Because of the shallowness of soils and of the convectional nature of rains, the availability of moisture and nutrients to crops is extremely variable over time and space in the Sahel. Yields vary dramatically not only between years, but also between fields in the same village, and even within the same field, as shown here!
keywords
cameroon,stick,farming,men,sahel,clothing
:PHYSSIZE
Then the short rainy season begins. People feverishly scrape the ground with simple instruments like sticks and hoes to plant a few seeds..................................
And the land covers itself with fast growing plants, one of which dominates as a result of man's activity: millet.fast growing plants, one of which dominates as a result of man's activity: millet...lf with fast growing plants, one of which dominates as a result of man's activity: millet................................
keywords
house,nigeria,zankwa,farming,guinean zone
:PHYSSIZE
Relative rural prosperity is immediately noticeable in the presence of corrugated iron roofs on this farm of central Nigeria.
:PHYSSIZE
In the colder highlands of Ethiopia, teff, barley and wheat are commonly grown. together with sorghum and corn. ether with sorghum and corn.
keywords
ethiopia,highlands,farming,landscape,house
:PHYSSIZE
As a result, these two fellows have started a water transportation business. Private water distribution is widespread in Africa. Not everybody can afford it, however.
keywords
ethiopia,children,donkey,water,transport
keywords
village,livestock,landscape,sahel
:PHYSSIZE
Livestock production is a major activity in all the tse-tse free areas of Africa, particularly in the Sahel but also in the Sudano-Guinean zone. Although livestock ownership is now prevalent among all farmers irrespective of their ethnic background, certain ethnic groups like the Fulanis have long emphasized cattle raising as their major productive activity. They have adapted their lifestyle and even houses to the necessity of moving around in search of pasture........
keywords
livestock,cattle,nigeria,zankwa,milk,guinean zone
:PHYSSIZE
Over the centuries, Africans have developed cattle breeds that are perfectly suited to their environment. They are sturdy, resistant to pests and diseases, and willing to walk long distances. Unfortunately, there is a trade-off: they are not very productive, neither in terms of milk or in terms of meat....
keywords
nigeria,zankwa,livestock,cattle,farming,guinean zone
:PHYSSIZE
Open range pasture is the rule. A complex customary land tenure system exists that attempts to reconcile the conflicting interests of herders and farmers. The challenge is to limit depradations to crops caused by animals without having to fence either animals or crops!
Milk makes a fundamental contribution to the nutrition of herders. It is either consumed directly, or exchanged for cereals with farmers. For pure pastoralists or for itinerant herders, milk actually constitutes the major (if not only) source of calories. e basis of pure herders' nutrition, either through direct consumption, or via exchange for cereals.
:PHYSSIZE
Ironically, efforts to prohibit slash and burn result in uncontroled fires as farmers cannot but resort to it although they do not want to be seen doing it. Once the vegetation has been cleared by fire, minimal land preparation is undertaken.
keywords
sierra leone,forest,men,farming,trees,soil,vegetation,hoe
keywords
sierra leone,farming,rice,trees,water,forest
:PHYSSIZE
Rice yields obtained with this technique of course do not compare with what one would get with full water control irrigation. But given its relatively low labor requirements, this technique remains superior to irrigated rice in terms of returns to man-hour.
:PHYSSIZE
Partial or full water control, however, enables farmers to grow two or three crops a year using fertilizer and improved seeds.
keywords
ivory coast,forest,rice,water,farming
keywords
ivory coast,coffee,farming,trees,ethiopia,forest
:PHYSSIZE
The forest zone also offers a suitable environment for profitable tree crops. Coffee grows on a small bush-like tree. It grows naturally in the Kaffa province of Ethiopia, but here in Ivory Coast it has to be planted. This particular tree is in Ivory Coast......................
keywords
farming,palm,trees,men,alcohol,forest
:PHYSSIZE
Other tree crops are important in the forest zone. Palm oil and palm kernels, for instance, were already important West African exports in the pre-colonial period. Today, palm products are mostly consumed in Africa itself. An added attraction of palm trees is that once a tree is too old to produce and has to be replaced (e.g. after eight years), it can be used to generate one full jar of delicious palm wine. To get that wine, however, one has to climb to the top of the tree!
