If you are concerned about the environment and want to take action but don't know where to start, this section can guide you. It describes the world's environmental problems and explains what you can do to help solve them.
\IThis section includes text from Taking Action, An Environmental Guide For You and Your Community, a United Nations Environment Programme publication.\i
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"Taking Action Introduction",2,0,0,0
This section presents an environmental guide for you and your community, based on the book titled \B\ITaking Action\b\i published by the United Nations Environment Programme in association with the United Nations Non-governmental Liaison Service.
This book, edited by Adam Rogers, provides important information for the people of the world if we are to stop global warming, substantially reduce toxic waste, eliminate the hole in the ozone layer, reduce acid rain, and work on many other meaningful and substantial issues associated with improving our environment.
Over the 15 different chapters, you will begin to understand the serious and significant issues that are involved and why the environment is in danger on many fronts. To quote from the Preface "..every 24 hours, an estimated 150 to 200 species of life becomes extinct. During the same period, the human population on Earth expands by a quarter million."
You will begin to understand the concept put forward in this book of what is called \Bsustainable development,\b a development which improves people's quality of life within the carrying capacity of the Earth's life support system. This book is a contribution to this process of sustainable development and is intended for community-based service organizations that are working towards solving environmental problems.
You will also begin to understand that every single person can make a difference, however trivial. Recycling your newspapers and reusing a plastic bag are important activities for individual people.
This book is divided into two parts. Part I (Chapters 1 to 5) presents \IThe Foundation for Sustainable Action\i and looks at general concepts, such as the global environment, the global economy, the role of communities and organizing for community action.
Part II (Chapters 6 to 15), \IChallenges and Opportunities,\i addresses specific environmental concerns, and suggests ways that different communities can make a difference. Many chapters provide additional references for further important reading.
We hope that you will spend the time to seriously read and review this information. It is important for the environment and for all of us that live here. If it inspires you to work towards a better world, then it has achieved an important goal.
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"Taking Action Table of Contents",3,0,0,0
\JTaking Action Foreword\j
\JTaking Action Preface\j
\JGlobal Environment\j
\JGlobal Economy\j
\JRole of Communities\j
\JOrganizing for Community Action\j
\JCommunity Toolbox\j
\JPopulation and Consumption\j
\JEnergy\j
\JWaste\j
\JAtmosphere\j
\JBiodiversity\j
\JWater\j
\JOceans and Coasts\j
\JForests\j
\JAgriculture and Land Use\j
\JDesertification\j
\JCommon Abbreviations\j
\JAppendix 1: Glossary of Terms (A-G)\j
\JAppendix 1: Glossary of Terms (H-W)\j
\JAppendix 2: Fingertips Fact File (Ch 6-10)\j
\JAppendix 2: Fingertips Fact File (Ch 11-15)\j
\JAppendix 3: Acknowledgments\j
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"Global Environment",4,0,0,0
\JGlobal Environment Introduction\j
\JCause and Effect\j
\JEcosystems\j
\JForests\j
\JEarth's Resources\j
\JChanging Relationship\j
\JGlobal Response\j
\JCivil Society and the Post-Rio Process\j
\JGlobal Environment References\j
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"Global Economy",5,0,0,0
\JGlobal Economy Introduction\j
\JPolluter Pays Principle\j
\JPoverty and Its Impact on the Environment\j
\JIndustry and Economics\j
\JCrossing Borders: The Growth in International Trade\j
\JEnvironmental Impacts of Tourism\j
\JGlobal Economy References\j
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"Role of Communities",6,0,0,0
\JRole of Communities Introduction\j
\JMajor Groups\j
\JParticipating in Decision-Making Processes\j
\JDifferent Approaches for Different Communities\j
\JRole of Communities References\j
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"Organizing for Community Action",7,0,0,0
\JOrganizing for Community Action Introduction\j
\JAdopting Environmental Principles\j
\JTargeting Priorities and Identifying Objectives\j
\JTaking Stock of Existing Resources\j
\JTaking Action at the Community Level\j
\JPromoting Education and Building Awareness\j
\JPursue Partnership with your Government\j
\JGetting Started\j
\JAttempting the Lion's Share of Environmental Action\j
\JRotary International (environment)\j
\JOrganizing for Community Action References\j
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"Community Toolbox",8,0,0,0
\JCommunity Toolbox Introduction\j
\JNetworking for Information and Contacts\j
\JSchools and Universities\j
\JInternational and Local Organizations\j
\JBusiness Groups and Associations\j
\JPublic Utilities\j
\JGovernment Officials\j
\JNetworking with Computers\j
\JBringing in the Experts\j
\JAdvocacy and Campaigning\j
\JGovernment Lobbying\j
\JConvention Ratifications and Implementation\j
\JBusiness and Consumer Boycotts\j
\JPreparing for and Dealing with Conflict\j
\JEducation and Training\j
\JUsing the Media\j
\JAirwave Power\j
\JAdvertising - Environment\j
\JWrite On!\j
\JAlerting the Public\j
\JWriting an Effective Press Release\j
\JFund-raising and Finding Sponsors\j
\JWriting Proposals\j
\JCommunity Toolbox References\j
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"Population and Consumption",9,0,0,0
\JPopulation and Consumption Introduction\j
\JPopulation, Consumption and the Environment\j
\JUrban Migration\j
\JSome of the Reasons for Population Growth\j
\JFood Consumption Patterns\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Unsustainable Population Growth\j
\JTaking Action to Address Population Growth\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Unsustainable Consumption Patterns\j
\JTaking Community Action to Address Unsustainable Consumption\j
\JPopulation Growth Declines in Kenya\j
\JGlobal Action Plan for the Earth\j
\JPopulation and Consumption References\j
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"Energy",10,0,0,0
\JEnergy Introduction\j
\JRenewable Energy\j
\JBiomass - A Green Source of Energy\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Unsustainable Energy Use\j
\JTaking Community Action to Conserve Energy\j
\JAddressing the Individual\j
\JEnvironmental Tips\j
\JBiogas Success\j
\JTapping the African Sun\j
\JEnergy References\j
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"Waste",11,0,0,0
\JWaste Introduction\j
\JGrowing Heaps of Garbage in the Cities\j
\JNuclear Waste Issues\j
\JToxic News\j
\JSeeking Solutions\j
\JTaking Community Action\j
\JAt Home\j
\JAt Work\j
\JTurning Garbage into Gold in Egypt\j
\JWaste References\j
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"Atmosphere",12,0,0,0
\JAtmosphere Introduction\j
\JTroposphere, Pollution and Climate Change\j
\JClimate Change\j
\JCauses of Acid Rain\j
\JStratospheric Ozone Layer\j
\JWhat Happens on Earth as a Result of Ozone Depletion\j
\JGood News on Ozone\j
\JProtect Yourself\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Combat Smog, Global Warming and Acid Rain\j
\JTaking Community Action to Combat Smog, Global Warming and Acid Rain\j
\JAddressing the Individual to Combat Smog, Global Warming and Acid Rain\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Combat Stratospheric Ozone Depletion\j
\JTaking Community Action for Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion\j
\JAddressing the Individual for Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion\j
\JAtmosphere References\j
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"Biodiversity",13,0,0,0
\JBiodiversity Introduction\j
\JMedicinal and Industrial Uses of Biodiversity\j
\JBiodependence\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Preserve Biodiversity\j
\JTaking Community Action to Preserve Biodiversity\j
\JEnvironmental Ideas to Preserve Biodiversity\j
\JFew Cases in Point\j
\JSaving Rhinos in Zimbabwe\j
\JBiodiversity References\j
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"Water",14,0,0,0
\JWater Introduction\j
\JSources of Water Pollution\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Water Pollution\j
\JTaking Community Action to Ensure Clean Waterways\j
\JAddressing the Individual to Ensure Clean Waterways\j
\JEmpowering Communities in Tegucigalpa\j
\JTapping Fog to Meet Water Needs\j
\JTaking Freshwater from the Sea\j
\JWater References\j
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"Oceans and Coasts",15,0,0,0
\JOceans and Coasts Introduction\j
\JSeas Under Siege\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Protect Oceans\j
\JTaking Community Action to Protect Oceans\j
\JDying Oceans\j
\JEco-Volunteer Movement\j
\JOceans and Coasts References\j
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"Forests",16,0,0,0
\JForests Introduction\j
\JCauses of Forest Loss\j
\JState of the Rain Forests\j
\JTaking Community Action to Protect our Forests\j
\JTaking Action as an Individual to Protect our Forests\j
\JGreen Belt Movement\j
\JForests References\j
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"Agriculture and Land Use",17,0,0,0
\JAgriculture and Land Use Introduction\j
\JUrbanization: The Price of Poor Land Management\j
\JSearch for Agricultural Sustainability\j
\JCash Crops: A Look at Comparative Disadvantage\j
\JTaking Community Action for Proper Land Use\j
\JFeed the Soil, Not the Crop\j
\JInvisible Gardening\j
\JAgriculture and Land Use References\j
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"Desertification",18,0,0,0
\JDesertification Introduction\j
\JSeeking Solutions to Combat Desertification\j
\JTaking Community Action to Combat Desertification\j
\JSuccess in Senegal\j
\JNGO's Act to Combat Desertification\j
\JDesertification References\j
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"Taking Action Foreword",19,0,0,0
The last two decades have witnessed a remarkable public awakening. There has been revolution in awareness and understanding of environmental issues, a growing sense of urgency, a knowledge that environmental protection is not the luxury of the rich, a realization that we share one, finite earth and that all of us are responsible for what happens to it. A growing number of people ordinary citizens, executives, government officials, religious leaders and journalists are beginning to recognize that their long-term aims and activities and environmental conservation are mutually dependent, not mutually exclusive.
Around the world, people of every culture and political persuasion are organizing - to plant trees in \JKenya\j, to protect watersheds and mangrove swamps in the \JPhilippines\j, to demand dependable water supplies and sanitation in India.
They have realized that many global environmental problems are rooted in local environmental conditions and that action at the local level is often the first step toward a global solution.
\BTaking Action: A Guide for You and Your Community\b has been prepared as a stimulus for action. It has been designed to enable ordinary citizens and communities overcome obstacles to environmental protection by providing basics facts about the environment, by demonstrating how these problems affect the lives of citizens, by proposing alternative solutions based on the best information available and by suggesting how individuals and groups can participate in achieving sustainable solutions.
Overall, the theme of this manual is in line with the message conveyed by Article 10 of the Rio Declaration which stated that "Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes." The theme also is in line with the prominence given in Agenda 21 to the critical role of the Major Groups in society for the changes that must be made in our consumption and production patterns if we are to conserve the environment.
This material does not only describe the problems and suggest solutions, but it calls upon you to provide the action. After all, the decisions we make daily as consumers, as professionals and even as parents and home-makers can shape the world our children and grandchildren will inherit.
My challenge to you is to use the tools provided by this material in explaining environmental issues to the communities in which you work to enable even ordinary citizens to attempt practical and cost-effective solutions in enhancing their environment.
\BElizabeth Dowdeswell
Executive Director
United Nations Environment Program \b
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"Taking Action Preface",20,0,0,0
\B "Unless we do something radical today, we will be unable to do anything tomorrow."\b
\I-- Jacques Cousteau\i
In 1991, a publication jointly published by the World Conservation Union, the World Wide Fund for Nature and the United Nations Environment Program proclaimed that humanity is at risk because it is misusing natural resources and pressing the Earth to the limits of its capacity. "We are now gambling with the survival of civilization," warned the book, \ICaring for the Earth,\i in its preface.
In the years following this ominous warning, the planet is not in much better shape. The environment is in danger on nearly every front. Every time we pick up a newspaper, we read about something that is threatening our very existence, as well as that of other forms of life with which we share this planet.
\BSpecies \JExtinction\j vs Overpopulation\b
For example, every 24 hours, an estimated 150 to 200 species of life become extinct. During the same period, the human population on Earth expands by a quarter million. If it is not the ozone, it is
global warming; if not that, then toxic and hazardous waste in our water. Our landfills are filling up so fast, we are running out of room in which to dump our rubbish. Our forests are disappearing at a rate too fast for them to be able to replace themselves. These are but a few of the many problems that are threatening the carrying capacity of our home, the Earth.
\BA Call for Sustainability\b
The idea of sustainability was first conceived in relation to the use of renewable resources, that an activity is only sustainable in as much as it can continue indefinitely. If a renewable resource is exploited and used faster than it can regenerate itself, the premise states, the resource will eventually be depleted and hence its use will not be sustainable.
Living sustainably means understanding and accepting the consequences of being a part of a greater community of life and becoming more conscious of the effects our actions have on future generations and the other species with whom we share this planet. Because sustainability is a relatively new concept, and often runs contrary to established paradigms of social and economic behaviour, ensuring that sustainability is in fact sustainable will require a new ethic of living. In order for it to succeed, sustainable living must also be the new pattern of all sectors and levels of society individuals, organizations, communities, nations and the world. The new patterns must be promoted and accepted by youth, women, men, rural peoples, urbanites, religious organizations, and all other groups of which a society is composed. Adopting this new pattern of sustainability will necessitate a fundamental change in the attitudes and practices of many people, in each of these sectors. It will require that people adjust their lifestyles and adopt pursuits that respect and work within nature's limits. Sustainability can be accomplished without rejecting the many benefits that modern technology has brought civilization, provided the technology works within those limits.
\BSustainable Development\b
Sustainable development--development which improves people's quality of life within the carrying capacity of the Earth's life support system--must be our goal if we are to solve the current environmental crisis. Most approaches to development in the past have traditionally focused on the projected economic performance of a country and its physical \Jinfrastructure\j. As one of its central activities, development involved exploiting the environment in an attempt to make life easier, healthier and more prosperous for people. Unfortunately, as concern for economic performance began to outweigh other considerations such as the environment, development often became unsustainable; it sometimes led to the extraction of more from the environment than the environment was able to regenerate, and brought harm to the people it was meant to benefit.
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development declared that development is sustainable only if it "meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
As outlined in different sections of this material, lack of development can be just as harmful to the environment as unsustainable development. People living in poverty often have no other choice but to engage in activities that could be considered environmentally harmful. We cannot expect a person to worry about global warming if he is worrying about feeding his family.
\BWorldwide Movement\b
There is an unprecedented movement of citizen groups that are mobilizing to address issues of social and environmental concern. In the developing world there are now some 4,600 organizations from the developed world working side by side with approximately 20,000 indigenous non-governmental organizations (NGOs). \JBangladesh\j alone has more than 10,000 registered NGOs. In Sri Lanka, the Sarvodala Shramadana movement has mobilized more than 8,000 villages to produce small-scale community improvement projects. In the \JPhilippines\j, there are more than 21,000 community organizations that are working to improve the life and environment of that country. In \JChile\j, there are 27,000 and in the neighbouring country of Argentina about 2,000.
This CD-ROM is a contribution to this process of sustainable development and is dedicated to civil society. It is intended for community-based service organizations that are working toward solving environmental problems and establishing a sustainable relationship between their communities and the Earth. It is also for national and international organizations that want to undertake activities at the community level and with community involvement. Though the material is targeted primarily at
organizations, individuals also should benefit greatly from reading it, since communities and organizations, after all, are made up of individuals.
\BTaking Action\b
As you read this, you may at times feel overwhelmed by the idea that so much needs to be done. It may seem as if the world's problems are so big that there is no way that one person or one organization could make a difference. You might think that reusing a plastic bag or recycling your newspaper is so trivial that it won't change anything. The fact is, every person can make a difference, and collectively, an organization of individuals can make a big difference. Every group is comprised of individuals and the entire human population is made up of individuals and groups. It is up to you, and your community, to make choices and take actions that will solve the numerous problems that the planet is experiencing.
This is UNEP's challenge to you, and to the organizations of which you are a part, to make your contribution to the cause of sustainability. This material does not offer a panacea: the words are meant to be signposts--pointers to action that we must take if we are to achieve long-term sustainability. It offers some suggestions that will assist you and your organization to develop your personal and community action plans.
Human societies differ greatly in culture, religion, history, politics and traditions, as well as wealth, quality of life and environmental realities. Because of this vast dispersion of variables, the principles and action plans presented in this material are put forth in relatively broad terms, and are meant to be adopted and interpreted by each community based on its own unique circumstances. If the world is to achieve sustainability, it will not be through one path that all conform to; it will be through many different approaches that have been accomplished through continuous creativity, trial and error and the adaptation of the experience of others.
While this was written and intended primarily for communities in the developing world, many of the approaches will be appropriate in both the developing "South" as well as the industrialized and developed "North." It is becoming increasingly difficult to draw a firm and distinct line between these two sectors of the global society. There are many places in the North that are as poor and undeveloped as places in the South, and there are places in the South that could be considered developed and industrialized. Lastly, since some of the environmental problems now encountered in the South are associated with industrial technologies that originated in the North, many of the approaches to their solutions would be appropriate in both regions.
The material is divided into two parts.
\BPart I - Chapters 1 to 5\b presents \IThe Foundation for Sustainable Action,\i and looks at general concepts, such as the global environment, the global economy, the role of communities and organizing for community action.
\BPart II - Chapters 6 to 15\b \IChallenges and Opportunities, \iaddresses specific environmental concerns, and suggests ways that different communities can make a difference.
The process through which this material evolved involved input, criticism and feedback from more than 100 people from numerous organizations, academic institutions and agencies of the United Nations. At an early stage, 30 individuals from around the world, each an expert with experience in different aspects of sustainable living, were flown to the headquarters of the UN Environment Program in \JNairobi\j, \JKenya\j for a five-day intensive workshop to review the first draft of the manual. Their input was incorporated into a second draft, which was then sent to six 'focal-point groups' around the world for yet more feedback.
The process, however, does not stop here. This manual will be updated with any inputs and feedback received after the first edition is published. Also, as science advances towards a better understanding of the world we live in, new discoveries and possible community solutions to environmental problems will be included in future editions.
It is hoped that this material will both inform and inspire. If we the people are going to create positive change in the world, we must make a commitment to do something. It all starts with the first step, or sometimes--the first chapter.
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"Global Environment Introduction",21,0,0,0
\B"We are the Earth, through the plants and animals that nourish us. We are the rains and the oceans that flow through our veins. We are the breath of the forests of the land, and the plants of the sea ...Linked in a web of community, we are all interconnected."\b
\I-- David Suzuki, from "The Declaration of Interdependence" \i
Viewing life in its systemic entirety-as one complete, interdependent and interactive system-runs contrary to the way many people see their world. Most of us view the world as composed of separate parts. We deal with life's objects and events without acknowledging the processes that connect them. Sometimes we compartmentalize the world for the purpose of organizing it, but end up actually separating the sections in our minds. Many of us don't realize that each of us is part of many systems which, in turn, are part of larger systems.
One of these systems, the largest and most complex, is the ecological system in which we live, and of which we are a part-the \Jbiosphere\j. The \Jbiosphere\j is the thin covering of the planet that contains and sustains living organisms. Portions of the \Jbiosphere\j may be present in the hydrosphere (water), atmosphere (air) or \Jlithosphere\j (rock, and the crust of the earth). The \Jbiosphere\j consists of, among many other things, plants, trees, insects, fish, micro-organisms and people.
Understanding the interconnectedness of all life in the other forms of life can live sustainably in relative security. We cannot feel any kind of serious obligation for something to which we feel no connection. If we do not see how we as individuals interact with and affect the ecological community of which we are part, we will not feel any sense of responsibility toward it. Without this sense of connection, we are likely to engage in irresponsible activities that could be harmful to the Earth.
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"Cause and Effect",22,0,0,0
As all aspects of the one reality are interconnected, so too are all actions. The law of cause and effect states that every action causes a reaction, which, in turn, is itself an action that causes other reactions, and so on. Everything we do sets off a chain of events that extends far beyond our control. Within this process, negatives seem to perpetuate negatives, while positive actions seem to set off positive chains of reaction.
Thus, \Jpollution\j, a negative, fills the air with substances that harm people's lungs, rises into the atmosphere to cause global warming, falls back to Earth as acid rain to kill forests and sterilize lakes, and even contributes to the deterioration of the planet's protective ozone layer. Each of these reactions in itself is responsible for another chain of reactions. On the other hand, the simple act of recycling can save trees from being cut down unnecessarily. Trees absorb carbon from the atmosphere, and this helps offset the effects of global warming. There are also many "unseen" consequences to actions. For example, someone may see you on your way to the recycling centre with a box of newspapers and be inspired to become more environmentally conscious. Sometimes the synergistic aspects of action, when one action is accompanied by another somewhere else, can create effects much greater than if the first action had occurred on its own. This is the power of community. The possibilities are boundless, limited only by your imagination.
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"Ecosystems",23,0,0,0
An \Jecosystem\j is a system of plants, animals and other organisms, together with the nonliving components of their environment. Our environment is made up of everything that surrounds us as earth, air, water or fire. Everything we experience is a part of our environment, just as much as we are a part of it. There is no separation between organisms and their environment.
Molecules that are part of the non-animal environment may be incorporated into animal organisms, and eventually find their way back into the environment as a fertilizing substance. This is what happens when we eat food. A part of it goes to help build and maintain our bodies, a portion goes to energy which affects the environment through our actions and a third portion is eliminated from the body. When we die, our bodies themselves return to the environment from which they were borrowed. In such ways, organisms and their environment are interconnected and interdependent aspects of one world.
The \Jecosystem\j is also a community of life in the larger sense. Within the global \Jecosystem\j exists a group of smaller ecosystems, each of which consists of a group of living organisms and their local physical environment. The living and non-living elements of an \Jecosystem\j are connected through flows of energy activated by the \Jcycling\j of chemical elements.
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"Forests",24,0,0,0
Forests are an example of a complex system of ecosystems. Forests consist of air, soil, water, \Jnutrients\j and particular species of animals, birds, insects, micro-organisms, trees and other plant life. If some of the trees are cut down, each of the other elements will be affected. Animals and birds may lose their habitats, soil may erode, \Jnutrients\j may be displaced, and the flow of waterways may change.
The concept of an \Jecosystem\j is important because it conveys one of the key insights gained from the science of \Jecology\j - everything is related with and interconnected to everything else. Since no part of the global \Jecosystem\j exists independently of another, none can be affected without affecting the others. Ecosystems change over time, but this change is natural and occurs in certain recognizable, repeatable patterns. The composition of species of trees in forests, for example, will change in a relatively predictable way over time.
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"Earth's Resources",25,0,0,0
Many of the ecological problems we are experiencing now have stemmed from an illogical exploitation of the Earth, its resources and its ecosystems. When we think of ourselves as separate from nature, we see nature merely as a source of resources to tap for our own benefit. We take these resources from the air, the ground, the water and even the organisms of the \Jbiosphere\j.
Resources are either 'renewable' or ' non-renewable.' Many resources of the non-renewable type (such as \Jpetroleum\j and minerals) are harvested from beneath the Earth's crust, and so the Earth's ecosystems have evolved with only limited exposure to them. As a result, many non-renewable resources are 'foreign' to the \Jbiosphere\j and can be harmful to organisms, disrupting the ecosystems of the \Jbiosphere\j. Many environmental issues are caused by the retrieval, processing, transport, use and disposal of non-renewable resources. For example, land use associated with mining disturbs and often displaces human communities and many species of wildlife. The smelting of metals and the refining of fuels often releases pollutants into the surrounding air, soil and water.
These and similar activities degrade the habitat and can create serious health risks for both humans and wildlife. Similar negative environmental impacts may occur because of fuel leaks and spills. The burning of fossil fuels, a non-renewable resource, contributes to global warming, smog and acid rain. As well, products made from non-renewable resources, if not reused or recycled, can end up in landfills, adding to the problem of accumulated solid waste.
All these concerns translate into costs for the human community which eventually impact on everyone in some way or another. These costs can come in the form of lower harvests of timber or fish, high health care costs for treating respiratory ailments, and the cost of rehabilitating degraded areas, such as cleaning up oil spills.
Unlike renewable resources, the non-renewable resources from the Earth's crust cannot, even in principle, be used sustainably. They are finite; there is a certain quantity or volume of their existence which will not increase with time. Therefore, they do not replace themselves when used (at least not within time frames relevant to us). At any rate of consumption, these resources will eventually be entirely depleted.
Many different environmental problems also arise from the use of renewable resources, especially if they are exploited to the point of \Jextinction\j, at which time they consequently become non-renewable. If a forest expands at a rate of five per cent a year, and if a community logs five per cent of the trees a year, the timber industry will in fact be sustainable and durable. In effect, the forest itself is the community's capital, and the five per cent it harvests can be considered the interest, or the profit from that capital. However, if that community cuts down 10, 20, 30 per cent or more of its forest each year, then it would be using up its capital and the activity would not be sustainable - the forest would eventually be completely depleted.
As will be presented in the chapter on energy resources, much of our use of non-renewable resources is for the generation of energy for various purposes associated with industrialization and maintaining comfortable standards of living. However, many renewable forms of energy, such as solar, wind and geothermal power are increasingly being used to provide energy requirements effectively, efficiently and most importantly - sustainably.
It is doubtful whether a community will be able to make a radical shift from non-renewable to renewable resources. The best-case scenario will probably be a combination of the two, adapted to each community's unique situation. In the search for sustainability, the emphasis should be placed on the wise use of resources. When using non-renewable resources, extreme care and caution should be exercised to ensure that the environment is not compromised through \Jpollution\j, waste or overexploitation. Whenever possible, creative and experimental approaches should be taken to finding useful, appropriate and cost-effective renewable alternatives. In all cases, when using renewable or non-renewable resources, wise energy use and conservation should be exercised to ensure that energy is not wasted needlessly.
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"Changing Relationship",26,0,0,0
Human beings are just one of many species that form the \Jecosystem\j. Like all our planetary "room-mates," we have always interacted with our environment and, in the process, shaped it to some extent. Unlike other species, however, our role in these processes has changed dramatically over time. We humans are unique in many ways, especially in the extent to which we are able to affect our ecosystems - for better or worse. Since ancient times, the use of fire has altered flora and fauna, farmers have cut forests and domesticated certain species of animals and early civilizations have transformed deserts through irrigation.
Our environmental impact has grown in scale, become more rapid and changed in character. Whereas we once affected only small regions, today we are transforming the Earth itself on a global scale unprecedented in history. Changes which once took decades or centuries are now taking place within a few years. While we once affected the Earth in relatively insignificant ways, we are now changing the fundamental elements of the planet's life-support systems.
There are a number of reasons why human civilization has had such a powerful effect on the \Jecosystem\j. Rapid population growth, combined with the development of fossil fuel-based industrialized societies, has dramatically accelerated environmental impacts.
The results of this change in the relationship between ourselves and our environment have not all been bad, however. An increase in food production and advances in the field of medicine have resulted in a world population that is, overall, healthier and better fed than in previous generations. On the other hand, the unintended consequences of many of our activities, especially in the last 200 years, have resulted in serious damage to the environment.
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"Global Response",27,0,0,0
We will never be able to manage the Earth's complex \Jecosystem\j, and should not even try. Managing our own activities, however, is both possible and necessary. As a species, we can prosper without damaging our environment if we learn how to manage our relationship with the ecosystems of which we are part. The key, again, is sustainability. If we are to ensure a healthy Earth where future generations can prosper, we will have to discover ways to achieve and maintain a comfortable standard of living for all of humanity that does not take more from the environment than can be regenerated.
This concept was put at the centre stage of the global arena in 1972 when 113 governments convened in Stockholm, Sweden for the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. This was the first time that representatives of world governments had come together to consider the implications of a deepening environmental crisis. At the end of the Stockholm Conference, a consensus was reached on a document that established the basis for a new era of international cooperation. The Declaration and Action Plan comprised the world's first global agenda for the environment, with 109 recommendations for national and international action and more than 150 separate proposals. They provided the foundation for the development of international environmental law during the 1970s and 1980s and also led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Program as the global instrument for carrying out the consensus outlined in the agreements.
After Stockholm, more than 100 governments set up environmental ministries and agencies, which in turn enacted environmental regulations. The Stockholm Conference also gave birth to the World Commission on Environment and Development, known as the Brundtland Commission after its chairperson, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of \JNorway\j. It was this commission's report, Our Common Future, that called a global conference on environment and development. The UN General Assembly responded with a resolution that set the foundation for the June 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit.
At this second conference, held on the 20th anniversary of Stockholm, 184 governments convened at the highest political level to address the concerns of sustainability, and the relationship between the environment and economic development. Following three years of preparatory meetings and the two weeks of the Summit itself, governments produced a prescription for planetary survival in the form of an 800-page document titled "Agenda 21," so called for its projection that all of its recommendations should be met by the beginning of the 21st Century. The Summit also produced two legally-binding conventions on \Jbiodiversity\j and climate change, a set of forest principles which may form the basis for a \Jforestry\j convention, and the Rio Declaration.
#
"Civil Society and the Post-Rio Process",28,0,0,0
The more than 100,000 community environmental organizations that were formed after Stockholm were given a significant boost in Rio, which saw an unprecedented level of participation in government affairs from the NGO community. Following Rio, Agenda 21 called on all governments to participate fully with community organizations in the search for sustainable solutions to the planet's environment and development crises. In the years since, a new era of partnership has formed between civil society and government, facilitating the implementation of Agenda 21.
Today, local communities are involved in much of the action needed to ensure a global shift to sustainable living. In rich and poor countries alike, there is a movement of community-based organizations that are either acting on their own, combining forces with each other or joining with governments to ensure a sustainable and healthy planet. Around the world citizen groups are taking action to ensure that the activities of their communities do not jeopardize the well-being of the planet and future generations.
#
"Global Environment References",29,0,0,0
\I50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth \iThe Earth Works Group, The Earth Works Press, Berkeley, \JCalifornia\j, 1989 - \IA Primer on Environmental Citizenship,\i Environment Canada, 1993 - \IBeyond the Earth Summit,\i Lerner, Steve, Common Knowledge Press, 1992 -\I EARTH Audit,\i the United Nations Environment Program, \JNairobi\j, 1992 - \IFilofax Guide to Green Living,\i Elkington, John & Hailes, Julia, Filofax Ltd., 1990 - \IOur Common Future,\i The World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford University Press, 1987 - \ISaving Our \JPlanet\j: Challenges and Hopes,\i the United Nations Environment Program, \JNairobi\j, 1992 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with UNEP and the United Nations Development Program, Oxford University Press, 1994.
#
"Global Economy Introduction",30,0,0,0
\B"One of the most pressing and complex challenges facing our generation is the search for a workable synthesis of economic relations and environmental realities." \b
\I-- Elizabeth Dowdeswell\i
There are few sets of interactions as intrinsic to human society as those involved in business and the economy. Since the first person traded five chickens for a \Jgoat\j, we have been engaged in business as a means of makings ends meet.
All animate beings on Earth consume as an inherent aspect of life. Historically however, this consumption was usually limited to meeting the immediate needs of basic survival, such as food, housing and the protection against enemies and predators. Since then, economics, and consumption, have become much more complex. After the industrial revolution-which began in the North and then spread to the South-human desires multiplied, and industrialized humanity began to want new things as fast as they could be invented. In the years following, many new "conveniences" such as refrigerators and televisions improved our quality of life, and we started to depend on them. No matter how isolated, most people today ride in automobiles or buses, wear eyeglasses with metal frames, make \Jtelephone\j calls or listen to the radio. All these are products of the industrial revolution.
As there is an intrinsic interconnection between human activity and economic activity, so too is there is an interconnection between economics and the environment. The word "economy" in most European languages is derived from the Greek word "oikos," which means "home," and "nomos," which means "law." Economics-at least in the European languages-could be considered a sort of law of the home, or household management. In the larger sense of the word "home," extending beyond our dwellings to the entire planetary home, the Earth, this word implies that successful economics involves the responsible and efficient care of the Earth's resources.
While there are many uncertainties in both economics and the environment, what is clear is that there is an intricate relationship between the two. It is also evident that there is a need for their \Jintegration\j in order to achieve environmental sustainability. The incorporation of social, environmental and equity issues into economic development is a necessary step to ensure that all people everywhere are able to enjoy a comfortable standard of living and improved quality of life without causing irreversible damage to the environment.
A modern economy consists of a system through which goods are produced from resources, transported, marketed and then consumed. The production, consumption and distribution of these goods are all dependent upon the \Jecology\j, or the \Jbiosphere\j, for materials such as timber, minerals, soil and fossil fuels. Likewise, the environment is needed for the disposal or elimination of waste. From an ecological point of view, the modern human economy is a set of interactions of energy and materials that exists alongside and is dependent upon natural biospheric processes.
In the past, this interdependence of economic and ecological processes was often overlooked or unrecognized. The environment was regarded as an unlimited source of resources to be exploited for production, or as a bottomless pit into which wastes could be disposed. When the scale of human activity was small in comparison to ecological processes, it is easy to see how humankind adopted this assumption. Today, however, people are realizing that the interdependence of the environment and the economy cannot be ignored.
Many economists believe that much of the current environmental crisis can be attributed to an undervaluing of the Earth's resources in the global marketplace. On a personal level, we of course value the air, the water, the trees and wildlife. Markets, however, with their emphasis on supply and demand, do not incorporate this value into the prices of goods.
What these prices do reflect is the extracting or growing raw materials, the cost of production, packaging, advertising and transport. What they do not reflect is the environmental costs associated with the production and distribution of the goods. These costs are called "external costs" because they are not borne by the manufacturer. External costs, however, often cause an uncompensated loss of health, finance or welfare on the part of other people or communities not involved in the manufacturing. For example, the costs of air \Jpollution\j, such as increased rates of lung diseases, are experienced by the community and not borne by the actual polluter. Since these costs (cleaning up the air or paying \Jhospital\j bills for people with sensitive lungs) are not borne by the polluting producer, they are not reflected in the prices of products. Hence, the producer has no economic incentive not to pollute.
Another example can be seen in a chemical company that discharges its waste into a river or lake. Since much of this waste is highly toxic, it causes numerous environmental consequences such as killing the aquatic life of the region and polluting the community's drinking water supply. The potential costs of properly disposing of the toxic waste were saved by the company. Unless the company has to pay the cost of cleaning up the water, the prices of its chemicals will not reflect the true cost of producing them. If the company were forced to pay these costs, its prices would increase, encouraging consumers to look for other chemicals or substitutes. It also would encourage the company to find ways of reducing the amount of toxic waste it produces.
#
"Polluter Pays Principle",31,0,0,0
A new concept to deal with the problem of external costs is evolving in international circles but does not yet have enough support to be properly implemented. The "polluter pays principle" states that whoever is responsible for damage to the environment should bear the costs associated with it. Although the theory may seem straightforward, in practice it is difficult to enforce because it is not always obvious who is responsible for environmental degradation.
In any market transaction, there is a buyer and a seller, both of whom benefit in some way from the transaction. If there were any \Jpollution\j or other form of environmental degradation caused by the production of the product, then both are in some way responsible for it. In other words, the degradation would not have occurred had either of them refused to take part in the transaction. It then stands to reason that both parties should in some way pay the cost of either avoiding the problem or solving it, given that producing products without harm to the environment often incurs higher costs.
Some organizations think it quite reasonable to demand that environmental degradation be paid for in direct proportion to the amount of benefit obtained from the activity that caused the degradation. The costs of environmental degradation can thus be included in market prices through realistic resource pricing as well as through the use of economic instruments such as taxes and permits. These measures would "internalize" the external environmental costs by distributing the costs of environmentally harmful methods of production and consumption to those that are engaged in the activity. Once this full cost pricing is implemented, and the complete costs are internalized, market forces should make heavily polluting or wasteful industries obsolete and should encourage environmentally-sound ones.
#
"Poverty and Its Impact on the Environment",32,0,0,0
Just as inefficient economies and industry can have a negative impact on the environment, so too can lack of economic activity or industry impact negatively on the environment. At the Stockholm United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, former Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi spoke of the link between poverty and environmental degradation when she attributed \Jpollution\j primarily to poverty and underdevelopment. On hearing this, many developing countries attending the Conference expressed concern that environmental goals could detract from their development objectives.
At the time of the Stockholm conference, an estimated 944 million of the world's people lived in poverty. Scientists and policy makers were beginning to witness the environmental degradation scarring the planet, a result of years of irresponsible industrial development. The connections between poverty and environmental concerns had not yet been clearly drawn.
Today we know the connections all too well. About 40 per cent of the world's population lives in poverty. More than one billion people are considered absolute poor, and every day an estimated 40,000 children die of disease and \Jmalnutrition\j.
Those who live in poverty are often too preoccupied with immediate survival to be concerned with environmental issues. They do not have the luxury of using what resources they have access to in a sustainable manner. Often, the poor are forced to exploit the environment due to limited choices of food and fuel. Deforestation, soil erosion and \Jdesertification\j are environmental problems that are often associated with extreme poverty.
Environmental degradation and poverty are strongly intertwined, resulting in a vicious cycle in which poverty causes environmental stress that, in turn, perpetuates poverty. The only way out of this vicious circle is along the path of sustainable economic development and the efficient use of modern technologies.
The traditional economic instruments that measure success in the market place frequently encourage us to take natural resources-for food, fuel, shelter and more-without requiring us to replenish the environment. The present system used to calculate the gross national product (GNP) takes no account of the depletion and degradation of natural resources and, therefore, overstates progress and generates environmentally destructive policies.
In the long term, however, environmental losses creep onto profit-and-loss balance sheets. They impose heavy burdens on societies as well as the global and state economies of both developing and developed countries. Local and national economies from \JAustralia\j to Zimbabwe feel the economic stress of degradation when agricultural yields decline, fish catches fall, and the costs of cleaning up toxic wastes, providing health care and alleviating hunger begin to eat away at any profits. The economic system warns us that we are over-harvesting only when it is too late. In the developing world, this falling productivity is reducing living standards, thereby creating more poverty.
As well, the unequal distribution of land, rather than a shortage of land, forces the poor to exploit marginal environments. Most agricultural land is concentrated in a small percentage of holdings usually owned by a privileged minority who use it for export crops, forcing the poor to unsuitable lands. This pressure on the land by growing populations leads to a host of environmental problems such as soil erosion and loss of water sources.
The world has the ability to end absolute poverty, and with its end a major threat to the well-being of a large and growing number of people. When the poor are given the means and opportunity to break out of the vicious circle in which poverty holds them, real sustainable development will become a possibility.
#
"Industry and Economics",33,0,0,0
The world's dominant economic systems are based on what we have begun to realize are two potentially self-destructive and environmentally - damaging principles: consumption and growth. Most human economic activity is centred on consuming resources. In addition, this activity depends on maintaining a growth in consumer activity. Each year, industry must produce more manufactured goods and extract more minerals than it did in the previous year in order for the economy to be considered "healthy."
Though necessary for development and economic growth, industry also is the cause of many environmental problems. It consumes 37 per cent of the world's energy, and emits 50 per cent of the carbon dioxide, 90 per cent of the sulphur \Joxides\j and many of the chemicals now threatening the ozone layer with depletion. Every year industry produces more than two billion tons of solid waste and 338 million tons of hazardous waste.
Though most industrial activity is in the developed world, the developing world is doing just that-developing, and often unsustainably. Recent studies from the World Bank and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) conclude that the amount of "dirty" industrial output in developing countries has grown steadily over the past two decades. They also suggest that this has more to do with the stage of industrialization of those countries than any other factor-including the desire of some industries to migrate to them primarily because of their lower environmental standards.
The good news is that industries are beginning to recognize the need to prevent wastes from being generated in the first place before treatment and storage are necessary. Some companies have demonstrated economic and environmental benefits from introducing cleaner production as an integral part of their environmental management system.
Limited financial resources and lower profit margins, however, sometimes make it difficult for business and industry to make the protection of the environment a priority. When looking at profit and loss statements, sales growth is often a matter of survival. Capital investment alternatives are usually decided upon by calculating the immediate return on investment. Because there is a need for measurable evaluation criteria, traditional business models emphasize short-term results instead of long-term opportunities that are afforded by incorporating environmental principles into the plan. To counter this tendency, the shareholders in many corporations are pressuring management to produce short-term profits while at the same time accounting for social or environmental costs.
In countries with a choice of consumer products, communities often advocate supporting those companies with good environmental policies or boycotting those with hazardous environmental principles. When companies experience dramatic drops in their sales because the public disapproves of their environmental policies, they often reconsider their practices.
This strategy, however, is most practical in developed countries where consumers have a choice of products. In developing countries the scenario often is much different, and there are not so many options for consumers. Some of the problems that do exist are a lack of awareness, inappropriate labelling of products and inadequate environmental legislation. Where environmental legislation does exist, its enforcement is often weak. Because of light fines or minimal punishment, it is often cheaper for companies to continue to break the law than it is to protect and clean up the environment.
