To see a list of all known Australian Mammals, in a classification table, \P\Kmammaltree\kclick here\p, or select the \IAustralian Mammal Classification Tree\i command from the \BInteraction\b menu.
The Australian continent has a unique collection of mammals. Other continents may have a greater variety but Australia and New Guinea possess mammalian types that are not found anywhere else.
There are three different groups of mammals - \Bmonotremes\b (platypuses and echidnas), \Bmarsupials\b (e.g. kangaroos and possums) and \Bplacentals\b (cats, whales, humans, etc.). Unique to our region are the monotremes and two-thirds of all living marsupials.
\BDescription:\b Australia also has its fair share of introduced and feral animals - including this Water Buffalo. \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Impact of European-introduced Placentals",3,"c\8\16_0027.jpg","c","0"
Native placentals include bats, mice, rats and the dingo. Over the last 200 years, many more placental species have become firmly established in Australia following their introduction by European settlers. There are also marine mammals such as seals and dugongs in Australian waters.
Human activity and some introduced species have upset the delicate ecological balance that is necessary to maintain our unique fauna. Twenty native mammal species have become extinct and many others have been reduced to such low numbers that their existence is endangered.
Every effort must be made to increase public awareness and to implement conservation measures to preserve our unique heritage.
\BDescription:\b Chocolate Wattled Bat \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Where Australian Mammals Came From",4,"c\8\dino1.jpg","c","0"
About 225 million years ago, the continents of the earth were joined together as one large supercontinent called Pangaea. It was composed of Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the south. Gradually, Pangaea began to break up and continents slowly drifted apart.
During this time, mammal-like reptiles first appeared. They were the ancestors of today's mammals. They were to remain in the shadow of the dominant reptiles until some 150 million years later when the dinosaurs disappeared.
\BDescription:\b Separation of the continents \I(John Long)\i
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"Australia and Antarctica Separate",5,"c\8\dino1.jpg","c","0"
Australia and Antarctica remained a single land mass until about 45 million years ago when Australia separated and drifted northward towards warmer latitudes. On board were ancestral forms of the monotremes and marsupials - but no placentals.
For the next 20 million years these two groups were to evolve in isolation. They were to occupy a wide range of environments and develop into many different species. Their counterparts in other continents were not as fortunate.
\BDescription:\b Separation of the continents \I(John Long)\i
#
"Bats Arrive in Australia",6,"c\8\16_0016.jpg","c","0"
Antarctica froze over and the evolution of placentals elsewhere brought about the extinction of all other mammalian types except for a few marsupial species in South America.
The first placentals to arrive in Australia were the bats, the only mammals capable of sustained flight. There is evidence of their presence in the Australian region as far back as 30 million years ago.
About 15 million years ago, Australia's isolation came to an end when its crustal plate collided with South-east Asia. This gave rise to the mountains of New Guinea. The closeness of the land masses also opened the way for all kinds of migration.
The first earthbound placentals to enter Australia were the rats. They invaded about five millions years ago. Humans did not arrive in Australia until relatively recently, probably around 50,000 years ago.
\BDescription:\b The Wombat's ancient relative, \IZygomaturus trilobus (Courtesy of Peter Schouten)\i
#
"What Makes An Animal a Mammal",8,"c\8\16_0039.jpg","c","0"
Mammals have a number of characteristics that set them apart from other vertebrates. "Mamma" is Latin for breast.
This refers to the characteristic that females feed their young with milk from mammary glands. Also, all mammals have hair but the amount of hair varies considerably from dense fur to a few bristles.
The three major kinds of mammals; monotremes, marsupials and placentals, all have different methods of sustaining offspring after fertilisation has occurred. Clearly each method is successful as they all have persisted for at least 100 million years.
Monotremes lay eggs. They are the only mammals to retain this reptilian feature. Female echidnas incubate their eggs in an abdominal pouch while platypuses use a nest. After hatching, the young feed on milk which is ejected from the mammary glands directly onto the mother's fur.
\BViddescription:\b The Echidna (David Ireland)
#
"Marsupials",10,"c\8\dfat27.jpg","c","0"
Marsupials are pouched mammals. Their young are born in an immature state after a relatively short developmental period in the mother's uterus. (This is called the gestation period.)
The newborn marsupial crawls into a pouch or onto a pouch-like area on the mother's abdomen. Here it attaches itself to one of her nipples and remains until it is well formed and has grown much larger.
\BDescription:\b Kangaroos \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Placentals",11,"c\8\dfat33.jpg","f","0"
Placentals have a comparatively longer gestation period. The developing embryo is nourished throughout by nutrients passing through the mother's blood through a special structure called the placenta. Newborn placentals are therefore fully developed. They are then suckled for several months.
\BDescription:\b A dingo \I(QDEH)\i
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"What is a Monotreme?",12,"c\8\dfat24.jpg","c","0"
There are only three living species of monotremes - the platypus and two types of echidnas. The word "monotreme" means one hole. This refers to the single combined genital and excretory opening that platypuses and echidnas possess. This is not a unique characteristic as birds and marsupials also have only one external opening.
Monotremes are uniquely Australian and have survived successfully despite competition from other kinds of mammals.
\BDescription:\b Echidna \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Platypuses - Characteristics and Habitat",13,"c\8\dfat39.jpg","c","0"
Platypuses are found in freshwater habitats in eastern mainland Australia and Tasmania. They live in burrows on the banks of rivers and streams.
They are well adapted for both swimming and burrowing as they have streamlined bodies, no external ears or obvious neck, and fur that lies flat. Webbing between their toes helps propel them through the water and their broad flat tail acts as a rudder.
Their limbs also have strong claws for digging and they can use their tail to pat down the soil in burrows. They dig burrows of different lengths depending on what they use them for. A residential burrow is short and simple while a nesting burrow can be as deep as 20 metres and is lined with grass.
Platypuses are most active at dawn and dusk. They feed on small animals such as yabbies, frogs, insects and small fish. A hungry platypus will dive under the water and search for food with its bill.
The duck-bill is actually a snout and is made of bone covered with soft, sensitive skin. When food is caught, the platypus stores it in cheek pouches until it can surface. The meal can then be enjoyed while floating. Young platypuses have molar teeth to chew their food but these are replaced by horny ridges by the time they are mature.
Platypuses breed in spring. Males have a horny poisonous spur on each rear ankle which they use on other males to establish and defend mating territories. Egg-laying, incubation and hatching take place in a chamber at the end of the long nesting burrows.
When a female platypus lays her eggs, she curls her body around them to keep them warm. The young hatch in one or two weeks and will be fully mature at four or five months.
\BDescription:\b Platypus \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Echidnas - Characteristics and Habitat",14,"c\8\d_0078.jpg","f","0"
Echidnas are widespread throughout Australia and New Guinea. Unlike platypuses, their bodies are covered with coarse hairy spines. They have small ears and their snouts are long and tubular for poking into holes and upturning rocks in search of termites and ants.
They extend a long, sticky tongue to gather up their prey. The New Guinea species of echidna eats worms rather than ants.
Female echidnas lay only one egg directly into a temporary pouch which develops towards the rear of the belly. The egg hatchs within ten days and for the next six weeks the newborn is fed on milk which runs down the mother's fur into the pouch.
When the young's spines develop, the mother encourages it to leave the pouch but she continues to watch over it until it can fend for itself.
\BDescription:\b An Echidna \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Types of Marsupials",15,"c\8\dfat42.jpg","c","eat20"
There are some 250 kinds of living marsupials. These include the Australian and New Guinean insectivorous and carnivorous (insect and meat-eating) marsupials, the omnivorous (plant and meat-eating) bandicoots, and the herbivorous (plant eating) possums, koalas, wombats and kangaroos as well as the South American opossums.
Scientists have grouped them according to differences in their dentition. They are either \Ipolyprotodonts\i (with many teeth and always three pairs of incisors on the lower jaw) or \Idiprotodonts\i (fewer teeth with only one pair of especially well-developed incisors on the lower jaw).
Characteristics of their pouch, fore and hind foot structure, nature of tail and whether they are tree-dwellers, burrowers or ground-dwellers, help to classify them further. Sections 3.6 to 3.8 provide some interesting examples of the various kinds of Australian marsupials.
\BDescription:\b Sugar Glider \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Features of Marsupials",17,"c\9\16_0020.jpg","c","0"
Mammals that can live on land and prey on other animals tend to look similar. The adaptations for chasing, catching and eating other animals are a compact body, four slender limbs, claws and a head with well-developed organs of sight, hearing and smell.
In other words, all the marsupial carnivores are superficially similar and resemble placental cats, shrews, dogs and other animals that share the carnivorous habit.
\BDescription:\b Spotted quoll \I(QDEH)\i
#
"History of Marsupial Carnivores",18,"c\9\peter.jpg","c","0"
The marsupial carnivores are believed to be most like the early marsupials that developed at the beginning of the group's history. From such ancestors, all other Australian marsupials are said to have evolved. Marsupial carnivores are \Ipolyprotodonts\i and have many sharp teeth that are most useful for eating other animals such as small mammals, birds, lizards and insects.
All animals in this group have five digits on the front feet and never less than four on the hind feet. The pouch is not pocket-like as in other marsupials, but is shallow. Many species do not have any pouch at all.
\BDescription:\b Prehistoric carnivorous mammal, \IGlaucodon ballaratensis (Courtesy of Peter Schouten)\i
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"The Thylacine",19,"0","The presumed extinct Tasmanian Tiger","mtiger.avi"
The \IThylacine\i bears a remarkable resemblance to a dog although it is more closely related to kangaroos and koalas. Direct competition with the dingo for resources may have been part of the reason for its demise on the Australian mainland.
\BViddescription:\b Rare footage of the Thylacine (Film Australia)
#
"Tasmanian Devil",20,"0","g","0"
The Tasmanian Devil is the largest of the surviving dasyurids. It scavenges for food and forages upon insect larvae and will attack penned poultry and weak or young wallabies and sheep. The Tasmanian Devil is nocturnal.
Sexual maturity is reached at the age of about two years.
The Tasmanian Devil, no longer living on the mainland, is found only in Tasmania.
#
"Eastern Quoll",21,quoll.jpg,c,0
The eastern quoll is an example of a medium sized, native carnivorous marsupial. It superficially resembles the European polecat. Eastern quolls have black or olive-brown fur that is soft, thick and short. The head, forelegs and tail are uniformly coloured while the back and hindlegs are spotted with white.
In the early 1900s, eastern quolls were common in the coastal regions of south-eastern Australia. Now, their populations are confined to Tasmania. The exact reasons for their decline are unknown. Contributing factors might be disease, competition with more efficient killers such as foxes and destruction of their habitat by humans.
As opportunistic carnivores, eastern quolls also raided poultry farms and many were killed as pests.
\BDescription:\b An eastern quoll \I(Australian Museum)\i
#
"Breeding Cycle of the Eastern Quoll",22,"c\9\quoll.jpg","c","0"
Female eastern quolls generally lack a pouch but develop one while suckling. The number of young born can be as many as 30 but only four to eight will survive as there are insufficient nipples to accommodate them all.
Successful young are well protected and nourished until they are about five months old. Within the year they will be fully mature.
\BDescription:\b An eastern quoll \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Brown Antechinus",23,brnntchs.jpg,c,0
Unlike the eastern quoll, the brown antechinus is one of the most abundant carnivorous marsupials. It is widespread in forests of eastern Australia but its nocturnal habits and camouflaged appearance mean that it is seldom seen.
It is superficially similar to the placental mouse in that it is small with bristly brown fur and a long slender tail. Its feet are stout and broad with ridged pads underneath to help it climb trees and logs. Unlike the placental mouse, it has many sharp teeth and eats a variety of insects and spiders.
\BDescription:\b The brown antechinus \I(the Australian Museum)\i
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"Breeding Cycle - Brown Antechinus",24,"c\9\brnntchs.jpg","c","0"
One of the most fascinating aspects of this animal's existence is its reproductive behaviour. The reproductive cycle occurs annually with mating taking place in August. Six or seven young are born one month later but surprisingly, there are no adult males left alive at the time.
This is apparently the result of the intense mating behaviour of males. The males do not eat and rarely rest during the three week breeding season. Copulation may last for five to 12 hours at a time. The males, suffering from exhaustion and stress, become vulnerable to bacterial and other parasitic infections and consequently die.
The antechinus is one of the marsupials that never produces a pouch so the young suckle on exposed nipples. After five weeks, the young can survive independently and will be sexually mature by the following August - in time to repeat the life cycle.
\BDescription:\b The brown antechinus \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Numbat",25,dfat18.jpg,c,0
Numbats, or marsupial anteaters, are insectivorous, and are among the most beautifully coloured of all the Australian mammals. They have coarse reddish-brown fur flecked with numerous white hairs. Alternating black and white bands span their rumps and they also have an attractive dark stripe running from the snout through the eye up to the ear.
Numbats look similar to squirrels when they hop about with erect bushy tails, but their unusual colouring and tapered snouts make them unmistakably unique.
There are many unique and unusual features of numbats. For instance, they are the only marsupials to feed during the day and exclusively on colonial insects. Other marsupials feed at night, but termites and ants and therefore numbats, are most active during the day.
Numbats use sharp claws on their forefeet to excavate the industrious ants and termites that are found in great numbers in the soft wood of decaying logs and under leaf litter. With rapid flicks of their long sticky cylindrical tongues, numbats lick up between 10,000 and 20,000 ants and termites per day.
Like the echidna and other anteaters, their teeth are degenerate and are not used for eating. Surprisingly they have either 50 or 52 of them, which means they have more teeth than any other land-dwelling mammal.
\BDescription:\b The numbat \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Breeding Cycle of the Numbat",26,"c\9\numbat.jpg","c","0"
Numbats breed early in the year and since females do not produce a pouch, the young are suckled on teats that are protected by tufts of underbelly fur. The young are cared for in a grassy nest at the end of a one to two metre long breeding burrow.
They are all weaned at around six months. By the end of the year they will be fully mature and will go off on their own.
In the mid 1800s, numbats were widespread across southern Australia but now they are considered to be seriously endangered. Only a small population exists in the state forests of southwestern Western Australia. The fallen hollow logs of the wandoo eucalypts provide them with shelter as well as providing termites and ants as their food source.
Here, numbats are totally protected and they are unlikely to be attacked by foxes and feral dogs. Bushfires are still a serious threat to their survival as they completely destroy habitats and food sources as well as killing many individuals.
\BDescription:\b The numbat \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Marsupial Mole",27,mole.jpg,c,0
The marsupial mole is probably the least known of all Australian mammals. We know little about its behaviour, social organisation or reproductive patterns. It is rarely seen as most of its life is spent underground. However, it is believed to be fairly common and widely distributed in the desert areas of inland Australia.
Except for the presence of a pouch, the marsupial mole bears a remarkable resemblance to the placental moles in other parts of the world. This beautifully demonstrates the concept of convergent ("coming together") evolution. Both types are highly adapted to a burrowing existence. Their similar features have arisen from similar ways of life rather than being closely related.
The Australian marsupial mole is only about 15 centimetres long and its silky fur is creamy white to golden-red in colour. Its head is rounded and there are no external signs of eyes or ears. The animal is blind and its ears are reduced to holes which are hidden in the fur.
\BDescription:\b A marsupial mole \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Uniqueness of the Marsupial Mole",28,"c\9\mole.jpg","c","0"
It has a horny shield on its snout which it uses to bore into the sand. There is no obvious neck and the neck vertebrae are fused together to provide a rigid level.
Both fore and hind limbs are short and strong. Some of the digits have spade-like claws that are used to shift the sand when the animal is burrowing. Its tail is hairless, leathery, short and cone-shaped.
Very little is known about the breeding behaviour of this solitary animal. We do know that females have a pouch which opens backwards to prevent sand from entering and, from the few specimens studied, there appears to be two teats to which the young can attach.
\BDescription:\b A marsupial mole \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Burrows of the Marsupial Mole",29,mole.jpg,c,0
Unlike the placental mole, the marsupial mole does not dig a permanent burrow. Instead it "swims" through the sand just a few centimetres underground. Evidence of its movement can be seen by the subsidence at the surface.
The forelimbs push the sand to the side and under its body, then the hind limbs and tail are believed to push it behind. Vertical oval-shaped burrows filled with loose sand have also been found to depths of several metres.
Marsupial moles also spend some time on the surface, especially after rain has fallen. They slowly drag their bodies in a sinuous motion across the wet sand and their limbs and tail leave a most distinctive triple track.
Marsupial moles are insectivores and eat a variety of ants, beetles and insect larvae.
\BDescription:\b A marsupial mole \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Bandicoot",30,bndict.jpg,c,0
Bandicoots represent an evolutionary link between the preceding carnivorous/insectivorous (that is, meat and insect eating) group of marsupials and the herbivorous or plant eating ones such as kangaroos, koalas and possums.
Bandicoots possess the \Ipolyprotodont\i teeth arrangement of the carnivorous marsupials but have a similar foot structure to kangaroos and other \Idiprotodonts.\i Rather than having five obviously different digits, they appear to have only three toes on an elongated hindfoot.
The actual situation is that the first digit is reduced or absent and the second and third digits are fused together \I(syndactylous)\i up to the last joint and claw. This looks like a single small toe with a split nail. This joined digit is used for grooming ticks and mites that live in the fur. The fourth and fifth digits are individual toes with strong sharp claws.
The long-nosed bandicoot is a slender, medium-sized marsupial. It has a long pointed snout with backward facing whiskers and long pointed ears. Its fur is coarse and olive-brown except for some white on its belly and limbs. Its hind limbs are longer than its forelimbs and its tail is short, tapered and hairless.
Like most marsupials, long-nosed bandicoots are nocturnal and have a keen sense of smell and hearing, and large eyes for admitting more light.
Long-nosed bandicoots are common to the coastal areas of Eastern Australia. They are solitary, ground-dwelling animals and their habitat ranges from dense forests to bushy suburban gardens. By day they sleep in well-camouflaged nests made of grass and leaves.
\BDescription:\b A Bandicoot \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Behaviour of the Bandicoot",32,"c\9\16_0018.jpg","f","0"
The nests are shallow and may appear to be no more than a depression in the leaf litter or a heap of dried grass. Sometimes, long-nosed bandicoots shelter in dense undergrowth or in drainpipes or other man-made objects.
At night, they forage for food, eating insect larvae, earthworms, spiders, slaters and snails. The sharp claws on their forelimbs are used for digging conical pits, about six centimetres deep. These are just the right size to poke their long snouts into.
Many suburban Sydney gardeners have awoken to find their lawn pock-marked with the conical pits or have had their plants damaged by the diggings and scratchings of a hungry bandicoot in search of food amongst the roots. However, the activity is actually beneficial as pests are eaten.
Bandicoots are solitary animals and about the only time they interact is when males and females come together for mating. Breeding occurs throughout the year and the gestation period only lasts for two weeks. One to five young are born at a time and for nine to ten weeks, the mother cares for them in her pouch.
Females have a backward-facing pouch which seems appropriate for an animal that spends so much time digging.
\BDescription:\b A Bandicoot \I(the Australian Museum)\i
#
"Possums",33,"c\9\16_0019.jpg","f","0"
Australian possums are a diverse group ranging from tiny gliding pygmy possums to large agile climbing brushtails and cuscuses. They are all tree-dwellers and inhabit the scrub and forest country of coastal mainland Australia. Several kinds are also found in Tasmania, New Guinea and the surrounding islands.
As a group, they have successfully adapted to changes brought about by human impact on their natural environment.
The brushtail possum, for example, is common in urban areas because it will eat a variety of foodstuffs (provided unintentionally by humans in their gardens and rubbish bins) and take advantage of the shelters provided for them in household roofs and sheds.
Despite being killed by eagles, foxes, dogs, humans and bushfires, possums remain abundant and they are among the most familiar of Australian mammals.
\BDescription:\b A Common Brushtail Possum \I(QDEH)\i
The various kinds of possums share many similar characteristics. Firstly, they are all \Idiprotodonts\i feeding mainly on leaves, shoots, flowers and fruits. Secondly, they walk on all fours and have \Isyndactylous\i toes on their hindfeet.
They are well adapted for life in trees. In many species, the first two digits of the forefeet are able to oppose the remaining three digits. Also, on the hindfoot, the big toe can oppose the other digits to create a pincer-like grip.
Their grasp on branches is further improved by having rough pads on their feet and long pointed claws on all their digits (except the big toe). Also, possums have long flexible tails.
Most species, for example, the ring-tail and brushtail possums, have tapering prehensile tails with coiled tips which they use like a fifth limb. Others, like the sugar gliders, have bushier tails that are mainly used for balancing on branches and providing stability when they are leaping through the air.
\BDescription:\b A Common Brushtail Possum \I(QDEH)\i
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"Gliding Possums",35,"c\9\dfat22.jpg","f","0"
Many species of possums glide. They move gracefully through the trees by means of a flying membrane that is made of the loose skin that can be stretched between their front and hind feet. For these animals, the tail acts as a rudder or sail.
\BDescription:\b Two Baby Sugar Gliders \I(DFAT)\i
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"Possums Adapting to the Night",36,"c\9\16_0022.jpg","c","0"
Possums have large eyes as an adaptation to nocturnal vision and they all have prominent naked pink noses with long black whiskers. Their ears, however, show variety.
Ring-tails, for example, have shorter and less pointed ears than brushtails, while the spotted cuscus of Northern Queensland and New Guinea has very short ears hidden in the fur.
As nocturnal creatures, possums feed at night and sleep during the day. Some species simply curl up into a ball and sleep in hollow branches, stumps or logs. Brushtails also make use of any dark secluded nook in houses and building urban areas.
\BDescription:\b A Spotted Cuscus \I(QDEH)\i
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"Breeding Cycles of Possums",37,"c\9\16_0022.jpg","f","0"
Others, such as ring-tails, build nests. They use twigs and leaves which they collect and carry about their tails.
Female possums generally breed once a year and rear one or two offspring which they carry around in a well-developed pouch for four to six months. After they leave the pouch, the young continue to suckle for a few months and ride on their mother's backs or are cared for in a nest.
\BDescription:\b A Spotted Cuscus \I(QDEH)\i
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"Koalas",38,"0","The Koala","koala.avi"
Koalas are among the best known of the Australian mammals. Their grey and white woolly fur, fluffy ears and broad distinctive noses, make them appealing to Australians and tourists alike.
They are tree-dwelling marsupials and possess many adaptations for arboreal life. Their forelimbs are long and their hands are large and strong to help them hug the smooth bark of the trees.
Like possums, they can oppose the digits on their fore and hindlimbs and have naked palms and long curved claws to improve grip. They have a short stumpy tail which is unusual for a tree-dwelling mammal.
\BViddescription:\b Koalas (David Ireland)
#
"Koala Behaviour",39,"c\9\dfat38.jpg","c","0"
When koalas climb, they pull themselves up with their forelimbs. Then they bring the hindlimbs up together in a single bound movement. Most of their time is spent in trees and they only descend when they move to a new tree.
Koalas are nocturnal, sleeping during the day wedged up high in the fork of trees. They are most active at sunset, feeding on the foliage of a few specific types of eucalypt trees.
There are only about 12 species of eucalypt that compose most of their diet and they show local and seasonal preferences. Their unusual diet restricts their distribution to the \Isclerophyll\i forests and woodlands of the eastern coast of Australia, extending inland as far as the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range.
Eucalypt leaves are quite unpalatable and probably poisonous to most mammals, yet koalas eat about one kilogram of them per day. The leaves are high in fibre, low in protein and contain strong oils and phenolic compounds.
To utilise this unusual food source, koalas have enlarged \Icaeca\i (end of their intestines) that carry cellulose-digesting micro-organisms and their livers are capable of detoxifying the oils and phenols.
\BDescription:\b Koalas \I(DFAT)\i
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"Features of Koalas",40,"c\9\dfat34.jpg","c","0"
The leaves also have sufficient water content so that koalas have no need to drink. The name koala, actually comes from the Aboriginal saying that means exactly that - "no drink".
Koalas are \Idiprotodonts\i and have long pointed upper and lower incisors to cut off the shoots. They also have cheek pouches and powerful jaw muscles to chew the leafy food.
Koalas sometimes eat small quantities of soil when they are on the ground. This possibly provides them with essential minerals that are lacking in their exclusive diet.
Breeding occurs in summer and generally only one young is born one month after mating. It crawls up to the pouch where it attaches itself to one of two teats. It remains in the pouch for seven months.
Towards the end of this period it consumes some of the mother's faeces which contain the micro-organisms that will settle in its own caecum and aid in its own digestion of leaves. The pouch is backward facing, convenient for this task.
After leaving the pouch, the young koala is carried on the mother's back for a further five months. Females reach maturity in two years and males in three or four. Koalas have been known to live for 15 to 20 years in captivity.
\BDescription:\b Mother koala and her baby \I(DFAT)\i
#
"History of the Koala",41,d_0032.jpg,c,0
In the past, koala numbers were regulated by predation by Aborigines and dingoes. With European settlement, their numbers rose enormously at first, then were more affected by the establishment of a successful koala fur trade.
In the 1920s, koalas became a protected species. Koalas are now over-abundant in some areas and need management.
\BDescription:\b \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"The Wombat",42,"c\9\31_0012.jpg","f","0"
Wombats are closely related to koalas. They probably shared a common ancestor as recently as 25 million years ago. Although they have similar body shapes and the same large flat noses, they lead vastly different lives. Wombats are energetic burrowers while koalas are almost exclusively arboreal.
Wombats are the largest burrowing marsupial. They are heavily built animals with flattened heads and rumps and stumpy, powerful limbs. All four legs are used for burrowing and each is equipped with a broad paw and short, strong claws.
\BDescription:\b Common Wombat \I(David Ireland)\i
Wombats are always working on their burrows and they build several types within their territory. The more permanent resting burrows can be as long as 20 metres and can have several chambers and entrances. They mark their territory by leaving characteristic rectangular droppings prominently displayed on rocks and logs.
Wombats are most active at night. They visit their burrows, start digging new ones and feed on grasses, herbs and roots of shrubs and trees. They have one pair of large upper incisors and one pair of large lower incisors.
Unlike most other mammals, their teeth grow continuously, replacing material that is worn down by gnawing on roots that obstruct their burrows. During the day, wombats sleep in their burrows but in winter they may surface to graze and bask in the sun's warm rays.
\BVideo:\b The Wombat \I(David Ireland)\i
\BViddescription:\b (David Ireland)
#
"Breeding Habits of Wombats",44,"c\9\31_0015.jpg","f","0"
Breeding occurs at any time of the year and there is generally only one offspring produced. It suckles on one of the two teats in the rear-facing pouch for six months. It will remain by its mother's side for another 11 months learning how to burrow and where to feed.
\BDescription:\b \I(David Ireland)\i
#
"Types of Wombats",45,"c\9\dfat41.jpg","f","0"
There are two types of wombats - forest and plain dwellers. The common wombat is a forest dweller and is frequently found in burrows on the slopes above creeks and gullies in rocky and mountainous country. It inhabits sclerophyll forests in the south-eastern part of mainland Australia and in Tasmania.
The other kind of wombats are called hairy-nosed wombats. They are found in small populations in the semi-arid grassy plains of north-eastern and southern mainland Australia. They have longer ears and finer fur than the common wombat and as their name suggests, they have a covering of fine hair on their noses.
These species have come in conflict with human's use of their habitat and they have had to compete with introduced animals such as sheep, cattle and rabbits for resources. The north-eastern species has had its number so severely reduced that it is in real danger of extinction.
\BDescription:\b Hairy Nosed Wombat \I(QDEH)\i
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"Kangaroos",46,"0","Variety of kangaroos","mk1.avi"
There are about 16 living types of kangaroos or \Imacropodoids.\i "Macropod" means long foot and all kinds have disproportionately large hindlimbs and reduced forelimbs. They are divided into two families. The most familiar family consists of those animals loosely described as kangaroos, wallaroos and wallabies.
The other family includes the much smaller rat-kangaroos, bettongs and potoroos. Sometimes kangaroos are also named according to their habitat, for example, tree-kangaroos or rock-wallabies.
In most kangaroos, the forelimbs are short and are used for manipulating food and scratching. Tree-kangaroos have forelimbs that are slightly longer as an adaptation for climbing.
All kangaroos have a highly developed fourth digit on their hindfoot which has a long pad and a strong claw. Hindlimbs also have \Isyndactylous\i toes that are used for grooming in much the same way as possums and koalas use theirs.
"Unusual Movement of Kangaroos",47,"c\9\31_0008.jpg","f","0"
Kangaroos hop when they are moving fast. Their powerful hindlimbs move simultaneously and they use their tail as a counterweight. Forelimbs only touch the ground when kangaroos are moving slowly. Then they use their tail as a fifth limb and carry out a "five-legged" walk.
When standing still, kangaroos rest on their hindlimbs and use their tail as a prop. Rock-wallabies carry their tails high over their backs when hopping over and around rocks.
There are only a few species, such as the tree-kangaroos, capable of moving their hindlimbs independently of each other. As well, tree-kangaroos have less muscular tails than ground dwelling kangaroos.
\BDescription:\b A Wallaroo \I(David Ireland)\i
#
"Location/ Feeding Habits of Kangaroos",48,"c\9\31_0007.jpg","f","0"
Kangaroos are found in almost all Australian environments and in parts of New Guinea and the nearby islands. Of all the marsupials, they are the ones we see most because many species are large and even though they are nocturnal, they are quite active in the early morning and late afternoon.
Most kangaroos are herbivores with teeth and digestive systems adapted to eating grass. Some species also feed on other herbs, leaves and fruits. Rat-kangaroos are generally omnivores and may eat insects and worms as well.
\BDescription:\b A Wallaby \I(David Ireland)\i
#
"Breeding Habits of the Kangaroo",49,"c\9\16_0015.jpg","f","0"
Kangaroos tend to live in small groups and breeding occurs all year round. Gestation only lasts one month and a single offspring is produced. It is cared for in a forward-opening pouch and suckles on one of four teats.
In some species, females are sexually receptive immediately after the birth and mating occurs once again. The fertilised ovum produced does not undergo complete development but remains in an immature state within the uterus until the young kangaroo vacates the pouch. It then completes development and another kangaroo is born one month later.
The first-born continues to suckle even after the newborn has occupied the pouch. The mother successfully feeds them both on milk of different compositions. Female kangaroos, therefore, on reaching maturity are almost always pregnant and almost constantly lactating.
\BDescription:\b An Eastern Grey Kangaroo \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Protection of Kangaroos",50,"c\9\d_0003.jpg","f","0"
In the past, kangaroos were taken by humans for food and skins. Now they are partly or wholly protected depending on the species.
Large kangaroos are not necessarily adversely affected by the human impact on their environment. As grazers, they benefit from the increase in pasturelands and the provision of water holes for sheep and cattle.
\BDescription:\b \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Species of Native Placentals",51,"c\9\16_0030.jpg","f","0"
Native placentals include bats, mice, rats and the dingo. They are as Australian as the koala, kangaroo and the platypus.
Several species are only found in Australia while others have worldwide distributions. There are about equal numbers of bat and rodent species in Australia and together they comprise 44% of Australia's terrestrial mammals.
In fact, worldwide, there are more species of rodents (about 2,000) and bats (nearly 1,000) than any other mammalian groups.
\BDescription:\b Grey Headed Fruit Bat Colony \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Bats",52,"c\9\16_0028.jpg","f","0"
Bats were the first placentals in Australia. It is believed that they evolved some 50 million years ago from early insectivorous mammals similar to today's shrews and moles.
The fossil record indicates that they evolved elsewhere and migrated to Australia when it was already isolated from Antarctica and close to New Guinea. The fact that no moles or shrews are found in Australia today supports this.
Bats hold the distinction of being the first mammalian immigrants because of their unique ability to fly. No other mammal can do this. Gliding possums and other leapers rely on gravity and are not capable of propelling themselves forward.
Bats are probably categorised into insectivorous bats and fruit bats. Most bats are small insectivores and the two groups are easily distinguished. The insectivores often have unusual faces and complex shaped ears.
These strangely shaped features enable bats to echolocate. This involves producing high frequency sounds which, when reflected back to the ear, can be interpreted.
Echolocation is used for navigating and to locate and catch small darting insects, even in complete darkness. Most bats emit high frequency sounds through their mouths.
\BDescription:\b Queensland Blossom Bat \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Horseshoe Bats and Fruit Bats",53,"c\9\16_0029.jpg","c","0"
Horseshoe bats have exceptionally elaborate noses and their name refers to the semicircular shape of the folds of skin around the nostrils. They produce their echolocation signals through their noses.
Fruit bats, or flying foxes as they are sometimes called, are generally larger than insectivorous bats and their facial features resemble small foxes or dogs. They have large eyes and tapered ears.
They eat pollen and nectar from blossoms and ripe fruit when it is available. Most do not have the ability to echolocate.
\BDescription:\b Grey Headed Fruit Bat \I(QDEH)\i
#
"The Unusual Features of Bat Wings",54,"c\9\16_0017.jpg","f","0"
All bats have wings made out of skin that is formed between the elongated fingers of the forelimbs and extends the full length of the body from the shoulders to the ankles of the hindlimbs.
Some species also have membranes that stretch between their hindlimbs to the tip of their tail. Two slender cartilage supports running from the heels to the tail are often present as reinforcement.
The wing span is large and in some of the fruit bats it is as much as three or four times the body length. Bats use their wings as a blanket when they are cold and as a fan when they are hot. Insectivorous bats also use their wings to catch and manipulate insects.
Bats have a complex social structure and may maintain very large populations in very small areas. Fruit bats set up camps in trees, with as many as 250,000 individuals. Several species are often found in the one camp.
Bats like areas that are shaded and quiet, so their typical habitats are rainforests, mangrove swamps and tree-lined streams.
\BDescription:\b Tube Nosed Bat \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Characteristics of Bats",55,"c\8\16_0016.jpg","f","0"
Fruit bats have keen senses of sight and smell and seem able to communicate with each other. Sometimes they set up camp near orchards and at night they descend, en masse, to eat the ripened fruit. It is understandable that they have come to be regarded as pests by fruit growers.
Around Sydney, colonies of Grey-headed and Little Red flying foxes are often seen flying silhouetted against a moonlit sky on their way to eat the ripe fruit on fig trees. Insectivorous bats also set up colonies during the day but prefer to roost in caves or holes in trees.
When they sleep, bats hang upside down by the curved claws on their hindfeet. If it is cold, they may become torpid; i.e. they possess the ability of regulating their body temperature and blood flow in response to environmental conditions.
\BDescription:\b Dusky Horseshoe Bat \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Breeding Cycle in Bats",56,"c\9\16_0026.jpg","f","0"
The breeding season for most species of bats is summer and mating takes place within the established camps. Afterwards, the sexes tend to separate and the camp is broken up into smaller groups which are maintained through the winter.
Female bats give birth to a single offspring after a relatively long gestation period ranging from 50 to 240 days. The offspring are suckled on nipples located near the armpits and are generally left behind in nursing colonies when the mothers go foraging. In some species the baby bat will clutch onto its mother's undersurface and accompany her. Bats can live from ten to 20 years.
\BDescription:\b Ghost Bats \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Rats and Mice",57,"c\9\hpngmse.jpg","c","0"
The first rats and mice entered into Australia about five million years ago. Unlike the bats, they had to make their way by sea. It is believed that the existing species evolved from as few as two that originally entered Australia and radiated into a variety of environments.
Today, the descendants of these early colonisers occupy a wide range of habitats from rainforests to deserts.
This large and diverse group consists of the tree rats, stick-nest rats, rock rats, hopping mice, the broad-toothed rat and native mice. The most specialised of these is the hopping mouse. It is adapted to life in arid regions. Like other desert mammals, it has long feet and hindlimbs for hopping, a long slender, tufted tail and large pointed ears for heat loss.
Hopping mice are communal animals and they dig complex underground burrows with many entrances that can be closed off once they are inside.
By resting deep within their cool, moist burrows during the intense heat of the day, they avoid unnecessary water loss. They emerge at dusk and forage most of the night. They eat seeds, succulent roots and shoots and insects.
They can survive long periods without water because a large portion of their water needs is obtained from the food they eat. Another water conserving adaptation is their ability to excrete highly concentrated urine.
"Features of Rats and Mice",58,"c\9\dfat7.jpg","f","0"
In all, there are about 50 different kinds of native rats and mice. They differ from marsupial mice in that they lack a protective pouch for their teats and are generally herbivores with teeth adapted for this particular diet.
