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- NAME
- perldsc - Perl Data Structures Cookbook
-
- DESCRIPTION
- The single feature most sorely lacking in the Perl
- programming language prior to its 5.0 release was complex
- data structures. Even without direct language support,
- some valiant programmers did manage to emulate them, but
- it was hard work and not for the faint of heart. You
- could occasionally get away with the $m{$LoL,$b} notation
- borrowed from awk in which the keys are actually more like
- a single concatenated string "$LoL$b", but traversal and
- sorting were difficult. More desperate programmers even
- hacked Perl's internal symbol table directly, a strategy
- that proved hard to develop and maintain--to put it
- mildly.
-
- The 5.0 release of Perl let us have complex data
- structures. You may now write something like this and all
- of a sudden, you'd have a array with three dimensions!
-
- for $x (1 .. 10) {
- for $y (1 .. 10) {
- for $z (1 .. 10) {
- $LoL[$x][$y][$z] =
- $x ** $y + $z;
- }
- }
- }
-
- Alas, however simple this may appear, underneath it's a
- much more elaborate construct than meets the eye!
-
- How do you print it out? Why can't you just say print
- @LoL? How do you sort it? How can you pass it to a
- function or get one of these back from a function? Is is
- an object? Can you save it to disk to read back later?
- How do you access whole rows or columns of that matrix?
- Do all the values have to be numeric?
-
- As you see, it's quite easy to become confused. While
- some small portion of the blame for this can be attributed
- to the reference-based implementation, it's really more
- due to a lack of existing documentation with examples
- designed for the beginner.
-
- This document is meant to be a detailed but understandable
- treatment of the many different sorts of data structures
- you might want to develop. It should also serve as a
- cookbook of examples. That way, when you need to create
- one of these complex data structures, you can just pinch,
- pilfer, or purloin a drop-in example from here.
-
- Let's look at each of these possible constructs in detail.
- There are separate documents on each of the following:
-
- o arrays of arrays
-
- o hashes of arrays
-
- o arrays of hashes
-
- o hashes of hashes
-
- o more elaborate constructs
-
- o recursive and self-referential data structures
-
- o objects
-
- But for now, let's look at some of the general issues
- common to all of these types of data structures.
-
- REFERENCES
- The most important thing to understand about all data
- structures in Perl -- including multidimensional
- arrays--is that even though they might appear otherwise,
- Perl @ARRAYs and %HASHes are all internally one-
- dimensional. They can only hold scalar values (meaning a
- string, number, or a reference). They cannot directly
- contain other arrays or hashes, but instead contain
- references to other arrays or hashes.
-
- You can't use a reference to a array or hash in quite the
- same way that you would a real array or hash. For C or
- C++ programmers unused to distinguishing between arrays
- and pointers to the same, this can be confusing. If so,
- just think of it as the difference between a structure and
- a pointer to a structure.
-
- You can (and should) read more about references in the
- perlref(1) man page. Briefly, references are rather like
- pointers that know what they point to. (Objects are also
- a kind of reference, but we won't be needing them right
- away--if ever.) That means that when you have something
- that looks to you like an access to two-or-more-
- dimensional array and/or hash, that what's really going on
- is that in all these cases, the base type is merely a one-
- dimensional entity that contains references to the next
- level. It's just that you can use it as though it were a
- two-dimensional one. This is actually the way almost all
- C multidimensional arrays work as well.
-
- $list[7][12] # array of arrays
- $list[7]{string} # array of hashes
- $hash{string}[7] # hash of arrays
- $hash{string}{'another string'} # hash of hashes
-
- Now, because the top level only contains references, if
- you try to print out your array in with a simple print()
- function, you'll get something that doesn't look very
- nice, like this:
-
- @LoL = ( [2, 3], [4, 5, 7], [0] );
- print $LoL[1][2];
- 7
- print @LoL;
- ARRAY(0x83c38)ARRAY(0x8b194)ARRAY(0x8b1d0)
-
- That's because Perl doesn't (ever) implicitly dereference
- your variables. If you want to get at the thing a
- reference is referring to, then you have to do this
- yourself using either prefix typing indicators, like
- ${$blah}, @{$blah}, @{$blah[$i]}, or else postfix pointer
- arrows, like $a->[3], $h->{fred}, or even
- $ob->method()->[3].