:PHYSSIZE
Africans pay a price for the abundance of wildlife on their land: damages to cultures. Here young kids spend the whole day on platforms to chase birds and monkeys away from ripening crops.
Rice cultivation on valley bottoms require more work than on slash and burn upland fields as seedlings have to be transplanted by hand.
keywords
ivory coast,forest,rice,men,water,farming
:PHYSSIZE
Slash and burn has a bad name. But in all honesty, the vegetation that grows on fallowed fields is so thick that burning it is pretty much the only humanly possible way to prepare a field for cultivation. Besides, ashes increases the fertility of the soil.elds, burning it is pretty much the only way prepare a field for cultivation.
keywords
ivory coast,forest,trees,vegetation,soil,farming
keywords
sierra leone,farming,rice,women,trees,basket,forest,clothing
:PHYSSIZE
This Sierra Leone woman farmer is broadcasting rice on a field newly cleared by fire. No land preparation is undertaken to disturb as little as possible the shallow forest soil.
:PHYSSIZE
A variety of crops can be grown on land prepared in this fashion. Here yams are intercropped with corn.
keywords
ivory coast,forest,farming,yam,corn,trees
:PHYSSIZE
Cassava is grown on this plot. In Ivory Coast as elsewhere, cassava is a woman's crop.
This fellow is carrying a palm fruit on his head. Today, most palm production is consumed locally. The international market for palm oil has collapsed as European and U.S. food manufacturers have turned to other vegetable oils, mostly soya oil produced in the U.S.
:PHYSSIZE
Children are called upon to help with labor intensive transplanting.
keywords
ivory coast,forest,rice,water,farming,children
keywords
palm,oil,men,food,potsessing
:PHYSSIZE
Palm fruits are now processed in an artisanal fashion and turned into cooking oil. The oil is for sale in all coastal markets of West Africa.
:PHYSSIZE
After harvest, rice must be threshed manually. Part of it is self-consumed, part of it is sold to cover the cost of inputs and pay for essential consumption items.nsumption items.n items.
As a result of increased population pressure, however, the long fallows required for the slash and burn technique to be sustainable can no longer be practiced in certain areas, like here in Gagnoa, Ivory Coast. With the help of the government, farmers have started to clear valley bottoms and make them suitable for rice cultivation with full or partial water control or irrigation....................
The work required to level fields and remove all preexisting vegetation is back breaking, however. Remember that all the work has to be done by hand. Not all farmers find it worth undertaking.
This former teacher is somewhat of an exception. For him, irrigation is the way of the future. He encourages his sons and daughter to make the required investment before the land is taken by others...........
Rainfall, however, is not sufficiently stable to eliminate risk altogether. The chielf of the village of Koho, in Burkina Faso, here stands in front of a large millet field that is cultivated jointly by the village community and is used by the chief as welfare fund. hief as welfare fund.
The relative abundance of rainfall in the Sudano-Guinean agroclimatic zone allows the cultivation of cotton. Moisture, however, profits weeds as well as crops. As a result, weeding is by far the most demanding task. ask. ld.
This picture of Woure was taken in September, 1988. In that year, rainfall was so exceptionally plentiful that some of the millet fields were opened to livestock grazing before harvest. The loss in millet output was more than compensated by cattle weight gain and increased milk production.ncreased milk production.tle weight gain and increased milk production..
:PHYSSIZE
Woure has a collectively cultivated field whose output goes into a welfare fund. In 1988, however, farmers got so busy in their own fields thanks to the abundance of rains, that they planted the above common field much too late. The effect on crop growth -- and likely yields -- is obvious.is obvious..