The marsupial mice have a complete set of even-lengthed pointy white teeth. Rats and mice have a pair of long yellow incisors in their upper and lower jaw and no canines.
Their teeth grow continuously throughout their lives and are specialised for gnawing and chewing. As only the front of the incisors have enamel, they wear down unevenly and have a chisel like edge.
Rats and mice mature quickly and breeding is rapid, especially when conditions are ideal. This is sure to have contributed to their success even though they are small and are a major food source for carnivorous mammals and birds.
\BDescription:\b The Jerboa Hopping Mouse \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Dolphins, Porpoises and Whales",59,"c\9\16_0034.jpg","c","0"
Dolphins, porpoises and whales all belong to a group of marine animals known as cetaceans. Like all mammals, cetaceans are warm blooded, breathe air, and suckle their young.
The 76 to 80 species of cetaceans in the world are placed into two main groups.
One group, the \IMysticetes\i or baleen whales, with about 14 species, includes the largest whales, namely the blue and fin whales. Instead of teeth they have long horny plates edged with bristle-like fibres which strain small marine animals from seawater.
The other group includes the toothed whales or \IOdontocetes\i with around 65 species including the beaked whales, killer whales, pilot whales, dolphins and porpoises.
The term \Iporpoise\i refers to a group of six species with characteristic spade-shaped teeth and the absence of a distinct beak. Dolphins may or may not have a beak, and usually have many small pointed teeth.
\BDescription:\b A Rare Albino Southern Humpback Whale \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Dolphins",60,"c\9\tony5.jpg","c","0"
Approximately thirty five species of dolphins and other small cetaceans are known to occur in Australian waters.
Through the centuries dolphins have been revered, and commonly depicted in art and folklore. Seafarers have marvelled at the speed and grace of the animals through the water. Inquisitive and seemingly friendly dolphins have inspired people to believe that cetaceans are highly intelligent, and that there is an affinity between humans and these remarkable mammals of the sea.
Each year throughout the world, tens of thousands of dolphins and other small cetaceans are incidental victims of large scale fish netting operations. Dead animals washed ashore entangled in plastic, causes people to contemplate the predicament of other marine life in the wake of the astonishing amounts of sewage, toxic waste and other rubbish dumped in the oceans.
\BDescription:\b A Bottle-nosed Dolphin \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Distribution and Abundance",61,"c\9\16_0032.jpg","f","0"
The waters around Australia range from the warm tropical waters of northern Australia to the cooler waters off New South Wales, South Australia, southern Western Australia and Tasmania. To the south of the continent are the colder subantarctic waters and those off the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Only the killer whale occurs in all waters though it is most abundant in the southern oceans. The other wide ranging species, the bottlenosed dolphin, occurs in all but the colder waters.
On the basis of their distribution, the small cetaceans can be placed in three groups; those mostly restricted to shallow waters close inshore and to rivers and estuaries; those occurring most commonly near shore waters over the continental shelf; and the truly open ocean species seldom encountered close to land.
"Adaptations for Life in the Sea",62,"c\9\tony3.jpg","c","paddle0"
Bottlenosed dolphins have the general body form of toothed whales; a streamlined body, paired pectoral fins, and in most species a single dorsal fin.
Movement through the water is by up and down movements of the horizontally flattened tail fin. The presence of oily substances produced by glands in the skin, and mammary glands and genital openings set flush with the body surface, reduce drag.
The skin contains a complex system of nerve endings which probably help cetaceans swim more effectively. At high speeds they need to ensure a smooth flow of water over their body.
The skin on the lower jaw is highly sensitive and is used to investigate small objects in the same way that people use their hands. Taste buds are present in the tongue but the sense of smell is believed to be poorly developed in most species.
The blowhole on top of the head enables air to be taken in rapidly when they surface, some species taking only one fifth of a second to expel and fill their lungs.
Sight in most small cetaceans appears to be well developed. Fine detail is discerned both above and below the water in species such as killer whales. Although the bottlenose and common dolphins have binocular vision, they often use only one eye to examine objects.
The external ear openings of toothed whales are small, only two to three millimetres in diameter in the bottlenosed dolphin. Although they can hear well in air, hearing underwater is mainly by the conduction of sound through bones in the skull and lower jaw.
\BDescription:\b A Bottlenosed Dolphin \I(Webster Publishing)\i
In many species there are distinct breeding seasons. Males of some species may fight when competing for females, often resulting in distinct scarring on the body.
Gestation may be ten months for the smaller species, and from twelve to sixteen months for some larger species. The young are usually born tail first.
Calves may be suckled for eight to sixteen months in the small species, to several years for the larger pilot whales. In most species there appears to be a strong and prolonged bond between mother and young.
Most small cetaceans feed on fishes, squid or cuttlefish. Sperm whales and pilot whales feed mainly on squid taken at great depths. Some of the inshore species such as bottlenose dolphins eat fish, squid, cuttlefish, eels, and even prawns and starfish. A layer of blubber or fat under the skin acts as a reserve of energy and provides insulation.
Bottlenosed dolphins dive underwater for up to fifteen minutes. One of the large beaked whales has been known to dive to 2,400 metres and remain submerged for over an hour.
\BDescription:\b A Bottlenosed Dolphin \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Echolocation",65,"c\9\31_0025.jpg","c","0"
The toothed whales have developed a remarkable extra sense, which they use for locating food and for navigation. A variety of sounds is produced underwater by moving air between air-spaces or sinuses in the head.
When swimming normally, the sounds that are emitted are generally lower frequency; the echoes from these providing information about bottom topography, shorelines, underwater obstacles, water depth, and the presence of large animals.
When hunting or examining objects at close range, a series of clicks is produced which are conducted and focused through the melon, a specialised fatty structure in the skull. Sounds reflected back from objects are thought to be collected by an oil-filled channel in the lower jaw and conducted to the middle ear.
Echolocation is extremely sensitive and may provide cetaceans with a three dimensional view of their world. A recent hypothesis suggests that very high intensity focused bursts may be used to stun or disorient prey.
\BDescription:\b Dolphin at Monkey Mia, Western Australia \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Cetacean Social Organisations",66,"c\9\16_0031.jpg","c","0"
Many of the small toothed cetaceans are gregarious and social animals; others are usually seen only in pairs or small groups. The largest groupings are formed by some of the open ocean species, such as the spinner and spotted dolphins which may gather in schools of several thousand.
Bottlenosed dolphins may form groups of five to fifteen animals which move within a relatively restricted range.
Killer whales form small cohesive and stable pods composed of a dominant male or "bull" and other sexually mature males, immature and mature females, and calves.
\BDescription:\b A Southern Humpback Whale \I(QDEH)\i
There are many species of seals and dugongs that visit Australian waters. Only the seals come onto the land. The Australian sea-lion, the Australian fur-seal, the New Zealand fur-seal and the southern elephant seal are native to the southern waters of Australia but they have different distributions.
They all leave the water to set up breeding territories either on the rocky coasts of the mainland or on offshore islands.
\BDescription:\b A Fur Seal \I(David Ireland)\i
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"Dolphins and People",68,"c\9\31_0025.jpg","c","0"
Apart from the artificial environment of aquaria, probably the closest encounters with dolphins take place at Monkey Mia in Shark Bay Western Australia where daily bottlenosed dolphins swim among people, often close enough to touch.
\BDescription:\b Dolphin at Monkey Mia in Western Australia \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"The Whale Protection Act",69,"c\9\16_0033.jpg","c","0"
In response to growing public concern at the way humans have treated the oceans and sea creatures, the Australian parliament passed the Whale Protection Act 1980 which prohibits killing, capturing, injuring, or interfering with whales, dolphins and porpoises in Australian waters. The Act also prohibits such actions by Australians anywhere in the world.
A significant incidental catch of cetaceans was found to be occurring in the Arafura Sea in Northern Australia. An estimated 14,000 dolphins had been killed in drift nets from June 1981 to December 1985. With the introduction of 1986 restrictions to net lengths, the fishery ceased operations. Today there are no fisheries using long drift nets in Australian waters.
There is mounting evidence that small cetaceans are affected by industrial effluent including heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and by bacterial and viral pollution from sewage outfall. Many small cetaceans die from entanglement in plastic waste and fishing gear discarded or lost at sea. An unknown number die from the effects of ingesting plastic and other refuse.
\BDescription:\b The tail of a Southern Humpback Whale \I(QDEH)\i
This is the story of arid Australia. It is part of the harsh, desert beauty of red sand and of weather-beaten rock, of spinifex, saltbush and of desert sheoak.
Some parts of the story are like tracks in sand. We know some of what has passed but already the full story is lost. It is a story of earth, fire and water; of the scarce nutrients in ancient, eroded soils, of the pattern of fires and of rain and the vegetation that these produce.
It is the story of foxes and cats, of lack of water, food and shelter, death and extinction.
It is the story of the last 200 years in arid Australia where there has been a massive loss of native animal species.
\BDescription:\b \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Drought Refuges",71,"c\9\d_0055.jpg","f","0"
Prolonged droughts are normal in arid regions. At the end of long droughts surface water and food are restricted to isolated refuge areas.
In times of prolonged drought many desert mammals are thought to have either died or retreated to refuge areas. One theory is that these refuge areas were special because there was extra runoff water from rocky hills.
In some cases refuges were formed where the ground water tables were close to the surface. Often, because of the runoff, the soil in the refuge areas was slightly richer in nutrients.
Extra water and nutrients create small oases where mammals could survive during droughts. With the return of the rains, desert dwellers would radiate from the refuge areas. In this way desert animals survived hundreds of severe droughts over many thousands of years.
\BDescription:\b \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Destruction of the Refuge Area",72,"c\10\inan1.jpg","f","0"
Unfortunately, cattle, donkeys, camels and rabbits were also attracted to refuge areas.
They ate the vegetation and what they did not eat, they often trampled. They fouled the waterholes. Their hard hooves cut up the soil and created erosions, filling the waterholes.
The delicate balance between desert plants and plant eaters, forged over millennia, was shattered.
"A Fire is a Fire is a Fire...or is It?",73,"c\10\7_0056.jpg","c","fire0"
One fire looks much the same as the next but the similarity often hides significant differences. The difference between fires, and patterns of fires is the difference between survival and extinction for many desert mammals.
Animals depend on plants and many Australian plants depend on fires of a certain temperature, or fires at a certain time of year, in order for seeds to germinate.
Too frequent fires can cause some plants to disappear. Mulga, a very important arid area plant, is an example. This shrub dies when burnt. The seeds germinate after fires and new stands of mulga appear. If another fire occurs before the young stands of mulga have had the chance to develop seed, then mulga disappears from the area.
Fires which are too infrequent enable fire sensitive plants to crowd out other plants thus reducing species diversity in a particular area.
It is now considered likely that much of the pattern of vegetation which existed in Australia in 1788 was the direct result of a pattern of fires which Aboriginal people lit deliberately as well as those caused by lightning.
\BDescription:\b Bushfire \I(Peter Jarver)\i
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"A Fire is a Fire is a Fire...or is It? - (2)",74,"c\10\7_0056.jpg","c","fire0"
In arid areas, the complex pattern of patch burning developed by Aboriginal people created a patchwork of areas of older vegetation with different food plant species, fresh shoots and vigorous young growth.
The desert animals frequently used patches of older vegetation for shelter and fed on the patches of young vegetation.
The patch burning ceased when Aboriginal people were driven from their traditional country. Fuel built up and huge wildfires swept over vast tracts of the arid country.
Mammals which had developed a delicate balance with a patchwork of vegetation were either destroyed by the huge fires or found that the huge tracts of single-age vegetation no longer provided the variety so necessary for their continued survival.
\BDescription:\b Bush Fire \I(Peter Jarver)\i
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"What of the Survivors?",75,"c\10\endan11.jpg","c","0"
Some of the desert species are still struggling for survival. Although extinct on the mainland, some species survive on small, isolated islands off the coasts of Western Australia and South Australia.
They have not had to deal with introduced foxes, cats, cattle, donkeys, camels and rabbits. The burrowing bettong and the banded hare-wallaby are examples.
Other species survive on the mainland, often in small isolated populations, which have somehow escaped a fatal combination of circumstances.
\BDescription:\b A northern hopping mouse \I(Frank Knight)\i
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"What of the Survivors? - (2)",76,"c\10\endan11.jpg","c","0"
Some mammals have had an assisted passage to survival.
The mala, or rufous hare-wallaby, has been bred in captivity by the Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (CCNT). Its habits and habitat have been studied by scientists. Aboriginal people have given vital information on behaviour, habitat needs, and the appropriate fire patterns required to maintain suitable habitats.
Based on this information, a cooperative attempt is being made between the Commission and Aboriginal people to re-establish the mala in the Tanami Desert. Partly funded through the Federal Government's Endangered Species Program, it is too early to tell how successful this recovery project will be.
In the 1970s there was increasing concern that the range of the numbat was dwindling.
Scientists from the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management studied the biology of the numbat and showed that a big threat to the survival of this species is predation by foxes.
Despite adequate food and shelter, despite breeding ample young to reproduce the species, the numbat could not replace the large number of individuals being taken by foxes. The species was in decline. Experiments with fox control showed that numbat numbers climbed quickly once foxes were removed.
\BDescription:\b A northern hopping mouse \I(Frank Knight)\i
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"This Goes with This Goes with This",77,"c\10\endan3.jpg","f","0"
In less than two hundred years since 1789 there has been a catastrophe.
We are unsure exactly why each of the extinct species died out. For some, the only traces are in museums and in the memories of old Aboriginal men and women - the last people to know them from seeing them alive in the wild.
We do know that the mala, or rufous hare-wallaby, can survive in the desert provided the area is burnt in the traditional Aboriginal way; and there are no rabbits and foxes. We are becoming increasingly certain that the availability of nutritious food during times of drought stress has also been critical.
We know that some of these mammals are gone forever. Some of them were ordinary and some beautiful but each was a unique part of our natural heritage.
On the other hand we know that some mammals which are on the brink of extinction can be saved.
In late 1995 in Western Australia, scientists found the State's only known colony of southern hairy-nosed wombats. Immediate action will be taken to protect these animals and a recovery plan prepared.
\BDescription:\b A Western Barred Bandicoot \I(Frank Knight)\i
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"Dingoes, Foxes and Cats",78,"c\10\endan7.jpg","f","0"
Scientists believe that dingoes were brought to Australia at least 15,000 years ago by Aboriginal people.
Although it is not certain, it is believed that dingoes had an impact on the native animals. For example, the \Ithylacine\i (Tasmanian tiger) and the Tasmanian devil disappeared from mainland Australia but survived for much longer in Tasmania where dingoes were absent.
The surviving desert animals have had about ten thousand years to adjust to dingoes. By 1788, a new balance had been achieved.
The introduction of cats and foxes fatally altered this balance. Some species simply fell off the scales and disappeared forever. Others maintain a precarious grip.
Some mammals which have become extinct on the mainland survive quite well on islands. These islands do not have introduced foxes, cats and rabbits.
\BDescription:\b Tasmanian Tiger or \IThylacine (Courtesy of Frank Knight)\i
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"Some of the Victims",79,"c\10\endan2.jpg","f","0"
It is painful to think about some of the arid animals which have become extinct in our lifetime.
For some we have beautiful illustrations by the early naturalist John Gould. The illustrations capture the light earthy colours so typical of many of the arid animals; their bright eyes and alert stance give a hint of quick, sure movement.
But now they exist only in books. Examples of extinct desert mammals are the lesser bilby, the pig-footed bandicoot, and the central hare-wallaby.
\BDescription:\b A Pig-footed Bandicoot \I(Frank Knight)\i
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"Size is Not Everything",80,"c\10\endan6.jpg","c","0"
A feature of the story is that 90 per cent of all mammal species with adult body weights between 35 and 500 grams are either extinct or endangered.
It has paid desert mammals to be big or small but not medium. Why? The short answer is that we do not know for sure.
One theory is that mammals which weighed less than 35 grams could survive in smaller-scale habitats and somehow missed the general destruction created by introduced animals and alterations to the fire patterns.
Larger mammals have the capacity to move long distances to surviving patches of habitat, as well as being too large for foxes and cats to attack.
\BDescription:\b A Greater Stick-nest Rat \I(Frank Knight)\i
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"Definitions",81,"c\10\16_0037.jpg","f","0"
Several words are used to describe the population of a species:
\BExtinct:\b Species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years.
\BEndangered:\b Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue operating.
\BVulnerable:\b Species believed likely to move into the "Endangered" category in the near future if the causal factors continue operating.
\BDescription:\b An endangered species: The yellow-footed rock wallaby \I(QDEH)\i
#
"The Future",82,"c\10\endan10.jpg","f","0"
For many desert mammals there is no happy ending to this story. They are gone. The quality of our lives has been diminished by the loss of the rich variety of animals.
For the survivors, it is now a story of a race against time and circumstances. We are in a position to alter those circumstances. We can tip the scales one way or the other.
Whether desert mammals survive depends on the choices we make.
We can make choices through governments by making laws to protect and conserve; through conservation agencies by making and carrying out management choices; through non-government organisations by increasing awareness and support for appropriate action; and as individuals by choosing to consume less in order to put less pressure on the environment.
We know that the choices are often difficult to make but we also know that all choices count.
\BDescription:\b A Northern Hairynosed Wombat \I(Frank Knight)\i
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"Choices",83,"c\8\16_0039.jpg","f","0"
We can choose:
* To use less resources in our personal lives. Every bit of paper, metal, wood, and energy comes from somewhere. The wastes from their production and use all go somewhere. Those "somewheres" are where animals live.
* To reserve areas of habitat and protect them from disturbance.
* To control exotic plants and introduced animals.
* To err on the side of caution. Once a species is extinct it is too late to go back and make the right decision.
* To learn more about how animals depend on their habitats and about how habitats are affected by our actions.
* To farm in a way which supports wildlife; for example, by planting shelter belts for native plants.
* To join a group which seeks to support the needs of endangered species and their habitats.
* To grow native plants in your garden or town park as an example to others that people care enough to act for the environment.
* To talk with family and friends about the choices which can be made.
"Endangered Species Program",84,"c\10\endan4.jpg","c","0"
In response to the crisis, the Commonwealth Government has taken a number of steps:
* It is seeking to develop nationwide endangered species and habitats strategy, in cooperation with the States and Territories.
* It has established an Endangered Species Advisory Committee to provide expert scientific advice and to act as a channel for advice from interested groups such as farmers and non-government conservation groups.
* It has funded an Endangered Species Program aimed at reducing the threats to endangered species.
\BDescription:\b A Banded Hair Wallaby \I(Frank Knight)\i
#
"Endangered Species - Arid Zone",85,"c\10\endan1.jpg","c","0"
Endangered mammal species of the Australian arid zone are:
\BDescription:\b A Greater Bilby \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
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!,!,!,!,!
2#
36,0
"Bird Family Tree",1,"c\10\mi_0040.jpg","c","0"
To see a list of all known Australian Birds, in a classification table, \P\Kbirdtree\kclick here\p, or select the \IBird Classification Tree\i command from the \BInteraction\b menu.
As though to compensate for the restricted mammalian representation, most bird orders are represented. Some noteworthy absentees among widespread groups are woodpeckers, vultures and flamingoes, although several species of flamingoes were present in Tertiary or Pleistocene times, as evidenced by fossil bones around Lake Eyre.
Of the total of about 700 birds known in the country, about 530 are considered to be endemic. Most of those shared with other countries are waders and the oceanic petrels and albatrosses.
\BDescription:\b \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"What Makes Australia's Birds Unique",3,"c\10\mg_0009.jpg","c","0"
Australia's avifauna is distinguished by the preponderance of insectivorous species, more than 70 per cent being partly or entirely insect eaters. Australia is also the chief home of the parrot family, with the 60 known species displaying great diversity in colour and form. In even greater numerical strength are the honeyeaters, which are represented by many species ranging from pigeon-sized wattle birds to midgets, little more than half the size of sparrows.
\BDescription:\b The Slender Billed Corella
#
"Australia's Largest Birds",4,"b\6\emu.jpg","c","0"
Australia's best known birds, perhaps, are those which exhibit some unique characteristics in habits or form. These include the flightless but fast-running emu \IDromaius novaehollandiae\i and the tropical cassowary \ICasuarius casuarius,\i which constitute an order \ICasuariiformes\i peculiar to the Australian region.
\BDescription:\b \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"The Black Swan",5,"0","Australia's black swan","swan.avi"
Another famous bird is the black swan \ICygnus atratus,\i the only species of swan native to Australia. Its black plumage is relieved by its red beak and the pure white wing quills which are seen only when it is flying.
The black swan, widely distributed in all states, aroused great interest among Europeans when first discovered in 1697 by a Dutch expedition to the west coast of the continent. Until then, the only known swans were white.
\BViddescription:\b Black Swan (David Ireland)
#
"Rare Birds of Australia",6,"c\10\dfat9.jpg","c","0"
Two rare species, the Cape Barren goose \ICereopsis novaehollandiae\i of southern coastal areas and the magpie goose \IAnseranas semipalmata\i, now restricted to parts of the Northern Territory and north Queensland, are, by their size and appearance the most distinctive members of the family.
They differ considerably not only from the geese of other countries but also between themselves. The magpie goose measures nearly 1 m (3.3 ft) from bill to tail and carries bold black and white magpie-like markings. The Cape Barren goose, about 610 mm (24 in) long, is a pugnacious bird in captivity. It is distinguished by a large yellow cere on the beak.
\BDescription:\b A Cape Barren Goose \I(DFAT)\i
#
"The Lyrebird",7,"0","Lyrebird","lyrebird.avi"
Of world renown, zoologically and for its superb vocal and display artistry, is the lyrebird. The only two species, \IMenura novaehollandiae,\i of eastern and south-eastern areas, and \IMenura albertii,\i restricted to the rainforests near the eastern junction of New South Wales and Queensland, have an unknown ancestry, and their only known relatives are the scrub birds \IAtrichornithidae,\i also Australian.
Once thought to be a type of pheasant, the birds have now been placed, with the scrub birds, among the \IPasseriformes\i (perching birds) but in a distinct suborder - \IMenurae.\i
\BViddescription:\b Lyrebird (Film Australia)
#
"The Lyrebird - (2)",8,"c\10\16_0001.jpg","c","0"
\IM. novaehollandiae,\i or superb lyrebird, is slightly larger in body and has a longer and more decorative tail than the \IM. albertii,\i the Prince Albert lyrebird.
The male of both species is more vocal than the female and displays and sings at intervals throughout the year except during the moulting period. However, it is only in the courting and breeding season that he gives the performances that are world famous.
Most of these song and dance recitals take place on specially constructed mounds - clearings about 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter and slightly dome shaped. Here the splendid tail is extended and the filamentous fern-like feathers are spread above the back and head until the bird is almost obscured by his gauzy canopy.
In this attitude, and while the feathers are quivered and shaken, the bird gives voice to the most astonishing range of notes and calls ever heard from one creature. An accomplished male has been known to render in a single concert as many as 40 different calls made up of his own notes, phrases mimicking the songs of neighbouring birds, and even man-made bush noises with which he is familiar.
\BDescription:\b A Prince Albert Lyrebird \I(QDEH)\i
#
"The Bower Bird",9,"c\10\16_0002.jpg","c","0"
The bower birds \IPtilonorhynchidae\i could also claim fame for their mimicry if these powers were not overshadowed by an even stranger and more spectacular courtship procedure. This unique group, an isolated family of 16 species in seven genera, constructs and decorates bowers as centres for display and courtship.
These bowers, which are separate from the nests, usually consist of slender sticks placed vertically in a sheltered position on the ground to form two parallel walls about 150 mm (6 in) apart, 300 mm (12 in) long and from 300 mm (12 in) to 450 mm (18 in) high. Sometimes the walls are arched to form an oval-shaped tunnel.
One bird, the golden bower bird \IPrionodura newtoniana\i of northern Queensland, builds solid walls of sticks, normally about 1.2 m (4 ft) high, although, occasionally, as high as 2.4 m (8 ft). By contrast the toothbilled bower bird \IScenopoeetes dentirostris\i, or catbird, simply clears a space on the forest floor and covers it with a rug of large green leaves.
\BDescription:\b Regent's Bowerbird \I(QDEH)\i
#
"How the Bowers are Decorated",10,"c\10\16_0003.jpg","c","0"
The added decorations vary considerably between the species. The satin bower bird \IPtilonorhynchus violaceus\i likes to collect blue objects for paving its playground; the spotted bower birds \IChlamydera spp.\i generally favour shells, bones and shining objects; while other species prefer flowers, berries or mosses. Some even paint the inside walls of their bowers.
The satin bower bird, for example, has been observed to collect charcoal, dark-coloured berries or native fruits, or desiccated wood, mix the material with saliva and methodically paint the sticks lining the inner walls. While doing this he may hold in his beak a small piece of soft bark apparently to prevent the paint oozing out of the beak while the head is held to one side.
The nest of these unusual birds are saucer-shaped structures generally placed in trees at heights varying, according to the species, from 1.2 m (4 ft) to perhaps 1.8 m (6 ft) from the ground. Clutches average two eggs.
\BDescription:\b A Satin Bower Bird and its bower \I(QDEH)\i
Australia is also the home of a small group of mound-building birds of the family \IMegapodiidae\i and the order \IGalliformes.\i These are the lowans or mallee fowls, the brush turkeys and the scrub fowls, which bury their eggs to incubate instead of sitting on them.
The brush turkey \IAlectura lathami\i occurs in tropical and subtropical areas and the mallee fowl \ILeipoa ocellata\i is found in the drier inland districts of southern Australia. Both average about 610 mm (24 in) in length and build comparatively low nesting mounds, usually only 610 mm (24 in) to 1.2 m (4 ft) high and with a circumference of about 11 m (36 ft).
The scrub fowl \IMegapodius freycinet\i, which inhabits the tropical rainforests of coastal districts of the north, is the smallest, measuring from 355 mm (14 in) to 460 mm (18 in) in length, but it forms the largest mounds, sometimes up to 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 21.3 m (70 ft) in circumference at the base.
\BDescription:\b A Brush Turkey \I(QDEH)\i
#
"How the Mound is Built",12,"c\10\dfat15.jpg","c","0"
The behaviour of mound-building birds in construction and care of mounds is generally similar. The mallee fowl, for example, scratches a large depression in a sandy area and fills it with dead leaves and other vegetable matter.
This debris is left uncovered until it has been saturated by rain, after which the bird scratches sand over it until the mound is built, about 1.5 m (5 ft) or 1.8 m (6 ft) wide and up to 1 m (3.3 ft) high. Heat generated by the decomposing moist vegetation warms the mound from below and the sun warms it from above.
The male bird, whose tongue or mouth interior is apparently sensitive to heat, digs into the mound to a point where the temperature is about 33 degrees Celsius (91.4 degrees F). The hen lays an egg in the hole, covers it and leaves it. This process is repeated until about 30 eggs have been deposited.
The birds visit the mound daily during incubation, testing the temperature and scraping more sand over the mound or removing some as necessary.
Newly hatched chicks are strong enough to scratch their own way through about 1 m (3.3 ft) of sand to the surface, and immediately fend for themselves.
\BDescription:\b A Mallee Fowl \I(DFAT)\i
#
"The Brolga",13,"c\10\dfat60.jpg","c","0"
The stately brolga \IGrus rudicundus\i or native companion, the country's sole member of the crane family, is noted for its company dancing. These tall birds, which are fairly common in eastern areas, particularly in the north, congregate in flocks of half a dozen to several hundred.
In the group dancing, which is performed frequently, the birds will move rhythmically, bow to one another with outstretched wings, and go through a series of curious mincing steps like the movements of a quadrille.
\BDescription:\b A flock of Brolgas \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Other Special Australian Birds",14,"0","Rainbow lorikeets","mirlkeet.avi"
Many other Australian birds possess unusual characteristics, but the best known are those distinguished for their vocal expressions.
The cracking of the whipbirds \IPsophodes spp.,\i the clear ringing of bellbirds \IManorina melanophrys,\i the carol of the magpies \IGymnorhina spp.\i and the unmistakable screech of the rainbow lorikeet typify the great variety and rare quality of the country's avifauna.
The two main types of penguins include the Fairy penguin and the Rockhopper penguin.
"Kookaburra",15,"0","The famous kookaburra","kookabur.avi"
Another special Australian bird is the kookaburra \I(Dacelo gigas)\i or great brown kingfisher, which, because of its remarkable raucous laugh-like call, is often called the laughing jackass.
The sulphur-crested cockatoo is one of the most familiar of the cockatoo family. They congregate in large flocks therefore making them very noisy. They also occur in a number of neighbouring countries. They are not common in South Australia or southern Western Australia.
This bird occurs in large flocks and often provides spectacular and noisy flights. It occurs throughout much of arid Australia, the Top End, Victoria and the coast of Western Australia.
\BViddescription:\b Little Corella (Webster Publishing)
#
"Wetland Birds",19,"a\1\d_0014.jpg","c","0"
Wetlands provide feeding grounds for many diverse groups of birds. Some are entirely dependent on wetlands while others may only rely on them for activities such as raising young or roosting.
The main groups of wetland birds are grebes, pelicans, cormorants, long-legged wading birds (the herons and allies), waterfowl and a large and varied group with common names such as godwit, knot, snipe, tattler and sandpiper - known as "waders".
Although this latter group includes many resident Australian species, the majority are migratory - travelling vast distances between their summer breeding grounds and winter feeding grounds. Most species that migrate to Australia fly 11,000 km from the Arctic, via the Asian mainland, arriving on our shores in September-October and returning to the northern tundra to breed in April-May.
\BDescription:\b A Pelican \I(David Ireland)\i
#
"Migratory Waders",20,"c\10\16_0040.jpg","f","0"
Waders are a diverse group of birds ranging in size from the tiny stints, about 15 cm tall, to the curlews which stand up to 60 cm. There is an enormous variety of shapes, sizes and colouration in the waders. They also have a diverse and often bizarre range of bills, the shapes of which reflect their different feeding habits.
To date, 69 species of waders have been recorded in Australia. Of these, 15 are residents and 54 are truly migratory. Of the migrants, 40 species are seasonal visitors, while the others only occasional "vagrants".
Although small numbers of migratory waders remain in Australia throughout the year, the vast majority return to their breeding grounds in Siberia. Some of the waders that live permanently in Australia move around in search of flushes of food following rainfall, especially in the arid inland of Australia.
\BDescription:\b A Ruddy Tumstone \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Grebes",21,"c\10\16_0041.jpg","f","0"
Australia's three grebe species are totally reliant on wetlands. They feed on small fish and invertebrates, dive to escape danger, and build floating nests of vegetation. They have large bodies and although superbly adapted to life in water are clumsy on land.
\BDescription:\b An Australian grebe \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Cormorants and Allies",22,"0","Australian cormorants","micorm.avi"
Four of Australia's cormorant species are found in freshwater and coastal wetlands in all states; one species, the Black-faced Shag is restricted to the rocky coasts of southern Australia. They are medium to large (50-85 cm) with webbed feet, long hooked bills, long necks and distinctive black or black and white plumage. All species feed on fish, crustaceans and insects by diving from the water's surface.
The Darter bears a superficial resemblance to the cormorants except for its long, snake-like neck and sharply pointed bill. Darters are common in all Australian states except Tasmania but are most abundant in the tropical and subtropical regions.
One of our most distinctive birds, the Australian Pelican, can be seen in coastal and freshwater wetlands Australia wide. Groups of pelicans catch fish by surrounding schools and driving them into shallow water where they are more easily caught. Pelicans nest in colonies in sand pits or islands, scraping a shallow depression in the soil.
"Herons, Storks and Allies",23,"c\10\31_0010.jpg","c","0"
This group includes the herons and egrets, spoonbills, ibis, storks, bitterns and night herons. All have long, slender necks, long legs with long, unwebbed toes and large bills adapted for feeding in various ways.
Herons and egrets are found in wetlands of all types, although two species are restricted to the tropics. The Rufus Night Heron is the sole Australian representative of a small family of nocturnal herons. Ibis have long, down-curved bills with which they snap up food such as large insects or probe in the mud for hidden prey. As their name suggests, spoonbills have flattened, spoon-shaped bills. They feed by moving their heads from side to side in a sweeping movement.
Bitterns feed and nest in reed beds or dense waterside vegetation. They are capable of long flights, but tend to adopt a cryptic pose when disturbed. Their distinctive booming calls are often heard at night.
\BDescription:\b A Jabiru, Australia's only stork \I(David Ireland)\i
#
"Ducks, Geese and Swans",24,"c\10\d_0107.jpg","c","ducks0"
This group, known collectively as waterfowl, has 21 species breeding in Australia, although two were introduced to this continent. Another species, the Garganey, migrates from Eurasia to northern Australia during the summer.
Australian waterfowl populations can fluctuate dramatically according to the availability of food, which ultimately depends on rainfall. In the tropics, huge numbers congregate at drying waterholes towards the end of the dry season. They are strong flyers and can travel long distances to escape drought. Most of the species are found in the southern part of the continent, but six are predominantly birds of the tropics and a further five are found all over Australia.
Most Australian waterfowl nest in tree forks or hollows lined with down. Larger species such as geese and swans build nests on the ground or in vegetation on water.
Habitat destruction poses a serious threat to wetland wildlife. Already vast areas of mangrove forest and mudflats, important stopovers for migrating waders, have been destroyed in Australia and South-East Asia to make way for agricultural, housing or industrial development.
Roosting and feeding is crucial in preparation for and after a long migratory flight. If traditional nesting and feeding sites are destroyed then the birds are forced to compete for dwindling resources.
Introduced predators such as foxes and feral cats take a toll of all bird species, especially their young. Industrial waste, especially near large cities, has made once rich feeding sites unsuitable for all but a few tolerant bird species.
\BDescription:\b An example of habitat destruction \I(Peter Jarver)\i
Two subspecies of the golden-shouldered parrot have been recognised - the golden-shouldered parrot and the hooded parrot. The golden-shouldered parrot is a highly coloured, elegant, slim bird of north-east Australia.
The adult is about 26 cm long including a 14 cm tail. It has dark brown eyes, grey brown legs and a grey bill. The brilliant golden patch on each shoulder gives the species its name. The males are generally brighter than the females. It is a stronger flyer with a swift, slightly undulating flight.
The main habitat for golden-shouldered parrots is dry open eucalyptus woodland where tall termite nests abound. The golden-shouldered parrot subspecies is restricted to isolated areas in the dry savannah woodland of central and southern Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland.
The hooded parrot subspecies is found in the north-east of the Northern Territory mainly along the western edge of the Arnhem Land plateau from the upper South Alligator River to the Pine Creek District.
The parrots feed in pairs or small groups and their diet consists of small grass seeds. During the heat of the day they rest in trees. Breeding takes place at the beginning of the dry season from April to June.
Both subspecies nest in termite mounds. About a metre above ground the bird excavates a tunnel of around 5 cm in diameter into the mound for up to 45 cm and builds a nest chamber at the end.
In courtship display, the male makes short flights around the female before strutting towards her with breast feathers puffed out and the frontal feathers raised to form a crest. Up to 6 eggs are incubated by the female for about 20 days and the young birds leave the nest about 35 days after hatching. Two broods are usually raised in one year.
The golden-shouldered parrot population has declined considerably. This can be attributed to a reduction in food supply as the native plant species on which it feeds is replaced by introduced pasture grasses for grazing stock.
Persistent dry season has reduced the quality of ground cover while illegal bird trapping has contributed also to the species decline. Special management in critical areas should ensure that the habitat can support a viable population.
Paradise parrots are slim, highly coloured parrots with an upright stance. Adults are about 30 cm long of which about half is the tail. The adult male has a bright red forehead topped by a black crown whilst the back and wings are earth brown with a bright red patch on each wing.
Scarlet feathers extend from the centre of the abdomen to the underside of the tail. The rest of the body is emerald green blending to turquoise blue.
The female is mainly buff yellow with brownish orange markings whilst the underparts are pale blue and the red wing patches are smaller and duller than those of the male. The bill is grey, the eyes brown and the legs grey brown.
In the last half of the nineteenth century, paradise parrots were locally common within an area extending from the Queensland coast between Rockhampton and Brisbane to northern New South Wales and inland to the Darling Downs. They may also have occurred within the Mitchell River region of north Queensland. The present distribution is unknown and the species may be extinct.