-
- COMMON MISTAKES
- The two most common mistakes made in constructing
- something like an array of arrays is either accidentally
- counting the number of elements or else taking a reference
- to the same memory location repeatedly. Here's the case
- where you just get the count instead of a nested array:
-
- for $i (1..10) {
- @list = somefunc($i);
- $LoL[$i] = @list; # WRONG!
- }
-
- That's just the simple case of assigning a list to a
- scalar and getting its element count. If that's what you
- really and truly want, then you might do well to consider
- being a tad more explicit about it, like this:
-
- for $i (1..10) {
- @list = somefunc($i);
- $counts[$i] = scalar @list;
- }
-
- Here's the case of taking a reference to the same memory
- location again and again:
-
- for $i (1..10) {
- @list = somefunc($i);
- $LoL[$i] = \@list; # WRONG!
- }
-
- So, just what's the big problem with that? It looks
- right, doesn't it? After all, I just told you that you
- need an array of references, so by golly, you've made me
- one!
-
- Unfortunately, while this is true, it's still broken. All
- the references in @LoL refer to the very same place, and
- they will therefore all hold whatever was last in @list!
- It's similar to the problem demonstrated in the following
- C program:
-
- #include <pwd.h>
- main() {
- struct passwd *getpwnam(), *rp, *dp;
- rp = getpwnam("root");
- dp = getpwnam("daemon");
-
- printf("daemon name is %s\nroot name is %s\n",
- dp->pw_name, rp->pw_name);
- }
-
- Which will print
-
- daemon name is daemon
- root name is daemon
-
- The problem is that both rp and dp are pointers to the
- same location in memory! In C, you'd have to remember to
- malloc() yourself some new memory. In Perl, you'll want
- to use the array constructor [] or the hash constructor {}
- instead. Here's the right way to do the preceding broken
- code fragments
-
- for $i (1..10) {
- @list = somefunc($i);
- $LoL[$i] = [ @list ];
- }
-
- The square brackets make a reference to a new array with a
- copy of what's in @list at the time of the assignment.
- This is what you want.
-
- Note that this will produce something similar, but it's
- much harder to read:
-
- for $i (1..10) {
- @list = 0 .. $i;
- @{$LoL[$i]} = @list;
- }
-
- Is it the same? Well, maybe so--and maybe not. The
- subtle difference is that when you assign something in
- square brackets, you know for sure it's always a brand new
- reference with a new copy of the data. Something else
- could be going on in this new case with the @{$LoL[$i]}}
- dereference on the left-hand-side of the assignment. It
- all depends on whether $LoL[$i] had been undefined to
- start with, or whether it already contained a reference.
- If you had already populated @LoL with references, as in
- $LoL[3] = \@another_list;
-
- Then the assignment with the indirection on the left-hand-
- side would use the existing reference that was already
- there:
-
- @{$LoL[3]} = @list;
-
- Of course, this would have the "interesting" effect of
- clobbering @another_list. (Have you ever noticed how when
- a programmer says something is "interesting", that rather
- than meaning "intriguing", they're disturbingly more apt
- to mean that it's "annoying", "difficult", or both? :-)
-
- So just remember to always use the array or hash
- constructors with [] or {}, and you'll be fine, although
- it's not always optimally efficient.
-
- Surprisingly, the following dangerous-looking construct
- will actually work out fine:
-
- for $i (1..10) {
- my @list = somefunc($i);
- $LoL[$i] = \@list;
- }
-
- That's because my() is more of a run-time statement than
- it is a compile-time declaration per se. This means that
- the my() variable is remade afresh each time through the
- loop. So even though it looks as though you stored the
- same variable reference each time, you actually did not!
- This is a subtle distinction that can produce more
- efficient code at the risk of misleading all but the most
- experienced of programmers. So I usually advise against
- teaching it to beginners. In fact, except for passing
- arguments to functions, I seldom like to see the gimme-a-
- reference operator (backslash) used much at all in code.
- Instead, I advise beginners that they (and most of the
- rest of us) should try to use the much more easily
- understood constructors [] and {} instead of relying upon
- lexical (or dynamic) scoping and hidden reference-counting
- to do the right thing behind the scenes.