#
"Crossing Borders: The Growth in International Trade",34,0,0,0
The formerly separate economies of the world are increasingly merging into one gigantic and interdependent economy. The implementation of the Uruguay Round of \JGATT\j and the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) is expected to generate billions of dollars each year for the global economy and will bring profound changes to the contours of international trade and markets. The WTO intends to weave national economies into the expanding global economy. This fundamental change in the way the world conducts its business will mean that environmentalists, and those with environmental concerns, should both monitor and search for ways in which the environment could suffer from irresponsible business and industrial practices.
An integral component of the new global economic order is the concept of mutual interdependence and the idea of "comparative advantage." The idea is that a country or region that produces certain commodities well, and at the lowest price, should concentrate its activity on those items and rely on trade for the balance of its needs. According to this concept, for example, Costa Rica should produce \Jcoffee\j and trade it for sugar, which \JBrazil\j might be better at producing.
While this concept holds certain advantages, it also causes problems, some serious enough to threaten open trade within and between nations. Among these are the problems of security of supply of goods or services between nations. Global trade increases the need for transportation and distribution, thereby creating more \Jpollution\j as goods are transported over greater distances. As well, a global economic system of trade could undermine the ability of communities at the local level to be self-sustaining. Farmers and other primary producers, unable to compete in the global marketplace, could be pushed into poverty.
All nations have strengths, or potential strengths, that could be developed through cooperation across borders. To ensure equitable benefits and global equilibrium, some economists say that all contributions to increase open world trade should be seen as positive, even if they are not uniform and fair in providing direct benefits to all countries.
One practice that could effectively contribute to the objective of sustainable development would be to evaluate the activities of transnational corporations (TNCs). Through providing opportunities for employment, investing in the community and purchasing local inputs for their production processes, TNCs often contribute positively to the economic development of their host countries. Typically they also export a high percentage of their outputs, thereby earning foreign currency for their host country and positively contributing to its balance of trade.
While in general, TNCs positively influence the economic and social development in the host country, there are examples where this is not the case. If they are able to get away with it, some TNCs overexploit resources, both human and natural. Moreover, many developing countries let TNCs operate in ways that would never be tolerated in developed countries. In the worst cases, the desire of developing countries for economic growth and foreign direct investment by TNCs can even override their strongest concerns for environmental protection and human safety.
Fortunately, an increasing number of companies are endorsing voluntary codes of conduct, such as the International Chamber of Commerce's Business Charter for Sustainable Development, which strongly recommends improved environmental performance through sound environmental management. National codes like \JJapan\j's "Charter for Good Corporate Behaviour" and its "Global Environmental Charter" have also encouraged TNCs to conduct their operations in a responsible and conscientious manner, both at home and abroad. Still, much remains to be done to ensure that TNCs contribute to the establishment of fairer economic systems which do not threaten our global environment.
#
"Environmental Impacts of Tourism",35,0,0,0
\BA case study\b
After the oil industry, tourism is the second biggest business in the world. It also is one of the world's fastest growing businesses, and is the largest source of employment in the world. The number of tourists worldwide has tripled over the past 20 years. Every year, nearly 600 million tourists check in at hotels, villas, apartments and camps. According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), tourists spent US $3.2 trillion in 1994, providing work for 10 per cent of the global work force.
However, tourism, travel and recreation are an increasing source of environmental stress on the Earth. Tourism can carry a heavy price tag for the environment because of the hotels, fast food restaurants, access roads and vehicles that come with it. Indeed, when the needs of tourists supersede the needs of the local community, the latter are sometimes compromised.
The 'sun¡and¡sand' tourists are usually responsible for the worst environmental damage, straining water, energy and sewage disposal resources in their tourist havens, from the islands of the South Pacific to East Africa. In one area of \JTunisia\j, for example, tourists' needs for fresh water have lowered the \Jgroundwater\j level and left many homes dry for several hours a day. Many beaches in the Caribbean are now unsuitable for bathing because of sewage \Jpollution\j.
Hungry for foreign currency to pay for imports and to finance debts, many developing countries are turning to tourism. This strategy could be smart economics: some 20 per cent of all international tourists now go to developing countries. By the year 2020, the WTO estimates that 937 million tourists will travel every year, an increasing percentage of whom will visit developing countries.
Though development of tourism is a choice for some countries, for others it is almost a necessity. \JNepal\j, for example, is too poor to take care of its vast cultural treasures, and so must rely on the many travellers who have romanticized the Himalayan kingdom.
Tourism, if handled properly, can help to preserve both a country's natural and cultural heritage. To attract visitors, a country must preserve not only its natural resources, but its architectural and cultural monuments, which are often threatened by vandalism, theft, \Jpollution\j, wars and overdevelopment. Ironically, however, some of the damage can be caused by tourism itself.
One alternative to environmental abuse by tourism is the ecotourism movement. Some advocates of ecologically-responsible tourism see it as a solution to chronic underfunding of national parks and other protected areas, and as having the potential to become one of the central elements in sustainable economic development. As well, when communities learn that they can make more money by inviting visitors to experience the natural beauty of their forests than they can by cutting them down, they cannot fail to be inspired to preserve the environment.
The WTO stresses that extreme caution be exercised in developing ecotourism, because when large numbers of visitors descend upon biologically and culturally sensitive areas, the effects can be devastating. The Mount Everest area of \JNepal\j, for example, supports a major trekking and climbing industry that consumes more fuelwood and produces more waste than the area can handle. The trails of K2 in \JPakistan\j and the Camino Inca of \JPeru\j are littered with the refuse of hikers. Thus, though
ecotourism is an attractive alternative to mass tourism, there is still a need to make mass tourism sustainable because it will always dominate the industry.
Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel, director of the Industry and Environment office of the UN Environment Program, says that only careful planning and management will stop tourism's current negative environmental impacts. The tourism industry, all levels of government and community organizations should cooperate to ensure that tourism is sustainable. Otherwise, she adds, tourism could lead to destruction and \Jpollution\j in some of the world's most ecologically fragile areas.
Contact:
World Tourism Organization
Environment Projects
Capitan Haya, 42
28020 Madrid \JSPAIN\j
Tel: (34-1) 571-0628
Fax: (34-1) 571-3733
#
"Global Economy References",36,0,0,0
\I50 Simple Things Your Business Can Do to Save the Earth,\i The Earth Works Group, The Earth Works Press, Berkeley, \JCalifornia\j, 1991 - \I101 Ways to Really Save the World, BBC Wildlife Magazine's Ultimate Guide to Getting Involved,\i Baines, Chris, BBC Wildlife Magazine, London, March 1993 - \I1992 Development Report,\i World Bank, Washington, D.C. - \IA Primer on Environmental Citizenship,\i Environment Canada, \JOttawa\j, 1993. - \IAsking How Much Is Enough,\i Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC, 1990 - \IAttacking Poverty, Building Solidarity, Creating Jobs,\i UNEP Feature 1995/1, \JNairobi\j, \JKenya\j, 1995 - \ICan Business Save the Environment?,\i Russell, Dick, de Long, Owen and Pelt, Eve, E Magazine, USA, Nov/Dec 1991 - \IImpoverishment and Sustainable Development: A Systems Approach,\i Gilberto C. Gallopin, The International Institute for Sustainable Development, 1994 - \ITrade-off of a Heavy Burden,\i Financial Times, Business and the Environment, 22 May 1991 - Madison Avenue Goes Green; Letto, Jay, Buzzworm, USA, Sept/Oct 1991 - \ITransnational Corporations and the Consumer Interest,\i Consumers International, The Hague, Netherlands, 1993 - \IWorld Consumer,\i Issue No. 212, Consumers International, Santiago, \JChile\j, Feb 1994 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with UNEP and the United Nations Development Program, Oxford University Press, 1994 - \IYouth Action Guide on Sustainable Development,\i Hrabar, Dean and Ciparis, Ramona, AIESEC International, London, 1990.
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"Role of Communities Introduction",37,0,0,0
\B"We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect." \b
\I-- Aldo Leopold \i
Governments realize they cannot solve environmental problems on their own. They recognize that communities and community-based organizations have to be involved if the world is to achieve true ecological sustainability and solve the current environmental crisis.
The governments of the world discussed this concern at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June of 1992. Agenda 21, the 800-page blueprint for a sustainable future that resulted from the Summit, devotes ten of its 40 chapters to the importance of the community.
\BAgenda 21\b
Agenda 21 recognizes that the commitment and genuine involvement of all social groups is "critical to the effective implementation of the objectives, policies and mechanisms agreed to by governments in all program areas of Agenda 21." The objective agreed to by the 184 member States of the United Nations was to "move towards real social partnership in support of common efforts for sustainable development."
Each and every meaning of community is important in our quest for sustainability because it is in our interactions with our communities that we will be most effective in our efforts to help heal the Earth. Working from the perspective of community is important because there is a lot that can be accomplished by a group of people who feel a certain degree of association with or responsibility for other members of their community. This concept is especially important when we take that sense of association and responsibility and extend it from the smallest form of community out to the largest. In this way, an individual may feel a certain sense of association with his particular club, which is a small community, then a sense of belonging at the work place or to his professional colleges, an even greater sense of ties to his neighbourhood, and then to his city and nation. He may feel a sense of belonging to others of his religion or race around the world and consider that his "community." Ultimately, he may come to regard all his fellow members in the community of humanity as somehow related to him, and from there see all of nature, including the trees, the animals and perhaps even the insects as being part of the same community by virtue of sharing the same air, sun and planet.
Communities residing in different neighbourhoods and villages may have structures and occasions in which they tackle common issues and problems. These structures offer ideal platforms from which great contributions can be made to the environment. Organizing an event or project with one of these groups - with one's chess club, the people at work or fellow students from school - can yield immediate results in achieving sustainability at a local level.
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"Major Groups",38,0,0,0
To help establish channels of cooperation between the different types of human communities, and to empower those communities to mobilize for the environment, Agenda 21 identifies nine primary sectors of human society. These sectors are called, in the words of Agenda 21, "major groups," and are made up of the following: women, children and youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local administrators, workers and trade unions, business and industry, scientists and academics, farmers, fisherfolk and rural agriculturists.
Most members of a community can identify with one or more of these groups. The idea is that each group, in its own unique way, can make an important contribution to the processes of achieving sustainability and preserving the environment for the benefit of future generations. Agenda 21 recognizes that a major challenge facing the world community, as it seeks to replace unsustainable development patterns with environmentally sound and sustainable ones, is the need to activate a sense of common purpose on behalf of all sectors of society. The chances of forging such a sense of purpose will depend on the willingness of all sectors of society to participate in genuine social partnership and dialogue, while recognizing the independent roles, responsibilities and special capacities of each.
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"Women",39,0,0,0
There has been much attention in recent years on the role of women in establishing and maintaining sustainable lifestyles in their communities. Although women comprise the majority in many communities, their ability to participate in decision-making processes is often not on par with their male counterparts. It is generally acknowledged that women have considerable experience and insight when it comes to managing and conserving natural resources, although this role has been limited by such barriers as discrimination and lack of access to such fundamental needs as education, land and credit.
The international community has endorsed several plans of action for achieving the full, equal and beneficial \Jintegration\j of women in all development activities. These plans include, in particular, the \JBeijing\j Platform for Action and the \JNairobi\j Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, which emphasize women's participation in national and international \Jecosystem\j management and control of environment degradation. Several conventions, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and some of the conventions of ILO and \JUNESCO\j have also been adopted to end gender-based discrimination and ensure women access to land and other resources, education and safe and equal employment. Agenda 21 recognizes that the effective implementation of all programs aimed at sustainable development and environmental preservation will depend on the active involvement of women in economic and political decision-making processes.
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"Youth and Children",40,0,0,0
Since youth comprise roughly 30 per cent of the world's population, their involvement in environment and development decision-making and in the implementation of development programs is critical to the long-term success of Agenda 21. The world leaders at the Earth Summit recognized that it is imperative that youth from all parts of the world participate actively in all relevant levels of decision-making processes.
Of the objectives concerning youth, the governments of the world agreed at the Earth Summit that each country should, in consultation with its youth communities, establish a process to promote dialogue between the youth community and government at all levels and to establish mechanisms that permit youth access to information and provide them with the opportunity to present their perspectives on government decisions, including the implementation of Agenda 21.
Children are often the victims of unsustainable patterns of living rather than the participants and the cause behind those patterns. Agenda 21 states that "children not only will inherit the responsibility of looking after the Earth, but in many developing countries they comprise nearly half the population."
To ensure that the interests of children are taken into account, Agenda 21 recommends that different sectors of the community work with their governments to promote primary environmental care activities that address the basic needs of communities, improve the environment for children at the household and community level and encourage the participation and empowerment of local populations, including women, youth, children and indigenous people, towards the objective of integrated community management of resources, especially in developing countries. It also calls on communities to expand educational opportunities for children and youth, and to work through schools and local health centres to promote environmental awareness among young people.
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"Indigenous People",41,0,0,0
The term "indigenous people" is one that is often misunderstood, especially in many developing countries where the populations have been relatively stable for thousands of years, such as in Africa or Asia. There has even been much debate at the intergovernmental level as to who are the "indigenous" and whether or not they should be called "people" or "peoples." Nevertheless, Agenda 21 recognizes that indigenous people are a major group and a community that has much to contribute to the cause of global environmental sustainability. Indigenous people and their communities represent a significant percentage of the global population. They have developed holistic, traditional and scientific knowledge of their lands, natural resources and environment. As the world searches for ways to live and develop sustainably, there is much to be learned from the wisdom of indigenous people.
Agenda 21 recognizes that the ability of indigenous people to participate fully in sustainable development practices on their lands has tended to be limited as a result of factors of an economic, social and historical nature. In the Rio Declaration, the 184 governments who attended the Earth Summit declared in Principle 22 that "indigenous peoples and their communities ... have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices."
Foremost among the objectives set out in Agenda 21 that concern indigenous people is the promotion of "full partnership between indigenous people and their communities, governments and, where appropriate, intergovernmental organizations." The document also declares that in view of the relationship between the natural environment and the cultural, social, economic and physical well-being of indigenous people, "national and international efforts to implement environmentally sound and sustainable development should recognize, accommodate, promote and strengthen the role of indigenous people and their communities."
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"Non-governmental Organizations",42,0,0,0
Non-governmental organizations, or simply "NGOs" as they are commonly referred to, are often considered the backbone for community action in all endeavours to improve the condition of the planet and its people.
Numerous environmental NGOs were formed and mobilized in the years following the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972. Twenty years later, more than 100,000 were actively working on environmental issues when the world convened for the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. At the Earth Summit, NGOs were empowered to actively contribute to policy-making processes of governments, and their opinions and experiences were given an expanded forum for expression. In the years following Rio, the influence of NGOs continues to grow, with unprecedented levels of participation seen at the discussions for a Convention to Combat \JDesertification\j, the International Conference on Population and Development in \JCairo\j, the World Summit for Social Development in \JCopenhagen\j and the Fourth World Conference on Women in \JBeijing\j.
NGOs may include organizations that are specifically created to address particular environmental concerns, such as the energy conservation crisis, the deteriorating ozone or global warming. Or, they may include well-established community organizations such as Rotary International that have incorporated environmental principles into their existing charters. These groups may be made up of women, youth, teachers, or any other sector of society that feels a common sense of purpose.
Many existing environmental NGOs possess well-established and diverse experience, expertise and capacity in fields which are of particular importance to the implementation and review of environmentally sound and socially responsible sustainable development, as envisaged throughout Agenda 21. They also are legitimate voices of the community because their members are often from the community and are supported by it. Governments therefore recognize that the community of NGOs offers a global network that should be tapped, empowered and strengthened in support of efforts to achieve the common goals of environment concerns.
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"Local Authorities and the Formation of Local Agenda 21s",43,0,0,0
Because so many of the problems and solutions being addressed by Agenda 21 have their roots in local activities, the participation and cooperation of local communities are an important component of all efforts to achieve environmental sustainability. Local authorities construct, operate and maintain economic, social and environmental \Jinfrastructure\j, oversee planning processes, establish local environmental policies and regulations, and assist in implementing national and local environmental policies. Furthermore, since they often work closely with the constituencies they represent, local governments play a vital role in educating and mobilizing the public around concerns of the environment and sustainable development.
The call for local Agenda 21s is considered one of the most important messages in the Rio document, and has been taken very seriously by many countries. Within three years following the Earth Summit, more than 1,200 local Agenda 21s had been initiated by local authorities in 26 countries.
In Cajamarca, \JPeru\j, for example, Mayor Luis B. Guerrero-Figueroa is promoting a decentralized, participatory and democratic model for local decision-making to implement a local Agenda 21. The expansion of local leadership there has improved democracy, urban- rural communication, and conservation and recovery of natural resources. In \JTanzania\j, the Project for a Sustainable Dar es Salaam seeks to improve the standards of living of the city's population, in a manner that is environmentally sustainable. Solid waste management, urban renewal, air quality, liquid waste, and the \Jintegration\j of the informal sector into the urban and coastal economies have been identified as priority areas. Communities choose their own priority areas and the government provides the \Jinfrastructure\j.
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"Workers and Trade Unions",44,0,0,0
Since much of the activity to promote sustainable development will require rethinking current methods of production and construction, the workers of the world will be among those who are most affected by the changes. As the representatives of most labour forces, trade unions can facilitate sustainable development in view of their experience in addressing industrial change, the extremely high priority they give to safety in the working environment and the related natural environment, and their promotion of socially responsible economic development.
Many workers around the world may view environmental concerns as a threat to their employment security or prospects of obtaining a better salary. Sometimes, companies may even reinforce this fear among their workers because of perceived threats to their profitability. These obstacles, however, can be overcome when companies realize that good environmental management means good business in the long run.
In addressing the contribution of this community to the cause of sustainability, Agenda 21 recommends that all governments and leaders from the business and industry sectors foster the active and informed participation of workers and trade unions in the shaping and implementation of all environment and development strategies. It further states that unions and employers should design joint environmental policies, and set priorities to improve the working environment and the overall environmental performance of business.
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"Business and Industry",45,0,0,0
Business and industry, including transnational corporations, play a crucial role in the social and economic development of a country. By improving the efficiency of their production processes, and by employing preventive strategies, cleaner production technologies and procedures throughout the product life cycle to minimize or avoid creating wastes, the policies and operations of business and industry can play a major role in reducing impacts on resource use and the environment. Because this sector of society provides most trading, employment and livelihood opportunities, Agenda 21 calls on business and industry to be full participants in the implementation and evaluation of activities related to the environment and sustainable development.
Agenda 21 challenges business and industry to incorporate environmental considerations into their management and operations. The document recognizes that some enlightened leaders of enterprises are already doing this by implementing "responsible care" programs, fostering openness and dialogue with employees and the public, and carrying out environmental audits and assessments. These leaders in business and industry, according to Agenda 21, are increasingly taking voluntary initiatives, promoting and implementing self-regulation and greater responsibility in ensuring their activities have minimal impacts on human health and the environment. Agenda 21 also recognizes, however, that much more of this is needed.
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"Scientific and Technological Communities",46,0,0,0
It is important that the role of science and technology in human affairs be more widely known and better understood, both by decision makers who help determine public policy and by the general public. Better communication and cooperation is needed between the scientific and technological communities on one hand, and decision makers on the other. As well, the scientific and technological community and policy makers should increase their interaction in order to implement strategies for sustainable development on the basis of the best available knowledge.
The scientific and technological community includes engineers, architects, industrial designers, urban planners and other professionals and policy makers. Agenda 21 calls on these people to make an open and effective contribution to decision-making processes concerning environment and development. The document furthermore declares that scientists have special responsibilities to search for knowledge and to help protect the \Jbiosphere\j.
\BAdditional information provided by Cambridge Dictionary of Scientists\b
Scientific Societies
Scientific societies have played a major part in science. The exchange of ideas within and between societies encourages experiment and the testing of theory; an isolated researcher can too easily become complacent. Some societies were also engaged from their beginning in the organization and funding of science and in the selection of research projects, such as those directed to improving ship design and navigation at sea in the 17th-c.
Usually classed as the first scientific society, the \BAccademia dei Lincei\b (Academy of the Lynxes) was founded in 1609 by the 18-year-old Count Federico Cesi in Rome; so devoted to scientific study that they swore to remain unmarried, the 'Iynxes' were named for their claimed clear-sightedness. Their membership rose to 32 and included GALILEO, but the society failed to survive Cesi's death in 1630.
The \BRoyal Society\b of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge was officially founded in 1660, but its key figures had met in London, and later in Oxford, from about 1645. It was encouraged (but never funded) by the newly-restored King Charles II and its membership included BOYLE, HOOKE, LOWER, NEWTON and WALLIS.
Independent of the state, it elected its own Fellows, and soon included many gentleman-amateurs, such as Samuel Pepys the diarist. Its only resources were the Fellows' shilling-a-week subscriptions, often in arrears. The Society appointed a Curator (Hooke), who had to provide a demonstration at each meeting; they acquired some apparatus (such as Boyle's first air-pump and Newton's reflecting telescope), bent their minds to anything new or strange (excluding religion and politics), such as blood transfusion or the habits of fish; exchanged research results with societies abroad and published their own in their \IPhilosophical Transactions\i.
To this day the Royal Society retains its seniority in British science, providing the highest-level advice to government, and electing to its fellowship only the most distinguished professional and a few amateur scientists (under 1000 Fellows in all, including about 3% women) in Britain, and a handful working abroad.
The Parisian \BAcadΘmie Royale des Sciences\b, founded by King Louis XIV in 1666 (after 1816 the AcadΘmie des Sciences) was funded by the state for state purposes. Its very select and active membership included LAVOISIER. The talented young artillery officer Napoleon Bonaparte elected in 1797, was an active member and later its patron until his power ended in 1814. Academies on the Paris model followed in Berlin (1700), St Petersburg (1725) and Stockholm (1739).
The \BAmerican Philosophical Society\b, founded in Philadelphia in 1743, also covered science and was modelled on the Royal Society rather than the European academies, encouraging the amateur enthusiast. It stemmed from BENJAMIN FRANKLIN'S Junto, a secret literary and scientific club active from 1727. (It was not the oldest in the USA: that was probably the Boston Philosophical Society, founded by Increase Mather in 1683, but which soon expired.) An early project of the American Philosophical Society was the first accurate measurement of the Earth-Sun distance, by observing the transit of Venus in 1769.
The American Civil War made evident a need for a \BNational Academy of Sciences\b and this was duly created in 1863. A later conflict, the 'Cold War' of the 1950s, generated the National Aeronautic and Space Agency (NASA) in 1957, which, although not a scientific society, has been linked with increasingly dramatic explorations of the solar system and whose scientific effort in support of government intentions recalls in scale the Manhattan Project of the Second World War.
Local scientific societies existed from the 1 8th-c in Europe and the USA. One such was the \BLunar Society\b, which met in the English Midlands in the 1780s and was so called because its monthly meetings were held on the night of the full moon so it could light members' home. These included PRIESTLEY; Josiah Wedgwood (1730-95) the industrialist potter; WATT; Matthew Boulton (1728-1809), his partner and first manufacturer of steam engines, Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), poet, engineer, medical man and grandfather of CHARLES DARWIN; and William Murdock (1754-1839) the inventor of gas lighting.
Local societies such as the Liverpool Astronomical Society (1882), tapped the enthusiasm and expertise of amateurs to good effect, as did the comparable local scientific societies of the USA.
Specialized societies followed the model of the \BLinnean Society\b (1788) for botany and the \BGeological Society of London\b (1807). The \BAstronomical and Chemical Societies\b began in London in the 19th-c, with very many other specialized societies being formed in the USA. Through their publications and meetings they nurture expertise and publicize new discoveries for information and discussion.
The lack of encouragement of women in scientific societies is noteworthy. Before the First World War the poor quality of the education in science available to women excluded all but a very few from senior positions and if they achieved original work in science despite the difficulties, it tended to be eclipsed through their position as someone's wife, sister, daughter or assistant and subsumed into a male's publication.
After the Second World War the proportion of women graduating in science rose steadily, and membership of scientific societies became more open to them, but a gender bias has remained. At senior levels in university, industry and the learned societies the proportion of women remains low; they have made up about 3% of the Royal Society fellowship for over 25 years.
More encouragingly, the US National Academy of Sciences has 4.7% women, and for the last 5 years 10.7% of the newly elected members have been female. In 1991 the embryologist ANNE MCLAREN became Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, the first woman to hold an office in its 330-year history.
IM
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"Farmers and Fisherfolk",47,0,0,0
Since agriculture uses one third of the land surface of the Earth, and is the central activity for much of the world's population, the active participation by this sector of society in environmental issues is important. Rural activities, such as farming, fishing and timber harvesting, take place in close contact with nature, adding value to it by producing renewable resources. At the same time, however, these activities are vulnerable to overexploitation and improper management. Agenda 21
Agenda 21 recognizes that the rural household, indigenous people and their communities, and the family farmer, a substantial number of whom are women, are the stewards of much of the Earth's resources. These communities must conserve their physical environment because they depend on it for their sustenance.
Over the past couple of decades, there have been impressive increases in overall agricultural production, yet in some regions of the world these increases have been outstripped by population growth, international debt or falling commodity prices. To improve these situations, and to keep them from getting worse, Agenda 21 recognizes that a farmer-centred approach is important. It is, according to the document, the key to the attainment of sustainability in both developed and developing countries.
The sustainable development of people in marginal and fragile ecosystems is also addressed in Agenda 21. The key to the successful implementation of these programs lies in the motivation and attitudes of individual farmers and government policies that would provide incentives to farmers to manage their natural resources efficiently and in a sustainable way. Farmers, particularly women, face a high degree of economic, legal and institutional uncertainties when investing in their land and other resources.
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"Participating in Decision-Making Processes",48,0,0,0
Agenda 21 recognizes that one of the fundamental prerequisites for the achievement of sustainable development is broad public participation in decision-making. It calls on individuals, groups and organizations to participate in environmental impact assessment procedures and to know about and participate in political and policy decisions of the community, particularly those which potentially affect the communities in which they live and work.
Throughout this material are numerous references to "pursuing partnership" with government. Ideally, the government represents the people's best interest. Through active communication and partnership, community organizations can let it be known that environmental sustainability is what is in their best interest.
Furthermore, Agenda 21 declares that individuals, groups and organizations should have access to information relevant to environment and development held by national authorities, including information on products and activities that have or are likely to have a significant impact on the environment, and information on environmental protection measures. In order to be most effective in carrying out the mandate of your organization, find out where this information is accessible.
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"Different Approaches for Different Communities",49,0,0,0
Aside from the major groups as identified by Agenda 21, there are obvious differences both within and between communities that will necessitate different approaches to solving particular environmental problems. These differences are sometimes identified as being "Northern" and "Southern," but are much too complex to be simplified as such. The key is to identify where your community fits into the spectrum, and then to take the appropriate action for your particular circumstances. As your actions progress, you will see that they will change and be modified in response to new knowledge gained through experience.
There is no doubt that a "North-South" dialogue exists, and at the inter-governmental level there are governments that identify as being from the South, while others (markedly fewer) identify with being from the North. At the community level, however, the traditional dichotomy is not so clearly delineated. There are communities in the North that suffer from many of the same problems as impoverished underdeveloped communities in the South, just as there are communities in the South that experience the same lifestyles, privileges and environmental problems as the most developed communities of the North.
As well, since many of the environmental problems in the developing world were and are caused by modern conveniences adopted from the North, the approaches to dealing with these problems will be similar. Hence, if the cities of the North find an efficient way to deal with urban \Jpollution\j caused by automobiles (such as Los Angeles), a city in the same situation (such as Mexico City) could probably learn from the experience. Likewise, Mexico City could come up with a solution that Los Angeles would benefit from.
Thus, many of the suggested solutions in the second part of this material that may seem to have a "Northern" focus could indeed be appropriate in a "Southern" context, provided that the essence of the proposed solution is adapted to the particular circumstance. Likewise, a "Southern" solution may be very appropriate in the "North." Each problem requires a specific solution that must be tailored and adapted to that specific problem. Rarely is any one solution, such as for one city in the North, also completely appropriate even for another city of the North. The idea is to grasp the essence of the idea, and then to adapt it to your own particular situation.
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"Role of Communities References",50,0,0,0
\IA Primer on Environmental Citizenship,\i Environment Canada, 1993 - \IReport of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace,\i \JNairobi\j, 1985 - Agenda 21, chapters 23-32, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, June 1992.
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"Organizing for Community Action Introduction",51,0,0,0
\B"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. In fact, it is the only thing that ever has."\b
I--Margaret Mead \i
Being aware of environmental problems is the first step to being able to solve them. The second step involves recognizing which community or communities you are most a part of, in order to work with others toward solving the problems. This chapter takes us to the third step, organizing for action. The fourth step, acquiring or developing the tools with which to work, is discussed in the next chapter.
Organizations do not necessarily have to be formal, but they can be. Regularly scheduled meetings are not necessary, but are a good way to keep track of progress. Some organizations charge membership fees to cover certain basic costs associated with the organization, such as renting the meeting space, or for \Jcoffee\j and tea afterwards. There are as many ways to organize an organization as there are types of organizations. What is important is to find a formula that works for you and the people you will work with.
There are many cases where it will be more useful to work with an existing organization rather than creating a new one, because there may already be many organizations in your community. As you gather information, you may become aware that an organization already exists to address your specific concerns. If not, you might decide to become involved in an existing organization and then work within it to broaden its mission to incorporate some specific environmental concerns.
Some communities have different traditional and modern structures through which they work to solve common problems. These may be tribal or village councils, cooperatives or people's associations of one type or another. Many of these groups have very informal structures but could be involved in development efforts for the community. When these groups are involved in such development efforts there may arise a need for your organization to interact with them and lend some expertise. When approaching these kinds of associations to get them involved in environmental action, be sure to use appropriate channels when introducing new ideas. It is important not only to bring issues relevant to the communities but also to be sensitive to local realities.
One of the first steps in encouraging an existing organization to become more actively involved in environmental issues is to persuade its members of the importance of such issues. Then, work to ensure that the organization itself operates in an environmentally responsible manner. While an existing organization may already have a set of operating guidelines, persuading members to adopt additional environmental principles is often as easy as suggesting that they do so.
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"Adopting Environmental Principles",52,0,0,0
Environmental commitments are not static; they can be revised and improved at regular intervals as the organization's knowledge and experience in these matters expand. There can be as many principles as you want or as few. There is no limit nor is there a definite structure you have to follow. It is important, however, to make your principles relevant to the particular reality of the community. Following are some suggestions of environmental principles, taken from different community organizations with stated environmental principles:
ò Prevent \Jpollution\j.
ò Reduce waste.
ò Use water, energy and other resources efficiently.
ò Manage the use of natural resources prudently.
ò Maintain the diversity of life.
ò Commemorate, protect and respect the world's natural, cultural, indigenous and historical heritage.
ò Support environmental education and training.
ò Support local action and community participation.
ò Promote practices, methods and technologies that reduce negative impacts on the environment.
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"Targeting Priorities and Identifying Objectives",53,0,0,0
Before looking at the possible and necessary actions and responsibilities of your organization, it is important to identify the issues that concern you most and outline a few general approaches to dealing with them. You will find that you are most effective when your efforts are focused and precise. If you try to solve all of the environmental problems at the same time, it is unlikely that you will have much of an effect on any of them.
After you have identified your objectives, your organization's activities in pursuing sustainability for your community will require a series of actions, within each of which will be a series of actions. The degree of success in your efforts will be in direct proportion to the amount of planning you allocate beforehand, and how well developed your time-frame is.
Many organizations use timelines to manage their timeframe. A timeline is easy to construct, and you will find it very helpful not only in your organizational activities but in your personal initiatives as well. There are of course different ways to construct a timeline, but the general principle is to map out the alphabet, per se, with Point A being where you are now, and Point Z being where you want to end up (the successful completion of your objective). Points B to Y are the steps you must take in order to get to where you want to go. Allocated to each step is a time estimate with a project beginning and a project deadline. Each usually must be finished before the next one begins, though sometimes simultaneous activities are required as part of the process.
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"Taking Stock of Existing Resources",54,0,0,0
While material resources are often helpful, without the effective and motivated participation of people, all the material resources in the world would be useless. There are many well-funded organizations in the world that are not accomplishing much more than guaranteeing their own longevity, and there are others that are inadequately funded, but accomplish a lot because of their motivated and committed staffs.
There are unlimited opportunities for your community to contribute to sustainability without large sources of material resources or external financial assistance. Sometimes, community organizations make themselves dependent on external funding in order to fulfill their objectives and complete their projects. They come up with good ideas first and then look for the resources to pursue them, rather than evaluating what can realistically be achieved with existing resources.
There is tremendous power in a community that wants to improve its environment through community action. What is needed is motivation and the leadership of a community-based organization. Once your community is doing all that it can with its existing resources, you may want to explore the possibilities of expanding that activity through additional means. If you have organized a formal organization, some of the labour may be voluntary. However, full-time staffs can be very effective in pursuing causes, and full-time staff need to be paid. They, too, have expenses to meet. Other activities may require additional materials and resources. These additional resources can be obtained through various means, such as fund-raising, sales and pursuing grants, all of which are discussed in the next chapter.
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"Taking Action at the Community Level",55,0,0,0
By working together, organizations can make a big difference when it comes to environmental preservation and restoration. Members of all types of organizations can serve as community leaders in this important endeavour. In the second part of this material are chapters that deal with specific environmental problems, with accompanying suggestions that can be used to inspire and formulate your own specific approach to dealing with the environmental problems in your community. While most suggested solutions are problem-specific, there are two general approaches that community organizations can use in both the developed and developing countries when addressing any one of a wide spectrum of environmental issues, from population and consumption to ozone depletion and \Jdesertification\j. These two approaches are awareness-raising initiatives and promoting active partnership with local, regional and national governments.
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"Promoting Education and Building Awareness",56,0,0,0
In order for environmental activity to be successful in the long term, it must take root in the hearts and minds of the world's people. When people understand the reasons for making responsible environmental choices, there is a greater chance they will take the reasons to heart and incorporate the actions into their daily lives.
Many people do not know the full consequences of their actions. Through education and awareness-building, community organizations can help to ensure that the members of the community know that through a certain way of life, the environment can be kept healthy for future generations.
One way to raise awareness is to organize an environmental program on one of the following dates designated by environmental agencies or organizations: 22 April is recognized as "Earth Day" by many organizations around the world; 5 June is World Environment Day, and 17 June is the World Day to Combat \JDesertification\j and \JDrought\j, both designated by the UN General Assembly.
Your environmental program could consist of a sporting event, during which statements could be made by well-known sports figures from your community, in support of environmental ethics. It could be a concert, or a play, or even a dance in which environmental themes are incorporated. The possibilities are limitless. As a member of your community, you will know what it is that your fellow community members like to do, and how best to communicate an environmental message.
When organizing your awareness-raising event, approach celebrities or sports players about performing for free, or perhaps doing an interview in your organization's newsletter about their environmental concerns. The Brazilian football star, Pele, is an example of a concerned sports celebrity who is active in promoting the environment. In \JEgypt\j, \Jtelevision\j soap-opera personalities often speak publicly about social and environmental concerns, as do movie stars in India. If you put a knowledgeable professor in front of people to talk about the environment, perhaps not many will attend or listen. But, take a famous movie star or a musician, and the public often pays more attention. The key is to mobilize whatever resources you have available to communicate your message, in a manner in which people will listen.
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"Pursue Partnership with your Government",57,0,0,0
Governments legislate policy which governs the affairs of business, society and political behaviour. In most countries of the world, the process through which laws are legislated can be monitored and contributed to by those not involved in full-time politics or working in government. Everything from the terms of politicians to the curriculum being taught in your community's schools are usually decided on through a parliamentary process that can be contributed to by the people in the community. If you live in a country that is open to such participation, be sure to influence the process.
Whenever possible, communicate with your government representatives to let them know that you are willing to work with them. Collect information from whatever sources possible and get it to them. If your government is deciding, for example, on building a dam in the interior of the country, and your organization may think that this would be harmful to the region's \Jecosystem\j, support your belief with documentation from experts and from similar projects in other countries.
Whenever lobbying a government, it is very important to always operate from the position of pursuing partnership. Be respectful and sincere. Remember, you are offering your assistance for the good of your government's \Jconstituency\j. Antagonism and confrontation usually bring on worse problems and can create a situation that will hurt your cause rather than help it.
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"Getting Started",58,0,0,0
When developing an action plan to address environmental issues in your community, there are a few principles to keep in mind. The following structure offers a few ideas that your community organization could adapt to its own situation when mobilizing to take action. Each situation will require a unique approach. While each situation will also require a unique set of resources, one resource will always be needed - the human resource. With good people you can accomplish just about anything. The only limitation is the imagination and collective energy of the people in your organization. The reason community organizations achieve significant environmental results is that they draw upon the creativity and energy of their own members and of the greater community.
\BTips\b
\I1. Choose one objective as a first priority, after consultation with those concerned.
2. Carry out research regarding what can be done with regard to this objective.
3. Seek input and advice from other members of the community.
4. Define a set of actions that will work in your particular area.
5. Establish mechanisms to ensure the recommended actions are carried out.
6. Ensure effective internal communication and monitor implementation.
7. Evaluate what is working and what is not.
8. Encourage additional actions.
9. Identify a new objective and repeat the process. \i
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"Attempting the Lion's Share of Environmental Action",59,0,0,0
Lions Clubs International is an international organization that offers a good case study for other groups that want to make a difference through environmental action. In 1972, the organization committed its members to caring for the environment, and members of the board of directors adopted a Policy Statement on the Human Environment.
The Lions' Policy Statement recognizes that environmental goals demand the acceptance of responsibility by citizens and communities and by enterprises and institutions at every level, all sharing equitably in common efforts. It emphasizes that individuals in all walks of life, as well as organizations, will shape the world environment of the future by their values and the sum of their actions.
In many ways in many countries around the world, Lions have put their words into action, and demonstrated their commitment to environmental service through land, air, water and animal preservation efforts.
The Lions chapter in Argentina produced an educational video, "Save the \JAntarctica\j Ecosystem." In \JIndonesia\j, 200 Lions sailed from the village of Condet to Manggarai cleaning the polluted Prokasih River on the way. The Lions in Sri Lanka established an Environmental Council to find an answer to the country's diminishing forest cover.
Disposing of cooking grease into waterways was a problem in \JThailand\j until the Lions devised a simple method for trapping it. A series of bins collects the grease before it reaches the waterway. The hardened grease is then used as tree \Jfertilizer\j or dried in the sun and later used as charcoal.
Contact:
The International Association of Lions Clubs
300 22nd Street
Oak Brook, Illinois
USA 60521-8842
Tel: (+1 708) 571-5466
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"Rotary International (environment)",60,0,0,0
The Preserve \JPlanet\j Earth program of Rotary International was initiated in July 1990, when Rotary International's president, Paulo V.C. Costa realized there was an environmental crisis and issued an urgent call for Rotarians worldwide to take action on environmental issues. Rotarian districts around the world responded to this call.
"As individuals," declares the Rotarian's manual for the Preserve \JPlanet\j Earth program, "we feel overwhelmed by alarming statistics on air \Jpollution\j, forest destruction, toxic waste, endangered species, \Jdesertification\j and increasing garbage."
One of numerous examples of "on the ground" environmental action initiated by the Rotarians is the "Save Colombia" National Environmental Awareness Campaign. The Rotary Club of Medallion, \JColombia\j, concerned about their nation's environmental problems, especially the endangered tropical forests, began an environmental education campaign that spread throughout its district and beyond the borders of its country. After raising funds from the local community, the committee created and published a document that describes the world's endangered rainforests. The document encouraged immediate action at the community level, and included a list of thirteen actions that organizations and individuals can take to save the rainforests.
At the Rotary Club of Sao Paulo Oeste, \JBrazil\j, members donated 30,000 seedlings for replanting in areas around the community that had been deforested. At the Rotary Club of Taxco, Mexico, members saw the need to control flooding, prevent soil erosion and maintain a clean water supply. After building one small dam, using sustainable technologies that successfully addressed these problems, the club went on to build many more. The small dams are now part of a far¡reaching development project that has resulted in an improved environment for many communities.
