string table, or declare
 mstring as immutable as long as no operations are provided that modify the
 value of an mstring.

  3.3 Boolean Types

 Standard C has no boolean representation - the result of a comparison operator
 is an integer, and no type checking is done for test expressions.  Many common
 errors can be detected by introducing a distinct boolean type and stronger
 type checking.

 Use the - booltype name flag to select the type name used to represent boolean
 values[8]  Relations, comparisons and certain standard library functions are
 declared to return bool types.

  LCLint checks that the test expression in an if, while, or for statement or
 an operand to &&, || or ! is a boolean.  If the type of a test expression is
 not a boolean, LCLint will report an error depending on the type of the test
 expression and flag settings.  If the test expression has pointer type, LCLint
 reports an error if predboolptr is on (this can be used to prevent messages
 for the idiom of  testing if a pointer is not null without a comparison).  If
 it is type int, an error is reported if predboolint is on. For all other
 types, LCLint reports an error if predboolothers is on.

 Since using = instead of == is such a common bug, reporting of test
 expressions that are assignments is controlled by the separate predassign
 flag.  The message can be suppressed by adding extra parentheses around the
 test expression.

 Apppendix C (page 50) describes other flags for controlling boolean checking.

 Figure 3.  Boolean Checking

  3.4 Primitive C Types

 Two types have compatible type if their types are the same.
 - ANSI C, 3.1.2.6.

 Two types need not be identical to be compatible.
 - ANSI C, footnote to 3.1.2.6.  LCLint supports stricter checking of primitive
 C types.  The char and enum types can be checked as distinct types, and the
 different numeric types can be type-checked strictly.

  3.4.1 Characters

 The primitive char type can be type-checked as a distinct type.  If char is
 used as a distinct type, common errors involving assigning ints to chars are
 detected.

 The +charint flag can be used for checking legacy programs where char and int
 are used interchangeably.  If charint is on, char types indistinguishable from
 ints.  To keep char and int as distinct types, but allow chars to be used to
 index arrays, use +charindex.

 3.4.2 Enumerators

 Standard C treats user-declared enum types just like integers.  An arbitrary
 integral value may be assigned to an enum type, whether or not it was listed
 as an enumerator member.  LCLint checks each user-defined enum type as
 distinct type.  An error is reported if a value that is not an enumerator
 member is assigned to the enum type, or if an enum type is used as an operand
 to an arithmetic operator.

 If the enumint flag is on, enum and int types may be used interchangeably.
 Like charindex, if  the enumindex flag is on, enum types may be used to index
 arrays.

 3.4.3 Numeric Types

 LCLint reports where numeric types are used in dangerous or inconsistent ways.
 With the strictest checking, LCLint will report an error anytime numeric types
 do not match exactly.  If the relaxquals flag is on, only those
 inconsistencies which may corrupt values are reported.  For example, if an int
 is assigned to a variable of type long (or passed as a long formal parameter),
 LCLint will not report an error if relaxquals is on since a long must have at
 least enough bits to store an int without data loss.  On the other hand, an
 error would be reported if the long were assigned to an int, since the int
 type may not have enough bits to store the long value.

 Similarly, if a signed value is assigned to an unsigned, LCLint will report an
 error since an unsigned type cannot represent all signed values correctly.  If
 the ignoresigns flag is on, checking is relaxed to ignore all sign qualifiers
 in type comparisons (this is not recommended, since it will suppress reporting
 of real bugs, but may be necessary for quickly checking certain legacy code).

 3.4.4 Arbitrary Integral Types

  LCLint supports three different kinds of arbitrary integral types:

 / *@integraltype@*/

 An arbitrary integral type.  The actual type may be any one of short, int,
 long, unsigned short, unsigned, or unsigned long .

 /*@unsignedintegraltype@*/

 An arbitrary unsigned integral type.  The actual type may be any one of
 unsigned short, unsigned, or unsigned long .

 /*@signedintegraltype@*/

 An arbitrary signed integral type.  The actual type may be any one of short,
 int, or long.

 LCLint reports an error if the code depends on the actual representation of a
 type declared as an arbitrary integral.  The match-any-integral flag relaxes
 checking and allows an arbitrary integral type is allowed to match any
 integral type.

  Other flags set the arbitrary integral types to a concrete type.  These
 should only be used if portability to platforms that may use different
 representations is not important.  The long-integral and
 long-unsigned-integral flags set the type corresponding to /*@integraltype@*/
 to be unsigned long and long respectively. The long-unsigned-unsigned-integral
 flag sets the type corresponding to /*@unsignedintegraltype@*/ to be unsigned
 long. The long-signed-integral flag sets the type corresponding to
 /*@signedintegraltype@*/ to be long.

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.1. Figure 2.  Violations using abstract types. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 2.  Violations using abstract types.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.1.1. palindrome.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



palindrome.c

#include "bool.h"
#include "mstring.h"

bool isPalindrome (mstring s)
{
   char *current = (char *) s;
   int i, len = (int) strlen (s);

   for (i = 0; i <= (len+1)/2; i++)
     {
        if (current[i] != s[len-i-1])
           return FALSE;
     }
   return TRUE;
}

bool callPal (void)
{
   return (isPalindrome ("bob"));
}

































































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.1.1.1. bool.h ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



bool.h

#ifndef BOOL_H
#define BOOL_H

#ifndef FALSE
#define FALSE 0
#endif

#ifndef TRUE
#define TRUE (! FALSE)
#endif

typedef int bool;

# define bool_initMod()
# define bool_unparse(b) ((b) ? "true" : "false" )
# define bool_not(b) ((b) ? FALSE : TRUE)
# define bool_equal(a,b) ((a) ? (b) : !(b))

# endif




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.1.1.2. mstring.h ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



mstring.h

typedef /*@abstract@*/ char *mstring;





























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.1.2. fig2-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

palindrome.c: (in function isPalindrome)
palindrome.c:6,29: Cast from underlying abstract type
                      mstring: (char *)s
  An abstraction barrier is broken. If necessary, use
  /*@access @*/ to allow access to an abstract
  type. (-abstract will suppress message)
palindrome.c:7,31: Function strlen expects arg 1 to be
                      char * gets mstring: s
  Underlying types match, but mstring is an abstract
  type that is not accessible here.
palindrome.c:11,27: Array fetch from non-array
                       (mstring): s[len - i - 1]
  Types are incompatible. (-type will suppress
  message)
palindrome.c: (in function callPal)
palindrome.c:19,26: Function isPalindrome expects arg
    1 to be mstring gets char *: "bob"
  Underlying types match, but mstring is an abstract
  type that is not accessible here.

Finished LCLint checking --- 4 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.2. Figure 3.  Boolean checking. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 3.  Boolean checking.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.2.1. bool.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



bool.c

#include "bool.h"

int f (int i, char *s,
       bool b1, bool b2)
{
  if (i = 3)
    return b1;
  if (!i || s)
    return i;
  if (s)
    return 7;
  if (b1 == b2)
    return 3;
  return 2;
}





























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.3.2.2. fig3-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.4 --- 12 Apr 98

bool.c: (in function f)
bool.c:7,12: Return value type bool does not match
                declared type int: b1
  To make bool and int types equivalent, use +boolint.
bool.c:6,7: Test expression for if is assignment
               expression: i = 3
  The condition test is an assignment expression.
  Probably, you mean to use == instead of =. If an
  assignment is intended, add an extra parentheses
  nesting (e.g., if ((a = b)) ...) to suppress this
  message. (-predassign will suppress message)
bool.c:6,7: Test expression for if not bool, type int:
               i = 3
  Test expression type is not boolean or int.
  (-predboolint will suppress message)
bool.c:8,8: Operand of ! is non-boolean (int): !i
  The operand of a boolean operator is not a boolean.
  Use +ptrnegate to allow ! to be used on pointers.
  (-boolops will suppress message)
bool.c:8,13: Right operand of || is non-boolean (char
                *): !i || s
bool.c:10,7: Test expression for if not bool, type
                char *: s
  Test expression type is not boolean. (-predboolptr
  will suppress message)
bool.c:12,7: Use of == with bool variables (risks
    inconsistency because of multiple true values):
    b1 == b2
  Two bool values are compared directly using a C
  primitive. This may produce unexpected results since
  all non-zero values are considered TRUE, so
  different TRUE values may not be equal. The file
  bool.h (included in lclint/lib) provides bool_equal
  for safe bool comparisons. (-boolcompare will
  suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 7 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.4. LCLint User's Guide - 4. Function Interfaces ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 4. Function Interfaces

Functions communicate with their calling environment through an interface.  The
caller communicates the values of actual parameters and global variables to the
function, and the function communicates to the caller through the return value,
global variables and storage reachable from the actual parameters.  By keeping
interfaces narrow (i.e., restricting the amount of information visible across a
function interface), we can understand and implement functions independently.

A function prototype documents the interface to a function.  It serves as a
contract between the function and its caller.  In early versions of C, the
function "prototype" was very limited.  It described the type returned by the
function but nothing about its parameters.  The main improvement provided by
ANSI C was the ability to add information on the number and types of parameter
to a function.  LCLint provides the means to express much more about a function
interface: what global variable the function may use, what values visible to
the caller it may modify, if a pointer parameter may be a null pointer or point
to undefined storage, if storage pointed to by a parameter is deallocated
before the function returns, if the function may create new aliases to a
parameter, can the caller modify or deallocate the return value, etc.

The extra interface information places constraints on both how the function may
be called and how it may be implemented.  LCLint reports places where these
constrains are not satisfied.  Typically, these indicate bugs in the code or
errors in the interface documentation.

This section describes syntactic comments may be added to a function
declaration to document what global variables the function implementation may
use and what values visible to its caller it may modify.  Sections 5-7 describe
annotations may be added to parameters to constrain valid arguments to a
function and how these arguments may be used after the call and to the return
value to constrain results.

 4.1 Modifications

The modifies clause lists what values visible to the caller may be modified by
a function.  Modifies clauses limit what values a function may modify, but they
do not require that listed values are always modified.  The declaration,

int f (int *p, int *q) /*@modifies *p@*/;
declares a function f that may modify the value pointed to by its first
argument but may not modify the value of its second argument or any global
state.

LCLint checks that a function does not modify any caller-visible value not
encompassed by its  modifies clause and does modify all values listed in its
modifies clause on some possible execution of the function.  Figure 4 shows an
example of modifies checking done by LCLint.

 4.1.1 Special Modifications

A few special names are provided for describing function modifications:

internalState

The function modifies some internal state (that is, the value of a static
variable).  Even though a client cannot access the internal state directly, it
is important to know that something may be modified by the function call both
for clear documentation and for checking undefined order of evaluation (Section
10.1) and side-effect free parameters (Section 8.2.1).

 fileSystem

The function modifies the file system.  Any modification that may change the
system state is considered a file system modification.  All functions that
modify an object of type pointer to FILE also modify the file system.  In
addition, functions that do not modify a FILE pointer but modify some state
that is visible outside this process also modify the file system (e.g.,
rename).  The flag mod-file-system controls reporting of undocumented file
system modifications.  nothing

The function modifies nothing (i.e., it is side-effect free).

The syntactic comment, /*@*/ in a function declaration or definition (after the
parameter list, before the semi-colon or function body) denotes a function that
modifies nothing and does not use any global variables (see Section 4.2).

Figure 4.  Modifies checking.



 4.1.2 Missing Modifies Clauses

LCLint is designed so programs with many functions that are declared without
modifies clauses can be checked effectively.  Unless modnomods is in on, no
modification errors are reported checking a function declared with no modifies
clause.

A function with no modifies clause is an unconstrained function since there are
no documented constraints on what it may modify.  When an unconstrained
function is called, it is checked differently from a function declared with a
modifies clause.  To prevent spurious errors, no modification error is reported
at the call site unless the moduncon flag is on.  Flags control whether errors
involving unconstrained functions are reported for other checks that depend on
modifications (side-effect free macro parameters (Section 8.2.1), undefined
evaluation order (Section 10.1), and likely infinite loops (Section 10.2.1).)

 4.1.3 Limitations

Determining whether a function modifies a particular parameter or global is in
general an undecidable[9] problem.  To enable useful checking, certain
simplifying assumptions are necessary.  LCLint assumes an object is modified
when it appears on the left hand side of an assignment or it is passed to a
function as a parameter which may be modified by that function (according to
the called function's modifies clause). Hence, LCLint will report spurious
modification errors for assignments that do not change the value of an object
or modifications that are always reversed before a procedure returns.  The
/*@-mods@*/ and /*@=mods@*/ control comments can be used around these
modifications to suppress the message.

 4.2 Global Variables

Another aspect of a function's interface, is the global variables it uses.  A
globals list in a function declaration lists external variables that may be
used in the function body. LCLint checks that global variables used in a
procedure match those listed in its globals list. A global is used in a
function if it appears in the body directly, or it is in the globals list of a
function called in the body. LCLint reports if a global that is used in a
procedure is not listed in its globals list, and if a listed global is not used
in the function implementation.

 Figure 5 shows an example function definition with a globals list and
associated checking done by LCLint.

 4.2.1 Controlling Globals Checking

Whether on not an error is reported for a use of a global variable in a given
function depends on the scope of the variable (file static or external), the
checking annotation used in the variable declaration or the implicit annotation
if no checking annotation is used, whether or not the function is declared with
a globals list, and flag settings.

A global or file static variable declaration may be preceded by an annotation
to indicate how the variable should be checked.  In order of decreasing checks,
the annotations are:

/*@checkedstrict@*/

Strictest checking.  Undocumented uses and modifications of the variable are
reported in all functions whether or not they have a globals list (unless
checkstrictglobs is off).  /*@checked@*/

Undocumented use of the variable is reported in a function with a globals list,
but not in a function declared with no globals (unless globnoglobs is on).

 /*@checkmod@*/

Undocumented uses of the variable are not reported, but undocumented
modifications are reported.  (If modglobsnomods is on, errors are reported even
in functions declared with no modifies clause or globals list.)
/*@unchecked@*/

No messages are reported for undocumented use or modification of this global
variable.  If a variable has none of these annotations, an implicit annotation
is determined by the flag settings.

Different flags control the implicit annotation for variables declared with
global scope and variables declared with file scope (i.e., using the static
storage qualifier). To set the implicit annotation for global variables
declared in context (globs for external variables or statics for file static
variable) to be annotation (checked, checkmod, checkedstrict ) use
imp<annotation><context>.  For example, +impcheckedstrictstatics makes the
implicit checking on unqualified file static variables checkedstrict.  (See
Apppendix C, page 51, for a complete list of globals checking flags.)

 4.3 Declaration Consistency

LCLint checks that function declarations and definitions are consistent.  The
general rule is that the first declaration of a function imply all later
declarations and definitions.  If a function is declared in a header file, the
first declaration processed is its first declaration (if it is declared in more
than one header file an error is reported if redecl is set).  Otherwise, the
first declaration in the file defining the function is its first declaration.

Later declarations may not include variables in the globals list that were not
included in the first declaration.  The exception to this is when the first
declaration is in a header file and the later declaration or definition
includes file static variables.  Since these are not visible in the header
file, they can not be included in the header file declaration.  Similarly, the
modifies clause of a later declaration may not include objects that are not
modifiable in the first declaration.  The later declaration may be more
specific.  For example, if the header declaration is:

extern void setName (employee e, char *s) /*@modifies e@*/;
the later declaration could be,

   void setName (employee e, char *) /*@modifies e->name@*/;
If employee is an abstract type, the declaration in the header should not refer
to a particular implementation (i.e., it shouldn't rely on there being a name
field), but the implementation declaration can be more specific.

This rule also applies to file static variables.  The header declaration for a
function that modifies a file static variable should use modifies internalState
since file static variables are not visible to clients.  The implementation
declaration should list the actual file static variables that may be modified.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.4.1. Figure 4.  Modifies checking. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 4.  Modifies checking.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.4.1.1. modify.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



modify.c

void setx (int *x, int *y)
  /*@modifies *x@*/
{
  *y = *x;
}

void sety (int *x, int *y)
   /*@modifies *y@*/
{
   setx (y, x);
}





























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.4.1.2. fig4-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

modify.c: (in function setx)
modify.c:4,3: Undocumented modification of *y: *y = *x
  An externally-visible object is modified by a
  function, but not listed in its modifies clause.
  (-mods will suppress message)
modify.c:5,1: Suspect object listed in modifies of
                 setx not modified: *x
  An object listed in the modifies clause is not
  modified by the implementation of the function. The
  modification may not be detected if it is done
  through a call to an unspecified function. (-mustmod
  will suppress message)
   modify.c:1,6: Declaration of setx
modify.c:1,6: Function setx exported but not declared
                 in header file
  A declaration is exported, but does not appear in a
  header file. (-exportheader will suppress message)
   modify.c:5,1: Definition of setx
modify.c:7,6: Function sety exported but not declared
                 in header file
   modify.c:11,1: Definition of sety

Finished LCLint checking --- 4 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.4.2. Figure 5.  Globals checking. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 5.  Globals checking.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.4.2.1. globals.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



globals.c

int glob1, glob2;

int f (void) /*@globals glob1;@*/
{
   return glob2;
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.4.2.2. fig5-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

globals.c: (in function f)
globals.c:5,11: Undocumented use of global glob2
  A checked global variable is used in the function,
  but not listed in its globals clause. By default,
  only globals specified in .lcl files are checked. To
  check all globals, use +allglobals. To check globals
  selectively use /*@checked@*/ in the global
  declaration. (-globs will suppress message)
globals.c:3,5: Global glob1 listed but not used
  A global variable listed in the function's globals
  list is not used in the body of the function.
  (-globuse will suppress message)
globals.c:1,5: Variable glob1 exported but not
                  declared in header file
  A variable declaration is exported, but does not
  appear in a header file. (Used with exportheader.)
  (-exportheadervar will suppress message)
globals.c:1,12: Variable glob2 exported but not
                   declared in header file
globals.c:3,5: Function f exported but not declared in
                  header file
  A declaration is exported, but does not appear in a
  header file. (-exportheader will suppress message)
   globals.c:6,1: Definition of f

Finished LCLint checking --- 5 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5. LCLint User's Guide - 5. Memory Management ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 5. Memory Management

About half the bugs in typical C programs can be attributed to memory
management problems.  Memory management bugs are notoriously difficult to
detect through traditional techniques.  Often, the symptom of the bug is far
removed from its actual source.  Memory management bug often only appear
sporadically and some bugs may only be apparent when compiler optimizations are
turned on or the code is compiled on a different platform.  Run-time tools
offer some help, but are cumbersome to use and limited to detecting errors that
occur when test cases are run.  By detecting these errors statically, we can be
confident that certain types of errors will never occur and provide verified
documentation on the memory management behavior of a program.

LCLint can detect many memory management errors at compile time including:

     using storage that may have been freed (Section 5.2)


     failing to deallocate memory (Section 5.2)


     returning a pointer to stack-allocated storage (Section 5.2.6)


     undocumented or dangerous aliasing or storage sharing (Section 6)


     passing or returning storage that is not completely defined (Section 7.1)


     dereferencing a null pointers (Section 7.2)


  Most of these checks rely heavily on annotations added to programs to
 document assumptions related to memory management and pointer values.  By
 documenting these assumptions for function interfaces, variables, type
 definitions and structure fields, memory management bugs can be detected at
 their source -- where an assumption is violated.  In addition, precise
 documentation about memory management decisions makes its easier to change
 code.

  5.1 Storage Model[10]

  Yea, from the table of my memory I'll wipe away all trivial fond records, all
 saws of books, all forms, all pressures past, that youth and observation
 copied there.
 - Hamlet prefers garbage collection (Shakespeare, Hamlet. Act I, Scene v)
 This section describes execution-time concepts for describing the state of
 storage more precisely than can be done using standard C terminology.  Certain
 uses of storage are likely to indicate program bugs, and are reported as
 anomalies.

 LCL assumes a CLU-like object storage model.[11]  An object is a typed region
 of storage.  Some objects use a fixed amount of storage that is allocated and
 deallocated automatically by the compiler.

 Other objects use dynamic storage that must be managed by the program.

 Storage is undefined if it has not been assigned a value, and defined after it
 has been assigned a value.  An object is completely defined if all storage
 that may be reached from it is defined.  What storage is reachable from an
 object depends on the type and value of the object.  For example, if p is a
 pointer to a structure, p is completely defined if the value of p is NULL, or
 if every field of the structure p points to is completely defined.

 When an expression is used as the left side of an assignment expression we say
 it is used as an lvalue.  Its location in memory is used, but not its value.
 Undefined storage may be used as an lvalue since only its location is needed.
 When storage is used in any other way, such as on the right side of an
 assignment, as an operand to a primitive operator (including the indirection
 operator, *),[12] or as a

 function parameter, we say it is used as an rvalue.  It is an anomaly to use
 undefined storage as an rvalue.

 A pointer is a typed memory address.  A pointer is either live or dead.  A
 live pointer is either NULL or an address within allocated storage.  A pointer
 that points to an object is an object pointer.  A pointer that points inside
 an object (e.g., to the third element of an allocated block) is an offset
 pointer.  A pointer that points to allocated storage that is not defined is an
 allocated pointer.  The result of dereferencing an allocated pointer is
 undefined storage.  Hence, it is an anomaly to use it as an rvalue.  A dead
 (or "dangling") pointer does not point to allocated storage.  A pointer
 becomes dead if the storage it points to is deallocated (e.g., the pointer is
 passed to the free library function.)  It is an anomaly to use a dead pointer
 as an rvalue.

 There is a special object null corresponding to the NULL pointer in a C
 program.  A pointer that may have the value NULL is a possibly-null pointer.
 It is an anomaly to use a possibly-null pointer where a non-null pointer is
 expected (e.g., certain function arguments or the indirection operator).

  5.2 Deallocation Errors

 There are two kinds of deallocation errors with which we are concerned:
 deallocating storage when there are other live references to the same storage,
 or failing to deallocate storage before the last  reference to it is lost.  To
 handle these deallocation errors, we introduce a concept of an obligation to
 release storage.  Every time storage is allocated, it creates an obligation to
 release the storage.  This obligation is attached to the reference to which
 the storage is assigned.[13]  Before the scope of the reference is exited or
 it is assigned to a new value, the storage to which it points must be
 released.  Annotations can be used to indicate that this obligation is
 transferred through a return value, function parameter or assignment to an
 external reference.