Writing of early naturalists give us some clues about the parrot's habits. Along broad river valleys paradise parrots frequent open forests and woodland savannah where termite nests are found. They were observed to feed on seeds of grasses and herbs.
Nesting was recorded in September, December and March. The nests were mainly in termite mounds but have been found in cavities excavated in creek banks. The birds burrowed in the nesting chamber about 30 cm in diameter in which 4-5 eggs were laid.
The last authenticated sighting of a paradise parrot was in 1927 and now the species may be extinct. Several factors probably contributed to the decline of the paradise parrot, including widespread and heavy sheep and cattle grazing and severe droughts. These may have caused a critical reduction in the production of native grass seed so that the birds starved or failed to breed.
"Norfolk Island Boobook Owl",28,"c\10\bird4.jpg","c","0"
The adult Norfolk Island boobook owl is 30-35 cm long. It lives in pairs but usually only single birds are seen during the day in trees. When a boobook owl is disturbed, it sits bolt upright, holds its feathers tight against its body and turns side on to the direction of danger to give a long slender appearance.
The plumage of adults and immature birds of both sexes are similar. The head, neck and back are uniform dark brown. The shoulders and rumps are of similar colour but barred with dull white. The breast, belly, sides and flanks are rich chocolate brown and are spotted and barred with white, with the barring more pronounced on the belly and flanks.
The feathers of the forehead are white at the base and tipped with chocolate brown whilst those of the wings and tail are dull earth brown barred with brownish buff. The feathers of the chin and at the top of the bill are white.
The underside of the tail is a rich buffish white with a large spot of chocolate brown near the end. The wings are rich grey below. The eyes are a pale green yellow and the feet and bill are blue grey.
The Norfolk Island boobook owl is only found on Norfolk Island in the thick forests of the Mount Pitt Reserve.
The boobook owl is mainly sedentary and roosts during the day in the dense foliage of a tree. It feeds on small birds and mammals but insects are an important part of its diet, particularly night flying moths and beetles.
The boobook owl breeds from September to November, the nest is in a hole in a tree and is lined with wood-dust or shredded bark. There are usually three eggs which are dull white and oval in shape. The Norfolk Island boobook owl has a much higher pitched call than the Australian boobook.
The Norfolk Island boobook owl is rarely seen but occasionally is heard calling. The total population seems to be very low and probably there are no more than twenty individuals left. The destruction of most of Norfolk Island's originally dense forest has drastically reduced the nesting sites available to the Norfolk Island boobook owl.
The species is protected under Norfolk Island legislation and this, with the resolution of Norfolk Islanders to preserve the forest environment of the Mount Pitt Reserve, may ensure the survival of the subspecies.
\BDescription:\b A Norfolk Island Boobook Owl \I(Peter Slater)\i
#
"Lord Howe Island Woodhen",29,"c\10\bird5.jpg","c","0"
The Lord Howe Island woodhen is a flightless rail and is hen-like in appearance. It is the size of a bantam and mainly olive brown with alternately light and dark barring across the wings. The woodhen has a long, slightly down-curved, pinkish-grey bill and large, strong grey legs. The adult bird has bright red eyes, and females are slightly smaller than males.
The species is restricted to Lord Howe Island. Once numerous over most of the island it is now confined to the summit and slopes of Mount Gower with a few birds on Mount Lidgbird. It is now being reintroduced from captive bred stock to parts of its former range.
Lord Howe Island woodhens live in damp closed scrub forests of palms and ferns where the ground is covered with much plant litter. They forage for a great variety of insects, worms and other invertebrates on the forest floor and in the lower vegetation.
They display strong territorial behaviour throughout the year and birds from neighbouring territories will fight vigorously if they come into contact at the territorial boundaries. The Lord Howe Island woodhen pairs for life and each pair defends a territory of about three hectares.
Breeding occurs from spring to summer, but of the present population only two of the three pairs produce offspring in any year. The nest of moss and sticks is well concealed and is sometimes built in the burrow of other birds such as the providence petrel. Up to 4 eggs are laid.
Young birds do not breed unless they are able to occupy a territory. Since suitable areas for territories have been limited, such vacancies are created by the loss of a breeding adult. The total breeding population of Lord Howe woodhens is very low, numbering about 10 pairs, however, several pairs of wild birds have been successfully bred in captivity and the offspring released into suitable forested areas.
\BDescription:\b A Lord Howe Island Woodhen \I(Peter Slater)\i
#
"Ground Parrot",30,"c\10\bird6.jpg","c","0"
The ground parrot is an elusive bird which spends most of its time on the ground hidden by vegetation. It walks easily and if disturbed either runs away quickly or flies above the vegetation for short distances before settling down again. The flight tends to be a zig-zag with periods of rapid wing beats alternating with gliding.
The adult is approximately 30 cm long of which 20 cm is tail. The wings are short and rounded. The plumage is a rich green and the back, wing and rump feathers are mottled with black and yellow in the centre. There are distinct broken black stripes on the head, neck and mantle. The central tail feathers are green and lightly barred with yellow.
Currently on the mainland the population is patchily distributed from Fraser Island in Queensland through to Victoria where a major population is centered in Croajingolong National Park in the Gippsland area.
The parrot is reportedly widespread in western Tasmania. Following a rapid decline in numbers, the species was believed to be near extinction in Western Australia but birds still occur in the Albany district.
The ground parrot is found in coastal and adjacent montane heathlands, estuarine flats and swamps. It is usually most abundant in heathlands which support a diversity of vegetation types and ages resulting from varied burning regimes.
The ground parrot feeds on small seeds of herbs and grasses, especially of button grass species and sedges, green shoots and other vegetable matter. It is largely nocturnal, being most active at dawn and dusk when it can be heard calling.
Breeding takes place from September to December. Normally the nest is at the base of a low bush in a grass tussock and is a hollow scratched into the soil and lined with chewed stalks and leaves. In wetter situations the eggs may be laid on a raised platform in a grass tussock. Up to 7 eggs are laid and the young leave the nest about 25 days after hatching. Adult birds seem to remain paired all year.
The native heathland where the ground parrot lives has diminished greatly in size and continuity as urban and agricultural development have encroached upon it. The limited and scattered nature of the remaining suitable habitat, and the increasing pressure for further development, threaten the ground parrot, and to ensure its survival active protection measures should be taken.
\BDescription:\b A Ground Parrot \I(Bill Cooper)\i
#
"Helmeted Honeyeater",31,"c\10\bird7.jpg","c","0"
The adult helmeted honeyeater is about 21 cm long. It is brownish black on the back and yellow below. The face has a broad black mask and the lower cheeks and throat are yellow. The distinguishing feature of the subspecies is the prominent yellow crest, or helmet, on the forehead to which it owes its name.
The bill is black, the eyes brown and the legs dark brown. The sexes are alike in general appearance. Immature birds resemble the adults except that the yellow areas are green.
The helmeted honeyeater is confined to a small area centered on the Yellingbo State Faunal Reserve, about 50 km east of Melbourne. Though closely related to other kinds of honeyeaters, the helmeted honeyeater has very specific habitat requirements and an extremely small geographic distribution.
Generally it is found on the margins of creeks where there is a broken overhead canopy of tall mature acacias and eucalypts such as manna and swamp gum and a dense shrub understorey of leptospermum, melaleuca and hakea. The helmeted honeyeater feeds both on nectar and insects.
The breeding season is unusually long, normally extending from August to January but in some seasons from June to March. Because of the long breeding season it is possible for two broods to be raised in a year.
The cup-shaped nests are built mainly by the female in understorey shrubs and are bulky, loosely constructed structures. Normally two eggs are laid, and both adults participate in brooding the eggs and feeding the young. For several days after hatching, the nestlings are fed solely on nectar. Insects are subsequently introduced into the diet in increasing proportions.
The marked decline in the distribution and numbers of the helmeted honeyeater is attributed mainly to the clearing of its habitat for grazing and urban development. A series of counts from 1981 indicates that the population has stabilised at about 200-300 birds.
\BDescription:\b A Helmeted Honeyeater \I(Peter Slater)\i
Orange-bellied parrots are generally seen singly, in pairs or small flocks, and spend most of the day feeding on the ground or sitting under tussocks or small bushes, camouflaged by their colouring.
They are easily alarmed and their flight is erratic with jerky side movements and rapid wing beats followed by short glides. When alarmed, the orange-bellied parrot emits a distinctive sharp "buzzing" call.
The adult is about 20 cm long, including approximately 10 cm of tail. The male is bright emerald green above with yellow underparts and a bright orange patch on the lower abdomen. The wings are edged with blue and there is a blue frontal band bordered by a faint blue line.
The female is duller than the male, and the frontal band is paler and has no blue line above it. The eyes are brown, the bill is grey black and the legs are buff grey.
The orange-bellied parrot is a migratory species which breeds in south-west Tasmania and winters on the coasts of Victoria and South Australia. On the mainland, birds are found mainly at Port Wilson and the Bellarine Peninsula, both near Melbourne and south-east South Australia.
Orange-bellied parrots are essentially birds of the coast and occur in a variety of habitats including heathlands, grasslands, cultivated paddocks, sand dunes and tidal flats which provide shelter and food. They like to be near large expanses of water, both on their breeding and wintering grounds.
In Tasmania, they forage for seeds of sedge and heath plants mostly on plains burnt within the last 15 years. Birds wintering in Victoria and South Australia live in different types of country and feed on different plants. In Victoria saltmarsh plants are the main food source while in South Australia the birds inhabit beach-front vegetation in coastal dune systems and eat seeds of Cakile and Acaena.
Breeding takes place during November and December. Pairs nest in hollows in eucalypts often some 20 metres above the ground and 4-6 eggs are laid. Successfully breeding pairs use the same nesting site in subsequent years.
Adults, followed later by juveniles, leave the breeding areas in February-March, move up the Tasmanian west coast and then cross to the mainland.
The species is very rare and the present population of orange-bellied parrots is probably less than 200 individuals. Numbers have certainly declined since the turn of the century and even in the late 1960s they were more numerous than now.
The small number of surviving parrots means that protection and management of areas they are known to use is needed to give the species a chance of survival.
\BDescription:\b An Orange-bellied Parrot \I(Bill Cooper)\i
#
"Night Parrot",33,"c\10\bird9.jpg","c","0"
The night parrot is one of two species of ground-dwelling parrots. Because of the nocturnal secretive habits of this rare bird there have been few scientific records made and consequently our knowledge is very sketchy. It is an inconspicuous nocturnal dumpy bird about 24 cm long of which approximately 13 cm is tail. The black plumage of the adult is grass green crossed by irregular bands of black, green and yellow with black streaks on the crown and nape. The throat and breast are yellow green and the colour grades to yellow over the belly and undertail coverts. The bill is horn coloured, the legs brown and the eyes have been reported to be black.
The present distribution of the species is unknown, however recent confirmed sightings have been recorded in remote areas of Central and Western Australia.
The night parrot occurs singly or in pairs and is probably nomadic. It is associated mainly with hummock grassland on stormy ridges and rocky breakaways, which presumably provide both food and shelter. It has been seen also among samphire bushes near salt lakes and pans, and this could be its main habitat.
During the day it rests in tunnels at the base of tussocks, hollow logs or burrows in sandy soil. It ventures forth at night to feed on grass seeds and browse green shoots and fruits of saltbush vegetation.
Much time is spent on the ground but occasionally birds have been reported as flying considerable distances for water.
The night parrot nests in hollows on the ground under grass tussocks and small bushes. The nests are built on a platform of sticks and 4-5 eggs are laid. The breeding period is unknown but possibly coincides with periods when good food is available.
The only specimen of night parrot known to have been collected this century was obtained in 1912. There have been many unconfirmed sightings during the past 70 years but its rediscovery in 1979 in the Coopers Creek area has raised hopes that the species still survives.
The reason for the marked reduction in the distribution and size of the population is unknown but several factors may be responsible. The development of the pastoral industry may have changed its natural habitat in some critical way and perhaps grazing animals had a disturbing influence in the birds during the daytime.
The night parrot could have fallen prey to foxes and cats or disease. Any existing populations must be located as quickly as possible and their habitat maintained.
\BDescription:\b A Night Parrot \I(Bill Cooper)\i
#
"Noisy Scrub Bird",34,"c\10\bird10.jpg","c","0"
Scrub birds are unique to Australia. Of the two species of scrub bird, the noisy scrub bird is the rarer. Although vocal, the noisy scrub bird is difficult to see in its native habitat because of its general dull brown colour which provides it with an effective camouflage in the dense vegetation.
It is essentially a ground-dwelling bird and if forced to fly will flutter only short distances on its small rounded wings. The adult bird is about 21 cm long of which 10 cm is the broad graduated tail. The sexes are similar in colour except that the top of the chest of the male is black while that of the female is white.
A distinctive white stripe runs up each side of the throat and these meet under the chin. The eyes are dark brown, the upper and lower mandibles of the bill are red brown and pinkish white respectively and the legs are a pink brown.
The noisy scrub bird is a native of south-west Australia. Although originally more widespread it is found now only within a very small area near Mount Gardner at Two Peoples Bay in Western Australia.
The noisy scrub bird is aptly named, for its territorial songs are very loud and carry long distances. It lives in steep, damp, densely vegetated gullies close to the coast. The birds feed on a variety of insects found in the deep litter layer beneath the wet eucalypt forest canopy.
Nests are usually found in denser vegetation along the streams. The adult males have well-established territories and the female occupies a small nesting area on the periphery of the male territory. The domed nest is built of rushes with a few leaves and twigs and only 1 egg per season is laid.
Egg-laying takes place in the wetter season from late May to early September and incubation takes about 36-38 days. The restricted distribution of the species has been attributed to the frequent, extensive fires lit by European settlers to clear land and provide grass for cattle.
\BDescription:\b A Noisy Scrub Bird \I(Bill Cooper)\i
#
"Western Bristlebird",35,"c\10\bird2.jpg","c","0"
The Western Bristlebird is a small brown bird of up to 22 cm long. The head and upper body part are brown spotted with grey whilst the centre of the wings and the base of the tail are indistinctly barred with a darker tint. The eye is orange-brown, the bill dark brown and the legs olive-grey. The sexes are similar in colouring.
The western bristlebirds are reluctant flyers. If compelled to fly they skim just above the vegetation for up to 10 m before landing. Their movements are extremely quick and jerky and when running over the ground it holds the tail erect and occasionally fans it out. Shy by nature it is rarely seen.
In the early morning or towards sunset the loud, clear and varied song of the male bird may be heard and is often accompanied by the calls of the female. The alarm call is a shrill whistle.
The western bristlebird occurs only in Western Australia. The species exists in Two Peoples Bay and in the nearby Mount Manypeaks area, and in the Fitzgerald River National Park.
The bird is a sedentary animal living in small territories of 1-2 ha. It scratches in the ground litter for insects and seeds. It is found in steep, damp, densely vegetated gullies within open jarrah and karri eucalypt forests where banksia, teatrees and rushes are plentiful.
The dense undergrowth is often covered with a tangle of creepers. Breeding takes place from August to January. The nest is domes, about 15 cm high and 13 cm wide, and is usually concealed in a low thick shrub or a clump of coarse grass. It consists of dry grass stalks lined with fine grass and has a large side entrance. Normally 2 eggs are laid.
The western bristlebird survives only in two restricted areas in the extreme south-western corner of Western Australia at Two Peoples Bay. The cause of its decline is considered to be habitat destruction. About 80 pairs of birds occur in Two Peoples Bay. Since it nests on the ground it is vulnerable not only to ground fires but to predators such as rats and feral cats.
\BDescription:\b A Western Bristlebird \I(Bill Cooper)\i
#
"Christmas Island Frigatebird",36,"c\10\bird1.jpg","c","0"
The Christmas Island frigatebird spends much time in the air soaring effortlessly for hours along short stretches of the coast. It has long thin wings, a forked tail, a long hooked bill and mainly black plumage.
The total length of the adult female is about 100 cm including a tail of about 42 cm. The male is about 10 per cent smaller. The chest and belly of the female is white with a slight greenish gloss on the mantle. The bill is generally salmon pink and the feet are white with black claws.
The male has a white belly with a dull purplish sheen over the chest and throat and a fine, oil-green iridescence over the back, neck and crown. The bill is black and the feet are black with yellow soles. The male has a pouch under the throat skin and, when breeding starts, this pouch can be inflated to the size of a large grapefruit. It is rich red in colour.
The Christmas Island frigatebird is known to breed only on Christmas Island, in the Indian Ocean, but also has been recorded from the Anamba Islands, between the Malay Peninsula and Sarawak. Individuals have been recorded over warmer Indian Ocean waters and from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Sri Lanka, the Malabar Coast of India and Darwin.
On Christmas Island it is found mainly on the coast between Smith and North-East Points. It occurs also on the east side and towards the southwest corner but is much less common in these areas.
The Christmas Island frigatebird is airborne for most of the time and would have extreme difficulty taking off from the ground. It roosts and breeds in tall isolated trees on the shore terrace where usually there is wind and a clear drop to assist its take-off. Most frigatebirds obtain their food by snatching flying fish and squid from the surface ocean waters. On occasions food is obtained also by forcing other seabirds to regurgitate their catch. Although the frigatebird is a magnificent flyer it is tied to the land by its nesting habits. The Christmas Island frigatebird is gregarious and nests in small groups of up to 20 branches in one tree. The nest is usually high in the forked branch of a tall tree. The same nesting site may be used repeatedly. The nest is a loose untidy platform of small sticks and is 50 cm across with a shallow central depression. The breeding season lasts up to 9 or 10 months. Courtship begins at the end of January. Nests are built in March and in late April, May or June a single white egg is laid. Both parents spend time incubating the egg. By July most eggs have hatched and the down-covered chick is guarded by the male whilst the female parent supplies most of the food. Gradually the male becomes less attentive but the female continues feeding the chick until it is independent.
The population of the Christmas Island frigatebird has been estimated to consist of less than 1,000 breeding pairs. The frigatebird was threatened by poaching both of birds and eggs. Poaching is now prohibited under the Wild Animals and Birds (Amendment) Ordinance 1977 and the need to harvest the birds has probably diminished with improved living standards.
\BDescription:\b A Christmas Island Frigatebird \I(Peter Slater)\i
#
!,!,!,!,!
3#
15,0
"Reptile Family Tree",1,"d\1\mi_0002.jpg","c","0"
To see a list of all known Australian Reptiles, in a classification table, \P\Kreptiletree\kclick here\p, or select the \IAustralian Reptile Classification Tree\i command from the \BInteraction\b menu.
There are over 400 species of lizards, over 150 kinds of snakes, two crocodiles, 15 species of freshwater tortoises and six marine turtles in Australia.
\BDescription:\b Crocodile \I(David Webster)\i.
#
"Crocodiles",3,"d\1\7_0023.jpg","c","0"
There are two species of crocodile found in Australia, freshwater and saltwater.
\BDescription:\b A saltwater crocodile \I(Peter Jarver)\i
The freshwater crocodile \I(Crocodylus johnstoni),\i which is restricted to the freshwater streams of the north, averages about 2.5m (8.2 ft) in length and is harmless to humans and cattle.
The other variety of crocodile found in Australia, the estuarine \IC. porosus,\i which inhabits the sea and northern saltwater estuaries, can grow as long as 7 m (22.6 ft) and has attacked humans.
About 15 snakes are rated as deadly to humans. The most dangerous are the tiger \I(Notechis scutatus),\i common brown \I(Pseudonaja textilis),\i copperhead \I(Austrelaps superbus),\i death adder \I(Acanthophis antarcticus),\i taipan \I(Oxyuranus scutellatus)\i and the fierce snake \I(Parademansia microlepidota).\i
The taipan is Australia's biggest venomous species, growing up to 3 m (10 ft), while the fierce snake (believed by some herpetologists to be a close relative of the taipan) has the most potent venom.
\BDescription:\b A tiger snake \I(QDEH)\i.
#
"Other Australian Snakes",6,"d\1\16_0008.jpg","f","0"
In addition, Australia has about 12 species of pythons, ranging in size from the amethyst python \I(Morelia amethistina)\i, average length 3.5 m (11.5 ft), to the tiny children's python \I(Bothrochilus childreni)\i at 0.75 m (2.5 ft).
About 30 species of blind worm snakes, several species of aquatic rearfanged snakes and harmless tree-snakes, together with almost 30 species of highly-venomous sea snakes, make up the remainder of the snake fauna.
\BDescription:\b An Amethyst Python \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Lizards",7,"d\1\dfat28.jpg","f","0"
Members of the five lizard families - the geckos, dragons, skinks, flat footeds and goannas - include species ranging in length from about 50 mm (2 in) to at least 2.4 m (8 ft). All are non-venomous. Australia has no native chameleons or iguanas.
\BDescription:\b Lizard \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Geckos",8,"d\1\dfat2.jpg","f","0"
Among the geckos \I(Gekkonidae)\i is a curious barking lizard \I(Underwoodisaurus milii)\i which has a cough-like bark as a defence mechanism. It is found mainly in the southern mainland.
\BDescription:\b A prickly gecko \I(DFAT)\i.
#
"Dragon Lizards",9,"d\1\dfat1.jpg","f","0"
Two of the best known dragon lizards \I(Agamidae)\i are the fearsome-looking thorny devil or horned dragon \I(Moloch horridus)\i and the frilled lizard \I(Chlamydosaurus kingii).\i
The thorny devil is covered with sharp spines. Despite its intimidating appearance, this creature, which grows to a length of about 180 mm (7 in), is gentle and harmless.
\BDescription:\b A Thorny Devil \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Frilled Lizard",10,0,c,lizard.avi
The frilled lizard, which was depicted on the Australian two cent coin, grows to a length of about 0.75 m (2.5 ft) and is widely distributed across northern Australia.
It has a large frill skin which normally lies in loose folds around the neck but is raised like a ruff when the lizard is alarmed. Like many dragons, it is a swift-moving diurnal lizard, which often runs only on its hindlimbs when escaping at full speed.
\BViddescription:\b The Frilled Lizard (Richard Fitzpatrick)
In all species of the flat-footed lizards \I(Pygopodidae)\i, the forelimbs have disappeared and the hindlimbs are reduced to small flaps of scaly skin.
Goannas \I(Varanidae),\i known in other countries as monitors, are sometimes incorrectly called iguanas, which belong to a different family \I(Iguanidae)\i and are not represented in Australia.
The common goanna of eastern areas \I(Varanus varius)\i grows to a length of about 1.8 m (6 ft). One inland goanna, the desert Perentie \I(V. giganteus),\i can exceed 2.4 m (8 ft) and is the largest of the country's lizards.
The skinks (\IScincidae\i) comprise a large family of many shapes and sizes, from 50 mm (2 in) species which live among the grasses, to the large and well-known blue-tongued lizard (\ITiliqua scincoides\i), which averages about 510 mm (20 in).
The marine members of the reptilian order \IChelonia\i rarely migrate from northern coasts. The largest species is the luth or leathery turtle \I(Dermochelys coriacea),\i which can measure 3 m (9.8 ft) long and weigh half a tonne. The green turtle \I(Chelonia mydas),\i averages about 1.2 m (4 ft) in length.
Australia has no true land tortoises, but about 15 species of freshwater turtles \I(Chelidae)\i are widely distributed throughout the continent. The walking legs of all these species except one, have webbed toes, unlike the flattened paddles of the marine forms.
One unique species, the pitted-shelled turtle \I(Carettochelys insculpta),\i found in the top of the Northern Territory in large rivers, has flippers.
Worldwide there are over 4,000 frog species. You will not get warts from any of them and none are really suitable in witchesÆ potions.
Australia has 220+ species that are in current reference books, but the number is increasing as new species are discovered. In the last 20 years, approximately 50 new species have been added to AustraliaÆs total.
For example, in 1977, the Magnificent Tree Frog was discovered in the Kimberlies -- in an outback dunny! It is normally a cave-dwelling species but camping ground toilets provide an alternative and cool habitat to hide. In 1994, completely new frog genera were discovered in Tasmania and West Australia.
Sadly, some species are disappearing into extinction almost as soon as they have been discovered. For instance, the Southern Gastric Brooding Frog was found in the Conondale Ranges in southern Queensland in 1973. Last reported sightings of this species were in 1981. Unknown factors have been responsible for its presumed extinction. One theory for the extinction is that a frog-killing virus has infected the rainforest streams where this frog lives.
Whether you are a person who wants to identify the "craaawking" frog in the garden pond, a school student researching project information, or simply a person who is fascinated by cute, slimy critters, we hope you enjoy your excursion into the amazing world of Australian frogs.
Each frog has a scientific name and a common name. The two-part scientific name consists of the genus followed by the species. For example, the Green Tree Frog (common name) has the scientific name \ILitoria\i (genus) \Icaerulea\i (species). The general definition of species is: living organisms that look and behave alike, but, more importantly, can interbreed and produce fertile young.
Taxonomic classification of the Green Tree Frog is as follows:
\BKingdom: Animal.\b (Animal kingdom as opposed to Plant kingdom.)
\BPhylum: Chordata.\b (Animals possessing a hollow nerve chord running down the back.)
\BSub-phylum: Vertebrata.\b (Any animal possessing a backbone.)
\BClass: Amphibia.\b (Vertebrates that live part or most of their time on land, but must return to water to reproduce, such as frogs, toads, axolotls, salamanders, newts and caecilians.)
\BOrder: Anura.\b (Frogs and toads.)
\B\C800000Family:\c\b\I \iHylidae.\b (Mostly Tree Frogs as opposed to ground dwelling frogs. Australia has three frog genera in the Hylidae family.)
\BGenus: \ILitoria.\i\b (60+ species belong to this genus. Most have adhesive discs or pads on the fingers and toes and are able to climb trees. Most have obvious webbing between the toes.)
\BSpecies: \Icaerulea.\i\b (Caerulea means - "blue".)
#
"Amphibian Species of Australia - Classification Tree",3,trtlfrog.jpg,c,0
To see a list of all known Australian Amphibians, in a classification table, \P\Kfrogtree\kclick here,\p or select the \IAustralian Amphibian Classification Tree\i command from the \BInteraction\b menu.
\BDescription:\b Western Australian Turtle Frog \I(B & B Wells - Nature Focus)\i.
#
"Identifying Frogs",4,austfrog.jpg,c,frog10
First up, access a book on Australian Frogs or purchase the CD-ROM, \B"WebsterÆs Frogs of Australia"\b.
If possible, get a book that only deals with the frogs of your state or geographic region, as this eliminates many frog species from other parts of Australia.
Frog books often have a key that takes you step by step through the identification diagnostics. However, for the beginner these can appear complex and overwhelming. A simpler, but not as scientifically accurate or efficient method is as follows:
\B Step One\b
Look at the toes on the frog in question. Does it have obvious \Itoe pads\i? If "Yes", then it is likely a "Tree Frog" belonging to the genus \ILitoria.\i (Go to step three.)
If "No", then it is likely to be a ground dwelling frog. These usually have \Iskinny toes\i without pads on the ends. They cannot climb up trees or walls on houses. (Go to step two.)
\B Step Two\b
If you have a "Ground Frog", browse through your book or CD-ROM and look for a genus of frogs that have \Isimilar body and limb shape\i to your frog. There are 30+ genera to choose from and you may find there are several genera that fit the criteria. ThatÆs O.K. Continue to the next step.
\B Step Three\b
Now look at the \Idistribution maps\i to eliminate frogs not in your immediate geographic area. The possibilities are now dramatically reducing.
\B Step Four\b
Read the text to \Icompare the habitats\i of the remaining frogs to the habitat type where your frog was found. Some frogs live in grasslands, others in deserts or rainforests etc.
\B Step Five\b
Check your frogÆs \Icolour markings in the groin, armpits and belly\i against the text for the remaining frogs on your "Could-Be" list. DonÆt pay too much attention to colour shades on the frogÆs back, as these can vary dramatically. The colours in the groin, armpit and belly do usually remain constant.
\B Step Six\b
If you hear the frog \Icalling,\i compare the written call description. You could also make a tape recording of the frog call and then purchase a frog call tape from a state capital museum and compare the calls.
\B Step Seven\b
Only adult males call -- so you can \Imeasure\i the frog (or estimate) and compare sizes listed in the book. An 18mm frog is very different to a 115mm specimen. By now you have probably come very close to identifying your frog in question.
\BDescription:\b Northern Dwarf Tree Frog \I(M Hearnden - Nature Focus)\i.
#
"What Makes a Frog?",5,austfrog.jpg,g,0
Frogs are amphibians (Greek -- amphi=both; bios=life) and refers to their dual life-style which is usually aquatic (or moist areas) during egg and tadpole stages, but moving to land as an adult. Eggs are laid in water or damp places and the tadpole hatches tailed, limbless, usually a vegetarian, and breathes through gills. As tadpoles change (metamorphose) into frogs, their tails do not drop off but are absorbed into their bodies. Adult frogs are vertebrates (animals with backbones), but like reptiles they are cold blooded (Ectothermic) animals whose body temperatures are affected by surrounding temperatures.
Frogs breathe by taking air into their lungs, but oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide release also occur by diffusion on the moist surfaces of the mouth cavity and body skin.
As a frogÆs skin is permeable, allowing water movement in both directions, it must always be moist, otherwise it will die. To avoid drying out in drought conditions, one third of AustraliaÆs frog species can burrow underground and remain there for long periods, awaiting the next rains.
#
"Bizarre Breeding Behaviour of Frogs",6,mtngfrog.jpg,c,0
Some people have been known to complain about being kept awake all night by the croaking and craaawking of frogs in neighboursÆ garden ponds. These frogs are just trying to get on with the business of reproduction.
It is only the male that "croaks" out these mating calls and usually the vocal sac under his throat is puffed up like a balloon (it acts as an amplifier for his calling), so that the female can find him.
A few, male Broad-palmed Frogs \I(Litoria latopalmata)\i were reported doing their duck-like "quack...quack...quack" at the edge of a farm dam. They kept the chorus going for at least four hours, making well over 20,000 "quacks"!
In frog society, the female selects her mate. The male now grasps her from behind in an embrace called amplexus. As she sheds eggs, the male releases sperm over them. The protective jelly coat covering the egg, then absorbing water and swelling.
In some species (e.g. \ILimnodynastes spp),\i the female churns the water with her front feet, capturing air bubbles which are forced beneath her body and caught in mucus to form the foam nests (containing up to 4,000 eggs) which we occasionally see floating in pond vegetation after heavy rain.
Tadpoles hatch after one or several days and they may change (metamorphose) into frogs anywhere from one week to eighteen months later, depending on the species and other variables such as water temperature, etc.
"Terrible Table Manners of Frogs",7,crbrfrog.jpg,g,0
By human standards, frogs have awful etiquette every time they eat.
Frogs actively stalk and capture live prey such as insects and small invertebrates. The frogÆs tongue is attached at the front of the mouth and it is flipped out rapidly and accurately to zap small prey which adhere to the sticky mucus on the tongue.
Larger frogs will eat small reptiles, mouse-sized mammals and even other frogs. They do not chew their food, but swallow it whole, even using their hands to push it down their throats. To further assist this process, they retract their eyes so that they bulge down into the mouth cavity, thus forcing the food further down. The prey dies from suffocation in the frogÆs stomach.
When it comes to drinking - the manners donÆt improve.
They do not drink through their mouths but absorb nearly all their water requirements through the skin on their undersides.
#
"Making Frog-Friendly Gardens",8,mtngfrog.jpg,g,0
If there are frogs naturally occurring in your area, they will rapidly find your newly established backyard pond.
DonÆt position the pond in a place where pine needles will fall into the water.
It does not need to be large -- frogs have been known to lay eggs in a dogÆs bowl filled with water! Ensure the sides of your pond are not high, as ground dwelling frogs will be prevented from getting in or out. A shallow "swampy" end with aquatic rushes, would be an advantage.
If you are worried about mosquitoes breeding in your frog pond, fish like the White Cloud or Mountain Minnow \I(Tanicthys albonubes)\i are ideal, as they will eat the mosquito larvae without worrying the tadpoles beyond hatchling stage. Most other fish will devour frogsÆ eggs and tadpoles.
Also, avoid using garden pesticides, as they may seep into the pond. Frogs may also eat live insects that have toxic levels of pesticides in their bodies.
#
"Endangered Frog Populations",9,spread437.spr,c,0
In the late seventies and early eighties, frog populations around the world began suddenly declining. Many factors contributed, such as drained breeding sites, acid rain, salination and pollution. However, populations in remote regions, seemingly untouched by human interference, were also experiencing catastrophic crashes.
New theories of UV radiation and viral pathogens were proffered as potential explanations for these cataclysmic events. But, there are still inexplicable factors.
Whatever the reasons, much more urgent research is needed for appropriate management and conservation strategies by governments around the world.
34 of AustraliaÆs species should be considered "endangered" or "vulnerable".
Your observations of frog activity may be useful to scientific research. Please forward any relevant information to your respective state museum.
Some Australian states have annual or on-going "Frog Watch" operations run by government departments. School students, land holders and other interested persons have contributed enormously to the status of many frog species. Please contact state museums or state National Parks for further information as to how you can get involved in survey programs.
#
"Banjo Frog",10,bnjofrog.jpg,c,0
\BCommon Name\b: Banjo Frog
\BScientific Name\b: \ILimnodynastes dorsalis.\i This means notable-backed lord-of-the-marshes.
\BSize\b: 60-73mm.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Crimson markings in the groin, large oval gland upon the calf.
\BCall\b: A single explosive note resembling "top" or "bonk".
\BBreeding Season\b: Winter or early spring.
\BHabitat\b: Temperate watered or semi-arid grasslands.
\BDistribution\b: Abundant and secure in the south-west of Western Australia.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Its colour ranges from dull grey through dark brown to green. As the scientific name suggests, the frog has a roundish body and a flattened head. No pads on fingers or toes and the toes are webbed.
\BCall\b: A snoring "Maw-w-w-w-w...maw-w-w-w-w".
\BBreeding Season\b: After heavy summer rains.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: In dry periods, it burrows under the ground and sheds layer upon layer of skin to form a cocoon that prevents the frog from drying out. It has survived for up to seven years underground.
\BHabitat\b: Claypans, temporary swamps and billabongs.
\BDistribution\b: Inland areas of Australia.
\BComments\b: Traditionally, Aborigines dug these frogs out of their burrows near a dried-up waterhole and squeezed out the water stored in the frogÆs bladder and then drank it. They now eat the frog.
\BScientific Name\b: \IPseudophryne corroboree. Pseudophryne\i means: false toad, \Icorroboree\i means: from the Aboriginal word corroboree.
\BSize\b: Males to 28mm. Females to 30mm.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Spectacular yellow and black stripes.
\BCall\b: A harsh, grating "Ark". Males often call from burrows in sphagnum bogs.
\BBreeding Season\b: January to March.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: 10-38 eggs are laid in deep burrows in the sphagnum moss or grass. Males sometimes remain with the eggs. Tadpoles take up to 30 weeks to complete development inside their egg capsules.
\BHabitat\b: Prefers sphagnum bogs but also in grasslands and creekside vegetation in sclerophyll forests.
\BDistribution\b: In southern Alps above 1,000 metres.
\BComments\b: This frog was named "Corroboree" because of its supposed resemblance to the body-painting used by Aboriginal people for their ceremonies.
\BCommon Names\b: Red Tree Frog, Desert Tree Frog.
\BScientific Name\b: \ILitoria rubella. Litoria\i means: shore or beach, \Irubella\i means: reddish.
\BSize\b: Males to 37mm. Females to 43mm.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Topside colours vary from grey, fawn to red-brown. Belly is white to yellowish and the groin is usually yellow. It has large pads on fingers and toes.
\BCall\b: A harsh buzz.
\BBreeding Season\b: After summer rain in northern and eastern coasts. In arid areas, it breeds opportunistically after rain.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: Like many frogs, it can change the shade of its colour, depending on whether its surroundings are light or dark colours.
\BHabitat\b: Deserts to rainforests. Often around houses -- in water pipes and toilets.
\BDistribution\b: All states except Victoria and Tasmania.
\BComments\b: This is AustraliaÆs most widely distributed frog species. It can often be found climbing around house exteriors at night, in pursuit of insects attracted by the lights.
#
"Green Tree Frog",15,16_0013.jpg,c,0
\BCommon Name\b: Green Tree Frog
\BScientific Name\b: \ILitoria caerulea. Litoria\i means: shore or beach, \Icaerulea\i means: blue.