Contact: Rotary International
One Rotary Centre
1560 Sherman Avenue
Evanston, IL, USA 60201-3698
Tel: (+1 708) 866-3000
Fax: (+1 708) 328-8554
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"Organizing for Community Action References",61,0,0,0
\I50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth,\i The Earth Works Group, The Earth Works Press, Berkeley, \JCalifornia\j, 1989 - \I101 Ways to Really Save the World, BBC Wildlife Magazine's Ultimate Guide to Getting Involved,\i Baines, Chris, BBC Wildlife Magazine. March 1993 - \IA Primer on Environmental Citizenship;\i Environment Canada, 1993.
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"Community Toolbox Introduction",62,0,0,0
\B"Without tools he is nothing, with tools he is all." \b
\I-- Thomas Carlyle\i
Once your organization has decided to mobilize itself around environmental issues, and has organized to take effective action, the next step is to take stock of the tools that will be needed to get the job done.
Your organization may already have access to some of these tools, others will have to be either developed or acquired. However, it is important to remember that it is always possible to do something, even with limited resources. Do not let a lack of resources become an excuse for not taking action. The most important tool for any task is motivation; with it, almost anything can be accomplished.
This chapter outlines a few of the basic tools your organization may need. The collection of tools, both tangible and intangible, can be considered your "community toolbox." Each particular situation will require its own unique toolbox, which will be determined by the geographic reality of your community, the nature of the problem, your access to additional resources and the people in your community or organization. Being prepared to take effective action requires analyzing what tools you have, what tools you will need and how you will use them. This chapter should get you started.
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"Networking for Information and Contacts",63,0,0,0
Who we know is often as powerful as what we know. If your organization has both - powerful contacts and powerful knowledge-its efforts to preserve the environment will be greatly enhanced. Acquiring both knowledge and contacts is best achieved through the process of "networking." To acquire knowledge, it is necessary to have access to a variety of information sources. Much of your information will come through the people you know. It is no secret that knowing the right people can open the right doors. By establishing your own network of people, and linking it to other networks of people, you will directly contribute to the building of a community that can turn the tide of environmental degradation.
Whether you're addressing a company's proposal to build on your local nature reserve or responding to a serious \Jpollution\j incident that has poisoned your local fishery, you may be sure that someone, somewhere, will have "expert knowledge" about your problem or at least will have had a similar experience. If you can make contact with that person or persons, you can learn from their experience. Check with others in your area who are concerned with the same issues and ask their help to find out what resources are available. A lot of time can be saved by not redoing things that have been done before.
An important part of being an effective networker for the cause of environmental preservation is to maintain a constant awareness of what is needed and how these needs can be met. When you begin to meet people and develop your network, you will become aware that some of the people you meet have needs that can easily be met through the resources of others you have met before. By bringing these people together, you not only assist others in meeting their needs, but you also contribute to a common cause - the environment. At the same time you increase the number of people who can assist your organization when it is in need.
You will meet your contacts at meetings, conferences, parties, perhaps even on a bus. Ask pointed questions and get a sense of what they do. When you have an idea of what their needs and interests are, you will be able to send material or people to them that will help them in their own contribution to the cause of sustainability. If you come across an article that could interest them, make a copy and send it. You may soon find them sending information and people to you as well. Remember always to send a letter of appreciation to any of your contacts that may do a favour for you.
Following are a few suggestions of places where you can extend your network, both to meet the right people and to locate the right sources of information you will need in your efforts to pursue sustainability for your community.
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"Schools and Universities",64,0,0,0
Many schools are including the study of environmental issues in their curricula. There could be a professor or teacher at your community college who has studied particular environmental issues in your area and has a collection of material that he or she would be happy to share with you. If you do not have time to enroll in a formal course, perhaps you could sit in on some classes, or even arrange for professors to speak to your organization. If the schools in your area do not offer classes on environmental issues, ask them why. Perhaps you could get them to start if they see there is an interest in the community.
Museums also provide valuable learning opportunities on a wide range of topics, including everything from science and technology to natural and human history. If you haven't already visited the ones in your area, you may want to check them out. Organize a trip for your community organization, or perhaps for the students in a school you work with. Take notes and turn the trip into a learning exercise. If your museum does not have a good environmental display, perhaps your community could volunteer to help set one up.
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"International and Local Organizations",65,0,0,0
From the coasts of East Africa and the cities of Europe, to the slums of Rio de Janeiro and the halls of the United Nations, citizen groups are actively working on social and environmental issues. Many of these organizations may be like the ones you are working with in your community. These groups are as varied as the people who join them, but they often share a common vision, working to reduce poverty, advance human development and manage natural resources sustainably. Many of them begin by tackling a local problem, before joining in coalitions with other groups to address larger, more regional and international issues.
NGOs and CBOs can provide information about the environment as well as advice regarding other learning opportunities. Many are involved in research and education on environmental issues. There are NGOs in nearly every country. Find out which ones are active in your community. You may find that they have been working with the same issues and are eager to assist you.
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"Business Groups and Associations",66,0,0,0
Many businesses and business associations such as the International Chamber of Commerce study environmental questions relevant to their particular interests, and will provide information upon request. If the businesses in your area do not have such an organization, perhaps your inquiry (and then the inquiries of all your friends) will get them to start. You also can get the address of their headquarters, wherever that may be, and send a letter of request to them. The letter should be addressed to their public information department.
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"Public Utilities",67,0,0,0
Public utilities (government agencies running water, electricity, public transport, etc.) often publish educational materials on subjects such as household waste, water use and energy efficiency. They are sometimes also important sources of information on particular local or regional environmental concerns. Quite often, they will have public information departments whose responsibility it is to liaise with community organizations, the press and interested citizens. If they do not have such an office, ask them why not, and get them to open one.
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"Government Officials",68,0,0,0
Many governments, both local and national, publish information on environmental issues as a public service, and, like utilities, can provide information on the status of particular current environmental problems. Other sources include intergovernmental organizations like the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the Arab League.
Contact the ministry of environment or the equivalent in your government and ask them what your government's position at the Earth Summit was. The statement given by your government delegate in itself could offer a lot of information. Many countries are now preparing national environmental reports. Contact your government to see if yours is available.
You also could check with individual members of your government's legislature, or with city council members who have publicly stated their pro-environment positions. Their staff often has background papers on different environmental issues and are willing to share them.
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"Networking with Computers",69,0,0,0
These days, small groups can become as effective as large ones by using computers to access needed information, communicate with people around the world who share the same concerns, and send and receive electronic mail. Computers are also great for word processing, saving enormous amounts of time when writing letters, press releases or information booklets. You can also use them to design the material you need to promote your cause. In these ways and many others, computers are quickly becoming the best friend of the environmental movement.
If you or your organization does not have a computer, inquire at local businesses to see if they will donate some of their old equipment. Also, you could look into writing a grant proposal to the government or a foundation, explaining that a computer is needed to help increase the efficiency of your efforts. You could engage in fund-raising to raise money to buy one, and perhaps even convince a computer store to give you a special discount as a public service organization. If there is no way to acquire a computer for your organization, perhaps you could have access to one owned by another organization, or a local school.
Don Rittner, author of \IEcolinking, Everyone's Guide to Environmental Networking,\i says there has been a silent revolution over the last ten years: the revolution of on-line communications-using computers to connect with people and information. It is estimated that more than 40 million people in more than 80 countries are now connected in this way, able to send each other electronic mail, reports, collections of data and even photographs in a matter of seconds.
There are various requirements for electronic networking. An older computer, a modem and a simple phone line can provide basic access to electronic mail, or "e-mail" as it is usually called. E-mail is the most widely used form of computer communications. The electronic equivalent of normal paper mail, it is available in almost everywhere. With it, you can communicate quickly and cost-effectively with people around the world. You can send messages to one person or several simultaneously.
Most e-mail is sent through the Internet, a global "network of networks" that includes tens of thousands of databases and discussion forums where people meet through their computers and exchange information. An e-mail address typically has a person's name, followed by "@" and ending with a domain, or network (host computer) address. Thus, john.smith@unep.no would be the address for someone named John Smith at the United Nations Environment Program.
The technology of computer communications also enables you to access a huge base of information through the Internet. Some of the ways to access information and participate in the Internet are through e-mail, telnet, \Jgopher\j, and the World Wide Web. Telnet involves sending commands through the Internet to access information. Gophers are easier, enabling the user to directly access the directories of remote computers and download the information that is stored there. The World Wide Web (WWW) is the easiest of all, incorporating text, graphics and even sound and video into an interactive environment. The WWW is the fastest growing sector of the Internet, but mostly in the developed world.
A vast amount of environmental information can be accessed on the Internet for little or no cost. Much of this information is provided by governments, universities, businesses, non-profit organizations and individuals. Several agencies of the United Nations, including the UN Environment Program and the UN Development Program, maintain extensive databases of information on the efforts of the UN in attaining global environmental sustainability. This information includes UN documents, statements at conferences, reports and studies on a variety of issues. These databases can be accessed through the \Jgopher\j, through the World Wide Web, or even through simple e-mail. The \Jgopher\j address is gopher.undp.org; the address of their World Wide Web server is http://www.undp.org or http://www.un.org.
To access the UN \Jgopher\j databases via Internet e-mail, send a blank message to "gopher@undp.org". You will receive back a message with a menu, and instructions to copy the menu into a new message and place an "x" next to the menu item that you want to access. You then send this back to "gopher@undp.org", and the next level of the menu will be sent to you. You can descend into various directories this way until you find the document you want the \Jgopher\j to send you. Nearly all of the documents of the UN can be accessed in this way.
Another good source of environmental information is the networks of the Institute for Global Communications (IGC). These are used by many activists organizations worldwide to share important documents and discuss strategies. To find out more, send a blank e-mail message to econet@econet.apc.org and their computer will automatically send you back some information.
Many other services are offered through computer networks. These include public discussion forums, technical help, specialized databases, access to thousands of software programs and round-table conferences among people separated geographically by thousands of miles. Many of the people in this environmental "on-line" community are scientists, business people, and government representatives. But there are also many students and interested private citizens. Though the cost of access limits some people from getting "on-line," it often is less expensive to communicate via this medium than through normal air mail service.
There are several ways to conference on-line. Three of these are "chat," bulletin board conferences and "listservs." By using chat, which is usually reserved for a single network, you can communicate with another person or group on-line, in real time. Bulletin board conferences can be operated by a single network, or can be public domain and reside on the Internet. They are useful for discussing a particular issue, or for following the discussions of other people. One of the primary benefits of this type of conference is that the participants do not have to live in a particular time zone. You can post a message or response to the conference as part of a discussion, and check back later to see if anyone responded to you. In this way, some discussions can last weeks, or even months.
A listserv is an automated mailing feature that brings people together from other on-line services. There are thousands of listservs on the Internet, some private and some public. They can be either "participatory" or "one way." In a participatory network, you send a message to an address, which then multiplies that message and sends a copy to everyone on the subscription list. When someone replies to your message, he or she can either send it directly to sender, or back into the listserv, so everyone receives a copy.
Conferencing in this manner can be a great way to brainstorm issues among a group that is separated by distance. One particularly good listserv on environmental issues is UNEP's INFOTERRA listserv. Hundreds of environmental professionals subscribe to this list. If you pose a question to the list, regarding an environmental problem in your community for example, other users will do their best to help you. To subscribe to this list, send a message to "listproc@pan.cedar.univie.ac.at" with a blank subject line. In the text of your message type "subscribe INFOTERRA (your name)". You will receive back a confirmation with further instructions.
An example of a "one-way" network would be one that exists only for the purposes of offering a subscription to a particular publication. Several publications distribute their issues electronically via listservs. Two examples of this are the \IEarth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB),\i which monitors all United Nations conferences concerned with sustainability, and \IRachel's Hazardous Waste Newsletter.\i You can subscribe to these publications automatically by sending an e-mail message to their listserv (for the ENB, listserver@ciesin.org; for the newsletter, rachel-weekly-request@world.std.com). Each time an issue is released, you will receive it in your electronic mailbox wherever you are on-line.
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"Bringing in the Experts",70,0,0,0
If it is possible for your organization, you may want to consider hiring professional advisers or advocates to support a specific environmental cause. This is often the case, for instance, if you are questioning the environmental impacts of the construction of roads or other types of development where the government or industry is involved. It can be very helpful to your cause to have a representative who can speak as knowledgeably about the issue as the developer's economists and planners.
However, beware of fraudulent "experts." As is true in other fields, there are many individuals working in the area of the environment who may represent themselves as experts but who really are only opportunists. Be sure to check credentials and references before signing a contract. Also, always consider the qualifications of several individuals before you decide on the one you think would be suited for the job.
Sometimes, a large organization or the government will lend the use of its experts as a donation to a particular cause. Inquire among other NGOs or community organizations if they have experts that could help you. They may welcome the opportunity to promote their public profile. It is always a good idea to see if your organization can find the expertise it needs in this way, before spending money.
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"Advocacy and Campaigning",71,0,0,0
Advocacy and campaigning are two very effective ways to establish and ensure environmental sustainability for your community. One very important word of advice to keep in mind when engaging in this sort of activity, however, is to avoid confrontation. It is usually more effective to come from a position of partnership when advocating for your concerns. Sometimes it may seem necessary to confront someone, an organization or company that you perceive to be seriously harming the environment, but always exercise caution and think through all your options before you engage in this type of activity. The organizations that do sometimes resort to confrontation, such as Earth First, Greenpeace and Sea Shepherd, are well prepared and have years of experience.
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"Government Lobbying",72,0,0,0
Whether you are looking for assistance with your initiative, or are seeking to influence behaviour you think might be harming the environment, you will usually have to work in some way with government. The affairs of business, industry, education, the military and other sectors of society are all influenced by government at different levels.
Whenever you approach a government representative or agency, it is usually fruitful to come with a positive attitude of cooperation. Problems are rarely solved through confrontation. Rather than taking an "us and them" antagonistic approach try to maintain a philosophy of "pursuing partnerships" for a common interest, the well-being of ourselves and future generations. Government lobbying is a sensitive issue in many countries without long histories of democracy. In fact, in some places it may be interpreted as subversive activity.
Depending on the country, there are many different levels of government, each of which interacts in different ways with other levels and other branches of government. Usually, a government is divided into central, national or federal sectors, then regional, provincial or state authorities, and finally municipal, city or community-level councils or government. Depending on the issue, your organization could work with any or all of these to help ensure environmental sustainability for your community.
Before you approach your government representatives, always get your facts straight. This will help support your arguments and educate the representatives about the issues that you, their constituent, feel are important. A well-studied and well-documented analysis of the problem is more likely get the support you seek. Get the information first hand, talk to people involved, get university studies if available and take any photographs that may help present your case.
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"Convention Ratification and Implementation",73,0,0,0
In the intergovernmental process of international law, politics and the United Nations, a number of different agreements have been negotiated that aim to protect the environment and promote sustainable development. Part of your community's work for the environment can be to find out what these agreements are, and to work with your government to ensure that they are abided by in your particular community.
Some of these agreements are not "legally binding, such as the Programs of Action, Declarations and Agendas adopted at many UN Conferences. However, these documents carry the political authority of being agreed to by many countries, and can be used as reference points to what your government agreed to "in principle."
Legal conventions, on the other hand, must be taken back to the legislative processes of signatory governments and "ratified," in the sense that each government must agree to abide by the Convention's principles. Once it has been ratified by a set number of countries (agreed to in the Convention-usually from 30 to 50 countries), the Convention "enters into force," that is, it becomes international law, and all the countries who have ratified the Convention are legally bound to adhere to its principles.
The next step is for each country that has ratified the Convention to then incorporate it into national legislation and enforce its principles at both the national and local levels.
There are a number of ways that community groups can support international Conventions when pursuing partnership with their governments. The first is to ensure that each Convention makes it through the original ratification process. Second, a community can work with the government to ensure that it understands the importance of a Convention and that it starts to incorporate it into the national legislation of the country. Third, an organization can work with the community through various channels of communication to help the community understand the importance of the Convention.
You should be able to obtain copies of the Conventions from your local library, or directly from the United Nations by writing to: UN Department of Public Information, Room S-1040, United Nations, New York, New York USA 10017. Many UN documents also are available on the Internet, as already discussed. Some conventions that currently concern the environment are: the Convention to Combat \JDesertification\j; the Convention on Climate Change; the \JBasel\j Convention on the Transport of Hazardous Waste; the Convention on Biological Diversity; the Convention on the Law of the Sea; and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
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"Business and Consumer Boycotts",74,0,0,0
As with lobbying, organizing a boycott should be done with considerable care and consideration. If it is justified, however, it can be a powerful tool for persuading companies to re-evaluate their business practices in terms of their environmental impact.
Though this approach is most effective in developed countries, where there are more consumer products to choose from, it can be just as effective in developing countries. Mahatma Gandhi, who succeeded in getting the powerful British Empire to leave India in the 1940s, used this tactic by boycotting the British monopoly on salt. Instead of buying salt from the British, he mobilized millions of people to make their own salt by boiling down sea water. His next step was to boycott the British monopoly on cotton production, which he did by getting people to spin their own cotton and to wear simple "otis"-a traditional garb in India.
Business is not an external factor to human interaction with the environment. We are all "business" in the sense that we buy and consume the products that business produces. Thus, in a way, we are the "bosses" because we pay the salaries of those working in business through our purchases. If we decide that we do not like the way a particular company is doing business, we can decide not to purchase its products. At the same time, we should let the company know why we are not purchasing their products so they can see the connection between their drop in sales and their behaviour.
Always give a company the opportunity to change its ways first before you launch your boycott. If they refuse to listen to your concerns, the above tactic can be very effective in getting them to listen.
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"Preparing for and Dealing with Conflict",75,0,0,0
Conflict enters nearly every facet of life-in your personal life, and in the life of the community or organization of which you are a part. Learning how to prepare for and deal with conflict, and how to transform it into something positive, will greatly enhance your ability to succeed in your all endeavours and initiatives.
When working with your community to organize sustained environmental action, conflicts could arise with the local and regional governments, with the community itself, between members of your own organization or with other organizations. Conflict offers a great opportunity to learn and to enhance communication between you and the entity with whom you are in conflict. All too often, however, conflict derails important projects and causes hard feelings that can take years to repair.
The French author, Antoine de Saint-ExupΘry, once said in \IThe Little Prince\i that "words are the source of all misunderstandings." Many conflicts arise from miscommunication and an inability to see the other person's point of view. This advice is especially useful when preparing for potential conflict in environmental work. When you feel some tension between you and the organization or person with whom you are trying to negotiate a solution, always begin by analyzing the communication. Ask yourself if you really understand that person's point of view, and if he or she really understands yours.
Find out what exactly that other person wants out of the situation you are in conflict about, and know what exactly it is you want. Then try to determine if what you both in fact really want is the same thing. Perhaps a "win-win" situation could provide the ideal situation so you both get what you want.
Conflicts can often be diffused if they are caught early. The longer a conflict is allowed to persist, however, the harder it is to deal with. If possible, meet with the person with whom you perceive some potential conflict and communicate your concerns about it. Do this early on in the conflict so it does not worsen. Quite often, a simple statement like, "I believe we are working toward the same goals and I am afraid that if any conflict were to arise it would not be beneficial to either of us," can solve the problem. If you are not working toward the same goals, carefully consider the best path of action that would make your initiative easier and not more difficult. Often, through negotiation, you can find a solution that works to everyone's advantage.
It often helps to first think through all available options before reacting. There are usually many different ways to react to any given situation. Some reactions can cause more conflict, while others can defuse the conflict. It is often helpful to talk over different options for reaction with other members of your organization before you take any action in response to situations that may give rise to conflict.
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"Education and Training",76,0,0,0
Education is one of the most important factors in sustainability. When people know about a problem, they may work to solve it; when they understand the reason behind the problem, they can work to ensure that it never happens again. Understanding requires education, education that can come through an institute, a presentation at a community gathering or perhaps a brochure or booklet passed out in the town square.
Before communicating an environmental concern, and attempting to educate your community about it, it is very important to check, double check and then check again all your facts. If your organization is discredited once for not having all the right facts, it may be difficult to get the attention of your community at a later time.
Educational institutes can serve as remarkable tools in many ways for your community's efforts to support a sustainable environment. They are full of young minds that may need to be informed about environmental concerns. They may also be a great source of information about the environment for your community organization.
If your organization has a lot of expertise on environmental concerns, or knows where to obtain the resources, you could try to work with your community's school. You also could hold a public information seminar at your church, mosque, temple or community centre in the evenings. If there are any large companies, you could offer to hold a seminar on some aspect of environmental concern for their employees.
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"Using the Media",77,0,0,0
Your organization will need to communicate its goals and objectives to the public, both to attract more members and to encourage public awareness about important environmental issues. The media (newspapers, magazines, \Jtelevision\j and radio) can be powerful allies. To achieve success in attracting the attention of the media, you need to fulfill two requirements: 1) find newsworthy ways of projecting your message; and 2) provide clear, professionally-presented information in a form and at a time when the media can make use of it.
Whatever media you are dealing with, try to cultivate a positive, long-term relationship with key journalists. Keep your contacts honestly informed ahead of time, ask for their advice and encourage any sympathy they may have for your cause. While professional journalists are obliged to remain objective about issues, there is no doubt that it makes a difference to your cause if a journalist is personally 'on your side.'
When you begin your program to build public awareness about environmental issues, you may find that some people simply do not understand what you are talking about. The reason for their lack of understanding might be lack of exposure to issues of this kind. When campaigning in your community to raise awareness about a particular issue, it is critical that your message be designed for different groups of people based on age, education, culture and societal influences. If you cannot communicate your message clearly and ensure that it is understood, there will be little hope of long-term committed activity. As the Brundtland Commission, in its report Our Common Future, declares: "unless we are able to translate our words into a language that can reach the minds and hearts of people young and old, we shall not be able to undertake the extensive social changes needed to correct the course of development."
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"Airwave Power",78,0,0,0
Radio is the most common form of media in the world today. Local radio is particularly useful as a way to reach the public, because the program makers are usually interested in local stories. You should do a bit of radio research to find out which are the most suitable and the most listened to programs (often the early morning current-affairs ones) and who their producers/presenters are. Then you can make direct contact with them and get them to incorporate environmental programming. They also could announce your cause to the public, and promote different events you might organize.
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"Advertising - Environment",79,0,0,0
Some environmentalists around the world are discovering advertising as a way of communicating their messages. This is especially prevalent in the developed world where magazines and newspapers flourish, and where organizations have considerably more resources at their disposal than groups in the developing world. However, this approach could be just as useful anywhere.
Perhaps your local newspaper will give you a reduced rate for advertising space, or a \Jtelevision\j station a reduced rate for a one-minute public service announcement. If not, perhaps you can raise the money through activities and fund-raisers.
Your ad should be short and to the point. Study well-known ads for commercial products to see how they use language and image to promote their message. You can do the same with an environmental message. You may want to approach a public relations organization or advertising company for some advice. They will probably be more than helpful.
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"Write On!",80,0,0,0
In the mid-nineteenth century, the playwright Baron Lytton wrote, "Beneath the rule of men entirely great, the pen is mightier than the sword." A well-placed, well-timed and well-argued letter can quite often turn the course of events, so take out your pen, sit down and change history.
Be clear about your purpose in writing the letter. A rambling letter usually just irritates the person you want to push into action. Plan before you write and be sure to have something definite to say.
Make sure you write to the person who can actually make a difference. By mailing inquiries or making a phone call in advance, you can usually get the name of a person who makes decisions. Always aim as high up the hierarchy as possible, unless you are working within a bureaucracy that you are trying to influence, in which case you will probably have to respect the flow of command.
Be personal in your letter, but at the same time be constructive and formal. After typing the main text of the letter, handwrite a one-line postscript. Something as simple as "your attention to this matter really will be appreciated" is enough to establish personal relations and put your letter at the top of the pile.
In many cases, your letter's effect is amplified by sending a copy of it to someone else. A couple of impressive 'cc:' names at the bottom of the letter usually ensures a more well-considered response. If you are writing to someone in the central government, copy the letter to your local government representative (and vice versa). If you are writing to a hotel to tell its general manager you saw an open sewage pipe running into the ocean, copy it to the local environmental health officer.
Build a question into your letter. Even though you may simply wish to make a rhetorical statement to draw attention to a problem, it is a good idea to incorporate an easily answered question into your letter-one that requires a prompt reply. This way, you're likely to get a reaction to the rest of the letter, as well as proof of its delivery.
Keep your letter to the point. Try to limit your letters to one side of one sheet of paper. The best way to do this is to write down the points you wish to make beforehand. Keep each sentence to the bare minimum. Your main aim should be to ensure that all your concerns are read and absorbed.
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"Alerting the Public",81,0,0,0
The written word can be used to raise the awareness of your community. It can also be used to mobilize a group of like-minded people around a particular issue. An open letter in the local or national press should have the same basic structure as a letter to an individual, but it must make points of general interest to the readership. Your "letter to the editor" (as it is often called) has to compete with other letters, and with the articles of the publication. Your letter will stand a better chance of being printed if it is short, punchy and provocative. Starting up a long-running correspondence in the local press can be particularly effective in making something happen.
It may be that the points you wish to make need specific targeting to a specific publication that is read by a particular audience. If there are a variety of publications in your area, target your letters accordingly. A letter about the destructive impact of dropping anchors onto a \Jcoral\j reef may have more impact if it appears in a magazine that is read by fishermen and/or scuba divers than if it appears only in the daily newspaper of the capital.
There is an important rule to remember when writing letters. Be certain of your facts, and avoid specific accusations. Write about solutions and ways forward, rather than scoring negative points and opening old wounds.
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"Writing an Effective Press Release",82,0,0,0
A press release is a device for giving the media information from your point of view. It is also useful for keeping supporters, believers and the public informed of what you are doing. It should be professionally written, and communicate effectively. If you have good, clear and dynamic photos, include copies. If you want them back, be sure to include a self-addressed, stamped envelope.
\BWhen writing your press release, make it:\b
\IBrief.\i No more than two pages in length, typed double-spaced, and with a wide margin for notes. If possible, use two sides of the same sheet of paper, unless you are planning only to fax your press release.
\IWell-introduced.\i Begin with an opening sentence or short paragraph that summarizes the contents. This is called "the lead," and should answer all the basic questions of "who, what, where, why, when and how."
\IStructured. \iGive the very basic information in a logical sequence. If they want to know more, they will contact you.
\IPersonalized.\i If it is appropriate, include one or two very short quotes from an appropriate expert to help authenticate your story. Most good news releases have a strong quote in the second paragraph that supports the information given in the first paragraph.
\IInformative.\i In addition to the main statement, it is helpful to give, very briefly, any critical factual background. This might include details of you or your group, the origin of the issue and facts and figures that justify your concern.
\IContacts.\i Finally, it is essential that you include clear and reliable follow-up contacts. Choose a representative who has full command of the issue, who can communicate clearly and concisely and who has, preferably, experience with being interviewed. The aim of the press release is to tempt journalists to follow it up with a more detailed investigation - so your representation is critical.
Always follow your press release with a phone call, to encourage a response.
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"Fund-raising and Finding Sponsors",83,0,0,0
Around the world, economies are not as strong as they used to be. The number of organizations trying to raise funds is increasing, while the availability of those funds is decreasing. Nevertheless, a worthwhile cause can usually find someone somewhere to support it. The keys to successful fund-raising are defining the need, communicating the cause, creativity and persistence.
Fund-raising can be initiated in a number of ways. There is no single recipe for fund-raising; it all depends on your community and your situation. When fund-raising, it is best to tap into those resources that are immediately available, such as through selling a product or organizing a community dance or concert. If your organization has a lot of members, perhaps you could charge a small annual or monthly fee. With these sources, you are depending only on your own initiative and ability to raise the funds. Concurrently, however, you may want to pursue external sources of funding, which will be easier to obtain if you can show that you are engaged in "on the ground" fund-raising activities.
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"Writing Proposals",84,0,0,0
To apply for external sources of funding, you may have to write a proposal stating who you are, what you do, what you want and why you want it. While there are entire books on how to write effective proposals for raising money, following are a few of the basic principles that should get you started if you plan on pursuing this avenue for raising revenue for your organization. Writing a grant proposal is actually a good exercise for an organization to go through even if it is not planning on applying for grants. The process of writing a proposal forces you to evaluate your objectives, abilities, resources and understanding of the problems you are trying to solve.
There are directories of foundations and other funding sources that can be used to find potential sponsors that support initiatives like those you are working on. These directories are usually available at libraries. Some sponsors support environmental issues, while others may only support population concerns or education. If you send a proposal asking for assistance with a water treatment facility to a foundation that works with women's education, chances are they will not even read it. On the other hand, you can sometimes word your proposal in such a way as to make it fit through the "window" of the target funding source's interests.
While the individual application may vary, a suggested structure for writing proposals starts with a cover letter, and is followed by a proposal summary, an introduction, a statement of the problem, the goals and objectives of your organization, the methods to solve the problems, a statement on future funding sources and a budget for the proposed project. Thinking through the various sections should enable you to create virtually all that either a private or government funding source will ask for. If it is possible, always do a bit of "due diligence" beforehand, and ask the target funding source what exactly they need from you. If they have everything they need the first time, they are more likely to react favourably to your request.
Proposals written for private foundations and those written for government grants (intergovernmental or national) often differ in their final form. Foundations often require a brief letter as an initial approach. A full proposal may follow in many situations. Government and intergovernmental funding sources often require completion of a number of forms along with a detailed proposal narrative. Make sure that you write to the appropriate office or agency and request the guidelines before you start writing.
Your initial cover letter should briefly describe your organization and your proposed project or program that needs support. It also should tell the grantmaker how important the grant would be to the community, and who exactly would benefit from it. The cover letter should demonstrate the strong support of your organization's committee or board of directors, and any key figures in your community. If you can get the mayor of your town, a professor from the university or any other such individual to write a letter in support of your project, your chances of getting the support you need will increase.
The proposal itself may be as modest as one page (especially if the foundation requests a limit of one page) or it may be several pages long. It may be in letter form or in a more formal presentation. Any additional materials should be limited to those required by the funding source supplemented by pertinent information, such as the resumes of key people in your organization.
Finally, if it is required, you may have to submit a detailed expense projection for your proposed project, indicating exactly for what you need the money. Think through this process carefully, and if possible, contract the services of a qualified accountant to make sure that all your figures are correct. If a funding source suspects even for a moment that your math is off, it will be less likely to give you the support you need.
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"Community Toolbox References",85,0,0,0
\IA Primer on Environmental Citizenship;\i Environment Canada, 1993 - \IAt Ease with E-mail, A Handbook on Using Electronic Mail for NGOs in Developing Countries,\i United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service, Geneva, and the Freidrich Ebert Foundation, New York, 1995 - \ICitizen Action, Taking action in your community,\i Wilson, Don, Longman Self-Help Guides, England, 1986 - \IEcoLinking, Everyone's guide to environmental networking,\i Rittner, Don, Peachpit Press, USA 1992 - \IProgram Planning and Proposal Writing,\i Introductory Version; Kiritz, Norton J. and Mundel, Jerry, the Grantsmanship Center, Los Angeles, 1992.
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"Population and Consumption Introduction",86,0,0,0
\B"Driven by unprecedented growth in human numbers and wasteful consumption, many of the basic resources upon which future generations will depend for their survival are being depleted."\b
\I-- Dr. Nafis Sadik
Executive Director, UN Population Fund\i
The current population explosion, combined with increasing consumption rates and inequitable distribution of resources, is a serious environmental concern because it is directly related to the carrying capacity of the planet. Quite simply, there is a limited amount of resources being consumed by an increasing number of people. To make matters even more difficult, each person's individual impact is increasing due to rising consumption rates that often accompany unsustainable development.
The interlinked issues of unsustainable population growth and consumption were addressed by the world's governments in Rio de Janeiro at the Earth Summit in 1992, and again two years later in \JCairo\j at the International Conference on Population and Development. Numerous proposals were tabled at these meetings, many of which stirred significant controversy. Those countries with relatively low population growth but high rates of consumption said that population was the main problem; those with high population growth but low rates of consumption said consumption was the problem. The fact is, both are serious issues, and need to be addressed at the community level in order to be effectively mitigated.
By the time it takes you to finish reading this chapter, about 2,000 more people will be sharing your planet. The human population, now 5.6 billion, is increasing by an average of 250,000 people a day - the equivalent of another \JSwitzerland\j every 30 days, and a new China every 10 years. By the end of the millennium, there will be more than six billion people on this planet. More than five billion of these people will live in the developing South, where at least 95 per cent of population growth occurs. Although the rate of population growth has declined, annual population growth is still increasing, in part because unprecedented numbers of young people are entering their reproductive years.
Population growth is not even throughout the world. After growing rapidly in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the population of the industrialized countries has stabilized. In the less developed regions of the world, rapid population growth began later but has not yet leveled off. As a result, the developing countries are home to an increasing proportion of the world's population. In 1950, North America, Europe and the former Soviet Union contained almost 30 per cent of the world's people. By 2025, these regions of the world will contain only 14 per cent.
Scientists used to believe the world's population would stabilize at about 10.2 billion - provided immediate action was taken to slow it down. New indicators are putting that number at about 14 billion. However, if nothing is done to address the population problem, and if current birth and death rates remain unchanged, world population could reach 27 billion by the end of the next century.
The human population has clearly exceeded local and regional carrying capacities in many parts of the world, as shown by an increasing failure of food production to keep pace with population growth.
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"Population, Consumption and the Environment",87,0,0,0
While population growth rates are definitely an issue, the size of the human population is not the only determinant of its impact on the environment. The impact of people on their environment depends not only on their numbers but also on their location in the \Jbiosphere\j, their levels of consumption of energy and materials, and the technology used to attain a given standard of living.
As pointed out by Alan Durning of the Worldwatch Institute, population acts as a multiplier. The total human impact on the global \Jecosystem\j can therefore be reduced by moderating either human consumption or human numbers. Ideally, the impact can be reduced the most by doing both. However, much of the responsibility for reducing the amount of environmental stress exerted by human activity rests on industrialized societies in the North.
Any pursuit of sustainability that merely seeks to limit population growth will ultimately fail. Large populations do exert considerable stress on their ecosystems. However, smaller populations with high and unsustainable rates of consumption can have a greater and more negative effect than larger populations operating at much lower rates of consumption.
Rapid population growth often corresponds to a growth in consumption in the community, and increased demands for energy, transportation, food and water. By far the greatest part of population growth is occurring in developing countries where people today consume far less per person than people in the developed world. However, there is a rush to industrialize in many developing countries. Thus, while the populations of the developing world are increasing dramatically, so is their rate of consumption, and the levels of waste being produced. The result is a rapid increase in the developing world's share in global environmental degradation. Especially troubling for developing countries are the likely consequences of population growth on soil, urban areas and water quality, all necessary components for the support of their populations.
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"Urban Migration",88,0,0,0
A rapidly increasing number of people are being forced to move to cities because of economic necessities or environmental reasons such as land pressures and \Jdesertification\j. This urbanization of the global population brings with it numerous environmental demands. Urban migration is especially prevalent in developing countries, where the growth necessitates the development and improvement of the urban infrastructure-transportation services, food supply, energy supply, employment opportunities, water supply and shelter. The cities of the world already are faced with great difficulties meeting the needs of current populations. If present trends continue, it is unlikely they will be able to cope with the future. Currently, 1.2 billion people in cities lack safe drinking water and 1.4 billion have no sanitary waste treatment system.
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"Some of the Reasons for Population Growth",89,0,0,0
One of the main reasons world population has grown so rapidly over the last 200 years is that mortality rates have declined faster than fertility rates during this time. Improved sanitation, health care, medicines, shelter, and \Jnutrition\j have all led to dramatic increases in life expectancy. Fertility rates, on the other hand, have declined more recently than mortality rates, and they have declined more slowly.
In developing countries, there are a number of socio-economic realities that lead women to have more children. In economies that depend on family or communal agriculture, children are an economic asset; they provide valuable labour, and the costs of raising them are low. In more industrialized societies, in contrast, children are generally an economic burden. Where there are fewer educational and career opportunities, there tends to be earlier marriage and child-bearing. In some societies, women often start having babies when they are as young as 15 years old. This leads, in turn, to more children being born per couple.
Standards of living also have a direct relation to a region's population growth rate. Societies with high population growth rates usually have a relatively low standard of living. In countries where the standard of living has improved, studies have revealed a decrease in population growth rates, in some cases to negative levels.
In countries where social services for the elderly are scarce or non¡existent, children are seen as a source of financial support for parents in their old age. In many countries, there are no or very few social welfare systems to provide unemployment support or pensions. These considerations outweigh the relatively low costs of having babies in these countries and therefore people tend to have larger families.
Many communities around the world still have limited access to adequate health care facilities, which often results in high infant mortality rates and low life expectancy. When families lose, on average, one in three or four children, they usually choose to have as many as possible to maximize the number that will survive into their productive years.
The increased availability of health care and housing around the world is leading to a decreasing death rate, especially among the new-born, the very young, and finally the oldest and infirm sectors of the population. However, this decrease in mortality has not been accompanied by an equal decline in birth rates.
In less developed countries, there is often a lack of readily available, safe, acceptable and effective contraceptives, and a knowledge of how to use them. When they are available, they are sometimes too expensive. Also, a large number of people in the world have not been educated about family planning. According to the Worldwatch Institute, less than 30 per cent of women in developing countries use family planning.
Attitudes also play a role in many countries. In some regions of the world, some religious and cultural values discourage the use of contraception. Others even project the model of large families as a status symbol. As a consequence, limiting population growth can be a very sensitive moral, emotional and cultural issue. Some people distrust family planning programs because they believe they are motivated by \Jracism\j and other prejudices, such as a perceived desire of the "North" to control the "South" by limiting the size of its populations.
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"Food Consumption Patterns",90,0,0,0
Mahatma Gandhi said 50 years ago that there is enough in this world for everyone's need, but not enough for everyone's greed. Nowhere is this truer than in the realm of global food production.
There are numerous countries where governments use inappropriate incentives for food production. These improper incentives, such as excessive subsidies, may result from poor policy planning or the influential political power of agricultural organizations.
Inappropriate technology can be blamed for much of the inefficient use of land resources for food production. In the developed world, high-tech agriculture has boosted production beyond what is needed, while many developing countries, which sorely need to increase agricultural yields, do not have access to the technologies. Moreover, the overuse of new production methods involving pesticides, fertilizers and lack of crop rotation can cause severe environmental degradation.
The lack of funds to obtain new technologies and the need for education on their use, prevents many farmers in developing countries from being able to use their land to its maximum efficiency. This absence of education may perpetuate the use by small-scale farmers of unsustainable techniques resulting in low yields and in the long-term overuse and destruction of land.
Most people are unaware of the effects their consumption patterns have on the Earth. In developed nations, people are mostly unaware of, or disinterested in, the amount of energy which they consume, or the manner in which they consume it. In many cases, individuals are also unaware of the effects of their overeating, poor diet, food wastage and preference for better packaged goods. This absence of awareness may stem from a lack of education about the effects of consumption patterns and a lack of initiative for them to change these patterns. It may also stem from unscrupulous advertising on the part of manufacturers and distributors of packaged products.
It takes approximately 10 calories of grain to produce one \Jcalorie\j of grain-fed beef, and about eight kilos of that grain to produce one-half kilo of beef. This makes consumption of beef and other meats a very inefficient use of resources and source of \Jnutrients\j. According to the environmental organization, EarthSave, about 40 per cent of world cereal production goes to feed livestock. In industrialized countries, such as the United States, the figure is sometimes as high as 75 per cent.
The clearing of land for raising livestock is a major cause of deforestation. In Costa Rica and Panama, 70 per cent of the land has been cleared for pasture. In \JBrazil\j, \JBolivia\j and \JColombia\j, the primary reason for clearing forest is to raise livestock. According to EarthSave, for every pound of beef that is produced in a \Jrainforest\j environment, approximately 660 pounds of living matter is destroyed and 2,500 gallons of water consumed.
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"Seeking Solutions to Unsustainable Population Growth",91,0,0,0
It is estimated that the planet's probable carrying capacity - provided humankind develops a more sustainable relationship with the Earth - is around 10 billion people. In order to limit population growth at this level, all of the reproductive - age couples in the world will need access to reliable and affordable contraception by the year 2000. Of those who have access to contraception, it is estimated that 75 per cent will probably use it. If 75 per cent of reproductive - age couples practice family planning and actively use contraceptives, average family size will drop to just over two children per couple within about 15 years. A worldwide average of 2.1 children per couple by 2015 would result in a world population of approximately nine billion in 2050 and a stable population of 9.3 billion at the end of the 21st century.