  5.2.1 Unshared References

 `Tis in my memory lock'd, and you yourself shall keep the key of it.
 - Ophelia prefers explicit deallocation (Hamlet.  Act I, Scene iii)  The only
 annotation is used to indicate a reference is the only pointer to the object
 it points to.  We can view the reference as having an obligation to release
 this storage.  This obligation is satisfied by transferring it to some other
 reference in one of three ways:

     pass it as an actual parameter corresponding to a formal parameter
      declared with an only annotation
     assign it to an external reference declared with an only annotation
     return it as a result declared with an only annotation
  After the release obligation is transferred, the original reference is a dead
 pointer and the storage it points to may not be used.

 All obligations to release storage stem from primitive allocation routines
 (e.g., malloc), and are ultimately satisfied by calls to free.  The standard
 library declared the primitive allocation and deallocation routines.

 The basic memory allocator, malloc, is declared:[14]

  /*@only@*/ void *malloc (size_t size);
 It returns an object that is referenced only by the function return value.

 The deallocator, free, is declared:[15]

  void free (/*@only@*/ void *ptr);

 The parameter to free must reference an unshared object.  Since the parameter
 is declared using only, the caller may not use the referenced object after the
 call, and may not pass in a reference to a shared object.  There is nothing
 special about malloc and free -- their behavior can be described entirely in
 terms of the provided annotations.

 Figure 6.  Deallocation errors.



  5.2.2 Temporary Parameters

 The temp annotation is used to declare a function parameter that is used
 temporarily by the function.  An error is reported if the function releases
 the storage associated with a temp formal parameter or creates new aliases it
 that are visible after the function returns.  Any storage may be passed as a
 temp parameter, and it satisfies its original memory constraints after the
 function returns.

  5.2.3 Owned and Dependent References

 In real programs it is sometimes necessary to have storage that is shared
 between several possibly references.  The owned and dependent annotations
 provide a more flexible way of managing storage, at the cost of less checking.
 The owned annotation denotes a reference with an obligation to release
 storage. Unlike only, however, other external references marked with dependent
 annotations may share this object.  It is up to the programmer to ensure that
 the lifetime of a dependent reference is contained within the lifetime of the
 corresponding owned reference.

  5.2.4 Kept Parameters

 The keep annotation is similar to only, except the caller may use the
 reference after the call.  The called function must assign the keep parameter
 to an only reference, or pass it as a keep parameter to another function.  It
 is up to the programmer to make sure that the calling function does not use
 this reference after it is released.  The keep annotation is useful for adding
 an object to a collection (e.g., a symbol table), where it is known that it
 will not be deallocated until the collection is.

  5.2.5 Shared References

 If LCLint is used to check a program designed to be used in a
 garbage-collected environment, there may be storage that is shared by one or
 more references and never explicitly released.  The shared annotation declares
 storage that may be shared arbitrarily, but never released.

  5.2.6 Stack References

 Local variables that are not allocated dynamically are store on a call stack.
 When a function returns, its stack frame is deallocated, destroying the
 storage associated with the function's local variables.  A memory error occurs
 if a pointer into this storage is live after the function returns.  LCLint
 detects errors involving stack references exported from a function through
 return values or assignments to references reachable from global variables or
 actual parameters.  No annotations are needed to detect stack reference
 errors, since it is clear from a declaration if storage is allocated on the
 function stack.

 Figure 7.  Stack references.



  5.2.7 Inner Storage

 An annotation always applies to the outermost level of storage.  For example,

  /*@only@*/ int **x;
 declares x as an unshared pointer to a pointer to an int.  The only annotation
 applies to x, but not to *x.  To apply annotations to inner storage a type
 definition may be used:

    typedef /*@only@*/ int *oip;
    /*@only@*/ oip *x;
 Now, x is an only pointer to an oip, which is an only pointer to an int.

 When annotations are use in type definitions, they may be overridden in
 instance declarations.  For example,

  /*@dependent@*/ oip x;
 makes x a dependent pointer to an int.

  5.3 Implicit Memory Annotations

 Since it is important that LCLint can check unannotated programs effectively,
 the meaning of declarations with no memory annotations is chosen to minimize
 the number of annotations needed to get useful checking on an unannotated
 program.

 An implicit memory management annotation may be assumed for declarations with
 no explicit memory management annotation.  Implicit annotations are checked
 identically to the corresponding explicit annotation, except error messages
 indicate that they result from an implicit annotation.

 Unannotated function parameters are assumed to be temp.  This means if memory
 checking is turned on for an unannotated program, all functions that release
 storage referenced by a parameter or assign a global variable to alias the
 storage will produce error messages.  (Controlled by paramimptemp.)

 Unannotated return values, structure fields and global variables are assumed
 to be only.  With implicit annotations (on by default), turning on memory
 checking for an unannotated program will produce errors for any function that
 does not return unshared storage or assignment of shared storage to a global
 variable or structure field.[16]  (Controlled by retimponly, structimponly and
 globimponly .  The codeimponly flag sets all of the implicit only flags.)

 Figure 8.  Implicit annotations



  5.4 Reference Counting

 Another approach to memory management is to add a field to a type to
 explicitly keep track of the number of references to that storage.  Every time
 a reference is added or lost the reference count is adjusted accordingly;  if
 it would become zero, the storage is released.  Reference counting it
 difficult to do without automatic checking since it is easy to forget to
 increment or decrement the reference count, and exceedingly difficult to track
 down these errors.

 LCLint supports reference counting by using annotations to constrain the use
 of reference counted storage in a manner similar to other memory management
 annotations.

 A reference counted type is declared using the refcounted annotation.  Only
 pointer to struct types may be declared as reference counted, since reference
 counted storage must have a field to count the references.  One field in the
 structure (or integral type) is preceded by the refs annotation to indicate
 that the value of this field is the number of live references to the
 structure.

 For example (in rstring.h),

       typedef /*@abstract@*/ /*@refcounted@*/ struct {
            /*@refs@*/ int refs;
          char *contents;
        } *rstring;
 declares rstring as an abstract, reference-counted type.  The refs field
 counts the number of references and the contents field holds the contents of a
 string.

 All functions that return refcounted storage must increase the reference count
 before returning.  LCLint cannot determine if the reference count was
 increased, so any function that directly returns a reference to refcounted
 storage will produce an error.  This is avoided, by using a function to return
 a new reference (e.g., rstring_ref in Figure 9).

 A reference counted type may be passed as a temp or dependent parameter.  It
 may not be passed as an only parameter.  Instead, the killref annotation is
 used to denote a parameter whose reference is eliminated by the function call.
 Like only parameters, an actual parameter corresponding to a killref formal
 parameter may not be used in the calling function after the call.  LCLint
 checks that the implementation of a function releases all killref parameters,
 either by passing them as killref parameters, or assigning or returning them
 without increasing the reference count.

 Figure 9.  Reference counting.

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.1. Figure 6.  Deallocation errors. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 6.  Deallocation errors.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.1.1. only.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



only.c

extern /*@only@*/ int *glob;

/*@only@*/ int *
  f (/*@only@*/ int *x, int *y,
     int *z)
  /*@globals int *glob;@*/
{
  int *m = (int *)
    malloc (sizeof (int));

  glob = y;
  free (x);
  *m = *x;
  return z;
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.1.2. fig6-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

only.c: (in function f)
only.c:11,3: Only storage glob not released before
                assignment: glob = y
  A memory leak has been detected. Newly-allocated or
  only-qualified storage is not released before the
  last reference to it is lost. (-mustfree will
  suppress message)
   only.c:1,24: Storage glob becomes only
only.c:11,3: Implicitly temp storage y assigned to
                only: glob = y
  Temp storage (associated with a formal parameter) is
  transferred to a non-temporary reference. The
  storage may be released or new aliases created.
  (-temptrans will suppress message)
only.c:13,4: Dereference of possibly null pointer m:
                *m
  A possibly null pointer is dereferenced.  Value is
  either the result of a function which may return
  null (in which case, code should check it is not
  null), or a global, parameter or structure field
  declared with the null qualifier. (-nullderef will
  suppress message)
   only.c:8,12: Storage m may become null
only.c:13,9: Variable x used after being released
  Memory is used after it has been released (either by
  passing as an only param or assigning to and only
  global. (-usereleased will suppress message)
   only.c:12,9: Storage x released
only.c:14,10: Implicitly temp storage z returned as
                 only: z
only.c:14,12: Fresh storage m not released before
                 return
   only.c:9,27: Fresh storage m allocated

Finished LCLint checking --- 6 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.2. Figure 7.  Stack references. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 7.  Stack references.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.2.1. stack.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



stack.c

int *glob;

/*@dependent@*/
int *f (int **x)
{
  int sa[2] = { 0, 1 };
  int loc = 3;

  glob = &loc;
  *x = &sa[0];

  return &loc;
}





























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.2.2. fig7-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

stack.c: (in function f)
stack.c:12,10: Stack-allocated storage &loc reachable
                  from return value: &loc
  A stack reference is pointed to by an external
  reference when the function returns. The
  stack-allocated storage is destroyed after the call,
  leaving a dangling reference. (-stackref will
  suppress message)
;stack.c:12,15: Stack-allocated storage *x reachable
                  from parameter x
   stack.c:10,3: Storage *x becomes stack
stack.c:12,15: Stack-allocated storage glob reachable
                  from global glob
   stack.c:9,3: Storage glob becomes stack

Finished LCLint checking --- 3 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.3. Figure 8.  Implicit Annotations. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



implicit.c

typedef struct {
  /* only */ char *name;  /* implicit only annotation if +structimponly */
  int val;
} *rec;

extern /* only */ rec rec_last ; /* implicit only
annotation if +globimponly */

extern /* only */ rec   /* implicit if +retimponly */
  rec_create (/* temp */ char *name, /* implicit if +paramimptemp */
              int val);


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.4. Figure 9.  Reference counting. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 9.  Reference counting.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.4.1. rstring.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



rstring.c

#include "rstring.h"

static rstring rstring_ref (rstring r)
{
  r->refs++;
  return r;
}

rstring rstring_first (rstring r1, rstring r2)
{
  if (strcmp (r1->contents, r2->contents) < 0)
;    {
      return r1;
    }
  else
    {
      return rstring_ref (r2);
    }
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.4.1.1. rstring.h ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



rstring.h

typedef /*@abstract@*/ /*@refcounted@*/ struct {
   /*@refs@*/ int refs;
   char *contents;
} *rstring;






























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.5.4.2. fig9-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

rstring.c: (in function rstring_first)
rstring.c:13,14: Reference counted storage returned
    without modifying reference count: r1
  Reference counted storage is transferred in a way
  that may not be consistent with the reference count.
  (-refcounttrans will suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 1 code error found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6. LCLint User's Guide - 6. Sharing ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 6. Sharing

 Errors involving unexpected sharing of storage can cause serious problems.
Undocumented sharing may lead to unpredictable modifications, and some library
calls (e.g., strcpy) have undefined behavior if parameters share storage.
Another class of sharing errors occurs when clients of an abstract type may
obtain a reference to mutable storage that is part of the abstract
representation.  This exposes the representation of the abstract type, since
clients may modify an instance of the abstract type indirectly through this
shared storage.



 6.1 Aliasing

LCLint detects errors involving dangerous aliasing of parameters.  Some of
these errors are already detected through the standard memory annotations
(e.g., only parameters may not be aliases.)  Two additional annotations are
provided for constraining aliasing of parameters and return values.

 6.1.1 Unique Parameters

The unique annotation denotes a parameter that may not be aliased by any other
storage reachable from the function implementation -- that is, any storage
reachable through the other parameters or global variables used by the
function.  The unique annotation places similar constraints on function
parameters as the only annotation, but it does not transfer the obligation to
release storage.

LCLint will report an error if a unique parameter may be aliased by another
parameter or global variable.

 Figure 10.  Unique parameters.

 6.1.2 Returned Parameters

LCLint reports an error if a function returns a reference to storage reachable
from one of its parameters (if retalias is on) since this may introduce
unexpected aliases in the body of the calling function when the result is
assigned.

The returned annotation denotes a parameter that may be aliased by the return
value.  LCLint checks the call assuming the result may be an alias to the
returned parameter. Figure 11 shows an example use of a returned annotation.

 6.2 Exposure

LCLint detects places where the representation of an abstract type is exposed.
This occurs if a client has a pointer to storage that is part of the
representation of an instance of the abstract type.  The client can then modify
or examine the storage this points to, and manipulate the value of the abstract
type instance without using its operations.

There are three ways a representation may be exposed:

   1. Returning (or assigning to a global variable) an object that includes a
      pointer to a mutable component of an abstract type representation.
      (Controlled by retexpose).
   2. Assigning a mutable component of an abstract object to storage reachable
      from an actual parameter or a global variable that may be used after the
      call. This means the client may manipulate the abstract object using the
      actual parameter after the call.  Note that if the corresponding formal
      parameter is declared only, the caller may not use the actual parameter
      after the call so the representation is not exposed.  (Controlled by
      assignexpose).
   3. Casting mutable storage to or from an abstract type.  (Controlled by
      castexpose).
  Annotations may be used to allow exposed storage to be returned safely by
 restricting how the caller may use the returned storage.

  6.2.1 Read-Only Storage

 It is often useful for a function to return a pointer to internal storage (or
 a instance of a mutable abstract type) that is intended only as an observer.
 The caller may use the result, but should not modify the storage it points to.
 For example, consider an naΓòºve implementation of the employee_getName
 operation for the abstract employee type:

     typedef /*@abstract@*/ struct {
        char *name;
        int id;
     } *employee;
     ...
     char *employee_getName (employee e) { return e->name; }
 LCLint produces a message to indicate that the return value exposes the
 representation.  One solution would be to return a fresh copy of e->name. This
 is expensive, though, especially if we expect employee_getName is used mainly
 just to get a string for searching or printing.  Instead, we could change the
 declaration of employee_getName to:

  extern /*@observer@*/ char *employee_getName (employee e);
 Now, the original implementation is correct.  The declaration indicates that
 the result may not be modified by the caller, so it is acceptable to return
 shared storage.[17]  LCLint checks that the return value is not modified by
 the caller.  An error is reported if observer storage is modified directly,
 passed as a function parameter that may be modified, assigned to a global
 variable or reference derivable from a global variable that is not declared
 with an observer annotation, or returned as a function result or a reference
 derivable from the function result that is not annotation with an observer
 annotation.

 String Literals

 A program that attempts to modify a string literal has undefined behavior
 [ANSI, Section 3.1.4]. This is not enforced by most C compilers, and can lead
 to particularly pernicious bugs that only appear when optimizations are turned
 on and the compiler attempts to minimize storage for string literals.  LCLint
 can be used to check that string literals are not modified, by treating them
 as observer storage.  If readonlystrings is on (default in standard mode),
 LCLint will report an error if a string literal is modified.

  6.2.2 Exposed Storage

 Sometimes it is necessary to expose the representation of an abstract type.
 This may be evidence of a design flaw, but in some cases is justified for
 efficiency reasons.  The exposed annotation denotes storage that is exposed.
 It may be used on a return value for results that reference storage internal
 to an abstract representation, on a parameter value to indicate a parameter
 that may be assigned directly to part of an abstract representation,[18] or on
 a field of an abstract representation to indicate that external references to
 the storage may exist. An error is reported if exposed storage is released,
 but unlike an observer, no error is reported if it is modified.

 Figure 12 shows examples of exposure problems detected by LCLint.

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.1. Figure 10.  Unique parameters. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 10.  Unique parameters.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.1.1. unique.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



unique.c

# include <string.h>
;
void
capitalize (/*@out@*/ char *s,
            char *t)
{
  strcpy (s, t);
  *s = toupper (*s);
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.1.2. fig10-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

unique.c: (in function capitalize)
unique.c:7,11: Parameter 1 (s) to function strcpy is
    declared unique but may be aliased externally by
    parameter 2 (t)
  A unique or only parameter may be aliased by some
  other parameter or visible global. (-mayaliasunique
  will suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 1 code error found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.2. Figure 11.  Returned parameters. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 11.  Returned parameters.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.2.1. returned.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



returned.c

#include "intSet.h"

extern intSet intSet_insert
   (/*@returned@*/ intSet s, int x);

/*
** with returned, no error is reported, since the same
** storage is returned from insert, and returned
** from intSet_singleton as an implicit only result.
*/

intSet intSet_singleton (int x)
{
   return (intSet_insert (intSet_new (), x));
 }

/*
** without returned:
*/

extern intSet intSet_insert2 (intSet s, int x);

intSet intSet_singleton2 (int x)
{
  return (intSet_insert2 (intSet_new (), x));
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.2.1.1. intSet.h ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



intSet.h

typedef /*@abstract@*/ struct
{
  int nelements;
  int *elements;
} *intSet ;

extern intSet intSet_new (void);




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.2.2. fig11-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

returned.c: (in function intSet_singleton2)
returned.c:25,27: New fresh storage passed as
    implicitly temp (not released): intSet_new()
  A memory leak has been detected. Newly-allocated or
  only-qualified storage is not released before the
  last reference to it is lost. (-mustfree will
  suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 1 code error found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.3. Figure 12.  Exposure checking. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 12.  Exposure checking.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.3.1. exposure.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



exposure.c

#include "employee.h"

char *
employee_getName (employee e)
{
  return e->name;
}

/*@observer@*/ char *
employee_obsName (employee e)
{ return e->name; }

/*@exposed@*/ char *
employee_exposeName (employee e)
{ return e->name; }

void
employee_capName (employee e)
{
  char *name;

  name = employee_obsName (e);
  *name = toupper (*name);
}






























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.3.1.1. employee.h ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



employee.h

typedef /*@abstract@*/ struct
{
  char *name;
  int *id;
} *employee;




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.6.3.2. fig12-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

exposure.c: (in function employee_getName)
exposure.c:6,10: Function returns reference to
                    parameter e: e->name
  The returned value shares storage with a parameter
  or global. If a parameter is to be returned, use the
  returned qualifier. If the result is not modified,
  use the observer qualifier on the result type.
  Otherwise, exposed can be used, but limited checking
  is done. (-retalias will suppress message)
exposure.c:6,10: Return value exposes rep of employee:
                    e->name
  The return value shares storage with an instance of
  an abstract type. This means clients may have access
  to a pointer into the abstract representation. Use
  the observer qualifier to return exposed storage
  that may not be modified by the client. Use the
  exposed qualifier to return modifiable (but not
  deallocatable) exposed storage (dangerous).
  (-retexpose will suppress message)
exposure.c:6,18: Released storage e->name reachable
                    from parameter at return point
  Memory is used after it has been released (either by
  passing as an only param or assigning to and only
  global. (-usereleased will suppress message)
   exposure.c:6,10: Storage e->name is released
exposure.c: (in function employee_capName)
exposure.c:23,3: Suspect modification of observer
                    name: *name = toupper(*name)
  Storage declared with observer is possibly modified.
  Observer storage may not be modified. (-modobserver
  will suppress message)
exposure.c:4,1: Function employee_getName exported but
                   not declared in header file
  A declaration is exported, but does not appear in a
  header file. (-exportheader will suppress message)
   exposure.c:7,1: Definition of employee_getName
exposure.c:10,1: Function employee_obsName exported
                    but not declared in header file
   exposure.c:11,19: Definition of employee_obsName
exposure.c:14,1: Function employee_exposeName exported
                    but not declared in header file
   exposure.c:15,19: Definition of employee_exposeName
exposure.c:18,1: Function employee_capName exported
                    but not declared in header file
   exposure.c:24,1: Definition of employee_capName

Finished LCLint checking --- 8 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7. LCLint User's Guide - 7. Value Constraints ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 7. Value Constraints

LCLint can be used to constrain values of parameters, function results, global
variables, and derived storage such as structure fields.  These constraints are
checked at interface points -- where a function is called or returns. Section
7.1 describes how to constrain parameters, return values and structures to
detect use before definition errors.  A similar approach is used for
restricting the use of possibly null pointers in Section 7.2.  To do both well,
and avoid spurious errors, information about when and if a function returns if
useful.  Annotations for documenting execution control are described in Section
7.3.



 7.1 Use Before Definition

Like many static checkers, LCLint detects instances where the value of a
location is used before it is defined.  This analysis is done at the procedural
level.  If there is a path through the procedure that

uses a local variable before it is defined, a use before definition error is
reported.  Use before definition checking is controlled by the usedef flag.

LCLint can do more checking than standard checkers though, because the
annotations can be used to describe what storage must be defined and what
storage may be undefined at interface points. Unannotated references are
expected to be completely defined at interface points.  This means all storage
reachable from a global variable, parameter to a function, or function return
value is defined before and after a function call.

 7.1.1 Undefined Parameters

Sometimes, function parameters or return values are expected to reference
undefined or partially defined storage.  For example, a pointer parameter may
be intended only as an address to store a result, or a memory allocator may
return allocated but undefined storage.  The out annotation denotes a pointer
to storage that may be undefined.

LCLint does not report an error when a pointer to allocated but undefined
storage is passed as an out parameter.  Within the body of a function, LCLint
will assume an out parameter is allocated but not necessarily bound to a value,
so an error is reported if its value is used before it is defined.

LCLint reports an error if storage reachable by the caller after the call is
not defined when the function returns.  This can be suppressed by -mustdefine.
When checking a call, an actual parameter corresponding to an out parameter is
assumed to be completely defined after the call returns.

When checking unannotated programs, many spurious use before definition errors
may be reported  If impouts is on, no error is reported when an
incompletely-defined parameter is passed to a formal parameter with no
definition annotation, and the actual parameter is assumed to be defined after
the call.  The /*@in@*/ annotation can be used to denote a parameter that must
be completely defined, even if impouts is on.  If impouts is off, there is an
implicit in annotation on every parameter with no definition annotation.

Figure 13.  Use before definition.

 7.1.2 Relaxing Checking

The reldef annotation relaxes definition checking for a particular declaration.
Storage declared with a reldef annotation is assumed to be defined when it is
used, but no error is reported if it is not defined before it is returned or
passed as a parameter.