\BSize\b: Males to 77mm; Females to 110mm.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Large, bright green to olive-brown frog. Underside is white. The iris is golden and the pupil is horizontal. The toe pads are large.
\BCall\b: A deep "crawk...crawl...crawk". Males often call from within drainpipes or hollow branches. Around breeding ponds they usually call from low branches near the water.
\BBreeding Season\b: Summer, usually after rain.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: At night, it can sometimes be observed outside houses, catching insects attracted to the light. People sometimes remove these frogs from toilets and showers, etc., but they have a "homing" instinct and often return.
\BHabitat\b: Bathrooms, letter boxes, toilet bowls and cisterns, drainpipes, water tanks and hollow branches or crevices in trees near streams and swamps.
\BDistribution\b: It is AustraliaÆs most commonly encountered and second most widely distributed frog. Its range extends across north, central and eastern Australia.
\BComments\b: This was the first Australian frog to be seen by Europeans. It was collected by Sir Joseph Banks during his voyage with Captain Cook in 1770.
In the U.S.A., the Green Tree Frog is bred for the pet trade. One lived for 23 years in captivity. However, they are not easy to keep, as special diets are needed.
\BDescription:\b Green Tree Frog \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Southern Gastric-brooding Frog",16,0,g,0
\BCommon Names\b: Southern Gastric-brooding Frog or Southern Platypus Frog
\BIdentifying Features\b: Brown to black on the back; the belly is white and undersides and limbs may be yellow. No toe pads, but they are webbed.
\BCall\b: "Eeeehm...eeeehm" with upward inflection.
\BBreeding Season\b: Summer.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: These frogs have a bizarre reproduction style: Up to 25 eggs are swallowed by the female. After 6 to 7 weeks, an oral "birth" takes place as fully developed little frogs climb up their motherÆs gullet, over her tongue and hop out through her mouth.
\BHabitat\b: Rocky, mountain creeks and pools in rainforests.
\BDistribution\b: Conondale and Blackall Ranges in south eastern Queensland.
\BComment\b: This species was discovered in 1973 but has not been seen since 1981 and is presumed extinct. Some scientists believed a virus was the reason for the demise. However, this theory remains inconclusive.
So, what unknown factor is causing the extinction of this and other species? It is imperative that this unknown cause be discovered, since it may have other far-reaching environmental implications.
\BScientific Name\b: \IAssa Darlingtoni. Assa\i means: dry nurse, \Idarlingtoni\i means: named after P.J.Darlington.
\BSize\b: Males to 19mm. Females to 21mm.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Topside colour ranges from grey to burnt orange/brown. The belly is cream or white. Fingers and toes are unwebbed.
\BCall\b: 6-10 rapidly repeated "Eh...eh...eh...eh...eh". Males call from leaf litter, rocks or logs.
\BBreeding Season\b: Late summer.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: The male has twin pouches or "hip pockets", one on either side. 8-18 eggs are laid and fertilised. On hatching, the tadpoles wriggle up into the maleÆs pouches. After 7-10 weeks they emerge as tiny frogs.
\BHabitat\b: Rainforest left-litter in montane or Antarctic Beech forest.
\BDistribution\b: South-eastern Queensland and north-eastern N.S.W.
\BComments\b: When the frog was first described in 1933, the "hip pockets" were not seen, nor the unusual behaviour noticed. It was not until 1966 that scientists discovered this remarkable behaviour.
\BDescription:\b Male Marsupial Frog \I(H Ehmann - Nature Focus)\i
#
"Sandhill Frog",18,0,g,0
\BCommon Name\b: Sandhill Frog.
\BScientific Name\b: \IArenophryne rotunda.\i This means round sand-toad.
\BSize\b: Males to 30mm. Females to 33mm.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Squat, slightly flattened body with a blunt head. Short limbs and short fingers and toes.
\BCall\b: A short "squelch" emitted underground or on the surface.
\BBreeding Season\b: March and April.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: 6-11 eggs are laid at depths of up to 80cm in moist sand. Tadpoles develop entirely in the eggs during a two month period.
At night the adult emerges to hunt ants and other insects. During the day, the frog buries itself 10cm into the moist sand.
\BHabitat\b: Coastal sandhills.
\BDistribution\b: Between Carnarvon and Geraldton, Western Australia.
\BComments\b: This frog was first discovered in 1970, at Shark Bay, W.A. It was not until 1979 that its odd life-style was discovered.
#
"Striped Marsh Frog",19,.jpg,c,0
\BCommon Names\b: Striped Marsh Frog, Brown Frog.
\BScientific Name\b: \ILimnodynastses peronii. Limnodynastes\i means: lord of the marshes, \Iperonii\i means: named after F. Peron, a French zoologist.
\BSize\b: Males to 69mm. Females to 73mm.
\BIdentifying Features\b: The back has a series of long, dark/light brown stripes. This pattern breaks up into blotches on the frogÆs sides. The underneath is white and there are no pads on the very long slender toes.
\BCall\b: A soft, explosive "whuck", similar to a tennis ball being hit. Males call whilst floating in the water or concealed under dense vegetation near the waterÆs edge.
\BBreeding Season\b: After rain, throughout the year. Up to 1,000 eggs are laid, usually in a foam mass that floats on the water.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: Keeps human neighbours awake at night by the incessant "whuck" calls of the amorous males. Once the weather fines up, the frogs will calm down several days or weeks thereafter. In the meantime -- enjoy the frog symphony!
\BHabitat\b: Suburban fish ponds, farm dams and swampy areas.
\BDistribution\b: East coast and ranges. Also in Tasmania.
\BComments\b: One of the most common frogs in eastern Australia. It is a very adaptable species and is one of the first frogs to colonise recently disturbed habitats. It is apparently tolerant of polluted water.
\BIdentifying Features\b: Topside is pale brown with darker patches and the skin is rough and warty. The belly is creamy and granular. The toes are fully webbed.
\BCall\b: A purring sound like a high pitched telephone dial tone.
\BBreeding Season\b: Summer, after rain. One female can lay up to 35,000 eggs in one season.
\BUnusual Behaviour\b: The toad has toxic secretions from a large gland on each shoulder. Many of the toadÆs predators are killed by the poison. Some snakes have been found dead with a toad only half way down their throats. If provoked, the toad can squirt the milky toxin up to one metre.
\BHabitat\b: Frequents most habitats in its range. Adapts very well to human environs.
\BDistribution\b: Queensland, now extending into NT and NSW. Several live specimens have turned up in Sydney. These probably hitch-hiked down in truck freight.
\BComments\b: Originally from Central and Southern America, the Cane Toad was released in 1935 in the Cairns/Innisfail area, Queensland. It was to be a biological control of beetles in the sugar cane fields. Insecticides were not available then and the only way of controlling the beetles was to collect them by hand.
Having few natural predators and being highly opportunistic and adaptable, the toads are spreading at an alarming rate and they are often out-competing local, native frogs.
\BViddescription:\b Cane toads (Film Australia)
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5#
11,0
"Many Species",1,"0","Divers befriending a fish","gus2.avi"
Although there are almost 25,000 species of fish throughout the world and 3,000 in local waters, they may be broadly divided into just two groups. The vast majority belong to the class known as bony fish \I(Teleostomi).\i These so-called 'true fishes' have internal skeletons composed mostly of bone.
In contrast, the cartilaginous fishes have skeletons made entirely of a softer material called cartilage. Most of the cartilaginous fish are sharks or rays.
\BViddescription:\b David Ireland with Gus the Groper (David Ireland)
#
"Differences Between Cartilaginous Fish and Bony Fish",2,"d\1\shark1.jpg","c","0"
Within these two broad groupings, there are wide variations in the physiology and life cycles of fish. Some lay eggs, others bear their young alive. Some live totally in saltwater, others in fresh, while still others are able to move between the two mediums.
Many species of fish move easily from highly saline to almost completely fresh water. Such fish are said to be euryhaline, and include Australasian species like the Australian bass, barramundi and some mullet.
\BDescription:\b Great White Shark attacking a boat \I(Ken Pilcher)\i
#
"Anadromous Fish",3,"0","g","0"
Other fish need access to waters of varying salinities in order to reproduce. Two common types are those fish which are said to be anadromous, and those called catadromous.
Anadromous fish spend most of their lives in the sea, but migrate into freshwater to spawn. Migratory or sea-run chinook salmon from New Zealand's south island are a good example.
#
"Catadromous Fish",4,"0","g","0"
In contrast, catadromous fish live their lives in fresh or brackish water and move down towards, or into, the sea to spawn. Our freshwater eels and barramundi are typical representatives of this group.
#
"The Weapons of the Fish",5,"0","g","0"
It should be noted that many fish have defensive mechanisms that may make them potentially dangerous to handle. The most common are stout, sharp spines in the first dorsal, anal and pectoral fins. In many cases these are coated with a venomous mucous which may vary in its intensity from mildly irritating to outright life-threatening.
There may also be spines and cutting edges on the gill covers or sharp teeth. Learn which species are potentially dangerous, and how to handle them.
Of the many different species there are only about 180 freshwater varieties, but it is among these that the distinctively Australian species are found.
They include the freshwater blackfish \I(Gadopsis),\i which has no known living relative, and the two remarkable 'living fossil' fish - the Queensland lungfish \I(Neoceratodus)\i and the Dawson River salmon or barramundi \I(Scleropages leichhardti)\i - whose ancestors are considered to have come to Australia more than a million years ago. The name barramundi is more commonly given to the giant perch or palmer \I(Lates calcarifer),\i a popular food also found in northern waters.
\BDescription:\b Australian salmon \I(Gum Tree Graphics)\i
#
"The Fish/Dinosaur",7,"0","g","0"
The \IScleropages\i has an ancient lineage in the family \IOsteoglossidae\i and is remotely related to the herring. It was discovered by the explorer Leichhardt in 1845 in the Mackenzie River, Queensland. Spawning usually occurs around October, after which the male fish carries the eggs in its mouth where the young hatch and shelter, no food being eaten during the incubation period.
#
"Unique Characteristics of the Lungfish",8,"0","g","0"
The lungfish's natural habitat is the middle reaches of two Queensland rivers, the Mary and Burnett, and it has no close relationship with the lungfishes \I(Protopterus and Lepidosiren)\i of other continents. Its structure includes not only the orthodox gill-breathing system but also a lung in the form of a modified air bladder which enables it to inhale air. It also has a cartilaginous backbone like that of a shark.
#
"Shellfish",9,"0","g","0"
There are more than 10,000 species of domestic shellfish, varying from microscopic forms to giant clams more than 1 m (3.3 ft) wide.
Australian waters also contain the finest pearlshell \I(Pinctada maxima),\i many giant gastropods such as the false trumpet \I(Megalatractus aruanus),\i stromb shells \I(Strombidae),\i balers \I(Volutidae)\i and helmets \I(Cassididae),\i and unique and beautiful cold water gastropods, well-grown specimens of which attain a length of 300 mm (12 in) or more.
You can find these fish, weighing in at more than 60 kilograms, in the areas of the \JGreat Barrier Reef\j off Lizard Island, some 140 nautical miles north of Cairns. Very little is known about these giant fish; they appear to be roving carnivorous fish that live on or near the sea bottom. Like many fish that swim in the horizontal position, the Potato Cod has bulging eyes with powerful focusing lenses. If the water is clear, they have a completely circular view from the horizon above to the flow below.
\BVideo:\b Potato Cod \I(David Ireland)\i
#
"Status of Australia's Freshwater Fish",11,spread438.spr,c,0
Approximately one-third of freshwater fish species are either threatened or rare.
The accompanying table lists the conservation status of Australia's freshwater fish.
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6#
3,0
"Australian Insects",1,"d\1\dfat3.jpg","f","0"
About 50,000 insect species are known in Australia, but it is certain that there are as many more still unlisted.
\BDescription:\b A widely spotted lady beetle \I(DFAT)\i
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"Australian Butterflies and Moths",2,"0","g","0"
Butterflies and moths \I(Lepidoptera)\i are well represented, with about 350 species of butterflies and 11,000 species of moths. Both groups contain many interesting and beautiful forms.
Although only one fossil moth has been found, examples of the most primitive known moths \I(Micropterygidae)\i occur. The finest swift moth \I(Zelotypia stacyi),\i with a wing span of 200 mm (8 in) to 250 mm (10 in), the heaviest bodied wood moth \I(Xyleutes boisduvali),\i with a wing span of up to 250 mm (10 in), and the giant atlas moth \I(Coscinocera hercules),\i of northern Queensland - the largest moth in the world, with a wing span of up to 265 mm (10.5 in) - are also found.
The beetles \I(Coleoptera),\i with more than 20,000 species in about 3,000 genera and 105 families, have many members endemic to the country. The wingless types and those from the arid central and western areas are predominant among the indigenous forms. There are about 4,500 species of weevils \I(Curculionidae),\i including the wingless weevil \I(Phalidurinae),\i which is confined to Australia and New Zealand.
#
"Other Types of Insects",3,"d\1\kk_0016.jpg","c","0"
Most of the 1,200 species of ants \I(Formicidae)\i are not found elsewhere. Their representation is so geographically widespread that they may be regarded as the dominant group of insects. Some are distinguished by their size or spectacular habits, such as the large and savage bulldog ants, which advance on an enemy by a series of intimidating leaps.
Another Australian oddity is the giant earthworm of the south-east \I(Megascolides australis),\i which grows up to 3.6 m (12 ft) long and to a diameter of nearly 25 mm (1 in). It lives near the surface of the ground and can travel through its burrow rapidly when disturbed. Progress is achieved with a marked gurgling sound caused by movement through a secretion with which the burrow is 'greased'.
\BDescription:\b The Termite mounds of the Northern Territory
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7#
10,0
"Funnel Web Spiders",1,"d\1\spid1.jpg","c","0"
There are two species of Funnel Web spiders in Australia. The first is known as the Sydney Funnel Web and is from Newcastle to Nowra and west to Lithgow. The \JBlue Mountains\j Funnel Web spider is found in Eastern Australia including Tasmania in coastal and highland forest regions - as far west as the Gulf Ranges area of South Australia.
Funnel Webs are large spiders, ranging from 1.5 - 4.5 cm in body length, with glossy dark brown to black carapace. Their eyes are closely grouped and the abdomen is usually dark plum to black and not patterned. Males often have a ventral spur or swelling midway along the second leg, this spur is pointed in the Sydney Funnel Web and blunt or absent in the \JBlue Mountains\j Funnel Web.
Spinnerets are usually obvious, at the rear, and their ends are usually longer than wide. They burrow in sheltered habitats - under rocks, in rotting logs, tree holes, etc., in bush and gardens. Irregular silk trap lines radiate out from the burrow entrance (Gulf ranges species excepted). Males leave their burrows and wander in search of females, particularly during summer and autumn. Bites are most prevalent in this period.
Funnel Webs are extremely dangerous. Their bites can cause serious illness or death. Male venom is sometimes more toxic than the female. Initial symptoms include local pain, mouth numbness, vomiting, abdominal pain, sweating and salivation. Antivenom is available - no deaths have occurred since its introduction.
Bites usually occur on a limb. Immediate action should be taken to apply a pressure bandage and immobilise the bitten limb by splinting. Restrict the movement of the victim. Capture the spider for positive identification and seek medical attention urgently.
\BDescription:\b A female \JBlue Mountains\j Funnel Web Spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"Mouse Spiders",2,"d\1\spid2.jpg","f","0"
As with Funnel Webs there are two species of Mouse Spiders. The Eastern Mouse Spider is found in west coastal and highland regions and the Red-headed Mouse Spider is found across the continent mainly west of the Great Dividing Range.
The Mouse Spider ranges from 1 to 3 centimetres in length, has a glossy carapace and a high, broad and bulbous head area. The eyes are widespread across the front and they have short and blunt spinnerets. Females are black overall. The male Eastern Mouse Spider is black with a bluish white patch on the front of the abdomen. The male Red-headed Mouse Spider has a red head and jaws and gunmetal blue abdomen, the jaws of the female are often red tinged. Burrows have either a double or a single trapdoor. The male wanders during summer and autumn, especially after rain.
Mouse spider venom may be very toxic, but only one serious envenomation has been recorded, other bites causing minor effects. Funnel Web Spider antivenom may be effective for Mouse Spider bites.
Until more toxicity data is available it is prudent to treat as for a Funnel Web Spider bite, especially if the victim is a child. Again try to collect the spider for identification.
\BDescription:\b A female Eastern Mouse Spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"Trapdoor Spiders",3,"d\1\spid3.jpg","f","0"
Brown Trapdoor Spiders are found in eastern Australia especially in coastal and highland regions of New South Wales and Victoria. Sigillate Trapdoor Spiders are found across southern Australia west of the Great Dividing Range and include the Adelaide Trapdoor Spider.
Trapdoors are 1.5 to 3 centimetres in body length. Their spinnerets are short and blunt and males have a double spur halfway along the first leg. The Brown Trapdoor Spider is a dull brown spider with a cover of paler hairs on the carapace giving it a dusty appearance. The abdomen often has pale transverse bars. Males have thick 'boxing glove' palps. The eyes are in two compact rows and the Brown Trapdoor burrows open (without a trapdoor). The Sigillate Trapdoor Spider is also brown with a glossy carapace and 4-6 hairless spots (sigillae) on top of the abdomen. Eyes are in three rows but, unlike the Brown Trapdoor, it burrows with a soil or litter trapdoor.
Brown Trapdoor Spiders are often mistaken for Funnel Webs Spiders but their bites are not dangerous - local pain and swelling may occur. The same goes for the Sigillate Trapdoor Spider bite, although there is one report of unspecified 'severe effects'. If bitten seek medical attention if symptoms persist.
\BDescription:\b A female Brown Trapdoor Spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"Orb Web Weaving Spiders",4,"d\1\spid4.jpg","f","0"
These spiders are found all over Australia. There are three species of Orb Weaving Spiders, they are the Garden Orb Weaving Spider, the Banded Orb Web Weaving Spider and the Golden Orb Weaving Spider. The common Garden Orb Weavers are from eastern and southern Australia. A common group is the St. Andrew's Cross Spider of eastern Australia.
All three species of web weaving spiders make suspended, sticky, wheel-shaped orb webs. The commonly seen Garden Orb Weavers are 1 - 2.5 centimetres in body length. Most are stout, reddish-brown or grey spiders with a leaf-shaped pattern on their roughly triangular abdomens. Webs are placed in openings between trees and shrubs where insects are likely to fly. Transverse abdominal banding identifies many Banded Orb Weavers. Some, like the St. Andrew's Cross Spider, have zig zag bands of silk in their webs that may attract insect prey by reflecting UV light. Their webs are placed among shrubs or long grass. Golden Orb Weavers are large spiders (body 2-3 cm in length) with silvery-grey bodies and long banded legs. Their orb webs are large and often have a 'barrier network' of threads. The silk has a golden sheen. Males are often much smaller than females.
Reluctant to bite, symptoms are usually negligible. There may be local pain, nausea and swelling, or occasionally numbness and dizziness. Seek medical attention if symptoms persist.
\BDescription:\b A female Garden Orb Weaving Spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"Huntsman Spiders",5,"d\1\spid5.jpg","f","0"
The three species of Huntsman Spiders, the Common, Shield and Tropical, are widely distributed in Australia. The Tropical Huntsman is common in northern tropical areas.
The Huntsman Spiders are large, long-legged spiders (up to 15 cm across legs), mostly they are grey to brown in colour, and their legs are sometimes banded. Common Huntsman Spiders have flattened bodies adapted for living under loose bark. Shield Huntsman Spiders are usually fawn or grey above, with ventrally banded legs and distinctive colour combinations of black, white, orange or yellow under the abdomen (the 'shield'). These spiders, and the motley brown, white and black patterned Tropical Huntsman Spiders, have less flattened bodies and are found under bark, foliage and in leaf litter. All have been known to enter houses.
The Huntsman bite usually results only in transient local pain and swelling. However, some Shield Huntsman Spider bites can result in prolonged pain, inflammation, headaches, vomiting and irregular pulse rate. Ice packs may relieve local pain from a bite but seek medical attention if symptoms persist.
\BDescription:\b A female Shield Huntsman \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"Redback Spiders",6,"d\1\spid6.jpg","f","0"
This spider is found all over Australia but is more common in disturbed and urban areas.
Redback Spiders are black (occasionally brownish) with an obvious orange to red longitudinal stripe on the upper abdomen and an "hourglass" shaped red/orange spot on the underside of the abdomen. Females have a body about the size of a large pea and slender legs. The tiny males, are only about 3 mm long, and are not dangerous. Webs consist of a tangled, funnel-like upper retreat area from which vertical, sticky catching threads run to ground attachments (built in dry, sheltered sites e.g., under rocks, in logs, shrubs, junk-piles, sheds, privies, etc). Redback Spiders are most prevalent in the winter months.
Redback bites occur frequently. They can cause serious illness and have caused deaths. Because of their small jaws many bites are ineffective. Common early symptoms are pain (which can become severe), sweating (always including local sweating at bite site), muscular weakness, nausea and vomiting. An antivenom is available - no deaths have occurred since its introduction. If bitten apply an icepack to the bitten area to relieve pain. Do not apply a pressure bandage (Redback venom movement is slow and pressure worsens the pain). Collect the spider for positive identification and seek medical attention.
"Black House or Window Spiders",7,"d\1\spid7.jpg","c","0"
This spider is widely distributed in southern and eastern Australia and is common in urban areas.
They are dark, robust spiders of about 1 - 1.5 cm in body length. Carapace and legs are dark brown to black and the abdomen is charcoal grey with a dorsal pattern of white markings (sometimes indistinct). Their webs form untidy, lacy silk sheets with funnel like entrances. They are found on tree trunks, logs, rock wall and buildings (in window frames, wall crevices, etc.).
\IB.longinquus\i is a slightly smaller species with a greyish carapace and grey-brown banded legs. It often builds webs on foliage.
These spiders are timid and bites are infrequent but may be quite painful with local swelling. Nausea, vomiting, sweating and giddiness sometimes occur. An ice pack may relieve local pain but if symptoms persist seek medical attention.
\BDescription:\b A female Window Spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"White-tailed Spiders",8,"d\1\spid8.jpg","f","0"
These spiders are found all over Australia and are particularly common in disturbed and urban areas.
The White-tailed Spiders are cylindrical spiders with a body length of 1-2 cm, females are more robust than males. Body colour is dull, dark grey to brown with a distinctive white spot on the end of the abdomen, (sometimes also with paired spots towards the front), legs are shiny and brownish. They are night-active, crevice dwelling hunters, found under bark, rocks, and in leaf litter, and often in houses. They attack and eat other spiders including Black House Spiders.
Bite symptoms are usually confined to local mild stinging or burning pain, sometimes followed by the development of an itchy lump. Less common bites result in swelling, discolouration and local ulceration, sometimes with nausea and vomiting. There is no conclusive evidence that these spiders regularly cause significant skin damage or ulceration. To treat a bite apply an ice pack to relieve local pain and seek medical attention should the symptoms persist.
\BDescription:\b A male White-tailed Spider \I(the Australian Museum)\i
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"Sac Spiders",9,"d\1\spid10.jpg","f","0"
Both types of Sac Spiders; Slender Sac and Stout Sac, are distributed throughout Australia in forest and grassland habitats.
They are hunting spiders, 1 - 2 cm in body length, that make small cylindrical or ovoid silk retreat sacs. Slender Sac Spiders are common hunters on foliage in bush and garden. Males especially, have slender bodies, large jaws and long thin legs. Most are shades of cream, brown or yellow. Their retreat sacs are made in folded leaves or grass blades. They sometimes enter houses, building their retreat sacs in walls and ceiling corners. Stout Sac Spiders have strong legs with robust, cylindrical bodies, reddish brown to fawn in colour. They may be found on house walls and fences but are most common under bark and in leaf litter.
Sac Spider bites are not common and symptoms are usually minor, including local pain and swelling. Symptoms of the Slender Sac Spider bite may also include headache, dizziness, sweating, nausea and local ulceration, though most such reports relate to overseas experiences.
\BDescription:\b A female Sac Spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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"Wolf Spiders",10,"d\1\spid11.jpg","f","0"
Wolf Spiders are found all over Australia. Many species are between 1 - 8 cm across the legs. They are robust, agile ground living hunters found in leaf litter or burrows (often in lawns and gardens). They have eight eyes with the four largest arranged in a square on top of the head. Body colours are typically drab, most with variegated patterns in brown, grey, black and white (often they have radiating lines on the abdomen). The underside is grey or black, sometimes with white markings. Jaws may bear orange spots on the sides.
Symptoms from Wolf Spider bites are usually minor - local pain or itchiness. Less commonly, symptoms can include swelling, prolonged pain, dizziness, rapid pulse and nausea.
\BDescription:\b A female Garden Wolf Spider \I(Australian Museum)\i
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8#
19,0
"First Dinosaur Bones Found in Australia",1,"d\1\dino2.jpg","c","0"
The first dinosaur bones found in Australia came from the north-eastern coast, somewhere in Queensland, collected by the crew of H.M.S. \IFly\i in 1844. The specimens consisted of a few associated bones from a primitive dinosaur and were purchased by the British Museum of Natural History in 1879.
They remained unstudied until 1891, when Seely described the bones as belonging to a new type of dinosaur called \IAgrosaurus macgillvrayi.\i Unfortunately the ship's log has no record of the locality where the fossils came from and to date there have been no other dinosaur bones collected from the north coast of Queensland, so it is difficult to be certain about Agrosaurus even being an Australian dinosaur.
The first discovery of a terrestrial dinosaur from a well documented Australian site is that of a small carnivorous dinosaur claw from the Gippsland coast of eastern Victoria. The bone was described, by Sir Arthur Smith Woodward of the British Museum of Natural History in 1906, as a close relative of the English Megalosaurus. This site was to remain barren for many decades until the late 1970s when interest in the area picked up as further dinosaur discoveries were made.
\BDescription:\b The Cape Patterson Claw - the earliest definite discovery of a dinosaur bone from Australia, described by Sir Arthur Smith of the British Museum in 1906 \I(John Long)\i
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"Discovery of Fossils",2,"d\1\dino10.jpg","c","0"
The discovery of fossil marine reptiles, like the \Iplesiosaurs\i and \Iichthyosaurs,\i predates any large terrestrial dinosaur find. The first discovery of ichthyosaurs was made in Australia by James Sutherland in 1865 on the Flinders River in north central Queensland. The specimens of ichthyosaur vertebrae were sent to Professor Frederick McCoy, at the Museum of Victoria, who described them in a short note in 1867.
Sutherland returned to his site and uncovered a more complete specimen, including a skull and many more vertebrae, which again were sent to Melbourne for McCoy to study. Despite McCoy's second paper describing the new material (1869), it was not detected that two skulls were actually present in the material.
In 1872 William Hann led an expedition to the north of Queensland with geologist Norman Taylor. They found bones of an ichthyosaur in the Walsh River area. They collected quite a few of the bones which made their way back to the Queensland Museum, although others were buried beneath the ashes of the campfire. Other Queensland ichthyosaur material was found at Marathon Station and described by Etheridge (1888) as \IIchthyosaurus marathonesis\i.
Jack and Etheridge compiled a large book on the geology and fossils of Queensland in 1892. In 1896 Etheridge described a plesiosaur preserved in opal from White Cliffs, New South Wales and in 1904 described further remains from the same site. These specimens were purchased from dealers.
\BDescription:\b Reconstruction of the 7-metre long ichthyosaur \IPlatyptergius longmani (Courtesy of John Long)\i
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"Kronosaurus is Discovered",3,"d\1\dino11.jpg","c","0"
In 1899, a scrap of large reptile jawbone was given to the Queensland Museum by A. Crombie of Hughenden. This was later described as the giant plesiosaur Kronosaurus by Heber Longman, palaeontologist at the Queensland Museum, and later to become Director.
In 1924 Thomas Jack and Wood informed Longman that a large fossil reptile was exposed on Durham Downs Station in the Roma district. Fragments of bone were forwarded to the Museum by the station manager, A. Browne, and soon after the bones were confirmed to be from a new type of dinosaur. Browne collected and sent more material to the Museum.
In 1926, Longman described the bones as a large sauropod dinosaur, \IRhoetosaurus brownei.\i However, it was not until 1975 that the Queensland Museum revisited the site and Dr Mary Wade uncovered several more bones, including a foot of Rhoetosaurus, belonging to the original specimen.
\BDescription:\b Reconstruction of the giant pliosaur \IKronosaurus queenslandicus (Courtesy of John Long)\i
Another large sauropod dinosaur, Austrosaurus, was described by Longman in 1933. The remains of this creature were first noticed by H. Wade and drawn to the attention of H. McKillip, Manager of Clutha Station, near Maxwelton in northern Queensland, who later showed the remains to his brother Dr. M. McKillop. The latter forwarded the specimens to the Queensland Museum.
Other museums at that time did have funds to collect fossils in remote locations. In 1923-1924 the British Museum sent out Sir George Hubert Wilkins to collect fossil reptiles and ammonites from Queensland, some of which were later donated to the Queensland Museum.
Perhaps the greatest loss was to occur in the early 1930s. An American expedition from the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, toured Australia from 1931-1932. Expedition leader W.E. Schevill found the snout of a juvenile Kronosaurus in Grampian Valley, 50 kilometres north of Richmond. A local resident told him that another 8 kilometres to the north, in the Army Downs region, was a large skeleton.
The specimen was found articulated as a series of 15 limestone nodules buried in the ground. Schevill's assistant, known as 'the maniac' because of his fondness for using explosives, dynamited the large bones out, and soon after they were loaded onto a truck. Four tons of rock were shipped to the United States, each block wrapped in bloodied sheep fleece.
The Museum Director at Harvard was horrified at this and had each of the specimens washed in disinfectant because of the possibility of anthrax. After many years of preparation by T.E. White the skeleton was found to be the giant pliosaur Kronosaurus, although there is still some doubt as to whether the specimen really is identical to the snout earlier described by Longman.
The skeleton was eventually put on display at Harvard in 1959, and Australia has yet to obtain a cast of the skeleton. The skeleton is also waiting to be fully described. Other blocks collected from Queensland by Schevill's expedition remain unprepared to this day in the stores of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Over the last 35 years the Queensland Museum has been involved in recollecting from earlier sites and discovering new dinosaur sites. A valuable recent discovery was that of the iguanodont Muttaburrasaurus by Dr Bartholomai and entomologist Dr Edward Dahms. The skeleton was brought to the attention of the Museum by a grazier, Mr Langdon. In 1963 the many fragments were collected in a cattle yard on the Thompson River near Muttaburra in central Queensland. Many pieces souvenired by locals were returned when the Museum appealed to the public. Today there are several copies of the restored skeleton on display in museums across Australia.
In July 1997, scientists reported that they had discovered thousands of fossilised footprints in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. This ædinosaur trailÆ extends 80 kilometres. Some of the footprints are only a few centimetres long and others are over 1.5 metres long. The larger footprints were believed to have been left by the Brontosaurus or Stegosaurus. Dr Giuseppe Leonardi of Naples, who has studied dinosaur footprints worldwide, claimed that these footprints were the best preserved and the area had the most variety of dinosaur footprints anywhere in the world.
\BDescription:\b Reconstruction of the giant pliosaur \IKronosaurus queenslandicus (Courtesy of John Long)\i.
The Jurassic Period (144 - 208 million years ago) saw freshwater sediments accumulate along the western margin of Australia, near Geraldton and in the Kimberley districts, with a large inland river system developing in central Queensland and northern New South Wales.
Freshwater river and lake sediments deposited in this large drainage basin have produced fish fossils at several localities but the bones of reptiles and amphibians are very rare. The climate was thought to be warm in Western Australia, based on oxygen isotope studies of marine sediments, but eastern Australia appears to have been cooler with abundant rain, and coal swamps forming in southern Queensland.
The land was covered with many varieties of plants but dominated by cold-weather forms, including forests of conifers, with abundant ferns, cycads and seed ferns forming the undergrowth.
\BDescription:\b Australia in the Jurassic period, showing major animal fossil localities. \I(John Long)\i
During the Jurassic Period, Gondwana underwent radical changes as the major continents began to split away. Africa and South America drifted away from Antarctica and India began its long journey northwards towards Asia.
Only Australia was left joined to Antarctica by the close of the Jurassic Period. These movements had profound influences on global climates as sea currents altered their courses. The nature of Jurassic vegetation in Australia has remained in patches to the present day as isolated forests of Nothofagus, or southern beech.
Although Australia has abundant fossils from this age, the vertebrates are rare. Well-preserved fish fossils from Talbragar River in New South Wales are typical of faunas of this age from throughout the world, including early representatives of the true bony fishes (teleosteans), as well as relict primitive forms like the palaeoniscoids.
The few land animals known from this age all come from Queensland. The faunas include the large sauropod dinosaur, Rhoetosaurus; aquatic reptiles, such as plesiosaurs; and one of the last known labyrinthodonts, Siderops. Footprints from Queensland indicate that other dinosaurs were living in Australia at the time, including large flesh-eating carnosaurs.
\BDescription:\b Continental reconstructions for the Mesozoic Era. \I(John Long)\i
#
"Sauropods",7,"d\1\dino4.jpg","c","0"
The cetiosaurs (whale lizards) are regarded as primitive sauropods with solid backbones, unlike those of the latter sauropod lineages with hollowed-out bones. The group may not form a natural family but could just be a 'mixed bag' of primitive and poorly known dinosaurs.
\BDescription:\b The restored hind limb bones of the sauropod \IRhoetosaurus brownei\i from Queensland \I(John Long)\i
#
"The Rhoetosaurus",8,"d\2\dino1a.jpg","c","eat20"
The fragmentary skeleton, as first dug up, consisted of partial leg and pelvic bones, several tail vertebrae, some of the dorsal (thoracic) vertebrae and ribs, and two neck vertebrae (cervicals).
Enough of the beast was present for Dr Heber Longman to name it as a new genus, Rhoetosaurus, after Rhoetos, one of the giants in Greek mythology, and 'sauros' meaning lizard. The species name honours Mr Browne for sending in the bones to the museum.
Since the early work by Longman, Dr Mary Wade of the Queensland Museum relocated the exact site in 1975 and found more fragments of bone from the original skeleton. Since then another excavation at this site has produced more bones including an almost complete hind foot.
\BDescription:\b An impression of the \IRhoetosaurus brownei (Courtesy of Peter Schouten)\i
#
"Characteristics of the Rhoetosaurus",9,"d\2\dino5.jpg","c","0"
Rhoetosaurus is Australia's most complete sauropod dinosaur and would have had an estimated total length of about 15 metres, with a hip height of about four metres. An estimated weight of up to 20 tonnes would not be unlikely. The single neck vertebra is quite elongated, suggesting the neck was probably very long.
It is one of the world's earliest sauropods and exhibits several primitive features in its skeleton. It is probably one of the primitive stock of sauropods, like Cetiosaurus from the Upper Jurassic of Oxfordshire in England, and does not show any specialised features which might relate it to any of the distinctive families of sauropods. Many of the bones of Rhoetosaurus possess hollow cavities to reduce the overall weight of the skeleton and indicating that Rhoetosaurus was not as primitive as other cetiosaurs.
The new finds of Rhoetosaurus are currently being studied by Dr Tony Thulborn. The restoration of Rhoetosaurus shown here is based on an idea of what a generalised sauropod is thought to have looked like (lacking the specialised features of the better known sauropod families).
\BDescription:\b A reconstruction of the \IRhoetosaurus brownei\i based largely on its lack of sauropod characteristics. \I(John Long)\i
#
"Australia During the Cretaceous Period",10,"c\8\dino1.jpg","c","0"
During the Cretaceous Period (66-144 million years ago), Australia began drifting away from Antarctica but did not separate until just into the Tertiary Period.
Sea levels rose and there was a great inland sea running through the centre of Australia depositing shallow marine sediments over much of Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia.
These sediments are the main source of Australia's known dinosaurs, the carcasses presumably having been washed out to sea by rivers.
The temperatures were warm at this time, although south-eastern Australia was situated close to the Cretaceous South Pole, so this region is seen as being temperate to cool. The plants living here were still dominantly conifers and ferns, although the first flowering plants had appeared by the early Cretaceous - fossil flowers are known from the Koonwarra Road cutting in Gippsland.