Most encouragingly, the fertility rate in developing countries has declined over the past 40 years. The average fertility rate in developed countries is now below the population replacement level. This progress is a result of advances in four critical areas, all of which must continue if the global population is to stabilize. Incomes of poor households must rise, child mortality must decline, educational and employment opportunities for women must increase, and access to family planning services must expand. Of these, investments in female education have proven to be the most effective in reducing population growth and promoting sustainable human development as a whole. Experience has shown that better educated women have fewer, healthier and better educated children.
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"Taking Action to Address Population Growth",92,0,0,0
There are a number of things that can be done by both individuals and organizations to help slow high population growth rates. Following are a few ideas to get your community organization started in developing its own action plan to address this critical issue.
\BHelp to develop awareness in your community.\b Organizations could foster community and individual consciousness so that everyone understands the impact of population growth on our environment. There are different ways to promote awareness, each appropriate to a different community. An organization will have to research and determine which is the best for its community.
A few ideas include events, newsletters and an effective use of the media. Your organization also could use publications, brochures, or "evening gatherings" with experts on population and environmental issues. Invite the public to attend such gatherings through announcements in the local press, and fliers posted at strategic locations.
\BRespond to the media.\b Respond immediately to reports and comments about environmental problems, especially by the media, that do not make the connection between population growth and environment and development issues. Encourage your local media to include reports on population growth rates and the impact of consumption levels on the environment at the same time as their monthly reports on trade and \Jinflation\j.
\BSupport family planning initiatives in your community.\b Assisting with family planning initiatives will depend in large measure on your organization's religious and cultural values and whether your country has a rapidly expanding population. If it is appropriate, however, disseminate information concerning the benefits that effective family planning could have for your community and for the global environment. Encourage people to openly debate and learn more about the "population issue," child spacing and birth control. Some societies have traditional beliefs and practices which can regulate and control the size of families. Discuss how modern and more traditional methods can help.
\BPursue partnership with your government.\b When sponsoring seminars, conferences and discussion groups to influence government action, encourage all levels of government to support (with both expertise and funds) institutions and organizations that are trying to deal with the population crises, such as the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) and the World Health Organization (WHO).
\BWork to improve the standard of living in your community.\b Work together with community leaders to develop programs that will have a direct impact on basic standards of living and education. When living standards and opportunities improve, couples usually become more receptive to the idea of smaller and more prosperous families.
\BHelp develop special programs for women.\b Programs that create more opportunities for women to enter, re-enter or stay in the workforce will help the population problem. An organization with stature in the community could help and encourage governments to implement policies in cooperation with the business community to develop such programs.
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"Seeking Solutions to Unsustainable Consumption Patterns",93,0,0,0
Lowering a community's population growth rate may not necessarily lessen its impact on the environment. In the industrialized countries, family planning is practiced as a way of life, and in many societies average family size is lower than the population replacement level. However, because of unsustainable consumption patterns that enable the average Northerner to consume 77 times more than the average Ethiopian, the collective impact of Northern societies can be much greater. Therefore, solving the planet's ecological crisis is not just about having smaller families; it is about evaluating our community's collective impact on the Earth's \Jecosystem\j.
The developed world should be most concerned about the collective planetary impact of its levels of consumption. However, consumption patterns in the South are quickly catching up with those in the North. Developing countries, which may already have difficulty harnessing enough resources to meet current needs, will have an even harder time as their growing populations consume increasing amounts of limited resources.
A form of development is needed that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. This is needed not only in the developing world, but also in the developed, where people must learn how to shift their methods of production to ways that are economically, socially and ecologically sustainable.
Consumers also need to take responsibility. People need to understand the basic connections between their actions and choices as consumers and the environmental degradation that often results. The personal freedom to enjoy material benefits today should be tempered with a sense of shared responsibility for the welfare of both present and future generations of humanity. It also should take into the account the long-term effect that those actions could have on ecosystems at both local and global levels.
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"Taking Community Action to Address Unsustainable Consumption",94,0,0,0
Many different types of actions can be taken to promote the concept of sustainable consumption, and to help individual consumers and nations learn how to achieve both better living standards and ecologically sustainable lifestyles. Many of these methods are suggested in other chapters of this material that deal with specific environmental problems that are a result of unsustainable consumption. Following are a few general ideas to consider when drawing up your organization's action plan to address consumption issues in your community:
\BHelp to build awareness.\b All efforts to educate communities and individuals about consumption issues, aiming to change attitudes and behaviour toward environmentally sound product selections and lifestyle choices, are important. Your organization could help your community become more aware by disseminating knowledge through whatever media are available, such as booklets, radio or \Jtelevision\j. You could create an environmental awareness program which explores links between local production, consumption and the environment, while motivating people to change their own behaviour.
This awareness program could involve the production of easy-to-read leaflets or other materials that explain major environmental problems and their relation to consumption, as well as informing people about how to shop for products which are least harmful to the environment. Include suggestions for specific actions by consumers - for example, limiting energy consumption in the home, reducing carbon dioxide emissions or making increased use of bicycles or public transport.
\BWork with the media.\b Provide the print and/or broadcast media with articles and information aimed at educating consumers about the environment and the impact of their own behaviour.
\BPromote green consumption.\b Encourage people in your community to purchase "environmentally-sound" products whenever they are available. Selective purchasing, however, is more of an option in developed countries where consumers have higher incomes and have more products to choose from.
\BWork with schools.\b Find out which schools incorporate environmental and consumer issues in their curricula. Assist the development of those programs and relevant course materials and urge the introduction of similar programs in schools which lack them. Organize youth conferences or exhibitions of posters, photographs and art work on sustainable consumption issues, and invite community leaders, the mass media and school children.
\BCooperate with other groups.\b Combine forces with consumer, environment and development organizations and networks to exchange information and develop joint actions for promoting such concerns as sustainable consumption, energy conservation and sustainable agriculture.
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"Population Growth Declines in Kenya",95,0,0,0
\BA Success Story\b
International trends showing rapid population growth should not give reason for pessimism and despair as to the future of our world. While some of the figures may be discouraging, especially for Africa, significant accomplishments have been recorded in the areas of lowering birth and death rates, and in improving the general levels of education and incomes, including the education and status of women. More importantly, positive changes have occurred in attitudes, greater demand for family planning information and services at the grass-roots level. All these accomplishments have contributed positively towards slowing down the global population growth rate.
In his address to the \JCairo\j International Conference on Population and Development in 1994, the Kenyan vice-president and minister for planning and national development, Professor George Saitoti, said his country's success in combating population growth hinged primarily upon the \Jintegration\j of the participation of women in the solution. \JKenya\j used to have what was considered one of the highest population growth rates in the world, until the concern was addressed from many different sectors of society. Saitoti said that all efforts to reduce population growth need to address how to improve the rights and status of women, "which we have found to be the first step towards a successful reduction in fertility in our country."
The Kenyan experience found that the use of modern contraceptives is strongly associated with higher levels of education. Fifteen per cent of married women with no formal education use a modern method in \JKenya\j, compared to 29 per cent of those with at least some secondary education. These data provide important evidence that \JKenya\j's investment in girls' education is having a strong positive influence on fertility decline.
Another reason for the success is that \JKenya\j's population programs are decentralized through the use of local and community organizational structures, such as NGOs. Government support for NGOs has enabled the organizations to perform their work better and more efficiently. Such NGOs, especially women's groups, are often in the field working with the very people who are in need of information concerning population issues and their available options.
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"Global Action Plan for the Earth",96,0,0,0
\BA Success Story\b
The Global Action Plan (GAP) for the Earth is an international NGO initiative to substantially contribute to the reversal of high resource consumption and \Jpollution\j, especially in the developed world. GAP's primary goal is to empower a critical mass of global citizens to permanently redesign their lifestyles so that they are ecologically more sustainable.
Realizing that the highest rates of consumption exist in the developed world, GAP set to work first in this region of the world, establishing 15 local councils in countries from \JPoland\j and \JFinland\j to Canada and the United States. In each country, the organization's manual, The Household EcoTeam Workbook, was adopted to the cultural, societal and political realities of the particular society. Its coordination, publishing and regional distribution is carried out by a local chapter of GAP in partnership with local NGOs.
Since the culture of consumption has been exported to nearly every corner of the world, GAP is now working with communities in less developed societies to establish similar programs. Working with the Information and Public Affairs Branch of the United Nations Environment Program, the first Southern program was set up in \JKenya\j.
The Program fills the gap between positive attitude and positive action. It provides people with a simple blueprint for how to take practical action to reduce consumption in their daily lives, together with the support and feedback system to help them sustain their good intentions.
So far, more than 8,000 households have participated in the EcoTeam Program, with reported consumption reductions of 40 per cent in rubbish, 12 per cent in water, 15 per cent in energy and 18 per cent in carbon emissions.
Contact:
GAP International
Marilyn Mehlmann
Stjarnvagen 2
S - 182 46 Enebyberg, Sweden
Tel: +46-8758 3145
Fax: +46-8768 8397
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"Population and Consumption References",97,0,0,0
\IAsking How Much Is Enough,\i Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC, 1990 - Background Paper on Population; The Interparliamentary Conference on the Global Environment; 29 April - 2 May 1990 - \IBeyond 2000: The Transition to Sustainable Consumption;\i IOCU/Consumers International, London, England, 1993 - \IThe Changing World Food Prospect: the Nineties and Beyond,\i Brown, Lester, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC, 1988 - \IChoose for a Healthy Environment,\i IOCU/Consumers International, The Hague, Netherlands, 1992 - \IConsumption: The Other Side of Population for Development,\i The Earth Council, San Juan, Costa Rica, 1994 - \IDiet for a New America,\i Robbins, John, Stillpoint Publishing, 1987 - \IEconomic Development in the Third World,\i Fourth Edition, Todaro, Michael P., Longman Inc., New York 1989 - \IEcoscience: Population, Resources, Environment,\i Ehrlich, P.R., A.H. Ehrlich and J.P. Holdren, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1977 - \IHuman Population and the Global Environment,\i American Scientist, Holdren, J. P. and P.R. Ehrlich. 1974 - \IThe Population Bomb,\i Ehrlich, P.R. Ballantine Books, New York 1968 - \IPopulation, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology,\i Ehrlich, P.R., and A.H. Ehrlich, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1970 - \IPotential Population Supporting Capacities of Lands in the Developing World.\i Technical Report of Project INT/75/P13. FAO, UNFPA, and IIASA, \JRome\j 1982 - \IEgyptian Government Statement at the International Conference on Population and Development,\i Saitoti, George, 12 September \JEgypt\j 1994.
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"Energy Introduction",98,0,0,0
\B"Concern for man himself and his fate must always form the chief interest of all technical endeavors. in order that the creations of our mind shall be a blessing and not a curse to mankind." \b
Energy is needed to produce the goods that we consume and to transport us and our products from one place to another. Energy also is the engine of industrial development. It is needed for transporting farmers' produce to markets, children to school, and people to their jobs. It is needed to run hospitals, to feed malnourished and growing populations, to create industries that can compete globally, and to provide households with lighting, heating, cooking and refrigeration.
Traditionally, people in low-income countries mostly use non-commercial and non-conventional sources of energy, including human labour and animal power for agriculture, transportation, construction and industry, and in households, firewood and crop wastes for cooking and heating. As countries develop, and especially as people move from rural areas to cities, they require energy derived from different, more conventional sources. Motorized transport and agricultural machinery need oil and/or gas. Manufacturing industries require electricity generated from oil, coal, gas or hydro power stations. Households usually prefer kerosene or electricity to non-commercial sources of fuel such as dung or wood. Therefore, in assessing how to mobilize our communities to take action against environmental abuse, it is to the subject of conventional or "commercial" energy use that we now focus our attention.
Most energy use around the world is currently unsustainable. We now depend largely on limited, non-renewable sources of energy such as fossil fuels, which cause a great deal of \Jpollution\j and are the biggest contributor to global warming and localized air \Jpollution\j.
Energy is also produced using nuclear power in an increasing number of countries from India and China to \JFrance\j and Canada. Nuclear power will probably always play a role in meeting energy needs. However, the breakdown of the nuclear reactor at \JChernobyl\j in the former Soviet Union shook confidence in nuclear power among a public already skeptical about its safety. The disposal of radioactive waste is a major problem associated with this form of energy.
Many forms of energy production involve some degree of risk to human health or the environment. Fossil-fuel burning has long been shown to cause both local \Jpollution\j and "acid rain" in distant areas. It also adds significantly to the build-up of "greenhouse gases," caused by carbon emissions.
At present, the developed world consumes most of current energy production while the developing world struggles to meet its energy needs. It has been estimated that the developed world, which comprises 20 per cent of the planet's population, uses about 80 per cent of the energy produced globally. This unequal share of energy use among nations contributes greatly to environmental degradation.
Inefficient use of energy is a problem today because it devours excessive amounts of our already scarce non-renewable resources. This problem is especially prevalent in the developed countries of the world where a good supply of relatively cheap energy has enabled people to become used to wasteful and unsustainable patterns of consumption. To prevent this pattern from being adopted in the South, important lessons must be learned from developed countries.
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"Renewable Energy",99,0,0,0
Solar, wind, geothermal and hydro power are all examples of how we can harness the renewable energy from natural forces. Solar energy can be used for heating or to convert sunlight directly into electricity with photovoltaic technology. Photovoltaics are now commonly used everywhere from producing electricity in remote areas that lack power lines to powering space satellites. Another form of solar energy, called solar thermal, produces heat and electricity by concentrating sunlight on a container of fluid. The heated fluid runs through pipes that are submerged in water, which then create steam to power an electric \Jturbine\j. Improvements in solar technology over the past 15 years have greatly reduced its cost, making it competitive with conventional energy sources in many circumstances.
Geothermal energy uses natural steam from the Earth to produce electricity. More than 250 geothermal plants are in operation worldwide with a total and planned capacity of 13,000 megawatts. These natural steam resources provide the U.S. state of \JCalifornia\j - which on its own consumes more energy than most countries - with almost seven per cent of its electricity needs. Also in \JCalifornia\j, which has the highest per capita use of alternative energy in the world, wind generates nearly 2 billion \Jkilowatt\j hours of electricity per year, enough to meet the needs of a city the size of San Francisco. Every year, energy generated from wind turbines in \JCalifornia\j keeps 11 million pounds of air pollutants and 1.8 billion pounds of greenhouse gasses from passing into the atmosphere.
Although less polluting than fossil fuels and safer than nuclear power, methods of harnessing renewable energy often have problems of their own. Many take up a lot of space relative to the amount of energy produced. As well, the technology involved is often expensive and the amount of money available for research in this area is limited. While large-scale production of renewable energy is bound to grow in the future, it is not likely to replace other energy technologies for a long time.
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"Biomass - A Green Source of Energy",100,0,0,0
Biomass, such as wood, animal wastes and other organic matter, is perhaps the oldest source of energy in the world. Since primordial times, humans have used the energy stored in plants as a source of food, heat and light. These plants take energy from the sun and store it in chemical compounds through a process known as \Jphotosynthesis\j.
Unlike commercial sources of energy that are the main concern for most environmentalists, the use of biomass on a small scale does very little harm to the Earth. However, on a large scale, using it unsustainably can destroy entire ecosystems. Today, people rely more on biomass for energy than on all hydroelectric dams and nuclear fuel plants in the world combined. According to the World Resources Institute, developing countries account for 80 per cent of the world's population, but consume about 26 per cent of all the commercial energy sources and 85 per cent of all traditional biomass fuels.
Each year, according to UNEP, people clear and burn 22,000 square kilometres of trees to cook food and heat their homes. Much of the wood is made into charcoal, because charcoal weighs little, burns hot and slowly and is easily broken up into manageable, burnable pieces. This process, however, wastes 70 per cent of the energy of the wood. According to UNEP estimates, if this waste continues, nearly three billion people will be short of the fuel they need by the year 2000.
There is, however, an option. When used wisely and sustainably, both at home and at the community level, biomass offers a solution to environmental degradation. Communities can use wood more efficiently, and so reduce their impact on their environment, by using better designed stoves, letting their wood dry and cutting it into smaller pieces. Efficient wood stoves now being used increasingly throughout Asia and Africa can reduce charcoal use by up to 50 per cent. The improvements in efficiency result from controlling the air flow to the fuel, insulating the sides of the stove to minimize waste heat and using small pieces of dry wood or charcoal. Also, efforts are being made to produce charcoal more efficiently, such as through the use of kilns rather than the traditional earth clamp methods.
Such practices put the use of biomass as a source of energy on the path to sustainability rather than contributing to environmental degradation. Other uses of biomass, such as tapping the energy potential of wastes and residues, likewise offer sustainable options. Agricultural activities, for example, produce both marketable food crops and large quantities of stalks, cobs, straws and stems that could be used for energy, though they are most effective as a potent \Jfertilizer\j. By-products from the timber industry, such as the tops and limbs of trees, sawdust and other wood scraps, can also be used.
There are several technologies for converting biomass into energy. The primary methods involve releasing the energy through fire, such as with an industrial boiler; converting it through heat, such as producing \Jmethane\j from solid wood; converting it through bacteria or yeast to break down the biomass, such as making \Jethanol\j from corn; and altering the chemical makeup of a biomass feedstock to make it a more efficient energy product, such as turning vegetable oils into "biodiesel," a clean-burning biofuel that can be used in diesel engines.
The use of biomass as an energy source offers many advantages for the environment compared to deriving energy from non-renewable fossil fuels. Energy taken from biomass generally adds far less carbon to the atmosphere, thus reducing the contribution to climate change. If new plant material is grown to replace that taken to produce the energy, the little carbon that is released will be reabsorbed, thereby completing a cycle.
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"Seeking Solutions to Unsustainable Energy Use",101,0,0,0
With the recent dramatic increases in energy prices, people in industrial countries have become more concerned about efficient energy use. In response, many techniques for conserving energy have developed over the past few years. At the same time, the world is shifting toward less energy-intensive goods and services and encouraging the use of clean fuels. These developments are an improvement in the developed world, where the consumption of energy is inordinately high.
Improving energy efficiency not only reduces the use of energy resources, and thus slows down their depletion, but also decreases negative environmental and health impacts such as the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. Improving efficiency requires a change in peoples' habits, unwavering commitment from governments, and cooperation from industry and commerce to adopt new environmentally-clean technologies. It also requires industrialized nations to make these technologies easily accessible to developing countries.
Communities are faced with a tremendous challenge: to reduce dependency on fossil fuels, improve energy efficiency and promote energy conservation through education and public awareness campaigns. Accomplishing all this takes time, and requires that people everywhere change their lifestyles, consumption and production patterns and attitudes. It furthermore requires individuals, community organizations, governments and businesses in both industrialized and developing countries to educate themselves on energy issues and make a commitment to work together to achieve more efficient and environment-friendly energy use.
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"Taking Community Action to Conserve Energy",102,0,0,0
Community organizations can make a big difference when it comes to reducing energy consumption. Following are a set of suggestions to inspire your organization to find solutions that would be appropriate for your community:
\BPursue partnership with politics.\b Energy efficiency is not only about energy conservation; it also is a function of macroeconomic policies, of institutions that set and monitor standards, rules and regulations, and of the technologies employed in buildings, factories and transport. Getting governments to legislate energy efficiency requires active participation from both individuals and community organizations. Write letters and \Jtelephone\j your government representatives, attend all meetings on energy issues, and send letters to the media and to influential people. If your country has a particular policy which you think is unacceptable, use the international network to find an example of an alternative. Write to environmental organizations and ask for suggestions. If they are available, collect articles published in scientific journals and other magazines to support your arguments. Many inefficient and inadequate energy policies remain in place because decision-makers believe there are no viable alternatives.
\BPromote awareness through education.\b Educating the community is a key factor in mobilizing global action in favour of more reasonable energy consumption patterns. All technical solutions are dependent on a widespread change in peoples' attitudes towards energy. Many people will support and promote sensible long-term energy practices when they become more aware of the damage being done to ecosystems through the extravagant and inefficient use of energy resources for which they are responsible. Urge social science and science teachers from local schools to include units at all levels on energy and on the challenges of energy both now and in the future. Visit these schools, as well as clubs and associations to give presentations on energy and its relationship to sustainable development and the environment. Organize seminars at the school campuses to inform communities of sustainable energy policies.
\BUse the Media.\b Use the mass media to get people to think about energy and conservation. Enlist the participation of entertainers such as singers, actors and comedians. Have a celebrity speak about energy issues at your events, or issue a press release or article with an interview with a celebrity discussing his or her particular environmental concerns.
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"Addressing the Individual",103,0,0,0
Actions at the individual level are important and should be encouraged by your community organization. Start by making sure that members of your group are concerned about energy efficiency in their own homes and workplaces. Following are some key areas in which an individual can take action in the field of energy efficiency. Some of the tips may be more useful in developed countries, while others are more aptly suited for developing countries. However, since most commercial energy use in both the North and the South is derived from similar sources, and since energy use is an issue that equally impacts all regions of the world, what works in one part of the world often can be adapted to the other.
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"Environmental Tips",104,0,0,0
\BBe energy-wise.\b Switch off electrical appliances when they are not in use. Whether you live in New York or \JNairobi\j, set a target for reducing gas and electricity bills.
\BInsulate your house.\b Up to 20 per cent of your energy bills can be saved by effective \Jinsulation\j, whether you live in a hot environment and need to keep your home cool, or in a cool environment and want to heat it.
\BExplore alternatives.\b If available in your community, try to use solar energy to heat water, provide electricity, or both.
\BRecycle as much as is possible.\b Recycling one glass jar can save enough energy to light a 100-watt light bulb for four hours.
\BTake showers instead of baths.\b A shower uses about half the hot water of a bath.
\BCheck your taps.\b Make sure that hot¡water taps are turned off properly, especially if you are going away. Washing dishes or hands under a running hot tap can use a lot of energy - use a pan, or put the plug in the sink.
\BCheck the lights.\b Remember to switch off lights when leaving a room.
\BCheck your stove.\b Make sure your stove is fuel-efficient, whether you are using wood, gas or solar power as an energy source. When using the oven, try to cook more than one dish at a time. Remember to put lids on saucepans and turn the heat down once the contents have begun to boil. If you are using an electric range, pick a pan which just covers the cooker ring.
\BUse less cooking water.\b Putting too much water in a pan or kettle will cause it to take longer to boil. Only boil what you need.
\BCheck the refrigerator.\b Defrost your refrigerator regularly to save energy and cut costs. Make sure that the freezer compartment of your refrigerator is well sealed so that it does not have to work harder keeping it cold. Let warm food cool before putting it in the refrigerator or freezer. Warm food and warm air can lead to a build-up of extra frost, which can make the refrigerator less efficient.
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"Biogas Success",105,0,0,0
In the perennial search for new and affordable energy sources, many countries in the developing world have discovered an alternative to conventional electricity by converting organic material into energy through a process of fermentation. The resulting energy source is called \Jbiogas\j, and is especially useful in agrarian societies with an abundance of livestock or other animals. However, \Jbiogas\j can have a drawback when it takes away the resource that often is needed for valuable \Jfertilizer\j.
To produce \Jbiogas\j, \Jmanure\j from village \Jcattle\j and other sources is put into a \Jbiogas\j digester, which produces a 60:40 mixture of \Jmethane\j and carbon dioxide. This is used to cook, produce electricity for lighting and pump drinking water. The residue can be used as \Jfertilizer\j, though it is not as effective as the original \Jmanure\j.
Family-sized \Jbiogas\j digesters are now relatively common in countries such as China and India. In China, there are an estimated 4.6 million \Jbiogas\j digesters currently being used. Though community \Jbiogas\j digesters are more economical than family-sized digesters, the latter is more common because of the difficulty of organizing an equitable distribution of costs and benefits among villagers.
One community that was successful in implementing a large scale \Jbiogas\j digester was Pura, in Southern India. In 1991, Pura had 87 households and a \Jcattle\j population of 248. About half the households received electricity from an unreliable grid system.
When the Pura \Jbiogas\j project was first launched, it did not prove reliable either. It was only after much support and hard work, and the addition of a dual-fuel engine, that the digester began to effectively serve as a source of energy for the community. \JBiogas\j from the digester now passes through a condensation trap and is mixed with diesel fuel to operate the generator. The electricity provides fluorescent lighting and runs a pump that brings water 50 metres up to an overhead tank. The water then flows by gravity to nine street taps and 29 household taps.
The \Jbiogas\j system has many advantages. It is clean, self-reliant, renewable and inexpensive. It also provides better and more accessible drinking water, and better and more reliable light than most grid systems in the developing world. The Indian government is now offering to help communities finance \Jbiogas\j plants and is setting yearly targets for the installation of new community \Jbiogas\j plants.
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"Tapping the African Sun",106,0,0,0
\BA Success Story \b
When J. Sonke of Malawi gets a bright idea, it shines like the sun. One of these ideas was to use his country's natural resources to their fullest potential, to reduce his country's dependence on fuel wood, imported fuels and imports in general. To Sonke, the natural resources he intended to harness are the Earth, water, sun and people.
Looking up for inspiration, Mr. Sonke saw the power potential of the sun, and began to apply it to solar water heating. He saw that solar energy could save money and help the environment, so he learned everything he could about this valuable technology. In 1984, he started a company to produce solar-powered water heaters. A year after his company started doing business the Malawi Government became its biggest customer. Ten years later, more than 1,000 water heaters had been produced and installed in hospitals, schools, health centers, missions and private homes all over Malawi and other neighbouring African countries.
This was not a novel idea in Malawi, where the use of solar energy goes back to the 1950s. But, faced with competition from easily available firewood and high import costs to land-locked Malawi, there were few sales of the inefficient imported solar water heaters. Sonke saw a need for a simple, locally-made heater suited to local water, climate and raw materials.
Sonke's company started production in 1984 with just five employees, initially supplying mostly rural mission stations. Ten years later, the manufacturing process for solar water heaters was well established and the company now reckons to offer the widest range of specialized solar water heaters in the world. Capacities range from 75 litres to more than 5,000 litres, and models have been adapted for different roof types, water supplies and architectural requirements.
The company is expanding. Its workforce now numbers more than 100, and has set up a daughter company. Sonke is now looking for other ways to harness the Earth in sustainable ways to provide the energy and resources his country needs to develop. He has proven that his greatest natural resources are his intellect and motivation.
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"Energy References",107,0,0,0
\I50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth,\i the Earth Works Group, the Earth Works Press, Berkeley, \JCalifornia\j, 1989 - \I101 Ways to Really Save the World, BBC Wildlife Magazine's Ultimate Guide to Getting Involved,\i Baines, Chris, BBC Wildlife Magazine, March 1993 - \IA Primer on Environmental Citizenship,\i Environment Canada, \JOttawa\j 1993 - \IBioenergy and the Environment,\i Pasztor, Janos and Kristoferson, Lars A., Stockholm Environment Institute, Westview Press, USA 1990 - \IGreen Energy, Nucleus,\i the Union of Concerned Scientists, \JBoston\j, Mass., Fall 1993 - \IThe Financing of Electric Power Projects in the Developing Countries for the 1990s,\i Andrew Barnett, the World Bank, Washington, DC, 1994 - \IEnergy for a Sustainable World,\i Jose Goldemberg and Thomas B. Johansson, Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1988 - \IEnergy Options for Africa, Environmentally Sustainable Alternatives,\i Karekezi, Stephen and Mackenzie, Gordon A., Zed Books, London 1993 - \IA New Environmentally Sound Energy Strategy for the Development of Sub-Saharan Africa,\i African Energy Policy Research Network, \JNairobi\j, \JKenya\j, 1992 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with UNEP and the United Nations Development Program, Oxford University Press, 1994.
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"Waste Introduction",108,0,0,0
\B"Growing mountains of solid waste, including septic tank and sewage sludge, are a serious threat to surface water, ground water, the soil and the air." \b
\I--Agenda 21\i
Waste is unavoidable in any society, but now we produce more waste than ever before. The Age of Convenience is also the Age of Waste. Around the world, modern civilization has been stuffing its refuse into abandoned mines, canyons and even dumping it in the oceans. Some of it is being incinerated, releasing poisonous gases into the air. This problem is worse in the industrialized countries of the North than in the South, but with the spread of technology, industrialization and accompanying standards of living, the garbage factor is an unwelcome and often unnoticed side effect of "development."
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"Growing Heaps of Garbage in the Cities",109,0,0,0
By the year 2000, it is estimated that half of the world's 6.3 billion people will be living in cities. Over two billion are expected to reside in the metropolises of developing countries. In its 1991 report, The Challenge of the Environment, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) estimated that 720 billion tons of world urban wastes are produced annually, of which 440 billion tons - more than half - are generated by developed countries. "The problem in both industrialized and developing countries is twofold," the report declared. "People often are too wasteful in their production and consumption, and then pay too little attention to proper disposal of refuse."
Rapidly multiplying urban households also generate far more solid waste than local authorities can handle. According to the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), only between 25 and 55 per cent of all waste generated in large cities is collected by municipal authorities. Up to 95 per cent of the refuse is thrown into open dumps, which can render land unusable and endanger human health.
Management of wastes is a formidable challenge facing governments around the world. How to dispose of refuse economically and without degrading the environment is a problem shared by developed and developing countries alike. A lack of sufficient resources, however, severely limits the range of options open to cities in the developing world, where the disposal of solid wastes created by households and industries often consumes up to half of municipal budgets. Many have yet to install sewage and wastewater treatment plants.
Waste can have far-reaching and sometimes long-term and irreversible consequences for human health and the environment. Thus, its disposal and management must become a critical feature in future urban planning in developing countries. The volume of wastes created must also be reduced if the problem is to be solved.
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"Nuclear Waste Issues",110,0,0,0
The issue of nuclear waste is not directly related to communities and households. However, since the use of nuclear power is spreading throughout the world, it is an issue with which your community may be soon confronted. The information in this material regarding nuclear power is brief, and is meant only to provide some general information on the subject.
Since the invention of nuclear power in 1942, modern science has been seeking ways to properly dispose of the radioactive waste that is stockpiled around the planet. Irradiated uranium fuel from commercial nuclear power plants is among the most dangerous radioactive waste. According to the U.N. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the world's 413 commercial nuclear reactors produced 13 per cent of the world's electricity in 1991. In 1990, these reactors also created about 9,500 tons of irradiated fuel, bringing the world's waste accumulation of used fuel to 84,000 tons - twice as much as in 1985.
IAEA estimates that the total waste generated from all the nuclear reactors now operating or under construction worldwide will exceed 450,000 tons before the plants have all closed down in the middle of the next century. All of this waste, so far, is being stored in pools of water on location at the nuclear reactors. Governments around the world from China and \JFrance\j to England and the United States have been trying to develop a "safe" way to dispose of it. Some propose to bury it deep within the Earth with a marker warning future generations of the danger. The trouble is, the Earth moves so much over time that no one can accurately judge where or when volcanoes and earthquakes will take place. Only the process of natural decay, which takes hundreds of thousands or even millions of years, diminishes the \Jradioactivity\j of nuclear waste.
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"Toxic News",111,0,0,0
Only a small proportion of total human-produced waste is 'hazardous' (needing special handling or disposal to avoid harming health, the environment or both). Improper disposal of hazardous waste often results in tragedy. In the 1950s and 1960s, some 2,000 people at Minamata and Niigate, \JJapan\j, suffered crippling neurological diseases after eating fish poisoned by mercury wastes discharged into the sea. More than 400 of them died.
Worldwide, freshwater wells have often been contaminated by leaks from chemical dumps. Also, the building of housing estates-such as those at Love Canal, in the United States, and Lekkerkerk, in the Netherlands - on land where chemical waste has been dumped has resulted in mass evacuations and hundreds of millions of dollars in clean-up costs. While most of these problems have occurred in developed countries, the lessons can be learned by developing countries as they continue to industrialize and consequently produce more hazardous waste themselves.
In recent years, as controls on waste disposal have tightened in many countries, companies have begun to export hazardous wastes to countries which have better treatment facilities or less stringent regulations. Differences in national laws - and even in the definition of which wastes are hazardous - have made this traffic hard to monitor and left loopholes for unscrupulous operators. In 1984, 41 barrels of \Jdioxin\j waste turned up in an abandoned abattoir in \JFrance\j. They contained heavily contaminated waste materials from a chemical plant in the town of Seveso, \JItaly\j, resulting from a chemical accident in 1976. The scandal prompted the European Union to regulate trade in hazardous wastes between its members.
As well, hazardous waste from industrialized countries has ended up in many developing countries. Developed countries, producing more hazardous waste than could be legally disposed of within their own borders, often were willing to pay other countries to take it. Developing countries, desperate for foreign currency to purchase imports and pay debts, often took the waste, only to dispose of it in a haphazard and dangerous manner - sometimes leaving it out in the open near communities.
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"Seeking Solutions",112,0,0,0
Many governments are taking urgent steps to deal with their waste problem. China, for example, now offers tax breaks to companies that recycle wastes or use recycled products. The largest and most diverse of such companies is the Shanghai Resource Recovery and Utilization Company (SRRUC), which recycles garbage created by Shanghai's 13.5 million people. SRRUC received technical expertise under a UNDP-World Bank global resource recovery project. From waste materials, the company makes various products, including manhole covers and counterbalances for lifts and bridges.
Many governments, recognizing that they cannot manage wastes from a national level, have decentralized the task to local authorities and non-governmental organizations. For example, an NGO in the \JPhilippines\j, the Metro Manila Council of Women Balikatan Movement, has successfully organized households of San Juan to separate their wastes for recycling. In Mali, UNDP's project for Promotion of the Role of Women in Water and Environmental Sanitation Services (PROWWESS), together with other UN agencies, organized unemployed women college graduates as garbage collectors, hygiene trainers and family planning counselors. The women formed a garbage collection cooperative and won a municipal contract to clear trash from an area in \JBamako\j.
At the intergovernmental level, the Basil Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, was adopted at a conference attended by 116 states in \JBasel\j, \JSwitzerland\j, in March 1989. The Convention's aim is to encourage countries to cut back on the quantity and toxicity of the wastes they generate, to manage them in an environmentally-sound way, and to dispose of them safely and as near to the source of their generation as possible. The aim of the Convention is to ensure that any authorized traffic in hazardous waste that takes place is carefully controlled.
The Convention emphasizes that every country has the sovereign right to ban imports of hazardous waste altogether and that a party may not exchange wastes subject to the Convention with a non-party. It also requires industrialized countries to help developing countries to improve the management of the waste they produce.
To continue and expand the success of these examples there is a desperate need for greater responsibility among industries, community organizations and people regarding waste reduction, proper waste management and proper waste disposal. To get the waste problem under control, the citizens of the world need to take action as individuals, as families and as communities.
When making a commitment to reducing the planet's waste problem, it is important to understand the "cradle to grave perspective." This means taking into account the entire production process starting from the collection of raw material and its environmental impact, then on to the manufacturing process and its efficiency and energy use, then the product use, and finally disposal of the product. There are positive and negative impacts on the environment during all phases of the product life-cycle, from cradle to grave. It is important to understand that our buying decisions should take all these environmental impacts into account. As consumers, broadening our minds and improving our understanding of how used products must be disposed of should lead towards a change in our consumption patterns.
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"Taking Community Action",113,0,0,0
Communities, and community organizations, are in a perfect position to make a major impact on the amount of waste that is generated in their societies. The collective voices of your group can persuade government officials to notice the problem, and can influence industry to be more mindful of its responsibilities. Following are a few more ideas to consider when drawing up your own action plan:
\BCoordinate activities with other organizations.\b Work with international organizations and existing international networks to develop a permanent inventory of accidents, transportation routes and potential problems related to hazardous and nuclear waste including location, dates, perpetrators, solutions and outcomes.
\BPursue partnership with government.\b Work with local government to encourage evaluations and environmental impact studies prior to the implementation of any activity that generates waste of any kind. You also could encourage local, regional and national governments to establish legal, financial and monitoring mechanisms that guarantee the strict prohibition of imports or exports of wastes. Also, work with your local government to promote the separation of waste in the home in order to maximize the possibilities of recycling. Encourage your local and national governments to create comprehensive and effective waste management policies and regulations for your community and the country at large, in accordance with the highest international environmental and health standards.
\BMonitor waste activities in your community.\b Community organizations could monitor their country's policy of selling waste relocation permits to industries from other countries. If this is occurring in your country, help your government to find more sustainable alternatives for earning foreign exchange.
\BGet involved in education.\b Your community group could organize education campaigns through media or schools or even going door-to-door to inform the citizenry to change its values and lifestyles so that urban wastes can be reduced. You could promote local, regional and international educational campaigns aimed at reducing, reusing and recycling resources to the greatest extent possible.
Addressing the Individual
Actions at the individual level are important and should be encouraged by your community organization. Start with making sure that the members of your organization are doing all they can to minimize waste in their households. Following are some key areas in which an individual can take action to minimize his or her contribution to the waste stream. Some of the tips may be obviously more useful in developed countries while others are more aptly suited for developing countries.
As an individual, the first thing to do is to evaluate your life to see what areas are responsible for producing excessive waste. In this chapter are some ideas, but each individual action plan will depend on each person's unique situation.
\BCommunicate with your government.\b If there is a waste problem in your community, express your environmental concerns to local politicians through letters and lobbying. Support legislative initiatives that encourage industry to modify manufacturing processes to eliminate the production of hazardous and toxic wastes, and to reduce, reuse, and recycle what is produced.
\BBe a watchdog.\b Alert your local environmental protection agency to incidents of environmental abuse. You may see a truck dumping garbage illegally into a ditch beside the road. Record its license plate number and report it to the local authorities. Find out if there are harmful substances at production sites in your locality. If there are, join with local community members to ask the companies to reduce their use of toxic chemicals and waste production.
\BNotify the media of stories of environmental importance.\b Develop a rapport with journalists in your area, and let them know of any and all issues you know of concerning abuse of waste.
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"At Home",114,0,0,0
The best place for an individual to start is in the home. Our home is where we spend most of our time, and it is where we have the most control over how things are done. To begin with, you should conduct a household waste audit by determining what kind and what amount of materials are discarded each week. Following are a few ideas to get started:
\BAvoid disposable products.\b Products like paper or plastic cups and utensils, \Jcigarette\j lighters, razors and flashlights contribute tremendously to landfill problems.
\BWrite now, right now.\b Write letters to the local newspaper stating your feelings about consumption and waste. Write letters to companies telling them you will not buy their products unless they get their environmental act together.
\BReduce.\b Choose products that minimize waste. One of the most visible forms of waste we produce in modern society is packaging. This trend started in the developed world and has now unfortunately been adopted everywhere, as evidenced by the growing mounds of used packages in the outskirts of all urban areas in the developing world. Avoid buying items packaged in non-biodegradable plastic containers.
\BRecycle.\b Most household waste is potentially recyclable. The household contribution to recycling is a critical one involving basic changes in attitudes and habits. Many people are learning to treat their garbage as a resource and to separate the valuable components for processing. If your community does not yet collect recyclable material (glass, paper, aluminum and steel cans and plastic), then contact your local council and request that they start. Or, ask independent waste collection companies to begin this service. Find local groups or organizations that can use your recyclable material
\BReuse.\b Look for items that you can use for tasks other than that for which they were originally intended. Be creative. Bottles, for example, have been used as bricks, with cement, for building walls. Reusing prevents the item from entering the waste stream.
\BShop smart.\b Buy only the amount you need. Give preference to only those products that are recycled, recyclable, reliable, repairable, refillable and/or reusable. Also, use only those products that have long life or that can be repaired.
\BCompost organic wastes.\b If you have a garden or a farm, create and maintain a compost pile to produce organic \Jfertilizer\j from vegetable and fruit peels, leftovers, egg shells, \Jcoffee\j grounds, yard leaves, grass clippings, etc., and thus reduce the garbage that is thrown out. Composting is a means of recycling organic wastes such as leaves, grass clippings, and fruit and vegetable scraps by combining them in an open pile or a container so that they decompose through microbial action into \Jhumus\j. Since up to 30 per cent of household waste consists of organic wastes, composting makes good environmental and economic sense.
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"At Work",115,0,0,0
If you work in an office, there are many things you can do to ensure that your office is doing its share to protect the environment. When you work with a group of people, you have an ideal opportunity to help to educate your coworkers and your bosses about environmental issues.
Whatever line of work you are in, there are things you can do to improve the environmental performance of your company. Be sure to use your voice to suggest changes, improve facilities and adopt ecological policies. Also, encourage your company to support environmental projects in the community.