-
- In summary:
-
- $LoL[$i] = [ @list ]; # usually best
- $LoL[$i] = \@list; # perilous; just how my() was that list?
- @{ $LoL[$i] } = @list; # way too tricky for most programmers
-
- CAVEAT ON PRECEDENCE
- Speaking of things like @{$LoL[$i]}, the following are
- actually the same thing:
-
- $listref->[2][2] # clear
- $$listref[2][2] # confusing
-
- That's because Perl's precedence rules on its five prefix
- dereferencers (which look like someone swearing: $ @ * %
- &) make them bind more tightly than the postfix
- subscripting brackets or braces! This will no doubt come
- as a great shock to the C or C++ programmer, who is quite
- accustomed to using *a[i] to mean what's pointed to by the
- i'th element of a. That is, they first take the
- subscript, and only then dereference the thing at that
- subscript. That's fine in C, but this isn't C.
-
- The seemingly equivalent construct in Perl, $$listref[$i]
- first does the deref of $listref, making it take $listref
- as a reference to an array, and then dereference that, and
- finally tell you the i'th value of the array pointed to by
- $LoL. If you wanted the C notion, you'd have to write
- ${$LoL[$i]} to force the $LoL[$i] to get evaluated first
- before the leading $ dereferencer.
-
- WHY YOU SHOULD ALWAYS use strict
- If this is starting to sound scarier than it's worth,
- relax. Perl has some features to help you avoid its most
- common pitfalls. The best way to avoid getting confused
- is to start every program like this:
-
- #!/usr/bin/perl -w
- use strict;
-
- This way, you'll be forced to declare all your variables
- with my() and also disallow accidental "symbolic
- dereferencing". Therefore if you'd done this:
-
- my $listref = [
- [ "fred", "barney", "pebbles", "bambam", "dino", ],
- [ "homer", "bart", "marge", "maggie", ],
- [ "george", "jane", "alroy", "judy", ],
- ];
-
- print $listref[2][2];
-
- The compiler would immediately flag that as an error at
- compile time, because you were accidentally accessing
- @listref, an undeclared variable, and it would thereby
- remind you to instead write:
-
- print $listref->[2][2]
-
- DEBUGGING
- The standard Perl debugger in 5.001 doesn't do a very nice
- job of printing out complex data structures. However, the
- perl5db that Ilya Zakharevich <ilya@math.ohio-state.edu>
- wrote, which is accessible at
-
- ftp://ftp.perl.com/pub/perl/ext/perl5db-kit-0.9.tar.gz
-
- has several new features, including command line editing
- as well as the x command to dump out complex data
- structures. For example, given the assignment to $LoL
- above, here's the debugger output:
-
- DB<1> X $LoL
- $LoL = ARRAY(0x13b5a0)
- 0 ARRAY(0x1f0a24)
- 0 'fred'
- 1 'barney'
- 2 'pebbles'
- 3 'bambam'
- 4 'dino'
- 1 ARRAY(0x13b558)
- 0 'homer'
- 1 'bart'
- 2 'marge'
- 3 'maggie'
- 2 ARRAY(0x13b540)
- 0 'george'
- 1 'jane'
- 2 'alroy'
- 3 'judy'
-
- There's also a lower-case x command which is nearly the
- same.
-
- CODE EXAMPLES
- Presented with little comment (these will get their own
- man pages someday) here are short code examples
- illustrating access of various types of data structures.