\BDescription:\b Continental reconstructions for the Mesozoic Era. \I(John Long)\i
Cretaceous animal fossils are known throughout inland Queensland and in the opal fields of New South Wales and South Australia. Large river systems developed in the rift valley as Australia and Antarctica began separating, and these sediments were deposited off the eastern and western coasts of Victoria.
The Victorian dinosaurs have been found in these early Cretaceous sandstones of the Otway and \JStrzelecki\j Groups. Recently labyrinthodont amphibian remains have been recognised from these deposits, making them the youngest known occurrence of the group.
\BDescription:\b Australia during the Cretaceous Period, showing major animal fossil sites. \I(John Long)\i
#
"Characteristics of Allosaurs",12,"d\2\dino7.jpg","c","0"
Allosaurs include many large meat-eaters of the late Jurassic to late Cretaceous, which are more advanced than primitive theropods in their reduced forearms (with three digits on the hand) and specialised foot (with reduced fifth digit).
\BDescription:\b Resconstruction of a Victorian \IAllosaurus\i adapted for life in a cold climate. \I(John Long)\i
#
"History of the Discovery of Allosaurs",13,"d\2\dino7.jpg","c","lion0"
Although Woodward described a claw from a theropod dinosaur from Cape Patterson, Victoria, as early as 1906, it was not until 1979 that a definite theropod bone of known affinities was found.
The bone, discovered by Tim Flannery, looked like an unidentifiable mess in the rock but when prepared turned out to be a nearly complete astragalus (ankle bone) of Allosaurus, despite some controversy over its identification.
The flesh-eating theropods have a distinctive astragalus with a high process on the front face that covers the tibia (leg bone) and is distinctive for each of the different genera. The Victorian Allosaurus was more robust than the North American counterpart, but somewhat smaller at about five to six metres maximum length, and about two metres high, compared to the 12-metre long American species A. fragilis.
The Allosaurus species known from North America died out at the end of the Jurassic Period, making the Victorian Allosaurus another example of 'a living fossil' which survived longer in Australia than elsewhere. This picture shows the reconstruction of a fur-covered \IAllosaurus\i. As other archosaurs had the ability to develop fur (as in some pterosaurs), the growth of such coats on certain dinosaurs is not as unlikely as it might first appear.
\BDescription:\b Reconstruction of a Victorian \IAllosaurus\i adapted for life in a cold climate. \I(John Long)\i
#
"The Mysterious Leg of the Karuku",14,"d\2\dino8.jpg","c","0"
The beautiful opalised leg bone of Kakuru was first spotted by a scientist when Neville Pledge of the South Australian Museum saw the specimen in an Adelaide opal shop! Luckily he obtained permission from the owner, A. Fleming, to make a cast of the bone, as the specimen was soon sold at auction and has now disappeared without trace.
The type specimen is a cast of the original held by the South Australian Museum. Kakuru is based on a nearly complete tibia, having slender proportions, like the bones from modern wading birds. The distal end of the tibia has a distinctive facet for the astragalus, and as the shape of this region is unique to each genus of theropod, it is clear that Kakuru is a distinct and valid genus of dinosaur.
In size, Kakuru was small, probably only two or three metres in length. In overall shape and proportions the tibia of Kakuru closely resembles that of the bird-like dinosaur Avimimus from the late Cretaceous of Mongolia.
However, Molnar and Pledge (1980) state that if the structure of the tibia has been correctly interpreted, then Kakuru does not readily fit into any of the five classes of theropod ankle types recognised by Welles & Long (1974), and may therefore belong to a completely new lineage of theropod.
The name Kakuru is from the Aboriginal word meaning rainbow serpent and the species name is a translation of the local Aboriginal tribe, the Gunyani. A small toe bone (phalanx) and a fragment, possibly belonging to a fibula, are also tentatively included with Kakuru as they came from the same site and have similar slender proportions.
\BDescription:\b Reconstruction of a slender coelurosaur indicating an animal comparable to a \IKaruku. (Courtesy of John Long)\i
#
"The Coelurosaurs",15,"d\2\dino2a.jpg","c","0"
Coelurosaurs were small, lightly built carnivorous dinosaurs that could run fast. They are in many respects primitive compared with the latter big meat-eaters like Tyrannosaurus or Allosaurus. The skull has large holes for the eyes and is generally slender, and the hands and feet are often less specialised than later theropods.
\BDescription:\b An impression of coelurosaurs \I(Peter Schouten)\i
#
"The Oceans of the Mesozoic Era",16,"d\2\dino9.jpg","c","0"
In this section a collection of Cretaceous tetrapods are discussed. The last known labyrinthodont on Earth was living in southern Victoria during the Lower Cretaceous (although this material is not yet described).
The seas were dominated by the large swimming reptiles, the turtles, ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, none of which are classified as dinosaurs as all of these groups stemmed off from the reptile family tree well before dinosaurs had evolved. The turtles are relatively unchanged today from their Mesozoic ancestors and they belong to one of the most primitive of all reptile groups, the anapsids.
Mosasaurs, although poorly represented in Australia, were large sea-going lizards with flippers and powerful tails for propelling themselves underwater. The ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs are well represented here by many isolated bones and some articulated, nearly complete skeletons.
The ichthyosaurs were fish-like in appearance and had long snouts, armed with many small teeth for catching fishes. In some ways they were the dolphins of the reptile world and probably had similar lifestyles.
\BDescription:\b Restoration of the mosasaur \IPlatecarpus. (Courtesy of John Long)\i
#
"The Plesiosauria",17,"d\2\dino12.jpg","c","0"
The Plesiosauria has two major groups, the long-necked types with small heads (plesiosaurs) and the short-necked, robust types with long snouts (pliosaurs). Plesiosaur remains occur in shallow marine and freshwater deposits, and are best known from the opal beds of South Australia and New South Wales, and the marine Cretaceous of Queensland. Only one Mesozoic crocodile has been described from Australia, from the opal beds at \JLightning Ridge\j.
\BDescription:\b Reconstruction of \IWoolungasaurus glendowerensis,\i a well-known, slender, long-necked form of pleisosaur. \I(John Long)\i
#
"Flying Reptiles and Birds of the Mesozoic Era",18,"d\2\dino13.jpg","c","0"
The pterosaurs were flying reptiles that lived in the Mesozoic Era. The largest known pterosaur, \IQuetzalcoatlus northropi,\i had a wingspan of up to 15 metres, larger than any bird that has ever lived.
Well-preserved pterosaur fossils indicate that these creatures had a furry coat and consideration of their functional anatomy suggests that they were capable of active flight, rather than just gliding.
Birds are represented in the Mesozoic of Australia by the leg bone of a primitive flying bird from Queensland \I(Nanantius)\i and feathers preserved in fine mudstones from eastern Victoria.
\BDescription:\b A reconstruction of a \IPterosaur (Courtesy of John Long)\i
#
"Mammals of the Mesozoic Era",19,"d\2\dino3a.jpg","c","0"
Although mammals first appeared in the upper Middle Triassic and were widely established by the Cretaceous Period, their presence in Australia at this time was only recently proven when a small jaw from \JLightning Ridge\j was found - pushing back the record of fossil mammals in Australia from about 30 million years (the previously oldest known mammal) to a staggering 100 million years.
We still await finds of mammals in the age range 30-100 million years ago to fill in the gaps! Mammals evolved from synapsid reptiles at about the same time as the first dinosaurs appeared and, like dinosaurs and birds, must be considered as one of the 'specialised' groups of reptiles.
\BDescription:\b The \INeohelos\i, one of Australia's oldest known mammals. \I(Peter Schouten)\i
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!,!,!,!,!
9#
499,0
"Australian Flora",1,"0","g","0"
This section contains a summary, and in most cases, a photograph of most Australian Flora, of which there is around 500. Towards the end of this section, a range of tables on the characteristics of these natives, plus a section on endangered Australian plants is included.
To view a list of all flora, select the \BSearch\b button from the Toolbar (second from the left), and select the \BCustom\b button from the dialog box that appears. From the submenu that then appears, select \IAustralian plants.\i A list of every plant available will then be displayed, and you can move directly to any of them. If you would like this done for you now, \P\Kplants\kclick here.\p
Alternatively, use the \JNext Page\j button from the Toolbar, or the \IGo To Page\i button from the Toolbar.
#
"Acacia Ambligona",2,"d\2\acacia6.jpg","c","0"
Variable shrub taking many forms. Popular is a prostrate form ideally suited to rockeries, pot culture and hanging baskets.
A beautiful feathery leafed wattle with arching branches and small but bright flowers. Highly drought resistant. May lose its leaves if drainage is poor.
#
"Acacia Decurrens",4,"d\2\acacia15.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBlack Wattle\i
A very rapid growing small tree with fine deep green foliage offset by rich golden blossom in spring. Useful as a "pioneer" plant for quick early display and later removal. May be short lived. Useful for both coastal and inland plantings.
#
"Acacia Drummondi",5,"d\2\acacia16.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IDrummond's Wattle\i
Very dainty small shrub from WA with blue grey feathery foliage and pale yellow rod-like flowers. Useful for small gardens.
#
"Acacia Elata",6,"d\2\acacia17.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICedar Wattle\i
Very attractive small tree with deep green fern-like foliage and pale cream ball flowers in summer.
#
"Acacia Elongata",7,"d\2\acacia18.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISwamp Wattle\i
Particularly attractive long flowering species with narrow rigid foliage and golden ball flowers in spring. Very adaptable and fairly drought resistant.
#
"Acacia Fimbriata",8,"d\2\acacia19.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFringe Wattle\i
Sweetly scented light yellow ball flowers in spring and narrow grey green leaves. A large shrub suitable for moist gullies.
#
"Acacia Glaucescens",9,"d\2\acacia20.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICoastal Myall\i
This very attractive species is a small tree used extensively for landscaping. It has large silver grey leaves and lemon yellow rod-like flowers in spring. Suitable for coastal and near inland areas.
Medium shrub with fine needle-like foliage and golden ball flowers in spring. Very graceful plant.
#
"Acacia Howitti",11,"d\2\acacia23.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISticky Wattle\i
A vigorously growing large dense shrub with pale green foliage. An excellent hedge or windbreak plant. Flowers are pale yellow. Foliage exudes pervasive but beautiful aroma on warm days. Requires heavy pruning immediately after flowering.
#
"Acacia Iteaphylla",12,"d\2\acacia24.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFlinders Range Wattle\i
Medium shrub with narrow blue green foliage on drooping branches. Has showy yellow ball flowers from unusual catkin-like buds.
#
"Acacia Longifolia",13,"d\2\acacia28.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISydney Golden Wattle\i
A rapid growing medium shrub which thrives under coastal conditions. Easily the most popular Acacia for landscaping in NSW. Long mid-green leaves and delicately scented golden rod flowers in winter and spring. Adaptable to both moist and dry conditions. A good "pioneer" plant.
This is the blackwood popular for furniture manufacture. A large tree with drooping grey green foliage, pale yellow ball flowers and attractive curved seed pods. Popular overseas. Prefers a rich, moist soil.
The \IAcacia melanoxylon\i pictured is in the prostrate form.
Very similar to \IA. decurrens\i and \IA. mearnsi,\i but has a longer life. Scented yellow flowers throughout summer.
#
"Acacia Pendula",16,"d\2\acacia35.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWeeping Myall\i
Pendulous small tree with handsome grey foliage on very slender branches. Pale cream ball flowers in spring. This species is an attractive foliage plant for inland areas.
\BCommon Name:\b \IMt. Morgan or Queensland Silver Wattle\i
Tall shrub or small tree which may be short lived. Always a pleasure to see the brilliant perfumed golden flowers in mid-winter. Requires reasonable drainage.
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"Acacia Prominens",18,"d\2\acacia38.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGosford Wattle of Golden Rain Tree\i
A small tree with dense clusters of very sweetly scented golden ball flowers which are unaffected by rain. Prefers moist soils.
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"Acacia Pycnantha",19,"d\2\acacia39.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IAustralian Golden Wattle\i
This wattle is featured on the Australian Coat of Arms. A medium shrub or small tree with bright green sickle shaped foliage and large golden ball flowers. Very showy, rapid growing and suitable for inland and coastal planting.
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"Acacia Saligna",20,"d\2\acacia40.jpg","c","0"
Also referred to as \IAcacia cyanophylla\i
\BCommon Name:\b \IOrange Wattle\i
An attractive small tree with drooping grey green foliage and dense clusters of bright golden ball flowers in spring and summer. A rapid grower suitable for dune stabilisation and coastal plantings.
#
"Acacia Suaveolens",21,"d\2\acacia42.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISweet Scented Wattle\i
A slender upright medium shrub with thick rigid blue-green foliage and pale yellow flowers in winter and spring. Flowers are perfumed.
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"Acacia Uncinata",22,"d\2\acacia44.jpg","c","0"
Small to medium shrub with weeping branches and round wavy leaves. Flowers are deep golden yellow, fragrant, and carried throughout the year.
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"Angophora Hispida",23,"d\2\55.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IDwarf Apple (syn. Angophora cordifolia)\i
An often twisted shrub or small tree with broad, coarse stem clasping leaves and large sprays of creamy white flowers in summer. Responds well to regular fertilising and periodic lopping.
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"Anigozanthos Flavidus",24,"d\2\56.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IKangaroo Paw\i
A clumpy plant with strap-like leaves which may grow 300 mm to 1 m high. The yellow-green or pink-red flowers are carried on long spikes held high above the foliage in summer. A robust plant adaptable to most soils containing reasonable moisture.
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"Anigozanthos Humilis",25,"d\2\57.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICat's Paw\i
A small species usually less than 150 mm high with sickle-shaped leaves and bright orange-yellow flower spikes. Difficult to maintain in cultivation.
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"Anigozanthos Manglesi",26,"d\2\58.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRed & Green Kangaroo Paw (WA floral emblem)\i
A showy plant with blue-grey foliage to 400 mm with striking red and green flowers. Difficult to maintain, and particularly susceptible to ink disease.
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"Anigozanthos Viridis",27,"d\2\59.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGreen Kangaroo Paw\i
A small plant with rush-like foliage and green flower spikes. More reliable than other small forms. Requires reasonable moisture.
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"Araucaria Bidwilli",28,"d\2\60.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBunya Pine\i
A tall conifer-like tree with deep green sharply pointed foliage suitable for parks and very large gardens.
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"Araucaria Cunninghami",29,"d\2\61.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IHoop Pine\i
A tall tree for parks and large gardens. Similar to Norfolk Island Pine.
A rapid growing palm for shady moist situations. Grows to 10 m.
#
"Astartia Heteranthera",31,"d\2\64.jpg","c","0"
Similar to \IA. fascicularis\i, although smaller and more open.
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"Astroloma Ciliatum",32,"d\3\65.jpg","c","0"
A small often prostrate plant with pale green pine-like foliage and green tipped tubular flowers contracted at the ends. Flowers winter and early spring.
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"Abarema",33,"0","g","0"
Rainforest trees belonging to the same family as wattles. Often used as street trees in northern NSW and Queensland. Not well known in cultivation but are deserving of more attention.
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"Abarema Grandiflora",34,"0","g","0"
Medium size tree with glossy deep green leaves and fragrant red fluffy ball flowers followed by ornamental twisted seed pods.
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"Abarema Sapindoides",35,"0","g","0"
Small tree with glossy deep green leaves and yellow fluffy flowers followed by attractive twisted seed pods which split open revealing shiny black seeds on a red background.
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"Acacia",36,"0","g","0"
This is a large genus of hundreds of species, a great many of which are found in cultivation. They range in size from prostrate ground covers to large stately trees. A comparatively small number are described, but many others are worthy of consideration.
\BNote:\b \IIn the following descriptions for simplicity the foliage is referred to as "leaves". However, many wattles do not have true leaves (very tricky!) and the foliage is really flattened branches called "phyllodes".\i
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"Acacia Acinacea",37,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGold Dust Wattle\i
Medium shrub with narrow foliage and golden ball flowers in spring. An adaptable and hardy species.
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"Acacia Aculeatissima",38,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICreeping Wattle\i
Small plant with thin thorn-like foliage and a profusion of fragrant solitary flowers. Excellent rockery specimen. Hardy once established.
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"Acacia Adunca",39,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWallangarra Wattle\i
Large shrub with a profusion of golden flowers which may occur from winter to summer.
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"Acacia Baileyana",40,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICootamundra Wattle\i
Small tree with beautiful grey fern-like foliage and profusion of golden ball flowers in late winter. Will benefit greatly by heavy pruning - up to 30% of foliage - immediately after flowering. Another form \I(A. baileyana purpurea)\i has purple foliage. An outstanding plant.
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"Acacia Boormani",41,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISnowy River Wattle\i
Outstanding medium rounded shrub, often multi-stemmed, bearing a profusion of delicate yellow ball flowers in early spring. Needs a sheltered sunny position for best results.
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"Acacia Buxifolia",42,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBox-leaved Wattle\i
Popular medium shrub, spectacular in flower. Prefers a sheltered site and often reproduces itself.
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"Acacia Calamifolia",43,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWallowa\i
Lovely rounded shrub to 3 metres, bearing bright golden yellow fragrant flowers in spring.
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"Acacia Cutriformis",44,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IKnife Leaf Wattle\i
An upright medium shrub to 3 metres, with graceful drooping branches and unusual knife-shaped leaves. A hardy specimen in most positions, and an attractive foliage plant.
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"Acacia Dealbata",45,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISilver Wattle\i
Similar to \IA. baileyana.\i Will withstand cold conditions. Often reproduces from suckers.
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"Acacia Decora",46,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGraceful Wattle\i
A small to medium shrub, spectacular in flower, and very drought resistant. Covered in masses of golden ball flowers in spring.
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"Acacia Glaucoptera",47,"0","g","0"
A straggling prostrate shrub with blue wing-like leaves, red tipped in new growth and interspersed with golden ball flowers in spring. Requires a well drained sunny site and regular pruning.
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"Acacia Kettlewelliae",48,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBuffalo Wattle\i
Large shrub or small tree with attractive foliage and dense clusters of golden ball flowers in spring and summer. Suitable for subalpine areas.
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"Acacia Lanigera",49,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWoolly Wattle\i
A hardy small rounded shrub with woolly new growth and small golden ball flowers in spring.
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"Acacia Linifolia",50,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFlax Wattle\i
A medium open shrub with arching branches, narrow dark green leaves and a profusion of pale yellow flowers. A hardy shrub which may flower any time from mid-summer to mid-winter.
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"Acacia Longifolia Var. Sophorae",51,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICoastal Wattle\i
A form of \IA. longifolia\i having slightly broader foliage and often prostrate habit. Ideally suited to coastal planting and dune stabilisation.
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"Acacia Mearnsi",52,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGreen or Black Wattle\i
A small tree with dark green fern-like foliage and cream ball-shaped flowers in spring. A rapid growing and hardy species. A good "pioneer" plant.
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"Acacia Myrtifolia",53,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMyrtle Wattle\i
An adaptable small shrub found on a wide variety of soil types. Mid-green leaves are edged with red, and stems are also red. Flowers are pale yellow, winter to summer. Will grow in the shade, but takes a more attractive form in full sun.
#
"Acacia Oxycedrus",54,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISpike Wattle\i
Medium shrub with sharply pointed and rigid foliage. Worth growing for its golden yellow flower spikes in early spring.
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"Acacia Pravissima",55,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IOvens Wattle\i
Beautiful and graceful species with drooping angular branches and triangular foliage. Tall shrub bearing a profusion of golden ball flowers from bronze buds. A prostrate form now in cultivation is sold as "Golden Carpet".
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"Acacia Vestita",56,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IHairy Wattle\i
Attractive and compact medium shrub with weeping habit, triangular leaves and grey woolly foliage. Dense clusters of golden ball flowers in spring and summer. An outstanding plant. Suitable for hedges.
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"Acmena Smithi",57,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ILilly Pilly\i
A small tree with a dense crown of dark green leaves, with flowers and edible white berries tinged with purple. A reliable species.
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"Acacia Spectabilis",58,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMudgee Wattle\i
Beautiful tall shrub with dainty soft blue foliage and golden ball flowers in spring.
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"Acacia Terminalis",59,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISunshine Wattle\i
Attractive but short-lived medium shrub with open habit and bronze green fern-like foliage. Pale to deep golden flowers in winter and spring.
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"Actinotus Helianthi",60,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFlannel Flower\i
A small upright shrub with woolly grey foliage and creamy white daisy-like flowers with a flannel texture. Flowers through summer.
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"Adenanthos Barbigerus",61,"0","g","0"
A small shrub belonging to the same family as Grevilleas. It has an erect twiggy habit with pointed blue-grey foliage and bright red tubular flowers. Flowers in spring.
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"Adenanthos Obovatus",62,"0","g","0"
An upright open shrub with dull green leaves and bright red tubular flowers in winter and spring. Prefers a well drained soil.
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"Agonis Flexuosa",63,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWillow Myrtle\i
A small to medium tree with arching branches, narrow foliage and clusters of small white flowers along the branches in spring. A number of varieties are available including \IAgonis flexuosa\i "Fairy Foliage", a dwarf form, and \IAgonis flexuosa\i "Variegata", a form with fine, variegated foliage. Dwarf forms are suitable for tubs.
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"Agonis Juniperina",64,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \INative Cedar\i
An upright medium shrub reminiscent of a conifer with fine, dark green leaves and a profusion of white flowers throughout the year.
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"Allocasuarina Torulosa",65,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IForest Oak\i
A small to medium tree with rough corky bark. The fine green foliage, which at times turns red to purple, gives the tree a soft weeping appearance. Very hardy and adaptable.
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"Angophora Bakeri",66,"0","g","0"
An attractive small tree for poorer soils with narrow foliage and profusion of white flowers in early summer. Rough, scaly bark.
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"Angophora Costata",67,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISmooth Barked Apple or Red Gum\i
A rapid growing free flowering medium tree often assuming a gnarled habit. It has attractive salmon pink dimpled bark and a profusion of white flowers in late spring.
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"Astartia Fascicularis",68,"0","g","0"
A small heath-like shrub to 1 m with fine foliage and a profusion of small white or pale pink 5-petalled flowers borne throughout the year. A hardy and reliable plant.
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"Austromyrtus Dulcis",69,"0","g","0"
An ideal small shrub for shady moist soils. Leaves develop reddish tonings. White flowers are followed by small fleshy berries. Reliable.
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"Austromyrtus Tenuifolia",70,"0","g","0"
An erect medium shrub with narrow leaves, white flowers and greenish blue fleshy fruit. Prefers a moist shady site.
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"Backhousia Citriodora",71,"d\3\68.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ILemon Scented Myrtle\i
A small tree with dense foliage reaching to the ground and a profusion of white flowers. Crushed foliage is very aromatic.
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"Baeckea Densifolia",72,"d\3\70.jpg","c","0"
A small rounded shrub with dull green leaves and small white flowers in summer. A hardy plant adapted to semi-shade.
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"Beackea Virgata",73,"d\3\72.jpg","c","0"
A variable shrub, often reaching 4 m, rather formal in appearance. Bears masses of white flowers in summer and is particularly hardy. A number of dwarf forms are available, some growing less than 300 mm. Small forms are suitable for tubs.
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"Banksia Caleyi",74,"d\3\74.jpg","c","0"
Medium bush shrub. Has interesting reddy-brown pendant spikes. WA species, but has been grown with some success in the Eastern States.
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"Banksia Coccinea",75,"d\3\75.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWaratah Banksia\i
Perhaps the most striking of the Banksias, the "Waratah Banksia" has fiery red short cylindrical spikes and is reminiscent of the NSW waratah. A multi-stemmed plant which may grow to 4 metres. A WA species very difficult to cultivate in the east.
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"Banksia Ericifolia",76,"d\3\76.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IHeath Banksia\i
Believed to be the first specimen collected by Sir Joseph Banks at Botany Bay in 1770. A very well known large shrub ideally suited for landscaping. Often considered the best of the Eastern States' Banksias, it makes an excellent screen.
Foliage is short and heath-like. Flower spikes may be as long as 40 cm and are bright orange fading to brown. A number of cultivars are available, including "Giant Candles". Very hardy.
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"Banksia Grandis",77,"d\3\77.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBull or Giant Banksia\i
Large shrub to small tree, this upright species features very large bright yellow flower spikes. A WA species which has had some success in the east. Full sun and good drainage are essential.
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"Banksia Hookerana",78,"d\3\78.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IHooker's Banksia\i
A particularly ornamental species growing to 3 metres with long narrow serrated foliage and large woolly flower spikes which change from light to deep golden yellow as the flower matures. A rapid grower used extensively for cut flowers. A WA species not suited to the Eastern States.
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"Banksia Integrifolia",79,"d\3\79.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICoast Banksia\i
This small tree from the coastal regions of the Eastern States is easily grown and very hardy and produces an abundance of yellow flower spikes in autumn.
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"Banksia Marginata",80,"d\3\80.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISilver Banksia\i
Similar to \IB. integrifolia\i. Adapts well to garden conditions.
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"Banksia Media",81,"d\3\81.jpg","c","0"
The easiest WA Banksia to cultivate in the east. Compact, medium shrub producing yellow rather formal "corn cob" flower spikes. Resistant to salt spray.
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"Banksia Prostrata",82,"d\3\83.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IProstrate Banksia\i
Similar to \IB. petiolaris\i, but has brown flower spikes. WA species. Some success in the east.
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"Banksia Repens",83,"d\3\84.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICreeping Banksia\i
A feature of this Banksia is the deeply divided foliage which, like the other prostrate Banksias (\IB. petiolaris\i and \IB. prostrata\i) is stiff and erect. Flower spikes are an attractive tan brown. WA species with some success in the east.
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"Banksia Robur",84,"d\3\85.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISwamp or Broad Leafed Banksia\i
A fascinating Eastern States Banksia, with large wavy and leathery leaves. The younger branches and leaves are covered with velvety brown hairs. A hardy medium shrub producing flower spikes from bluish-green through yellow-green tipped with black to reddish-brown.
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"Banksia Serrata",85,"d\3\86.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISaw Banksia\i
This is the "Old Man" Banksia, a crooked and gnarled tree with a thick, short trunk and low spreading twisted branches. Leaves are bright green and evenly serrated. Flower spikes are an attractive silvery gold, greying with age. Small Eastern States tree. A beautiful garden specimen. Also excellent in large pots.
#
"Banksia Serratifolia",86,"d\3\87.jpg","c","0"
\ISyn. Banksia aemula\i
\BCommon Name:\b \IWallum Banksia\i
Very similar to \IB. serrata\i but not quite as large.
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"Banksia Spinulosa",87,"d\3\88.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IHairpin Banksia\i
A variable medium shrub. The golden spike appears to support an array of purple hairpins. This eastern species is easy to cultivate and will tolerate poor soils.
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"Bauera Rubioides",88,"d\3\89.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IDog or River Rose\i
A broad straggly shrub to 1 m suitable for sun or shade bearing masses of rose pink flowers. Reliable if given ample moisture. White flowered forms are also attractive.
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"Bauera Sessiliflora",89,"d\3\90.jpg","c","0"
More upright than \IB. rubioides\i and having showy mauve pink flowers growing close to the stems.
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"Billardiera Scandens",90,"d\3\93.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IApple Berry\i
An open climbing plant bearing creamy yellow tubular flowers and fleshy edible fruit. A hardy small climber for sun and shade.
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"Blandfordia Grandiflora",91,"d\3\94.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IChristmas Bell\i
Stiff deep green grass-like leaves to 500 mm with large pendulous orange to red ball flowers tipped with yellow. Needs ample moisture for rapid growth. May take 2 or 3 years to reach flowering age.
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"Blandfordia Punicea",92,"d\3\95.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IChristmas Bell\i
Similar to \IB. grandiflora\i. Brush-like foliage with yellow throated red bell flowers.
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"Boronia Anemonifolia",93,"d\3\96.jpg","c","0"
A small upright shrub with fine foliage bearing small pink buds and white flowers throughout the year. An excellent rockery or tub plant.
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"Boronia Denticulata",94,"d\3\97.jpg","c","0"
An upright shrub to 1 m with blue green narrow foliage and pink star flowers in spring. A moderately hardy species.
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"Boronia Ledifolia",95,"d\3\100.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISydney Boronia\i
An open shrub to 1 m usually with 3 lobed foliage bearing showy pink flowers in spring. White and multi-petalled varieties are sometimes encountered. Difficult to maintain.
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"Boronia Megastigma",96,"d\3\101.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBrown Boronia\i
A fine foliage plant to 1 m or more bearing masses of yellow throated brown flowers prized for their fragrance. Other flower forms include all yellow and burgundy with yellow. Light pruning after flowering prolongs life. Sparing applications of fertiliser are beneficial.
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"Boronia Muelleri",97,"d\3\103.jpg","c","0"
The "Sunset Serenade" cultivar of this boronia is an attractive small shrub with delicate pink star flowers. A reasonably hardy and recommended species.
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"Boronia Pinnata",98,"d\3\104.jpg","c","0"
A variable shrub to 1.5 m with fragrant ferny foliage and white or, more commonly, pink star flowers. Adaptable to a wide range of soil conditions.
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"Boronia Serrulata",99,"d\3\105.jpg","c","0"
A small bushy shrub to 1 m with closely packed bright green foliage and rich pink highly perfumed cup-like flowers borne in terminal clusters during spring. Highly desirable but difficult to maintain.
A tall semi-deciduous tree with handsome bright green foliage and a profusion of red bell flowers in summer. May drop leaves during the flowering period. An adaptable and hardy species. A useful indoor plant when young.
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"Brachychiton Rupestre",101,"d\3\109.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBottle Tree\i
A medium tree whose trunk swells giving rise to its common name. Interesting juvenile foliage makes the plant an ideal indoor specimen which may be kept small by limiting root growth by planting in a small pot.
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"Brachycome Sp.",102,"d\3\111.jpg","c","0"
Similar to \IB. multifida\i but much more compact, rarely exceeding 50 mm in height.
A neat rounded shrub to 1.5 m with silver-grey wavy foliage and bright red pea flowers in summer. A drought resistant species responding well to pruning.
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"Backhousia Myrtifolia",105,"0","g","0"
A hardy small tree from rainforests and creek banks producing masses of small cream flowers.
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"Baeckea Linifolia",106,"0","g","0"
An attractive pendulous shrub to 2 m with small white flowers borne throughout the year. Thrives in poorly drained soils.
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"Banksia",107,"0","g","0"
Of the more than 60 Banksia species found in Australia, less than 10 occur in the Eastern States. Generally, attempts to cultivate the many beautiful WA varieties in the Eastern States have been disappointing. All Banksias are showy, unusual and highly desirable specimens. They attract both honeyeating birds and mammals. Banksias provide a good display in autumn.
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"Banksia Baueri",108,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IPossum Banksia\i
Rounded small to medium shrub with large woolly yellow-grey flower spikes giving rise to the name "Possum Banksia". Requires a well drained sunny position. WA species popular in cultivation there. Has been grown with some success in the Eastern States.
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"Banksia Petiolaris",109,"0","g","0"
One of a number of prostrate Banksias, producing flower spikes from branches growing at or below ground level. Flower spikes are yellow. A WA species requiring excellent drainage which has had some success in the East.
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"Beaufortia Macrostemon",110,"0","g","0"
A much branched small shrub with small grey leaves and attractive red and yellow bottle brush flowers in spring. A drought resistant hardy species.
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"Beaufortia Sparsa",111,"0","g","0"
An erect shrub with fine foliage and red bottle brush flowers in late summer. Suitable for well drained sites with ample moisture.
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"Boronia Floribunda",112,"0","g","0"
An upright shrub with pale green ferny foliage and an abundance of soft pink flowers with a delicate fragrance. Very showy, but requires excellent drainage.
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"Boronia Heterophylla",113,"0","g","0"
A dense rounded shrub with fine deep green foliage and bearing masses of deep pink bell-like flowers in spring. May be difficult to maintain.
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"Boronia Molloyae",114,"0","g","0"
A compact shrub to 1.5 m with aromatic soft green foliage and pink flowers in spring. Moderately hardy.
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"Boronia Spathulata",115,"0","g","0"
A small shrub to 600 mm with fine oval foliage and pink starlike flowers on long arching branches.
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"Brachychiton Discolor",116,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ILace Bark Tree\i
A large deciduous tree with deeply lobed foliage with a silvery underside and large pink bell flowers in summer. May drop leaves during the flowering period. Suited to most soil types.
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"Brachycome Multifida",117,"0","g","0"
A well known compact suckering plant to 400 mm with much divided ferny foliage and pale mauve daisy flowers throughout spring and summer.
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"Brachysema Latifolium",118,"0","g","0"
A prostrate or trailing plant with rounded mid green leaves and orange pea flowers. Requires good drainage.
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"Buckinghamia Celsissima",119,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IIvory Curl\i
A small handsome tree with dense foliage producing masses of cream flower spikes up to 200 mm long during summer. A hardy plant requiring a warm climate and reasonable moisture.
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"Bursaria Spinosa",120,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBlackthorn or Tasmanian Christmas Bush\i
A variable erect thorny shrub with small dark green foliage and masses of fragrant white flowers during late spring and summer. Very hardy and widespread.
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"Callistemon Citrinus",121,"d\3\119.jpg","c","0"
A rather rigid upright shrub to 4 m producing numerous red flower spikes in late spring and autumn. White flowered forms are also known. A very hardy species which responds well to fertiliser.
A dense rounded shrub of 3 metres or more with dark green rigid leaves. When in flower this shrub is covered with large brilliant scarlet bottle brush flowers. Flowering may occur numerous times each year.
A dense rounded shrub to 3 metres producing some of the largest of all bottle brush flowers. The deep red flower spikes may be more than 200 mm long. Flowers late spring and autumn. A very showy and hardy species.
A tall shrub or small tree with attractive light purple flower spikes borne in profusion from November to February.
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"Callistemon Pallidus",125,"d\3\127.jpg","c","0"
An upright medium shrub with creamy yellow flower spikes from September to January. An excellent plant for waterlogged sites. Some selected forms are now in cultivation.
A rather straggly spreading shrub which responds well to pruning. Usually about 2 m in height, two flower forms are popular, a red and a yellow-green. Both forms feature fine pink-like but rigid foliage. A particularly hardy species well adapted to poor soils and should be more widely planted. Flowers spring and early summer.
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"Callistemon Polandi",127,"d\4\130.jpg","c","0"
A medium to tall shrub with stiff light green leaves and large orange-red bottle brush flowers dusted with gold. New growth is often silvery pink. An attractive semi-prostrate in cultivation and is often less than 1 m in height. Both varieties of this early flowering species may be frost tender.
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"Callistemon Speciosus",128,"d\4\133.jpg","c","0"
Grows to 2 m and bears bottle brush flowers with deep red stamens and golden anthers. Although this plant is found often growing in water, it will thrive also in drier locations. Flowers spring and summer.
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"Callistemon 'Tinaroo'",129,"d\4\135.jpg","c","0"
A medium shrub bearing large clusters of red flowers tipped with gold. The dark green often crowded foliage may be bronze in new growth. Flowers in spring.
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"Callistemon Viminalis",130,"d\4\136.jpg","c","0"
A variable shrub or small tree ranging from less than 1 m to more than 12 m in height. Usually has a weeping habit, pale green foliage, and a profusion of bright red flower spikes suitable for cutting. Grown from seed, the plant varies considerably and descriptions of a number of better forms follow.
A small tree with long weeping branches, large crimson brushes and pink new growth. An ideal street tree. Spring flowering.
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"Callitris Rhomboidea",132,"d\4\149.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IPort Jackson Pine\i
An upright tree to 15 m with green or blue foliage, slightly pendulous. Very attractive and hardy species. Ideal for coastal plantings.
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"Calocephalus Browni",133,"d\4\150.jpg","c","0"
A small rounded wiry shrub with a very silvery appearance bearing insignificant pale yellow flowers. An excellent foliage plant requiring regular pruning to maintain habit. Resistant to salt spray.
An upright spreading shrub to 2 m with attractive narrow pine-like foliage with long soft flower spikes resembling a one-sided bottle brush. Flowers are red, occasionally yellow in winter and spring. Very hardy drought resistant shrub.
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"Calothamnus Villosus",135,"d\4\152.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWoolly Net Bush\i
An upright rounded shrub to 2 m with soft grey foliage covered with fine silvery hairs. Bright red one-sided flower spikes during winter, spring and summer. A hardy shrub.