When making your office more environmentally friendly, get all your co-workers involved. Make sure that everyone is aware of the changes and why they are happening. If people feel involved in the process of change, they are more likely to want to participate fully, and take their environmental enthusiasm home. Following are a few ideas to get started:
\BDo double¡sided photocopies.\b Use paper which has already been printed on one side for rough or draft copies.
\BAvoid needless copies.\b Use a notice board or circulation system rather than individual photocopies.
\BTurn it off.\b If you are not planning to use equipment for a long period of time, switch it off.
\BGet your fax straight.\b Think twice before sending a fax, especially if you need to post a hard copy as well. Sending a fax uses paper at your end, and the other. Additionally, you may not need to use a whole page as a cover sheet; see if you can write the fax details on your document. This will save both paper and expense. Whenever possible, use e-mail instead of paper.
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"Turning Garbage into Gold in Egypt",116,0,0,0
\BA Success Story\b
The 20,000 people of Mokattam, a poor community in \JCairo\j, live mostly from the refuse of one of the world's largest cities. They collect 600 tons a day and turn 80 per cent of it into recyclable material which is sold to support the community. Clothing is shredded and turned into mattress filling, paper is recycled, aluminum is melted down. To facilitate the collection process, the organization was able to get the people of \JCairo\j to separate their garbage into organic and inorganic waste.
Though some people would consider such an occupation unworthy of attention, the people of Mokattam are proud. Everything they do is done with the dignity of a people who know they possess a trade that is increasingly valuable in a world that is running out of room for its garbage.
The Association for the Protection of the Environment is an Egyptian NGO based in \JCairo\j that has worked with the Mokattam community for ten years. There are more than 200 women and girls who work for the organization, producing everything from greeting cards and handbags to quilts and pillows from refuse. The products are exported around the world. The workers earn a regular wage and all profits are divided. Besides working, all women are given training in various skills including family planning, \Jliteracy\j and health. More than 400 women have been trained since 1984.
Aside from reducing the amount of waste that enters the landfills of \JCairo\j, the activity has numerous other environmental benefits. Project organizer Laila Iskandar, who attended the 1994 U.N. International Conference on Population and Development, says this form of community development is directly linked to reducing population. "Through the availability of education, heath, employment and economic independence, families naturally have fewer children," she said. Iskandar was given the prestigious Goldman Environmental Award for her efforts.
Contact:
The Association for the Protection of the Environment
31 Montazah Street
Heliopolis
Cairo, \JEgypt\j
Tel: (+20 2) 417-29-96
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"Waste References",117,0,0,0
\I50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth,\i The Earthworks Group, UK Edition. Great Britain: New English Library Paperbacks, 1990 - \IGuidelines for Action, Household Waste-Issues and Opportunities,\i CONCERN, Inc. 1992 - \IConfronting Nuclear Waste;\i Nicholas Lenssen; State of the World 1991; WW Norton and Company, Washington, DC, 1992 - \IDefusing the Toxics Threat: Controlling Pesticides and Industrial Waste,\i Postel, Sandra, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC, September 1987 - \IThe NGO Treaty on Waste,\i NGO Global Forum, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 - \INuclear Waste Disposal: Can the Geologist Guarantee Isolation?,\i G. de Marsily et al., Science, 5 August 1977 - \IRadioactive Waste: Politics, Technology and Risk,\i Ronnie D. Lipschutz, Ballinger, Cambridge, Mass., 1980 - \IWorld List of Nuclear Power Plants,\i Nuclear News, August 1991 - \IWays With Waste,\i Kane, Sid, World Development Magazine; United Nations Development Program "Wastes," \IUNEP Profile,\i United Nations Environment Program, \JNairobi\j, 1990 - \IWhat Individuals Can Do, Household Waste-Issues and Opportunities,\i Concern, Inc. Washington, DC, 1992.
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"Atmosphere Introduction",118,0,0,0
\B"The atmosphere knows no boundaries and the winds carry no passport."\b
\I--Sir Crispin Tickel \i
When you consider the size of the Earth and the vastness of space, the necessary environment for our survival - air - consists of only a very thin layer. This layer, called the atmosphere, is the collection of gases, vapour and particulates surrounding the Earth. Eighty per cent of its mass lies within the lowest layer, the \Jtroposphere\j, which extends to an altitude of between six and 17 kilometres above the Earth's surface, depending on the latitude and the season. The \Jstratosphere\j above it continues to about 50 kilometres.
In spite of its importance and the relatively small space occupied by the atmosphere, we humans are now filling it with pollutants such as chemicals, carbon and smog. Some of these substances, when amassed in significant quantities, can threaten life on Earth as we know it. The first part of this chapter presents the issues related specifically to the \Jtroposphere\j; the second part presents the problems associated with the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer, which shields life on Earth from the dangerous rays of the sun.
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"Troposphere, Pollution and Climate Change",119,0,0,0
The atmosphere acts as a system for \Jcycling\j and recycling carbon, \Jnitrogen\j, oxygen and \Jhydrogen\j, which are constituents of all living matter on Earth. About 99 per cent of the atmosphere is made up of \Jnitrogen\j and oxygen. Living things convert these elements into sources of carbohydrates and proteins for nourishment. Our atmosphere also protects us from the threats of meteorites, which for the most part burn up as they go through the atmosphere, and from invisible threats like harmful radiation.
The air we breathe is our basic life support system; we depend on it every minute of our life. Air normally consists of 78 per cent oxygen, 21 per cent \Jnitrogen\j and one per cent of assorted other gases. What we require from this air is oxygen.
Air \Jpollution\j comes in many forms, but four are particularly threatening: sulphur \Joxides\j, emitted mainly by power stations and industry; \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j, emitted by power stations, industry and vehicles; carbon monoxide, emitted mainly by vehicles; and soot and dust, known technically as suspended particulate matter (SPM), found everywhere where fuels are burnt. Industrialized countries produce most of the first three; and developing countries, which use much coal, wood and charcoal for
fuel, produce the most SPM.
In large-enough quantities, smog, largely a result of industrialization, poses a severe threat to animal, plant and human life. Smog is a chemical mixture of gases that forms a brownish-yellow haze, primarily over urban areas such as Los Angeles, \JBangkok\j and Mexico City. The airborne pollutant which makes up about 90 per cent of the smog found in many urban areas is ground¡level ozone. Other components of smog include \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j and volatile organic compounds, sulphur dioxide,
acidic aerosols and gases, and SPM.
Ground-level ozone is a result of a chemical reaction between several distinct forms of pollutants (nitrogen \Joxides\j and volatile organic compounds) and sunlight. When stagnant air masses linger over urban areas, the pollutants are held in place for long periods of time. Sunlight interacts with these pollutants, transforming them into ground-level ozone. The ozone remains in the lower atmosphere until weather systems flush out the area and dissipate it. An 'episode' of ground-level ozone can last from several hours to several days. Episodes are particularly severe in cities with high concentrations of \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j and volatile organic compounds during periods of warm weather.
These episodes can be very harmful to human health. The health authorities in many large cities issue warnings for people not to jog or to otherwise exert themselves outdoors during these periods. Long-term exposure can affect lung elasticity and the lungs' ability to resist disease, effectively ageing lungs prematurely. Some healthy adults and children begin to experience coughing, painful breathing and temporary loss of some lung function after about an hour or two of exercise during times of peak ozone concentrations.
Air \Jpollution\j affects more than human health. Monuments such as the Acropolis in \JAthens\j, the Coliseum in \JRome\j and the Taj Mahal in India have stood intact for thousands of years - but in this century are crumbling away because of acid rain and air \Jpollution\j. The blackened buildings of many cities, particularly those in Eastern Europe, stand testimony to our failure to control air \Jpollution\j and to clean up properly after it.
The good news is that, according to United Nations estimates, air \Jpollution\j has improved over the past two decades - in developed countries. The bad news is that it is deteriorating in many developing countries. To clean up their act, developed countries have invested heavily in technology. As a result, emissions of sulphur \Joxides\j in industrialized countries, during the past two decades, fell from 65 to 40 million tons a year. They have, however, increased in the rest of the world, which is now slowly industrializing.
UNEP's Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) monitors air \Jpollution\j at 175 sites in 75 countries. In a recent assessment of sulphur dioxide \Jpollution\j in 54 cities, GEMS reported that air quality is acceptable in 27 cities, marginal in 11 (including London, New York and Hong Kong) and unacceptable in 16 (including Rio de Janeiro, Paris and Madrid). Dust and soot levels were acceptable in eight cities, marginal in 10 (including Toronto and Sydney) and unacceptable in 23 (including \JBangkok\j, Tehran and Rio de Janeiro).
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"Climate Change",120,0,0,0
The weather changes on a fairly regular pattern everywhere on Earth. There is variation, but range of temperatures, the amount of rain and other aspects of the weather such as monsoonal winds are similar from one year to the next. This is what is referred to as climate, which affects all aspects of life. The climate regulates the cycles of plants and animals, affects their growth and vitality, and is a principal factor in determining how they distribute themselves around the globe.
The Earth's climate is influenced by radiant energy from the sun, and by the way that energy is reflected, absorbed and re-radiated by the ground, oceans, and atmosphere. Because of a delicate interplay of numerous planetary forces, a balance is maintained between the solar energy that enters the atmosphere, and the energy that leaves it. Variations in temperature, rainfall, winds and other phenomena are caused by internal and often apparently random workings of Earth's climate system, involving interactions among the atmosphere, snow and ice, oceans and land. Sometimes sudden changes occur in the planet's climate system due to natural circumstances. Major volcanic eruptions are one example of this type of influence on our climate system. Large eruptions emit substances into the \Jstratosphere\j, which block sunlight and temporarily cool the Earth's surface.
Like a greenhouse, the earth is warmed when sunlight is absorbed by the planet and transformed into heat. Much of that heat eventually escapes into space through the Earth's atmosphere. However, carbon dioxide and some other gases in the atmosphere have the ability to absorb and re-radiate this heat. Studies of the greenhouse effect have given scientists clues as to why surface temperatures of the Earth have changed over geologic time. They also explain the reasons for differences in surface temperatures on Venus, Mars and Earth. Without its natural atmospheric heat trap, the Earth's average surface temperatures would be about 30░C cooler than at present. If that were the case, life on this planet would indeed be very different.
Because climate change is such a complex issue, there is not enough concrete evidence to scientifically prove that it is occurring. However, most of the international scientific community now believes the human-caused buildup of gases in the atmosphere will ultimately lead to an enhanced warming of the Earth's surface and to significant changes in regional climates. For the first time in history, human activities are capable of altering the climate patterns around which societies are built and upon which the economic infrastructures and cultural activities of nation-states so vitally depend.
Emissions of carbon dioxide, \Jmethane\j, \Jchlorofluorocarbons\j, halons and nitrous oxide are rapidly increasing the concentrations of natural greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in a human-induced greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is the single most influential greenhouse gas and, over the last century, has contributed almost two-thirds of the potential increase in the greenhouse effect. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the presence in the earth's atmosphere of 280 parts per million (ppm) of carbon dioxide from natural causes, together with water vapour, helped determine the equilibrium temperature of our planet. Human emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases were insignificant. Today, however, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have reached over 350 ppm, a 25 per cent increase over pre-industrial times. Half of this buildup has been added in the past 30 years.
On a per-molecule basis, the global warming potential of \Jmethane\j is about 25 to 30 times greater than that of carbon dioxide. Ice core data show that \Jmethane\j concentrations have approximately doubled over the past two centuries, and that concentrations are currently higher than at any time during the past 160,000 years. A large part of the \Jmethane\j increase is related to agriculture. Rice paddies and domestic animals (mainly \Jcattle\j and sheep) are thought to be the largest sources related to human activity, although natural gas production and delivery, coal production, landfills and biomass combustion also contribute substantially.
Because of these human-caused gases, the changing of the atmospheric processes that determine climate is taking place at a rate that is faster than has ever occurred in the Earth's known history. The level of these emissions is continuing to increase due to the rapid industrialization in many parts of the world.
Because of the uncertainties inherent in climate models and in projecting future emissions levels, predictions of future warming due to greenhouse gases are highly uncertain. Future emission levels will be tied to future population and economic growth, technological developments and government policies, all of which are notoriously difficult to project.
What is fairly well understood is that global warming will cause increased water vapour, and the melting of snow and ice. As temperatures increase, the air will hold more water vapor which in itself contributes to the greenhouse effect. As a result of global warming, climate models predict that the planet could eventually warm by an average of about 0.8 to 2.4 degrees \JCelsius\j. The best predictions of the impacts to expect from this tell us that, in addition to warmer global-averaged temperatures, many physical and biological systems will be affected. Some areas of the planet could experience catastrophic consequences. One international scientific assessment concluded that a warming of 1.5 to 4.5 degrees \JCelsius\j would cause a rise in global sea levels of 40 to 120 centimetres by the end of the next century. Such a sea-level rise would submerge many small islands, cause flooding in many coastal areas, cause salt water to enter into fresh water aquifers and destroy commercially important fishing areas.
Based on predictions of related climate variables, scientists have suggested that warming could also increase more intense or more frequent storms, including hurricanes (typhoons) and thunderstorms. Maximum sustainable hurricane intensity is a strong function of sea surface temperature and, hence, would increase with global warming. Though few hurricanes reach maximum intensity, some could be much more damaging in a warmer climate. Moreover, the region where hurricanes commonly occur could expand.
While the precise effects of climate change have yet to be determined, what is certain is that societal stresses resulting from any changes in natural climate systems will affect the economic, social and political fabric of nations around the world. What also is certain is that the productive \Jinfrastructure\j built during the next decade will determine the kinds and quantities of emissions that are released during the next sixty to one hundred years. Thus, choices made in a variety of economic sectors today will shape the character of the global climate for decades to come.
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"Causes of Acid Rain",121,0,0,0
Acid rain is a direct consequence of industrial activity. Sulphur dioxide rises from burning fossil fuels and reacts with water to produce sulfuric acid. As well, the nitrous \Joxides\j found in \Jpollution\j are converted into nitric acid. These substances then fall to Earth as rain and snow. The landing area of acid rain is affected by weather patterns and wind. Acid rain might fall up to 500 kilometres away from where it was actually produced.
Sulfuric and nitric acids are detrimental to all plant life. Acid precipitation burns plants, causing them to turn yellow and die. If this phenomenon occurs in a concentrated area, entire forests, and the life they support, can be killed. Because of acid rain, forests are now dying in several industrialized regions of the world, including \JGermany\j, Scandinavia, India, \JRussia\j, China, Canada and the United States.
Acid rain also destroys the ecological system of lakes and rivers. In some countries, because of acid rain, there are lakes where no ecological life can exist and where human recreational activities are prohibited. In regions where people depend on fish for survival, acid rain can cause many serious problems.
Aside from killing off entire ecosystems, acid rain also is causing the \Jcorrosion\j of several important national treasures and buildings as well as the weathering of structures vital to transportation systems, such as bridges.
Measurements over large areas of North America and Europe have shown that rain is often ten times more acidic there than normal. Thousands of lakes have been affected in Canada, Scandinavia, Scotland and the United States-and in many of them all fish have been killed. While acid rain used to be a problem only in developed countries, the issue is emerging in countries such as \JBrazil\j, China, India, and \JJamaica\j.
The problem of acid rain is an example of the interconnectedness of all environmental issues. It starts out as a waste problem (carbon emissions), then turns into an atmospheric problem (carbon and chemicals in the air), and then finally ends up a \Jforestry\j and land-use problem (deforestation and \Jdesertification\j due to dying forests), as well as a water problem (high acid levels in lakes).
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"Stratospheric Ozone Layer",122,0,0,0
The subject of ozone is confusing to many people. Those who live in big cities are all too familiar with the warnings of "high ozone" levels in the air. At the same time, we hear about the dangers of losing ozone, or the "hole in the ozone layer" far above us in the \Jstratosphere\j. One minute scientists are telling us we have too much, the next they are warning us that we are in danger of losing it.
The fact is, there are two "types" of ozone. Their molecules are exactly the same, but their presence in different places brings very different consequences. Ground-level ozone is a pollutant and is harmful to human health. The presence of ozone in the \Jstratosphere\j, in contrast, blocks most harmful solar radiation from reaching the Earth.
Ozone is a form of oxygen, similar to that which we breathe. The oxygen we breathe is made up of two oxygen molecules (O2), while ozone consists of three atoms of oxygen bound together (O3). Approximately 90 per cent of all ozone is produced naturally in the \Jstratosphere\j, the greatest concentration occurring at an altitude of about 25 kilometers from the Earth's surface. This band of ozone¡rich air is known as the "stratospheric ozone layer." Without this layer, it would be very difficult for us to live on Earth. The unique physical properties of ozone allow it to act as our planet's sunscreen, providing an invisible filter to help protect all life forms from the sun's damaging ultraviolet rays.
Based on data collected since the 1950s, scientists have determined that stratospheric ozone levels were relatively stable until the late 1970s, when severe depletion began to appear over the Antarctic. A general downturn in global ozone levels has been observed since the early 1980s.
The primary culprits in the attack on the ozone layer are \Jchlorofluorocarbons\j (CFCs) and halons. These two elements are complex synthetic compounds that contain carbon and one or more of the halogen elements - \Jfluorine\j, \Jchlorine\j, bromine or \Jiodine\j.
For decades after the development of CFCs by Dow Chemical, they were considered the perfect chemicals. However, it is their very stability that made these substances dangerous to the ozone layer. Such industrial halocarbons are effective ozone¡depleters for two reasons. The first is that they are not reactive, which means they survive long enough in the atmosphere to drift up into the \Jstratosphere\j. The second is that they assist the natural reactions that destroy ozone.
Once they reach the \Jstratosphere\j, Ultra Violet-C radiation (UVC) breaks up the halocarbons into \Jchlorine\j (from CFCs, methyl \Jchloroform\j, carbon tetrachloride) or bromine (from halons, methyl bromide). Each \Jchlorine\j atom then attaches itself to an ozone molecule, forcing it to break up into an oxygen and a \Jchlorine\j molecule. The sunlight then breaks this one up, again freeing the \Jchlorine\j atom to attack more ozone molecules. A single \Jchlorine\j atom can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules before it finally forms a stable compound and diffuses out of the \Jstratosphere\j. Bromine acts in a similar manner.
CFCs are widely used as coolants in refrigeration and air conditioners, as solvents in degreasers and cleaners, and as a blowing agent in the production of \Jfoam\j. CFCs also are used for cleaning electrical circuit boards. Today, emissions of CFCs account for roughly 80 per cent of total stratospheric ozone depletion.
Methyl bromide, which has been used as a \Jpesticide\j since the 1960s, is said to be responsible for approximately five to 10 per cent of the depletion. Halons, which are used primarily as fire suppressants, account for only about five per cent of global ozone depletion, but the atmospheric concentration of these potent, long-lived ozone destroyers is rising by an estimated 11-15 per cent annually. Another ozone destroyer is carbon tetrachloride, which is used as an industrial solvent, an agricultural fumigant, and in many other industrial processes including petrochemical refining. Methyl \Jchloroform\j, an industrial solvent used primarily to clean metal and electronic parts, also is yet another substance that threatens the ozone layer.
Unlike most chemicals released into the atmosphere at the Earth's surface, industrial halocarbons are not "washed" back to earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with other chemicals. What's worse, they can remain in the atmosphere for from 20 to 120 years or more, wreaking havoc on the ozone layer every day of their existence.
Debate over the ozone layer first began in 1974, when researchers at the University of \JCalifornia\j at Irvine identified CFC emissions as the cause for the thinning of the ozone layer. In 1985, a "hole" in the ozone layer was discovered above \JAntarctica\j. This created widespread concern. Data provided by NASA and other agencies have showed conclusively that ozone levels fall by more than 60 per cent over the South Pole during the spring months.
This hole is at times as big as the United States, and has been growing most years since 1979. Similar drops are now being recorded in the northern hemisphere, and the damage does not stop there: according to recent data from UNEP, ozone levels have also diminished, by five per cent, over the middle latitudes, where New York and Madrid are situated, and may eventually show the greatest degree of disintegration over the equator.
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"What Happens on Earth as a Result of Ozone Depletion",123,0,0,0
When the stratospheric ozone diminishes, it allows increased UV-B (Ultra Violet-B) radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Life on Earth has evolved to tolerate normal levels of this radiation. However, exposure to UV-B radiation levels beyond the tolerable levels can cause numerous problems and could threaten the very survival of many species of life.
Although fair-skinned, fair-haired individuals are at the highest risk for skin cancer, the risk for all skin types increases with exposure to UV-B radiation. Studies predict that a one per cent drop in ozone could cause a four to six per cent rise in the number of cases of the two most common types of skin cancer. The present situation could place humans living in countries near the South Pole, such as those living in southern Argentina and \JChile\j, in a position of increased risk. If the ozone hole continues to grow, most of the world's population could eventually be subjected to an increased risk of skin cancer.
A related but less understood problem that arises out of increased UV-B radiation exposure is the possible suppression of the human immunity system. The resulting lower immunity could make it difficult for the body to fight off infectious diseases and cancers.
Most agricultural crops are also very sensitive to UV-B radiation. Increased levels of this radiation will break down the leaves of crops, decreasing the efficiency of \Jphotosynthesis\j and water-use. Simulated ozone loss studies show that ozone loss of 25 per cent reduces the crop yield by 25 per cent. In the long-run, ozone depletion could reduce the productivity of many of the world's most important crops, making it difficult to meet the world's food needs.
One type of life shown to be particularly vulnerable to radiation exposure is \Jphytoplankton\j. \JPhytoplankton\j form the basis for the entire food chain in the oceans. These aquatic organisms are dependent on light and must live near the water's surface. Blue whales, the largest creatures on Earth, exist from digesting \Jphytoplankton\j, the smallest creatures on Earth.
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"Good News on Ozone",124,0,0,0
The atmospheric growth rates of ozone layer-destroying chemicals such as CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl \Jchloroform\j and halons are slowing down, in large measure due to the success of companies around the world to find and use alternatives.
In January 1994, for example, the MISR \JFoam\j Company in \JEgypt\j phased out 150 tonnes of CFC-11 as a blowing agent for its slabstock and molded \Jfoam\j. The substitute technology for the molded \Jfoam\j uses the water-blown system, rather than the previous chemically-based system. Before the new technology was implemented, MISR \JFoam\j Company accounted for 14 per cent of CFC consumption in \JEgypt\j in the \Jfoam\j sector.
In Sweden, Integralteknik, a manufacturer of polyurethane integral skinned foams, phased out its use of HCFC, a harmful ozone layer-destroying chemical. Its products are often used in medical applications, and sometimes as \Jinsulation\j. As a substitute, the company began using a pentane-based formula that was developed by a Danish company, Baxenden Scandinavia. Integralteknik discovered that the new material, besides being friendlier to the environment, also produced a stronger, tear-resistant product.
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"Protect Yourself",125,0,0,0
While doing everything we can to stop the problem from getting worse, we need to protect ourselves and our families from the effects of ultraviolet radiation. A few simple considerations:
Keep sun exposure to a minimum, especially between the hours of 10:00 AM and 3:00 PM when the sun's rays are the most intense.
Wear wide¡brimmed hats, Ultraviolet blocking sunglasses, and long-sleeved shirts and pants.
Wear sunscreen with a Sun Protection Factor of 15 or greater on any exposed skin. Reapply every hour or after swimming or strenuous activity.
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"Seeking Solutions to Combat Smog, Global Warming and Acid Rain",126,0,0,0
It is clear that the manner in which we think of development should be profoundly altered by the realization that our planet's atmosphere is under siege, a major result of which will be, most probably, an unprecedented climate warming and sea-level rise. Avoiding these catastrophes will require a fundamental change in the way development proceeds in both the developed and the developing worlds. Energy efficiency and increased use of renewable sources of energy must be the cornerstones of all economic development.
The solutions to the problems caused by the greenhouse effect centre upon two key areas: the reduction of gaseous emissions and international cooperation and education. Because ground¡level ozone (and smog in general) results from a combination of pollutants, heat and sunlight, the most effective way of combating it is to reduce the emissions of these pollutants (nitrogen \Joxides\j and volatile organic compounds). Since the main sources of \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j and volatile organic compounds are vapours from hazardous products and the combustion of fossil fuels by vehicles and industry, the best way to reduce smog is to be conservative and efficient in our use of these resources.
The world has taken several steps forward in its attempts to deal with atmospheric \Jpollution\j problems. Many countries have introduced tougher laws, changed to cleaner fuels and installed \Jpollution\j control equipment. In this way \JBulgaria\j, for example, managed to reduce emissions of suspended particulate matter by 1.6 million tons a year during 1976-80. Similar reductions have been made in many industrialized countries and in some developing ones, including \JSingapore\j. A witness to all this effort is the sales of \Jpollution\j control equipment, which stood at US $12.7 billion in 1991 - more than double the expenditure of ten years previously.
During the 1980s, two new international protocols were signed which limit emissions of sulphur and \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j. At the Earth Summit in 1992, most countries agreed on a Convention on Climate Change, to reduce emissions of carbon and other greenhouse gases. After 14 months of complex negotiations, the Convention was signed at the Earth Summit by more than 150 governments. This wide acceptance was a real achievement and represents our best long-term hope for dealing effectively with the risk of man-made climate change.
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"Taking Community Action to Combat Smog, Global Warming and Acid Rain",127,0,0,0
Governments and international organizations are doing a lot to address smog, global warming and acid rain. Governments, however, can not solve the problems on their own. While much needs to be accomplished at a policy level, real action must take place at the community level. One of the primary hurdles your organization will have to deal with in its efforts to address atmospheric problems in your community is that there is a lack of awareness concerning the issues and insufficient knowledge of alternative actions for those concerned about the topic. Organizations could promote awareness of the issues and facilitate improved education for those concerned about them. One idea is to organize seminars bringing different sectors of society together (developed countries, developing countries, youth, business, scientists and politicians). A few more ideas include:
\BPublish.\b Produce a magazine on the environment, highlighting problems and solutions, and provide a forum for opinions.
\BEstablish task forces.\b Establish task forces to actively involve community members in these issues. These task forces also should inform the relevant authorities of community views on the issue.
\BPlant trees.\b New forests can assist in removing some of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Economic incentives, government regulation and public participation can all play a role in facilitating reforestation and \Jafforestation\j.
\BPursue partnership with your government.\b There are a number of legislative goals that could potentially contribute to reducing emissions of greenhouse gases and all forms of atmospheric \Jpollution\j. Work with your government to set national standards, guidelines and goals to limit the emissions of carbon dioxide, CFCs, \Jmethane\j and nitrous oxide in your community. Work to identify and eliminate existing national policies that work against reductions in greenhouse gases. Also, persuade your government to reexamine national economic, development, tax, and research policies in order to minimize or remove incentives for increased use of fossil fuels. You could encourage your government to impose greenhouse gas emission fees, or carbon-based fuel user fees, on utilities using fossil fuels. You could also encourage your government to establish tax credits for investments in selected low- or non-emitting technologies.
\BGet involved in education.\b See if your local college can establish a training course to teach your country's professionals the technologies and strategies available to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sectors of the economy.
\BGet down to business.\b Industry contributes substantially to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide and CFCs. The worst activities are energy-intensive industrial processes which consume fossil fuels and electricity. In addition, some of these industries generate greenhouse gases in non-combustion processes, either directly or as a by-product of their manufacturing processes. Contact those industries that are polluting and let them know that your organization is concerned.
\BConserve energy.\b The electric power sector is a significant source of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions, often in high concentration relative to other economic sectors. Promote the use of non-fossil energy, such as passive and active solar, wind, and biomass, for space heating, water heating, and other applications. See the chapter on energy for more information on this issue.
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"Addressing the Individual to Combat Smog, Global Warming and Acid Rain",128,0,0,0
Actions at the individual level are important and should be encouraged by your community organization. Individuals can help reduce smog formation by reducing activities that cause or require the emission of \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j and volatile organic compounds. The most obvious opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions are in improving the efficiency with which we meet our energy needs at home and at work.
\BUse alternative transportation.\b Whenever possible, walk, cycle or use mass transit.
\BDrive within the speed limit.\b Optimum fuel economy is reached when driving from 50 to 70 km/h. If you are traveling on a bus or taking a taxi, encourage the driver to stay within the speed limits for the same reason (as well as for that of your personal safety).
\BPlant trees.\b When planting trees on personal property, plant deciduous trees next to the wall that receives the most sunlight in warm weather. The trees will shade the building from the sun in warm weather yet allow heat from the sun into the building during cold weather. If they are indigenous to your region, plant evergreen, or coniferous trees on the side receiving the least sun to shield the building from cold winds.
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"Seeking Solutions to Combat Stratospheric Ozone Depletion",129,0,0,0
Ten years after the University of \JCalifornia\j discovered that stratospheric ozone loss was a problem, the world community agreed in 1985 to protect the ozone layer in the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. According to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which they signed two years later in 1987, developed countries must phase out CFC production by 1996. Developing countries that have signed the Protocol have a ten-year grace period to give them time to switch technologies and to stop the use of these substances. The Protocol has also set up a special fund to provide technical and financial assistance to these countries.
Replacing CFCs and halons in businesses and industries around the world has substantial financial implications. But taking this action is far less costly than the consequences of taking no action at all. The governments of the world are working hard to make changes at a policy level, but there may not be enough time for the process to take its course. Thus, it is again up to the community to take action and make a difference.
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"Taking Community Action for Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion",130,0,0,0
Governments and international organizations are doing a lot to address to the problem of the deteriorating stratospheric ozone layer. Governments, however, can not solve the problem on their own. While much needs to be and is being accomplished at a policy level, real action must take place at the community level if the problem is to be stopped. One of the primary hurdles your organization will have to deal with in its efforts to address atmospheric problems in your community is that there is a lack of awareness concerning the ozone layer. One idea is to organize seminars bringing different sectors of society together. A few more ideas include:
\BIncrease public awareness.\b To combat ozone depletion and achieve sustainable development in general, it is crucial to change, and to influence others to change existing values and behaviour. Organizations can play an important role in distributing information regarding the characteristics of certain products, such as the effects of CFC emissions and a list of CFC-containing products and their specific effects. One effective way to increase public awareness is by organizing seminars addressed to a defined target group and focused on a specific set of issues. Such seminars could be done in connection with other public events.
\BInform the public about government.\b Politicians have the greatest influence on local, national or international strategies towards sustainable development. Therefore, organizations should obtain information on government representatives and each political candidate's individual approach to local, national or even international environmental issues. This approach is particularly powerful during election times. Organizations could initiate and run educational programs on matters dealing with environmental questions and, in particular, atmospheric problems.
\BPursue partnership with your government.\b In large measure, the problem of ozone depletion needs to be addressed at a policy level of government. Governments are taking action to combat ozone loss with the Conventions, but the process is slow. Anything your community could do to work with your government in this field would be greatly beneficial. Lobbying is a very important tool to use in influencing the decisions made by government, industry and the media. Letters, personal visits, petitions and posters can be used to convey the message. The effectiveness of your lobbying will be increased if other organizations besides your own participate in the movement.
\BGet involved in education.\b All people should be informed about the dangers of ozone layer loss, but the education of women in particular could play an effective role in combating ozone depletion because women often determine the buying patterns of a household. In order to change these buying patterns, information should be distributed on product that cause stratospheric ozone depletion, as well as information on other environmentally harmful products.
\BGet down to business.\b Industry can also be lobbied to reduce its reliance on ozone depleting substances and to donate funds for environmental issues and research. Media can be encouraged to report on environmental issues and engage in investigative journalism to uncover industries that emit ozone-depleting chemicals. Increasing numbers of governments and industries now operate or fund research programs that are designed to reduce and ultimately eliminate production and use of all ozone-destroying chemicals and to retrieve, recycle, and safely destroy them. All information obtained in this way should be made freely available so that it will not be necessary for all countries to conduct research on all aspects of ozone protection. Through international cooperation, this problem will be solved.
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"Addressing the Individual for Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion",131,0,0,0
Actions at the individual level are important and should be encouraged by your community organization. Following are some key areas in which an individual can take action to minimize his or her contribution to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer. Some of the tips may be obviously more useful in the developed countries while others are more aptly suited for developing countries.
The best strategy for taking action to combat ozone destruction is to avoid purchasing products that contain ozone depleters. Ask before you purchase fire extinguishers, \Jfoam\j products, refrigerators and air conditioners. Refuse to purchase products containing ozone¡depleters if alternatives are available. Write companies still using these chemicals and voice your concerns.
In some cases, however, consumer products containing ozone¡depleters are already in use in our homes and offices and cannot be easily replaced. It is necessary in this case to take proper care of this equipment to ensure that the CFCs they contain are never released to the \Jstratosphere\j. A few more ideas include:
\BMaintain home and car air conditioners.\b Leaky car air conditioners are one of the primary sources of CFCs that enter into the atmosphere.
\BAvoid \Jpolystyrene\j plastics.\b When \Jpolystyrene\j breaks or is melted, it releases CFCs into the atmosphere which destroy the ozone layer.
\BAvoid dry cleaning.\b Restrict the number of clothes you buy that require dry-cleaning. The chemicals used in the dry-cleaning process contribute greatly to the loss of ozone.
\BTake care of your refrigerator.\b If you dispose of a broken refrigerator, make sure that you bring it to a reclamation centre where CFCs can be reclaimed.
#
"Atmosphere References",132,0,0,0
\IAt the Crossroads: the Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol,\i Friends of the Earth International, London, 1992 - \IA Matter of Degrees: a Primer on Global Warming,\i Environment Canada, \JOttawa\j, 1993 - \IA Primer on Ozone Depletion;\i Environment Canada, \JOttawa\j, 1993 - \IBrundtland Bulletin,\i No. 9/10, The Centre for Our Common Future, \JSwitzerland\j, 1990 - \ICatching Our Breath: Next Steps for Reducing Urban Ozone;\i U.S. Department of Commerce National Technical Information Service, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, July 1989 - \IChoices, the Human Development Magazine,\i United Nations Development Program, New York, April 1992 - \IGlobal Warming and Global Development, Change: Threat or Opportunity?,\i Obasi, G.O.P, United Nations Publications, 1992 - \IGlobal Warming: The Greenpeace Report;\i M. Woodwell; Oxford University Press; 1990 - \IGlobal Climate Change - Resolution and Strategies,\i Interparliamentary Conference on the Global Environment, May, 1990 - \IThird World Guide 91/92;\i Instituto del Tercer Mundo; 1990 - \IThe United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,\i the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, June, 1992 - \IRational Ecology,\i Basil Blackwell Inc., New York, 1987 - \IOzone Depletion Resolution;\i The Interparliamentary Conference on the Global Environment, May, 1990 - Lacoste, Beatrice; \ISaving our Ozone Shield;\i Our \JPlanet\j (UNEP) Volume 4, Number 4 1992 - \IMending the Ozone Hole,\i Gurney, K., Institute for Energy and Environmental Research. \JTacoma\j, Wash., 1992 - \IHandbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,\i United Nations Environment Program, \JNairobi\j, 1991 - \IReport on the Aerosols Products, Sterilants, Miscellaneous Uses and Carbon Tetrachloride Technical Options Committee,\i United Nations Environment Program, \JNairobi\j, 1991.
#
"Biodiversity Introduction",133,0,0,0
\B"When the animals come to us, asking for our help, will we know what they are saying? When the plants speak to us in their delicate language, will we be able to answer them? When the planet herself sings to us in our dreams, will we be able to wake ourselves, and act?"\b
\I-- Gary Lawless \i
The diversity of \Jbiology\j on Earth is a complex tapestry of activity interacting in a symbiotic interdependency that is at once beautiful, wondrous and mysterious. It is said that there are more species of life on Earth than stars in the visible universe. Conservative estimates put the number at up to 100 million. Of these, only about 1.7 million plants, animals and microorganisms have so far been discovered and given names. We are but one of these species.
The greatest diversity of biological life, or "biodiversity" as it is commonly referred to, is in developing countries. This is because developed countries have destroyed many natural habitats, and because tropical countries, most of which are not industrialized, are more species-rich. Tropical forests are known to contain roughly half of the \Jbiodiversity\j of the entire planet. In one 15-hectare section of \JBorneo\j rain forest, for example, approximately 700 species of trees have been identified - the equivalent of the total number of tree species in North America.
Most of the Earth is covered by water, where many forms of life live. The deep sea floor has only been partially studied and is now proving to be extremely rich in \Jbiodiversity\j, containing as many as an estimated ten million species, most of which are undescribed. In the freshwater lakes of South America, an estimated 40 per cent of all freshwater fishes have not yet been classified.
Such diversity took millions of years to reach its present, rich and incredibly complex and balanced state. It is now, in our lifetime, threatened with massive devastation, because of human activity. Similar to other global ecological problems, species \Jextinction\j is proceeding rapidly. Unlike many other environmental problems, however, it is completely irreversible. \JExtinction\j is forever.
The loss of \Jbiodiversity\j is directly related to every problem discussed in this material. From overpopulation to deforestation, our activity is threatening the existence of the other species with which we share this Earth. The predominant causes for the loss of \Jbiodiversity\j and the degradation of biological resources include large-scale clearing and burning of forests, destruction of \Jcoral\j reefs, destructive fishing practices, overharvesting of plants and animals, the illegal trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora, indiscriminate use of pesticides, draining and filling of wetlands, air \Jpollution\j, and the conversion of wildlands to agricultural and urban uses.
Many of these causes are themselves symptoms of much deeper problems. In many cases, the root causes for the loss of \Jbiodiversity\j are found in basic economic, demographic and political trends. These root causes include consumption and consequent market demands for commodities such as tropical hardwoods, wildlife, fibre and agricultural products. Population growth is another key factor. The growing human population, even without proportional economic growth, places increasing demands on natural resources and \Jecosystem\j processes that are already impoverished and stressed. Settlement policies, such as those in \JBrazil\j, promote the movement of the growing unemployed labor forces to frontier regions. Global debt also creates an economic environment that is not conducive to the preservation of \Jbiodiversity\j. The debt burden often forces governments in many developing countries to encourage the production of cash crops that can earn foreign exchange. Energy policies also encourage inefficiency in many countries of the world, and in so doing add to the burden of air pollutants and the risk of substantial global climate change.
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"Medicinal and Industrial Uses of Biodiversity",134,0,0,0
More than 60 per cent of the world's people depend directly on plants for their medicines. The Chinese, for example, use more than 5,000 of the estimated 30,000 identified domestic species of plants for medicinal purposes. In the West, the great majority of medicines owe their existence to research on the natural products that organisms produce. More than 40 per cent of all prescriptions written in the United States contain one or more drugs that originate from wild species (fungi, bacteria, plants and animals).
Wild plant and animal species also have high commercial value other than for medicine. They are of great and increasing importance to industry as sources of \Jtannins\j, resins, gums, oils, dyes and other commercially useful compounds. The potential for new industrial products from currently unknown or poorly known plant and animal species is significant. Such products may even include \Jhydrocarbons\j that could replace \Jpetroleum\j as a source of energy. As an example of this, a tree that grows only in northern \JBrazil\j produces 20 litres of sap per tree every six months. This sap can be used directly as a fuel in diesel engines. \JBrazil\j also produces \Jmethane\j from corn, which it then sells at service stations for use in cars. Producing and using \Jmethane\j saves the country millions of dollars in foreign currency every year that it would otherwise have to spend on importing oil.
Since time immemorial, humanity has used genetic \Jbiodiversity\j in the development of varieties of domesticated plants and animals for use in agriculture, \Jforestry\j, animal husbandry, and \Jaquaculture\j. Farmers are also able to take advantage of genetic \Jbiodiversity\j by planting numerous varieties of crops as a hedge against total crop failure. In one example, Andean farmers plant several varieties of potatoes and as a result can count on a successful harvest almost regardless of what the weather is like.
Though the economic benefits of \Jbiodiversity\j are obvious, to date there has been little systematic screening of wild plant species for products that can be used by modern society. In the future, hitherto unknown plant compounds may become valuable as new technologies and inventions emerge. What we don't know today can hurt us tomorrow. The unlabelled products of our global warehouse may some day offer food and medicine to distant generations.