-
- LISTS OF LISTS
- Declaration of a LIST OF LISTS
-
- @LoL = (
- [ "fred", "barney" ],
- [ "george", "jane", "elroy" ],
- [ "homer", "marge", "bart" ],
- );
-
- Generation of a LIST OF LISTS
-
- # reading from file
- while ( <> ) {
- push @LoL, [ split ];
-
- # calling a function
- for $i ( 1 .. 10 ) {
- $LoL[$i] = [ somefunc($i) ];
-
- # using temp vars
- for $i ( 1 .. 10 ) {
- @tmp = somefunc($i);
- $LoL[$i] = [ @tmp ];
-
- # add to an existing row
- push @{ $LoL[0] }, "wilma", "betty";
-
- Access and Printing of a LIST OF LISTS
-
- # one element
- $LoL[0][0] = "Fred";
-
- # another element
- $LoL[1][1] =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
-
- # print the whole thing with refs
- for $aref ( @LoL ) {
- print "\t [ @$aref ],\n";
-
- # print the whole thing with indices
- for $i ( 0 .. $#LoL ) {
- print "\t [ @{$LoL[$i]} ],\n";
-
- # print the whole thing one at a time
- for $i ( 0 .. $#LoL ) {
- for $j ( 0 .. $#{$LoL[$i]} ) {
- print "elt $i $j is $LoL[$i][$j]\n";
- }
-
- HASHES OF LISTS
- Declaration of a HASH OF LISTS
-
- %HoL = (
- "flintstones" => [ "fred", "barney" ],
- "jetsons" => [ "george", "jane", "elroy" ],
- "simpsons" => [ "homer", "marge", "bart" ],
- );
-
- Generation of a HASH OF LISTS
-
- # reading from file
- # flintstones: fred barney wilma dino
- while ( <> ) {
- next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
- $HoL{$1} = [ split ];
-
- # reading from file; more temps
- # flintstones: fred barney wilma dino
- while ( $line = <> ) {
- ($who, $rest) = split /:\s*/, $line, 2;
- @fields = split ' ', $rest;
- $HoL{$who} = [ @fields ];
-
- # calling a function that returns a list
- for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
- $HoL{$group} = [ get_family($group) ];
-
- # likewise, but using temps
- for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
- @members = get_family($group);
- $HoL{$group} = [ @members ];
-
- # append new members to an existing family
- push @{ $HoL{"flintstones"} }, "wilma", "betty";
-
- Access and Printing of a HASH OF LISTS
-
- # one element
- $HoL{flintstones}[0] = "Fred";
-
- # another element
- $HoL{simpsons}[1] =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
-
- # print the whole thing
- foreach $family ( keys %HoL ) {
- print "$family: @{ $HoL{$family} }\n"
-
- # print the whole thing with indices
- foreach $family ( keys %HoL ) {
- print "family: ";
- foreach $i ( 0 .. $#{ $HoL{$family} ) {
- print " $i = $HoL{$family}[$i]";
- }
- print "\n";
-
- # print the whole thing sorted by number of members
- foreach $family ( sort { @{$HoL{$b}} <=> @{$HoL{$b}} } keys %HoL ) {
- print "$family: @{ $HoL{$family} }\n"
-
- # print the whole thing sorted by number of members and name
- foreach $family ( sort { @{$HoL{$b}} <=> @{$HoL{$a}} } keys %HoL ) {
- print "$family: ", join(", ", sort @{ $HoL{$family}), "\n";
- LISTS OF HASHES
- Declaration of a LIST OF HASHES
-
- @LoH = (
- {
- Lead => "fred",
- Friend => "barney",
- },
- {
- Lead => "george",
- Wife => "jane",
- Son => "elroy",
- },
- {
- Lead => "homer",
- Wife => "marge",
- Son => "bart",
- }
- );
-
- Generation of a LIST OF HASHES
-
- # reading from file
- # format: LEAD=fred FRIEND=barney
- while ( <> ) {
- $rec = {};
- for $field ( split ) {
- ($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
- $rec->{$key} = $value;
- }
- push @LoH, $rec;
-
- # reading from file
- # format: LEAD=fred FRIEND=barney
- # no temp
- while ( <> ) {
- push @LoH, { split /[\s+=]/ };
-
- # calling a function that returns a key,value list, like
- # "lead","fred","daughter","pebbles"
- while ( %fields = getnextpairset() )
- push @LoH, { %fields };
-
- # likewise, but using no temp vars
- while (<>) {
- push @LoH, { parsepairs($_) };
-
- # add key/value to an element
- $LoH[0]{"pet"} = "dino";
- $LoH[2]{"pet"} = "santa's little helper";
-
- Access and Printing of a LIST OF HASHES
-
- # one element
- $LoH[0]{"lead"} = "fred";
-
- # another element
- $LoH[1]{"lead"} =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