It is up to the programmer to check reldef fields are used correctly.  They
should be avoided in most cases, but may be useful for fields of structures
that may or may not be defined depending on other constraints.

 7.1.3 Partially Defined Structures

The partial annotated can be used to relax checking of structure fields.  A
structure with undefined fields may be passed as a partial parameter or
returned as a partial result.  Inside a function body, no error is reported
when the field of a partial structure is used.  After a call, all fields of a
structure that is passed as a partial parameter are assumed to be completely
defined.



 7.1.4 Global Variables

Special annotations can be used in the globals list of a function declaration
(Section 4.2) to describe the states of global variables before and after the
call.

If a global is preceded by undef, it is assumed to be undefined before the
call. Thus, no error is reported if the global is not defined when the function
is called, but an error is reported if the global is used in the function body
before it is defined.

The killed annotation denotes a global variable that may be undefined when the
call returns.  For globals that contain dynamically allocated storage, a killed
global variable is similar to an only parameter (Section 5.2).  An error is
reported if it contains the only reference to storage that is not released
before the call returns.

Figure 14.  Annotated globals lists.



 7.2 Null Pointers

A common cause of program failures is when a null pointer is dereferenced.
LCLint detects these errors by distinguishing possibly NULL pointers at
interface boundaries.

The null annotation is used to indicate that a pointer value may be NULL.  A
pointer declared with no null annotation, may not be NULL.  If null checking is
turned on (controlled by null), LCLint will report an error when a possibly
null pointer is passed as a parameter, returned as a result, or assigned to an
external reference with no null qualifier.

If a pointer is declared with the null annotation, the code must check that it
is not NULL on all paths leading to the a dereference of the pointer (or the
pointer being returned or passed as a value with no null annotation).
Dereferences of possibly null pointers may be protected by conditional
statements or assertions (to see how assert is declared see Section 7.3) that
check the pointer is not NULL.

Consider two implementations of firstChar in Figure 15. For firstChar1, LCLint
reports an error since the pointer that is dereferenced is declared with a null
annotation.  For firstChar2, no error is reported since the true branch of the
s == NULL if statement returns, so the dereference of s is only reached if s is
not NULL.



 7.2.1 Predicate Functions

Another way to protect null dereference, is to declare a function using
falsenull or truenull and call the function in a conditional statement before
the null-annotated pointer is dereferenced.  The falsenull and truenull
annotations may only be used on return values for functions that return a
boolean[19] result and whose first argument is a possibly null pointer.

A function is annotated with truenull is assumed to return TRUE if its first
parameter is NULL and FALSE otherwise. For example, if isNull is declared as,

   /*@truenull@*/ bool isNull (/*@null@*/ char *x);
we could write firstChar2:

   char firstChar2 (/*@null@*/ char *s)
   {
      if (isNull (s)) return '\0';
      return *s;
   }
No error is reported since the dereference of s is only reached if isNull(s) is
false, and since isNull is declared with the truenull annotation this means s
must not be null.

The falsenull annotation is not quite the opposite of truenull.  If a function
declared with falsenull returns TRUE, it means its parameter is not NULL.  If
it returns FALSE, the parameter may or may not be NULL.

For example, we could define isNonEmpty to return TRUE if its parameter is not
NULL and has least one character before the NUL terminator:

   /*@falsenull@*/ bool isNonEmpty (/*@null@*/ char *x)
   {
     return (x != NULL && *x != `\0');
   }
LCLint does not check that the implementation of a function declared with
falsenull or truenull is consistent with its annotation, but assumes the
annotation is correct when code that calls the function is checked.

 7.2.2 Overriding Null Types

The null annotation may be used in a type definition to indicate that all
instances of the type may be NULL.  For declarations of a type declared using
null, the null annotation in the type definition may be overridden with
notnull. This is particularly useful for parameters to hidden static operations
of abstract types where the null test has already been done before the function
is called, or function results of the type which are never NULL.  For an
abstract type, notnull may not be used for parameters to external functions,
since clients should not be aware of when the concrete representation may by
NULL.  Parameters to static functions in the implementation module, however,
may be declared using notnull, since they may only be called from places where
the representation is accessible.  Return values for static or external
functions may be declared using notnull.

Figure 16.  Using notnull.



 7.2.3 Relaxing Null Checking

An additional annotation, relnull may be used to relax null checking (relnull
is analogous to reldef for definition checking).  No error is reported when a
relnull value is dereferenced, or when a possibly null value is assigned to an
identifier declared using relnull.

This is generally used for structure fields that may or may not be null
depending on some other constraint.  LCLint does not report and error when NULL
is assigned to a relnull reference, or when a relnull reference is
dereferenced.  It is up to the programmer to ensure that this constraint is
satisfied before the pointer is dereferenced.

 7.3 Execution

To detect certain errors and avoid spurious errors, it is important to know
something about the control flow behavior of called functions. Without
additional information, LCLint assumes that all functions eventually return and
execution continues normally at the call site.

The exits annotation is used to denote a function that never returns.  For
example,

extern /*@exits@*/ void fatalerror (/*@observer@*/ char *s);
declares fatalerror to never return.  This allows LCLint to correctly analyze
code like,

   if (x == NULL) fatalerror ("Yikes!");
   *x = 3;
Other functions may exit, but sometimes (or usually) return normally.  The
mayexit annotation denotes a function that may or may not return.  This doesn't
help checking much, since LCLint must assume that a function declared with
mayexit returns normally when checking the code.

To be more precise, the trueexit and falseexit annotations may be used Similar
to truenull and falsenull (see Section 7.2.1), trueexit and falseexit mean that
a function always exits if the value of its first argument is TRUE or FALSE
respectively.  They may be used only on functions whose first argument has a
boolean type.

A function declared with trueexit must exit if the value of its argument is
TRUE, and a function declared with falseexit must exit if the value of its
argument is FALSE.  For example, the standard library declares assert as[20]:

/*@falseexit@*/ void assert (/*@sef@*/ bool /*@alt int@*/ pred);
This way, code like,

   assert (x != NULL);

   *x = 3;
is checked correctly, since the falseexit annotation on assert means the
deference of x is not reached is x != NULL is false.

7.4 Special Clauses

 Sometimes it is necessary to specify function interfaces at a lower level than
is possible with the standard annotations.  For example, if a function defines
some fields of a returned structure but does not define all the fields.  The
/*@special@*/ annotation is used to mark a parameter, global variable, or
return value that is described using special clauses.  The usual implicit
definition rules do not apply to a special declaration.

Special clauses may be used to constrain the state of a parameter or return
value before or after a call.  One or more special clauses may appear in a
function declaration, before the modifies or globals clauses.  Special clauses
may be listed in any order, but the same special clause should not be used more
than once.  Parameters used in special clauses must be annotated with
/*@special@*/ in the function header.  In a special clause list, result is used
to refer to the return value of the function.  If result appears in a special
clause, the function return value must be annotated with /*@special@*/.

The following special clauses are used to describe the definition state or
parameters before and after the function is called and the return value after
the function returns:

 /*@uses references@*/

References in the uses clause must be completely defined before the function is
called.  They are assumed to be defined at function entrance when the function
is checked.  /*@sets references@*/

References in the sets clause must be allocated before the function is called.
They are completely defined after the function returns. When the function is
checked, they are assumed to be allocated at function entrance and an error is
reported if there is a path on which they are not defined before the function
returns.  /*@defines references@*/

References in the defines clause must not refer to unshared, allocated storage
before the function is called.  They are completely defined after the function
returns. When the function is checked, they are assumed to be undefined at
function entrance and an error is reported if there is a path on which they are
not defined before the function returns.  /*@allocates references@*/

References in the allocates clause must not refer to unshared, allocated
storage before the function is called.  They are allocated but not necessarily
defined after the function returns. When the function is checked, they are
assumed to be undefined at function entrance and an error is reported if there
is a path on which they are not allocated before the function returns.
/*@releases references@*/

References in the releases clause are deallocated by the function.  They must
correspond to storage which could be passed as an only parameter before the
function is called, and are dead pointers after the function returns.  When the
function is checked, they are assumed to be allocated at function entrance and
an error is reported if they refer to live, allocated storage at any return
point.

 Additional generic special clauses can be used to describe other aspects of
the state of inner storage before or after a call.  Generic special clauses
have the form state:constraint.  The state is either pre (before the function
is called), or post (after the function is called).  The constraint is similar
to an annotation.  The following constraints are supported:



Aliasing Annotations

 pre:only, post:only
pre:shared, post:shared
pre:owned, post:owned
pre:dependent, post:dependent

References refer to only, shared, owned or dependent storage before (pre) or
after (post) the call.

Exposure Annotations

 pre:observer, post:observer
pre:exposed, post:exposed

 References refer to observer or exposed storage before (pre) or after (post)
the call.

Null State Annotations

 pre:isnull, post:isnull

References have the value NULL before (pre) or after (post) the call. Note,
this is not the same name or meaning as the null annotation (which means the
value may be NULL.)  pre:notnull, post:notnull

References do not have the value NULL before (pre) or after (post) the call.
Some examples of special clauses are shown in Figure 17. The defines clause for
record_new indicates that the id field of the structure pointed to by the
result is defined, but the name field is not.  So, record_create needs to call
record_setName to define the name field.  Similarly, the releases clause for
record_clearName indicates that no storage is associated with the name field of
its parameter after the return, so no failure to deallocate storage message is
produced for the call to free in record_free.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.1. Figure 13.  Use before definition. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 13.  Use before definition.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.1.1. usedef.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



usedef.c

extern void
  setVal (/*@out@*/ int *x);
extern int
  getVal (/*@in@*/ int *x);
extern int mysteryVal (int *x);

int
dumbfunc (/*@out@*/ int *x, int i)
{
  if (i > 3)
;    return *x;
  else if (i > 1)
;    return getVal (x);
  else if (i == 0)
    return mysteryVal (x);
  else
    {
      setVal (x);
      return *x;
    }
}


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.1.2. fig13-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

usedef.c: (in function dumbfunc)
usedef.c:11,12: Value *x used before definition
  An rvalue is used that may not be initialized to a
  value on some execution path. (-usedef will suppress
  message)
usedef.c:13,20: Passed storage x not completely
    defined (*x is undefined): getVal (x)
  Storage derivable from a parameter, return value or
  global is not defined. Use /*@out@*/ to denote
  passed or returned storage which need not be
  defined. (-compdef will suppress message)
usedef.c:15,24: Passed storage x not completely
    defined (*x is undefined): mysteryVal (x)

Finished LCLint checking --- 3 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.2. Figure 14.  Annotated Globals Lists. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 14.  Annotated Globals Lists.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.2.1. annotglobs.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



annotglobs.c

int globnum;

struct {
  char *firstname;
  char *lastname;
  int id;
} globname;

void
initialize (/*@only@*/ char *name)
  /*@globals undef globnum,
             undef globname @*/
{
  globname.id = globnum;
  globname.lastname = name;
}

void finalize (void)
   /*@globals killed globname@*/
{
  free (globname.lastname);
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.2.2. fig14-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

annotglobs.c: (in function initialize)
annotglobs.c:14,17: Undef global globnum used before
                       definition
  An rvalue is used that may not be initialized to a
  value on some execution path. (-usedef will suppress
  message)
annotglobs.c:16,2: Global storage globname contains 1
    undefined field when call returns: firstname
  Storage derivable from a parameter, return value or
  global is not defined. Use /*@out@*/ to denote
  passed or returned storage which need not be
  defined. (-compdef will suppress message)
annotglobs.c: (in function finalize)
annotglobs.c:22,2: Only storage globname.firstname
    (type char *) derived from killed global is not
    released (memory leak)
  A storage leak due to incomplete deallocation of a
  structure or deep pointer is suspected. Unshared
  storage that is reachable from a reference that is
  being deallocated has not yet been deallocated.
  LCLint assumes when an object is passed as an out
  only void pointer that the outer object will be
  deallocated, but the inner objects will not.
  (-compdestroy will suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 3 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.3. Figure 15.  Null checking. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 15.  Null checking.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.3.1. null.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



null.c

char firstChar1 (/*@null@*/ char *s)
{
  return *s;
}

char firstChar2 (/*@null@*/ char *s)
{
  if (s == NULL) return '\0';
  return *s;
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.3.2. fig15-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

null.c: (in function firstChar1)
null.c:3,11: Dereference of possibly null pointer s:
                *s
  A possibly null pointer is dereferenced.  Value is
  either the result of a function which may return
  null (in which case, code should check it is not
  null), or a global, parameter or structure field
  declared with the null qualifier. (-nullderef will
  suppress message)
   null.c:1,35: Storage s may become null

Finished LCLint checking --- 1 code error found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.4. Figure 16.  Using notnull. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 16.  Using notnull.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.4.1. mstringnn.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



mstringnn.c

typedef /*@abstract@*/ /*@null@*/ char *mstring;

static mstring mstring_createNew (int x) ;

mstring mstring_space1 (void)
{
  mstring m = mstring_createNew (1);

  /* error, since m could be NULL */
  *m = ' '; *(m + 1) = '\0';
  return m;
}

static /*@notnull@*/ mstring mstring_createNewNN (int x) ;

mstring mstring_space2 (void)
{
  mstring m = mstring_createNewNN (1);

  /* no error, because of notnull annotation */
  *m = ' '; *(m + 1) = '\0';
  return m;
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.7.4.2. fig16-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

mstringnn.c: (in function mstring_space1)
mstringnn.c:10,4: Dereference of possibly null pointer
                     m: *m
  A possibly null pointer is dereferenced.  Value is
  either the result of a function which may return
  null (in which case, code should check it is not
  null), or a global, parameter or structure field
  declared with the null qualifier. (-nullderef will
  suppress message)
   mstringnn.c:7,15: Storage m may become null

Finished LCLint checking --- 1 code error found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.8. LCLint User's Guide - 8. Macros ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 8. Macros

Macros are commonly used in C programs to implement constants or to mimic
functions without the overhead of a function call.  Macros that are used to
implement functions are a persistent source of bugs in C programs, since they
may not behave like the intended function when they are invoked with certain
parameters or used in certain syntactic contexts.

LCLint eliminates most of the potential problems by detecting macros with
dangerous implementations and dangerous macro invocations.  Whether or not a
macro definition is checked or expanded normally depends on flag settings and
control comments (see Section 8.3).  Stylized macros can also be used to define
control structures for iterating through many values (see Section 8.4).

 8.1 Constant Macros

Macros may be used to implement constants.  To get type-checking for constant
macros, use the  constant syntactic comment:

/*@constant null char *mstring_undefined@*/
Declared constants are not expanded and are checked according to the
declaration.  A constant with a null annotation may be used as only storage.

 8.2 Function-like Macros

Using macros to imitate functions is notoriously dangerous.  Consider this
broken macro for squaring a number:

# define square(x) x * x
This works fine for a simple invocation like square(i).  It behaves
unexpectedly, though, if it is invoked with a parameter that has a side effect.

For example, square(i++) expands to i++ * i++.  Not only does this give the
incorrect result, it has undefined behavior since the order in which the
operands are evaluated is not defined.  (See Section 10.1 for more information
on how expressions exhibiting undefined evaluation order behavior are detected
by LCLint.)  To correct the problem we either need to rewrite the macro so that
its parameter is evaluated exactly once, or prevent clients from invoking the
macro with a parameter that has a side-effect.

Another possible problem with macros is that they may produce unexpected
results because of operator precedence rules.  The invocation, square(i+1)
expands to i+1*i+1, which evaluates to i+i+1 instead of the square of i+1.  To
ensure the expected behavior, the macro parameter should be enclosed in
parentheses where it is used in the macro body.

Macros may also behave unexpectedly if they are not syntactically equivalent to
an expression.  Consider the macro definition,

# define incCounts()  ntotal++; ncurrent++;
This works fine, unless it is used as a statement.  For example,

if (x < 3) incCounts();
increments ntotal if x < 3 but always increments ncurrent.

One solution is to use the comma operator to define the macro:

# define incCounts()  (ntotal++, ncurrent++)
More complicated macros can be written using a do Е while construction:

  # define incCounts() \
     do { ntotal++; ncurrent++; } while (FALSE)
LCLint detects these pitfalls in macro definitions, and checks that a macro
behaves as much like a function as possible.  A client should only be able to
tell that a function was implemented by a macro if it attempts to use the macro
as a pointer to a function.

These checks are done by LCLint on a macro definition corresponding to a
function:

     Each parameter to a macro (except those declared to be side-effect free,
      see Section 8.2.1) must be used exactly once in all possible executions
      of the macro, so  side-effecting arguments behave as expected.[21]
      (Controlled by macroparams.)
     A parameter to a macro may not be used as the left hand side of an
      assignment expression or as the operand of an increment or decrement
      operator in the macro text, since this produces non-functional behavior.
      (Controlled by macroassign.)
     Macro parameters must be enclosed in parentheses when they are used in
      potentially dangerous contexts.  (Controlled by macroparens.)
     A macro definition must be syntactically equivalent to a statement when
      it is invoked followed by a semicolon. (Controlled by macrostmt.)
     The type of the macro body must match the return type of the
      corresponding function.  If the macro is declared with type void, its
      body may have any type but the macro value may not be used.
     All variables declared in the body of a macro definition must be in the
      macro variable namespace, so they do not conflict with variables in the
      scope where the macro is invoked (which may be used in the macro
      parameters).  By default, the macro namespace is all names prefixed by
      m_.  (See Section 9.2 for information on controlling namespaces.)
  At the call site, a macro is checked like any other function call.

  8.2.1 Side-Effect Free Parameters

 Suppose we really do want to implement square as a macro, but want do so in a
 safe way.  One way to do this is to require that it is never invoked with a
 parameter that has a side-effect.  LCLint will check that this constraint
 holds, if the parameter is annotated to be side-effect free.  That is, the
 expression corresponding to this parameter must not modify any state, so it
 does not matter how many times it is evaluated.  The sef annotation is used to
 denote a parameter that may not have any side-effects:

     extern int square (/*@sef@*/ int x);
     # define square(x) ((x) *(x))
 Now, LCLint will not report an error checking the definition of square even
 though x is used more than once.

 A message will be reported, however, if square is invoked with a parameter
 that has a side-effect.

 For the code fragment,

  square (i++)
 LCLint produces the message:

     Parameter 1 to square is declared sef, but the argument may modify i: i++
 It is also an error to pass a non-sef macro parameter as a sef macro parameter
 in the body of a macro definition.  For example,

     extern int sumsquares (int x, int y);
     # define sumsquares(x,y) (square(x) + square(y))
 Although x only appears once in the definition of sumsquares it will be
 evaluated twice since square is expanded. LCLint reports an error when a
 non-sef macro parameter is passed as a sef parameter.

 A parameter may be passed as a sef parameter without an error being reported,
 if LCLint can determine that evaluating the parameter has no side-effects.
 For function calls, the modifies clause is used to determine if a side-effect
 is possible.[22]  To prevent many spurious errors, if the called function has
 no modifies clause, LCLint will report an error only if sefuncon is on.
 Justifiably paranoid programmers will insist on setting sefuncon on, and will
 add modifies clauses to unconstrained functions that are used in sef macro
 arguments.

  8.2.2 Polymorphism

 One problem with our new definition of square is that while the original macro
 would work for parameters of any numeric type, LCLint will now report an error
 is the new version is used with a non-integer parameter.

 We can use the /*@alt type;,+@> syntax to indicate that an alternate type may
 be used.  For example,

    extern int /*@alt float@*/ square (/*@sef@*/ int /*@alt float@*/ x);
    # define square(x) ((x) *(x))
 declares square for both ints and floats.

 Alternate types are also useful for declaring functions for which the return
 value may be safely ignored (see Section 10.3.2).

  8.3 Controlling Macro Checking

 By default, LCLint expands macros normally and checks the resulting code after
 macros have been expanded.  Flags and control comments may be used to control
 which macros are expanded and which are checked as functions or constants.

 If  the fcnmacros flag is on, LCLint assumes all macros defined with parameter
 lists implement functions and checks them accordingly.  Parameterized macros
 are not expanded and are checked as functions with unknown result and
 parameter types (or using the types in the prototype, if one is given).  The
 analogous flag for macros that define constants is constmacros.  If it is on,
 macros with no parameter lists are assumed to be constants, and checked
 accordingly.  The allmacros flag sets both fcnmacros and constmacros.  If the
 macrofcndecl flag is set, a message reports parameterized macros with no
 corresponding function prototype.  If the macroconstdecl flag is set, a
 similar message reports macros with no parameters with no corresponding
 constant declaration.

 The macro checks described in the previous sections make sense only for macros
 that are intended to replace functions or constants.  When fcnmacros or
 constmacros is on, more general macros need to be marked so they will not be
 checked as functions or constants, and will be expanded normally.  Macros
 which are not meant to behave like functions should be preceded by the
 /*@notfunction@*/ comment.  For example,

     /*@notfunction@*/
     # define forever for(;;)
 Macros preceded by notfunction are expanded normally before regular checking
 is done.  If a macro that is not syntactically equivalent to a statement
 without a semi-colon (e.g., a macro which enters a new scope) is not preceded
 by notfunction, parse errors may result when fcnmacros or constmacros is on.

  8.4 Iterators

 It is often useful to be able to execute the same code for many different
 values.  For example, we may want to sum all elements in an intSet that
 represents a set of integers.  If intSet is an abstract type, there is no easy
 way of doing this in a client module without depending on the concrete
 representation of the type.  Instead, we could provide such a mechanism as
 part of the type's implementation.  We call a mechanism for looping through
 many values an iterator.

 The C language provides no mechanism for creating user-defined iterators.
 LCLint supports a stylized form of iterators declared using syntactic comments
 and defined using macros.

 Iterator declarations are similar to function declarations except instead of
 returning a value, they assign values to their yield parameters in each
 iteration.  For example, we could add this iterator declaration to intSet.h:

  /*@iter intSet_elements (intSet s, yield int el);@*/
 The yield annotation means that the variable passed as the second actual
 argument is declared as a local variable of type int and assigned a value in
 each loop iteration.