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"Calytrix Sullivani",136,"d\4\153.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFringe Myrtle\i
A small shrub to 1 m with fine heath-like foliage and soft pink flowers. Good drainage is required.
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"Calytrix Tetragona",137,"d\4\154.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFringe Myrtle\i
A variable but dense plant ranging up to 1.5 m. The fine heath-like foliage is bright green with white star-like flowers.
A creeping plant with long triangular greyish green fleshy leaves and large bright mauve-pink daisy flowers with a yellow centre. Excellent for dune stabilisation and beach front plantings.
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"Cassia Artemisoides",139,"d\4\157.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISilver Cassia\i
A beautiful rounded shrub to 2 m with finely divided blue-grey foliage and dainty bright yellow buttercup flowers followed by dark seed pods with a varnished appearance. Both flowers and pods are carried for a long period. Will tolerate most soil types.
A well known upright shrub to 5 m with pale green trifoliate leaves, white star flowers followed by showy reddy calyces giving the tree an overall pink appearance. Excellent for cut flowers. Prefers good drainage.
An open spreading shrub to 3 m with fine foliage and large waxy 5-petalled flowers which may vary from white to deep purple. Pink forms are most common. Requires protected well drained sunny position.
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"Chorizema Cordatum",144,"d\4\164.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFlame Pea\i
A low bushy shrub with bright green heart-shaped leaves which bear a profusion of bright orange and yellow flowers in spring. A spectacular long flowering shrub.
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"Clematis Aristata",145,"d\4\165.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IClematis\i
A vigorous climbing plant with pale green foliage bearing silvery white markings producing a profusion of creamy white flowers followed by feathery fruit equally as showy as the flower. A hardy plant requiring reasonable moisture.
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"Conostylus Aculeata",146,"d\4\166.jpg","c","0"
A small clump plant to 300 mm with long strap-like leaves and woolly yellow flowers held above the foliage.
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"Correa Alba",147,"d\4\167.jpg","c","0"
A rounded shrub which may reach 1.5 m with attractive round greeny grey foliage and white star-like flowers. Requires well drained soil. Resistant to salt spray.
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"Correa Reflexa",148,"d\4\170.jpg","c","0"
A variable shrub ranging from 300 mm to 1.5 m with bell-shaped flowers ranging from greenish yellow to deep red.
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"Crowea Saligna",149,"d\4\172.jpg","c","0"
A small rounded shrub with bright green foliage and unusual angular branches. Large deep pink star-like flowers appear in autumn and winter. An outstanding shrub for light shade. Difficult to maintain. Suitable for cut flowers.
A rapid growing small to medium tree with glossy green large fern-like leaves. The small flowers are followed by showy black seeds. An ideal tree for salt laden winds.
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"Callistemon",151,"0","g","0"
This is a group of about 25 species and a large number of varieties. Most are hardy plants adaptable to a wide range of soil conditions including poorly drained soils. Most enjoy full sun, however, some will survive in shaded conditions. All are attractive to birds.
Many produce brightly coloured new foliage in colours such as pink or bronze. Crushed foliage is often fragrant.
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"Callistemon 'Burgundy'",152,"0","g","0"
A medium shrub to 3 m with deep burgundy flower spikes dusted with gold. Flowers November to February.
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"Callistemon 'Candy Pink'",153,"0","g","0"
A medium shrub 2 m or more, with dark green rigid foliage and masses of pink to pale red rather open bottle brush flowers. Flowering may occur numerous times throughout the year.
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"Callistemon Citrinus 'Anzac'",154,"0","g","0"
A low sprawling shrub, approximately 1 m x 3 m with large white bottle brush flowers, often tinged with pink. Flowers November to January.
A sprawling shrub to 2 m with arching branches and a profusion of red flower spikes. New growth is silvery pink. Flowers October to December.
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"Callistemon 'Kings Park Special'",156,"0","g","0"
A medium shrub to 3 m with narrow foliage and bright red terminal clusters of bottle brush flowers on arching branches. Main flowering period is December to January.
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"Callistemon 'Mauve Mist'",157,"0","g","0"
A dense rounded shrub 2-3 m high with silvery new growth and an abundance of large mauve gold dusted flower spikes in dense terminal clusters. Flowers fade with age. Flowers late spring.
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"Callistemon Paludosus",158,"0","g","0"
A small tree with fine pendulous foliage and silvery pink new growth and creamy yellow bottle brushes. Flowers in summer.
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"Callistemon 'Reeves Pink'",159,"0","g","0"
An excellent small to medium shrub which produces a profusion of gold tipped pink flowers which fade with age. Responds well to pruning and makes an ideal low hedge. Flowers spring and autumn.
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"Callistemon Sieberi",160,"0","g","0"
A variable shrub which may reach 2 m. A good form occurring in high altitudes rarely exceeds 1 metre. It has dark green narrow leaves and creamy yellow flower spikes in summer.
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"Callistemon Subulatus",161,"0","g","0"
A small much branched shrub with narrow rigid and often sharp pointed leaves and bright red flower spikes on arching branches. Suitable for either wet or dry locations. Flowers November to February.
A well known dwarf form reaching a height of 2 metres. Dense clusters of red bottle brush flowers are borne on the ends of the branches in spring, autumn and possibly other times during the year.
A dense dwarf shrub having soft hairy foliage, bronze in new growth and large clusters of deep red rather than open flower spikes. Flowers in spring.
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"Callistemon 'Western Glory'",167,"0","g","0"
An upright medium shrub with sharp pointed leathery leaves and terminal clusters of mauve-red flower spikes in late spring.
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"Callistemon 'Baroondah'",168,"0","g","0"
A medium shrub with long weeping branches and silvery new growth and masses of pale pink bottle brush flowers in terminal clusters. Deserves to be more popular. Flowers in spring.
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"Callistemon Species 'Injune'",169,"0","g","0"
Small to medium shrub with silky pink new growth and pale pink or red flower spikes produced in several flushes throughout the year. The flowers fade with age to produce a variety of colours on the one plant.
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"Callitris Endlicheri",170,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBlack Cypress Pine\i
An upright conical small tree with fine green foliage and generally formal appearance. Drought resistant.
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"Callitris Hugeli",171,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWhite Cypress Pine\i
Medium to tall tree with conical upright shape and blue-green foliage. Hardy.
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"Callitris Macleayana",172,"0","g","0"
An upright medium tree with columnar habit and dark green foliage, often colouring in winter. A rainforest species adapting well to full sun.
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"Cassia Aciphylla",173,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICassia\i
A low spreading shrub usually less than 1 m with dark green divided foliage and large bright yellow buttercup flowers. Suitable for most soil types.
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"Casuarina Nana",174,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IDwarf Oak\i
A much branched low spreading shrub with fine dark green foliage providing an excellent ground cover or low wind break for exposed and coastal situations.
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"Casuarina Stricta",175,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IDrooping She Oak\i
An attractive rounded small tree to 10 m with long pendulous branchlets. A salt resistant tree suitable for most soils.
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"Correa Decumbens",176,"0","g","0"
A low spreading shrub with attractive tubular red flowers with yellow tips and dull green narrow foliage. Full sun or semi-shade.
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"Correa Pulchella",177,"0","g","0"
A variable shrub with orange to pink bell-shaped flowers responsible for a number of varieties of hybrids, some of the best being \ICorrea manni\i and Correa "Dusky Bells".
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"Crowea Exalata",178,"0","g","0"
A rounded shrub with fine foliage and bright pink star flowers. A moderately hardy plant suitable for full sun or semi-shade. Flowers autumn and winter.
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"Dampiera Diversifolia",179,"d\4\174.jpg","c","0"
A vigorously growing prostrate plant which suckers as it spreads and produces masses of dark blue flowers over a long period. Requires well drained soil with ample moisture. Ideal for rockeries, tubs and baskets.
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"Darwinia Citriodora",180,"d\4\176.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ILemon-scented Myrtle\i
A compact bushy shrub to 1 m with pale blue-grey lemon scented foliage and small yellow and red flowers. Attractive to birds and tolerates salt spray.
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"Dillwynia Floribunda",181,"d\4\178.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IEgg & Bacon\i
An open shrub to 1 m with fine foliage and masses of golden yellow pea flowers during late winter and early spring. Often short lived.
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"Doryanthes Excelsa",182,"d\4\181.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGymea Lily\i
A striking contrast plant. Large sword-shaped leaves to 1 m, and huge red flower heads on long stalks some metres above the foliage. A large hardy plant which may take some years to flower.
#
"Dryandra Polycephala",183,"d\4\182.jpg","c","0"
We have included this shrub as Dryandras are too spectacular to ignore. However, they have been difficult to maintain in the Eastern States. This species is a shrub to 3 m with saw toothed leaves and bright yellow flower heads.
#
"Dampiera Sericantha",184,"0","g","0"
A free flowering low suckering plant with pale ivy-like foliage and bright blue flowers year round. A hardy species, ideal for rockeries.
#
"Dianella Tasmanica",185,"0","g","0"
A clumpy plant with strappy flax-like leaves and long spikes of bright blue flowers with yellow anthers. An ideal contrast plant, especially near water gardens.
#
"Diplarrena Moraea",186,"0","g","0"
An upright clump plant with glossy green strappy leaves and white iris-like flowers with a yellow centre. A hardy plant.
#
"Dodonaea Viscosa",187,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IHop Bush\i
A bushy shrub to 3 m with leaves having a sticky texture, small flowers and green three-winged fruit. This is an excellent and hardy foliage plant suitable for hedges and windbreaks with foliage suitable for cutting. Both green and purple foliage forms are available.
A small upright tree with dark green glossy leaves. White flowers are followed by dark blue berries which attract birds. Suitable to most soils. An attractive pink flowered form is available.
A straggly small shrub with small stem-clasping foliage and showy tubular flowers in white pink or red at various times during the year. Needs a well drained moist site.
#
"Epacris Longiflora",190,"d\4\185.jpg","c","0"
A small shrub with long straggly branches and short deep green stem-clasping leaves which produce long rows of pendulous red tubular flowers tipped with white. Prefers a shady, moist but well drained site.
#
"Eremophila Glabra",191,"d\4\187.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IEmu Bush\i
A shrub of considerable variation, often growing to 1.5 m with green or blue-grey foliage and interesting tubular flowers. Flowers may be pale green, yellow or red. There is an attractive prostrate form with yellow flowers.
#
"Eremophila Maculata",192,"d\4\188.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISpotted Emu Bush\i
Probably the best known eremophila, with pale green foliage and orange tubular flowers with spotted throats. A reliable and hardy shrub common in cultivation.
A shrub whose leaf, flower and overall size may vary considerably. Leaves range from short and rounded to very long and narrow. Flowers may be small and produced in abundance or larger and fewer in number. Most common forms range from 1 to 2 m, but larger forms are available. This shrub has adapted well to cultivation and is suited to a wide range of soil types in sun or partial shade. Responds well to pruning. Highly recommended.
#
"Eriostemon Verrucosus",194,"d\4\191.jpg","c","0"
A reasonably hardy species with small rounded foliage and white flowers opening from pink buds. Some very showy "double" flowered forms are available.
A small dense spreading tree suitable for a wide range of soil types. Has fine blue-green foliage and small white flowers. Often sold as \IE. nicholi\i to which it is very similar.
#
"Eucalyptus Botryoides",196,"d\4\194.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBangalay\i
A tree to 20 m with round fibrous bark. Frost hardy and will tolerate saline soils. A small form known as \IE. botryoides nana\i is available.
#
"Eucalyptus Caesia",197,"d\4\195.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGungurru\i
An open tree to 8 m with blue-grey foliage and young branches and large red flowers opening from blue buds. Older brown bark peels away revealing pale green bark below. A weeping form and a large flowered form known as "Silver Princess" are both in cultivation. Requires good drainage and low humidity.
#
"Eucalyptus Calophylla",198,"d\5\196.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMarri\i
A large tree to 20 m with fibrous bark which bears a good display of cream, pink or red flowers in large clusters. Has performed well on the east coast.
A large spreading tree suitable for parks and large gardens. Has smooth white bark and grey green leaves. Will withstand long periods of inundation.
#
"Eucalyptus Cinerea",200,"d\5\198.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IArgyle Apple\i
A medium tree to 12 m. Young plants feature brown fibrous bark and attractive rounded blue foliage. These characteristics remain for some time and may be maintained by lopping. It is an excellent hardy specimen. Mature plants develop very dark and deeply furrowed bark and long narrow leaves. Worth planting for its foliage.
#
"Eucalyptus Citriodora",201,"d\5\199.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ILemon Scented Gum\i
A rapid growing large often straight tree to 30 metres with attractive smooth pale green to white bark and open canopy. Long soft green leaves are aromatic. Small white flowers appear in winter.
This is a very attractive small tree, bearing large red angular buds and yellow flowers. Ideal for southern and inland plantings. Less successful in the northeast.
#
"Eucalyptus Globulus",206,"d\5\208.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ITasmanian Blue Gum\i
Medium to large tree with broad blue juvenile foliage and semi-fibrous bark. Mature leaves are long and sickle-shaped.
#
"Eucalyptus Globulus Var. Bicostata",207,"d\5\209.jpg","c","0"
Similar to \IE. globulus\i but in some areas less susceptible to insect attack.
#
"Eucalyptus Grandis",208,"d\5\210.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRose or Flooded Gum\i
A vary rapid growing tall straight tree with a handsome crown. Bark is smooth and white and scaly at the butt. May drop branches.
#
"Eucalyptus Grossa",209,"d\5\211.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IPhillips River Gum\i
A small tree to 3 m with thick broad leaves on red stems. Produces an abundance of creamy yellow flowers in spring. Not suited to the east coast.
#
"Eucalyptus Gummifera",210,"d\5\212.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBloodwood\i
A large tree to 30 m with "alligator" bark and a dense crown of shining green leaves and large clusters of white flowers irresistable to lorikeets.
#
"Eucalyptus Haemastoma",211,"d\5\214.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IScribbly Gum\i
A small to medium tree with smooth white bark characteristically covered with a scribbly pattern left by a moth larva. An attractive tree with an open crown.
#
"Eucalyptus Leucoxylon Var. Macrocarpa",212,"d\5\216.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWhitewood\i
A small to medium tree with pendulous clusters of red, pink or white flowers and narrow green leaves. The best red flowering gum for the east coast.
#
"Eucalyptus Macrocarpa",213,"d\5\217.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMottlecah or Rose of the West\i
An open straggling shrub to grow only for the challenge. Natural stands carry the largest of all eucalypt flowers being bright red and up to 125 mm across. Foliage and stems are powder blue. Difficult to establish.
#
"Eucalyptus Maculata",214,"d\5\218.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISpotted Gum\i
A tall straight tree with grey-green bark attractively dimpled and spotted with brown flakes of old bark.
A medium tree with pendulous blue-green foliage and attractive smooth white trunk. A very desirable species.
#
"Eucalyptus Microcorys",216,"d\5\220.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ITallow Wood\i
A fast growing tall straight and low branching tree with fibrous bark and a dense canopy of small dark green wavy leaves.
#
"Eucalyptus Nicholi",217,"d\5\221.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWillow Leafed Peppermint\i
A graceful small tree with narrow pendulous foliage and fibrous bark. Leaves often carry a purple hue in the colder months. One of the best known and most popular garden trees.
#
"Eucalyptus Orbifolia",218,"d\5\223.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRound Leaved Mallee\i
An often multi-stemmed small tree to 5 m with rounded grey-green leaves. Pale blue foliage and masses of creamy white flowers. Small stems are silvery blue. Older stems are covered with a red, flakey bark. A good hardy small tree.
#
"Eucalyptus Papuana",219,"d\5\224.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGhost Gum\i
An attractive tree to 10 m with smooth pure white bark and glaucous foliage suitable for warm drier climates.
Medium straggling tree bearing very large flowers and long broad leathery leaves. Flowers vary from white through pink to red and orange. A showy plant for warmer climates.
#
"Eucalyptus Saligna",221,"d\5\229.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISydney Blue Gum\i
A rapid growing tall and straight tree with smooth bluey-grey bark. Needs a large garden with reasonable supply of moisture.
#
"Eucalyptus Scoparia",222,"d\5\230.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWallangarra White Gum or Willow Gum\i
This medium slender tree is very rapid growing in its early years. It has a clean white trunk and narrow pendulous blue-green foliage. A very attractive and popular landscape tree.
A rather slow growing medium tree with dark deeply furrowed bark and blue-grey foliage. Flowers are pale to deep pink. A hardy tree for coastal or inland planting. An excellent bird attracting tree.
A very useful medium to large tree for poorer soils. It can be found on gravelly and clay soils and damp low lying ground. Has a characteristic slatey bark and upright habit.
#
"Eucalyptus Tetraptera",225,"d\5\235.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISquare Fruited Mallee\i
A desirable small tree for drier climates with unique large 4-winged buds. From these striking buds burst pink flowers.
#
"Eucalyptus Torquata",226,"d\5\236.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICoral Gum\i
A rapid growing attractive small tree suitable for drier climates. Carries a profusion of dainty pink flowers.
#
"Eugenia Wilsoni",227,"d\5\238.jpg","c","0"
A rounded often spreading shrub which may reach a diameter of 2 m. Ideal for large containers. Robust foliage with red new leaves and large very showy deep red flowers. An excellent plant.
#
"Eutaxia Cuneata",228,"d\5\239.jpg","c","0"
A handsome small shrub with showy yellow and orange pea flowers.
#
"Eremophila Gibifolia",229,"0","g","0"
A small open shrub with tiny leaves and small purple flowers. A reasonable hardy species suitable for rockeries and small gardens.
#
"Eremophila Polyclada",230,"0","g","0"
A scrambling medium shrub, often less than 1 metre high, with narrow bright green leaves and large showy white flowers with spotted throats. Quite a hardy plant deserving of more attention.
#
"Eucalyptus",231,"0","g","0"
There are some 600 species of Eucalyptus, and one of these will satisfy almost any particular need for a tree. Species vary from low shrubby plants to very large and majestic trees. Eucalyptus species are generally very adaptable, and one of their interesting features is that they are grown readily from seed, which is easy to collect.
Included here are those species which are suitable for the home garden in terms of size, shape, flowers, general appearance and ease of growing and maintenance.
Some species are notable for their flowers, others for their foliage. Others feature very attractive bark.
#
"Eucalyptus Alpina",232,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGrampians Gum\i
A low spreading tree with twisted branches and coarse leaves popular in cooler climates such as \JCanberra\j and Melbourne. Very hardy.
#
"Eucalyptus Crenulata",233,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISilver Gum\i
A small tree to 10 m with attractive grey toothed foliage ideal for cutting.
#
"Eucalyptus Curtisi",234,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IPlunkett Mallee\i
A tree to 7 m ideal for small gardens, producing an abundance of cream flowers popular with birds. Adaptable to a wide range of soil conditions and frost hardy.
#
"Eucalyptus Eremophila",235,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ITall Sand Mallee\i
Small tree to 8 m bearing masses of yellow flowers opening from long buds. A red flowered form may be available. Not recommended for the east coast.
#
"Eucalyptus Ficifolia",236,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRed Flowering Gum\i
A variable small tree with fibrous bark and large showy flowers followed by large urn-shaped fruit. Flowers vary from white through pink to red and orange. Desired colour forms are obtained by cloning.
#
"Eucalyptus Gunni",237,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICider Gum\i
A tall tree with pale smooth bark. Ideal for colder climates.
#
"Eucalyptus Lehmanni",238,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBushy Yate\i
Small rounded tree bearing large clusters of greenish yellow flowers from buds which are fused together. One of the best yellow flowered species for the east coast. Suitable for coastal planting.
#
"Eucalyptus Obtusiflora",239,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IPort Jackson Mallee\i
A hardy small tree to 5 m, often multi-stemmed. Has smooth greenish to pale blue stems, with bark peeling in narrow ribbons. Has thick dull green leaves and showy sprays of creamy white flowers in winter and spring.
#
"Eucalyptus Platypus",240,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRound Leafed Moort\i
A small tree with dense rounded brown and green flower clusters opening from long finger buds. A useful tree for small gardens.
#
"Eucalyptus Pauciflora",241,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISnow Gum\i
A small to medium tree with smooth white or pale grey bark often with deeper grey markings. Has an open habit and often twisted form. Excellent for colder areas.
#
"Eucalyptus Robusta",242,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISwamp Mahogany\i
A rapid growing medium tree to 15 m with coarse dark fibrous bark and large dark green glossy leaves. Produces an abundance of fragrant white flowers. A popular landscaping tree. Will withstand inundation.
#
"Eucalyptus Spathulata",243,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISwamp Mallet\i
A small tree to 6 m with smooth brown polished bark, fine blue-grey foliage and small white flowers.
#
"Eucalyptus Steedmani",244,"0","g","0"
A small tree to 6 m with dense grey-green foliage and yellow or red flowers. Suitable for drier districts.
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"Eucalyptus Viminalis",245,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRibbon or Manna Gum\i
An excellent tree for large gardens and parks, with smooth bark shedding in long ribbons and white flowers throughout the year. A favourite with koalas.
#
"Eucalyptus Obovata",246,"0","g","0"
A small rounded shrub to 1 m with golden yellow pea flowers in spring. Reliable in cultivation.
#
"Goodia Lotifolia",247,"d\5\242.jpg","c","0"
A vigorous plant which may reach 2 m. It has pale green trifoliate leaves and bears a profusion of bright yellow flowers in spring. A very rapid grower which seeds freely.
#
"Grevillea Aquifolium",248,"d\5\245.jpg","c","0"
Very hardy small shrub with green and red toothbrush flowers and prickly holly-like leaves. Flowers winter to spring.
A hardy spreading shrub to 3 m with attractive foliage and a rather formal general appearance. Cerise coloured toothbrush flowers suitable for cutting. Flowers winter and spring.
Low growing hardy plant with pale yellow spider flowers throughout the year. Leaves are dark green and oval shaped.
#
"Grevillea Banksi",251,"d\5\250.jpg","c","0"
There are two common colour forms - a red and a cream. A rapid growing large shrub to 3 metres, popular in NSW and Queensland. Has pale green divided foliage and large cylindrical flower spikes throughout the year. There are also some prostrate forms available. Adapts well to coastal planting.
#
"Grevillea Baueri",252,"d\5\251.jpg","c","0"
Variable shrub. The most popular forms are prostrate. Leaves are pale to dark green and may be wavy or markedly twisted. Flowers are red to pink and white spider flowers which may turn black with age, occurring throughout summer. Requires good drainage.
A straggling shrub to 2 m with flowers similar to \IG. "Robyn Gordon"\i (a hybrid produced from \IG. bipinnatifida\i). Two leaf forms are common. One form has blue rigid foliage and pale orange flowers. The second has softer green foliage and red flowers. Both forms require regular pruning to maintain good habit. Flowers throughout the year.
#
"Grevillea Biternata",254,"d\5\253.jpg","c","0"
A prostrate grevillea with finely divided deep green foliage and fragrant white flowers. An excellent vigorous ground cover occasionally producing upright flower spikes which if not trimmed after flowering will develop into branches. Flowers in spring. Often sold as \IG. tridentifera.\i
A dense shrub to 2 m with deeply serrated foliage and a profusion of red toothbrush flowers over a long period in spring and summer. This hardy species is particularly favoured by birds.
#
"Grevillea Buxifolia",256,"d\6\255.jpg","c","0"
Small to medium shrub with dull green hairy foliage and large diameter silver-grey spider flowers held above the foliage. Flowers for long periods but requires good drainage.
#
"Grevillea Caleyi",257,"d\6\256.jpg","c","0"
This medium shrub with soft hairy and deeply divided foliage features attractive purple-tinged new growth and a profusion of purple toothbrush flowers. Requires a particularly well drained site.
A dense medium shrub with narrow spikey foliage with numerous pink to red spider flowers. Flowers in spring. A very hardy species, popular in landscaping.
#
"Grevillea Capitellata",259,"d\6\258.jpg","c","0"
A varying shrub to 1 m. Leaves may be green or grey. Flowers are attractive dark red or wine coloured, hanging in pendant clusters in winter and spring. Very hardy and ideal for rockeries.
A compact spreading shrub with densely packed soft silvery green foliage and erect clusters of white flowers. A hardy species which adapts to coastal planting.
A hardy compact shrub to 2 m with short narrow grey leaves and waxy pink spider flowers throughout the year.
#
"Grevillea Dielsiana",263,"d\6\267.jpg","c","0"
A very prickly and somewhat straggling medium shrub bearing terminal toothbrush flower heads which may be yellow, orange and red. Some colour forms are very spectacular.
#
"Grevillea Dimorpha",264,"d\6\268.jpg","c","0"
A small rounded shrub with small bright red spider flowers in autumn and spring.
This small to medium shrub, similar to \IG. buxifolia\i, produces flowers which open pink and age to grey.
#
"Grevillea Evansiana",267,"d\6\271.jpg","c","0"
An open small to medium shrub with deep red or burgundy spider flowers in pendulous clusters in winter and spring.
#
"Grevillea Floribunda",268,"d\6\273.jpg","c","0"
A variable often straggling shrub 1-2 m high with dull green foliage and large woolly brown and green spider flowers in winter and spring. Has been difficult to maintain in humid coastal conditions.
A rather open shrub to 3 m with long narrow foliage and red or burgundy toothbrush flowers in spring and summer.
#
"Grevillea Gaudichaudi",270,"d\6\275.jpg","c","0"
A very attractive prostrate plant with short but broad deeply lobed leaves which are often red or bronze. Toothbrush flowers are also short and broad and are bright red. An outstanding plant also suitable for baskets and often grafted to produce a weeping standard.
#
"Grevillea Glabella",271,"d\6\276.jpg","c","0"
A small shrub to 1 m with prickly foliage and clusters of red flowers in winter and spring.
A rapid growing medium shrub with rigid blue-green divided foliage and masses of open white flowers in winter and spring. Requires heavy pruning for best results.
An upright large shrub with showy deep golden toothbrush flowers and narrow green "fishbone" foliage. Long flowering recent introduction.
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"Grevillea 'Honey Gem'",275,"d\6\281.jpg","c","0"
A tall shrub with finely divided light green foliage and showy yellow cylindrical flower heads. Rapid growing, but requires some wind protection.
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"Grevillea 'Hookerana'",276,"d\6\282.jpg","c","0"
A medium to large spreading shrub with finely divided bright green foliage giving the plant a dense, ferny appearance. Bright crimson toothbrush flowers are popular with birds. This is a showy species and an excellent screen plant.
#
"Grevillea 'Ivanhoe'",277,"d\6\284.jpg","c","0"
Popular tall shrub, an ideal screen plant. Has attractive ferny foliage, bronze or burgundy in new growth, and a profusion of burgundy toothbrush flowers in winter and spring. A hardy plant which responds well to pruning.
#
"Grevillea 'Johnsoni'",278,"d\6\286.jpg","c","0"
This medium to large shrub has fine green foliage giving it the appearance of a small pine. Flowers are large, red and cream spider flowers with a pearlescent appearance. Grafted forms have been more successful than others.
#
"Grevillea Juniperina",279,"d\6\288.jpg","c","0"
Many forms of this shrub are in cultivation. They range from prostrate creeping specimens to medium shrubs. Flower colours may be greenish yellow, orange or red. Foliage is usually short and narrow with a sharp point. Generally hardy, and are used extensively in landscaping.
Very attractive small shrub with bright green foliage and showy clear pink spider flowers.
#
"Grevillea Lanigera",282,"d\6\292.jpg","c","0"
A rounded or prostrate shrub which may reach a height of 1 m. Closely packed grey foliage, and red and cream spider flowers late winter and spring. A particularly hardy species.
One of the most variable of the grevilleas. Many good forms are available ranging from prostrate and cascading plants to more upright shrubs growing to more than 1 m. Foliage is fine and may be grey or green. Flowers range from white through pink to red. Long flowering period. Hardy plants, but require a well drained sunny site. There are many good named varieties available.
Similar to \IG. banksi,\i this medium shrub produces an abundance of soft pink and cream heads of flower up to 150 mm long. The soft grey-green foliage is deeply divided and contrasts well with the flowers. Flowers throughout the year. An excellent bird-attracting species.
#
"Grevillea 'Ned Kelly'",286,"d\6\298.jpg","c","0"
This plant is similar to \IG. Robyn Gordon\i but the flowers open somewhat paler and deepen in colour with age through orange and red. It is reported to grow a little larger than \IG. Robyn Gordon\i and it may be a little hardier. A medium shrub flowering throughout the year.
#
"Grevillea Obtusifolia",287,"d\6\299.jpg","c","0"
A small shrub or prostrate bush with attractive pale green foliage and pendulous clusters of red and cream flowers in winter and spring. A particularly hardy ground cover, very drought resistant.
A dense medium shrub to 2 m with fine prickly needle foliage and a cluster of pink and white spider flowers in winter and spring. Particularly hardy species, popular with landscapers.
A dense rounded shrub to 2 m with dark green foliage and a sprinkling of bright red flowers throughout the year. A good hedge and landscaping plant, although other species may be more showy.
#
"Grevillea 'Poorinda Fire Bird'",290,"d\6\306.jpg","c","0"
An open shrub with narrow grey-green foliage and clusters of large bright red spider flowers from winter to summer. A long flowering medium shrub popular in areas unsuitable for \IG. speciosa.\i Fertilise sparingly.
Similar in many respects to \IG. "Poorinda Constance"\i, although not quite as large. Orange spider flowers throughout the year. A popular landscaping shrub.
Spectacular in flower, this dense shrub growing to approximately 1.5 m is one of the most popular Poorinda hybrids. It bears a profusion of deep red spider flowers which almost obscure the foliage. An excellent and hardy landscape specimen.
#
"Grevillea 'Poorinda Royal Mantle'",294,"d\6\311.jpg","c","0"
Probably the most widely planted prostrate grevillea, "Royal Mantle" produces a dense foliage cover which inhibits weed growth. Produces an abundance of burgundy toothbrush flowers for most of the year. Particuarly vigorous grower tolerating a wide range of soil types. Fertilise sparingly.
An erect open shrub to 3 m with fine divided foliage and a profusion of rich, golden toothbrush flower spikes throughout the year. An excellent bird attracting species, although somewhat frost tender. A prostrate form is also in cultivation.
#
"Grevillea Rivularis",296,"d\7\316.jpg","c","0"
A very prickly grevillea which makes an ideal animal barrier and bird retreat. Although the height is usually less than 2 m, the spread may be as much as 4 m. Toothbrush flowers are an unusual pale lilac and yellow but are not conspicuous. A particularly hardy shrub, tolerant of some shading. Long flowering.
#
"Grevillea Robusta",297,"d\7\317.jpg","c","0"
This is the well known "silky oak". A large ornamental tree, often used for street planting, and occasionally used as an indoor plant when young. It is a rapid growing hardy tree, seldom reaching more than 20 m in cultivation. The pale green leaves are soft and ferny. The flowers, which are produced in abundance in late spring, are rich golden toothbrush spikes which literally drip nectar and are very attractive to birds. Equally well suited to coastal and inland plantings.
One of the best known grevilleas, "Robyn Gordon" is a medium rounded shrub with fern-like foliage growing to 1.5 m. Long slender branches arch under the weight of large red cylindrical flower spikes which occur in profusion throughout the year. A spectacular shrub which responds well to annual pruning.
There are many forms of this very variable plant. The most common form is a dense, rounded shrub 2-3 m tall with needle like foliage and pink and white spider flowers in spring and autumn. An excellent hedge plant which may be pruned in a formal manner if desired. A cream flowered form is sold as \IG. rosmarinifolia "lutea".\i
Often erroneously considered to be a yellow flowered form of \IG. "Robyn Gordon"\i, \IG. "Sandra Gordon"\i may attain a height of 5 m with a similar spread. Severe pruning will make this otherwise open shrub more compact. The deeply divided foliage is a dark silvery-green. Flower spikes are large, yellow, one-sided brushes. A fast growing but frost tender shrub, ideal for attracting birds.
#
"Grevillea Shiressi",301,"d\7\322.jpg","c","0"
A rounded hardy shrub to 3 m with large dark green leaves with prominent veins. Flowers are pale green and mauve and are borne in clusters inside the bush winter and spring. An attractive foliage shrub. May be planted in partial shade.
A spreading shrub to 2 m high. The low spreading branches have dull prickly 3-lobed leaves. Fragrant red toothbrush flowers are produced in abundance throughout the year. Requires a well drained position.
#
"Grevillea Speciosa",304,"d\7\325.jpg","c","0"
Formerly known as \IG. punicea.\i
A very showy and hardy species which may reach 2-3 m in height. Large red spider flowers are borne in clusters or wheels. Foliage may be green or blue-grey and of varying length. Requires a well drained site in sun or semi-shade.
Although upright forms of this shrub are available, the prostrate forms are more commonly encountered. The striking contrast of brilliant red toothbrush flowers against the feathery grey foliage of one prostrate form is an unforgettable site. The green leafed form has bright green fine foliage and less showy red flowers. Both forms respond well to tip pruning. A reasonably hardy species although somewhat frost tender.
#
"Grevillea Triloba",306,"d\7\327.jpg","c","0"
A dense prickly shrub to 2 m. Leaves have 3 sharply pointed lobes. White fragrant flowers are borne in abundance during winter and early spring. A hardy and reliable grevillea.
#
"Grevillea Victoriae",307,"d\7\328.jpg","c","0"
A variable shrub to 2 m with pendulous clusters of deep rusty red spider flowers in winter and spring. Relatively hardy species, well adapted to colder climates.
A rapid growing prickly shrub to 2 m often prostrate when young. Produces an abundance of white perfumed flowers in winter and spring.
#
"Grevillea Wilsoni",309,"d\7\330.jpg","c","0"
A very showy shrub to 1 m with prickly divided foliage and attractive clusters of red spider flowers in spring. Not really suited for coastal plantings, but excellent inland.
#
"Goodenia Hederacea",310,"0","g","0"
An attractive trailing plant which roots as it spreads with interesting rounded foliage and bright yellow flowers. A long flowering hardy plant preferring some shade.
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"Grevillea",311,"0","g","0"
Of the many Grevilleas from which to choose, some have adapted well to cultivation, but others have proven more difficult. Recently, some success has been achieved by grafting difficult species onto more hardy rootstock.
Some grafted forms are now available. Some of the more reliable and better known species are listed.
#
"Grevillea Acanthifolia",312,"0","g","0"
Spreading shrub which ranges from prostrate to 3 m. Has very prickly foliage and pink toothbrush flowers throughout the summer months. Hardy and can be used in moist and even shady conditions.
#
"Grevillea Alpina",313,"0","g","0"
Probably the most variable of all Grevilleas both in habit and colour. It is a shrub usually less than 1 m with spider flowers of red, pink, yellow or yellow-orange. Flowers throughout the year.
#
"Grevillea Arenaria",314,"0","g","0"
An excellent foliage plant with green woolly leaves which may grow to 2 m but is often smaller. Flowers may be red and green or yellow and green.
Low growing prickly shrub with attractive pink toothbrush flowers and copper coloured new growth. Flowers spring and autumn.
#
"Grevillea 'Cascade'",316,"0","g","0"
A vigorous tall shrub with an enormous spread - up to 5 or even 10 m. An excellent dense and prickly screen plant. White spider flowers. Performs best in a sunny site with good drainage.
#
"Grevillea Chrysophaea",317,"0","g","0"
A small shrub with dull green oval leaves. Deep yellow spider flowers in winter and spring. An outstanding shrub for a well drained position.
#
"Grevillea 'Clearview David'",318,"0","g","0"
Vigorously growing medium shrub with bright red and cream flowers winter and spring. Particularly hardy. Showy when in flower, and popular in landscaping work. A variegated form is also available - \IG. "Red Dragon".\i
#
"Grevillea 'Clearview Robin'",319,"0","g","0"
A grey foliaged shrub to 2 m with red and cream waxy flowers in winter and spring.
#
"Grevillea Confertifolia",320,"0","g","0"
A prostrate small shrub spreading to 1 m with attractive wine coloured flowers. An excellent pot or tub specimen. Requires ample moisture and a well drained site.
#
"Grevillea Fasciculata",321,"0","g","0"
Generally a low sprawling shrub with light green elliptical foliage and bright red flowers winter to spring.
#
"Grevillea Glabella 'Lara Dwarf'",322,"0","g","0"
A compact bush with bright red flowers.