-
- # print the whole thing with refs
- for $href ( @LoH ) {
- print "{ ";
- for $role ( keys %$href ) {
- print "$role=$href->{$role} ";
- }
- print "}\n";
-
- # print the whole thing with indices
- for $i ( 0 .. $#LoH ) {
- print "$i is { ";
- for $role ( keys %{ $LoH[$i] } ) {
- print "$role=$LoH[$i]{$role} ";
- }
- print "}\n";
-
- # print the whole thing one at a time
- for $i ( 0 .. $#LoH ) {
- for $role ( keys %{ $LoH[$i] } ) {
- print "elt $i $role is $LoH[$i]{$role}\n";
- }
-
- HASHES OF HASHES
- Declaration of a HASH OF HASHES
-
- %HoH = (
- "flintstones" => {
- "lead" => "fred",
- "pal" => "barney",
- },
- "jetsons" => {
- "lead" => "george",
- "wife" => "jane",
- "his boy"=> "elroy",
- }
- "simpsons" => {
- "lead" => "homer",
- "wife" => "marge",
- "kid" => "bart",
- );
-
- Generation of a HASH OF HASHES
-
- # reading from file
- # flintstones: lead=fred pal=barney wife=wilma pet=dino
- while ( <> ) {
- next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
- $who = $1;
- for $field ( split ) {
- ($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
- $HoH{$who}{$key} = $value;
- }
-
- # reading from file; more temps
- while ( <> ) {
- next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
- $who = $1;
- $rec = {};
- $HoH{$who} = $rec;
- for $field ( split ) {
- ($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
- $rec->{$key} = $value;
- }
-
- # calling a function that returns a key,value list, like
- # "lead","fred","daughter","pebbles"
- while ( %fields = getnextpairset() )
- push @a, { %fields };
-
- # calling a function that returns a key,value hash
- for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
- $HoH{$group} = { get_family($group) };
-
- # likewise, but using temps
- for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
- %members = get_family($group);
- $HoH{$group} = { %members };
-
- # append new members to an existing family
- %new_folks = (
- "wife" => "wilma",
- "pet" => "dino";
- );
- for $what (keys %new_folks) {
- $HoH{flintstones}{$what} = $new_folks{$what};
-
- Access and Printing of a HASH OF HASHES
-
- # one element
- $HoH{"flintstones"}{"wife"} = "wilma";
-
- # another element
- $HoH{simpsons}{lead} =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
-
- # print the whole thing
- foreach $family ( keys %HoH ) {
- print "$family: ";
- for $role ( keys %{ $HoH{$family} } {
- print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
- }
- print "}\n";
-
- # print the whole thing somewhat sorted
- foreach $family ( sort keys %HoH ) {
- print "$family: ";
- for $role ( sort keys %{ $HoH{$family} } {
- print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
- }
- print "}\n";
-
- # print the whole thing sorted by number of members
- foreach $family ( sort { keys %{$HoH{$b}} <=> keys %{$HoH{$b}} } keys %HoH ) {
- print "$family: ";
- for $role ( sort keys %{ $HoH{$family} } {
- print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
- }
- print "}\n";
-
- # establish a sort order (rank) for each role
- $i = 0;
- for ( qw(lead wife son daughter pal pet) ) { $rank{$_} = ++$i }
-
- # now print the whole thing sorted by number of members
- foreach $family ( sort { keys %{$HoH{$b}} <=> keys %{$HoH{$b}} } keys %HoH ) {
- print "$family: ";
- # and print these according to rank order
- for $role ( sort { $rank{$a} <=> $rank{$b} keys %{ $HoH{$family} } {
- print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
- }
- print "}\n";
-
- MORE ELABORATE RECORDS
- Declaration of MORE ELABORATE RECORDS
-
- Here's a sample showing how to create and use a record
- whose fields are of many different sorts:
-
- $rec = {
- STRING => $string,
- LIST => [ @old_values ],
- LOOKUP => { %some_table },
- FUNC => \&some_function,
- FANON => sub { $_[0] ** $_[1] },
- FH => \*STDOUT,
- };
-
- print $rec->{STRING};
-
- print $rec->{LIST}[0];
- $last = pop @ { $rec->{LIST} };
-
- print $rec->{LOOKUP}{"key"};
- ($first_k, $first_v) = each %{ $rec->{LOOKUP} };
-