 Defining Iterators

 An iterator is defined using a macro.  Here's one (not particularly efficient)
 way of defining intSet_elements:

     typedef /*@abstract@*/ struct {
        int nelements;
        int *elements;
     } intSet;
     ...
     # define intSet_elements(s,m_el) \
       { int m_i; \
         for (m_i = (0); m_i <= ((s)->nelements); m_i++) { \
             int m_el = (s)->elements[(m_i)];

     # define end_intSet_elements }}
 Each time through the loop, the yield parameter m_el is assigned to the next
 value.  After all values have been assigned to m_el for one iteration, the
 loop terminates.  Variables declared by the iterator macro (including the
 yield parameter) are preceded by the macro variable namespace prefix m_ (see
 Section 8.2) to avoid conflicts with variables defined in the scope where the
 iterator is used.

 Using Iterators

 The general structure for using an iterator is,

 iter (<params>) stmt; end_iter

 For example, a client could use intSet_elements to sum the elements of an
 intSet:

     intSet s;
     int sum = 0;
     ...
     intSet_elements (s, el) {
        sum += el;
     } end_intSet_elements;
 The actual parameter corresponding to a yield parameter, el, is not declared
 in the function scope.  Instead, it is declared by the iterator and assigned
 to an appropriate value for each iteration.

 LCLint will do the following checks for uses of stylized iterators:

     An invocation of the iterator iter must be balanced by a corresponding
      end, named end_iter.
     All actual parameters must be defined, except those corresponding to
      yield parameters.
     Yield parameters must be new identifiers, not declared in the current
      scope or any enclosing scope.
  Iterators are a bit awkward to implement, but they enable compact, easily
 understood client code.  For abstract collection types, an iterator can be
 used to enable clients to operate on elements of the collection without
 breaking data abstraction.

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.9. LCLint User's Guide - 9. Naming Conventions ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 9.  Naming Conventions

Naming conventions tend to be a religious issue. Generally, it doesn't matter
too much what naming convention is followed as long as one is chosen and
followed religiously.  There are two kinds of naming conventions supported by
LCLint.  Type-based naming conventions (Section 9.1) constrain identifier names
according to the abstract types that are accessible where the identifier is
defined.  Prefix naming conventions (Section 9.2) constrain the initial
characters of identifier names according to what is being declared and its
scope.  Naming conventions may be combined or different conventions may be
selected for different kinds of identifiers.  In addition, LCLint supports
checking that names do not conflict with names reserved for the standard
library or implementation (Section 9.3) and that names are sufficiently
distinguishable from other names.

9.1 Type-Based Naming Conventions

Generic naming conventions constrain valid names of identifiers.  By limiting
valid names, namespaces may be preserved and programs may be more easily
understood since the name gives clues as to how and where the name is defined
and how it should be used.

Names may be constrained by the scope of the name (external, file static,
internal), the file in which the identifier is defined, the type of the
identifier, and global constraints.

9.1.1 Czech Names

Of course, this is a complete jumble to the uninitiated, and that's the joke.
- Charles Simonyi, on the Hungarian naming convention

Czech[23] names denote operations and variables of abstract types by preceding
the names by <type>_.  The remainder of the name should begin with a lowercase
character, but may use any other character besides the underscore.  Types may
be named using any non-underscore characters.

The Czech naming convention is selected by the czech flag.  If accessczech is
on, a function, variable, constant or iterator named <type>_<name> has access
to the abstract type <type>.

Reporting of violations of the Czech naming convention is controlled by
different flags depending on what is being declared:

czechfcns

Functions and iterators.  An error is reported for a function name of the form
<prefix>_<name> where <prefix> is not the name of an accessible type.  Note
that if accessczech is on, a type named <prefix> would be accessible in a
function beginning with <prefix>_.  If accessczech is off, an error is reported
instead. An error is reported for a function name that does not have an
underscore if any abstract types are accessible where the function is defined.
czechvars
czechconstants
czechmacros

Variables, constants and expanded macros.  An error is reported if the
identifier name starts with <prefix>_ and prefix is not the name of an
accessible abstract type, or if an abstract type is accessible and the
identifier name does not begin with <type>_ where type is the name of an
accessible abstract type.  If accessczech is on, the representation of the type
is visible in the constant or variable definition.  czechtypes

User-defined types.  An error is reported if a type name includes an underscore
character.

9.1.2 Slovak Names

Slovak names are similar to Czech names, except they are spelled differently. A
Slovak name is of the form <type><Name>.  The type prefix may not use uppercase
characters.  The remainder of the name starts with the first uppercase
character.

The slovak flag selects the Slovak naming convention.  Like Czech names, it may
be used with accessslovak to control access to abstract representations. The
slovakfcns, slovakvars, slovakconstants, and slovakmacros flags are analogous
to the similar Czech flags.  If slovaktype is on, an error is reported if a
type name includes an uppercase letter.

 9.1.3 Czechoslovak Names

Czechoslovak names are a combination of Czech names and Slovak names.
Operations may be named either <type>_ followed by any sequence of
non-underscore characters, or <type> followed by an uppercase letter and any
sequence of characters.  Czechoslovak names have been out of favor since 1993,
but may be necessary for checking legacy code. The czechoslovakfcns,
czechoslovakvars, czechoslovakmacros, and czechoslovakconstants flags are
analogous to the similar Czech flags.  If czechoslovaktype is on, an error is
reported if a type name contains either an uppercase letter or an underscore
character.

 9.2 Namespace Prefixes

Another way to restrict names is to constrain the leading character sequences
of various kinds of identifiers.  For example, a the names of all user-defined
types might begin with "T" followed by an uppercase letter and all file static
names begin with an uppercase letter.  This may be useful for enforcing a
namespace (e.g., all names exported by the X-windows library should begin with
"X") or just making programs easier to understand by establishing an enforced
convention.  LCLint can be used to constrain identifiers in this way to detect
identifiers inconsistent with prefixes.

All namespace flags are of the form, -<context>prefix <string>.  For example,
the macro variable namespace restricting identifiers declared in macro bodies
to be preceded by "m_" would be selected by -macrovarprefix "m_".  The string
may contain regular characters that may appear in a C identifier.  These must
match the initial characters of the identifier name.  In addition, special
characters (shown in Table 1) can be used to denoted a class of characters.[24]
The * character may be used at the end of a prefix string to specify the rest
of the identifier is zero or more characters matching the character immediately
before the *. For example, the prefix string "T&*" matches "T" or "TWINDOW" but
not "Twin".

^    Any uppercase letter, A-Z
&    Any lowercase letter, a-z
%    Any character that is not an uppercase letter (allows lowercase
     letters, digits and underscore)
~    Any character that is not a lowercase letter (allows uppercase letters,
     digits and underscore)
$    Any letter (a-z, A-Z)
/    Any letter or digit (A-Z, a-z, 0-9)
?    Any character valid in a C identifier
#    Any digit, 0-9

Table 1.  Prefix character codes.

 Different prefixes can be selected for the following identifier contexts:

macrovarprefix

 Any variable declared inside a macro body  uncheckedmacroprefix

 Any macro that is not checked as a function or constant (see Section 8.4)
tagprefix

Tags for struct, union and enum declarations  enumprefix

Members of enum types  typeprefix

Name of a user-defined type  filestaticprefix

Any identifier with file static scope  globvarprefix

Any variable (not of function type) with global variables scope  externalprefix

Any exported identifier

If an identifier is in more than one of the namespace contexts, the most
specific defined namespace prefix is used (e.g., a global variable is also an
exported identifier, so if globalvarprefix is set, it is checked against the
variable name; if not, the identifier is checked against the externalprefix.)

For each prefix flag, a corresponding flag named <prefixname>exclude controls
whether errors are reported if identifiers in a different namespace match the
namespace prefix.  For example, if macrovarprefixexclude is on, LCLint checks
that no identifier that is not a variable declared inside a macro body uses the
macro variable prefix.

Here is a (somewhat draconian) sample naming convention:

-uncheckedmacroprefix "~*"
    unchecked macros have no lowercase letters
 -typeprefix "T^&*"
 all type typenames begin with T followed by an uppercase letter.  The rest of
the name is all lowercase letters.
+typeprefixexclude
no identifier that does not name a user-defined type may begin with the type
name prefix (set above)
 -filestaticprefix"^&&&"
 file static scope variables begin with an uppercase letter and three lowercase
letters
 -globvarprefix "G"
 all global variables variables start with G
 +globvarprefixexclude
no identifier that is not a global variable starts with G



 9.3 Naming Restrictions

 Additional naming restrictions can be used to check that names do no conflict
with names reserved for the standard library, and that identifier are
sufficiently distinct (either for the compiler and linker, or for the
programmer.) Restrictions may be different for names that are needed by the
linker (external names) and names that are only needed during compilations
(internal names).  Names of non-static functions and global variables are
external; all other names are internal.

 9.3.1 Reserved Names

 Many names are reserved for the implementation and standard library.  A
complete list of reserved names can be found in [vdL, p. 126-128] or [ANSI,
Section 4].  Some name prefixes such as str followed by a lowercase character
are reserved for future library extensions.  Most C compilers do not detect
naming conflicts, and they can lead to unpredictable program behavior.  If
ansireserved is on, LCLint reports errors for external names that conflict with
reserved names.  If ansireservedinternal is on, errors are also reported for
internal names.

 9.3.2 Distinct Identifiers

 The decision to retain the old six-character case-insensitive restriction on
significance was most painful.
- ANSI C Rationale

 LCLint can check that identifiers differ within a given number of characters,
optionally ignoring alphabetic case and differences between characters that
look similar. The number of significant characters may be different for
external and internal names.

 Using +distinctexternalnames sets the number of significant characters for
external names to six and makes alphabetical case insignificant for external
names.  This is the minimum significance acceptable in an ANSI-conforming
compiler.  Most modern compilers exceed these minimums (which are particularly
hard to follow if one uses the Czech or Slovak naming convention).  The number
of significant characters can be changed using the externalnamelength <number>
flag.  If externalnamecaseinsensitive is on, alphabetical case is ignored in
comparing external names. LCLint reports identifiers that differ only in
alphabetic case.

 For internal identifiers, a conforming compiler must recognize at least 31
characters and treat alphabetical cases distinctly.  Nevertheless, it may still
be useful to check that internal names are more distinct then required by the
compiler to minimize the likelihood that identifiers are confused in the
program.  Analogously to external names, the internalnamelength <number> flag
sets the number of significant characters in an internal name and
internalnamecaseinsensitive sets the case sensitivity.  The
internalnamelookalike flag further restricts distinctions between identifiers.
When set, similar-looking characters match -- the lowercase letter "l" matches
the uppercase letter "I" and the number "1"; the letter "O" or "o" matches the
number "0"; "5" matches "S"; and "2" matches "Z".  Identifiers that are not
distinct except for look-alike characters will produce an error message.
External names are also internal names, so they must satisfy both the external
and internal distinct identifier checks.

 Figure 18 illustrates some of the name checking done by LCLint.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10. LCLint User's Guide - 10. Other Checks ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



 10. Other Checks

 The section describes other errors detected by LCLint that are not directly
related to extra information provided in annotations.  Many of the checks are
significantly improved, however, because of the extra information that is known
about the program.

 10.1 Undefined Evaluation Order

 The order in which side effects take place in a C program is not entirely
defined by the code.  Certain execution points are known as sequence points --
a function call (after the arguments have been evaluated), the end of a full
expression (an initializer, expression in an expression statement, the control
expression of an if, switch, while or do statement, each expression of a for
statement, and the expression in a return statement), and after the first
operand or a &&, ||, ? or , operand.

 All side effects before a sequence point must be complete before the sequence
point, and no evaluations after the sequence point shall have taken place
[ANSI, Section 2.1.2.3].  Between sequence points, side effects and evaluations
may take place in any order. Hence, the order in which expressions or arguments
are evaluated is not specified.  Compilers are free to evaluate function
arguments and parts of expressions (that do not contain sequence points) in any
order.  The behavior of code that uses a value that is modified by another
expression that is not required to be evaluated before or after the other use
is undefined.

 LCLint detects instances where undetermined order of evaluation produces
undefined behavior.  If modifies clauses and globals lists are used, this
checking is enabled in expressions involving function calls. Evaluation order
checking is controlled by the evalorder flag.

 When checking systems without modifies and globals information, evaluation
order checking may report errors when unconstrained functions are called in
procedure arguments. Since LCLint has no annotations to constrain what these
functions may modify, it cannot be guaranteed that the evaluation order is
defined if another argument calls an unconstrained function or uses a global
variable or storage reachable from a parameter to the unconstrained function.
Its best to add modifies and globals clauses to constrain the unconstrained
functions in ways that eliminate the possibility of undefined behavior.  For
large legacy systems, this may require too much effort.  Instead, the
-evalorderuncon flag may be used to prevent reporting of undefined behavior due
to the order of evaluation of unconstrained functions.

Figure 19.  Evaluation order



10.2 Problematic Control Structures

 A number of control structures that are syntactically legal may indicate
likely bugs in programs.  LCLint can detect errors involving likely infinite
loops (Section 10.2.1), fall through cases and missing cases in switch
statements (Section 10.2.2), break statements within deeply nested loops or
switches (Section 10.2.3), clauses of if, while or for statements that are
empty statements or unblocked single statements (Section 10.2.4) and incomplete
if-else logic (Section 10.2.5).  Although any of these may appear in a correct
program, depending on the programming style used they may indicate likely bugs
or style violations that should be detected and eliminated.

10.2.1 Likely Infinite Loops

 LCLint reports an error if it detects a loop that appears to be infinite.  An
error is reported for a loop which does not modify any value used in its
condition test inside the body of the loop or in the condition test itself.
This checking is enhanced by modifies clauses and globals lists since they
provide more information about what global variable may be used in the
condition test and what values may be modified by function calls in the loop
body.

 Figure 20 shows examples of infinite loops detected by LCLint. An error is
reported for the loop in line 14, since neither of the values used in the loop
condition (x directly and glob1 through the call to f) is modified by the body
of the loop.  If the declaration of g is changed to include glob1 in the
modifies clause no error is reported.  (In this example, if we assume the
annotations are correct, then the programmer has probably called the wrong
function in the loop body.  This isn't surprising, given the horrible choices
of function and variable names!)

If an unconstrained function is called within the loop body, LCLint will assume
that it modifies a value used in the condition test and not report an infinite
loop error, unless infloopsuncon is on.  If infloopsuncon is on, LCLint will
report infinite loop errors for loops where there is no explicit modification
of a value used in the condition test, but where they may be an undetected
modification through a call to an unconstrained function (e.g., line 15 in
Figure 20).



10.2.2 Switches

The automatic fall-through of C switch statements is almost never the intended
behavior.[25]  LCLint detects case statements with code that may fall through
to the next case.  The casebreak flag controls reporting of fall through cases.
A single fall through case may be marked by preceding the case keyword with
/*@fallthrough@*/ to indicate explicitly that execution falls through to this
case.

For switches on enum types, LCLint reports an error if a member of the
enumerator does not appear as a case in the switch body (and there is no
default case).  (Controlled by misscase.)

An example of switch checking is shown in Figure 21.

10.2.3 Deep Breaks

There is no syntax provided by C (other than goto) for breaking out of a nested
loop.  All break and continue statements act only on the innermost surrounding
loop or switch.  This often leads to serious problems[26] when a programmer
intends to break the outer loop or switch instead.  LCLint optionally reports
errors for break and continue statements in nested contexts.

     break inside a loop (while or for) that is inside a loop.  Controlled by
      looploopbreak.  To indicate that a break is inside an inner loop, precede
      the break by /*@innerbreak@*/.
     break inside a loop that is inside a switch statement.  Controlled by
      switchloopbreak.  To mark the break as a loop break, precede the break by
      /*@loopbreak@*/.
     break inside a switch statement that is inside a loop.  Controlled by
      loopswitchbreak.  To mark the break as a switch break, precede the break
      by /*@switchbreak@*/.
     break inside a switch inside another switch.  Controlled by
      switchswitchbreak.  To indicate that the break is for the inner switch,
      use /*@innerbreak@*/.
  Since continue only makes sense within loops, errors are only reported for
 continue statements within nested loops.  (Controlled by looploopcontinue.)  A
 safe inner continue may be precede by /*@innercontinue@*/ to suppress error
 messages locally. The deepbreak flag sets all nested break and continue
 checking flags.

 LCLint reports an error if the marker preceding a break is not consistent with
 its effect.  An error is reported if innerbreak precedes a break that is not
 breaking an inner loop, switchbreak precedes a break that is not breaking a
 switch, or loopbreak precedes a break that is not breaking a loop.

 10.2.4 Loop and If Bodies

 An empty statement after an if, while or for often indicates a potential bug.
 A single statement (i.e., not a compound block) after an if, while or for is
 not likely to indicate a bug, but make the code harder to read and edit.
 LCLint can report errors for if or loop statements with empty bodies or bodies
 that are not compound statements.  Separate flags control checking for
 statements following an  if, while or for:

     [if, while, for] empty -- report errors for empty bodies (e.g., if (x >
      3) ;)
     [if, while, for] block -- report errors for non-block bodies (e.g., if (x
      > 3) x++;)
  The if statement checks also apply to the body of the else clause.  An
 ifblock error is not reported if the body of the else clause is an if
 statement, to allow else if chains.

 10.2.5 Complete if-else Logic

 Although it may be perfectly reasonable in many contexts, an if-else chain
 with no final else may indicate missing logic or forgetting to check error
 cases. If elseifcomplete is on, LCLint reports errors when an if statement
 that is the body of an else clause does not have a matching else clause.  For
 example, the code,

     if (x == 0) { return "nil"; }
     else if (x == 1) { return "many"; }
 produces an error message since the second if has no matching else branch.

 10.3 Suspicious Statements

  LCLint detects errors involving statements with no apparent effects (Section
 10.3.1) and statements that ignore the result of a called function (Section
 10.3.2).

 10.3.1 Statements with No Effects

  LCLint can report errors for statements that have no effect.  (Controlled by
 noeffect.)  Because of modifies clauses, LCLint can detect more errors than
 traditional checkers.  Unless the noeffectuncon flag is on, errors are not
 reported for statements that involve calls to unconstrained functions since
 the unconstrained function may cause a modification.

 Figure 22.  Statements with no effect.



  10.3.2 Ignored Return Values

 LCLint reports an error when a return value is ignored.  Checking may be
 controlled based on the type of the return value: retvalint controls reporting
 of ignored return values of type int, and retvalbool for return values of type
 bool, and retvalothers for all other types.  A function statement may be cast
 to void to prevent this error from being reported.

 Alternate types (Section 8.2.2) can be used to declare functions that return
 values that may safely be ignored by declaring the result type to alternately
 by void.  Several functions in the standard library are specified to
 alternately return void to prevent ignored return value errors for standard
 library functions (e.g., strcpy) where the result may be safely ignored (see
 Apppendix F).

 Figure 23 shows example of ignored return value errors reported by LCLint.



 10.4 Unused Declarations

 LCLint detects constants, functions, parameters, variables, types, enumerator
 members, and structure or union fields that are declared but never used.  The
 flags constuse, fcnuse, paramuse, varuse, typeuse, enummemuse and fielduse
 control whether unused declaration errors are reported for each kind of
 declaration. Errors for exported declarations are reported only if topuse is
 on (see Section 10.5).

 The /*@unused@*/ annotation can be used before a declaration to indicate that
 the item declared need not be used.  Unused declaration errors are not
 reported for identifiers declared with unused.

  10.5 Complete Programs

 LCLint can be used on both complete and partial programs.  When checking
 complete programs, additional checks can be done to ensure that every
 identifier declared by the program is defined and used, and that functions
 that do not need to be exported are declared static.

 LCLint checks that all declared variables and functions are defined
 (controlled by compdef). Declarations of functions and variables that are
 defined in an external library, may be preceded by /*@external@*/ to suppress
 undefined declaration errors.

 LCLint reports external declarations which are unused (Controlled by topuse).
 Which declarations are reported also depends on the declaration use flags (see
 Section 10.4).

 The partial flag sets flags for checking a partial system.  Top-level unused
 declarations, undefined declarations, and unnecessary external names are not
 reported if partial is set.

  10.5.1 Unnecessary External Names

 LCLint can report variables and functions that are declared with global scope
 (i.e., without using static), that are not used outside the file in which they
 are defined.  In a stand-alone system, these identifiers should usually be
 declared using static to limit their scope.  If the exportstatic flag is on,
 LCLint will report declarations that could have file scope.  It should only be
 used when all relevant source files are listed on the LCLint command line;
 otherwise, variables and functions may be incorrectly identified as only used
 in the file scope since LCLint did not process the other file in which they
 are used.

  10.5.2 Declarations Missing from Headers

 A common practice in C programming styles, is that every function or variable
 exported by M.c is declared in M.h.  If the exportheader flag is on, LCLint
 will report exported declarations in M.c  that are not declared in M.h.