#
"Grevillea Ilicifolia",323,"0","g","0"
A spreading small shrub with rigid pointed and lobed foliage and red toothbrush flowers. A reasonably hardy species.
#
"Grevillea 'Jenkinsi'",324,"0","g","0"
An attractive small to medium shrub with fine woolly foliage and bright red flowers over a long period.
#
"Grevillea Juncifolia",325,"0","g","0"
An open medium shrub with finely divided foliage and striking "golden candle" flowers in spring. Best suited to areas of low humidity.
A striking variegated leaf form with orange pink flowers. The green leaves are edged with cream.
#
"Grevillea Laurifolia",327,"0","g","0"
A vigorously growing prostrate grevillea with round leaves and dark red toothbrush flowers. Flowers spring and summer.
#
"Grevillea Longifolia",328,"0","g","0"
Similar to, and often confused with \IG. asplenifolia,\i this is a rapid growing tall shrub suitable for sun or partial shade. It has burgundy toothbrush flowers most of the year. Foliage is long, narrow and deeply serrated. Both flowers and foliage are suitable for cutting.
#
"Grevillea Oleoides",329,"0","g","0"
A medium shrub with bright red spider flowers in spring and summer and deep green rigid foliage with a covering of soft silvery hairs on the underside.
#
"Grevillea 'Olympic Flame'",330,"0","g","0"
A compact small shrub to 1 m with fine foliage and a mass of red and cream spider flowers in spring and summer.
#
"Grevillea 'Pink Parfait'",331,"0","g","0"
Similar to \IG. "Misty Pink"\i but has deeper pink flowers.
#
"Grevillea 'Poorinda Elegance'",332,"0","g","0"
A medium rounded shrub to 2 m with glossy dark green foliage and spectacular bi-coloured flowers. The red and yellow spider flowers are carried in clusters along the branches. A light pruning allows the flowers to be seen more easily.
#
"Grevillea 'Poorinda Hula'",333,"0","g","0"
An attractive open bush with long arching branches carrying clusters of mauve pink spider flowers from winter through to summer. Bears narrow green leaves, and may reach a height of 1.5 m and a width of 2.5 m.
#
"Grevillea 'Poorinda Signet'",334,"0","g","0"
A dense spreading shrub to 1.5 m with pendulous clusters of unusual red and white flowers.
#
"Grevillea Quercifolia",335,"0","g","0"
Small shrub with leaves resembling the European oak. The mauve flower spikes are held above the foliage in spring. Not suited to humid conditions.
#
"Grevillea Repens",336,"0","g","0"
An open ground cover with dark green glossy holly-like foliage, bronze-tinged in new growth. Wine coloured toothbrush flowers in summer.
#
"Grevillea Sericea",337,"0","g","0"
Commonly a compact long-flowering 1 m shrub. May be taller or more open in semi-shade. Small oval leaves and masses of lilac to pink spider flowers. A white flowered form is also available. A form from the Collaroy Plateau has richly coloured flowers on a more open shrub.
#
"Hakea Bakerana",338,"d\7\331.jpg","c","0"
A small round shrub about 1.5 m high with pale green sharply pointed needle-like foliage and large clusters of pink and cream flowers on old wood.
#
"Hakea Cristata",339,"d\7\332.jpg","c","0"
A large open shrub with attractively toothed blue-green foliage and small white flowers in winter. Hardy.
#
"Hakea Dactyloides",340,"d\7\333.jpg","c","0"
A rapid growing large shrub with attractively veined leaves and showy creamy white flowers.
#
"Hakea Francisiana",341,"d\7\334.jpg","c","0"
A medium shrub to 3 m with broad narrow leaves and spectacular red flower spikes. Needs some wind protection.
#
"Hakea Laurina",342,"d\7\335.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IPin-cushion Hakea\i
A large, often spreading shrub with broad blue-green leaves and globular flower heads in red and yellow resembling pin-cushions. A highly recommended and hardy shrub. Will not tolerate excessive fertiliser.
#
"Hakea Petiolaris",343,"d\7\336.jpg","c","0"
A tall shrub with grey-green foliage and deep red globular flowers with white "pins". An attractive fast growing shrub flowering in autumn and winter. Very hardy.
#
"Hakea Salicifolia",344,"d\7\337.jpg","c","0"
A dense rounded shrub or small tree, excellent for hedges and windbreaks. Has broad mid-green foliage, usually tipped with bronze. The small white flowers are produced along the branches in spring. Rapid growing and very reliable. Highly recommended.
#
"Hakea Suaveolens",345,"d\7\338.jpg","c","0"
A vigorous upright shrub to 3 m with fine pale green ferny foliage and fragrant showy white flowers in autumn and winter. Responds well to pruning.
A vigorous scrambling plant or climber with showy blue pea flowers and dark green foliage. A hardy plant for semi-shade.
#
"Hardenbergia Violacea",347,"d\7\340.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFalse Sarsparilla\i
As for \IH. comptoniana\i but with rich purple, white or pink flowers.
#
"Helychrysum Baxteri",348,"d\7\341.jpg","c","0"
A beautiful small rounded clump to 300 mm with fine-grey green foliage and an impressive display of white papery flowers with yellow centres. Best in full sun. Cut back after flowering.
#
"Helychrysum Bracteatum 'Dargan Hill Monarch'",349,"d\7\342.jpg","c","0"
A vigorous perennial to 500 mm with large soft blue green foliage and large buttercup yellow "paper" flowers in spring and summer. Full sun and good drainage desirable.
A low compact perennial less than 200 mm high with soft green foliage and bright yellow papery flowers summer to winter.
#
"Hibbertia Obtusifolia",351,"d\7\347.jpg","c","0"
A common variable shrub with fleshy foliage and a good display of bright yellow flowers.
#
"Hibbertia Scandens",352,"d\7\349.jpg","c","0"
A vigorous twining plant with bright green fleshy leaves and large bright yellow flowers most of the year. Resistant to salt spray. Pruning maintains compact growth.
#
"Hibiscus Divaricatus",353,"d\7\350.jpg","c","0"
An erect shrub to 2 m with large yellow flowers. Very showy and reliable.
#
"Hibiscus Splendens",354,"d\7\351.jpg","c","0"
A rounded open shrub with soft grey-green foliage and very large soft pink flowers. A reliable shrub preferring a warm well drained position.
A low spreading shrub to 400 mm with grey-green leaves on layered branches and clusters of red and cream flowers in spring and summer. An excellent plant for foliage alone. Attractive to birds.
#
"Hymenosporum Flavum",357,"d\7\354.jpg","c","0"
A small upright tree with bright green flossy foliage and showy clusters of fragrant cream flowers which age to yellow. A reliable tree needing ample moisture. Suitable for sunny or shady areas.
A small rounded shrub with stem clasping heart-shaped leaves.Young stems are attractively reddened. Small white flowers in spring. A variegated form known as \IH. cordifolium "Golden Veil"\i is common in cultivation.
#
"Helipterum Roseum",360,"0","g","0"
An upright annual with soft green foliage and white, pink, and yellow bronze paper flowers, excellent for cutting and drying. Prefers full sun.
#
"Hemiandra Pungens",361,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISnake Bush\i
An often prostrate shrub with fine needle foliage and striking flattened tubular flowers. Sometimes difficult to maintain.
#
"Hibbertia Astrotricha",362,"0","g","0"
A low spreading plant with round dark green foliage and showy yellow flowers. A reasonably hardy species.
#
"Hibbertia Pendunculata",363,"0","g","0"
A low spreading plant which roots as it goes producing a striking display of yellow flowers. An excellent hardy species.
#
"Indigofera Australis",364,"d\7\357.jpg","c","0"
An open upright shrub to 2 m with blue-green rounded leaves and sprays of fragrant purple pea flowers in spring. Responds well to pruning.
An open small shrub with attractive much divided light green foliage and showy yellow flowers. A hardy plant worth growing for the foliage alone.
#
"Isopogon Anethifolius",366,"d\7\359.jpg","c","0"
Similar to \II. anemonifolius\i and deserving of a place in any garden.
#
"Isopogon Dubius",367,"d\7\360.jpg","c","0"
An upright prickly shrub with showy bright pink flowers. Requires good drainage.
#
"Isotoma Axillaris",368,"0","g","0"
An attractive rounded plant to 300 mm with soft fine green foliage and a good display of blue star-like flowers. Reproduces freely from seed. Should be watched for green caterpillars which may defoliate the plant. Prefers reasonable moisture.
#
"Jacksonia Scoparia",369,"0","g","0"
An upright shrub or small tree with pendulous fine blue-green leafless branches and a profusion of small yellow pea flowers. An attractive plant for both foliage and flowers. Drought resistant.
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"Kennedia Eximea",370,"d\8\363.jpg","c","0"
A prostrate or trailing plant spreading to 1 m or more providing a dense cover of green foliage and bright red pea flowers.
#
"Kennedia Microphylla",371,"d\8\364.jpg","c","0"
A fine leafed mat forming plant, ideal for rockeries or hanging baskets. It spreads to 1 m and has attractive, small brick-red pea flowers. Requires good drainage.
#
"Kennedia Prostrata",372,"d\8\365.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRunning Postman\i
A prostrate spreading plant with blue-green wavy foliage and bright scarlet pea flowers.
#
"Kennedia Rubicunda",373,"d\8\366.jpg","c","0"
A rampant climber with large dark green leaves and red pea flowers. Excellent soil binder and suitable for coastal planting.
May be too aggressive for small areas. \IK. nigricans\i is similar to \IK. rubicunda\i but has large and unusual yellow and black flowers.
#
"Kunzea Capitata",374,"d\8\369.jpg","c","0"
A rounded small shrub to 1 m with fine leaves and showy heads of mauve-pink flowers.
A spreading prostrate plant with much to recommend it. It has reddish stems which root at the nodes and fluffy white flowers in summer. A vigorously growing dense ground cover.
#
"Kunzea Ambigua",376,"0","g","0"
A rounded shrub to 3 m with fine heath-like foliage and fluffy white flowers. A form which has mauve-pink flowers is quite showy and makes a useful screen plant. Hardy.
#
"Kunzea Baxteri",377,"0","g","0"
A rounded shrub to 3 m with small bright green leaves and showy red bottle brush flowers tipped with gold. Requires good drainage. May be slow to flower. Attractive to birds.
#
"Kunzea Pomifera",378,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMuntries\i
A spreading prostrate shrub with feathery white flowers followed by berries used in jam making. Good drainage and full sun preferred.
#
"Lagunaria Patersoni",379,"d\8\372.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \INorfolk Island Hibiscus\i
A medium to large tree with rounded pale green leaves and pink hibiscus-like flowers. The fruit contains numerous fine hairs which may cause skin irritation. A useful tree, resistant to salt spray.
#
"Lambertia Formosa",380,"d\8\373.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMountain Devil\i
A rigid open shrub to 2 m with sharply pointed narrow foliage and showy orange to red flowers. Suitable for cutting. Fruits are used for decoration and doll making. Hardy.
#
"Lechenaultia Biloba",381,"d\8\374.jpg","c","0"
An open bush 300-500 mm with flowers of white or shades of blue varying from very deep blue to soft blue-green foliage. A very showy plant which may be difficult to maintain but which is worth growing even as an annual.
#
"Lechenaultia Formosa",382,"d\8\375.jpg","c","0"
Typically a small prostrate plant, available in a wide range of colours. A brilliant red form is most spectacular and although difficult to maintain is worth growing as an annual.
A dense bushy shrub or small tree with short oval or grey-green foliage and white flowers with green or red centres. A hardy shrub, tolerant of salt spray, and ideal for colonising stabilised dunes.
A dense rounded shrub to 3 m or more with narrow bright green foliage. Very fragrant if crushed. A good display of white flowers in spring and summer. A rapid growing and reliable screen plant benefiting greatly from regular pruning.
A variable shrub ranging from 300 mm to well over 2 m with fine pointed foliage. Many highly ornamental flowering forms and colours have been produced, predominantly in New Zealand and Canada, with names such as \IL. s "Lamberthi"\i and \IL. s. "Damask"\i. These are far too numerous to be included here.
#
"Lomatia Silaifolia",388,"d\8\382.jpg","c","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWild Parsley\i
An upright often multistemmed plant with much divided rigid foliage and attractive sprays of creamy white flowers. Excellent for cut flowers.
#
"Lophostemon Confertus",389,"d\8\383.jpg","c","0"
\I(syn. Tristania conferta)\i
\BCommon Name:\b \IBrush Box\i
A well known street or park tree with a dense canopy of mid-green foliage and small white flowers. This very hardy and useful tree will withstand heavy lopping but care should be taken not to destroy its aesthetic appeal.
#
"Lomandra Longifolia",390,"0","g","0"
A large tussocky plant to 1 m with long narrow strap-like foliage arching to the ground with short fragrant flower spikes. This hardy plant is ideal for edges of water gardens, or as an under-storey where tree canopy makes other shrubs difficult to establish and moisture supply is reasonable.
#
"Melaleuca Armillaris",391,"d\8\384.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBracelet Honey Myrtle\i
A large rounded shrub or small tree with fine foliage and a profusion of small white bottle brush flowers. It is an excellent windbreak tree, quite hardy, and will withstand salt spray. Probably the most widely planted native.
This cultivar has yellow leaves and a low compact habit. It is essential to prune regularly to maintain good form. Profusion of small creamy yellow flowers.
Similar to "Revolution Green" with golden yellow foliage.
#
"Melaleuca Diosmifolia",394,"d\8\391.jpg","f","0"
Dense medium shrub with neat foliage and pale lemon flowers. A hardy foliage plant somewhat frost tender.
#
"Melaleuca Fulgens",395,"d\8\394.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IScarlet Honey Myrtle\i
This rounded small shrub produces large showy flower spikes which may be orange, salmon, purple or red. It is a fine foliaged plant which demands good drainage.
Large rounded shrub with "papery" foliage. It bears bright red brushes on older wood. Requires full sun for best development but will perform well in shade if given judicious pruning. Somewhat frost tender.
#
"Melaleuca Incana",397,"d\8\397.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGrey Honey Myrtle\i
An attractive medium shrub with delicate weeping foliage and cream to yellow flowers bursting from red spikes. This is a variable species; some forms are more attractive than others.
#
"Melaleuca Laterita",398,"d\8\398.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IRobin Red Breast Bush\i
A small to medium shrub. A fine foliage species with bright red flowers on older wood. Relatively hardy.
#
"Melaleuca Megacephala",399,"d\8\401.jpg","f","0"
Although not as reliable as some other Melaleucas, the showy deep yellow globular flower heads make this plant worth a try. Silvery green leaves. Medium shrub.
This medium shrub has wiry narrow leaves. Globular flower heads are quite spectacular being mauve-pink dusted with gold and are produced terminally.
#
"Melaleuca Nesophila",401,"d\8\403.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWestern Tea Myrtle\i
Particularly hardy species, well suited to coastal plantings. A dense shrub growing 3-6 metres with dark green leathery leaves and globular flower heads which open mauve-pink and fade to white.
#
"Melaleuca Nodosa",402,"d\8\404.jpg","f","0"
A particularly hardy species adapted to a wide range of soil types. Has fine needle-like leaves and numerous pale yellow aromatic flowers. Large shrub.
This well known tree, often referred to simply as a "paper bark" is found throughout Australia and is known by many common names. It is a large handsome tree, with broad leathery leaves and bears numerous white honey scented bottle brush flowers. Flowering may occur several times a year. Used extensively in landscaping, it is adaptable to a wide variety of soil types including waterlogged soils.
#
"Melaleuca Radula",404,"d\8\407.jpg","f","0"
Medium open shrub with soft grey-green leaves and pale pink or mauve bottle brush flowers. A hardy shrub.
#
"Melaleuca Spatulata",405,"d\8\408.jpg","f","0"
Upright small shrub producing a profusion of small mauve flowers. A hardy species preferring a well drained site.
Large shrub or small tree with papery bark and small pointed leaves. Bears creamy white flowers in summer. Very hardy, suitable for poorly drained or drier sites and often used as a street tree.
#
"Melaleuca Thymifolia",407,"d\8\412.jpg","f","0"
This small rockery shrub which produces showy violet fringed flowers and has fine narrow leaves is often found on poor soils, and will thrive on a moist site.
An open shrub to 1 m or more with coarse rounded leaves and large mauve-pink flowers with yellow anthers throughout the year. A good plant for shady situations. Improved by regular pruning. Very similar to the introduced "Tibouchina" species.
#
"Melia Azedarach Var. Australasica",409,"d\8\415.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWhite Cedar\i
An attractive small tree with deciduous fern-like foliage, purple and white flowers and showy berries. Common in cultivation, but may be attacked by hairy caterpillars. Birds are attracted to the fruit.
#
"Micromyrtus Ciliata",410,"d\8\416.jpg","f","0"
A variable small shrub with small dark green leaves and a profusion of small white flowers which redden with age. Long flowering. Requires a well drained position.
#
"Melaleuca",411,"0","g","0"
Often referred to as "paper barks", there are more than 140 species. Many, but not all, are tolerant of poorly drained soils. They range from small shrubs to tall trees and are popular garden specimens. Melaleucas have bottle brush type flowers perhaps two or three times each year. Pruning after flowering is beneficial to all Melaleucas.
#
"Melaleuca Bracteata",412,"0","g","0"
A variable species from which has been derived a number of popular cultivars. All are hardy, rapid growing and suitable for wet locations. The better known varieties follow.
A medium shrub of compact habit with bright green foliage. Useful for a low screen. Profusion of small twisted cream flowers.
#
"Melaleuca Capitata",414,"0","g","0"
A medium rounded shrub. The dark green foliage forms an excellent contrast with the globular heads of cream flowers which are borne terminally. A very hardy species.
#
"Melaleuca Cuticularis",415,"0","g","0"
Large erect shrub which makes an excellent specimen plant having attractive pale bark contrasted with light green foliage and small creamy flowers. Very hardy and tolerant of salt spray.
#
"Melaleuca Elliptica",416,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IGranite Honey Myrtle\i
Medium shrub with small blue-grey leaves and red flowers which burst from purple spikes. A hardy and reliable species.
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"Melaleuca Ericifolia",417,"0","g","0"
Among the hardiest of all Australian plants. This is a rapid growing medium to large bushy shrub with fine green foliage bearing a profusion of white flower spikes.
#
"Melaleuca Huegeli",418,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IChenille Honey Myrtle\i
An upright shrub to 4 metres with attractive fine foliage and a spectacular display of cream flowers. Resistant to salt spray and adapted to most soil types.
#
"Melaleuca Leucadendron",419,"0","g","0"
There are a number of leaf forms for this small weeping tree. Leaves vary from fine to broad, are dark green and form a good foil to the white flowers. A graceful and hardy tree.
#
"Melaleuca Linariifolia",420,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISnow in Summer\i
A number of forms of this attractive plant are available. These range from small shrubs to small trees. Leaves may be light green or tinged with purple. They produce a profusion of white flowers with small white brushes which cover the plant and give rise to such names as "Snow in Summer", "Snowstorm" etc. Hardy and tolerant of moist conditions.
#
"Melaleuca Pulchella",421,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IClaw Flower\i
Small shrub with grey-green foliage and mauve-pink claw-like flowers.
#
"Melaleuca Squarrosa",422,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IScented Paper Bark\i
Dense, medium rounded shrub with neat foliage and showy sweetly perfumed cream flower spikes. Prefers moist conditions.
#
"Melaleuca Striata",423,"0","g","0"
A low spreading shrub bearing showy pink terminal flower spikes. Quite hardy, but prefers a well drained, sunny site.
#
"Melaleuca Wilsoni",424,"0","g","0"
Similar to \IM. thymifolia,\i although a little larger. Flowers are lilac to reddish pink.
#
"Myoporum Debile",425,"0","g","0"
A small trailing plant with white or blue star-like flowers and showy coloured berries - red, purple or green. Very adaptable.
#
"Myoporum Parvifolium",426,"0","g","0"
A dense prostrate plant, spreading 1-2 m or more, rooting at the nodes, with bright green crowded foliage and masses of white star-like flowers in late spring. A pink flowered form and a purple leafed form are in cultivation.
#
"Olearia Phlogopappa",427,"d\8\419.jpg","f","0"
An upright shrub to 1.5 m with grey-green foliage which bears showy daisy flowers in white, blue, pink or mauve. A reliable species requiring regular pruning.
#
"Oxylobium Scandens",428,"d\8\420.jpg","f","0"
A vigorously growing prostrate plant spreading to 3 m with deep green oval leaves and a good display of yellow pea flowers. Some forms are very hardy.
#
"Pandorea Jasminoides",429,"d\8\421.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBower of Beauty\i
A vigorous climbing plant with dark green shiny foliage and clusters of large pink trumpet-shaped flowers with deep red throats produced in abundance throughout summer. Prefers moist soils and some protection.
#
"Pandorea Pandorana",430,"d\9\422.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IWonga Wonga\i
A hardy vigorous climber with glossy green leaves and a profusion of tubular flowers which fall to carpet the ground. Flower colour varies from cream to pink with deeper coloured spotted throat.
#
"Patersonia Fragilis",431,"d\9\423.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \INative Iris\i
A small clump plant with strap-like leaves and small iris-like flowers.
#
"Phebalium Squameum",432,"d\9\424.jpg","f","0"
A bushy plant or small tree with short oval leaves and creamy yellow flowers.
#
"Phebalium Squamulosum",433,"d\9\425.jpg","f","0"
A variable shrub to 3 m with pale to rich yellow flowers.
#
"Phyla Nodiflora",434,"d\9\426.jpg","f","0"
A vigorously growing matting plant which roots as it spreads and bears heads of small pink flowers. A very useful plant as a lawn substitute. Plants become smaller and more compact under heavy traffic, but spread is unaffected.
#
"Pimelea Ferruginea",435,"d\9\427.jpg","f","0"
A dense rounded shrub to 1 m or more with small oval glossy green leaves and a profusion of pink to deep pink terminal flower heads. Reasonably hardy. Prefers a well drained friable soil. Sunny or partly shaded position.
#
"Pittosporum Undulatum",436,"d\9\429.jpg","f","0"
A very hardy and dense small tree with dark green shiny leaves and terminal clusters of very fragrant white flowers in spring followed by attractive orange fruit.
#
"Pomaderris Ferruginea",437,"d\9\432.jpg","f","0"
A bushy shrub to 3 m with leaves bearing rusty coloured hairs on the undersurface. Large sprays of bright yellow flowers cover the bush in spring. Prefers good drainage and full sun.
Prostanthera are a large family of small to large shrubs with showy tubular flowers and aromatic foliage. A great many are in cultivation. Two are described, but many more make good garden specimens.
\BCommon Name:\b \IVictorian Christmas Bush\i
A compact medium shrub or small tree. Has sprays of white flowers with mauve throats. A rapid growing adaptable species.
An upright shrub to 2 m or more with mid-green aromatic foliage and a dense covering of purple tubular flowers in spring. Common in cultivation.
#
"Ptilotus Obovatus",440,"d\9\435.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMulla Mulla\i
A low compact shrub with silver-grey foliage and spikes of pink and grey fluffy flowers.
#
"Pittosporum Rhombifolium",441,"0","g","0"
A small to medium tree with round glossy green leaves with a dense terminal cluster of creamy white flowers followed by masses of orange berries held through autumn and winter. A good tree for warm coastal sites. Very showy during the winter months.
#
"Podocarpus Elatus",442,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IPlum Pine\i
A medium to large tree, often smaller in cultivation, with narrow sharp pointed foliage and bluey black plum-like edible fruit. A reliable species. Good for shade and a decorative house plant while young.
#
"Podocarpus Lawrencei",443,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IMountain Plum Pine\i
A variable often prostrate plant with narrow grey-green leaves and small flowers followed by attractive red fruit.
#
"Rhagodia Nutans",444,"d\9\436.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ISalt Bush\i
A low spreading plant with grey foliage and small flowers followed by bright red fruit. An excellent plant for embankments, ground cover or contrast foliage. Very hardy and drought resistant.
#
"Rhododendron Lochae",445,"d\9\437.jpg","f","0"
Showy red trumpet flowers on a low spreading shrub with bright green glossy foliage. An ideal tub plant, preferring a well composted acid soil, reasonable moisture and some shade.
A rounded shrub to 1 m with narrow bright green foliage densely covered with white flowers in spring. Prefers a well drained soil in full sun.
#
"Rulingea Hermanifolia",447,"d\9\439.jpg","f","0"
A low spreading often ground hugging shrub with dark green crinkly foliage and white star shaped flowers in spring. A hardy plant preferring full sun.
#
"Scaevola Aemula",448,"d\9\440.jpg","f","0"
A vigorously growing ground cover with soft green foliage and large rich mauve-blue fan-shaped flowers.
#
"Scaevola Albida",449,"d\9\441.jpg","f","0"
A spreading plant to 1 m or more across, with pale blue fan-shaped flowers. A hardy ground cover responding well to moist soils.
#
"Scaevola Calendulacea",450,"d\9\442.jpg","f","0"
A dense and vigorous trailing plant with bright green succulent leaves, blue fan flowers and fleshy purple fruit. Tolerant of salt spray and good for dune stabilisation.
#
"Sollya Heterophylla",451,"d\9\443.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBluebell Climber\i
A vigorous climbing plant with small bright green oval leaves and bluebell flowers. White and pink forms are also available. Flowers are followed by fleshy fruit. A very hardy climber which may be induced to form a dense shrub with periodic pruning.
#
"Spyridium Cinereum",452,"d\9\445.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IDusty Miller\i
A low prostrate shrub with dark green oval leaves and small white flowers which give the appearance of the plant having been dusted with flower. A reliable ground cover, tolerant of reasonable shade.
A small tufted plant with grass-like foliage suitable for small pots or rockeries. Pink flowers are produced on long spikes above the foliage. In a unique method of pollination, insects "trigger" the stamen to strike the insect, depositing pollen which is carried to the next flower.
#
"Stypandra Glauca",454,"d\9\448.jpg","f","0"
A tufted plant with long arching stems bearing rows of opposite leaves and blue flowers with prominent yellow anthers. Does best in dry shady conditions.
#
"Swainsona Galegifolia",455,"d\9\449.jpg","f","0"
An attractive perennial to 1 m with blue-green fern-like foliage and sprays of large mauve-purple pea flowers. A hardy plant in sunny or semi-shaded conditions.
#
"Syncarpia Glomulifera",456,"d\9\450.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ITurpentine\i
A dense upright tree to 20 m with dull green foliage and interesting straight grained fibrous bark. Bears small white fluffy flowers. An excellent windbreak tree, being hardy and fast growing.
#
"Syzygium Coolminianum",457,"d\9\451.jpg","f","0"
A small tree with shiny rounded leaves, fragrant when crushed. Showy white flowers and tasty blue fruit. Suitable for warm moist gardens.
#
"Sowerbaea Juncea",458,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IVanilla Lily\i
A small tufted plant with blue-green rush-like foliage and showy heads of purple vanilla-scented flowers. Ideal for moist sandy soils and small pots.
#
"Stenocarpus Sinuatus",459,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IFire Wheel Tree\i
A small rather slow growing tree with dense dark green foliage and showy red "wheels" of flower. Ideal for warm moist climates.
#
"Syzygium Luehmanni",460,"0","g","0"
A small tree with dark glossy leaves, red or bright pink in new growth, white fluffy flowers and attractive red fruit. Very hardy and well recommended.
#
"Syzygium Moorei",461,"0","g","0"
A medium tree with dark glossy rounded leaves and red or pink flowers followed by large edible white fruit.
#
"Telopea Speciosissima",462,"d\9\454.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \INSW Waratah, Waratah\i
A spectacular flowering shrub to 3 metres. For best success in cultivation, choose well grown healthy plants, do not allow to become pot bound and provide with a well drained soil rich in humus. Fertilise regularly with a low phosphorus fertiliser. Prefers full sun. Plants may bloom from 2 years onwards and may easily carry 6-20 blooms at first flowering, increasing substantially in number with age.
#
"Thomasia Macrocarpa",463,"d\9\455.jpg","f","0"
A small shrub to 600 mm with cloth-like serrated foliage and large pink flowers. Very showy.
#
"Thomasia Petalocalyx",464,"d\9\456.jpg","f","0"
A rounded shrub to 600 mm with wrinkled foliage and attractive papery flowers which are pink with a black centre. A reliable species preferring full sun.
#
"Thryptomene Saxicola",465,"d\9\457.jpg","f","0"
A rounded shrub with soft arching branches bearing masses of pale pink flowers in winter and spring. Very hardy, long flowering and suitable for cut flowers.
A small tufted plant to 300 mm with deep green rush-like foliage and showy clusters of mauve-pink flowers with feathery petals. Prefers well drained sunny situation with ample moisture.
#
"Tristaniopsis Laurina",467,"d\9\459.jpg","f","0"
\I(Syn. Tristania laurina)\i
\BCommon Name:\b \IWater Gum\i
An attractive small tree with mid-green pointed foliage, often red tinged, and a good display of small yellow flowers. Very hardy. An excellent street tree.
#
"Viola Betonicifolia",468,"d\9\460.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \INative Violet\i
A small tufted plant for rockeries or pots with upright stems carrying bright mauve flowers. Tolerant of dry conditions.
#
"Viola Hederacea",469,"d\9\461.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \INative Violet\i
An attractive and useful ground cover suitable for moist soils. Produces a dense cover of bright green foliage and erect stems with small blue and white violet flowers. A plant which roots as it spreads, and may be divided easily.
#
"Westringia Fruticosa",470,"d\9\463.jpg","f","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \ICoastal Rosemary\i
A very hardy rounded shrub prized by landscapers for its ability to withstand harsh conditions including salt laden air. It has fine blue-grey foliage and white flowers borne back to back on the upper ends of the branchlets. Flowers most of the year. An excellent hedge plant which benefits from regular pruning. A variegated form is available.
#
"Westringia Glabra",471,"0","g","0"
\BCommon Name:\b \IBlue Westringia\i
A medium rounded shrub with blue-grey foliage and a good display of blue flowers for most of the year. A reliable hardy shrub requiring regular pruning for compact growth.
\I2\i = Striking (feature) plant because of flowers or foliage
\I3\i = Suitable for cut flowers
\I4\i = Bird attracting
\I5\i = Suitable for tubs
\I6\i = Suitable for hedge or windbreak
\I7\i = Grows well in wet ground
\I8\i = Will resist reasonable frosts of at least -5 degrees celsius
\I9\i = Grows in full sun
\I10\i = Grows in partly shaded conditions
\I11\i = Grows in full shade
\I12\i = Suitable for coastal (salt spray) conditions
\I13\i = Ground cover
\I14\i = Climber
\I15\i = Shrubs, small - less than 1 metre (3ft.) high
\I16\i = Shrubs, medium - between 1 metre (3ft.) & 3 metres (10ft.)
\I17\i = Shrubs, large - over 3 metres (10ft.)
\I18\i = Trees, small - up to 10 metres (33ft.)
\I19\i = Trees, large - more than 10 metres (33ft.)
#
"First Europeans in Australia",485,"d\9\1_0069.jpg","c","0"
The first Europeans to come to Australia saw the Australian bush differently than we do today. To them it was a foreign wilderness, needing to be tamed. They worked hard to turn the bush into familiar landscapes such as farmlands which they needed for survival.
They introduced plants and animals from other countries for their use. Unfortunately they did not realise how much they would harm native plants, animals and ecosystems.
Most Australian plants are not found anywhere else in the world. They developed in isolation from the plants of the rest of the world. Many have links with the ancient plants of the supercontinent Gondwana.
Australian soils are very old and weathered, and often lack nutrients. Many Australian plants are adapted to, and thrive on, soils which are low in phosphorus and potassium.
Fire has been an important part of the Australian environment for thousands of years. Many native plants need particular fire intensities and frequencies to reproduce. Aboriginal people used burning to manage and maintain different ecosystems.
Australian plants have evolved with Australian animals. Many native plants and animals have complex interrelationships and need each other to survive. For example, plants can depend on particular insects, birds or mammals for pollination or for their fruits to be spread. The plants, in turn, provide food and shelter for the animals.
Vascular plants are those that contain conducting tissue and are usually divided into roots, stems and leaves. There are about 20,000 known vascular plants in Australia. About 85% of these are endemic to Australia - that is, they occur nowhere else in the world.
About 5.5% of native vascular plants are currently listed nationally as presumed extinct, threatened or vulnerable.
\IPresumed Extinct - 76 (0.4% of estimated total)
Endangered - 301 (1.5% of estimated total)
Vulnerable - 708 (3.5% of estimated total)
Rare - 1,570 (7.9% of estimated total)\i
Many factors have been blamed for the decline and extinction of native species. The factors are related to European settlement of the country. All our activities in the last 200 years have changed the Australian environment to some extent.
Everything we do, from clearing our cities, to farming, driving cars, to building roads, making dams, importing exotic animals and plants, or going bushwalking has an effect.
Loss of habitat is the biggest threat to native species. If a plant or animal loses its habitat - that is, the place where it lives and which provides it with food and shelter - then it cannot survive in the wild. Habitat loss is caused by many human activities.
Many of the presumed extinct plant species have not been found this century and the factors which brought about their decline and eventual extinction may never be known with certainty. In most cases, however, we can be fairly sure that loss of habitat due to agriculture and grazing was the main cause, and that industrial and urban development were also to blame.
Current threats to endangered species present a more complex picture. Agriculture in particular was the major cause in reducing original populations of many species and many of these species now only survive in remnant populations in small fragmented areas along roadsides, on railway easements, in cemeteries or on rocky outcrops too hard to clear or cultivate.
Endangered species occur in very low numbers at very few sites. When population numbers get very low, the genetic diversity of the species can be so limited that inbreeding or failure to produce fertile offspring can cause further declines in the population. Once a species is reduced to only one population it is under severe threat. A catastrophic event such as clearing, disease, flooding or fire could destroy the whole population.
\BDescription:\b An example of habitat destruction \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
Fire is another important factor affecting species. Many native plants have particular fire requirements for their reproduction and survival. Many times the bush is burned too often or sometimes not enough for native plants' needs. When fire patterns, intensities and frequencies are changed, some species do not survive.
For example, in many species of \IAcacia\i (wattle), seeds will not germinate until the hard seed coats are cracked by heat. If there are no regular hot fires to stimulate germination of seeds stored in the soil, Acacia species may be replaced by others.
Many species of \IEucalyptus, Hakea\i and \IBanksia\i keep their seeds within woody fruits for many years. These seed pods are opened by the heats of a fire and the seeds germinate readily in the ash beds that are created.
The plant diversity of some heathlands is based on a fire frequency of about every ten years. Too frequent fires will lead to the disappearance of some heath plants.
On the other hand, some Australian vegetation types such as rainforests cannot tolerate fire and will be replaced by dry forests if burnt.
\BDescription:\b The effects on bush after a fire \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Exotic Weeds and Feral Animals",489,"d\9\feral5.jpg","c","0"
Another current and future threat likely to affect many native plants species is competition from exotic weeds. Native plants are often choked or covered by fast growing introduced plants that become weeds when they escape from gardens and pastures.
Weeds compete with native plants for moisture and nutrients and often don't provide the food and shelter that native wildlife need.
A report released in mid 1996 for the Federal Government details Australia's weed problem. Almost all of Australia's native vegetation is likely to be invaded by exotic species that will result in significant changes. Since 1947, 463 exotic species have been introduced as pasture and 13 per cent have become problem weeds. The worst environmental weeds are the prickly acacia, para grass, buffel grass, bitou bush, rubber vine, boneseed, water hyacinth, aleman grass, reed sweetgrass, hymenachne, bridal creeper, parkinsonia, mission grass, mesquite, salvinia, athel pine, blue thunbergia and Japanese kelp.
Introduced feral animals (such as wild pigs, rabbits, goats and buffalo) and domestic farm animals (such as sheep, cattle and horses) can threaten native plants. They can degrade and destroy natural habitats through compacting soil, removing vegetation and causing erosion. They can degrade the land and waterways by burrowing, trampling, digging or wallowing. They directly threaten native plants by eating and trampling.
\BDescription:\b A feral goat \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Recovery Plans",490,"d\9\2_0046.jpg","c","0"
Recovery Plans determine the research and management actions required for species to recover. The aim of recovery is to ensure the long-term survival of species in the wild.
In late 1995, the Lake Darlot hemigenia was spotted for the first time in 100 years in Western Australia. It is hoped that these 20 plants will be protected.