- $answer = &{ $rec->{FUNC} }($arg);
- $answer = &{ $rec->{FANON} }($arg1, $arg2);
-
- # careful of extra block braces on fh ref
- print { $rec->{FH} } "a string\n";
-
- use FileHandle;
- $rec->{FH}->autoflush(1);
- $rec->{FH}->print(" a string\n");
-
- Declaration of a HASH OF COMPLEX RECORDS
-
- %TV = (
- "flintstones" => {
- series => "flintstones",
- nights => [ qw(monday thursday friday) ];
- members => [
- { name => "fred", role => "lead", age => 36, },
- { name => "wilma", role => "wife", age => 31, },
- { name => "pebbles", role => "kid", age => 4, },
- ],
- },
-
- "jetsons" => {
- series => "jetsons",
- nights => [ qw(wednesday saturday) ];
- members => [
- { name => "george", role => "lead", age => 41, },
- { name => "jane", role => "wife", age => 39, },
- { name => "elroy", role => "kid", age => 9, },
- ],
- },
-
- "simpsons" => {
- series => "simpsons",
- nights => [ qw(monday) ];
- members => [
- { name => "homer", role => "lead", age => 34, },
- { name => "marge", role => "wife", age => 37, },
- { name => "bart", role => "kid", age => 11, },
- ],
- },
- );
-
- Generation of a HASH OF COMPLEX RECORDS
-
- # reading from file
- # this is most easily done by having the file itself be
- # in the raw data format as shown above. perl is happy
- # to parse complex datastructures if declared as data, so
- # sometimes it's easiest to do that
-
- # here's a piece by piece build up
- $rec = {};
- $rec->{series} = "flintstones";
- $rec->{nights} = [ find_days() ];
-
- @members = ();
- # assume this file in field=value syntax
- while () {
- %fields = split /[\s=]+/;
- push @members, { %fields };
- }
- $rec->{members} = [ @members ];
-
- # now remember the whole thing
- $TV{ $rec->{series} } = $rec;
-
- ###########################################################
- # now, you might want to make interesting extra fields that
- # include pointers back into the same data structure so if
- # change one piece, it changes everywhere, like for examples
- # if you wanted a {kids} field that was an array reference
- # to a list of the kids' records without having duplicate
- # records and thus update problems.
- ###########################################################
- foreach $family (keys %TV) {
- $rec = $TV{$family}; # temp pointer
- @kids = ();
- for $person ( @{$rec->{members}} ) {
- if ($person->{role} =~ /kid|son|daughter/) {
- push @kids, $person;
- }
- }
- # REMEMBER: $rec and $TV{$family} point to same data!!
- $rec->{kids} = [ @kids ];
- }
-
- # you copied the list, but the list itself contains pointers
- # to uncopied objects. this means that if you make bart get
- # older via
-
- $TV{simpsons}{kids}[0]{age}++;
-
- # then this would also change in
- print $TV{simpsons}{members}[2]{age};
-
- # because $TV{simpsons}{kids}[0] and $TV{simpsons}{members}[2]
- # both point to the same underlying anonymous hash table
-
- # print the whole thing
- foreach $family ( keys %TV ) {
- print "the $family";
- print " is on during @{ $TV{$family}{nights} }\n";
- print "its members are:\n";
- for $who ( @{ $TV{$family}{members} } ) {
- print " $who->{name} ($who->{role}), age $who->{age}\n";
- }
- print "it turns out that $TV{$family}{'lead'} has ";
- print scalar ( @{ $TV{$family}{kids} } ), " kids named ";
- print join (", ", map { $_->{name} } @{ $TV{$family}{kids} } );
- print "\n";
- }
-
- Database Ties
- You cannot easily tie a multilevel data structure (such as
- a hash of hashes) to a dbm file. The first problem is
- that all but GDBM and Berkeley DB have size limitations,
- but beyond that, you also have problems with how
- references are to be represented on disk. One
- experimental module that does attempt to partially address
- this need is the MLDBM module. Check your nearest CPAN
- site as described in the perlmod manpage for source code
- to MLDBM.
-
- SEE ALSO
- the perlref manpage, the perllol manpage, the perldata
- manpage, the perlobj manpage
-
- AUTHOR
- Tom Christiansen <tchrist@perl.com>
-
- Last update: Tue Dec 12 09:20:26 MST 1995
-