Millet is very often planted in association with cowpea. Interviews with farmers suggest that the two crops in some way benefit from each other's presence.
:PHYSSIZE
Cowpeas are not only grown for human consumption, but also as a source of very nutritive animal fodder. In parts of the Sahel, cowpea hay has interestingly become a profitable cash crop. It is fed to dairy cattle as well as to animals being fattened for meat production.well as to animals being fattened for meat production..tion.
We are, however, reminded that times are not always as favorable as in 1988. This man went to collect wild grain that grows freely in the bush. The basket on the right is the implement he used to harvest the grain. Although in this particular year, wild food was probably collected with the sole purpose of diet diversification, in most other years, wild foods are an essential nutritional complement for many village families.............
Once prepared, food is served in large bowls from which all eat in common. In the foreground is white sorghum. (Food aid) red sorghum is on the left, chicken in the middle and a vegetable sauce on the right.
:PHYSSIZE
Storage technologies vary from place to place. Here grain is stored in large jars made of clay and covered with straw "hats". They are built on stones above ground in order to limit attacks by rodents. o limit attacks by rodents.
In the forest zone of West Africa (in particular, Liberia, Sierra Leone and parts of Ivory Coast), the slash and burn technique is still used to clear fields of their abundant vegetation. Given the thickness of the vegetation that grows on fallowed fields, burning it is pretty much the only way prepare a field for cultivation.tion.
:PHYSSIZE
These two Ghanaian fellows are manufacturing the metal pieces that are used to colled the sap of the hevea tree. The drastic devaluation of the local currency has encouraged farmers to rehabilitate rubber plantations fallen in disarray. As a result of structural adjuctment policies, the production of export crops is again on the rise in Africa. But
keywords
ghana,accra,men,machines,rubber
:PHYSSIZE
On the East African highlands as elsewhere in Africa, it is women's duty to fetch water. To do so, they may have to walk several miles during the dry season....
keywords
ethiopia,highlands,women,water,transport,pots
:PHYSSIZE
Although deep plowing remains an unnecessary and time consuming practice in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, oxen and donkeys are increasingly used for weeding and transportation.
As we continue our tour of Koho, we meet the village weaver and his traditional weaving equipment. Note, however, that the three young people in the picture wear European style clothes!
We have moved to the village next door, Sayero. Here people are having a hard time finding enough manpower resources to perform weeding in a timely manner. This obviously will result in significant loss of output.
Sub-Saharan farmers always select the best looking plants in their field as the source of seeds for the following year. Repeating this practice over centuries has resulted in varieties well suited for the environment and the needs of farmers. For instance, this extremely tall variety of sorghum offers the double advantage of outspeeding weeds in their struggle for air and space, and of being largely unaccessible to livestock and therefore less likely to suffer from depradation by wandering animals...
Sayero enjoys the company of a village blacksmith. Using traditional techniques, he produces hoes and machetes for village members. Even though he is using
The boundary between what we would call a field and what we would call a garden is blurred in most Sub-Saharan Africa. This miniature tobacco field undoubtedly corresponds better to what we would call a garden, however.
Rural (as well as urban) families typically reside in "compounds" or groups of dwellings surrounded by a wall or fence. The space within the compound is private and is used for all domestic activities -- from food preparation to children's play. The basket of okras in the foreground probably comes from the garden of one of the ladies residing in this compound..
All rural households store part if not all of their grain output for home consumption. Here, corn is being dried in a tree before going into storage. Moist grain indeed rots more easily.
In Sayero, grain is stored in huge "baskets" that are also kept above ground, but in this case with wooden poles................ov
sahel
previous
previous
keywords
cameroon,village,landscape,sahel
:PHYSSIZE
The Sahel is an amazing part of the world. For most of the year, it looks like a desert, the ground being covered by virtually no vegetation at all. People live in ho, Sayero and Woure and venture into other areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. This view of a North Camerounian village offers lots of similarities with what we have seen so far.ther years, wild foods are an essential nutritional complement for many village families.