  10.6 Compiler Limits

 The ANSI Standard includes limits on minimum numbers that a conforming
 compiler must support.  Whether of not a particular compiler exceeds these
 limits, it is worth checking that a program does not exceed them so that it
 may be safely compiled by other compilers.  In addition, exceeding a limit may
 indicate a problem in the code (e.g., it is too complex if the control nest
 depth limit is exceeded) that should be fixed regardless of the compiler.  The
 following limits are checked by LCLint.  For each  limit, the maximum value
 may be set from the command line (or locally using a stylized comment).  If
 the ansilimits flag is on, all limits are checked with the minimum values of a
 conforming compiler.

 includenest

 Maximum nesting depth of file inclusion (#include).  (ANSI minimum is 8)
 controlnestdepth

 Maximum nesting of compound statements, control structures.  (ANSI minimum is
 15)  numenummembers

 Number of members in an enum declaration. (ANSI minimum is 127)
 numstructfields

 Number of fields in a struct or union declaration. (ANSI minimum is 127)







 Since human beings themselves are not fully debugged yet, there will be bugs
 in your code no matter what you do.
 - Chris Mason, Zero-defects  memo (Microsoft Secrets, Cusumano and Selby)

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.1. Figure 19.  Evaluation Order ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 19.  Evaluation Order

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.1.1. order.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



order.c

extern int glob;

extern int mystery (void);

extern int modglob (void)
   /*@globals glob@*/
   /*@modifies glob@*/ ;

int f (int x, int y[])
{
  int i = x++ * x;

  y[i] = i++;
  i += modglob() * glob;
  i += mystery() * glob;
  return i;
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.1.2. fig19-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

order.c: (in function f)
order.c:11,17: Expression has undefined behavior
    (value of right operand modified by left operand):
    x++ * x
  Code has unspecified behavior. Order of evaluation
  of function parameters or subexpressions is not
  defined, so if a value is used and modified in
  different places not separated by a sequence point
  constraining evaluation order, then the result of
  the expression is unspecified. (-evalorder will
  suppress message)
order.c:13,11: Expression has undefined behavior (left
    operand uses i, modified by right operand):
    y[i] = i++
order.c:14,20: Expression has undefined behavior
    (value of right operand modified by left operand):
    modglob() * glob
order.c:15,20: Expression has undefined behavior
    (unconstrained function mystery used in left
    operand may set global variable glob used in right
    operand): mystery() * glob
  Code involving a call to function with no modifies
  or globals clause may have undefined or
  implementation-dependent behavior (LCLint assumes
  the unconstrained call may modify any reachable
  state or use any global). Add a specification for
  the function. (-evalorderuncon will suppress
  message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 4 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.2. Figure 20.  Infinite loop checking ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 20.  Infinite loop checking

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.2.1. loop.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



loop.c

extern int glob1, glob2;

extern int f (void)
  /*@globals glob1@*/
  /*@modifies nothing@*/ ;

extern void g (void)
  /*@modifies glob2@*/ ;

extern void h (void) ;

void upto (int x)
{
  while (x > f()) g();
  while (f() < 3) h();
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.2.2. fig20-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

loop.c: (in function upto)
loop.c:14,10: Suspected infinite loop.  No value used
    in loop test (x, glob1) is modified by test or
    loop body.
  This appears to be an infinite loop. Nothing in the
  body of the loop or the loop test modifies the value
  of the loop test. Perhaps the specification of a
  function called in the loop body is missing a
  modification. (-infloops will suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 1 code error found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.3. Figure 21.  Switch checking. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 21.  Switch checking.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.3.1. switch.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



switch.c

typedef enum {
  YES, NO, DEFINITELY,
  PROBABLY, MAYBE } ynm;

void decide (ynm y)
{
  switch (y)
    {
    case PROBABLY:
    case NO: printf ("No!");
    case MAYBE: printf ("Maybe");
         /*@fallthrough@*/
    case YES: printf ("Yes!");
    }
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.3.2. fig21-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

noeffect.c: (in function noeffect)
noeffect.c:6,3: Statement has no effect: y == *x
  Statement has no visible effect --- no values are
  modified. (-noeffect will suppress message)
noeffect.c:7,3: Statement has no effect: nomodcall(x)
noeffect.c:8,3: Statement has no effect (possible
    undected modification through call to
    unconstrained function mysterycall):
    mysterycall(x)
  Statement has no visible effect --- no values are
  modified. It may modify something through a call to
  an unconstrained function. (-noeffectuncon will
  suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 3 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.3.2.1. noeffect.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



noeffect.c

extern void nomodcall (int *x) /*@*/;
extern void mysterycall (int *x);

int noeffect (int *x, int y)
{
  y == *x;
  nomodcall (x);
  mysterycall (x);
  return *x;
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.4. Figure 22.  Statements with no effect. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 22.  Statements with no effect.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.4.1. fig22-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

noeffect.c: (in function noeffect)
noeffect.c:6,3: Statement has no effect: y == *x
  Statement has no visible effect --- no values are
  modified. (-noeffect will suppress message)
noeffect.c:7,3: Statement has no effect: nomodcall(x)
noeffect.c:8,3: Statement has no effect (possible
    undected modification through call to
    unconstrained function mysterycall):
    mysterycall(x)
  Statement has no visible effect --- no values are
  modified. It may modify something through a call to
  an unconstrained function. (-noeffectuncon will
  suppress message)

Finished LCLint checking --- 3 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.5. Figure 23.  Ignored return values. ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 23.  Ignored return values.

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.5.1. ignore.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



ignore.c

extern int fi (void);
extern bool fb (void);
extern int /*@alt void@*/
  fv (void);

int ignore (void)
{
  fi ();
  (void) fi ();
  fb ();
  fv ();
  return fv ();
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.10.5.2. fig23-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.0 --- 28 Feb 96

ignore.c: (in function ignore)
ignore.c:8,3: Return value (type int) ignored: fi()
  Result returned by function call is not used.  If
  this is intended, can cast result to (void) to
  eliminate message.  Use -retvalint to suppress
  message.
ignore.c:10,3: Return value (type bool) ignored: fb()
  Result returned by function call is not used.  If
  this is intended, can cast result to (void) to
  eliminate message.  Use -retvalbool to suppress
  message.

Finished LCLint checking --- 2 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.11. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix A  Availability ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix A  Availability



The web home page for LCLint is http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/lclint/index.html.

LCLint can be downloaded from http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/lclint/download.html
or obtained via anonymous ftp from ftp://ftp.sds.lcs.mit.edu/pub/lclint/

Several UNIX platforms are supported and source code is provided for other
platforms.

LCLint can also be run remotely using a form at
http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/lclint/run.html

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.11.1. run.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.12. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix B  Communication ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix B  Communication

LCLint development is largely driven by suggestions and comments from users.
We are also very interested in hearing about your experiences using LCLint in
developing or maintaining programs, enforcing coding standards, or teaching
courses.  For general information, suggestions, and questions on LCLint send
mail to [e-mail].

To report a bug in LCLint send a message to [e-mail].

There are two mailing lists associated with LCLint:

[e-mail]

Reserved for announcements of new releases and bug fixes.  (Everyone who sends
mail regarding LCLint is added to this list.)  [e-mail]

Informal discussions on the use and development of LCLint.  To subscribe, send
a (human-readable) message to [e-mail], or use a form.

LCLint discussions relating to checks enabled by specifications or annotations
are welcome in the comp.specification.larch  usenet group.  Messages more
focused on C-specific checking would be more appropriate for the
lclint-interest list of one of the C language groups.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.13. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix C  Flags ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix C  Flags

 Flags can be grouped into four major categories:

     Global flags for controlling initializations and global behavior
     Message format flags for controlling how messages are displayed
     Mode selectors for coarse control of LCLint checking
     Checking flags that control checking and what classes of     messages are
      reported
  Global flags can be used in initialization files and at the command line; all
 other flags may also be used in control comments.

 Global Flags

 Global flags can be set at the command line or in an options file, but cannot
 be set locally using stylized comments.  These flags control on-line help,
 initialization files, pre-processor flags, libraries and output.

  Help

 On-line help provides documentation on LCLint operation and flags.  When a
 help flag is used, no checking is done by LCLint.  Help flags may be preceded
 by - or +.

 help

 Display general help overview, including list of additional help topics.  help
 <topic>

 Display help on <topic>. Available topics:

  ΓöîΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö¼ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÉ
  Γöéannotations                           Γöédescribe annotations                  Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöécomments                              Γöédescribe control comments             Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéflags                                 Γöésummarize flag categories             Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéflags <category>                      Γöéall flags pertaining to <category>    Γöé
  Γöé                                      Γöé(one of the categories listed by      Γöé
  Γöé                                      Γöélclint -help flags)                   Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéflags alpha                           Γöéall flags in alphabetical order       Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéflags full                            Γöéprint a full description of all flags Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöémail                                  Γöéprint information on mailing lists    Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöémodes                                 Γöéflags settings in modes               Γöé
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  help <flag>

 Describe flag <flag>.  (May list several flags.)  warnflags

 Display a warning when a flag is set in a surprising way.  An error is
 reported if an obsolete (LCLint Version 1.4 or earlier) flag is set, a flag is
 set to its current value (i.e., the + or - may be wrong), or a mode selector
 flag is set after mode checking flags that will be reset by the mode were set.
 By default, warnflags is on.  To suppress flag warnings, use -warnflags.

 Initialization

 These flags control directories and files used by LCLint.  They may be used
 from the command line or in an options file, but may not be used as control
 comments in the source code.  Except where noted. they have the same meaning
 preceded by - or +.

  tmpdir <directory>

 Set directory for writing temp files.  Default is /tmp/.  I<directory>

 Add directory to path searched for C include files.  Note there is no space
 after the I, to be consistent with C preprocessor flags.  S<directory>

 Add directory to path search for .lcl specification files.

  f <file>

 Load options file <file>.  If this flag is used from the command line, the
 default ~/.lclintrc file is not loaded.  This flag may be used in an options
 file to load in another options file.  nof

 Prevents the default options files (./.lclintrc and ~/.lclintrc) from being
 loaded.  (Setting -nof overrides +nof, causing the options files to be loaded
 normally.)  systemdirs

 Set directories for system files (default is "/usr/include").  Separate
 directories with colons (e.g., "/usr/include:/usr/local/lib").  Flag settings
 propagate to files in a system directory.  If -systemdirerrors is set, no
 errors are reported for files in system directories.

 Pre-processor

 These flags are used to define or undefine pre-processor constants.  The
 -I<directory> flag is also passed to the C pre-processor.

  D<initializer>

 Passed to the C pre-processor.  U<initializer>

 Passed to the C pre-processor

 Libraries

 These flags control the creation and use of libraries.

 dump <file>

 Save state in <file> for loading.  The default extension .lcd is added if
 <file> has no extension.  load <file>

 Load state from <file> (created by -dump).  The default extension .lcd is
 added if <file> has no extension.  Only one library file may be loaded.

 By default, the standard library is loaded if the -load flag is not used to
 load a user library.  If no user library is loaded, one of the following flags
 may be used to select a different standard library.  Precede the flag by + to
 load the described library (or prevent a library from being loaded using
 nolib).  See Apppendix F for information on the provided libraries.

 nolib

 Do not load any library.  This prevents the standard library from being
 loaded.  ansi-lib

 Use the ANSI standard library (selected by default).  strict-lib

 Use strict version of the ANSI standard library.  posix-lib

 Use the POSIX standard library.  posix-strict-lib

 Use the strict version of the POSIX standard library.  unix-lib

 Use UNIX version of standard library.  unix-strict-lib

 Use the strict version of the UNIX standard library.

 Output

 These flags control what additional information is printed by LCLint.  Setting
 +<flag> causes the described information to be printed;  setting -<flag>
 prevents it.  By default, all these flags are off.

 usestderr

 Send error messages to standard error (instead of standard out).  showsummary

 Show a summary of all errors reported and suppressed.  Counts of suppressed
 errors are not necessarily correct since turning a flag off may prevent some
 checking from being done to save computation, and errors that are not reported
 may propagate differently from when they are reported.  showscan

 Show file names are they are processed.  showalluses

 Show list of uses of all external identifiers sorted by number of uses.  stats

 Display number of lines processed and checking time.  timedist

 Display distribution of where checking time is spent.  quiet

 Suppress herald and error count.  (If quiet is not set, LCLint prints out a
 herald with version  information before checking begins, and a line
 summarizing the total number of errors reported.)  whichlib

 Print out the standard library filename and creation information.  limit
 <number>

 At most <number> similar errors are reported consecutively. Further errors are
 suppressed, and a message showing the number of suppressed messages is
 printed.

 Expected Errors

 Normally, LCLint will expect to report no errors.  The exit status will be
 success (0) if no errors are reported, and failure if any errors are reported.
 Flags can be used to set the expected number of reported errors. Because of
 the provided error suppression mechanisms, these options should probably not
 be used for final checking real programs but may be useful in developing
 programs using make.

 expect <number>

 Exactly <number> code errors are expected.  LCLint will exit with failure exit
 status unless <number> code errors are detected.

 Message Format

 These flags control how messages are printed.  They may be set at the command
 line, in options files, or locally in syntactic comments.  The linelen and
 limit flags may be preceded by + or - with the same meaning; for the other
 flags, + turns on the describe printing and - turns it off.  The box to the
 left of each flag gives its default value.

  showcolumn

 Show column number where error is found.  Default: +  showfunc

 Show name of function (or macro) definition containing error.  The function
 name is printed once before the first message detected in that function.
 Default: +

  showallconjs

 Show all possible alternate types (see Section 8.2.2).  Default: -
 paren-file-format

 Use file(line) format in messages.  hints

 Provide hints describing an error and how a message may be suppressed for the
 first error reported in each error class. Default: +  forcehints

 Provide hints for all errors reported, even if the hint has already been
 displayed for the same error class.  Default: -  linelen <number>

 Set length of maximum message line to <number> characters.  LCLint will split
 messages longer than <number> characters long into multiple lines.  Default:
 80

 Mode Selector Flags

 Mode selects flags set the mode checking flags to predefined values. They
 provide a quick coarse-grain way of controlling what classes of errors are
 reported. Specific checking flags may be set after a mode flag to override the
 mode settings.  Mode flags may be used locally, however the mode settings will
 override specific command line flag settings.  A warning is produced if a mode
 flag is used after a mode checking flag has been set.

 These are brief descriptions to give a general idea of what each mode does.
 To see the complete flag settings in each mode, use lclint -help modes. A mode
 flag has the same effect when used with either + or -.

 weak

 Weak checking, intended for typical unannotated C code.  No modifies checking,
 macro checking, rep exposure, or clean interface checking is done.  Return
 values of type int may be ignored.  The types bool, int, char and user-defined
 enum types are all equivalent.  Old style declarations are unreported.
 standard

 The default mode.  All checking done by weak, plus modifies checking, global
 alias checking, use all parameters, using released storage, ignored return
 values or any type, macro checking, unreachable code, infinite loops, and
 fall-through cases.  The types bool, int and char are distinct.  Old style
 declarations are reported.  checks

 Moderately strict checking.  All checking done by standard, plus must
 modification checking, rep exposure, return alias, memory management and
 complete interfaces.  strict

 Absurdly strict checking.  All checking done by checks, plus modifications and
 global variables used in unspecified functions, strict standard library, and
 strict typing of C operators. A special reward will be presented to the first
 person to produce a real program that produces no errors with strict checking.
 Checking Flags

 These flags control checking done by LCLint.  They may be set locally using
 syntactic comments, from the command line, or in an options file.  Some flags
 directly control whether a certain class of message is reported. Preceding the
 flag by + turns reporting on, and preceding the flag by - turns reporting off.
 Other flags control checking less directly by determining default values (what
 annotations are implicit), making types equivalent (to prevent certain type
 errors), controlling representation access, etc.  For these flags, the effect
 of + is described, and the effect of - is the opposite (or explicitly
 explained if there is no clear opposite).  The organization of this section
 mirrors Sections 3-10.

 Key

 Under each flag name is a flag descriptor encoding the what kind of flag it is
 and its default value.  The descriptions are:

  plain: -

 A plain flag.  The value after the colon gives the default setting (e.g., this
 flag is off.)  m: --++

 A mode checking flag.  The value of the flag is set by the mode selector.  The
 four signs give the setting in the weak, standard, checks and strict modes.
 (e.g., this flag is off in the weak and standard modes, and on in the checks
 and strict modes.)  shortcut

 A shortcut flag.  This flag sets other flags, so it has no default value.

 Types

 Abstract Types

 plain: -
 impabstract

 Implicit abstract annotation for type declarations that do not use concrete.

 m: -+++
 mutrep

 Representation of mutable type has sharing semantics.

 Access (Section 3.1)

 plain: +
 accessmodule

 An abstract type defined in M.h (or specified in M.lcl) is accessible in M.c.

 plain: +
 accessfile

 An abstract type named type is accessible in files named type.<extenstion>.

 plain: +
 accessczech

 An abstract type named type may be accessible in a function named type_name.
 (see Section 9.1.1)

 plain: -
 accessslovak

 An abstract type named type may be accessible in a function named typeName.
 (see Section.9.1.2)

 plain: -
 accessczechoslovak

 An abstract type named type may be accessible in a function named type_name or
 typeName.  (see Section 9.1.3)

 shortcut
 accessall

 Sets accessmodule, accessfile and accessczech.

 Boolean Types (Section 3.3)

 These flags control the type name used to represent booleans, and whether the
 boolean type is abstract.

 plain: -
 bool

 Boolean type is an abstract type.

 plain: unset
  booltype <name>

 Set name of boolean type to <name>.

 plain: FALSE
  boolfalse <name>

 Set name of boolean false to <name>.

 plain: TRUE
  booltrue <name>

 Set name of boolean true to <name>.

 Predicates

 m: --++
 predboolptr

 Type of condition test is a pointer.

 m: -+++
 predboolint

 Type of condition test is an integral type.

 m: ++++
 predboolothers

 Type of condition test is not a boolean, pointer or integral type.

 shortcut
 predbool

 Sets predboolint, predboolptr and preboolothers.

 plain: +
 predassign

 The condition test is an assignment expression. If an assignment is intended,
 add an extra    parentheses nesting (e.g., if ((a = b)) ...).

 Primitive Operations

 m: ---+
 ptrarith

 Arithmetic involving pointer and integer.

 m: ++--
 ptrnegate

 Allow the operand of the ! operator to be a pointer.

  m: ---+
 bitwisesigned

 An operand to a bitwise operator is not an unsigned values.  This may have
 unexpected results depending on the signed representations.

  m: -+++
 shiftsigned

 An operand to a shift operator is not unsigned values.  This may have
 unexpected results depending on the signed representations.

  m: ---+
 strictops

 Primitive operation does not type check strictly.

 m: ---+
 sizeoftype

 Operand of sizeof operator is a type.  (Safer to use expression, int *x =
 sizeof (*x); instead of sizeof (int).)

 Format Codes

 plain: +
 formatcode

 Invalid format code in format string for printflike or scanflike function.

 plain: +
 formattype

 Type-mismatch in parameter corresponding to format code in a printflike or
 scanflike function.

 Main

 plain: +
 maintype

 Type of main does not match expected type (function returning an int, taking
 no parameters or two parameters of type int and char **.)

 Comparisons

  m: -+++
 boolcompare

 Comparison between boolean values.  This is dangerous since there may be
 multiple TRUE values if any non-zero value is interpreted at TRUE.

 m: -+++
 realcompare

 Comparison involving float or double values.  This is dangerous since it may
 produce unexpected results because floating point representations are inexact.

 m: -+++
 ptrcompare

 Comparison between pointer and number.

 Type Equivalence

 m: +---
 voidabstract

 Allow void * to match pointers to abstract types.  (Casting a pointer to an
 abstract type to a pointer to void is okay if +voidabstract is set.)

 plain: +
  castfcnptr

  A pointer to a function is cast to (or used as) a pointer to void (or vice
 versa).

 m: +---
 forwarddecl

 Forward declarations of pointers to abstract representation match abstract
 type.

  m: -+++
 imptype

 A variable declaration has no explicit type.  The type is implicitly int.

  plain: +
 incompletetype

 A formal parameter is declared with an incomplete type (e.g., int[][]).

  m: +---
 charindex

 Allow char to index arrays.

 m: ----
 enumindex

 Allow members of enum type  to index arrays.

 m: +---
 boolint

 Make bool and int types equivalent.  (No type errors are reported when a
 boolean is used where an integral type is expected and vice versa.)

 m: +---
 charint

 Make char and int types equivalent.

 m: ++--
 enumint

 Make enum and int types equivalent.

 m: +---
 floatdouble

 Make float and double types equivalent.

 m: ----
 ignorequals

 Ignore type qualifiers (long, short, unsigned ).

 m: ++--
 relaxquals

 Report qualifier mismatches only if dangerous (information may be lost since a
 larger type is assigned to (or passed as) a smaller one or a comparison uses
 signed and unsigned values.)

 m: ----
 ignoresigns

 Ignore signs in type comparisons (unsigned matches signed).

 plain: -
  longintegral

 Allow long type to match an arbitrary integral type (e.g., size_t).

 m: +---
  longunsignedintegral

 Allow long unsigned type to match an arbitrary integral type (e.g., dev_t).

 plain: -
  matchanyintegral

 Allow any integral type to match an arbitrary integral type (e.g., dev_t).

  m: +---
  long-unsigned-unsigned-integral

 Allow unsigned long type to match an arbitrary unsigned integral type (e.g.,
 size_t).

 m: +---
  long-signed-integral

 Allow long type to match an arbitrary signed integral type (e.g., ssize_t).
 m: ++++
 num-literal

 Integer literals can be used as floats.

 plain: +
  char-int-literal

 A character constant may be used as an int.

 m: ++++
 zeroptr

 Literal 0 may be used as a pointer.

 m: ----
 relaxtypes

 Allow all numeric types to match.

 plain: +
 fullinitblock

 Initializer does not set every field in the structure.

 Function Interfaces

 Modification (Section 4.1)

 m: ++++
 modifies

 Undocumented modification of caller-visible state.  Without +moduncon,
 modification errors are only reported in the definitions of functions declared
 with a modifies clause (or specified).

 m: --++
 mustmod

 Documented modification is not detected.  An object listed in the modifies
 clause for a function, is not modified by the implementation.

 shortcut
 mod-uncon

 Report modification errors in functions declared without a modifies
 clause.(Sets modnomods, mod-globs-nomods and mod-strict-globs-nomods.)

 m: ---+
 mod-nomods

 Report modification errors (not involving global variables) in functions
 declared without a modifies clause.

 m: ---+
 mod-uncon-nomods

 An unconstrained function is called in a function body where  modifications
 are checked.  Since the unconstrained function may modify anything, there may
 be undetected modifications in the checked function.

 m: ---+
 mod-internal-strict

 A function that modifies internalState is called from a function that does not
 list internalState in its modifies clause.

 m: ---+
 mod-file-sys

  A function modifies the file system but does not list fileSystem in its
 modifies clause.