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"Biodependence",135,0,0,0
The importance of biological diversity is usually presented from a strictly utilitarian standpoint - that is, what is in it for us. However, the ethical rationale for preserving the biological diversity of the planet may be even more fundamental. Speaking to the Interparliamentary Conference on the Global Environment, Walter Reid of the World Resources Institute remarked that when we speak of the need to "set aside" wilderness areas or provide "stewardship" for federal lands, we portray nature as though it will continue to exist only by the grace of our permission. "Although we increasingly view the survival of other life on earth to be something quite separate from our own existence, we should acknowledge that this dichotomous view which separates humanity from all other life is neither shared by all cultures, nor has a long history even in western thought," he said.
According to Reid, humanity is far more than a steward of nature - we are dependent upon the natural world. "This concept of 'biodependence' is far from a guiding principle of action in the modern world, but it is nonetheless a basic truth," he said. "Thus, a fundamental rationale for the conservation of biological diversity is that \Jbiodiversity\j is inseparable from humanity. From the standpoint of our relationship to other species on earth, and from the standpoint of our relationship to future human generations, we have a moral - as well as utilitarian - responsibility to maintain the planet's richness of species and genetic diversity."
#
"Seeking Solutions to Preserve Biodiversity",136,0,0,0
When governments approved the World Charter for Nature at the United Nations in 1982, they agreed that all species and habitats should be safeguarded to the extent that it is technically, economically and politically feasible. Ten years later, as one of the five pillars of the historic Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the world agreed to legislate action to combat the destruction of biological diversity. Winning overwhelming approval, the governments in Rio signed the Convention on Biological Diversity, and then took the document home to ratify it in their respective legislatures.
The Convention, among other things, requires that countries adopt regulations to conserve their biological resources. It establishes the legal responsibility of governments for the environmental impact in other countries of activities by their private corporations and encourages the transfer of technology to developing countries. It also sets forth the regulation of biotechnology firms, and ensures access to and ownership of genetic material. Most importantly for developing countries, the Convention mandates compensating developing countries for the extraction of their genetic materials.
Since government policies often contribute to the depletion of biological resources, policy changes are a necessary first step toward ensuring the conservation of \Jbiodiversity\j. Domestic government policies that deal directly with land resource management, or that influence resource use indirectly through land tenure, rural development, family planning and subsidies for food, pesticides or energy, can have significant impacts. However, as we have seen with other problems described in this material, it is not enough for governments to act alone. They need the support of communities.
#
"Taking Community Action to Preserve Biodiversity",137,0,0,0
Quick action is needed to halt the loss of the planet's \Jbiodiversity\j. Such action must address many of the root political, social and economic causes. The response in developing countries is particularly constrained by pressing social and economic issues and by the burden of international debt. Many actions that can be taken to stem the loss of \Jbiodiversity\j do, however, provide short-term economic benefits, such as maintaining natural forests so that wild species can be harvested for food, medicines and industrial products.
The complex threats to biological diversity call for a wide range of responses across a large number of private and public sectors. The ultimate manifestation of these responses will depend, in large part, on the particular circumstance of each area affected. Though individual community action plans will vary depending on each circumstance, following are a few ideas to get your community organization started in this important endeavour:
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"Environmental Ideas to Preserve Biodiversity",138,0,0,0
\BProtect endangered species.\b A key strategy for taking action to preserve \Jbiodiversity\j is to discourage the purchasing of products that contribute to its loss. If you live in a country where this could be a problem, do everything you can to prevent the export of endangered species of plants and animals. These items include ivory, \Jtortoise\j shell, \Jcoral\j, \Jreptile\j skins, and wild animal pelts.
\BEncourage education.\b At least four-fifths of global \Jbiodiversity\j, and more than three-quarters of the world's human population, is found in developing countries. By contrast, these countries are home to only about six per cent of the world's scientists and engineers. The development of strong scientific communities in these countries is of fundamental importance in the search for the preservation of \Jbiodiversity\j.
Peter Raven, the director of the Missouri Botanical Gardens in the United States, recommends that the \Jinfrastructure\j of scientists in the South be strengthened as rapidly as possible with, among other factors, funds to acquire adequate library resources, the encouragement of direct collaboration between scientists in adjacent countries that inhabit similar ecosystems, the provision of adequate computer facilities and access to inexpensive and rapid communication. Anything that your community organization can do to contribute to education and scientific research would be greatly beneficial. Perhaps you could encourage your government to give greater support to the educational institutes in your area, or even organize a fund-raiser to help support them financially. Call a college or university in your area and ask the administration how you could help.
\BPromote sustainable consumption patterns.\b The preservation of \Jbiodiversity\j can only be accomplished through the promotion of global stability, such as the attainment of a stable human population, the alleviation of poverty and the promotion of social justice. More than four-fifths of the world's resources are consumed by a rapidly shrinking fraction of the global population in the developed countries. It is this rate of consumption - now being modeled throughout the developing world - that is, in large measure, the reason for the current onslaught on \Jbiodiversity\j. Refer to the chapter on Population and Consumption for ideas on how to promote sustainable consumption patterns and population growth rates.
\BDo everything you can to slow global warming.\b Biological diversity is threatened by various forms of chemical \Jpollution\j and global climate change. Everything your community organization can do to reduce the factors that contribute to global warming will be highly beneficial in preserving biological diversity. Refer to the chapter on Atmosphere for more information on global warming.
\BMake \Jbiodiversity\j conservation a development priority.\b Work with your government and educate your community on issues related to the preservation of biological diversity. Be aware of development plans in your community and ask if the \Jbiodiversity\j of the region has been taken into consideration. Although long-term needs for development require the conservation of \Jbiodiversity\j, people's short-term needs often compromise natural ecosystems. Thus, in the short run, the needs of the community are met. Down the road, however, the possible ecological collapse of the region could cause many problems and render the place uninhabitable.
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"Few Cases in Point",139,0,0,0
Artemesin is the only drug that is effective against all of the strains of the plasmodium organisms that cause \Jmalaria\j, which afflicts 250 million people a year. Its chemical structure is totally different from \Jquinine\j and the other chemicals used against the disease over the past two centuries. Millions of lives have been saved because of the discovery of this drug by Chinese herbalists who extracted it from the natural wormwood, artemisia annua.
Taxol, the only drug that shows promise against breast cancer and ovarian cancer, was initially found in the western yew by a United States Government program randomly screening plants for anti-cancer properties. Its molecule is structurally unique and it is doubtful it would have been invented if it had not been discovered in nature.
Michellamine B, a novel compound from the African vine ancistrocladus korupensis, demonstrates a high range of anti-HIV activity. It does not work in the same way as AZT and other anti-HIV drugs and, when its method of action is understood, may well assist in the discovery of other drugs that will be effective against AIDS.
#
"Biodiversity References",140,0,0,0
\IConvention on Biological Diversity,\i United Nations, June, 1992 - \IWhy it matters,\i Raven, Peter, Our \JPlanet\j, UNEP, 1994 - Dowdeswell, Elizabeth, \IStatement at the opening of the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity,\i Nassau, the \JBahamas\j, 28 November 1994 - \ICaring for the Earth, a Strategy for Sustainable Living,\i IUCN, UNEP, WWF; \JSwitzerland\j, 1991 - \IGlobal \JBiodiversity\j, Status of the Earth's Living Resources,\i Groombridge, Brian, Chapman & Hall 1992 - \IGlobal \JBiodiversity\j Strategy, Guidelines for Action to Save, Study and Use Earth's Biotic Wealth Sustainably and Equitably,\i World Resources Institute / IUCN / UNEP 1992 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: a Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute with UNEP and the United Nations Development Program, Oxford University Press, 1994.
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"Saving Rhinos in Zimbabwe",141,0,0,0
In most parts of Africa, lions are busy looking for other animals they can sink their teeth into. In Zimbabwe, however, the Lions are working to save wildlife.
Providing safety from poachers is the purpose of the ongoing environmental project undertaken by the Lions Club of Mutare, Zimbabwe. The endangered black \Jrhinoceros\j, a species native to Zimbabwe, is a frequent target of poachers. Saving the black rhino is important for the local economy. "Tourism is a vital industry in our country," said Lion Len Burrows, public relations officer for the club, "and our animals are the main attraction."
To raise funds for the purchase of anti¡poaching equipment, the small club organized a benefit ball and auction. With the money that was left over, the Zimbabwe Lions reached out further to help other aspects of the environment. Another project involved establishing an environmental awards program for local schools.
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"Water Introduction",142,0,0,0
\B"Water flows from high in the mountains. Water runs deep in the Earth. Miraculously, water comes to us, and sustains all life."\b
\I--Thich Nhat Hanh \i
Though water is the essence of all life on Earth, it is treated by many as though it were an expendable resource. More than 70 per cent of the world's population is without clean water, and an estimated 25,000 people die each day as a result of bad water management. The freshwater deficits that are projected for the next century will have disastrous consequences in some regions, threatening food production, public health and national security. Dying lakes, polluted \Jgroundwater\j and diminishing supplies of potable water are cause for alarm for much of the world's population.
Freshwater resources are finite and exist in a closed system. Only a tiny fraction of the water which covers the Earth is of use to humanity-97 per cent is salt water, filling the oceans and seas. Of the remainder, 99 per cent is out of reach -- frozen up in icecaps and glaciers, or buried deep underground. We depend on what is left - in rivers, lakes and accessible aquifers - to quench our thirst, wash away our wastes, water our crops and, increasingly, to power our industries.
In most parts of the world, freshwater resources are overstrained. Industrial wastes, sewage and agricultural runoff overload rivers and lakes with chemicals, wastes and \Jnutrients\j, consequently poisoning water supplies. Sediments from eroded land silt up dams, rivers and hydroelectric projects. From the United States to India, ill-conceived irrigation schemes are sucking irreplaceable \Jgroundwater\j reserves dry. Sulfur and \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j are spewed into the atmosphere from industry and power plants, where they fall back to Earth as acidified rain or snow-often thousands of miles away from their point of origin. From the water, these toxins find their way into plants and animals. Toxic substances associated with chemical emissions have even been found in bear, seal, \Jcaribou\j and whale meat in the \JArctic\j, which are the main staple foods of the \JInuit\j people of the far north.
Though much of polluted water is in the countryside, the affects are greatly felt in the cities, where, by the year 2000, it is estimated that half of the world's 6.3 billion people will be living. Over two billion are expected to reside in metropolises of developing countries. In many developing countries governments are having difficulty coping with fecal contamination of drinking water, the degradation of fresh water resources, and hazardous waste \Jpollution\j. Many cities seem unable to control and reduce the dumping of raw sewage and garbage into rivers and drainage canals, or stop the growth of mountains of solid wastes from households and industries.
Only a very small portion of sewage in developing countries is treated, resulting in serious health hazards. For example, about half the sewage produced in greater \JCairo\j, \JEgypt\j, is dumped, untreated, into open drains, which empty into the Nile, a primary source of water for irrigation and domestic use. In \JIndonesia\j, 12,500 kilograms of raw sewage generated daily by millions of slum dwellers in and around Jakarta is dumped into one of nine rivers that flow into Jakarta Bay. The Bogota River in \JColombia\j is unfit for drinking or cooking. Eastern Europe and \JRussia\j also have been plagued by serious water scarcity and contamination problems.
In Central Asia, especially in the Aral Sea basin, outbreaks of intestinal disorders and cancer have rapidly increased and infant mortality rates have soared, as the region's water quality has sharply declined. In Guinea, a dam at a gold mine broke open in August 1995, spilling thousands of gallons of \Jcyanide\j into the country's main river, killing virtually all life and putting the entire human population at risk. The government had to respond with emergency distribution of bottled water.
Where water sources are shared by more than one country, these problems are compounded. One country's waste disposal site may be another country's source of drinking water. Deforestation upstream may cause floods or water shortage downstream, while a country's hydroelectric, irrigation and public water projects may cut off its neighbour's supply. About 40 per cent of the world's population depends on water that flows from a neighbouring country. Of the more than 200 river systems shared by two or more countries, several have already caused international conflict. As the world grows thirstier these tensions will no doubt increase.
Most communities today obtain their drinking water from wells. The water is pumped out of aquifers - underground lakes that are usually safe from direct human contact. According to the Water \JPollution\j Control Federation, more than 90 per cent of drinkable water in the world is \Jgroundwater\j. This source of water used to be considered inexhaustible and safe from \Jpollution\j, but now is increasingly threatened with depletion and contamination.
Many types of everyday, normal human activities disrupt the natural equilibrium of an \Jaquifer\j, affecting both the quality and the quantity of the water it contains. Increased extraction of water in one area of an \Jaquifer\j can affect the availability of water in another, thus disrupting the community that depends on it. The diversion of streams and the draining of wetlands can change the location and amount of water absorption. The paving of land for buildings, roads, and parking lots prevents water from entering the soil and eventually recharging the \Jaquifer\j. The changes in the type or amount of vegetation grown on the surface can alter water circulation. Flooding or prolonged \Jdrought\j also can affect an \Jaquifer\j in many ways.
The way in which \Jgroundwater\j resources are managed may spell the future economic fate of an entire region. When an \Jaquifer\j is pumped unsustainably, the results can be disastrous. As the level of an \Jaquifer\j lowers, it often gets refilled by outside sources of water; a disastrous consequence if the incoming waters are saline, as in the case of sea water, or polluted, as is the case with many rivers and streams. Concentrations of salts, minerals and other materials may increase to a level at which the \Jaquifer\j is unsuitable for drinking and irrigation.
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"Sources of Water Pollution",143,0,0,0
While there are many contaminants from natural sources, such as soil, it is contamination from human activity - industrial, agricultural, municipal, and commercial - that is responsible for most of the problems of surface and \Jgroundwater\j degradation. Discarded toxic materials often end up in thousands of landfills that pockmark the planet like craters on the moon. Wastes from small commercial enterprises, such as dry cleaners and printers, as well as household wastes add to the problem. In agricultural areas, \Jfertilizer\j and pesticides, once thought to break down in soil, are polluting surface water and \Jgroundwater\j. Livestock wastes from feedlots and human wastes from faulty septic systems are seeping into underground sources of drinking water.
In some countries, hazardous waste is disposed of by injecting it underground into deep wells. Brine from drilling and mining operations is often disposed of in this manner. Acid drainage from coal and metal extraction, radioactive waste from uranium mining, hospitals and defense operations, as well as spills from pipeline breaks and accidents in transportation all are causes of \Jgroundwater\j \Jpollution\j. The consequence of these activities has been the extensive contamination of thousands of private and public water sources. Often when water is contaminated, there are no biological indications to indicate any change in water quality. Thus, people may continue to drink contaminated water until they fall ill. A contaminated water supply may only be noticed when an entire population becomes affected by an epidemic.
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"Seeking Solutions to Water Pollution",144,0,0,0
The decade of the 1980s was the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. Thanks to many UN and NGO initiatives, more than one billion people gained access to potable water during this time. Unfortunately, the goal of providing safe drinking water for all by 1990 could not be realized. To achieve the ultimate goal of everyone having access to a constant clean source of freshwater, scientists at the International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation in The Hague, Netherlands believe that community management of water resources is absolutely essential. Their experience in many developing countries during the Decade showed that even the best run water agencies could not successfully implement, operate and maintain a network of widely dispersed water systems without the full involvement and commitment of the users.
Community management of water resources is a simple and attractive concept. Communities and external agencies work in partnership, so that the resources each can provide are used in the most effective manner to develop dependable and sustainable water supply systems. Local resources are under local control, while central agencies focus on those activities which benefit most from broader collective efforts.
Community management puts water users in charge of their own water systems. It does not mean that users do everything themselves. The most effective community management is an evolving partnership, in which a community-centred organization draws on resources from within the community, from other communities, and from a variety of governmental and non-governmental agencies. In organizing collective efforts, several groups within a society can contribute in accordance with their strengths and experience. Following are a few possible groups that could be approached when organizing a cooperative effort to ensure access to clean and safe water:
\BThe community.\b The most important partner is the community itself. Defined as the group of people using the same water supply system, the community can consist of many different groups based on ethnic, socioeconomic, religious or gender differences.
\BOther communities.\b Success in one community often stimulates success in a neighbouring community. Pooling resources among communities can bring faster and more cost-effective implementation of a system that works. It also can play an important role in long-term sustainability of that system.
\BGovernment water agencies.\b The most common partner for the community is a government water agency, or agencies. Accustomed to a patron/client relationship, and staffed accordingly, a water agency often has to undergo significant attitudinal and organizational changes to make community management work. The changes could affect all aspects of water management from staffing and training to planning, implementation and financing. These should be taken as an opportunity for achieving greater success and a higher respect from both communities and government, rather than, as is sometimes the case, being regarded as a threat to job security and a diminution of power. Agencies need a balance of technical staff and experienced community workers, and should see their role as raising community awareness, providing support, and responding to community needs.
\BGovernment.\b Though their role is less direct than that of a water agency, local and national levels of government have vital roles to play in the promotion of community management through their control over policy and national resources. The important role for government is a facilitating one. In creating an enabling environment of supporting policies and legislation, governments could retain the vital role of protecting public health and ensuring compliance with national norms and standards. Governments also could integrate community management of rural and urban water supplies into overall water resources management strategies, and give communities the legitimate authority and encouragement to take care of their own water systems.
\BNon-governmental organizations.\b NGOs often have a strong capacity for facilitating community-centred development, and make natural partners in community management activities. As long as conflicting interests do not create an adversarial relationship, they can help to increase the outreach capacity of governments and donors.
\BThe private sector.\b Local management of water systems could be a powerful stimulus for private enterprise.Communities could hire contractors to help construct a water system. Hiring local mechanics could be a cost-effective way of ensuring timely maintenance, and materials suppliers could be a useful source of credit for community water supply improvements. In these ways and many others, the private sector would be a natural partner in any community effort to build and manage a community water system.
\BDonor agencies.\b Community management is an attractive proposition for donor support. Specifically aimed at providing sustainable services in a sector where sustainability has proved difficult to achieve in the past, it has the additional appeal of promoting community self-reliance and the potential for the achievement of broader development goals.
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"Taking Community Action to Ensure Clean Waterways",145,0,0,0
Because freshwater resources are the lifeline of a community, it is essential that communities get involved and work together to ensure they have a continuous clean source. Aside from forming a partnership amongst the aforementioned sectors of society, there are actions that your organization could take to directly address this very important issue. Following are some ideas to consider when mobilizing your community organization to ensure access to clean water:
\BLocate the point sources of pollution.\b You may need a lot of assistance from local and regional authorities in this endeavour, but be prepared to engage in a little investigative work on your own. You may have to first locate the \Jpollution\j, and then follow it to its source. If possible, take pictures or videos of the sources once you locate them, and submit them to the media, the government and the polluting entity itself. Locate the point sources of \Jpollution\j.
\BWork against acid rain.\b Your organization could prevent acid rain by promoting energy efficiency and conservation in your community, and by lobbying your government to require \Jpollution\j control technologies on power plants, industry and automobiles. Refer to the chapter on Atmosphere for more information on acid rain and what your organization can do to help prevent it. Work against acid rain.
\BEducate your community.\b Work through your community organization, or in partnership with a local school, to teach proven methods of water conservation. Find out if your government or local university is involved in this effort and give them any support they may need. Promote, through education programs and individual initiative, efficient and environmentally-sound water use practices to reduce water waste and increase water conservation and preservation in domestic, industrial and irrigation sectors.
\BEmpower the people.\b Recognize and support efforts of NGOs, social movements, indigenous people, women's organizations, agricultural producers' organizations, traditional fisherfolk and local communities to develop an ecologically and socially sustainable use of water.
\BPursue partnership with government.\b Lobby locally, regionally, nationally and internationally for governments and multilateral organizations to create and democratically enact legal instruments to protect water supplies, regulate water uses, control water \Jpollution\j and establish water rights. Ask your government to publish lists of all enterprises and water users who violate environmental principles and standards, and monitor and publicize the information. Also ask international aid institutions to redirect their funding and investments away from costly, destructive, centralized water construction projects and to support ecologically and socially sustainable, decentralized, community-based water resource evaluation and management projects.
\BHelp farmers to be more water-conscious.\b Your organization could help farmers to conserve their irrigation water through innovative technologies, recycle used irrigation water, upgrade their sprinklers, and install drip or trickle irrigation systems. You also could meet with farmers to help them find alternatives to the use of pesticides and other harmful agricultural chemicals. See the chapter on Agriculture for more information on this issue.
\BEnsure sustainable sewage treatment.\b Untreated sewage discharges from communities often release pathogens, \Jnutrients\j and, in many cases, toxic substances into the water. When there is an outbreak of a disease like \Jcholera\j, it spreads like wildfire in such an environment. Controlling this menace will require proper treatment and disposal of sewage along with monitoring and closing contaminated waters to drinking, bathing, and fishing.
\BWork with your community\b and your local government to ensure proper disposal and treatment of sewage sludge. All sewage plants should be upgraded to at least secondary treatment. Ideally all sewage should be treated through a tertiary process (through three separate bioremediation tanks).
\BWatch out for toxins.\b Toxic chemicals often enter rivers, streams and aquifers from both industrial and household sources and from improper disposal of hazardous wastes. Prolonged exposure even to small doses of heavy metals, organic compounds, pesticides and other toxic chemicals can cause many problems for humans and aquatic organisms.
\BLook for industries that may be releasing toxins\b into the water and inform them that what they are doing is endangering the community. Often, that is all it will take to get them to clean up their act. However, you may have to be prepared to take the issue to local authorities and the media.
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"Addressing the Individual to Ensure Clean Waterways",146,0,0,0
In the final analysis, sustainable water use comes down to the individual. Following are some key areas in which an individual can take action to conserve water and to keep current water supplies free of contamination. Some of the tips may be obviously more useful in developed countries, while others are more aptly suited for developing countries.
\BFilter your water.\b Unless you know for sure that your water supply is clean, don't take chances with your health. If it is possible, consult with a knowledgeable source to get the best available filters for your region. If there are none, boil the water for at least five minutes to ensure that any bacterial organisms are killed. If none of the above is possible, use \Jiodine\j (two drops per litre) or \Jchlorine\j tablets.
\BConserve energy.\b This is important , especially if you live in a community depending on a coal-burning power plant to provide electricity. Remember, the sulfur and \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j from this plant fall back to Earth and into your water supply as acid rain. (See chapter on Energy.)
\BBe careful what you throw away.\b What goes around comes around. What you throw into the sewer or stream will come right back at you through your kitchen sink or shower.
\BTry to use a clean detergent.\b Many of the \Jphosphates\j that cause \Jalgae\j blooms come from detergents. See the chapter on Waste for more information about this issue.
\BUse water efficiently.\b Turning the tap off when you are not using it is the simplest and most effective way to save water. Whether washing your hands, brushing your teeth or shaving, turn the water on only when you need it.
\BSpread the word.\b By getting your friends, family, neighbours and colleagues to all take action on water issues, the collective impact will make a big difference. This holds true for all environmental issues.
\BWrite now, right now.\b If your local water source is contaminated, encourage the relevant authorities through letter writing to test the drinking water and clean it up.
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"Empowering Communities in Tegucigalpa",147,0,0,0
\BA Success Story \b
Another problem that arises out of a lack of access to clean drinking water is the loss of productive time required to haul it in-often from miles away from home. In the crowded shantytowns of \JHonduras\j, a community was transformed when water became accessible at the village.
The changes to the community began when the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) joined forces with the Honduran National Water and Sanitation Agency (SANAA) to initiate the delivery of water to the barrios through a variety of innovative options. To deliver water to the poor, systems that function separately from the main water supply network were needed. SANAA's main system, which serves 68 per cent of the city, was already experiencing water shortages, especially during the seven-month-long dry season. Moreover, the rapidly growing squatter population lives mostly in communities above 1,150 metres in elevation, where it is not economical to extend the main system. To handle the problem, SANAA created a special unit to deal with water in the rural areas and designed three non-conventional supply options: drilling independent wells, trucking water to a community storage tank, and selling water from the existing network.
After nearly five years of expanding efforts, a coalition of agencies and communities has succeeded in bringing water to nearly 50,000 people. Together SANAA and \JUNICEF\j continue to tap unconventional sources and cement new alliances in bringing water to the rural areas of \JHonduras\j. Recently, they turned to the city's Chamber of Commerce to attract businesses interested in the sales that construction of new water systems could generate. Under the conditions set out by SANAA-UNICEF, the monthly water tariff in rural areas is adjusted to recover capital costs as well as expenses.
Underpinning the success of the SANAA-UNICEF approach is strong community involvement, which springs partially from pre-existing local organizations. Despite their poverty and varied backgrounds, rural residents have common goals and have organized themselves to plan their communities, secure services and ensure their rights are recognized. The resulting system of local representation provides a strong foundation for building local water committees. In turn, these committees were effective in coordinating local efforts and administering the system once it had been completed.
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"Tapping Fog to Meet Water Needs",148,0,0,0
\BA Success Story\b
The pressures of demographic growth and rising demand for fresh water often necessitate the exploration of non-conventional sources. Nowhere is this more true than in the many arid regions around the world where there is no regular rainfall nor any rivers. In one such region, fog was harnessed to meet a community's freshwater needs. If conditions are suitable, the collection and use of fog water deserves serious consideration.
The first known project to harness fog for water was initiated in northern \JChile\j, where, in the town of Chungungo, the cost of providing water had risen to almost US $8 per inhabitant per day. The cost of water, in addition to the difficulty of transporting it over a broken and rutted road, was an unbearable burden for the villagers. Had it not been highly subsidized by the municipality, the cost would have been equivalent to forty percent of the average family income.
In November 1987, Chilean universities and the Corporacion Nacional Forestal (National \JForestry\j Corporation) initiated the project to collect water from the fog covering a nearby mountain, using "fog traps." Fifty collectors measuring 48 square metres each were erected above the town. The material used was a double-layer polypropylene mesh net, which costs little and is produced in \JChile\j. The mesh collectors are entirely passive devices, requiring no energy. In addition, since collectors are normally situated on terrain higher than surrounding settlements, water can be delivered by gravity flow. The system gathers an average of 7,200 litres of water a day, a yield that was obtained even during three consecutive years of \Jdrought\j.
Today in Chungungo water from fog traps costs only a quarter as much as water transported by road, amounting to US $1.87 per cubic metre on the basis of amortizing the project over 20 years. The villagers are in charge of maintenance and administration. And, for the first time in their history, the fishermen have begun to cultivate family vegetable gardens.
The project is now establishing alternative water supply systems for all of the populated areas along the coastal desert of \JChile\j. The Chilean example was so successful, it inspired other similar initiatives elsewhere, including in the neighbouring country of \JPeru\j and on the other side of the world in the Sultanate of Oman.
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"Taking Freshwater from the Sea",149,0,0,0
\BA Success Story\b
Since up to 80 per cent of humanity lives near coastal areas, many communities are turning to the sea as a source of freshwater. The methods of converting salt or brackish water into fresh vary from large urban systems to simple homemade devices, and include both \Jevaporation\j and filtration techniques.
Since the early 1980s, Professor Felix A. Ryan of Madras, India has researched ways to bring simple \Jdesalination\j technology to the rural poor. His organization, the Ryan Foundation, has promoted many innovative methods for communities to gain access to clean water, some of which can be easily constructed out of such easily-obtainable materials as cloth, plastic tubs and clay. Ryan, who has received a UN Global 500 award for his environmental achievements in developing countries, believes it is better for villages and households to provide their own source of drinking water, rather than relying on central governments hundreds of miles away to bring it to them in long systems of unreliable pipes.
In one of his techniques, called the "domestic still," Ryan places a small tub inside a larger tub. In the larger tub are placed two 750 ml. bottles of salt or brackish water. A plastic sheet is then placed over the top of the larger tub, with the centre depressed down into the small empty tub (but without touching it) so that it looks like an inverse cone. The contraption is left all day in the hot sun. The heat causes the salt or brackish water to evaporate. The steam rises up onto the inside of the inverted cone, and runs into the smaller tub as freshwater. This system can yield 750 ml. of freshwater on a hot day. If heat is applied below the larger tub, more fresh water can be obtained. For best results, Ryan says the system should be left overnight, so the water can condense.
Ryan continues to work indefatigably on behalf of all aspects of sustainability in the developing world. From his base in Madras, India, the professor produces numerous books to help the poor in the South to gain access to innovative technologies that can help improve their standards of living in a way that is both sustainable and affordable.
Contact:
The Ryan Foundation
8 West Mada St. Srinagar Colony
Madras 600015 India
#
"Water References",150,0,0,0
\IHousehold Waste-Issues and Opportunities,\i CONCERN, Inc., Washington, D.C.; December 1992 - NGO Fresh Water Treaty, Global Forum / UNCED, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 - \IWater Profile,\i United Nations Environment Program, 1990 - \IThe Chemical Free Lawn,\i Schultz, Warren, Rodale Press, 1989 - \I50 Simple Things you can do to save the Earth,\i the Earth Works Press, Berkeley, \JCalifornia\j, 1989 - \IGraywater Use in the Landscape,\i Edible Publications, Santa Rosa, \JCalifornia\j, 1989 - Safeguarding Oceans and Water Resources, Background Paper for the Interparliamentary Conference on the Global Environment May 1990 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute with UNEP and UNDP, Oxford University Press, 1994 - \IYouth Action Guide on Sustainable Development,\i Hrabar, Dean and Ciparis, Ramona, AIESEC International, London, 1990.
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"Oceans and Coasts Introduction",151,0,0,0
\B"Ocean, who is the source of all."\b
\I--Homer, c. 700 B.C.\i
The oceans, though they cover more than 70 per cent of the Earth's surface, are often taken for granted. More than 3.5 billion people depend on the ocean for their primary source of food, and more than half the world's population lives within 60 kilometres of the shoreline, a figure which could rise to three quarters by the year 2020. As important as the oceans are coastal areas, which contain diverse and productive habitats important for human settlements, development and local subsistence. Coastal resources are vital for many local communities and indigenous people. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which extends 320 kilometres out to sea, is an important marine area where countries are responsible for managing the development and conservation of natural resources for the benefit of their people.
The oceans also have become a network of shipping lanes and a supplier of energy, minerals and medicines. These contributions will grow as technology advances and the resources of the land become more scarce.
Since they cover most of the Earth's surface, oceans have a great influence on climate, and contribute significantly to the habitability of our planet. There are more than 120 species of mammals in the oceans, as well as numerous types of other forms of life. Oceans also attract tourists to their shores, thus providing a vital source of income to many countries.
Recognizing that the oceans, and the communities that depend on them, are under threat, the world's governments declared through Agenda 21 that the world needs "new approaches to marine and coastal area management and development, at the national, subregional and global levels."
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"Seas Under Siege",152,0,0,0
Once thought to be so vast and resilient that no level of human insult could damage them, ocean and especially coastal resources are now under threat of ecological collapse due to mismanagement and abuse, according to significant and growing evidence. With increasing frequency, ocean disasters are commanding world attention. Medical waste has washed ashore, causing many beaches to be closed in the eastern United States. Hundreds of beaches along the Italian Adriatic were once off limits due to the infestation of \Jalgae\j. In \JAlaska\j, a supertanker hit a reef and dumped a quarter million barrels of oil into one of the world's richest fishing grounds.
Though such catastrophes are definitely worthy of international attention, other less sensational but no less harmful dangers are wreaking havoc on oceans and coastal areas. Most wastes created on land end up in the sea. Oceans and coastlines around the world-from the coasts of West Africa to the pristine Arctic-are littered by plastics and debris. Both buoyant and persistent, plastic fishing nets and lines, packing bands and bags choke or strangle marine organisms through ingestion or entanglement.
Humans are treating the ocean like a giant trash receptacle. Organic chemicals, such as DDT and PCBs, are now common contaminants in marine waters and are responsible for reproductive defects in marine organisms. Because of high concentrations of organic chemicals and heavy metals, fisheries have been closed over health concerns. The discharge of largely untreated municipal sewage, containing both human and industrial waste, is one of the largest sources of contamination in coastal waters and will probably increase as populations in coastal regions continue to grow.
Oil spills are devastating marine habitats and killing fish, mammals and birds. Although the large spills attract spectacular media attention for a few days, far more oil silently finds its way into the oceans from street runoff, ships flushing their tanks and effluent from industrial facilities. An estimated 21 million barrels of oil annually enters the seas this way, many times more than the 600,000 barrels accidentally spilled on average each year over the last decade.
Coastal habitats are being destroyed around the world to make room for urban development or to build agricultural fields and \Jaquaculture\j ponds. More than one-third of \JEcuador\j's mangroves have been converted to ponds for a rapidly growing shrimp-farm industry, and Philippine mangroves have been nearly completely wiped out to make room for \Jaquaculture\j expansion.
Overfishing also is threatening the living creatures of the sea, an important resource that has long supplied humanity with food, oils and useful materials. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 70 per cent of the world's commercial fishing grounds are depleted, fully exploited or recovering from previous overfishing.
Marine mammals worldwide are suffering from heavy pressure from incidental catches in coastal small-scale fisheries and on the high seas driftnet fisheries. Other factors of concern are \Jpollution\j, habitat loss and degradation, especially in coastal areas.
Coral reefs, home to an estimated one million species of life, are being choked by rivers that are laden with sediment from deforested lands or eroded agricultural fields. Reefs also are mined for jewelry or construction material. Voracious fisherfolk, seeking an easy way to net a large catch, sometimes throw dynamite into the water to kill fish. The result, besides devastating entire schools of fish, is the destruction of their habitat.
The world's living marine resources also are subject to extreme pressures from increasingly sophisticated fishing technologies and the expanding scope of large-scale, industrialized fishing activities.
Aside from these problems, the future of the planet's oceans are confronted with other challenges, including the protection of \JAntarctica\j and sea-level rise. Because of \JAntarctica\j's unique nature, an international effort will be required to protect its vast resources. The fragile marine ecosystems of the Antarctic are currently threatened by overfishing, waste disposal and minerals development.
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"Seeking Solutions to Protect Oceans",153,0,0,0
The world's oceans are a vast commons that all nations must strive to protect. The World Commission on Environment and Development concluded in Our Common Future that "sustainable development, if not survival itself, depends on significant advances in the management of the oceans."
UNEP, in its State of the Marine Environment report for 1990, declared that "If coastal development and habitat degradation continue at their current rates, there will be global deterioration in the quality and productivity of the marine environment."
Furthermore, according to United Nations reports, the marine environment could deteriorate significantly in the next decade unless strong, coordinated national and international action is taken now. The efforts will be great and the costs high, but nothing less will ensure the continued health of the sea and the maintenance of its resources.
Today, the United Nations, through UNEP, is addressing the challenge of the oceans in more than 160 countries with 12 "Regional Seas Programs." These programs monitor conditions and recommend government action in the Mediterranean, the \JKuwait\j region, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the wider Caribbean, the Atlantic coast of West and Central Africa, the Eastern African seaboard, the Pacific coast of South America, the islands of the South Pacific, the Northwest Pacific, the Black Sea, the East Asian region and the South Asian Sea.
#
"Taking Community Action to Protect Oceans",154,0,0,0
While there is much that can be done at the governmental level to prevent the further deterioration of ocean and coastal ecosystems, it is at the community level that sustainable change needs to occur. Through an effective mobilization of your community, and the direct action of your organization, ocean and coastal regions can be preserved. This section introduces some suggestions that your community could consider when drawing up its action plan to help preserve the sustainability of oceans and coastal resources. However, it will be the creative and motivated activity of your own particular community that will determine the long-term success of your efforts.
\BLocate ocean \Jpollution\j at its source.\b Oceans and coastal areas need to be protected from harmful wastes. One important and relatively easy way to manage sources of ocean \Jpollution\j is to prohibit deliberate at - sea disposal of wastes that degrade the marine environment. Your community may have to engage in some investigative work, first locating the \Jpollution\j and then tracking it to its source. Some of the evidence of harmful waste you may find are toxic industrial wastes, radioactive waste and sewage sludge.
\BCooperate with other groups.\b Work with your local government, business and industry to find alternatives to the ocean disposal of sewage sludge and municipal, hazardous, and radioactive wastes. Research successful stories in other communities, and introduce these successes to government and business.
\BPursue partnership with your government.\b At a national level, find out if your government has ratified the \JBasel\j Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal, and if it is enforcing its principles in your country.
\BControl urban runoff.\b Mobilize both your organization and other community groups to do everything possible to control this source of ocean contamination. Everything that gets dumped onto the street, into drains, and in vacant lots eventually reaches the sea, river or lake in your area. Rainfall washes these wastes into local waterways and contributes vast quantities of sediment, \Jnutrients\j, bacteria and toxic chemicals (organics, heavy metals, oil and grease) that pollute them. Necessary control programs range from simple maintenance efforts such as street sweeping to construction of projects that will prevent polluted runoff from entering nearby streams.
\BHelp to educate your community.\b Your organization could launch a community awareness program to educate the public to, for example, minimize the use of polluting chemicals around the house, yard and garden.
\BKeep the seas oil-free.\b Oil spills have devastating effects on aquatic ecosystems. In order to preserve the marine environment from irreversible devastation, sensitive areas should be closed to oil and gas development. In areas where oil tankers must pass, there should be strict tanker traffic control patterns. For a community to accomplish this will require working with local government to ensure that it is aware of the cost-benefit ratio of offshore oil exploration and its environmental effects.
\BPromote energy efficiency.\b By improving energy efficiency, your community will reduce its demand for oil, and thus reduce the chances of a devastating oil spill occurring off your coastline. The less oil being consumed will mean fewer ships coming to your ports. For ideas and suggestions on how to mobilize your community organization to improve efficiency in the use of oil, refer to the chapter on Energy.
\BDiscourage littering.\b The disposal of plastic material on land and from ships litters beaches and seriously damages marine life, particularly sea mammals, diving birds and reptiles, who may be hurt or killed when trying to eat plastic fragments, or trapped in plastic packing and fishing gear. Enforcement of existing regulations on land and at sea, and increased public awareness, should reduce the amount of plastic refuse that litters the oceans and coastal areas.
\BBeach Clean Up.\b Help prevent the \Jpollution\j of beaches and ocean and coastal waters through education, strict monitoring and the enforcement of penalties. Mobilize your organization to remove debris that is floating or has washed up on shore. The military or coast guard also could be involved in this task, together with local organizations and citizen groups in a community-wide "Clean Up the Beach" campaign over a weekend.
\BReduce your contribution to global warming.\b Sea-level rise is a problem that is confronting many islands and coastal regions around the world, especially small island states like \JBarbados\j and the \JMaldives\j. The culprit is the greenhouse effect, primarily caused by carbon emissions. For more information on this issue, and for tips on how a community can get involved in possible solutions, refer to the chapter on Atmosphere.
\BPromote sustainable yields in fisheries.\b As an organization, you can stop overfishing by encouraging your government to legislate regulations within the framework of adequate management procedures. Work with other organizations, your local government and the appropriate international organizations to ban the use of large-scale driftnets and other wasteful techniques on the high seas of the world's oceans. If you live in a country with large fishing fleets, this is especially critical. Work to secure bans on driftnet fishing through regional and international agreements.
\BWork to protect marine biodiversity.\b As a community organization, there is much you can do to assist in the preservation of marine \Jbiodiversity\j. Your efforts will be most effective when implemented in partnership with other organizations, the business community and government. You can work with your local and national government to protect critical habitat by establishing protected areas and marine sanctuaries. Include within this definition of protected area all important \Jcoral\j reefs. You also can encourage your government to establish economic incentives for the protection of critical habitat and disincentives for its destruction, and ask them to remove all economic incentives that promote unwise coastal development.
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"Dying Oceans",155,0,0,0
As the situation worsens, the life of the oceans is dying en masse. A few statistics are shown on the accompanying table.
Past population refers to mid-nineteenth to mid-twentieth century. Recent population refers to the late 1980s to present.
\ISource: Trends from Ed Ayres, \IMany Marine \JMammal\j Populations Declining,\i in Lester R. Brown, Hal Kane, and Ed Ayres, Vital Signs 1993 (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1993); extinctions from David Day, \IThe Doomsday Book of Animals\i
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"Eco-Volunteer Movement",156,0,0,0
\BA Success Story\b
The concept of eco-volunteers first surfaced among delegates to the United Nations Earth Summit in 1992, who sought to locate and empower the hundreds of volunteers already working in every country to improve the environment and welfare of their communities.
The program to emerge from this vision was first funded as a pilot project through the United Nations Volunteers and the UN Development Program (UNDP). It is managed by the Nairobi-based Environmental Liaison Centre International (ELCI), a network of more than 800 environmental groups in nearly 100 countries. ELCI delegates responsibility to a single member NGO in each country which then selects the eco-volunteers. The NGO coordinates the program in its country, making good use of local knowledge.