Rock bunds have been presented as a panacea against land degradation in the Sahel. This picture confirms that rock bunds (buried under the two green bands of vegetation) indeed reduce runoff and favor the retention of soil moisture. But according to farmers the amount of labor that is involved to carry the stones is not commensurate with the potential increase in millet output. The Sahel is simply too dry to make much investment in the land economically profitable.
:PHYSSIZE
Millet is a tall and extremely sturdy crop. It survives incredible heat and drought stress and its residues (leaves and stems) can be used as animal fodder and raw material for weaving mats and building fences..
This is the Woure crowd, a small village in Northern Burkina Faso. People are mostly settled Fulanis. They maintain a deep interest in livestock, especially cattle.......particular.
keywords
sierra leone, farming,rice,trees,forest
This simple technique gives satisfactory results, but only for a limited number of years. When soil nutrients have been exhausted, which happens fairly quickly, the field is left fallow for several years and lush vegetation is allowed to reclaim the field. Then fire is again used to clear the field and the cycle is repeated.
Moisture is sufficient to grow corn as well as cotton. Not only does corn respond well to improved fertilitilization and soil moisture, it is also an early maturing crop that provides food when stocks are at their lowest. vides food when stocks are at their lowest.
:PHYSSIZE
Farmers like to mix and match -- in this case corn with cotton. It enables them to reduce risk as well as take advantage of certain synergies between plants.....
Cotton is a plant that is very susceptible to attacks by pests. Several pesticide applications are therefore required. Here improper pesticide application has "burned" the leaves of most of the cotton plants in this row..resulted in crop damage: leaves have been "burned"
Parts of the village territory are unsuitable for cultivation -- soils are too hard and poor in nutrients. This area is nevertheless used by the village community as a crucial source of forage and firewood.
Agriculture is seldom the only (or even the main) occupation of rural dwellers, even if virtually everyone cultivates some crop or another. These two inhabitants of Koho, for instance, have a construction business. They manufacture sun-dried bricks and then transport them around the village on their donkey cart. They are the ones to call when your house collapsed because of too violent rains.....
This is not strictly speaking a rural market. Rather, it is Koho's "mini-mart", the equivalent of the corner grocery store. Here you can find various kinds of products grown in the village -- grain, beans, and vegetables -- as well as objects of long distance trade -- kola nuts, tomato paste, mosquito coil, etc. This mini market is mostly tended by women from the village..
There are some more sophisticated products on the two tables: salt (in little bags), oxtail cubes, sugar (in the blue box), mosquito coil (the two white and blue boxes), yellow peppers, onions, multipurpose soap bar and red peppers. Only the essentials of life!
In the Sudano-Guinean zone, tse-tse fly infestation is low enough to permit livestock raising. From this lady you can buy fresh milk, either for cash (see the coins on her basket) or in exchange for cereals. Figuring out unit prices is made difficult by the use of non-standardized measures.
:PHYSSIZE
Here is Koho's public laundry. No coins are required!
Even in an relatively dry area like Koho, rice is being grown in low lying fields like this one. Lowlands collect moisture from runoff and, provided that their moisture retention quality is high enough, they allow the cultivation of traditional varieties of rice. In this part of Africa and many others, this form of cultivation is entirely the realm of women.
Traditionally, soil fertility was restored by fallowing fields for several years. Rapidly increasing population pressure calls for different methods, one of which is the paddocking of animals in the village in order to collect animal manure and deposit it on the fields.
Among the rolling hills of Rwanda and Burundi, population density is the highest of Africa.
keywords
rwanda,landscape,house,banana,farming,highlands
:PHYSSIZE
Crops cultivated in the highlands differ markedly from those grown elsewhere. Here in Rwanda, for instance, bananas constitute the dominant staple food.