  Global Variables (Section 4.2)

 Errors involving the use and modification of global and file static variables
 are reported depending on flag settings, annotations where the global variable
 is declared, and whether or not the function where the global is used was
 declared with a globals clause.

 m: ++++
 globs

 Undocumented use of a checked global variable in a function with a globals
 list.

 m: ++++
 globuse

 A global listed in the globals list is not used in the implementation.

 m: ---+
 globnoglobs

 Use of a checked global in a function with no globals list.

 m: ---+
 internalglobs

 Undocumented use of internal state (should have globals internalState).

 m: ---+
 internalglobsnoglobs

     Use of internal state in function with no globals list.

 m: -+++
 globstate

 A function returns with global in inconsistent state (null or undefined)

 m: --++
 allglobs

 Report use and modification errors for globals not annotated with unchecked.

 m: ++++
 checkstrictglobs

 Report use and modification errors for checkedstrict globals.

 Modification of Global Variables

 m: -+++
 modglobs

 Undocumented modification of a checked global variable.

 m: ---+
 modglobsunchecked

 Undocumented modification of an unchecked global variable.

 m: ---+
 modglobsnomods

 Undocumented modification of a checked global variable in a function with no
 modifies clause.

 m: ---+
 modstrictglobsnomods

 Undocumented modification of a checkedstrict global variable in a function
 declared with no modifies clause.

 Globals Lists and Modifies Clauses

 m: ---+
 warnmissingglobs

 Global variable used in modifies clause is not listed in globals list.  (The
 global is added to the globals list.)

 m: ---+
 warnmissingglobsnoglobs

 Global variable used in modifies clause of a function with no globals list.

 m: --++
 globsimpmodsnothing

 A function declared with a globals list but no modifies clause is assumed to
 modify nothing.

 m: ----
 modsimpnoglobs

 A function declared with a modifies clause but no globals list is assumed to
 use no globals.

 Implicit Checking Qualifiers

 m: ----
 impcheckedglobs

 Implicit checked qualifier on global variables with no checking annotation.

 m: ----
 impcheckedstatics

 Implicit checked qualifier file static scope variables with no checking
 annotation.

 m: ----
 impcheckmodglobs

 Implicit checkmod qualifier on global variables with no checking annotation.

 m: ----
 impcheckmodstatics

 Implicit checkmod qualifier file static scope variables with no checking
 annotation.

 m: ---+
 impcheckedstrictglobs

 Implicit checked qualifier on global variables with no checking annotation.

 m: ---+
 impcheckedstrictstatics

 Implicit checked qualifier file static scope variables with no checking
 annotation.

 m: --++
 impcheckmodinternals

 Implicit checkmod qualifier on function scope static variables with no
 checking annotation.

 m: -+++
 impglobsweak

 Global Aliasing

 shortcut
 globalias

 Function returns with global aliasing external state (sets
 checkstrictglobalias, checkedglobalias, checkmodglobalias and
 uncheckedglobalias).

 m: -+++
 checkstrictglobalias

 Function returns with a checkstrict global aliasing external state.

 m: -+++
 checkedglobalias

 Function returns with a checked global aliasing external state.

 m: -+++
 checkmodglobalias

 Function returns with a checkmod global aliasing external state.

 m: --++
 uncheckedglobalias

 Function returns with an unchecked global aliasing external state.

 Declaration Consistency (Section 4.3)

 m: -+++
 incondefs

 Identifier redeclared or redefined with inconsistent type.

 m: -+++
 incondefslib

 Identifier defined in a library is redefined with inconsistent type

 m: ----
 overload

 Standard library function overloaded.

 m: -+++
 matchfields

 A struct or enum type is redefined with inconsistent fields or members.

 Memory Management

 Reporting of memory management errors is controlled by flags setting checking
 and implicit annotations and code annotations.

 Deallocation Errors (Section 5.2)

 m: -+++
 usereleased

 Storage used after it may have been released.

 m: ---+
 strictusereleased

 An array element used after it may have been released.

 Inconsistent Branches

 m: -+++
 branchstate

 Storage has inconsistent states of alternate paths through a branch (e.g., it
 is released in the true branch of an if-statement, but there is no else
 branch.)

 m: ---+
 strictbranchstate

 Storage through array fetch has inconsistent states of alternate paths through
 a branch.  Since array elements are not checked accurately, this may lead to
 spurious errors.

 m: --++
 deparrays

 Treat array elements as dependent storage.  Checking of array elements cannot
 be done accurately by LCLint.  If deparrays is not set, array elements are
 assumed to be independent, so code that releases the same element more than
 once will produce no error.  If deparrays is set, array elements are assumed
 to be dependent, so code that releases the same element more that once will
 produce an error, but so will code that releases different elements correctly
 will produce a spurious error.

 Memory Leaks

 m: -+++
 mustfree

 Allocated storage was not released before return or scope exit  Errors are
 reported for only, fresh or owned storage.

 m: -+++
 compdestroy

 All only references derivable from out only parameter of type void * must be
 released.  (This is the type of the parameter to free, but may also be used
 for user-defined deallocation functions.)

 m: ---+
 strictdestroy

 Report complete destruction errors for array elements that may have been
 released.  (If strictdestroy is not set, LCLint will assume that if any array
 element was released, the entire array was correctly released.)

 Transfer Errors

 A transfer error is reported when storage is transferred (by an assignment,
 passing a parameter, or returning) in a way that is inconsistent.

 shortcut
 memtrans

 Sets all memory transfer errors flags.

 m: -+++
 onlytrans

 Only storage transferred to non-only reference (memory leak).

 m: -+++
 ownedtrans

 Owned storage transferred to non-owned reference (memory leak).

 m: -+++
 freshtrans

 Newly-allocated storage transferred to non-only reference (memory leak).

 m: -+++
 sharedtrans

 Shared storage transferred to non-shared reference.

 m: -+++
 dependenttrans

 Inconsistent dependent transfer. Dependent storage is transferred to a
 non-dependent reference.

 m: -+++
 temptrans

 Temporary storage (associated with a temp formal parameter) is transferred to
 a non-temporary reference.  The storage may be released or new aliases
 created.

 m: -+++
 kepttrans

 Kept storage transferred to non-temporary reference.

 m: -+++
 keeptrans

 Keep storage is transferred in a way that may add a new alias to it, or
 release it.

 m: -+++
 refcounttrans

 Reference counted storage is transferred in an inconsistent way.

 m: -+++
 newreftrans

 A new reference transferred to a reference counted reference (reference count
 is not set correctly).

 m: -+++
 immediatetrans

 An immediate address (result of &) is transferred inconsistently.

 m: -+++
 statictrans

 Static storage is transferred in an inconsistent way.

 m: -+++
 exposetrans

 Inconsistent exposure transfer. Exposed storage is transferred to a
 non-exposed, non-observer reference.

 m: -+++
 observertrans

 Inconsistent observer transfer. Observer storage is transferred to a
 non-observer reference.

 m: -+++
 unqualifiedtrans

 Unqualified storage is transferred in an inconsistent way.

  Initializers

 m: --++
  onlyunqglobaltrans

  Only storage transferred to an unqualified global or static reference. This
 may lead to a memory leak, since the new reference is not necessarily
 released.

 m: --++
  staticinittrans

 Static storage is used as an initial value in an inconsistent way.

 m: --++
  unqualifiedinittrans

 Unqualified storage is used as an initial value in an inconsistent way.

  Derived Storage

 m: -+++
 compmempass

 Storage derivable from a parameter does not match the alias kind expected for
 the formal parameter.

 Stack References

 m: ++++
 stackref

 A stack reference is pointed to by an external reference when the function
 returns.  Since the call frame will be destroyed when the function returns the
 return value will point to dead storage. (Section 5.2.6)

 Implicit Memory Annotations (Section 5.3)

 plain: +
 globimponly

 Assume unannotated global storage is only.

 plain: +
 paramimptemp

 Assume unannotated parameter is temp.

 plain: +
 retimponly

 Assume unannotated returned storage is only.

 plain: +
 structimponly

 Assume unannotated structure or union field is only.

 shortcut
 codeimponly

 Sets globimponly, retimponly and structimponly.

 m: -+++
 memimp

 Report memory errors for unqualified storage.

 m: ----
 passunknown

 Passing a value as an unannotated parameter clears its annotation.  This will
 prevent many spurious errors from being report for unannotated programs, but
 eliminates the possibility of detecting many errors.

 Sharing

 Aliasing (Section 6)

 m: -+++
 aliasunique

 A actual parameter that is passed as a unique formal parameter is aliased by
 another parameter or global variable.

 m: -+++
 mayaliasunique

 A actual parameter that is passed as a unique formal parameter may be aliased
 by another parameter or global variable.

 m: -+++
 mustnotalias

 An alias has been added to a temp-qualifier parameter or global that is
 visible externally when the function returns.

 m: --++
 retalias

 A function returns an alias to parameter or global.

 Exposure (Section 6.2)

 shortcut
 repexpose

 The internal representation of an abstract type is visible to the caller.
 This means clients may have access to a pointer into the abstract
 representation. (Sets assignexpose, retexpose, and castexpose.)

 m: --++
 assignexpose

 Abstract representation is exposed by an assignment or passed parameter.

 m: --++
 castexpose

 Abstract representation is exposed through a cast.

 m: --++
 retexpose

 Abstract representation is exposed by a return value.

 Observer Modifications

 plain: +
 modobserver

 Possible modification of observer storage.

 m: ---+
 modobserveruncon

 Storage declared with observer may be modified through a call to an
 unconstrained function.

 String Literals  (Section 6.2.1)

 m: --++
 readonlytrans

 Report memory transfer errors for initializations to read-only string literals

 m: -+++
 readonlystrings

 String literals are read-only (ANSI semantics).  An error is reported if a
 string literal may be modified or released.

 Use Before Definition (Section 7.1)

 m: -+++
 usedef

 The value of a location that may not be initialized on some execution path is
 used.

 m: ----
 impouts

 Allow unannotated pointer parameters to functions to be implicit out
 parameters.

 m: -+++
 compdef

 Storage derivable from a parameter, return value or global variable is not
 completely defined.

 m: -+++
 uniondef

 No field of a union is defined.  (No error is reported if at least one union
 field is defined.)

 m: -+++
 mustdefine

 Parameter declared with out is not defined before return or scope exit.

 Null Pointers (Section 7.2)

  m: -+++
 nullderef

 A possibly null pointer may be dereferenced.

 m: -+++
 nullpass

 A possibly null pointer is passed as a parameter not annotated with null.

 m: -+++
 nullret

 A possibly null pointer is return as a result not annotated with null.

 m: -+++
 nullstate

 Possibly null pointer reachable from a reference with no null annotation.

 m: -+++
 nullassign

 Inconsistent assignment or initialization involving null pointer.

 shortcut
 null

 Sets all null checking flags.

 Macros (Section 8)

 These flags control expansion and checking of macro definitions and
 invocations.

 Macro Expansion

 These flags control which macros are checked as functions or constants, and
 which are expanded in the pre-processing phase.  Macros preceded by
 /*@notfunction@*/ are never expanded regardless of these flag settings.  These
 flags may be used in source-file control comments.

 plain: -
 fcnmacros

 Macros defined with parameter lists are not expanded and are checked as
 functions.

 plain: -
 constmacros

 Macros defined without parameter lists are not expanded and are checked as
 constants.

 shortcut
 allmacros

 Sets allfcnmacros and allconstmacros.

 plain: -
 libmacros

 Macros defining identifiers declared in a loaded library are not expanded and
 are checked according to the library information.

 Macro Definitions

 These flags control what errors are reported in macro definitions.

 m: -+++
 macrostmt

 Macro definition is not syntactically equivalent to function.  This means if
 the macro is used as a statement (e.g., if (test) macro();) unexpected
 behavior may result.  One fix is to surround the macro body with do { ...; }
 while (FALSE).

 m: -+++
 macroparams

 A macro parameter is not used exactly once in all possible invocations of the
 macro.

 m: -+++
 macroassign

 A macro parameter is used as the left side of an assignment expression.

 m: -+++
 macroparens

 A macro parameter is used without parentheses (in potentially dangerous
 context).

 m: ---+
 macroempty

 Macro definition of a function is empty.

 m: -+++
 macroredef

 Macro is redefined.  There is another macro defined with the same name.

 m: -+++
 macrounrecog

 An unrecognized identifier appears in a macro definition.  Since the
 identifier may be defined where the macro is used, this could be okay, but
 LCLint will not be able to check the unrecognized identifier appropriately.

 Corresponding Declarations

 m: ++++
 macromatchname

 A iter or constant macro is defined using a different name from the one used
 in the previous syntactic comment.

 shortcut
 macrodecl

 A macro definition has no corresponding declaration.  (Sets macrofcndecl and
 macroconstdecl.)

 m: -+++
 macrofcndecl

 Macro definition with parameter list has no corresponding function prototype.
 Without a prototype, the types of the macro result and parameters is unknown.

 m: -+++
 macroconstdecl

 A macro definition without parameter list has no corresponding constant
 declaration.

 plain: +
 nextlinemacros

 A constant or iter declaration is not immediately followed by a macro
 definition.

 Side-Effect Free Parameters (Section 8.2.1)

 These flags control error reporting for parameters with inconsistent
 side-effects in invocations of checked function macros and function calls.

 m: -+++
 sefparams

 An actual parameter with side-effects is passed as a formal parameter declared
 with sef.

 m: --++
 sefuncon

 An actual parameter involving a call to an unconstrained function (declared
 without modifies clause) that may modify anything is passed as a sef
 parameter.

 Iterators

 plain: -
 hasyield

 An iterator has been declared with no parameters annotated with yield.

 Naming Conventions

 plain: +
 namechecks

  Turns all name checking on or off without changing other settings.

 Type-Based Naming Conventions (Section 9.1)

 Czech Naming Convention

 shortcut
 czech

 Selects complete Czech naming convention (sets accessczech, czechfcns,
 czechvars, czechconsts, czechmacros, and czechtypes).

 plain: +
 accessczech

 Allow access to abstract types following Czech naming convention.  The
 representation of an abstract type named t is accessible in the definition of
 a function or constant named t_name.

 plain: -
 czechfcns

 Function or iterator name is not consistent with Czech naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechvars

  Variable name is not consistent with Czech naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechmacros

  Expanded macro name is not consistent with Czech naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechconsts

 Constant name is not consistent with Czech naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechtypes

  Type name is not consistent with Czech naming convention.  Czech type names
 must not use the underscore character.

 Slovak Naming Convention

 shortcut
 slovak

 Selects complete Slovak naming convention (sets accessslovak, slovakfcns,
 slovakvars, slovakconsts, slovakmacros,  and slovaktypes).

 plain: -
 accessslovak

 Allow access to abstract types following Slovak naming convention. The
 representation of an abstract type named t is accessible in the definition of
 a function or constant named tName.

 plain: -
 slovakfcns

 Function or iterator name is not consistent with Slovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 slovakmacros

 Expanded macro name is not consistent with Slovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 slovakvars

  Variable name is not consistent with Slovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 slovakconsts

  Constant name is not consistent with Slovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 slovaktypes

 Type name is not consistent with Slovak naming convention.  Slovak type names
 may not include uppercase letters.

 Czechoslovak Naming Convention

 shortcut
 czechoslovak

 Selects complete Czechoslovak naming convention (sets accessczechoslovak,
 czechoslovakfcns, czechoslovakvars, czechoslovakconsts, czechoslovakmacros,
 and czechoslovaktypes).

 plain: -
 accessczechoslovak

 Allow access to abstract types by Czechoslovak naming convention. The
 representation of an abstract type named t is accessible in the definition of
 a function or constant named t_name or tName.

 plain: -
 czechoslovakfcns

  Function name is not consistent with Czechoslovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechoslovakmacros

 Expanded macro name is not consistent with Czechoslovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechoslovakvars

  Variable name is not consistent with Czechoslovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechoslovakconsts

  Constant name is not consistent with Czechoslovak naming convention.

 plain: -
 czechoslovaktypes

  Type name is not consistent with Czechoslovak naming convention. Czechoslovak
 type names may not include uppercase letters or the underscore character.

 Namespace Prefixes  (Section 9.2)

  macrovarprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for variables declared in a macro body.  (Default is m_.)

 plain: +
 macrovarprefixexclude

 A variable declared outside a macro body starts with the macrovarprefix.

  tagprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix of struct, union or enum tag identifiers.

 plain: -
 tagprefixexclude

  An identifier that is not a tag starts with the tagprefix.

  enumprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for enum members.

 plain: -
 enumprefixexclude

  An identifier that is not an enum member starts with the enumprefix.

  filestaticprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for file static declarations.

 plain: -
 filestaticprefixexclude

 An identifier that is not file static starts with the filestaticprefix.

  globalprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for global variables.

 plain: -
 globalprefixexclude

 An identifier that is not a global variable starts with the globalprefix.

  typeprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for user-defined types.

 plain: -
 typeprefixexclude

 An identifier that is not a type name starts with the typeprefix.

  externalprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for external identifiers.

 plain: -
 externalprefixexclude

 An identifier that is not external starts with the externalprefix.

  localprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for local variables.

 plain: -
 localprefixexclude

  An identifier that is not a local variable starts with the localprefix.

  uncheckedmacroprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for unchecked macros.

 plain: -
 uncheckedmacroprefixexclude

 An identifier that is not the name of an unchecked macro starts with the
 uncheckedmacroprefix.

  constprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for constants.

 plain: -
 constprefixexclude

 An identifier that is not a constant starts with the constantprefix.

  iterprefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for iterators.

 plain: -
 iterprefixexclude

 An identifier that is not a iter starts with the iterprefix.

  proto-param-prefix <prefix string>

 Set namespace prefix for parameters in function prototypes.

  plain: -
 proto-param-prefix-exclude

 An identifier that is not a parameter in a function prototype starts with the
 protoprarmprefix.

  m: --++
  proto-param-name

 A parameter in a function prototype has a name (can interfere with macro
 definitions).

  m: ---+
  proto-param-match

  The name of a parameter in a function definition does not match the
 corresponding name of the parameter in a function prototype (after removing
 the protoparamprefix).

  Naming Restrictions  (Section 9.3)

 m: -+++
 shadow

 Declaration reuses name visible in outer scope.

 Reserved Names

 m: --++
 ansi-reserved

 External name conflicts with name reserved for the compiler or standard
 library.

 m: ---+
 ansi-reserved-internal

  Internal name conflicts with name reserved for the compiler or standard
 library.

  m: --++
 cpp-names

 Internal or external name conflicts with a C++ reserved word.  (Will cause
 problems if program is compiled with a C++ compiler.)

  Distinct External Names

 plain: -
 distinct-external-names

 An external name is not distinguishable from another external name using
 externalnamelen significant characters.

  external-name-len<number>

 Sets the number of significant characters in an external name (ANSI default
 minimum is 6).  Sets +distinctexternalnames.

 plain: -
 external-name-case-insensitive

 Make alphabetic case insignificant in external names.  According to ANSI
 standard, case need not be significant in an external name.  If
 +distinctexternalnames is not set, sets +distinctexternalnames  with unlimited
 external name length.

 Distinct Internal Names

 m: ----
 distinct-internal-names

 An internal name is not distinguishable from another internal name using
 internalnamelen significant characters.  (Also effected by
 internalnamecaseinsensitive and internalnamelookalike.)

  internal-name-len <number>

 Set the number of significant characters in an internal name. Sets
 +distinctinternalnames.

 plain: -
 internal-name-case-insensitive

 Set whether case is significant an internal names
 (-internalnamecaseinsensitive means case is significant).  If
 +distinctinternalnames is not set, sets +distinct-internal-names with
 unlimited internal name length.

 plain: -
 internalnamelookalike

  Set whether similar looking characters (e.g., "1" and "l") match in internal
 names.

 Other Checks

 Undefined Evaluation Order  (Section 10.1)

 m: -+++
 evalorder

 Behavior of an expression is undefined because sub-expressions contain
 interfering side effects that may be evaluated in any order.

 m: ---+
 evalorderuncon

 An expression may be undefined because a sub-expression contains a call to an
 unconstrained function (no modifies clause) that may modify something that may
 be modified or used by another sub-expression.

 Problematic Control Structures (Section 10.2)

 m: -+++
  infloops

 Likely infinite loop is detected (Section 10.2.1).

 m: --++
  infloopsuncon

 Likely infinite loop is detected.  Loop test or body calls an unconstrained
 function, that may produce an undetected modification.

 m: ---+
 elseifcomplete

 There is no final else following an else if construct (Section 10.2.5).

 m: -+++
 casebreak

 These is a non-empty case in a switch not followed by a break (Section
 10.2.2).

 m: -+++
 misscase

 A switch on an enum type is missing a case for a member of the enumerator.

 m: ----
 loopexec

 Assume all loops execute at least once.  This effects use-before-definition
 and memory checking.  It should probably not be used globally, but may be used
 surrounding a particular loop that is known to always execute to prevent
 spurious messages.

 Deep Break  (Section 10.2.3)

 shortcut
 deepbreak

 Report errors for break statements inside a nested while, for or switch.
 (Sets all nested break and continue flags.)

 m: --++
 looploopbreak

 There is a break inside a while, for or iterator loop that is inside a while,
 for or iterator loop. Mark with /*@innerbreak@*/ to suppress the message.

 m: --++
 switchloopbreak

 There is a break inside a while, for or iterator loop that is inside a switch
 statement.  Mark with /*@loopbreak@*/.

 m: ---+
 loopswitchbreak

 There is a break inside a switch statement that is inside a while, for or
 iterator loop.  Mark with /*@switchbreak@*/.

 m: ---+
 switchswitchbreak

 There is a break inside a switch statement that is inside another switch
 statement.  Mark with  /*@innerbreak@*/.

 m: ---+
 looploopcontinue

 There is a continue inside a while, for or iterator loop that is inside a
 while, for or iterator loop.  Mark with /*@innercontinue@*/.

 Loop and if Bodies  (Section 10.2.4)

 shortcut
 allempty

 An if, while or for statement has no body (sets ifempty, whileempty and
 forempty.)

 shortcut
 allblock

 The body of an if, while or for statement is not a block (sets ifblock,
 whileblock and forblock.)

 m: --++
 whileempty

 A while statement has no body.

 m: ---+
 whileblock

  The body of a while statement is not a block

 m: ---+
 forempty

 A for statement has no body.

 m: ---+
 forblock

 The body of a for statement is not a block.

 m: ++++
 ifempty

 An if statement has no body.

 m: ---+
 ifblock

 The body of an if statement is not a block.