Many of these volunteers working in the program are involved in concerns related to the oceans and coastal resources. Isabel Butler of Nova Scotia, Canada, is one of them. A long-time community and environmental activist, she has been involved in numerous projects and initiatives to keep her coastline clean. Many of these efforts have spread far beyond her own Atlantic coast community and serve as a model for people around the world.
The Ship to Shore Trash Campaign, started by the Maritime Fishermen's Union, has focused on encouraging fisherfolk and others to bag their trash and bring it back to land for disposal, rather than simply tossing it over the side into the ocean. The campaign has spread through the Atlantic coast of Canada to four provinces and has changed the habits of hundreds of inshore fisherfolk. Butler, who was instrumental in organizing the campaign, said she stressed the need for environmentalists and fisherfolk to work together rather than opposing each other. A far-reaching result of her efforts is a continuing liaison between the Maritime Fishermen's Union and the Oceans \JCaucus\j of the Canadian Environmental Network.
Contact:
ELCI
P.O. Box 72461
Nairobi, \JKenya\j
Tel: (+215 2) 562 015
Fax: (+254 2) 562 175
Email: ELCI@gn.apc.org
#
"Oceans and Coasts References",157,0,0,0
\IGlobal Marine Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building Conservation into Decision Making,\i Elliot A. Norse, ed.,Island Press, Washington, DC 1993 - \IMarine Environment,\i UNEP Profile, United Nations Environment Program - \IOur Common Future;\i The World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987 - \IOur Living Oceans: The First Annual Report on the Status of U.S. Living Marine Resources,\i National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Washington, DC, 1991 - \ISafeguarding Oceans and Water Resources,\i Background Paper for the Interparliamentary Conference on the Global Environment, May 1990 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with UNEP and the United Nations Development Program, Oxford University Press, 1994.
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"Forests Introduction",158,0,0,0
\B"Serit arbores quae alteri seculo prosint (He plants trees to benefit another generation)"\b
\I--Caecilius Statius, 200 B.C. \i
Forests are much more than trees -- they are an entire \Jecosystem\j unto themselves. They are composed of trees, herbs, fungi, micro-organisms, animals, soils, and numerous plant species. All these interact to influence everything from the availability of freshwater to a region's climate. Forests provide shade to the traveller, food for the hungry, medicines for the sick and construction material for shelter. They also absorb carbon from the atmosphere, which could help to offset global warming trends.
Though only a component of the forests, it is the sustainability of trees that determines the longevity of a forest. A renewable resource, trees can replace themselves when harvested from the forest in a sustainable manner. A forest can expand at a rate of five or more per cent a year, which means that if that many trees are harvested, the forest will replace them. Many people who depend on trees for their daily needs, however, are harvesting them faster than they can grow back.
The loss of forests and woodlands around the world is a serious issue. It can contribute to changes in rainfall patterns, temperatures, wind speeds, aridity of otherwise fertile land, flooding and soil absorption characteristics. It can cause disruptions in lives of both people and animals. The burning of forests releases carbon into the atmosphere. If this exceeds the growth rates of plants, and if the oceans (which store much of the world's carbon) are not able to hold this additionally-released carbon, this condition could contribute to global warming.
Forests are the source of livelihood for millions of the world's poorest people. Many are losing their access to forests as a result of deforestation, currently estimated at 16.8 million hectares a year worldwide. Deforestation produces its own environmental refugees: millions have been forced to leave their homes in Central America, the Caribbean, Africa and Asia - including more than a million in Java alone.
Forests also provide pulp for paper, sawn wood, plywood, gums, oils, resins, pharmaceutical plants and many other badly needed materials. In many countries, these are important exports. Poor or exploitative forest management inevitably reduces options, leading first to dwindling exports and then the need to pay for more and more imports. Although 33 developing countries are currently net exporters of forest products, only 10 are expected to be so by the year 2000.
Forests are home to millions of forms of life; when the forests disappear, so do their inhabitants. Forests prevent soil erosion and provide one of nature's principal means of water management. When trees are removed, torrents of water are allowed to run unchecked down steep hillsides, causing avalanches and flooding. When the foothills of the \JHimalayas\j were covered with trees, \JBangladesh\j suffered a major flood about twice a century; one every four years is now the average.
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"Causes of Forest Loss",159,0,0,0
There are many threats to the planet's forests, almost all of which are caused by human activity. The main cause of deforestation is the need to expand agricultural land - though logging often leads to deforestation by opening up previously inaccessible areas. Timber companies are often irresponsible in the management of their own resources. In harvesting the forests, logging companies usually seek out places where they can have high yields. But as soon as the harvests go down, they abandon the area to seek out new prospects, rather than trying to regenerate the logged area through reforestation schemes. A most appalling example is that of the Thai loggers, who, after being banned from \JThailand\j's forests because of catastrophic floods in 1988, simply left for \JMyanmar\j (formerly Burma), where they are now depleting the world's last great teak forests.
The situation ought not to be as severe as it is. The world's live stockpile of wood amounts to 315 billion cubic metres, and generates a growth of six billion cubic metres a year. World consumption is only about half this amount. But much forest growth occurs in thinly populated areas of \JAlaska\j, Canada and \JSiberia\j. Other regions, notably South-East Asia and Latin America, are perilously short of timber. Africa is not far behind - tropical trees there are being cut much faster than they are being replanted. For every 29 trees felled commercially, only one is replanted.
Reforestation schemes, on the other hand, are not always possible in places where it would be needed, because of either economic or natural reasons. When they are possible, they sometimes fail. Reforestation is not always capable of recovering damage to the environment. Logging can deplete, fragment and homogenize forests. The worst, most widespread type of degradation, according to the Worldwatch Institute, is caused by timber mining. In its State of the World Report, the Institute
states that this type of logging in tropical regions often removes large amounts of vegetation from rain forests, where \Jnutrients\j are found mostly in the plant life itself and not in the soil. This leaves behind a nutritionally impoverished system that may take hundreds of years to recover.
The pressures from international financial institutions are sometimes another factor that contributes to deforestation, as developing countries increase timber exports in order to service interest on loans and pay back debts.
Since public policy usually defines the parameters in which a society can exploit or overexploit its resources, it is the politics of a country that is most responsible for the destruction of forests. Unfortunately, in many countries the political will to enact laws to minimize deforestation is lacking, despite international agreements to preserve forest resources. Often, difficulties in balancing priorities between sustainable development and socio-economic concerns lead to political inaction. Consequently, the environment suffers in the interim.
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"State of the Rain Forests",160,0,0,0
Rain forests encircle the Earth in a 3,000 mile-wide green band around the equator. Rain forests once covered at least 14 per cent of the Earth's land surface. Now only six per cent remains. \JBrazil\j contains one-third and \JIndonesia\j and Zaire each have ten per cent of what's left. The rest is scattered in rapidly diminishing remnants in other countries of Africa, South America, South-East Asia and \JOceania\j.
Although all types of forests are important for a balanced \Jecosystem\j, including deciduous forest, dry forest and desert forest, half the world's species are to be found in rain forests. This genetic storehouse has already provided many of the strains from which modern crops and medicines are derived. In India, more than 2,500 plant species have been officially recognized for their medicinal uses. In addition, the U.S. National Cancer Institute has identified cancer¡fighting properties in 73 per cent of the 30,000 plants unique to the rain forest \Jecosystem\j. Preserving these species directly benefits humankind.
Rain forests also are one of the world's natural reservoirs of carbon dioxide, which is captured through \Jphotosynthesis\j and stored in trees, vegetation and soil. However, because so many rain forests are burned, releasing all their carbon dioxide, rain forests now contribute more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than they absorb from it. According to the \JRainforest\j Action Network, 25 per cent of greenhouse gases now come from burning the rain forest.
A U.S. Global 2000 report estimates that as many as one million species found in tropical forests could become extinct by the end of the century. The point is well made: tropical forests contain a wealth of animal and plant material, much of it still unknown to humans. For the good of humanity, not to mention for the sake of \Jbiodiversity\j, steps must be taken to ensure that these lifeforms are not heedlessly driven into \Jextinction\j.
According to the \JRainforest\j Action Network, ill-conceived development schemes are the main cause of tropical deforestation. Many of these projects are financed by American, European and Japanese taxes and by private banks based in industrialized countries. The most destructive projects promote agriculture, \Jcattle\j ranching, hydroelectric dams, logging, mining and road construction.
Population pressures, along with inequitable distribution of good agricultural land in tropical countries, are a major cause of agricultural settlement in rain forests. Rather than redistributing prime agricultural lands, which are usually used to grow export crops, some governments allow rain forests to be cleared to defuse movements for land reform. This policy, however, is doomed to failure because the newly cleared land is soon rendered useless.
The heat and heavy rainfall in moist tropical regions leach the \Jnutrients\j from the ancient soils so that only the top few inches contain any fertility. When leaves and other organic materials fall to the ground, they are recycled quickly through complex interactions among other living organisms such as microbes, insects, birds and plants. However, when the rain forests are cleared for agriculture, many of the \Jnutrients\j in the soil that are necessary for plant life are destroyed with the forest.
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"Taking Community Action to Protect our Forests",161,0,0,0
There are many things communities can do to ensure that the world's forests do not disappear. Specific efforts to preserve forest resources will, as with other concerns, depend on your specific regional situation and capabilities, and whether you are in a developed country or a developing one.
Following are a few ideas to get your group started:
\BWork with your community schools.\b In order to reach out to a broader public, schools can create increased public awareness through, for example, theatre and youth publications. Youth also offer an amazing resource that can be tapped to help your organization in its objectives. The youth in your community may have organizations of their own with which you can cooperate.
\BAdopt a tree.\b Organizations and youth groups can adopt a tree - or a number of trees - and ensure their well being. The practice of taking care of a tree can provide an insight into how trees function under different conditions and why it is important to conserve them for the future.
\BPlant a tree.\b Logging companies and governments need to take responsibility for managing the country's forests on a sustained-yield basis, such as by replacing the trees that are harvested. However, tree-planting campaigns run by organizations or individuals also can make a direct contribution to reforestation.
\BSupport pro-forest candidates.\b If your country has elections, make sure environmental issues are addressed by the candidates. Humourous or serious campaigns, publicizing the environment and at the same time stressing its importance could raise the awareness of politicians to what voters want.
\BEncourage the proper valuation of forest resources.\b A pricing of forest products should reflect the environmental costs of deforestation. Tariffs also could be placed on forest products from countries where deforestation is a threat to the \Jecosystem\j. When the price for a given product puts it out of reach for most consumers, substitutes will be found.
\BCooperate with other organizations.\b Community organizations can cooperate with churches and other non-profit groups to start projects that will help protect the forest. It is often more effective to assist existing organizations to adopt \Jforestry\j initiatives into their current activities, instead of creating new organizations to address these issues. Find out how other organizations are working to preserve the forests, and either learn from them or suggest alternative activities.
\BSupport women's groups.\b Rural women - many of whose families depend heavily on forest or tree products - have proved to be powerful allies in conservation programs. Traditionally, women in developing countries have played a dominant role in most areas of their family's daily life. They are responsible for meeting the daily needs of the family by providing basic commodities such as food and wood fuel (or biomass) for cooking. Women's organizations can therefore do a lot to encourage women to help their families to conserve, as much as possible, the wood fuel and biomass they may be using. In East Africa, for example, simple cooking stoves are being introduced that burn more efficiently, thus reducing the need for larger amounts of wood fuel and biomass.
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"Taking Action as an Individual to Protect our Forests",162,0,0,0
Actions at the individual level are important and should be encouraged by your community organization. All of us are consumers of forest products. We can, through our consumption patterns, selectively decide not to consume certain forest products that are considered overexploited, such as furniture made from wood species found in areas where deforestation is a threat to the \Jecosystem\j. Following are a few more action ideas that your organization could promote among its members and
the individual members of your community:
\BReduce, reuse and recycle all paper products.\b Everything from newspapers to cardboard boxes can usually be recycled if your community has a recycling system.
\BBuy recycled products.\b If possible, use only recycled paper at the home and office.
\BPlant trees in your yard and property.\b Make sure the trees you plant are indigenous (natural) to your area.
\BReplant.\b If you do take wood from the forest, learn how to replant seedlings to replace the trees that you take.
\BWrite now, right now.\b Write a letter to a government official, expressing concern for your country's forests. Write letters to your community newspaper to encourage concern about forest issues. Ask them if they use recycled paper, and if they recycle unsold newspapers.
\BUse efficient stoves.\b If you use wood for cooking and/or heating your home, make sure the stoves you are using are efficient and do not burn more wood than is necessary to get the job done.
\BSpread the word.\b Share all your ideas and concerns for the forest with your neighbours and friends. By getting your friends, family, neighbours and colleagues to all take action on forest issues, the collective impact will make a big difference. This holds true for all environmental issues.
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"Green Belt Movement",163,0,0,0
\BA Success Story \b
Harambee - 'let's all pull together' - was a popular movement in \JKenya\j when Wangari Mathai, a women's rights and environment campaigner, finally got a response to her tireless efforts to start a tree-planting program.
On World Environment Day in 1977, the Green Belt Movement was formed as an indigenous grassroot environmental campaign. Although its objectives are many and varied, the tree is used as a focal point around which other environmental issues are discussed and brought to the attention of the public and decision-makers. At its first tree-planting ceremony, the following dedication was made:
"Being aware that \JKenya\j is being threatened by the expansion of desert-like conditions, that \Jdesertification\j comes as a result of misuse of land and by indiscriminate cutting down of trees, bush clearing and consequent soil erosion by the elements; and that these actions result in \Jdrought\j, \Jmalnutrition\j, \Jfamine\j and death; we resolve to save our land by averting this same \Jdesertification\j by tree planting wherever possible.
In pronouncing these words, we each make a personal commitment to our country to save it from actions and elements which would deprive present and future generations from reaping the bounty which is the birthright and property of all."
Since its beginnings, the movement has worked with more than one million children in 3,000 schools to plant trees on school compounds, gotten more than 50,000 households and small-scale farmers to plant trees on their farms, and produced numerous booklets and films on reforestation issues. In the last ten years, more than seven million trees are recorded as having been planted and survived. More than 50,000 Kenyan women have been involved in the campaign, and their leader, Professor Mathai, has been added to the UN Environment Program's Global 500 Roll of Honour for Environmental Achievement. The movement is now spreading to other countries and may soon be replicated throughout East and Southern Africa.
Contact:
The Green Belt Movement
P.O. Box 67545
Nairobi, \JKenya\j
Tel: (+254 2) 504264
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"Forests References",164,0,0,0
\IAgriculture in the Tropics Tropical Forest Ecosystems amid Their Tree Species-Possibilities and Methods for their Long¡Term Utilization,\i Lamprecht, H., Technical Cooperation, Federal Republic of \JGermany\j, 1989 - \IEnergy Options for Africa: Environmentally Sustainable Alternatives,\i Karekezi, Stephen and Mackenzie, Gordon, Zed Books, Denmark, 1993 - \IForests, Trees and People,\i UN Food and Agriculture Organization, \JForestry\j Topics Report No. 2, \JRome\j 1985; - \IThe Forest for the Trees?\i R Repetto, World Resources Institute, Washington D.C. 1988 - \ITropical Forests Action Program,\i UN Food and Agriculture Organization, \JRome\j, 1986 - \ITropical Forest Resources Assessment Project,\i FAO, in cooperation with UNEP; \JRome\j 1981 - \IGreen Inheritance,\i Huxley, Anthony, Anchor/Doubleday, New York, 1985 - \ITropical Forests: A Call for Action,\i World Resources Institute, Washington DC, 1985 - \IRainforest Action Guide;\i \JRainforest\j Action Network, USA 1989 - \ITropical Forest Conservation,\i Position Paper, WWF International, August 1989 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute with UNEP and UNDP, Oxford University Press, 1994 - \IYouth Action Guide on Sustainable Development,\i Hrabar, Dean and Ciparis, Ramona, AIESEC International, London, 1990.
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"Agriculture and Land Use Introduction",165,0,0,0
\B"Earth is here so kind, that just tickle her with a hoe and she laughs with a harvest."\b
\I--Douglas Jerrold \i
Humankind is faced with a challenging dilemma: There are more and more mouths to feed, and less and less land on which to grow food. Each year, the world population increases by more than 90 million people, while the amount of topsoil decreases by more than 20 billion tons. Nearly 20 per cent of the world's cultivable land has been severely degraded and is no longer fit for growing crops.
Traditional agriculture can no longer meet the demands imposed on it. To respond to this need, farmers are getting ever-increasing yields through the use of better seeds, \Jfertilizer\j, farming methods and equipment. In many countries, particularly in Asia, agricultural yields have risen dramatically over the past 20 years. In many parts of the world, however, high-input farming is putting a heavy strain on the environment.
Intensive agricultural systems, first popularized in Western countries and now being implemented around the world, involve high inputs of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, hybrid seeds and mechanized irrigation systems. This system contributes to soil degradation and the loss of plant diversity. Because of the high costs often associated with purchasing the chemicals, it also is too costly for many developing countries to maintain without heavy doses of foreign aid.
In developed countries, industrial agriculture using chemical \Jfertilizer\j and other "modern" methods have yielded bountiful harvests. However, it also has severely damaged the environment and impoverished the land. The use of heavy machinery in soil preparation has led to compaction and other detrimental changes in soil structure. Chemical fertilizers also have affected the ability of crops to adequately absorb \Jnutrients\j. The chemicals have contaminated \Jgroundwater\j, rendering it unfit for human consumption.
The transfer of high-input agricultural technology to developing countries, in the mistaken belief that it could bring the same benefits everywhere, has, in many cases, hurt developing countries more than it has helped. Not only was the technology often entirely inappropriate, but the lack of follow-up money and inadequate maintenance often rendered it unproductive within months. Under such conditions, agricultural production ceases to be economically and ecologically sustainable.
Many farmers and entrepreneurs are attracted to the dramatic increase in yields promised by modern agricultural systems. The results, however, decrease as the organic matter in the soil declines and the soil itself becomes lifeless and prone to erosion. Increasing quantities of \Jfertilizer\j are then needed to maintain production, thus raising production costs. Moreover, since crops that are grown with the use of chemicals lack natural health and resistance, ever-increasing quantities of pesticides are needed to protect them, polluting both soil and atmosphere and undermining the health of farm workers. Such a system achieves only temporary gains and is not sustainable in the long run.
Soil is a rich but fragile \Jecosystem\j. It is also living. One handful of good soil is home to millions of micro-organisms, which ensure and sustain fertility. In some areas of the world, even a \Jcentimetre\j of soil can take centuries to develop. But it can be lost for ever - blown away by wind, washed off deforested slopes by rain, sterilized by salts, poisoned by chemicals, bled dry of \Jnutrients\j or buried under swamps or buildings.
Through the mismanagement of land resources, farmers around the world are losing valuable topsoil to wind and rain. In tropical areas, what is referred to as "slash-and-burn" agriculture eliminates rainforests to create farmland. After the harvest is complete, fields are often left barren, exposed to \Jdrought\j and flood. Valuable topsoil is lost, and in many areas of the world \Jdesertification\j results.
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"Urbanization: The Price of Poor Land Management",166,0,0,0
For many who live in the country, life is not easy: water and fuel have to be carried long distances, crops are often ruined by droughts or floods, and farmland is being eroded away because of poor land management. There are few jobs outside the farmstead. As a result, many rural people of the world have moved and are moving to the city in search of an easier life and better jobs.
The decision to move is not always made voluntarily. When the soil is damaged to such an extent that crops can no longer be grown, farmers and their families are forced to move away. Many of them have moved to cities that were already buckling under the pressures of too many people.
Civic authorities in these cities cannot cope with the growing numbers of citizens. In many areas, high birth rates have already resulted in overpopulation. When those arriving from rural areas are added to the numbers of people already there, housing, communications, transport, services and water supplies cannot meet the demand. The result is, at best, urban sprawl and, at worst, a steady increase in the size of urban slums.
In most cases, civic responses to the plight of urban areas have been inadequate. While the problem has been recognized, it is far from being solved. Few mechanisms have been found to cope with the problem of financing housing for poor families. Grassroots movements are often thwarted by the inflexibility of existing policies and institutions.
The increase in the size of cities has had other unwanted effects. As cities expand, they lay claim to the fertile agricultural land which surrounds them. In developing countries, it is expected that by the end of this century, urban areas will occupy more than twice the amount of land they occupied in 1980, an increase from eight to 17 million hectares.
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"Search for Agricultural Sustainability",167,0,0,0
With the world population expected to grow from more than five billion to nearly eight billion by the year 2015, overall agricultural yields will have to grow more than two per cent a year to achieve global food security. In order to accomplish this growth sustainably, the world must find a way to grow food in a manner that does not affect the ability of land to grow food in the future. The challenge facing farmers is to find a balance between boosting yields to feed expanding populations while adopting environmentally sustainable agricultural methods that do not deplete the natural resources needed for tomorrow.
Armed with the knowledge of past failures, and spurred by the deepening recession and food shortages, the farmers of the world have been searching for a different approach to agricultural development. Members of many rural communities have begun to reexamine the role of traditional farming practices, and to improvise and create innovative "Earth-friendly" technologies.
Many major international development agencies, including those of the United Nations, have all too often advocated and supported a top-down advisory approach to agricultural development. Aid workers and local staff who have been trained abroad have found it difficult to adapt their knowledge effectively to local conditions. Women, who are often responsible for 80 per cent of agricultural production, have been largely ignored in the development process.
Sustainable agriculture depends on the daily actions of millions of farmers and their families. These men and women often have a sense of stewardship toward their land. They understand that, to survive, they must conserve the productivity of the soil. The key is for farmers to get enough agricultural education and ecological training to enable them to produce more efficiently and safeguard the environment at the same time.
One form of sustainable agriculture that is being pursued in many regions of the world incorporates some of the principles of organic farming. Under this system, yields may be slightly lower in some cases, they can usually be maintained indefinitely. Additionally, the farmer's costs do not increase, as in the case of needing more and more chemical \Jfertilizer\j, because little or no external inputs are required. Natural \Jfertilizer\j is produced from materials found on the farm, and in combination with various agricultural methods, healthy crops are produced which have natural resistance to pests and diseases.
Organic farming works by giving the plants what they require from nature. Plants get their food from \Jhumus\j, which is the end result of the decay of organic matter. The ingredients for a good compost can include farm-crop residues, weeds, ash, hedge clippings, kitchen waste and animal \Jmanure\j. Under the right conditions, the compost pile becomes food for the teeming millions of micro-organisms in the soil. These micro-organisms, when healthy, release the minerals from soil particles that are needed by the plant. Thus, the plant is fed indirectly, not directly as with soluble chemical \Jfertilizer\j.
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"Cash Crops: A Look at Comparative Disadvantage",168,0,0,0
In the language of macro-economists, comparative advantage is a term used to define a business relationship whereby each party trades what he or she is best suited to produce. On the surface, this principle should work well, resulting in benefits being equally shared among all those involved in the transactions. In many countries, however, the need to generate foreign exchange to import products and to service foreign debt has led to the use of land for the farming of "cash crops" instead of the staple food needed by the citizens. Unfortunately, this practice has often led to unbalanced \Jnutrition\j, health problems and hunger.
When this happens, basic staples are either unavailable or must be imported, paid for with the foreign currency earned through the sale of the cash crops. The prices for the cash crops, such as \Jcoffee\j, tea, groundnuts and sugar, are set by industrial cartels operating in the developed countries. The prices for the products imported are also set by market forces in the developed countries. The result is often a situation that forces Southern farmers to engage in land - damaging agricultural practices while receiving little or no benefit from any increased production.
#
"Taking Community Action for Proper Land Use",169,0,0,0
While problems persist, there has been a lot of substantive progress in agricultural reform over the past two decades. Yields have improved and waste has been reduced. Improved methods have been found for applying \Jfertilizer\j more economically, and alternative methods of pest control have been successfully used in place of more dangerous chemical ones. Biotechnologies which enable favourable genes to be transplanted from one plant to another promise much for tomorrow's agriculture.
By mobilizing your organization and your community, you can do a lot to improve the efficient use of land resources. This section introduces some suggestions that your community could consider when drawing up its action plan to help preserve the sustainability of agricultural production.
\BEncourage the Development of Appropriate Technologies.\b Attention needs to be given to what the most appropriate technology is for a particular situation, rather than using the most advanced technology available. The traditional farming methods already available in a country should also be considered, as they may often be more appropriate. Studies have shown that with the right combination of crops, the amount of inputs required, such as chemicals and \Jfertilizer\j, can be reduced. This, in turn, will decrease the amount of agricultural \Jpollution\j and allow the land to regenerate more quickly. Although production may decrease in the short term, sustainable agriculture techniques will help prevent land degradation, allowing for longer use of the land.
\BSupport education and training initiatives.\b Some people advocate shipping food from countries with a surplus to those with a shortage. While this approach is appropriate in famine-relief situations, it will not provide a long-term solution. It is often said that it is much better to enable a person to fish for himself, rather than merely giving him a fish. There is a need for intensive education and training on issues relating to food security. This education and training should focus on areas such as basic food production, new technologies and how agricultural markets work. Education and training in food production methods should enable people to select and implement technologies and practices which fit
their particular environment and culture. Your community organization could help promote these initiatives by visiting with educational institutes and asking what help they may need.
\BWork with small-scale farmers.\b Your organization could work with those farmers who have chosen to establish cooperatives with other farmers in their area. This type of cooperation between farmers can enable them to purchase machinery and tools, seeds and others necessary items at lower prices and also to market their products both locally and abroad at higher prices. A community organization could help in this endeavour by providing economic counseling, financial assistance or even the labour to build the cooperative.
\BPromote sustainable consumer practices.\b We all need to be aware of how our choice of food products affects the health of the environment. As well, what we put into our mouths that is bad for the planet is often not the best thing for our bodies. By being more environmentally conscious, we become more health conscious as well. Community organizations could develop awareness campaigns on food \Jnutrition\j, in cooperation with consumer associations, schools and ministries of health. An advertising campaign could also show the effects of excessive consumption patterns on people, particularly children, pregnant or nursing mothers and the elderly.
\BWork with your government to promote sustainable agriculture.\b By working with your local and national governments, your organization could influence regulatory standards to change consumer behaviour. These standards could discourage the use of environmentally unsafe products, provide more details on food ingredients and their production source, and set consistent standards for environment-friendly agricultural products to promote consumer confidence in using them. The introduction of such standards will make consumers more aware of their consumption habits and ensure they receive the same types of information from all producers. Well-organized communities also could change governmental consumption practices by convincing the government to award contracts to "green" suppliers.
\BWork with other organizations.\b Community organizations, such as youth groups, senior citizen groups and religious groups can not only work together but can approach organizations and institutions that are already involved in sustainable food production and offer their help. The larger the numbers of people who choose to work together toward a common goal, the better their chances of accomplishing it.
\BConduct market research.\b Many groups have actually managed to change the priorities of food producing companies so that they focus on sustainable food production methods and products. Study a specific company (such as the company you might be working for) and examine its production methods or area of business. Then, research the market to see if there are more sustainable alternatives to its products or production methods and investigate what demand there might be for such products. Finally, present this research to the management of the company and suggest that the company either produce the new product alongside of, or instead of, its current product.
\BWrite now, right now.\b If a company does not appear to be producing food items in a way that is consistent with accepted sustainable practices, you could write, or have your organization write, a letter declaring that all your members will henceforth boycott the products of that company. A letter from a group is much more effective if handwritten letters from each group member are sent. Even a single letter has been effective in getting companies to change policies because many companies believe that one person who takes the time to write a letter might represent thousands who do not write.
\BProduce a cookbook.\b Your organization could promote or write your own cookbook which emphasizes eating healthier and using fewer processed foods. The cookbook should present delicious recipes using easily available ingredients. You should also mark the recipes which are quick and easy to prepare. You could gather different recipes for the cookbook from within your own country or community and give credit to each person who donates a recipe. This type of project is also often effective in raising money for projects. Some groups have developed international cookbooks with recipes from around the world.
\BLaunch an advertising campaign.\b Your organization could create an advertisement campaign to combat excess food consumption, poor dietary habits, and consumption of certain goods. The advertisements should be hard-hitting to challenge some of the beliefs of people and be dramatic enough to change their consumption habits. Some could demonstrate the negative effects of certain food consumption patterns.
\BGet involved with youth groups.\b Extremely effective campaigns to promote sustainable agriculture and consumption patterns could be conducted at the community level by having local citizens and especially school children develop posters. Prizes can be offered (perhaps donated by community organizations) and posters displayed in public places.
Students also could write and present plays and skits about consumption and \Jnutrition\j practices. These productions can be presented locally and can even be taped and shared with other communities. The production of professional quality print, audio and video material could be done with the assistance of people learning about the media industry, such as students who are learning from your local college or university. Students are often eager to participate in activities that benefit the community. International organizations such as the Environmental Liaison Centre International (ELCI) or Greenpeace could also be approached to assist in supplying background material and advice for the campaign.
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"Feed the Soil, Not the Crop",170,0,0,0
\BA Success Story \b
After discovering that intensive systems involving large amounts of chemical \Jfertilizer\j, pesticides, hybrid seeds and mechanized irrigation systems are not only too costly for developing countries, but are contributing to soil degradation and loss of plant diversity, the \JKenya\j Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF) was established in 1986 to encourage more sustainable methods of agriculture, mainly among smallholder farmers.
KIOF staff visit farmers' groups in the field, demonstrating methods and following up with later visits. Exchange visits between groups are arranged. Successful farmers from the groups were initially enrolled as paid promoters to encourage training in their areas and recruit new members. After progress has been assured, the promoter may be moved to another area. To date there are about 100 groups comprising some 3000 farmers.
KIOF has concentrated so far on the central and eastern provinces of \JKenya\j, but by collaborating with other sustainable farming institutions and groups sponsored by churches, a wider audience has been reached and student exchanges have taken place. Workshops have been held, both for local participants and groups from other African countries. There have been exchanges with \JBotswana\j, Malawi, \JMauritius\j, \JTanzania\j, \JUganda\j, \JZambia\j and Zimbabwe.
KIOF's slogan is "Feed the soil, not the crop." Chemical farming, say KIOF directors, creates a vicious cycle: more \Jfertilizer\j, more pests, more biocide, more cost, poor soil, lower yield. When grown organically, plants are less susceptible to pests and diseases because they are naturally healthy. Cell walls are thicker and cell sap is correctly balanced. The result is a healthier, stronger crop, and healthier, stronger people.
Contact:
Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF)
P.O. Box 34972
Nairobi, \JKenya\j
Tel: (+254 2) 732-487
Fax: (+254 2) 581-178
e-mail: kiof@elci.gn.apc.org
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"Invisible Gardening",171,0,0,0
\BA Success Story \b
Growing up on the Caribbean islands of Puerto Rico and \JCuba\j, Andy Lopez was always conscious of the balance of sustainability. Islands are small ecosystems unto themselves, and must be respected as such. On a larger scale, says Lopez, the Earth is but an island in the vast ocean of space and, as such, its \Jecosystem\j must be likewise respected.
After moving to the United States, Lopez founded the organization, The Invisible Gardeners of America, so called because he believes a good farmer need only allow the invisible hand of nature to do its thing. Lopez believes the more humans get involved in the natural process through chemicals and other "unnatural" methods, the worse off the crops - and our health - will be. He now promotes this message worldwide through the use of \Jtelevision\j, radio and a long list of "organically correct" publications. His material, Natural Pest Control, has helped thousands of people worldwide to find alternatives to chemicals for their homes and gardens.
For Lopez, one of the most important aspects of invisible gardening involves using compost. A good pile of compost has five primary ingredients: organic materials (leaves, vegetable and fruit scraps, \Jcoffee\j grounds, and egg shells.), nitrogen-rich materials (grass trimmings and fresh plant clippings), bacteria, moisture and oxygen. A variety of materials will result in compost with a higher nutrient content. Meat, bones, grease, fat and oils should not be included. The simplest way to make a small
household-size compost is to make a pile of green wastes, balancing the amounts of green (fresh) and brown (dead) materials. It is important to add kitchen scraps regularly. Chopping or cutting everything into small pieces helps to speed \Jdecomposition\j. It is important to allow plenty of oxygen to circulate through your compost by regularly turning your pile over.
When your compost pile is fully decomposed, mix it in with the soil on your farm or in your garden. For added effectiveness, sprinkle some around the base of your plants when they start to grow.
\IGAIA, An Atlas of \JPlanet\j Management,\i Myers, Dr. Norman, London, Gaia Books Limited, 1984 - \IOur Common Future,\i The World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987 - \IA Manual for the Household Hazardous Waste Audit;\i Center for the Environment, August 1987 - \IMaking the Switch, Alternatives to Using Toxic Chemicals in the Home,\i Golden Empire Health Planning Center, February 1987 - \IPromoting Sustainable Agriculture,\i The Challenge of the Environment, UNDP Annual Review, 1991 - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute with UNEP and UNDP, Oxford University Press, 1994.
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"Desertification Introduction",173,0,0,0
\B"Who has seen my cows? Who has seen my goats? These leafless trees and this dry land must be why they left." \b
\I--Youssou N'Dour\i
Desertification is a serious problem that threatens the livelihoods and the lives of nearly a billion people in more than 100 countries. The total area affected covers one-third of the Earth's land surface. The people living in these areas are at risk of having to abandon their homes and migrate because the land can no longer sustain them. Though significant efforts have been initiated to combat \Jdesertification\j, the problem is worsening: each year, according to the Worldwatch Institute, the continents lose 24 billion tons of topsoil, creating a condition that often results in severe \Jdesertification\j.
Desertification does not, as many think, mean the expansion of deserts. It is a process of land degradation in the drylands where previously stable environments are degraded by humans through erosion, overgrazing, overcropping, poor irrigation practices and deforestation, combined with variations in climate. \JDesertification\j is an environmental problem that is both the reason behind and the consequence of numerous other ecological concerns, including the loss of biological diversity and the depletion of water resources. As such, it contributes to an environmental spiral that could get progressively worse unless drastic and immediate efforts are taken to correct it. Similarly, it stems from and leads to extreme poverty.
Wars and trouble spots can cause \Jdesertification\j, since they give rise to numbers of refugees, who are often settled in temporary shelters. This causes land degradation and deforestation in a wide circle around each refugee camp.
Rapid growth in population causes agricultural expansion into marginal lands, leading to subdivision of land, deforestation and, again, \Jdesertification\j. Excessive use of pesticides and other chemical substances can lead to depletion of soil fertility and soil degradation which, again, contributes to \Jdesertification\j.
The deterioration of life¡support systems as a result of \Jdesertification\j causes significant social and economic disruptions. \JDesertification\j has a debilitating impact on the capacity of populations and communities to sustain the means needed for livelihood. In extreme cases, as during periods of \Jdrought\j, the land is no longer capable of supporting the people who live there. Often they have no other alternative but to leave the countryside for urban areas. Where rural human settlements gradually disappear, what is left is often a socio¡ecological situation in which no development is possible.
Though most of the countries that are affected by \Jdesertification\j are in developing countries, \Jdesertification\j is a problem that must be viewed in an international context because it cuts across political boundaries and is found in all continents. \JDesertification\j is the result of a complex interaction of numerous factors, including external aspects such as the state of the world economy, commodity prices, interest rates, energy imports, cultural behaviour and conditional aid packages. These external factors, together with internal ones such as inappropriate political and policy instruments, low environmental investment levels and high population growth, combine to work against good land management and to worsen \Jdesertification\j.
The current global economic system also is part of the problem. The rapid incorporation of indigenous economic systems based on subsistence production into a world economy of mass commodity production often causes indigenous peoples to over-cultivate their land. Trade and structural adjustment programs and the transfer of inappropriate technology exacerbates the problem. The economies of many developing countries are heavily dependent on the export of raw materials, such as agricultural cash crops, into markets over which they have no control. This leads to an over-exploitation of often fragile dryland resources.
Because \Jdesertification\j brings about the loss of vegetation, it can result in the \Jextinction\j of plant and animal species, and therefore contribute to the loss of \Jbiodiversity\j. Drylands are the source of many of the world's varieties of food and medicines. The loss of these plants through \Jdesertification\j represents the loss of valuable and irreplaceable genetic material.
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"Seeking Solutions to Combat Desertification",174,0,0,0
Combating \Jdesertification\j effectively will require both top-down solutions from governments and bottom-up approaches from communities. Managing the drylands of the world in a manner that can increase overall food security while maintaining the sustainable livelihoods of the people is important. During the past few decades, numerous approaches to this problem have been made. These efforts include reforestation, establishment of shelter or green belts, sand dune stabilization, protection of existing forest reserves, the introduction of agro-forestry practices, establishment of communal woodlots and soil and water conservation measures. Many of the national and regional action programs, however, have been hampered by lack of political will, poor financial resources and huge external debts. Africa, the continent worst affected by \Jdesertification\j, may yet hold the key to the rehabilitation of the rangelands, if efforts to farm indigenous herbivores instead of introduced livestock takes root and spreads.
Game ranching can succeed once local communities become involved and find they can make a better living from wildlife than from domestic animals which are not adapted to habitat. A company called Wildlife Ranching and Research in \JKenya\j has gained the support of more than 50 community landowners who have replaced \Jcattle\j with game, culling the natural increase and selling the meat to hotels and wholesalers. They find that degraded rangeland recovers when managed this way, since the main disadvantage of domestic livestock - erosion and compaction caused by the daily trek to water - no longer exists. Most wild herbivores drink little or no water, they are naturally resistant to disease, well adapted to heat and do not harbour ticks; their \Jsaliva\j contains a hormone which encourages pasture growth, while their meat, low in saturated fat, is healthier for the consumer. In addition, different species utilize different levels of vegetation, thus allowing a greater population density of animals to a given area without degradation of the environment.
This new management system, which solves the water problem while combining conservation with profit, is in the opinion of its supporters, the only way to save the world's rangelands from the menace of \Jdesertification\j.
The 1977 UN Conference on \JDesertification\j (UNCOD) acknowledged \Jdesertification\j as a global problem that will require concerted efforts from all nations if practical solutions are to be found. Seventeen years later, an international legal agreement to curb the degradation of drylands worldwide was agreed upon by more than 100 governments. This UN Convention to Combat \JDesertification\j, which was called for at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, established a framework for national, regional and local programs to counter the degradation of drylands. It also calls for international action, including the mobilization of "substantial financial resources," transfer of anti-desertification technologies, information exchange and research and training programs.
The agreement commits countries to a bottom-up approach that integrates local people, national authorities and the international community. The negotiating process to produce the agreement involved an unprecedented number of community and international organizations. The Convention's approach reflects a growing recognition of the importance of grassroots groups and NGOs in fighting \Jdesertification\j, because they reach the people who work the land. The Convention assigns NGOs a role in designing and implementing national programs and in overseeing national \Jdesertification\j funds.
#
"Taking Community Action to Combat Desertification",175,0,0,0
To combat the problems associated with \Jdesertification\j, it is essential to address a number of environmental issues such as mass migration, loss of plant and animal species and climate change. Often, these issues are best resolved by addressing certain areas of social development such as awareness-raising, education and the empowerment of the marginalized members of society - especially women, who often work the land.
Desertification reflects fundamental ills, such as poverty, underdevelopment and lack of food security. At its root is the fact that, in order simply to survive, many people are forced to engage in environmentally-unsustainable activities. Solving the problem of \Jdesertification\j will not be possible without simultaneously attacking the causes of poverty and addressing the basic needs of rural people.
Stopping \Jdesertification\j would necessitate reversing the processes of land degradation and protecting soil, water and biological resources. At the level of government policy, this would require the promotion of sustainable socio-economic development in order to eradicate poverty and ensure food and energy security, as well as the improvement of living conditions and habitat.
There is a need for international, regional, national and local-level government action to stop the process of \Jdesertification\j. There is also much that must be done at both the community and individual level. Many solutions can be found in the chapters dealing with problems related to \Jdesertification\j, such as population, deforestation and sustainable land-use management.
Following are some specific suggestions related to \Jdesertification\j that can be carried out at both the individual and community level.
\BGet your community involved.\b Community organizations and international NGOs have a vital role to play in combating \Jdesertification\j. This is because community organizations are well placed to help governments put appropriate projects into place. To help communities cope with the effects of \Jdrought\j and the impacts of \Jdesertification\j, there is a need for both short and long-term solutions. If the entire community is motivated and mobilized to deal with \Jdesertification\j, true sustainable solutions will be found.