:PHYSSIZE
keywords
ivory coast,cocoa,trees,farming,forest
Cocoa is an odd-looking thing. It is extracted from seeds inside the oblong fruits that grow right out of that tree's trunk. Ghana and Ivory Coast are responsible for most of the cocoa produced in this world. Interestingly, cocoa is about the only commodity for which most of the production comes from Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of coffee production, on the other hand, comes from Latin America.
:PHYSSIZE
Cocoa is about the only commodity for which most of the world's production comes from Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of coffee, on the other hand, comes from Latin America..n America.e cocoa produced in this world. Interestingly, cocoa is about the only commodity for which most of the production comes from Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of coffee production, on the other hand, comes from Latin America.
keywords
ivory coast,forest,trees,cocoa,farming
keywords
children,cameroon,sahel,clothing
:PHYSSIZE
Population growth in the Sahel is probably too rapid to be sustainable. Large numbers of people will continue migrating to more humid areas of Africa.
Firewood remains the most important, if not the unique source of fuel for cooking in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. It is often women's duty to collect firewood.
keywords
food,pots
:PHYSSIZE
While palm oil is used in the preparation of the sauce, yams and cassava are turned into a starchy puree, sometimes in combination with bananas. Good manners require that only the three main fingers of the right hand be used when eating. One first takes a small amount of the puree between three fingers, dip it into the sauce, and then enjoy. Mmm! . Mmm!
keywords
farming,palm,trees,nigeria,zankwa,landscape,guinean zone
:PHYSSIZE
As we move closer to the equator, say into Nigeria's middle belt, the landscape changes and becomes more luxuriant. Small palm tree plantations like this one appear and trees are more numerous.
keywords
house,livestock,pots,nigeria,zankwa,guinean zone
:PHYSSIZE
Even when they obtain from settled communities a long term right to cultivate certain unused fields, as here in central Nigeria, Fulanis retain their original housing style.style.
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ages of Africa: Agriculture
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Sorghum and corn are grown at lower elevation, in valleys and on mountain slopes.ogether with sorghum and corn. ether with sorghum and corn.
keywords
landscape,ethiopia,house,farming,highlands
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African Villages
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African Villages
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Sahel
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Sudano-Guinean
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Highlands
forest
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Forest
Most Africans live in villages dispersed over a territory several times the size of the U.S. How these villagers live depends largely on local agro-climatic conditions. To give you an idea of what life in these villages looks like, I have divided Africa into four agro-climatic zones: the Sahel, the driest; the Sudano-Guinean zone, a zone of intermediate rainfall; the Forest, the most humid; and the Highlands, where altitude creates a specific climate...ude creates its own specific climate.
keywords
cocoa,farming,men,machete,forest,clothingg
:PHYSSIZE
These two fellows demonstrate how you open the cocoa fruit to extract the seeds. Altough most cocoa comes from Africa, most chocolate is manufactured elsewhere, an heritage from colonization.
keywords
farming,rubber,trees,cameroon,forest
:PHYSSIZE
As everybody knows, rubber is extracted from the sap of the hevea tree. Hevea is not a native African plant but it is doing very well here....................................
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:PHYSSIZE
The long term prospects for rice in the humid zone of Africa are excellent. The climate is suitable and consumers like it. Competition from imports and an overvalued CFA Franc have until recently discouraged farmers to make the required investment in water control.
keywords
ivory coast,forest,rice,water,farming,food
keywords
cameroon,rubber,farming,trees,forest
:PHYSSIZE
Rubber is yet another tree crops grown in the forest zone. Unlike palm trees, cocoa, and coffee which usually grown by smallholders, rubber is grown in large commercial farms called plantations. This particular plantation is in Cameroon.is in Cameroon.......
highlands
keywords
landscape,rwanda,highlands
:PHYSSIZE
Lush highland landscapes of East Africa, as this aerial view of Rwanda demonstrates, offer a striking contrast with semi-arid Sahel.....emi-arid Sahel.
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