 Suspicious Statements  (Section 10.3)

 m: -+++
 unreachable

 Code is not reached on any possible execution.

 m: -+++
 noeffect

 Statement has no effect.

 m: ---+
 noeffectuncon

 Statement involving call to unconstrained function may have no effect.

 m: -+++
 noret

 There is a path with no return in a function declared to return a non-void
 value.

 Ignored Return Values  (Section 10.3.2)

 These flags control when errors are reported for function calls that do not
 use the return value.  Casting the function call to void or declaring the
 called function to return /*@alt void@*/.

 m: -+++
 retvalbool

 Return value of type bool ignored.

 m: -+++
 retvalint

 Return value of type int ignored.

 m: ++++
 retvalother

 Return value of type other than bool or int ignored.

 shortcut
 retval

 Return value ignored  (Sets retvalbool, retvalint, retvalother.)

 Unused Declarations  (Section 10.4)

 These flags control when errors are reported for declarations that are never
 used.  The unused annotation can be used to prevent unused errors from being
 report for a particular declaration.

 m: ---+
 topuse

 A external declaration is not used in any file.

 m: -+++
 constuse

 Constant never used.

 m: -+++
 enummemuse

 Member of enumerator never used.

 m: ++++
 varuse

 Variable never used.

 m: -+++
 paramuse

 Function parameter never used.

 m: ++++
 fcnuse

 Function is never used.

 m: ++++
 typeuse

 Defined type never used.

 m: -+++
 fielduse

 Field of structure or union type is never used.

 m: ---+
 unusedspecial

 Declaration in a special file (corresponding to .l or .y file) is unused.

 Complete Programs  (Section 10.5)

 m: --++
 declundef

 Function, variable, iterator or constant declared but never defined.

 shortcut
 partial

 Check as partial system (sets -declundef, -exportlocal and prevents checking
 of macros in headers without corresponding .c files.)

 Exports

 m: ---+
 export-local

 A declaration is exported but not used outside this module.  (Declaration can
 use the static qualifier.)

 m: --++
 export-header

 A declaration (other than a variable) is exported but does not appear in a
 header file.

 m: --++
 export-header-var

 A variable declaration is exported but does not appear in a header file.

 Unrecognized Identifiers

 plain: +
 unrecog

 An unrecognized identifier is used.

 plain: +
 sys-unrecog

 Report unrecognized identifiers that start with the system prefix, __ (two
 underscores).

 plain: -
 repeat-unrecog

 Report multiple messages for unrecognized identifiers.  If repeatunrecog is
 not set, an error is reported only the first time a particular unrecognized
 identifier appears in the file.

 Multiple Definition and Declarations

 plain: +
 redef

 A function or variable is defined more than once.

 m: --++
 redecl

 An identifier is declared more than once.

 m: -+++
 nested-extern

 An extern declaration is used inside a function body.

  ANSI C Conformance

   m: --++
 noparams

 A function is declared without a parameter list prototype.

 m: ---+
 oldstyle

 Function definition is in old style syntax.  Standard prototype syntax is
 preferred.

 m: -+++
 exitarg

 Argument to exit has implementation defined behavior.  The only valid
 arguments to exit are EXIT_SUCCESS, EXIT_FAILURE and 0.  An error is reported
 if LCLint can detect statically that the argument to exit is not one of these.

 Limits (Section 10.6)

 shortcut
 ansilimits

 Check for violations of standard limits (Sets controlnestdepth,
 stringliterallen, includenest, numstructfields, and numenummembers).

 m: ---+

  controlnestdepth <number>

 Set maximum nesting depth of compound statements, iteration control
 structures, and selection control structures (ANSI minimum is 15).

 m: ---+
  stringliterallen <number>

 Set maximum length of string literals (ANSI minimum is 509).

 m: ---+
  numstructfields <number>

 Set maximum number of fields in a struct or union (ANSI minimum is 127).

 m: ---+
  numenummembers <number>

 Set maximum number of members of an enum type (ANSI minimum is 127).

 m: --++
  includenest <number>

 Set maximum number of nested #include files (ANSI minimum is 8).

 Header Inclusion (Apppendix F)

  plain: +
  skip-ansi-headers

  Prevent inclusion of header files in a system directory with names that match
 standard ANSI headers. The symbolic information in the standard library is
 used instead.  In effect only if a library that includes the ANSI library is
 used.  The ANSI headers are: assert, ctype, errno, float, limits, locale,
 math, setjmp, signal, stdarg, stddef, stdio, stdlib, strings, string, time,
 and wchar.

  plain: +
  skip-posix-headers

  Prevent inclusion of header files in a system directory with names that match
 standard POSIX headers. The symbolic information in the standard library is
 used instead.  In effect only if a library that includes the POSIX library is
 used.  The POSIX headers are: dirent, fcntl, grp, pwd, termios, sys/stat,
 sys/times, sys/types, sys/utsname, sys/wait, unistd, and utime.

 plain: +
  warn-posix-headers

 Report use of a POSIX header when checking a program with a non-POSIX library.

 skipsysheaders

 Do not include header files in system directories (as set by -sysdirs)

 plain: +
  sys-dir-expand-macros

 Expand macros in system directories regardless of other settings, except for
 macros corresponding to names defined in a load library.

 m: ---+
 sys-dir-errors

 Report errors in files in system directories (set by -systemdirs).

  single-include

 Optimize header inclusion to only include each header file once.

 never-include

 Use library information instead of including header files.

  Comments

 These flags control how syntactic comments are interpreted (see Apppendix E).

  commentchar <char>

 Set the marker character for syntactic comments.  Comments beginning with
 /*<char> are interpreted by LCLint.  Default: @

 plain: -
 noaccess

 Ignore access comments.

 plain: -
 nocomments

 Ignore all stylized comments.

 plain: +
 supcounts

 Actual number of errors does not match number in /*@i<n>@*/

 plain: +
 lintcomments

 Interpret traditional lint comments (/*FALLTHROUGH*/, /*NOTREACHED*/,
 /*PRINTLIKE*/).

 m: -+++
 warnlintcomments

 Print a warning and suggest an alternative when a traditional lint comment is
 used.

 plain: +
  unrecogcomments

 Stylized comment is unrecognized.

 Parsing

 plain: -
  continue-comment

 A line continuation marker (\) appears inside a comment on the same line as
 the comment close. Preprocessors should handle this correctly, but it causes
 problems for some preprocessors.  plain: +
  nest-comment

 A comment open sequence (/*) appears inside a comment.  This usually indicates
 that an earlier comment was not closed.

  plain: +
  duplicate-quals

  Report duplicate type qualifiers (e.g., long long).  Duplicate type
 qualifiers not supported by ANSI, but some compilers (e.g., gcc) do support
 duplicate qualifiers.

 plain: +
  gnu-extensions

 Support some GNU (gcc) and Microsoft language extensions.

  Array Formal Parameters

  These flags control reporting of common errors caused by confusion about the
 semantics of array formal parameters.

  General Checks

  plain: +
 sizeof-formal-array

 The sizeof operator is used on a parameter declared as an array.  (In many
 instances this has unexpected behavior, since the result is the size of a
 pointer to the element type, not the number of elements in the array.)

  plain: +
 fixed-formal-array

  An array formal parameter is declared with a fixed size (e.g., int x[20]).
 This is likely to be confusing, since the size is ignored.

  plain: -
 formal-array

 A formal parameter is declared as an array.  This is probably not a problem,
 but can be confusing since it is treated as a pointer.

  These flags should probably not be set globally since the turn off general
 checks that should always be done.  They may be used locally to suppress
 spurious errors.

 plain: +
 abstract

 A data abstraction barrier is violated.

 plain: +
 control

 A control flow error is detected.

 plain: +
 syntax

 Parse error.

 plain: -
 trytorecover

 Try to recover from a parse error.  If trytorecover is not set, LCLint will
 abort checking after a parse error is detected.  If it is set, LCLint will
 attempt to recover, but LCLint does performs only minimal error recovery.

 plain: +
 type

 Type mismatch.

 Flag Name Abbreviations

 Within a flag name, abbreviations may be used. Table 2 shows the flag name
 abbreviations.  The expanded and short forms are interchangeable in flag
 names.

 For example, globsimpmodsnothing and globalsimpliesmodifiesnothing denote the
 same flag.  Abbreviations in flag names allow pronounceable, descriptive names
 to be used without making flag names excessively long (although one must admit
 even globsimpmodsnothing is a bit of a mouthful.)

  ΓöîΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö¼ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÉ
  ΓöéExpanded Form                         ΓöéShort Form                            Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéconstant                              Γöé                       const          Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöédeclaration                           Γöé                   decl               Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéfunction                              Γöé     fcn                              Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéglobal                                Γöé                              glob    Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéimplicit, implied                     Γöé        imp                           Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéiterator                              Γöé       iter                           Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöélength                                Γöé   len                                Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöémodifies                              Γöé        mods                          Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöémodify                                Γöé      mod                             Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöémemory                                Γöé   mem                                Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéparameter                             Γöé    param                             Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöépointer                               Γöé    ptr                               Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéreturn                                Γöé    ret                               Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöévariable                              Γöé   var                                Γöé
  Γö£ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö╝ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöñ
  Γöéunconstrained, unconst                Γöé    uncon                             Γöé
  ΓööΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓö┤ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÿ
   Table 2.  Flag name abbreviations.

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.14. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix D  Annotations ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix D  Annotations

The grammar below is the C syntax from [K&R,A13] modified to show the syntax of
syntactic comments.  Only productions effected by LCLint annotations are shown.
In the annotations, the @ represents the comment marker char, set by
-commentchar (default is @).

Functions

direct-declarator:

          direct-declarator (parameter-type-list_opt) globals_opt modifies_opt
        | direct-declarator (identifier-list_opt) globals_opt modifies_opt

globals: (Section 4.2)

          /*@globals globitem,+ ;_opt @*/
        | /*@globals declaration-list_opt ;_opt @*/
globitem:

           globannot* identifier
        |  internalState
        |  systemState

globannot: undef | killed

modifies: (Section 4.1)

           /*@modifies moditem,+;_opt @*/
         | /*@modifies nothing ;_opt @*/
         | /*@*/  (Abbreviation for no globals and modifies nothing.)

moditem:

           expression
         | internalState
         | systemState

Iterators (Section 8.4)

The globals and modifies clauses for an iterator are the same as those for a
function, except they are not enclosed by a comment, since the iterator is
already a comment.

direct-declarator:

       /*@iter identifier (parameter-type-list_opt) globals_opt
modifies_opt @*/

Constants (Section 8.1)

external-declaration:

       /*@constant declaration ;_opt @*/

Alternate Types (Section 8.2.2)

Alternate types may be used in the type specification of parameters and return
values.

extended-type:

        type-specifier alt-type_opt

alt-type:

        /*@alt basic-type,+ @*/

Declarator Annotations

General annotations appear after storage-class-specifiers and before
type-specifiers.  Multiple annotations may be used in any order.  Here,
annotations are without the surrounding comment.  In a declaration, the
annotation would be surrounded by /*@ and @*/.  In a globals or modifies clause
or iterator or constant declaration, no surrounding comment would be used since
they are within a comment.

Type Definitions  (Section 3)

A type definition may use any either abstract or concrete, either mutable or
immutable, and refcounted.  Only a pointer to a struct may be declared with
refcounted.  Mutability annotations may not be used with concrete types since
concrete types inherit their mutability from the actual type.

abstract

Type is abstract (representation is hidden from clients).

concrete

Type is concrete (representation is visible to clients).

immutable

Instances of the type cannot change value.  (Section 3.2)

mutable

Instances of the type can change value.  (Section 3.2)

refcounted

Reference counted type.  (Section 5.4)

Global Variables  (Section 4.2.1)

One check annotation may be used on a global or file-static variable
declaration.

unchecked

Weakest checking for global use.

checkmod

Check modification by not use of global.

checked

Check use and modification of global.

checkedstrict

Check use of global, even in functions with no global list.

Memory Management  (Section 5)

dependent

A reference to externally-owned storage.  (Section 5.2.2)

keep

A parameter that is kept by the called function.  The caller may use the
storage after the call, but the called function is responsible for making sure
it is deallocated.  (Section 5.2.4)

killref

A refcounted parameter.  This reference is killed by the call. (Section 5.4)

only

A unshared reference.  Associated memory must be released before reference is
lost.  (Section 5.2)

owned

Storage may be shared by dependent references, but associated memory must be
released before this reference is lost.  (Section 5.2.2)

shared

Shared reference that is never deallocated.  (Section 5.2.5)

temp

A temporary parameter.  May not be released, and new aliases to it may not be
created.  (Section 5.2.2)

Aliasing  (Section 6)

Both alias annotations may be used on a parameter declaration.

unique

Parameter that may not be aliased by any other reference visible to the
function. (Section 6.1.1)

returned

Parameter that may be aliased by the return value.  (Section 6.1.2)

Exposure  (Section 6.2)

observer

Reference that cannot be modified.  (Section 6.2.1)

exposed

Exposed reference to storage in another object. (Section 6.2.1)

Definition State  (Section 7.1)

out

Storage reachable from reference need not be defined.

in

All storage reachable from reference must be defined.

partial

Partially defined.  A structure may have undefined fields.  No errors reported
when fields are used.

reldef

Relax definition checking.  No errors when reference is not defined, or when it
is used.

Global State  (Section 7.1.4)

These annotations may only be used in globals lists.  Both annotations may be
used for the same variable, to mean the variable is undefined before and after
the call.

undef

Variable is undefined before the call.

killed

Variable is undefined after the call.

Null State  (Section 7.2)

null

Possibly null pointer.

notnull

Non-null pointer.

relnull

Relax null checking.  No errors when NULL is assigned to it, or when it is used
as a non-null pointer.

Null Predicates  (Section 7.2.1)

A null predicate annotation may be used of the return value of a function
returning a boolean type, taking a possibly-null pointer for its first
argument.

truenull

If result is TRUE, first parameter is NULL.

falsenull

If result is TRUE, first parameter is not NULL.

Execution  (Section 7.3)

The exits, mayexit and neverexits annotations may be used on any function.  The
trueexit and falseexit annotations may only be used on functions whose first
argument is a boolean.

exits

Function never returns.

mayexit

Function may or may not return.

trueexit

Function does not return if first parameter is TRUE.

falseexit

Function does not return if first parameter if FALSE.

neverexit

Function always returns.

Side-Effects  (Section 8.2.1)

sef

Corresponding actual parameter has no side effects.

Declaration

These annotations can be used on a declaration to control unused or undefined
error reporting.

unused

Identifier need not be used (no unused errors reported.)  (Section 10.4)

external

Identifier is defined externally (no undefined error reported.) (Section 10.5)

Case

fallthrough

Fall-through case.  No message is reported if the previous case may
fall-through into the one immediately after the fallthrough.

Break  (Section 10.2.3)

These annotations are used before a break or continue statement.

innerbreak

Break is breaking an inner loop or switch.

loopbreak

Break is breaking a loop.

switchbreak

Break is breaking a switch.

innercontinue

Continue is continuing an inner loop.

Unreachable Code

This annotation is used before a statement to prevent unreachable code errors.

notreached

Statement may be unreachable.

Special Functions (Apppendix E)

These annotations are used immediately before a function declaration.

printflike

Check variable arguments like printf library function.

scanflike

Check variable arguments like scanf library function.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.15. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix E  Control Comments ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix E  Control Comments

Error Suppression

Several comments are provided for suppressing messages.  In general, it is
usually better to use specific flags to suppress a particular error
permanently, but the general error suppression flags may be more convenient for
quickly suppressing messages for code that will be corrected or documented
later.

ignore
end

No errors will be reported in code regions between /*@ignore@*/ and /*@end@*/.
These comments can be used to easily suppress an unlimited number of messages,
but are dangerous since if real errors are introduced in the ignore ... end
region they will not be reported. The ignore and end comments must be matched -
a warning is printed if the file ends in an ignore region or if ignore is used
inside ignore region.  i

No errors will be reported from an /*@i@*/ comment to the end of the line.

 i<n>

 No errors will be reported from an /*@i<n>@*/ (e.g., /*@i3@*/) comment to the
end of the line. If there are not exactly n errors suppressed from the comment
point to the end of the line, LCLint will report an error.  This is more robust
than i or ignore since a message is generated if the expected number errors is
not present.  Since errors are not necessarily detected until after this file
is processed (for example, and unused variable error), suppress count errors
are reported after all files have been processed. The -supcounts flag may be
used to suppress these errors.  This is useful when a system if being rechecked
with different flag settings.  t
t<n>

Like i and i<n>, except controlled by +tmpcomments flag.  These can be used to
temporarily suppress certain errors.  Then, -tmpcomments can be set to find
them again.

Type Access

Control comments may also be used to override type access settings. The syntax
/*@access <type>,+@*/ allows the following code to access the representation of
<type>.  Similarly, /*@noaccess <type>,+@*/ restricts access to the
representation of <type>.  The type in a noaccess comment must have been
declared as an abstract type.  Type access applies from the point of the
comment to the end of the file or the next access control comment for this
type.

Macro Expansion

The /*@notfunction@*/indicates that the next macro definition is not intended
to be a function, and should be expanded in line instead of checked as a macro
function definition.

Traditional Lint Comments

Some of the control comments supported by most standard UNIX lints are
supported by LCLint so legacy systems can be checked more easily. These
comments are not lexically consistent with LCLint comments, and their meanings
are less precise (and may vary between different lint programs), so we
recommend that LCLint comments are used instead except for checking legacy
systems already containing standard lint comments.

These standard lint comments supported by LCLint:

/*FALLTHROUGH*/ (alternate misspelling, /*FALLTHRU*/)

Prevents errors for fall-through cases.  Same meaning as /*@fallthrough@*/.
/*NOTREACHED*/

Prevents errors about unreachable code (until the end of the function).  Same
meaning as /*@notreached@*/.  /*PRINTFLIKE*/

Arguments similar to the printf library function (there didn't seem to be much
of a consensus among standard lints as to exactly what this means).  LCLint
supports:

/*@printflike@*/

Function takes zero or more arguments of any type, an unmodified char * format
string argument and zero of more arguments of type and number dictated by the
format string.  Format codes are interpreted identically to the printf standard
library function.  May return a result of any type.  (LCLint interprets
/*PRINTFLIKE*/ as /*@printflike@*/.)

 /*@scanflike@*/

Like printflike, except format codes are interpreted as in the scanf library
function.  /*ARGSUSED*/

Turns off unused parameter messages for this function.  The control comment,
/*@-paramuse@*/ can be used to the same effect, or /*@unused@*/ can be used in
individual parameter declarations.

LCLint will ignore standard lint comments if -lintcomments is used. If
+warnlintcomments is used, LCLint generates a message for standard lint
comments and suggest replacements,

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.16. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix F  Libraries ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix F  Libraries

Libraries can be used to record interface information.  A library containing
information about the  Standard C Library is used to enable checking of library
calls.  Program libraries can be created to enable fast checking of single
modules in a large program.

Standard Libraries

In order to check calls to library functions, LCLint uses an annotated standard
library.  This contains more information about function interfaces then is
available in the system header files since it uses annotations.  Further, it
contains only those functions documented in the ANSI Standard.  Many systems
include extra functions in their system libraries; programs that use these
functions cannot be compiled on other systems that do not provide them.
Certain types defined by the library are treated as abstract types (e.g., a
program should not rely on how the FILE type is implemented). When checking
source code, LCLint does include system headers according to include directive
in the source code, but instead uses the library description of the standard
library.

 The LCLint distribution includes several different standard libraries: the
ANSI standard library, the POSIX standard library , and an ad hoc UNIX library.
Each library comes in two versions: the standard version and the strict
version.

ANSI Library

 The default behavior of LCLint is to use the ANSI standard library (loaded
from ansi.lcd).  This library is based on the standard library described in the
ANSI C Standard.  It includes functions and types added by Amendment 1 to the
ANSI C Standard.

 POSIX Library

 The POSIX library is selected by the +posixlib flag.  The POSIX library is
based on the IEEE Std 1003.1-1990.

 UNIX Library

 The UNIX library is selected by the +unixlib flag.  This library is an ad hoc
attempt to capture additional functionality provided by many UNIX platforms.
Unfortunately, UNIX systems vary widely and very few are consistent with the
ANSI Standard.

The differences between the UNIX library and the POSIX library are:

     In the UNIX library, free is declared with a non-null parameter.  ANSI C
      specifies that free should handle the argument NULL, but several UNIX
      platforms crash if NULL is passed to free.
     Extra variables, constants and functions are included in the UNIX
      library.  Some declarations are not  part of the POSIX library, but are
      believed to be available on many UNIX systems.  See lib/unix.h for a list
      of the UNIX-only declarations.

 Code checked using the UNIX library can probably be ported to some UNIX
 systems without difficulty.  To enhance the likelihood that a program is
 portable, the POSIX library should be used instead.

 Strict Libraries

 Stricter versions of the libraries are used if the -ansi-strict,
 posix-strict-lib or unix-strct-lib flag is used. These libraries use a
 stricter interpretation of the library.  They will detect more errors in some
 programs, but may to produce many spurious errors for typical code.

 The differences between the standard libraries and the strict libraries are:

     The standard libraries declare the printing functions (fprintf, printf,
      and sprintf) that may return error codes to return int or void.  This
      prevents typical programs from leading to deluge of ignored return value
      errors, but may mean some relevant errors are not detected.  In the
      strict libraries, they are declared to return int, so ignored return
      value errors will be reported (depending on other flag settings).
      Programs should check that this return value is non-negative.
     The standard libraries declare some parameters and return values to be
      alternate types (int or bool, or int or char).  The ANSI standard
      specifies these types as int to be compatible with older versions of the
      library, but logically they make more sense as bool or char.  In the
      strict libraries, the stronger type is used.  The parameter to assert is
      int or bool in the standard library, and bool in the strict library.  The
      parameter to the character functions isalnum, isalpha, iscntrl, isdigit,
      isgraph, islower, isprint, ispunct, isspace, isupper, isxdigit, tolower
      and toupper is char or int in the standard library and char in the strict
      library.  The type of the return value of the character classification
      functions (all of the previous character functions except tolower and
      toupper) is bool or int in the standard library and bool in the strict
      library.  The type of the first parameter to ungetc is char or int in the
      standard library and char in the strict library (EOF should not be passed
      to ungetc).  The second parameter to strchr and strrchr is char or int in
      the standard library and char in the strict library.
     The global variables stdin, stdout and stderr are declared as unchecked
      variables (see Section 4.2.1) in the standard libraries.  In the strict
      libraries, they are checked.  The global variable errno is declared
      unchecked in the standard libraries, but declared checkedstrict in the
      strict libraries.