\BPromote sustainable agriculture.\b The development and dissemination of sustainable agricultural methods is essential to reducing causes of \Jdesertification\j, including soil erosion, over-exploitation of fragile lands, overgrazing on rangelands, and in some areas, overuse of chemical inputs that can reduce long-term productivity. Overall, it is important to reduce pressure on marginal lands, to counter land degradation and to rehabilitate degraded lands through the use of appropriate land management techniques, to re-forest deforested areas and to develop the use of alternative energy sources. See the chapters on Agriculture and forests for more information on these issues.
\BSupport education.\b More research is needed on how and why land users degrade their land. This research should also focus on land tenure systems, which constitute a major impediment to communities living in fragile ecosystems. Public environmental education is necessary to ensure long-term sustainability of all measures that combat \Jdesertification\j.
\BPromote public information.\b Programs to educate citizens about the value of preserving woodland and about alternatives to current practices are necessary, along with citizen participation in developing the best methods of implementing the goals. Your community can do much to spread awareness of the reality of \Jdesertification\j through media campaigns and public speaking. See the chapter, The Community Toolbox, for more information on this approach.
\BPursue partnership with your government.\b A supportive political environment together with the necessary \Jinfrastructure\j plays an important role in the success of projects aimed at combating. Community organizations can persuade their governments through letter-writing campaigns, the use of media and other methods to get them to take notice of the problem of \Jdesertification\j. Governments seeking to protect the fundamental, long-term interests of their people in dryland areas should seek to arrest \Jdesertification\j and reverse its effects whenever possible. This involves not only the direct responsibility of each government to sustain lands under its legal authority, but also a responsibility for all governments to cooperate and to assist in this task as part of a global effort.
\BGet involved in the Conventions.\b Find out if your government has ratified the Conventions on \Jdesertification\j and \Jbiodiversity\j. If it has, find out what your organization can do to support their implementation. If it has not, encourage your government to do so. Community organizations also could analyze these Conventions to determine how they can best ensure their implementation in a local context.
\BPromote popular participation and use of local knowledge.\b Many indigenous people have lived for thousands of years on their land without desertifying it. The inherent survival skills and knowledge of the Earth's processes of traditional peoples living in drylands could offer many solutions to these problems. Any policy taken to combat \Jdesertification\j should take into account the ways of life of indigenous peoples in the areas affected, and try to incorporate their knowledge into an overall action plan.
#
"Success in Senegal",176,0,0,0
More than 500 people living in a rural area 200 kilometres north of \JDakar\j in the West African country of \JSenegal\j recently experienced the benefits of community and organizational partnership in combating \Jdesertification\j.
With a small amount of seed funding from the UN Development Program (UNDP) and World Vision International, several village groups set out to combat a problem they viewed as potentially threatening the habitability of their ancestral homeland. The Louga Region had long been an area of ecological imbalance, as a result of repeated attacks by various natural catastrophes such as \Jdrought\j and pest plagues and by the overexploitation of natural resources by rural dwellers who were victims of an imposed and inappropriate agrarian policy. The result was the chronic degradation of soils, the gradual loss of vegetation cover, a rural exodus and impoverishment of pastureland.
To address this problem, the community groups initiated the installation of 52 small boreholes, equipped with manual pumps. Access to more abundant \Jgroundwater\j has enabled water requirements to be met. They also set up small irrigated holdings to grow potatoes in the villages. By teaching the villagers about the environment and its connection to their problems, the solutions became long-lasting because the villagers recognized their stake in the process. It was then possible to develop the local methods of the villagers. These included the natural regeneration of \Jacacia\j albida trees in closed sites protected by euphorbia, where they grow perennial crops such as manioc and vegetables, and practice organic \Jfertilization\j of the soil.
Now the community has an abundant and more lasting source of \Jgroundwater\j, which is used for both community needs and for irrigation to provide income from cash-generating crops, such as potatoes.
#
"NGOs Act to Combat Desertification",177,0,0,0
While the governments of the world were busy negotiating the fine print on the Convention to Combat \JDesertification\j, more than 50 local and regional non-governmental organizations took action to address the issue directly. During the final negotiations for the Convention in Paris, more than 60 NGO representatives, mostly from Africa, lobbied actively to ensure the concerns of local communities were considered. In the first seven months after the Convention was finalized, the NGOs met in their own forums from Ouagadougou to \JNairobi\j to take action against \Jdesertification\j.
"The Convention to Combat \JDesertification\j provides a platform on which NGOs can build further action," said Heinz Greijin of the Environmental Liaison Centre International (ELCI) in an address to a United Nations plenary. "But it also raises a lot of expectations of NGOs to inform and mobilize the communities."
To inform and mobilize, the NGOs established an electronic mail (e-mail) conference on \Jdesertification\j; organized meetings in Europe to get NGO support there; provided valuable input to the Commission on Sustainable Development; and organized awareness-raising activities in \JPakistan\j, \JKenya\j, Mali, \JPeru\j, Burkina Faso and Canada. In addition, the NGOs created a global network on \Jdesertification\j to facilitate information sharing and coordination among community-based organizations and NGOs that are active in combating \Jdesertification\j. The network is unique in its objective of bridging the gap between a Convention that has been negotiated at an international level and the people at the community level.
ELCI continues its efforts to mobilize community groups to take action against \Jdesertification\j, as well as other environmental issues. Among their numerous other activities, ELCI organizes forums throughout the developing world in which community groups can meet with government representatives and international experts.
\IDown to Earth, A simplified guide to the Convention to Combat \JDesertification\j, why it is necessary and what is important and different about it,\i Geoffrey Lean, The Centre for Our Common Future, Geneva, 1995 - \IThe United Nations Convention to Combat \JDesertification\j in those Countries Experiencing Serious \JDrought\j and/or \JDesertification\j, Particularly in Africa,\i United Nations, 1994. - \IWorld Atlas of Desertification,\i the United Nations Environment Program, Edward Arnold, 1992. - \IWorld Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,\i a report by the World Resources Institute with UNEP and UNDP, Oxford University Press, 1994.
#
"Common Abbreviations",179,0,0,0
CFC: Chlorofluorocarbon
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
EETU: Environmental Education and Training Unit
EEU: Environmental Economics Unit
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment
ELIU: Environmental Law and Institutions Unit
FAO: (UN) Food and Agriculture Organization
GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GEF: Global Environment Facility
GEMS: Global Environment Monitoring System
GESAMP: Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine \JPollution\j
GRID: Global Resource Information \JDatabase\j
HABITAT: United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS)
IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency
IE/PAC: Industry and Environment Program Activity Centre
IEEP: International Environmental Education Program
ILO: (UN) International Labour Organization
IMF: International Monetary Fund
IMO: (UN) International Maritime Organization
IOC: Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
IPA: (UNEP) Information and Public affairs
IRPTC: International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals
IUCN: The World Conservation Union
MARC: Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre
NGO: Non-Governmental Organization
OCA: Oceans and Coastal Areas
OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PAC: Program Activity Centre
PCRI: \JPollution\j Control Research Institute
RCU: Regional Co-ordinating Unit
TEB: Terrestrial Ecosystems Branch
UNCED: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (The Earth Summit)
UNCHE: United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
UNCLS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNCOD: United Nations Conference on \JDesertification\j
UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP: United Nations Development Program
UNDRO: United Nations Disaster Relief Organization
UNEP: United Nations Environment Program
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund
UNIDO: United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UNITAR: United Nations Institute for Training and Research
UNSCEAR: United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
UNSO: United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office
WHO: (UN) World Health Organization
WICEM: World Industry Conference on Environmental Management
WMO: (UN) World Meteorological Organization
#
"Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms (A-G)",180,0,0,0
\BAfforestation:\b Planting trees where there were none before.
\BAgroforestry:\b The \Jintegration\j of tree growing with crop and livestock production. \JAgroforestry\j offers a way of tackling the combined problems of wood storages, poor agricultural production and environmental degradation.
\BAcid rain:\b When strong acids fall from the atmosphere in the form of rain, snow, fog or dry particles. The acid is the result of \Jpollution\j caused mostly by sulphur \Joxides\j and \Jnitrogen\j \Joxides\j that are discharged into the atmosphere by industry. It also is created by burning coal and oil, from the operation of smelting industries and from transportation. In the atmosphere, these gases combine with water vapour to form acids, which then fall back to Earth. The result often kills forests and sterilizes lakes.
\BAnthropogenic:\b Human-induced or human-caused, derived from the Greek root anthropos meaning "man."
\BAlgae blooms:\b The rapid growth of \Jalgae\j on the surface of lakes, streams, or ponds; stimulated by nutrient enrichment; an explosive increase in the density of \Jphytoplankton\j within an area.
\BAlgae:\b Rootless plants that grow in sunlit waters in relative proportion to the amounts of \Jnutrients\j available. They can affect water quality adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are food for fish and small aquatic animals. However, when \Jalgae\j exists in excess, it takes away oxygen from the water, thus killing all life.
\BAquifer:\b A porous, water-saturated layer of sediment and bedrock under the Earth's surface; also described as artesian (confined) or water table (unconfined).
\BArid:\b Regions where precipitation is insufficient in quantity for most crops and where agriculture is impractical without irrigation.
\BAtmosphere:\b The envelope of air surrounding the Earth. Most of the total mass of the atmosphere lies within the \Jtroposphere\j and the \Jstratosphere\j. Most weather events are confined to the \Jtroposphere\j, the lower eight to 12 km of the atmosphere. The ozone layer is found in the \Jstratosphere\j which typically extends from 10 to 40 km above the Earth.
\BBiodegradable:\b Capable of being broken down by living organisms into inorganic compounds. Ideally all waste should be biodegradable.
\BBiological diversity (biodiversity):\b The variety of different living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the variety of different ecosystems that they form. This includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems, and the genetic variability of each species.
\BBiological resources:\b Includes genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity.
\BBiomass:\b The total amount of living organisms in a given area.
\BBiosphere:\b The global \Jecosystem\j; that part of the earth and atmosphere capable of supporting living organisms.
\BCarbon tetrachloride:\b A solvent which is considered toxic and can cause cancer in humans. It is used primarily as a feedstock material for the production of other chemicals, including CFCs.
\BCataracts:\b Damage to the eye lens, which impairs vision. It is often caused by UV-B radiation, which is usually filtered out by the ozone layer.
\BCFCs (chlorofluorocarbons):\b Any of the various compounds consisting of \Jchlorine\j, \Jhydrogen\j, \Jfluorine\j, and carbon. They were first invented by DuPont Corporation in 1928 and have been widely used as refrigerants, as \Jaerosol\j propellants, as cleaning solvents and in the manufacture of plastic \Jfoam\j. In 1972, scientists discovered that gaseous CFCs can deplete the ozone layer when they slowly rise into the \Jstratosphere\j and their \Jchlorine\j atoms react with ozone molecules. Efforts are now underway through the Montreal Protocol to reduce and then eliminate production of this substance worldwide.
\BCarbon dioxide:\b A colourless, odourless, non-poisonous gas, which results from fossil fuel combustion and is normally a part of the air.
\BClimate change:\b The slow variations of climatic characteristics over time at a given place. Usually refers to the change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is, in addition to natural climate variability, observed over comparable periods.
\BClimate system:\b The totality of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, \Jbiosphere\j, and geosphere and their interactions that characterize the average and extreme conditions of the atmosphere over a long period of time at any one place or region of the earth's surface.
\BClimate:\b The long term average condition of the weather in a given area.
\BComposting:\b The natural biological \Jdecomposition\j of organic material in the presence of aerobic bacteria to form a rich, dark soil \Jfertilizer\j.
\BConservation:\b The long-term protection and sustainable management of natural resources in accordance with principles that ensure long-term economic and social benefits.
\BContaminant:\b Any biological, chemical, physical or radiological substance that has an negative effect on air, soil or water.
\BDeforestation:\b The felling of trees, usually for commercial purposes.
\BDesertification:\b Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.
\BDeveloped World:\b Those countries that have industrialized through possessing the means and the technology to do so. Also referred to as the "North" or the "Industrialized World."
\BDeveloping World:\b Those countries that are underdeveloped and are not industrialized to the extent of the developed world. Characterized by high infant mortality rates, lack of proper sanitation, low \Jliteracy\j rates, poverty, etc. Most organizations, including the United Nations, estimate that 60 to 80 per cent of the world fits into this category. Also referred to as the "South", "Underdeveloped" or "Third World."
\BDDT:\b An organochloride used as an \Jinsecticide\j. It has been banned since 1969 in most developed countries because it is a probable cause of cancer. However, it is still widely used in developing countries.
\BDioxin:\b Any of a family of compounds known chemically as dibenzo-p-dioxins. Concern about them arises from their potential toxicity and contamination in commercial products.
\BDrought:\b A naturally-occurring phenomenon that occurs when precipitation is significantly below normal levels, causing water levels to drop and vegetation to die. This extended period of dry weather usually lasts longer than expected and leads to measurable losses for a human community (crop damage, water supply shortage).
\BEcosphere:\b Refers to the entire global \Jecosystem\j that comprises atmosphere, \Jlithosphere\j, hydrosphere, and \Jbiosphere\j as inseparable components.
\BEcosystem:\b A dynamic and complex system of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment all interacting as a functional unit within a defined physical location. The term may be applied to a unit as large as the entire ecosphere, but usually refers to a division thereof.
\BEffluent:\b The discharge of industrial or urban waste material into the environment; the outflow from a lake or river.
\BEmissions:\b The release of greenhouse gases and/or their precursors into the atmosphere over a specified area and period of time.
\BEndangered species:\b A species threatened with \Jextinction\j.
\BEnvironment:\b All of the external factors, conditions, and influences which affect an organism or a community. Also, everything that surrounds an organism or organisms, including both natural and human-built elements.
\BEnvironmental Impact Assessment (EIA):\b The critical appraisal, both positive and negative, of the likely effects of a proposed project, ,development, activity or policy on the environment.
\BEnvironmentally Sound:\b That which does not harm the environment in any way.
\BErosion:\b The wearing away of land surface by wind, water, glaciers, chemicals, and exposure to the atmosphere. Erosion occurs naturally but can be intensified by land-clearing practices related to farming, residential or industrial development, road building or deforestation.
\BEutrophication:\b Over-enrichment of a water body with \Jnutrients\j, resulting in excessive growth of organisms and depletion of oxygen concentration.
\BExtinct species:\b A species that no longer survives anywhere in the world.
\BFossil fuels:\b Coal, oil, \Jpetroleum\j, and natural gas and other \Jhydrocarbons\j are called fossil fuels because they are made of fossilized, carbon-rich plant and animal remains. These remains were buried in sediments and compressed over geologic time, slowly being converted to fuel.
\BGlobal warming:\b Strictly speaking, global warming and global cooling refer to the natural warming and cooling trends that the Earth has experienced all through its history. However, the term usually refers to the gradual rise in the Earth's temperatures that could result from the accumulated gases that are trapped in the atmosphere.
\BGreenhouse effect:\b A warming of the Earth's atmosphere caused by the presence in the atmosphere of certain heat-trapping gases (e.g., water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane). These gases absorb radiation emitted by the Earth, thereby retarding the loss of energy from the system to space. The greenhouse effect has been a property of Earth's atmosphere for millions of years and is responsible for maintaining the Earth's surface at a temperature that makes it habitable for human beings. An Enhanced Greenhouse Effect is when the increased concentrations of these gases are "enhancing" the natural greenhouse effect. It is the "enhanced greenhouse effect" that is expected to cause a large and rapid rise in average global temperatures.
\BGreenhouse gases:\b Those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and artificial, that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation and that are responsible for global warming. The most potent greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, is rapidly accumulating in the atmosphere due to human activities.
\BGross National Product (GNP):\b The total market value of all the goods and services produced by a nation during a specific period of time.
\BGround-level ozone (tropospheric ozone):\b Ozone (O3) that occurs near the surface of the Earth. In \Jpollution\j it causes concern because of its toxic effects.
\BGroundwater:\b The supply of fresh water found beneath the earth's surface (usually in aquifers) which is often accessed through wells and springs.
#
"Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms (H-W)",181,0,0,0
\BHabitat:\b The geographical location(s) and the associated set(s) of environmental conditions that are necessary for the flourishing of a particular type of plant or animal. In other words, their home.
\BHalons:\b Chemical compounds developed from \Jhydrocarbons\j by replacing atoms of \Jhydrogen\j with atoms of \Jhalogens\j, such as \Jfluorine\j, \Jchlorine\j, or bromine. CFCs are halons (see above). Halons are widely used as fire extinguishing agents.
\BHydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs):\b Organic substances composed of \Jhydrogen\j, \Jchlorine\j, \Jfluorine\j, and carbon atoms. These chemicals are less stable than CFCs, and are therefore less damaging to the ozone layer. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs): Chemicals with \Jfluorine\j but no \Jchlorine\j, and therefore likely not damaging to the ozone layer. However, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases.
\BHazardous waste:\b Refuse that could present dangers through the contamination and \Jpollution\j of the environment. It requires special disposal techniques to make it harmless or less dangerous.
\BHydroelectricity:\b Electric energy produced by water-powered \Jturbine\j generators.
\BHydrologic cycle:\b The cycle that water through its natural process of \Jevaporation\j and precipitation: from the sea, through the atmosphere, to the land and back to the sea.
\BIndustrial Revolution:\b The Industrial Revolution began in the early 1800's and heralded the birth of the "modern times." After the Industrial Revolution, work that was done by hand was accomplished through the use of machines. It brought on the advent of the steam engine, cotton gin, sewing machine, paper, telegraph, and railroad and it saw the beginnings of many of our present industries. While it occurred in the North, the effects of the Industrial Revolution have affected the entire world. Cars, planes, many objects made of metal, telephones, televisions and many other products are the result of this "revolution."
\BIndustrial halocarbons:\b A group of synthetic chemical compounds containing carbon and one or more of \Jchlorine\j, \Jfluorine\j, or bromine. Only those industrial halocarbons containing \Jchlorine\j or bromine pose a threat to the ozone layer.
\BInorganic:\b Matter other than plant or animal, and not containing a combination of carbon, \Jhydrogen\j and oxygen, which all living things contain.
\BIntegrated resource planning:\b The management of two or more resources in the same general area, such as water, soil, timber, grazing land, fish, wildlife and recreation.
\BLand degradation:\b The reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity from rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands. Land degradation usually results from unsustainable land use.
\BMolecules:\b A group of atoms held together by chemical forces.
\BNatural resource:\b (e.g., tree biomass, fresh water, fish) whose supply can essentially never be exhausted, usually because it is continuously produced.
\BNon-Governmental Organization (NGO):\b An organization centred around a cause or causes that works outside the sphere of governments. NGOs often lobby governments in an attempt to influence policy.
\BNon-renewable resources:\b Natural resources that are not naturally replenished once they have been harvested. Non-renewable resources can be used up completely or else used up to such a degree that it is economically impractical to obtain any more of them. Fossil fuels and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources.
\BNorth:\b See "Developed World."
\BNuclear fission:\b The splitting of uranium \Jisotopes\j to produce heat, which is then harnessed to produce electricity.
\BNuclear fusion:\b The fusing together of elements to produce either electrically-charged particles or heat, which is then harnessed to produce electricity. This technology is currently being researched but thus far is not cost-effective. Some scientists believe that it is possible to produce non-radioactive nuclear power with this type of technology.
\BOfficial Development Assistance (ODA):\b That which one country, usually of the North, commits to give to another country, usually of the South, for purposes of assisting with development. The United Nations has been trying for many years to get every country in the developed world to commit to giving 0.7 per cent of its GNP to developing countries as ODA.
\BOrganic Compounds:\b Compounds composed of carbon and \Jhydrogen\j. Organic compounds form the basic building blocks of living tissue.
\BOrganic:\b Referring to or derived from living organisms. In chemistry, organic refers to any compound containing carbon.
\BOrganism:\b A living thing.
\BOzone:\b A gas composed of three atoms of oxygen (03). Ozone partially filters certain wavelengths of ultraviolet light from the Earth. Ozone is a desirable gas in the \Jstratosphere\j, but in high concentrations at ground level, it is toxic to living organisms.
\BOzone layer (stratospheric ozone):\b Ozone that is formed in the \Jstratosphere\j from the conversion of oxygen molecules by solar radiation. Ozone absorbs much ultraviolet radiation and prevents it from reaching the Earth.
\BParts Per Million (PPM):\b The number of "parts" by weight of a substance per million parts of water. This unit is commonly used to represent pollutant concentrations. Large concentrations are expressed in percentages.
\BPesticide:\b A substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. Pesticides can accumulate in the food chain and/or contaminate the environment if they are misused.
\BpH:\b An expression of both acidity and alkalinity on a scale of zero to 14, with seven representing \Jneutrality\j; numbers less than seven indicate increasing acidity and numbers greater than seven indicate increasing alkalinity. Acid rain can increase the \JpH\j level of the water in a lake, thereby killing all life.
\BPhotosynthesis:\b The manufacture by plants of carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of \Jchlorophyll\j, using sunlight as an energy source. Plants thereby absorb carbon from the atmosphere with the process, and store it in their forms.
\BPhytoplankton:\b Usually microscopic aquatic plants, sometimes consisting of only one cell.
\BPlankton:\b Those organisms that are unable to maintain their position or distribution independent of the movement of water or air masses.
\BPollution:\b The contamination of a natural \Jecosystem\j, especially with reference to the activity of humans.
\BPrecipitation:\b Any and all forms of water, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the atmosphere and reach the Earth's surface. A day with measurable precipitation is a day when the water equivalent of the precipitation is equal to or greater than 0.2 mm.
\BRecyclable:\b Refers to such products as paper, glass, plastic, oil and metals that can be reprocessed into products again instead of being disposed of as waste.
\BReforestation:\b The process of reestablishing a forest on previously cleared land.
\BRenewable resources:\b Natural resources that have the capacity to be naturally replenished despite being harvested (e.g., forests, fish). The supply of natural resources can, in theory, never be exhausted, usually because it is continuously produced.
\BResource:\b A person, thing, or action that is used to produce a desired affect or product, usually for meeting human needs or improving the quality of life.
\BSeptic Tank:\b A tank (usually kept underground) that is used to hold domestic wastes when a sewer line is not available to carry them to a treatment plant. It stores the solid waste until bacteria breaks it down and the relatively clean water is absorbed by the ground.
\BSinks:\b Sinks remove gases from the atmosphere either by destroying them through chemical processes or storing them in some other form. Carbon dioxide is often stored in ocean water, plants, or soils, from where it can be released at a later time.
\BSmog (photochemical smog):\b Literally a contraction of "smoke" and "fog"; the colloquial term used for photochemical fog, which includes ozone and numerous other contaminants. Smog is usually adds a brownish haze to the atmosphere.
\BSouth:\b See "Developing World."
\BStratosphere:\b The layer of the atmosphere between about 10 and 40 km above the Earth's surface within which temperatures rise with altitude. The \Jstratosphere\j contains 90 per cent of the atmosphere's ozone.
\BSustainable development:\b Development that ensures that the use of resources and the environment today does not compromise their use in the future.
\BToxic:\b Harmful to living organisms.
\BTransnational corporation:\b A corporation that is not based in any one country but may maintain corporate offices in several countries.
\BTroposphere:\b Layer of the atmosphere that contains about 95 per cent of the Earth's air and extends about six to 17 km up from the Earth, depending upon latitude and season.
\BUltraviolet Radiation (UV):\b Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 200 to 400 nanometres. (Also known as ultraviolet light.)
\BUrban runoff:\b Storm water from city streets and adjacent domestic or commercial properties that may carry pollutants of various kinds into the sewer systems and from there to rivers, lakes or oceans.
\BVOC (volatile organic compound):\b The term used to describe the organic gases and vapours that are present in the air. They are believed to be involved in ground-level ozone formation. Some VOCs are toxic air pollutants.
\BWastewater:\b Water that carries wastes from homes, businesses, and industries. It is usually a mixture of water and dissolved or suspended solids.
\BWastewater treatment plant:\b A facility containing a series of tanks, screens, filters, and other processes by which pollutants are removed from water.
\BWater Quality:\b A term used to describe the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water with respect to its suitability for a particular use.
\BWetlands:\b Lands where water saturation is the dominant factor that determines the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal communities living in the surrounding environment. Other common names for wetlands are bogs, ponds, estuaries and marshes.
\B\IChapter 6: Key Facts on Population and Consumption\b\i
The human population on Earth increases by more than 250,000 people a day, or more than 90 million a year.
The growth of the human population is greater than increases in agricultural productivity around the world.
Most of this growth is in the South. Many developing countries are now doubling their population every 30 years.
Since 1950, the number of people living in cities has tripled to two billion - more than 41 per cent of the global population.
Urban populations in developing countries are expected to continue to increase in size to four billion people by 2025.
A city of one million (of which there are now 250) on a daily average uses approximately 625,000 metric tons of water; 2000 metric tons of food and 9,500 metric tons of fuel. The same city generates on the same day, an average of 500,000 metric tons of waste water, 2000 metric tons of solid wastes and 950 metric tons of air \Jpollution\j.
Population growth will put great pressure on already overstretched water supplies. Many developing countries are located in arid or semiarid tropics.
The developed countries consume an estimated 75 per cent of all energy used, 79 per cent of all commercial fuels, 85 per cent of all wood products, and 72 per cent of all steel products.
Many countries in the developing world are approaching developed-world standards of consumption and waste generation. Unless both groups of countries adopt more sustainable methods of production and consumption, the planet's carrying capacity will be exceeded.
\B\IChapter 7: Key Facts on Energy Issues\b\i
An estimated 72 per cent of world commercial energy use is in the developed world, compared to 28 per cent in the developing world.
People rely more on biomass for energy than on all hydroelectric dams and nuclear fuel plants in the world combined.
In Africa, per capita energy consumption is only 20 per cent of the world average, according to the World Resources Institute.
In Europe, energy consumption is 2.3 times the global average. In the United States, it is 5.4 times the global average.
The demand for energy in developing countries has been rising at an annual rate of 4.7 per cent over the last 20 years.
Over the next 30 years, the world demand for energy will grow by 50 to 60 per cent. Most of the increase will come from developing countries as they seek to industrialize, raise standards of living, cope with urbanization and attend to the needs of expanding populations.
The developing world's share of carbon dioxide emissions could increase from 26 per cent in 1985 to 44 per cent by 2025.
According to the World Resources Institute, as much as 25 per cent of the energy used in the developing world could be saved with investments that would pay for themselves in two years.
The African Energy Research Institute conducted a study that showed that Kenyan homes could save 10 per cent of their energy use by shutting down machinery that was not in use.
\B\IChapter 8: Key Facts on Waste Issues\b\i
According to the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, only between 25 and 55 per cent of all waste generated in large cities is collected by municipal authorities.
The UN Development Program (UNDP) estimates that more than five million people die each year from diseases related to inadequate waste disposal systems.
At least 60 per cent of the countries that submitted national reports to the United Nations in advance of the 1992 Earth Summit said that solid waste disposal was among their biggest environmental concerns.
More than half of the world's municipal waste is generated in developed countries. In the United States, for example, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the average American produces well over .75 tons of trash each year.
Industrialized countries generate more than 90 per cent of the world's annual total of some 325-375 million tons of toxic and hazardous waste, mostly from the chemical and petrochemical industries.
Most countries in the developed world only introduced laws to control hazardous waste disposal in the 1970s and are left with a vast heritage of pre-legislation sites. Nearly two per cent of North America's underground aquifers may be contaminated by such dumps. \JGermany\j has identified 35,000 problem sites; Denmark has 3,200 and the Netherlands 4,000.
According to the Worldwatch Institute, there are more than 80,000 tons of irradiated fuel and hundreds of thousands of tons of other radioactive waste accumulated so far from the commercial generation of electricity from nuclear power.
Irradiated fuel can take hundreds of thousands of years to decay into a harmless substance. Until then, it is extremely dangerous and must be kept far away from possible human contact.
\B\IChapter 9: Key Facts on Atmospheric Issues\b\i
The level of carbon in the atmosphere is increasing. Global average temperatures are increasing. Carbon dioxide, the predominate "greenhouse gas," is responsible for approximately 60 per cent of the global warming.
Six countries, two of which are in the developing world (Brazil and India), are responsible for 55.8 per cent of the total atmospheric impact of current global emissions. The United States is the largest emitter.
The stratospheric ozone layer filters dangerous radiation and keeps it below tolerable levels to enable life to exist on Earth. This protective stratospheric ozone layer is diminishing due to chemicals created by humankind.
Air \Jpollution\j does not respect boundaries; it affects agriculture and ecosystems far from its source.
More than 600 million people live in urban areas where sulphur dioxide levels exceed World Health Organization guidelines. More than 125 million live in cities with unacceptable levels of suspended particulate matter (SPM).
For megacities in general, SPM is the single most threatening air pollutant. Particularly high levels of sulphur dioxide and SPM occur in five cities: \JBeijing\j, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Seoul and Shanghai.
Of the cities for which there is sufficient data to compare, Mexico City has the worst overall air \Jpollution\j.
When pollutants are released into the sky from industries, they often fall back to Earth as "acid rain." According to the World Resources Institute, Europe has already lost at least 22 per cent of its total forest cover to acid rain, or a total of 214,016,000 hectares. The United Kingdom alone has damage caused to more than two million hectares, or about 57 per cent of its forest. As unsustainable industrialization spreads around the world, so too could this phenomenon.
\B\IChapter 10: Key Facts on Biodiversity\b\i
Though the exact number is impossible to determine, an unprecedented mass \Jextinction\j of life on Earth is occurring. Scientists estimate that between 150 and 200 species of life become extinct every 24 hours.
There have always been periods of \Jextinction\j in the planet's history, but this episode of species \Jextinction\j is greater than anything the world has experienced for the past 65 million years-he greatest rate of \Jextinction\j since the vanishing of the dinosaurs.
Some 60 per cent of the plant species endemic to the Galapagos Islands are threatened with \Jextinction\j, as are 75 per cent of the endemic plant species of the Canary Islands. If we continue with our unsustainable patterns of activity, one-fifth of all species could become extinct in the next two decades.
This mass \Jextinction\j is due, in large measure, to humankind's unsustainable methods of production and consumption.
More than 60 per cent of the world's people depend directly on plants for their medicines.
About 12 per cent of \Jmammal\j species and 11 per cent of bird species were classified as threatened in 1990.
Nearly every animal species may be host to several specialized parasitic species, only a small fraction of which have been described.
According to the World Resources Institute, the biggest cause of \Jextinction\j is loss of habitat.
There are as many as 100 million species on Earth, of which only 1.7 million have been identified.
Freshwater is a scarce resource. Only 0.008 per cent of the planet's water is available for human consumption, and is found in lakes, rivers and underground aquifers.
This 0.008 per cent is unevenly distributed. At least 13 per cent of the planet's renewable supply of freshwater is in \JBrazil\j.
In many countries, the availability of water is seasonal. In \JAustralia\j, for example, 65 per cent of runoff occurs in January, February and March.
To modify such seasonal and geographical variations, humans have built more than 36,000 dams over 15 meters in height around the world.
More than 70 per cent of the world's population is without clean water, and an estimated 25,000 people die each day as a result of bad water management.
About 40 per cent of the world's population depends on water from a neighbouring country. Of the more than 200 river systems shared by two or more countries, several have already caused international conflict. There are now more than 2,000 treaties between countries that relate to water rights.
At least 90 per cent of drinkable water in the world is \Jgroundwater\j. This source of water is increasingly threatened with depletion and contamination.
Irrigation is the largest consumer of freshwater. Much of this water is lost through \Jevaporation\j. With the growth in human populations, agricultural water consumption is expected to rise six-fold between the years 1990 and 2000.
In part because of poisoned waterways, one-fifth of the world's freshwater fishes is either endangered or extinct, according to the World Resources Institute
\B\IChapter 12: Key Facts on Oceans and Coasts\b\i
More than 90 per cent of the world's living biomass can be found in the oceans.
Coral reefs, which rival rainforests in \Jbiodiversity\j, are being destroyed through siltation, \Jcoral\j mining, illegal poaching with explosives and \Jpollution\j.
More than 3.5 billion people depend on the ocean for their primary source of food. In 20 years this number could double to 7 billion.
More than 40 fish stocks are already over-exploited or depleted worldwide.
The total harvest from commercial, subsistence and recreational fishing now exceeds the estimated maximum sustainable yield of 100 million tons per year.
By the year 2000, annual fish supplies may fall short of demand by about 10-15 million tons.
Of all marine habitats, those that are most threatened are in coastal waters, where 90 per cent of the world's marine catch come from.
An estimated 21 million barrels of oil run into the oceans every year from street runoff, ships flushing their tanks and effluent from industrial facilities.
An average of 600,000 barrels of oil has accidentally spilled from ships into the ocean each year over the last decade.
Six countries - the Russian Federation, \JJapan\j, \JSpain\j, \JPoland\j, South Korea and \JTaiwan\j - are responsible for 90 per cent of high-seas fishing.
\B\IChapter 13: Key Facts on Forest Issues\b\i
Three-quarters of the world's people rely on wood as their main source of energy.
In \JEthiopia\j, between 100,000 and 200,000 hectares of forest are cut down every year. Still, at least 200 million people lack enough wood to cook their food properly.
Destruction of forests creates numerous environmental catastrophes, including altering local rainfall patterns, accelerating soil erosion, causing the flooding of rivers, and threatening millions of species of plants, animals and insects with \Jextinction\j.
Tropical forests cover 23 per cent of the Earth's land surface, but they are disappearing at a rate of 4.6 million hectares a year. Asia leads losses with 2.2 million hectares a year, Latin America and the Caribbean together lose 1.9 million and Africa loses 470,000 hectares of rain forest every year.
About 6.1 million hectares of moist deciduous forest disappear every year, of which the largest regional share is in Latin America and the Caribbean, with 3.2 million hectares lost.
More than 1.8 million hectares of dry deciduous forest disappear every year, 40 per cent of which is lost in the \JSudan\j, \JParaguay\j, \JBrazil\j and India.
Annual losses of very dry forest total some 341,000 hectares. The \JSudan\j loses 81,000 hectares of this type of forest every year, followed closely by \JBotswana\j, with 58,000 hectares
Global annual deforestation for desert forest stands at an estimated 82,000 hectares, 60 per cent of which is lost in Mexico and \JPakistan\j.
Hills and mountains lose about 2.5 million hectares of forest annually, 640,000 of which are lost in \JBrazil\j, 370,000 in Mexico, and 150,000 hectares in \JIndonesia\j.
\B\IChapter 14: Key Facts on Agriculture and Land Use Issues\b\i
Each year, the world population increases by more than 90 million, while the amount of topsoil decreases by more than 20 billion tons.
It is estimated that by the year 2050, global demand for food will be three times what it is today.
More than 2.5 billion kilos of pesticides are used annually throughout the world, with developing countries accounting for 15 per cent of global \Jpesticide\j use. These countries also account for about 375,000 cases - or over half the world's total - of accidental poisoning from pesticides every year.
Many of the pesticides exported to developing countries, such as DDT, chlordane and heptachlor, have been banned in their country of manufacture for health and environmental reasons.
Every year, soil erosion robs \JEthiopia\j of 1.5 million tons of grain, equivalent to all the food relief shipped into the country during the \Jfamine\j in 1985.
Six billion tons of valuable soil are lost in India every year. The former Soviet republics of eastern Europe and central Asia lose two and a half billion tons.
During Africa's \Jdrought\j of 1984-1985, 10 million farmers became environmental refugees as a direct result of land degradation.
On a global basis, average yields per hectare of wheat, rice and \Jmaize\j have climbed steadily since 1961. However, this increase probably will not be able to keep up with population growth.
Each year, the towns and cities in developing countries, which are already bulging at the seams, must absorb more than 80 million more people. Many of these people migrate to cities because of environmental degradation in their homelands.
\B\IChapter 15: Key Facts on Desertification\b\i
Desertification occurs through land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.
Desertification is not, as commonly thought, the actual expansion of existing deserts.
Desertification affects nearly one billion people, or one-sixth of the world's population.
Desertification is occurring in 70 per cent of all drylands, or one-quarter of the total land area of the Earth.
Desertification causes widespread poverty, and is responsible for much of the migration in the developing world.
Desertification is responsible for the degradation of 73 per cent of the world's rangeland.
Each year, the planet loses 24 billion tons of topsoil. Over the last two decades, enough has been lost to cover the entire cropland of the United States.
Desertification is especially severe in Africa, where two-thirds of the continent is desert or drylands, and where 73 per cent of its agricultural drylands are already seriously or moderately degraded.
Asia contains the largest amount of land affected by \Jdesertification\j of any continent - just under 1,400 million hectares.
Nearly two-thirds of Latin America's drylands are moderately to severely desertified.
Desertification costs the world more than $40 billion a year in lost productivity.
#
"Appendix 3: Acknowledgements",184,0,0,0
The idea for producing this manual came from UNEP Governing Council decision GC16/7 of 1992. That decision called for the establishment of 'Green Brigades', subsequently referred to as 'Volunteers for the Environment'. Rather than creating a big and formal organization, it was decided as time went by that the best way to effect the spirit of that decision was to assist individuals, community groups and existing non-governmental organizations to undertake environmental activities. Hence this 'how-to-do' manual.
Mr. William Mansfield III, who was then Deputy Executive Director of UNEP, played a key role in developing the idea of the manual. Following the process earlier used in developing handbooks with the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGS) and the Boy Scouts, Bill Mansfield explored the idea with the International Association of Lions Clubs, Rotary International, the Young Women's Christian Association and the Young Men's Christian Association, among others. The project was then taken further by Tore J. Brevik, Chief of UNEP's Information and Public Affairs Branch, and Strike Mkandla, who coordinated the project and liaised with contributors within and outside UNEP. A significant role in refining the original idea was also played by Richard Lumbe and Honorine Kiplagat.
While it is not possible to identify everyone who contributed in one way or another to this work - the list would run to several pages - some of the following individuals and organizations stand out for their tireless efforts and encouragement in this initiative: Christine Hogan of Environment Canada who over a period of several weeks at UNEP developed a writing scheme for the manual in 1994, Robert Cywinski of the International Association of Lions Clubs, Karla Hershey and others at Rotary International, Ruth E. Lechte of World YWCA, Kevin Cook of Consumers International, Rob Sinclair and other members of the Environment Liaison Centre International (ELCI), Tony Hill and Leyla Alyanak of the UN Non-Governmental Liaison Service, Brenda Gael McSweeny of UN Volunteers, Chang Soh Koon of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Julian Spradley Jr. of the USA-based Integrated Waste Services Association, \JUNICEF\j's Water and Sanitation Division, \JUNESCO\j's Division of Water Science, Danny Elder of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Dr. Ole Malmberg of the International Society of Doctors for the Environment, Jo Smet of the International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC), Taparendaba Maveneke of the Zimbabwe Trust/Campfire Association, Prof. Felix Ryan of the Ryan Foundation (India) and his colleague Debendranalt Sarangi, Dr. Michael Gerber and Dr. Nancy Balfour of the African Medical Research Foundation (AMREF), John Lumsden of the Centre for Advanced \JEngineering\j at the University of Canterbury (New Zealand), John Wanjau Njoroge of the \JKenya\j Institute of Organic Farming, David Gray of the Leicester \JEcology\j Trust, Barbara J. Bryant of Intermediate Technology, the International Council for Research in \JAgroforestry\j (ICRAF), Dr. Steven Commins of World Vision International, Prof. Victor Middleton of the World Travel and Tourism Environment Research Centre, the Senegal-based Environmental Development in the Third World (ENDA), and Dr. Martin Abraham of WWF \JMalaysia\j.
Many UNEP staff members gave their time and advice to the project. In addition to the numerous contributions from departments and units at UNEP, special thanks go to some individuals, among them: Franklin Cardy, Michael Atchia, Takahiko Hiraishi, Elizabeth Migongo-Bake, David Lazarus and John Hare.
The editor wishes to acknowledge the consistent support of Noel Brown, former Director of UNEP's Regional Office for North America, who gave much-needed assistance during the writing of the manuscript. Pragati Pascale of the UN Department of Public Information lent her copy-editing and fact-finding skills, while Nancy Dryden-Lorieau of \JEdmonton\j, Canada, pitched in with copy-editing and substantive input. In addition to the back-up of many General Service staff at UNEP, the project benefited from the selfless service of interns with the Information and Public Affairs Branch, namely: Angelica Mkok, Lucy Weru, Esther Gaya, Prudence Nkinda, and Benjamin Staahl. These interns did background research, annotated incoming materials and helped in liaising with contributors.