  Generating the Standard Libraries

  The standard libraries are generated from header files included in the LCLint
 distribution.  Some libraries are generated from more than one header file.
 Since the POSIX library includes the ANSI library, the headers for the ANSI
 and POSIX libraries are combined to produce the POSIX library.  Similarly, the
 UNIX library is composed of the ANSI, POSIX and UNIX headers.  The header
 files include some sections that are conditionally selected by defining
 STRICT.

 The commands to generate the standard libraries are:

  lclint -nolib ansi.h -dump ansi
  lclint -nolib -DSTRICT ansi.h -dump ansistrict
  lclint -nolib ansi.h posix.h -dump posix
  lclint -nolib -DSTRICT ansi.h posix.h -dump posixstrict
  lclint -nolib ansi.h posix.h unix.h -dump unix
  lclint -nolib -DSTRICT ansi.h posix.h unix.h -dump unixstrict

 User Libraries

 To enable running LCLint on large systems, mechanisms are provided for
 creating libraries containing necessary information.  This means source files
 can be checked independently, after a library has been created. The command
 line option -dump library stores information in the file library (the default
 extension, .lcd[27], is added). Then, -load library loads the library.  The
 library contains interface information from the files checked when the library
 was created.

  Header File Inclusion

 The standard behavior of LCLint on encountering

     #include <X.h>
  is to search for a file named X.h on the include search path (set using -I)
 and then the system base include path (usually /usr/include, default is set
 when LCLint is compiled).  If X.h is the name of a header file in a loaded
 standard library (either ANSI or POSIX) and X.h is found in a directory that
 is a system directory (as set by the -sysdirs flag; the default is
 /usr/include), X.h will not be included if skip-ansi-headers or
 skip-posix-headers (depending on whether X.h is an ANSI or POSIX header file)
 is on (both are on by default).  To force all headers to be included normally,
 use -skip-ansi-headers and -skip-posix-headers.

  Sometimes headers in system directories contain non-standard syntax which
 LCLint is unable to parse.  The +skip-sys-headers flag may be used to prevent
 any include file in a system directory from being included.

 LCLint is fast enough that it can be run on medium-size (10,000 line) programs
 without performance concerns.  It takes about one second to process a thousand
 source lines on a DEC Alpha.  Libraries can be used to enable efficient
 checking of small modules in large programs.  To further improve performance,
 header file inclusion can be optimized.

 When processing a complete system in which many files include the same
 headers, a large fraction of processing time is wasted re-reading header files
 unnecessarily.  If you are checking a 100-file program, and every file
 includes utils.h, LCLint will have to process utils.h 100 times (as would most
 C compilers).  If the +singleinclude flag is used, each header file is
 processed only once.  Single header file processing produces a significant
 efficiency improvement when checking large programs split into many files, but
 is only safe if the same header file included in different contexts always has
 the same meaning (i.e., it does not depend on preprocessor variable defined
 differently at different inclusion sites).

 When processing a single file in a large system, a large fraction of the time
 is spent processing included header files.  This can be avoided if the
 information in the header files is stored in a library instead.  If
 +neverinclude is set, inclusion of files ending in .h is prevented.  Files
 with different suffixes are included normally.  To do this the header files
 must not include any expanded macros. That is, the header file must be
 processed with +allmacros, and there must be no /*@notfunction@*/ control
 comments in the header.  Then, the +neverinclude flag may be used to prevent
 inclusion of header files.  Alternately, non-function macros can be moved to a
 different file with a name that does not end in .h.  Remember, that this file
 must be included directly from the .c file, since if it is included from a .h
 file indirectly, that .h file is ignored so the other file is never included.

 These options can be used for significant performance improvements on large
 systems.  The performance depends on how the code is structured, but checking
 a single module in a large program is several times faster if libraries and
 +neverinclude are used.

  ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.17. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix G  Specifications ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix G  Specifications

Another way of providing more information about programs is to use formal
specifications.  Although this document has largely ignored specifications,
LCLint was originally designed to use the information in LCL specifications
instead of source-code annotations.  This document focuses on annotations since
it takes less effort to add annotations to source code than to maintain an
additional specification file.  Annotations can express everything that can be
expressed in LCL specifications that is relevant to LCLint checking.  However,
LCL specifications can provide more precise documentation on program interfaces
than is possible with LCLint annotations. This appendix (extracted from
[Evans94]) is a very brief introduction to LCL Specifications. For more
information, consult [GH93].

The Larch family of languages is a two-tiered approach to formal specification.
A specification is built using two languages -- the Larch Shared Language
(LSL), which is independent of the implementation language, and a Larch
Interface Language designed for the specific implementation language.  An LSL
specification defines sorts, analogous to abstract types in a programming
language, and operators, analogous to procedures. It expresses the underlying
semantics of an abstraction.

The interface language specifies an interface to an abstraction in a particular
programming language.  It captures the details of the interface needed by a
client using the abstraction and places constraints on both correct
implementations and uses of the module.  The semantics of the interface are
described using primitives and sorts and operators defined in LSL
specifications.  Interface languages have been designed for several programming
languages.

LCL [GH93, Tan94] is a Larch interface language for Standard C.  LCL uses a
C-like syntax.  Traditionally, a C module M consists of a source file, M.c, and
a header file, M.h.  The header file contains prototype declarations for
functions, variables and constants exported by M, as well as those macro
definitions that implement exported functions or constants, and definitions of
exported types. When using LCL, a module includes two additional files - M.lcl,
a formal specification of M, and  M.lh, which is derived by LCLint (if the lh
flag is on) from M.lcl.  Clients use M.lcl for documentation, and should not
need to look at any implementation file.  The derived file, M.lh, contains
include directives (if M depends on other specified modules), prototypes of
functions and declarations of variables as specified in M.lcl.  The file M.h
should include M.lh and retain the implementation aspects of the old M.h, but
is no longer used for client documentation.

The LCLint release package includes a grammar for LCL and examples of LCL
specifications.

Specification Flags

These flags are relevant only when LCLint is used with LCL specifications.

Global Flags

lcs

Generate .lcs files containing symbolic state of .lcl files (used for imports).
By default .lcs files are generated for each .lcl file processed.  Use -lcs to
prevent generation of .lcs files.

lh

Generate .lh files.  By default, -lh is set and no .lh files are generated. Use
+lh to enable .lh file generation.

 i <file>

Set LCL initialization file to <file>.  The LCL initialization file is read if
any .lcl files are listed on the command line.  The default file is
lclinit.lci, found on the LARCH_PATH.

 lclexpect <number>

Exactly <number> specification errors are expected.  Specification errors are
errors detected when checking the specifications.  They do not depend on the
source code.

Implicit Globals Checking Qualifiers

 m: -+++
impcheckedspecglobs
Implicit checked qualifier on global variables specified in an LCL file with no
checking annotation.

m: ----
impcheckmodspecglobs
Implicit checkmod qualifier on global variables specified in an LCL file with
no checking annotation.

m: ---+
impcheckedstrictspecglobs

Implicit checked qualifier on global variables specified in an LCL file with no
checking annotation.

Implicit Annotations

 plain: -
specglobimponly

Implicit only annotation on global variable declaration in an LCL file with no
allocation annotation.

 plain: -
specretimponly

Implicit only annotation on return value declaration in an LCL file with no
allocation annotation.

plain: -
specstructimponly

Implicit only annotation on structure field declarations in an LCL file with no
allocation annotation.

shortcut
specimponly

Sets specglobimponly, specretimponly and specstructimponly.

Macro Expansion

plain: +
 specmacros

Macros defining specified identifiers are not expanded and are checked
according to the specification.

Complete Programs and Specifications

m: -+++
specundef

Function, variable, iterator or constant specified but never defined.

plain: -
 specundecl

Function, variable, iterator or constant specified but never declared.

plain: -
needspec

There is information in the specification that is not duplicated in syntactic
comments.  Normally, this is not an error, but it may be useful to detect it to
make sure checking incomplete systems without the specifications will still use
this information.

shortcut
 exportany

An error is reported for any identifier that is exported but not specified.
(Sets all export flags below.)

m: ---+
exportconst

Constant exported but not specified.

m: ---+
exportvar

Variable exported but not specified.

m: ---+
exportfcn

Function exported but not specified.

m: ---+
exportiter

Iterator exported but not specified.

m: ---+
 exportmacro

An expanded macro exported but not specified

m: ---+
exporttype

Type definition exported but not specified

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.18. LCLint User's Guide - Appendix H  Emacs ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Appendix H  Emacs

LCLint can be used most productively with the emacs text editor.  The release
package includes emacs files for running LCLint and editing code with
annotations.

Editing Abbreviations

An additional file, emacs/lclint-abbrevs contains abbreviations for LCLint
syntactic comments and annotations.  If it is loaded, the comment surrounding
an LCLint annotation will be added automatically.  For example, typing "only"
and a space, will produce "/*@only@*/ ". Abbreviations are provided for each
LCLint syntactic comment.  The abbreviation of  /*@null@*/ is nll (not null),
since it is often necessary to type NULL.

Abbreviations are loaded and used when a .c or .h file is edited by adding
these lines to your .emacs file:

(quietly-read-abbrev-file "<directory>/lclint-abbrevs")

(setq c-mode-hook (function (lambda nil (abbrev-mode 1))))

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

 David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.19. Figures ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figures


Figure 1.  Effort/benefit curve for LCLint.   (not available in HTML format)
Figure 2.  Violations using abstract types.
Figure 3.  Boolean checking.
Figure 4.  Modifies checking.
Figure 5.  Globals checking.
Figure 6.  Deallocation errors.
Figure 7.  Stack references.
Figure 8.  Implicit annotations.
Figure 9.  Reference counting.
Figure 10.  Unique parameters.
Figure 11.  Returned parameters.
Figure 12.  Exposure checking.
Figure 13.  Use before definition.
Figure 14.  Annotated globals lists.
Figure 15.  Null checking.
Figure 16.  Using notnull.
Figure 17.  Special Clauses.
Figure 18.  Naming checks.
Figure 19.  Evaluation order
Figure 20.  Infinite loop checking
Figure 21.  Switch checking.
Figure 22.  Statements with no effect.
Figure 23.  Ignored return values.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.19.1. Figure 17.  Special Clauses ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 17.  Special Clauses

     source

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.19.1.1. special.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



special.c

typedef struct
{
  int id;
  /*@only@*/ char *name;
} *record;

static /*@special@*/ record record_new (void)
  /*@defines result->id@*/
{
  record r = (record) malloc (sizeof (*r));

  assert (r != NULL);
  r->id = 3;
  return r;
}

static void record_setName (/*@special@*/ record r, /*@only@*/ char *name)
   /*@defines r->name@*/
{
  r->name = name;
}

record record_create (/*@only@*/ char *name)
{
  record r = record_new ();
  record_setName (r, name);
  return r;
}

void record_clearName (/*@special@*/ record r)
   /*@releases r->name@*/
   /*@post:isnull r->name@*/
{
  free (r->name);
  r->name = NULL;
}

void record_free (/*@only@*/ record r)
{
  record_clearName (r);
  free (r);
}





ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.19.2. Figure 18.  Naming Checks ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Figure 18.  Naming Checks

     source
     messages

  David Evans
 Software Devices and Systems
 [e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.19.2.1. names.c ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



names.c

char *stringreverse (char *s);

int f (int x)
{
  int lookalike = 1;
  int looka1ike = 2;

  if (x > 3)
;    {
      int x = lookalike;
      x += looka1ike;
    }

  return x;
}




























































ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.19.2.2. fig18-out.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



LCLint Output

LCLint 2.2 --- 25 Aug 96

names.c:1,7: Name stringreverse is reserved for future
    ANSI library extensions.  Functions that begin
    with "str" and a lowercase letter may be added to
     or . (See ANSI, Section
    4.13.7)
  External name is reserved for system in ANSI
  standard. (-ansireserved will suppress message)
names.c: (in function f)
names.c:6,7: Internal identifier looka1ike is not
    distinguishable from lookalike except by lookalike
    characters
  An internal name is not distinguishable from another
  internal name using the number of significant
  characters. According to ANSI Standard (3.1), an
  implementation may only consider the first 31
  characters significant. The +internalnamelen
  flag changes the number of significant characters,
  -internalnamecaseinsensitive to makes alphabetical
  case significant, and +internalnamelookalike to make
  similar-looking characters non-distinct.
  (-distinctinternalnames will suppress message)
   names.c:5,7: Declaration of lookalike
names.c:10,11: Variable x shadows outer declaration
  An outer declaration is shadowed by the local
  declaration. (-shadow will suppress message)
   names.c:3,12: Previous declaration of x: int

Finished LCLint checking --- 3 code errors found


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.20. Footnotes ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



Footnotes

 1 Lint is a common programming tool for detecting anomalies in C programs.
The original lint was developed by S. C. Johnson in the late seventies, mainly
because early versions of C did not support function prototypes.

 2 Another way to provide extra information about code is to use formal
specifications (Appendix G).

 3 Unlike regular C comments, control comments should not be used within a
single token.  They may introduce new separators in the code during parsing.

 4 For abstract types whose instances can change value, a client does need to
know if assignment has copy or sharing semantics (see Section 3.2).

 5 Does not apply to HTML version. italics.

 6 The meta-notation, item,+ is used to denote a comma separated list of items.
For example, /*@access mstring, intSet@*/ provides access to the
representations of both mstring and intSet.)

 7 Through the parameter.  Modifications using some other variable that has a
pointer to the location of this parameter are not considered.

 8 To change the names of TRUE and FALSE, use -booltrue  and -boolfalse.  The
LCLint distribution includes an implementation of bool, in lib/bool.h. However,
it isn't necessary to use this implementation to get the benefits of boolean
checking.

 9 This means that theoreticians can prove that no algorithm exists that solves
the problem correctly for all possible programs.

 10 This section is largely based on [Evans96].  It semi-formally defines some
of the terms needed to describe memory management checking;  if you are
satisfied with an intuitive understanding of these terms, this section may be
skipped.

 11 This is similar to the LISP storage model, except that objects are typed.

 12 Except sizeof, which does not need the value of its argument.

 13 If the storage is not assigned to a reference, an internal reference is
created to track the storage.

 14 The full declaration of malloc also includes a null annotation (Section
7.2) to indicate that the result may be NULL (as it is when the requested
storage cannot be allocated) and an out annotation (Section 7.1) to indicate
that the result points to undefined storage.

 15 The full declaration of free also has out and null annotations on the
parameter to indicate that the argument may be NULL and need not point to
defined storage.  According to [ANSI, 4.10.3.2], NULL may be passed to free
without an error.  On some UNIX platforms, passing NULL to free causes a
program crash so the UNIX version of the standard library (Appendix F)
specifies free without the null annotation on its parameter. To check that
allocated objects are completely destroyed (e.g., all unshared objects inside a
structure are deallocated before the structure is deallocated), LCLint checks
that any parameter passed as an out only void * does not contain references to
live, unshared objects.  This makes sense, since such a parameter could not be
used sensibly in any way other than deallocating its storage.

 16 If an exposure qualifier is used (see Section 6.2), the implied dependent
annotation is used instead of the more generally implied only annotation.

 17 Strictly, we should also check that the returned observer storage is not
used again after any other calls to the abstract type module using the same
parameter.  LCLint does not attempt to check this, and in practice it is not
usually a problem.

 18 Note that if the parameter is annotated with only, it is not an error to
assign it to part of an abstract representation, since the caller may not use
the storage after the call returns.

 19 That is, the return type is bool, or int if +boolint is used.

 20 The sef annotation denotes a parameter as side-effect free (see Section
8.2.1). By declaring the argument to assert to be side-effect free, LCLint will
report errors if the parameter to assert produces a side-effect.  This is
especially pertinent if assertions are turned off when the production version
is compiled. The bool /*@alt int@*/ type specifier for the parameter means the
parameter type must match either bool or int. Alternate types are described in
Section 8.2.2.

 21 To be completely correct, all the macro parameters should be evaluated
before the macro has any side-effects.  Since checking this would require
extensive analysis for occasional modest gain, it was not considered worth
implementing.

 22 Note that functions which do not produce to the same result each time they
are called with the same arguments should be declared to modify internalState
so they  will lead to errors if they are passed as sef parameters.

 23 The most renown C naming convention is the Hungarian naming convention,
introduced by Charles Simonyi [Simonyi, Charles, and Martin Heller.  "The
Hungarian Revolution."  BYTE, August 1991, p. 131-38].  The names for LCLint
naming conventions follow the tradition of using Central European nationalities
as mnemonics for naming conventions.  The LCLint conventions are similar to the
Hungarian naming convention in that they encode type information in names,
except that the LCLint conventions encode the names of accessible abstract
types instead of the type of the declaration of return value. Prefixes used in
the Hungarian naming convention are not supported by LCLint.

 24 Namespace prefixes should probably be described by regular expressions.
LCLint uses a simpler, more limited means for describing names, which is
believed to be adequate for describing most useful naming conventions.  If
there is sufficient interest, regular expressions may be supported in a future
version of LCLint.

 25 Peter van der Linden estimates that default fall through is the wrong
behavior 97% of the time.  [vdL95, p. 37]

 26 "Software Glitch Cripples AT&T Network", Telephony, 22 January 1990.

 27 In earlier versions of LCLint, the default extension .lldmp was used.  This
has been shortened to .lcd.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ



ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 1.21. LCLint User's Guide - References ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ



References



LCLint

 [Evans94] David Evans. Using specifications to check source code. MIT/LCS/TR
628, Laboratory for Computer Science, MIT, June 1994.

SM Thesis.  Describes research behind LCLint, focusing on how specifications
can be exploited to do lightweight checking.  Includes case studies using
LCLint.

 [EGHT94] David Evans, John Guttag, Jim Horning and Yang Meng Tan. LCLint: A
tool for using specifications to check code.  SIGSOFT Symposium on the
Foundations of Software Engineering, December 1994.

Introduction to LCLint.  Shows how LCLint is used to find errors in a sample
program.

 [Evans96] David Evans. Static Detection of Dynamic Memory Errors.  In SIGPLAN
Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI '96),
Philadelphia, PA., May 1996.

Describes approach for exploiting annotations added to code to detect a wide
class of errors.  Focuses on checks described in Sections 5-7 of this guide.

Larch

 [GH93] Guttag, John V. and Horning, James J., with Stephen J. Garland, Kevin
D. Jones, AndrΓòös Modet, and Jeannette M. Wing, Larch: Languages and Tools for
Formal Specification, Springer-Verlag, Texts and Monographs in Computer
Science, 1993.

Overview of the Larch family of specification languages and related tools.
Includes a chapter on LCL, the Larch C interface language, on which LCLint is
based.

 [Tan95] Tan, Yang Meng.  Formal Specification Techniques for Engineering
Modular C, Kluwer International Series in Software Engineering, Volume 1,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 1995.

Modified and updated version of MIT Ph. D. dissertation, previously published
as MIT/LCS/TR-619, 1994.  Includes presentation of the semantics of LCL and a
case study using LCL.

C

 [ANSI] American National Standard for Information Systems, Programming
Language, C.  ANSI X3.159-1989.  (Believed to be identical to ISO/IEC
9899:1990).

Specification for C programming language.  LCLint aims to be consistent with
this document.   [Hat95] Hatton, Les.  Safer C: Developing Software for
High-integrity and Safety-critical Systems. McGraw-Hill International Series in
Software Engineering, 1995.

A broad work on all aspects of developing safety-critical software, focusing on
the C language.  Provides good justification for the use of C in
safety-critical systems, and the necessity of tool-supported programming
standards.  LCLint users will be interested to see how many of the errors
listed as only being dynamically detectable can be detected statically by
LCLint.   [KR88] Kernighan, Brian W. and Ritchie, Dennis M.  The C Programming
Language, second edition.  Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1988.

Standard reference for ANSI C.  If you haven't heard of this one, you probably
didn't get this far (unless you started at the back).  [vdL94] Van der Linden,
Peter.  Expert C Programming:  Deep C Secrets. SunSoft Press, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey,  1994.

Filled with useful information on the darker corners of C, as well as lots of
industry anecdotes and humor.  LCLint's reserved name checking is loosely based
on the list of reserved names in this book.

Abstract Types

 [LG86] Liskov, Barbara. and Guttag, John V.  Abstraction and Specification in
Program Development, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1986.

Describes a programming methodology using abstract types and specified
interfaces.  Much of the methodology upon which LCLint is based comes from this
book. Uses the CLU programming language.

ΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇΓöÇ

  David Evans
Software Devices and Systems
[e-mail]


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2. External links ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

This chapter contains all external links referenced in this book - either link
is an Unified Resource Locator (URL) or simply to a local file which is not a
part of this book.


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.1. http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/~evs ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      The link you selected points to an external resource. Click the URL below to launch IBM Web Explorer

                         http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/~evs


ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.2. http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/ ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.3. http://www.lcs.mit.edu/ ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.4. http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/lclint/acknowledgements.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      The link you selected points to an external resource. Click the URL below to launch IBM Web Explorer

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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.5. http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/lclint/index.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      The link you selected points to an external resource. Click the URL below to launch IBM Web Explorer

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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.6. mailto:[e-mail] ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      The link you selected points to an external resource. Click the URL below to launch IBM Web Explorer

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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.7. mailto:[e-mail] ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.8. mailto:[e-mail] ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.9. news:comp.specification.larch ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.10. http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/~evs/tr-628.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.11. http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/~evs/sigsoft94.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  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ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ 2.12. http://www.sds.lcs.mit.edu/~evs/pldi96-abstract.html ΓòÉΓòÉΓòÉ

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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