Conservation of a species involves more than just putting a national park or conservation reserve around it. Conservation requires active management, research and monitoring to ensure the most suitable conditions are maintained for the species. Recovery Plans provided planned, integrated approaches for dealing with threatened species. They are useful tools for all land managers.
\BDescription:\b Children learning about plant regeneration \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Wollemi Pine",491,0,g,0
The discovery in December 1994 of a new kind of tree near Sydney caused great excitement, as AustraliaÆs flora is considered to be well known. The Wollemi pines \I(Wollemia nobilis)\i reach about 35 m in height with a main trunk up to one metre in diameter. The discovery of a new species of tree, especially one that grows to such an impressive height, is extremely unusual. The habitat of the trees ù protected steep-sided canyons north-west of Sydney, which acted as refuges from fires that frequently burn the adjacent plateaus ù contributed to their continued existence.
The tree, given the common name of æpineÆ, is a conifer but is closer to the Norfolk Island pine than to the true pines. The discovery is a dramatic demonstration that parts of our biological heritage remain unknown.
#
"Recovery of Threatened Plants",492,"d\9\2_0046.jpg","c","0"
Recovery of threatened plants involves removing or controlling threats such as clearing, road works, overgrazing, trampling, weeds, feral animals, disease, recreational activities and illegal collecting. Removing threats will also help other species in the area and improve the quality of the habitat generally. This can help prevent other species from becoming threatened.
Recovery of plant species often involves growing the plants away from their natural habitat, in nurseries or botanic gardens. These plants can then be replanted into existing wild populations or areas where the species was once located. This should be done as part of an overall recovery plan.
Off-site collections of threatened plants and seed are important as genetic stock particularly if a wild population is lost through some catastrophic event. Such collections are also used for research and education.
\BDescription:\b Children learning about plant regeneration \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Rose Mallee",493,tplants3.jpg,c,0
The \IRose Mallee\i is a low spreading tree found in the northern wheatbelt of Western Australia. Most of its former range has been cleared for farming. Less than 500 \IRose Mallee\i plants survive, most of these on uncleared private land. Their habitat is in poor condition due to grazing and heavy weed and rabbit infestation.
The land on which the main populations are found will soon be gazetted as a nature reserve. The habitat is being protected by fencing to exclude rabbits and stock. Weed control and protection from fire are other recovery actions. Seed has been collected and recently more than 500 seedlings were planted into the two main populations.
\BDescription:\b A Rose Mallee tree \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
#
"Wongan Hills Trigger Plant",494,tplants4.jpg,c,0
The \IWongan Hills Trigger Plant\i is a small herb found on scrubby heath north-east of Perth in Western Australia. There are only five known species, containing a total of about 500 plants. No populations occur on conservation reserves. The species is threatened by sheep, gravel extraction, track clearance, road grading, off-road vehicle use and other disturbances.
The most important recovery actions will be the reservation of large areas of uncleared land for nature conservation and rehabilitation of an old quarry within the reserve area. After seed is collected, new populations of the trigger plant will be established within the reserve.
\BDescription:\b The Wongan Hills Trigger plant \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
#
"Sandhill Greenhood Orchid",495,tplants5.jpg,c,0
The \ISandhill Greenhood\i is a solitary terrestrial orchid. It is restricted to grasslands in semi-arid areas of South Australia. It is listed as endangered because only three separate populations of the species with a total of 336 individual plants have been recently found.
Loss of habitat has been the main threat in the past. The small remnant populations are now threatened by major soil disturbances due to rabbit diggings, grazing by feral and domestic animals, competition from weeds and illegal collecting by orchid enthusiasts.
Existing populations and re-established populations will be fenced to keep out rabbits and other herbivores. Weeds will also be controlled.
\BDescription:\b A Sandhill Greenhood Orchid \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
#
"Monarto Mintbush",496,tplants7.jpg,c,0
The \IMonarto Mintbush\i is a low spreading perennial shrub found in sparse heathland and shrubland of South Australia. Only two small populations exist with a total of about 200 plants. The naturally restricted habitat of the plant has become further reduced as a result of land clearing for agriculture.
This species is threatened by the grazing of rabbits and domestic stock. Other threats include low numbers, competition from weeds, quarrying and collecting.
The recovery plan will involve growing the mintbush and planting it into the wild. It will also include fencing of the existing populations and reintroduction sites to keep out rabbits and stock.
\BDescription:\b A Monarto Mintbush \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
#
"Tunbridge Buttercup",497,tplants6.jpg,c,0
The \ITunbridge Buttercup\i is a small herb found only beside two lagoons on private land in the midlands of Tasmania. The areas are heavily grazed by sheep and cattle but no selective grazing of the buttercup has been noted. It is thought that this species actually benefits from the grazing which reduces the competition by plants such as grasses. It also seems to benefit from soil disturbance, dominating the regrowth on a disturbed track.
It is a species which grows in native grasslands. Grasslands are one of the most endangered native ecosystems, having been the easiest vegetation community for early settlers to use for grazing and farming.
\BDescription:\b A Tunbridge Buttercup \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
#
"Wee Jasper Grevillea",498,tplants8.jpg,c,0
The \IWee Jasper Grevillea\i is an endangered shrub known from only 300 mature plants in south east New South Wales. All the plants occur on private land. The major threat to them is heavy grazing by sheep and feral goats. Most of the populations of this species were possibly flooded when Burrunjuck Dam was filled earlier this century.
Conservation agreements are being negotiated with the owners of the land where the main populations occur. The sites will be fenced to keep out goats and sheep.
\BDescription:\b A Wee Jasper Grevillea shrub \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
#
"Hairy Quandong",499,tplants9.jpg,c,0
This extremely rare, small rainforest tree, the \IHairy Quandong,\i is currently known from only three locations in the north coast of New South Wales. About 40 trees are within a nature reserve, while another 60 occur on private property and 10 on the route of a proposed highway.
Most similar habitat in the area has been cleared or heavily disturbed by exotic weeds, which may explain the rarity of this species. The major current threats are fire, weed invasion and possibly erosion.
Weed control is being carried out at all sites. Research into the genetic variation between the populations will assist in future propagation and planting programs.
\BDescription:\b A Hairy Quandong tree \I(Australian Nature Conservation Agency)\i
#
!,!,!,!,!
10#
41,0
"What are Feral Animals?",1,"d\10\d_0095.jpg","c","0"
Feral animals are domestic animals which have gone wild. There are a number of feral animals in Australia which have had major impacts on native plants and animals and their habitats.
As well as feral animals, there are also many introduced wild animals such as the rabbit, fox, species of deer and aquarium fishes. These introduced species which did not originate from domestic livestock are called exotics, exotic wild animals or introduced wild animals.
The feral animal pests which have caused the most problems in Australia are the ungulates, or hoofed animals, such as the Asian water buffalo, the pig and the goat. All three of these animals occurred naturally on every continent except Australia and Antarctica.
The wild ancestors of these domestic animals evolved among large predators such as the big cats, bears and wolves. In Australia, a large continent without these predators, the feral animals have run wild.
\BDescription:\b A feral goat \I(Webster Publishing)\i.
#
"Why Are Feral Animals Such a Problem?",2,"d\10\feral2.jpg","c","horse10"
Most of the problems associated with feral animals in Australia arise because they have no natural predators or diseases to control them. This results in their capacity to rapidly increase in numbers.
Large numbers of feral animals compete with native fauna for space, food and shelter. Many native Australian animals are endangered because of threats created by feral animals.
Feral animals also have direct and indirect effects on the environment and Australia's agricultural industry. They compete with domestic stock for food, they damage crops, fences and watering points, and they prey on sheep.
The only natural control of feral animals in Australia is drought. Populations increase during good seasons and decline rapidly during dry times. When feral animals are not controlled by predation or disease, they die when food and water are in limited supply. The only other alternative for controlling feral animals is eradication through human intervention.
"Impacts on Native Animals",3,"d\10\7_0049.jpg","c","0"
The presence of feral animals in Australia has various impacts on native animals. The herbivorous feral animals remove vegetation which provides food and cover for a wide range of native species.
Unique native animals such as the rabbit-eared bandicoot or bilby require a constant supply of carbohydrate rich seeds and roots. When these are removed by large introduced herbivores, the vulnerable native species disappear.
\BDescription:\b The bilby \I(Peter Jarver)\i
#
"Impacts on the Environment and Agriculture",4,"d\10\2_0045.jpg","c","wind0"
Heavy grazing by feral animals removes vegetation which results in fewer fires to control the invasion of scrub. This causes problems on reserves established to conserve representative samples of native plants and animals.
Feral animals can also cause damage which leads to land degradation. Overgrazing, damage from walking pads, rooting and wallowing all create soil erosion. Managed domestic livestock can be removed from areas that have been overgrazed or require destocking until soil conservation works are revegetated, but it is much more difficult to remove feral animals.
Feral animals cause major losses to agriculture and involve farmers in continuing control programs. In some areas feral animals force farmers to choose less economic forms of production than otherwise possible.
Because the feral animals are closely related to the animals that form the basis of our livestock industries, they are carriers of the same diseases. Efforts to eradicate economically damaging livestock diseases such as tuberculosis are impeded by the constant source of reinfection from feral animals.
\BDescription:\b Damage caused by rabbits on Phillip Island \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Diseases and Feral Animals",5,"d\10\d_0110.jpg","c","dogs10"
At present, Australia is free of some of the major diseases affecting domestic animals. Preventing the entry of diseases such as foot and mouth disease, rabies and swine fever, and parasites such as the screw worm fly, is of paramount importance.
An outbreak of foot and mouth disease would have an immediate and disastrous impact on the entire Australian economy. The potential for some feral animals to act as a reservoir for exotic diseases would make the diseases much more difficult to control.
\BDescription:\b Partly thanks to stringent quarantine laws, Australia is free of such diseases such as rabies \I(Webster Publishing)\i.
Because feral animals did not evolve here, they have no place in the Australian environment or agriculture and must be controlled.
Although many of their adverse impacts on agriculture and the natural environment are understood and provide reasons for their control, much remains to be learnt about these animals. Further research will provide better understanding and hopefully offer new methods for effective and humane control.
\BDescription:\b The restoration of Phillip Island after rabbits were removed \I(DFAT)\i
#
"The Feral Horse or Brumby",7,"d\10\feral1.jpg","c","0"
There are none of the original species of wild horses of the northern hemisphere left running in their natural habitat. Today, all wild horses are descendants of the domestic horse \IEquus caballus\i and they are found only in Australia and North America.
Horses became established in the wild in Australia after they were brought here to accompany the spread of pastoral development. By the 1830s, 'bush horses' were described as plentiful in the hills around Sydney.
\BWhy the Feral Horse Spread\b
A major source of brumbies in northern and central Australia was the large number of properties that specialised in breeding horses as army remounts. As mechanisation displaced the mounted cavalry, many of these horses were simply left to roam free.
The number of feral horses in Australia may now be as high as 600,000 head. The Northern Territory and Queensland have the largest proportion of these, with the Northern Territory alone having approximately four times the number of wild horses than the entire United States. Western Australia has the next largest population of wild horses, followed by South Australia, New South Wales and Victoria.
\BDescription:\b Feral horses \I(QDEH)\i
#
"Feral Horse - Characteristics and Agriculture",8,"d\10\feral1.jpg","c","0"
Feral horses tend to lose the conformation desired in domestic horses and develop small bodies with big heads and short necks.
The brumbies in Central Australia prefer rocky range country with permanent water. The greater mobility of horses allows them to graze further from water than cattle. Horses graze up to 50 km from water. This extends the area of impact that introduced herbivores have on the native vegetation.
Some properties in the \JAlice Springs\j district in the Northern Territory carry one brumby to every three cattle. Horses and cattle consume about the same quantity of feed, and as there is considerable dietary overlap between horses and cattle in the types of grasses they eat, they are regarded as being in direct competition.
Another common complaint is that brumbies cause significant damage to fences.
The distribution and abundance of brumbies in the \JAlice Springs\j district is controlled only by the availability of food within grazing distance of permanent water. These resources are also needed to sustain native wildlife and the economic use made of pastoral land. It is therefore necessary to manage these resources judiciously to protect the environment and sustainable agriculture where it is appropriate.
In the absence of natural predators and disease or the ability to remove brumbies in the same way as managed domestic livestock, it is necessary to intervene with other methods of control.
Mustering brumbies on horseback is impossible in some terrain so helicopter mustering is the most commonly used method of removing them. Traps around water can be successful but only where there are a limited number of watering points.
Helicopter shooting by trained shooters is the most humane way of reducing the number of feral horses over large areas. It is quick and the horses are not subject to yarding and transportation to slaughter. However, helicopter shooting is very expensive and is regarded by some as inhumane and wasteful of a resource.
Animal welfare groups opposed to the use of helicopters in feral horse control have advocated the use of contraceptives as a non-lethal method of control. Unfortunately, the technology to achieve this is not yet available for use in areas such as the vast rangelands of central Australia.
The absence of a safe and effective permanent contraceptive or any system of applying it means that it does not yet provide an alternative to helicopter shooting or mustering.
The donkey \IEquus asinus\i was first imported to Australia in 1866 because of its reputation as a hardy beast of burden suited to the arid interior.
Donkeys were used to crossbreed with station horses to produce mules for heavier work and were favoured in areas such as the Victoria River District of the Northern Territory where poisonous plants restricted the use of horses. Donkeys were still being imported into the Northern Territory until 1910.
There are very few donkeys in domestic use today. Better road access and mechanised transport saw many station donkeys abandoned or deliberately released. It was not long before the mistake was realised.
By the late 1960s there were feral donkeys in all pastoral districts of the Northern Territory and across the north of Western Australia from the Kimberleys to the Pilbara as well as in parts of South Australia and Queensland.
Feral donkeys cause tremendous damage by grazing. In 1962, a survey of only 300 square kilometres on Victoria River Downs Station revealed 3,000 feral donkeys. At that time, 28,000 donkeys were shot in another part of Victoria Downs which allowed the recovery of an area of about 500 square kilometres that had previously been described as a wasteland because of grazing by feral donkeys.
Unfortunately, the rate of natural increase of donkeys enables populations to recover rapidly. For example, 83,000 donkeys were shot in the Victoria River District between 1981 and 1984 and although reduced by 50%, the population has now recovered.
"Impacts of Feral Donkeys",11,"d\10\paul.jpg","c","0"
The donkey thrives in areas unsuitable for horses and cattle and is believed to be able to survive better during droughts.
Donkeys eat a wider range of vegetation than either cattle or horses and graze further away from water causing much wider impact on native vegetation.
Donkeys are also believed to congregate around the remaining watering points during dry times preventing cattle from drinking.
The inability to control donkeys with conventional methods of domestic livestock management makes them a serious problem where rangeland management requires an area to be destocked to allow regeneration of vegetation, or where soil conservation works need to be kept free of stock until they are stabilised.
A large market for donkey meat exists in Europe and China, but Mexico fills it more economically than is possible from Australia. The only use made of donkeys in Australia is as pet meat when they can be obtained at low cost. The only alternative method of donkey control is by shooting from helicopters.
The camel, \ICamelus dromedarius\i was imported into Australia for use in exploration and to carry cargo across the vast distances of the arid interior.
Many camels were turned loose or escaped from paddocks on large cattle stations on the fringes of central Australian deserts where they readily found a niche. Australia is now the only country in the world that has wild camels.
\BHabitat\b
Camels inhabit large tracts of sparsely populated or uninhabited arid areas of the Simpson Desert and the area west of \JAlice Springs\j across into the Gibson and Great Sandy Deserts of Western Australia.
\BDescription:\b Camel \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Impacts of Feral Camels",13,"d\10\feral4.jpg","f","0"
Feral camels have an impact on the arid zone vegetation because they are highly selective browsers with a tendency to concentrate on the species exhibiting the freshest growth.
Research near \JAlice Springs\j has found that camels eat 233 (81%) of the 288 plant species in the area, some of which are rare and endangered.
At present, there are only limited opportunities for the commercial harvesting of feral camels for live export or as breeding stock for meat and hide. If a stronger market developed it may become economically attractive to reduce cattle numbers on some central Australian cattle stations in favour of camels to achieve better rangeland management.
\BDescription:\b Camel \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"The Feral Goat",14,"d\9\feral5.jpg","f","0"
Goats were first brought to Australia because they were a convenient form of livestock for the early settlers. The goat, \ICapra hircus\i, is small compared to other draft animals, browses a wide range of plants, and provides meat and milk.
Certain breeds were valued for mohair and this encouraged further importations. Many goat herds were abandoned or gradually became wild when not kept under close supervision.
\BHabitat and Natural Predators\b
Feral goats have successfully colonised most habitats except rainforest, wetlands and desert. They are most common in rocky or hilly country in the semi arid rangelands of western New South Wales, South Australia and Queensland.
Goats in the eastern ranges can avoid dingo predation to some extent by sheltering around steep rocky outcrops and rock faces. However, it does not appear that the dingo limits the distribution and abundance of the feral goat in the pastoral regions because most goats occur in sheep country where the dingo has been either eradicated or heavily controlled.
"Impacts of and Controlling the Feral Goat",15,"d\10\3_0042.jpg","c","0"
The feral goat exerts a great influence on native vegetation and competes with native animals for food and shelter.
One of the main reasons that Yellow-footed Rock wallabies are rare in their former range in western New South Wales is that they are thought to be forced out of rock shelters by feral goats. Rock wallabies are heavily preyed on by wedge-tailed eagles and require rock overhangs and caves for shelter from predators and the heat of the day.
Feral goats compete with domestic stock for pasture, particularly during drought. Goats also carry foot rot, making it difficult to eradicate the disease from sheep where goats are present.
Feral goats are sometimes trapped or mustered for slaughter, with the young breeding females sold as foundation stock for mohair flocks. The intensity to which these activities are pursued depends largely on the economic value of goats in certain areas.
The 'Judas goat' technique has recently been developed to remove small numbers of goats from inaccessible areas. A feral goat is caught and fitted with a radio-collar and tracked so that the goats it has joined up with can be shot.
\BDescription:\b Feral goats compete with other cattle for pasture \I(DFAT)\i
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"The Feral Cat and Its Predators",16,"d\10\31_0006.jpg","c","0"
The domestic cat, \IFelis catus,\i is found in every part of Australia. It inhabits such remote places as the central Australian deserts where there is no permanent water.
In urban areas some feral cats are abandoned strays that may interbreed with household pet cats. However, other cats found in bushland areas close to human settlements are pets supplementing their diets with native animals.
The feral cat eats an extremely wide variety of native fauna. It is capable of killing mammals as large as the brushtailed possum and it can survive in the desert regions on small reptiles and insects.
Cats have two litters each year and are therefore able to increase their numbers very quickly in favourable seasons or following a control operation.
Predators such as the dingo, the wedge-tailed eagle and some of the large reptiles prey on feral cats but do not appear to regulate their numbers.
\BDescription:\b Dingoes sometimes prey on feral cats \I(David Ireland)\i
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"Feral Cats on Islands",17,"d\10\cat.jpg","c","0"
Feral cats which descended from pets taken to islands by lighthouse keepers, sailors and seal hunters have had a disastrous impact on the fauna. For example, as well as eating over 50,000 birds each year on Macquarie Island, feral cats have caused the extinction from the island of a subspecies of the red-fronted parakeet. Feral cats have since been eradicated from some islands.
\BDescription:\b A feral cat \I(I T Mahood - Nature Focus)\i
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"Feral Cats and Their Prey on the Mainland",18,"b\6\dfat6.jpg","c","0"
It is difficult to determine what impact the feral cat is having on mainland fauna. Ground-nesting birds such as the lyrebird are believed to be very vulnerable, particularly where populations are low or fragmented because of land clearing and development.
Control of feral cats on the mainland is much harder than on islands. At present, control is limited to poisoning, trapping and shooting. Other control schemes have been suggested but most are impractical. The reproductive capacity of the feral cat means that any area that is poisoned or trapped is soon recolonised.
There is also a constant source of new recruits from urban areas. There would certainly be fewer native animals killed by cats if people managed their urban pets more responsibly.
\BDescription:\b The feral cat preys all too often on the lyrebird \I(DFAT)\i
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"The Feral Dog",19,"d\10\7_0050.jpg","c","0"
None of the feral animals except the dog had relatives in Australia before European settlement. The dog was brought to Australia by two different groups at different times.
The dog was first introduced by Asian seafarers who carried the dingo \ICanis familiaris dingo,\i a subspecies of the domestic dog, \ICanis familiaris,\i to the mainland around 4,000 years ago where it displaced the two large native mammal carnivores, the Tasmanian devil and the Thylacine.
The second group of dogs came with the Europeans. Even Sir Joseph Banks, the botanist on that first journey of British discovery led by \JCaptain Cook,\j was accompanied by his greyhound.
There are concerns that domestic dogs cross-bred with dingoes may have a more detrimental impact on native fauna and livestock.
Most breeds of domestic dog are capable of breeding twice a year, whereas the dingo has only one litter per annum. This raises some fears that the increasing incidence of feral domestic dogs will lead to more wild dogs or a greater capacity to recover numbers following control measures.
It is more likely, however, that the Australian environment poses its own limitations on the optimum size and number of predators.
Any wild dogs, be they feral domestic dogs, dingoes or crosses between the two, are a problem among sheep and need control. The most common methods of controlling dingoes and feral dogs are exclusion fences, poisoning and trapping.
Despite its status as a feral animal, it is now recognised that there is a place for the dingo in the Australian ecosystem and there are many areas where it does not come into conflict with the livestock industry.
\BDescription:\b Feral dog \I(Peter Jarver)\i.
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"Feral Cattle",21,"d\10\3_0042.jpg","c","0"
There are three species of cattle in Australia; these are the European breeds \IBos taurus,\i the humped cattle or zebu breeds \IBos indicus\i and the banteng \IBos javanicus.\i All three are closely related and interbreed freely.
Only the European and zebu breeds are used for beef production and some of these become feral. It is difficult to classify all wild cattle as feral because some may have been deliberately left unmanaged on large stations because it was uneconomic to muster them at the time. Many such wild cattle were shot in northern and central Australia in recent years as part of the brucellosis and tuberculosis eradication scheme.
\BDescription:\b Cattle \I(DFAT)\i.
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"Banteng Cattle",22,"d\10\6_0049.jpg","c","0"
Banteng cattle are found only on the Cobourg Peninsula of the Northern Territory. They are a truly feral population having been imported from Java for use at Fort Wellington over 150 years ago.
Unlike other feral animals, the banteng cattle have not spread far beyond where they were liberated.
It is thought that there are about 3,000 banteng cattle on the Cobourg Peninsula and that the population is gradually increasing to a level that is having a detrimental impact on the native vegetation.
Banteng cattle will be maintained on the Cobourg Peninsula and adjacent coastal areas of Arnhem Land, particularly as wild banteng no longer exist in Indonesia. The population will be controlled according to a herd management plan aimed at minimising their impact on the environment.
Trophy hunting and their use as a source of protein for the traditional Aboriginal landowners are the principal means for controlling the numbers of banteng cattle.
\BDescription:\b Banteng cattle are maintained on the Arnhem Land coastline \I(DFAT)\i
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"Feral Pig",23,pig.jpg,c,paddle0
The Australian bush and agriculture have provided the feral pig, \ISus scrofa\i, with a wide variety of food. As a result, feral pigs can reach very high population densities - up to 80 pigs per square kilometre in some wetlands.
No one knows how many feral pigs occur in Australia but they certainly number in the millions. They occur from western Victoria, through New South Wales and Queensland and across northern Australia from Cape York to the Kimberley in Western Australia.
Pigs need to drink daily in hot weather so they are absent from inland areas where there is no permanent surface water.
\BDescription:\b Feral pig \I(B & B Wells - Nature Focus)\i
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"Impacts of and Controlling the Feral Pig",24,"d\10\pig.jpg","c","0"
The feral pig is the most serious feral agricultural pest in Australia. Pigs eat and damage crops and pasture, prey on lambs and damage fences. Up to 40% of lambs born are killed and eaten by feral pigs in some areas, costing the sheep industry millions of dollars annually.
The greatest threat the feral pig poses to agriculture is its potential to carry exotic diseases such as foot and mouth disease and swine fever, and to act as a host for the screw worm fly, should any of these diseases enter Australia.
Feral pigs have an adverse impact on natural ecosystems. Their habit of wallowing and rooting around the margins of water courses and swamps can destroy the vegetation that prevents erosion and provides food and nesting sites for native wildlife.
Eradication of the feral pig is impossible under present circumstances because of its wide distribution, much of it in remote areas with dense vegetation.
Control in certain areas can be achieved by poisoning and trapping. Helicopter shooting can be successful in reducing populations in more open country and is a quick, target specific method that gives clear results. There is also a commercial trade in game pig meat exported for human consumption.
\BDescription:\b Feral pig \I(B & B Wells - Nature Focus)\i
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"Feral Water Buffalo",25,0.jpg,c,mibuflo.avi
The water buffalo, \IBubalus bubalis,\i was brought to northern Australia from South-East Asia where it is one of the most widely used domestic animals. It is popular because it is able to work ground that is too wet and boggy for other draft animals suited to the tropics.
The water buffalo was brought from Timor to Fort Dundas on Melville Island as a source of meat in 1826. Only two years later it was brought to the mainland at Cobourg Peninsula where some were released. There were further importations and by 1843 wild herds of up to 50 head could be seen on the mainland.
The water buffalo is now well established in the wet tropics of the Northern Territory. In 1985 it was estimated that there were 350,000 feral buffalo in the Northern Territory. Occasional vagrants, usually displaced old bulls, are found in the Kimberley of Western Australia and the Gulf country of Queensland, as well as further south towards \JTennant Creek\j in the Northern Territory.
The buffalo was so successful in colonising the wet tropics that by 1895 there was a trade in shooting wild buffalo for skins, and government officials were expressing concern that the feral buffalo, then viewed as a resource, would be eradicated. There was then very little concern about the significant environmental damage being caused by the feral buffalo.
\BViddescription:\b Water buffalo (Webster Publishing)
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"Impacts of the Feral Water Buffalo",26,"d\10\7_0051.jpg","c","0"
Large herds of buffalo overgrazed the areas close to water and virtually eliminated the water couch plant \IHymenachne\i from the fringes of swamps. This plant forms the living fabric of the swamp, being grazed by native animals and forming huge floating rafts used by crocodiles, birds and other small animals for nesting. The rotting vegetation is also a food source for other small aquatic animals.
Other plants such as the giant reed \IPhragmites\i are also seriously depleted by buffalo, and the trampled soil is exposed to erosion form the rains of the wet season. Overgrazing and erosion caused by large numbers of buffalo have resulted in the degradation of some of Australia's largest and most spectacular wetlands.
The swimming and wallowing habit of the buffalo has also had a devastating impact on the low sub-coastal wetlands. During the wet season buffalo use regular routes to swim and walk between the high ground where they graze.
This behaviour pattern breaches naturally formed levee banks and forms deep swim channels that remain as permanent canals. The damaged levee banks and canals allow the invasion of salt water from high tides during the dry season.
The persistent flow of tidal salt water accelerates the erosion process. Freshwater can drain from the wetlands and the intrusion of saltwater can cause widespread damage and destruction to natural communities unable to tolerate salt.
\BDescription:\b Water buffalo \I(Peter Jarver)\i
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"Managing Water Buffalo",27,"d\10\6_0050.jpg","c","0"
Buffaloes carry major cattle diseases and have been a major hindrance in attempts to eradicate tuberculosis.
Disease-free herds of buffalo are being identified so that they can be used to form the basis of a domesticated buffalo industry. Elsewhere, it is desirable to eradicate feral buffalo by helicopter shooting, particularly in areas dedicated to nature conservation such as Kakadu National Park.
The buffalo has a place in northern Australia but as a managed domestic animal away from areas of conservation value.
\BDescription:\b Water buffalo are common to Kakadu \I(DFAT)\i
There are now many animals living in Australia that have been deliberately introduced to the wild. Some came by accident, others were escapees from aviaries, aquaria and zoos.
When populations of domestic animals such as livestock or household pets become established in the wild they are called feral animals. However, the introduced species that did not originate from domestic livestock are referred to as exotics, exotic wild animals or introduced wild animals.
The introduced wild animals have had a great impact on the Australian environment and the productivity of many of its agricultural industries. The full impact of many species is still to be determined, but sufficient is known to warn against any further uncontrolled introductions.
\BDescription:\b Cane toads were introduced to eradicate two insect pests of sugar cane \I(QDEH)\i
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"The Wild Rabbit",29,"d\10\inan2.jpg","c","0"
The European wild rabbit \IOryctolagus cuniculus\i was introduced into Australia by Thomas Austin of Barwon Park, Winchelsea, Victoria. In 1859 Austin imported 24 rabbits from England where it was also an exotic animal, having been introduced from Spain during the Norman conquests. He released the rabbits on his property for sport hunting.
The rabbit spread so rapidly that it reached the Queensland - New South Wales border by 1886, giving it a rate of advance of about 110 kilometres each year. It now occurs over half of Australia.
\BDescription:\b Wild rabbit \I(CSIRO)\i.
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"The Wild Rabbit - (2)",30,"c\10\inan1.jpg","c","0"
The rabbit is considered one of the major agricultural and environmental pests in our history of wild animal introductions.
\JMyxomatosis,\j a disease which occurs naturally in South American rabbits, was brought to the attention of the Australian Government in 1919 as a possible solution to the rabbit problem.
It was not until 1950 that \Jmyxomatosis\j was successfully released among Australian rabbits. Initial results were spectacular, killing well over 90% of rabbits that caught the disease, and there was great hope that it would put an end to the rabbit problem. However, \Jmyxomatosis\j now kills fewer rabbits than when it was first introduced. Today, an outbreak of \Jmyxomatosis\j usually kills only about 40% of infected rabbits.
Research is being undertaken into the possibility of altering the myxoma virus so that it produces infertility in infected rabbits, but it is too early to know whether it might be effective.
\BDescription:\b Wild rabbit colonies are destroying vegetation and grazing areas at a great rate \I(CSIRO)\i.
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"The Brown Hare",31,"0","g","0"
Early attempts to establish wild populations of the brown hare \ILepus capensis\i in Australia failed. The hare is now common through a wide belt of eastern Australia extending from central Queensland into South Australia.
The hare spread from a colony established on the shores of Westernport Bay, Victoria in 1862.
The hare can be a problem where farmers are trying to regenerate native vegetation or undertaking tree planting programs because it eats young tree seedlings.
The hare does not burrow or reproduce as rapidly as the rabbit and can be more easily controlled by shooting. It is not vulnerable to \Jmyxomatosis\j.
\BDescription:\b The brown hare is common in eastern Australia \I(DFAT)\i
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"The European Red Fox",32,"d\10\fox.jpg","c","0"
The European red fox \IVulpes vulpes\i was released near Melbourne in 1845 for sport hunting. It spread rapidly and took only 50 years to cross the Nullabor into Western Australia.
The fox is now found on most of the mainland except in the far tropical northern regions.
It was believed that the only serious problem caused by the fox was that it preyed on lambs and goat kids. However, there is now evidence the fox is causing the decline of certain species of Australian wildlife.
The fox is also a potential carrier of rabies should it enter Australia. This disease primarily affects members of the dog family but can also be transmitted to humans, livestock and native birds and mammals.
The main forms of fox control are shooting and poisoning. As with the rabbit, one hope for fox control lies in genetic engineering techniques that will induce infertility.
\BDescription:\b European Red Fox \I(L F Schick - Nature Focus)\i
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"Deer",33,"d\10\deer.jpg","c","0"
Dr. John Harris of Sydney imported the first deer into Australia in 1803. They were chital deer from India and were running wild a few years later with strenuous efforts being made to protect them from poachers and dogs.
These first wild deer in Australia were seen as a great success and a further five species of deer from different parts of the world were eventually established in the wild. None of them have become widely distributed.
Consequently, no species of deer is regarded as a serious pest and since their numbers are limited by environmental factors such as climate, cover and food supply, they are more likely to be viewed as a recreational resource.
\BDescription:\b The deer \I(G B Baker - Nature Focus)\i
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"Rodents",34,"d\10\inan10.jpg","c","0"
The house mouse, the black rat and the brown rat probably came in the holds and with the cargo of the First Fleet, but they could also have arrived with earlier seafarers that visited Australia's northern coastline.
Both the black rat \IRattus rattus\i and the house mouse \IMus domesticus\i colonise natural areas, with the rat implicated in damage to seabird colonies on offshore islands.
\BDescription:\b Rodents are considered pests \I(CSIRO)\i.
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"Rodents - (2)",35,"d\10\inan13.jpg","c","0"
Modern hygiene has broken the link between rats and bubonic plague, but there is still reason to be concerned about the ability of this species to spread leptospirosis and cause salmonella poisoning. Other problems caused by the black rat include damage to insulation covering electric conductors by chewing, the increased fire risk and cost of repair involved.
The house mouse reaches plague proportions in the wheatbelt regions when soil moisture conditions that allow easy burrowing coincide with abundant ripening grain. The plagues cause economic damage to cereal crops and oil crops such as soya bean. They are also a nuisance in houses.
There is no effective control of mouse plagues. Research into biological control and improved methods of poisoning is proceeding.
\BDescription:\b A pile of dead rodents \I(\JCSIRO\j)\i
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"Dingoes",36,"0","The Dingo","mdingo.avi"
If by natives we mean animals that evolved here or originally came to Australia unassisted by humans, then the dingo cannot be included. Even though it has inhabited Australia for at least 3-4,000 years, it is believed to have evolved elsewhere and entered with traders from Asia.
We tend to regard it as indigenous because it was here well before European settlers arrived.
The dingo and the domestic dog are members of the same species. There are only a few differences between them. Dingoes have larger teeth, narrower snouts and permanently erected ears. They also have bushier tails and broader feet. They show variations in their breeding patterns as well. Female dingoes give birth to pups once a year, rather than twice in a year, and both parents take care of them.
\BViddescription:\b Dingoes (David Ireland)
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"Dingo Habitat and Dietary Habits",37,"d\10\31_0006.jpg","c","0"
Dingoes are common in most parts of mainland Australia favouring the boundary of forest and open grasslands. They are opportunistic carnivores feeding on small marsupials, rodents and birds. They usually hunt alone but will attack in small packs when larger prey such as sheep or kangaroos are available.
Their appetite for sheep and young cattle has brought them into conflict with graziers and they are shot, trapped and poisoned to prevent losses of valuable stock.
\BDescription:\b Dingo \I(David Ireland)\i.
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"Introduced Birds",38,"d\10\dfat19.jpg","c","0"
In the past, many different groups devoted their energies to introducing any bird that might have been 'useful'. The prevailing concept of usefulness covered the ornamental, sentimental and pragmatic. Most birds introduced for these reasons have become pests.
Introductions for practical reasons, such as biological control of insects and farm pests, were all outstanding failures and merely resulted in another pest.
There are now as many as 20 introduced species of birds living in the wild in Australia.
Introductions are not a thing of the past. There are continuing efforts, both legal and illegal, to bring new birds into Australia. Most are for cage birds but given the past record of the potential for escapees to become established in the wild, it is essential that extreme caution is applied when evaluating the risks of more unwanted additions to the bird fauna of Australia.
\BDescription:\b \I(DFAT)\i
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"The Cane Toad",39,"d\10\16_0012.jpg","c","0"
The cane toad was introduced in 1935 to control two insect pests of sugar cane. The cane toad has achieved a great deal of notoriety and publicity. One reason for this is its characteristic warty appearance and poisonous glands.
The other reason is that its introduction as an agent of biological control was a failure. Both the insect pests and the cane toad continued to thrive.
There is no reliable and safe method of reducing the cane toad population over the extensive areas of northern Australia where it occurs. A search for a disease that is specific to the cane toad is currently being undertaken by the \JCSIRO\j.
\BDescription:\b The cane toad \I(QDEH)\i
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"Fish",40,"0","g","water10"
The best known species of introduced fish are probably the brown trout and rainbow trout. They were introduced during the latter part of last century when people craved a wider range of sporting fish. Research in Tasmania strongly implicates the brown trout in the decline, almost to extinction, of a native fish, the Lake Pedder galaxia.
Five species of carp were also introduced to enhance the sporting and aesthetic qualities of Australian waterways. The common carp is the most widely distributed and is regarded as the worst pest.
The mosquitofish was introduced to Australia from the Gulf of Mexico drainage system. It was released in Sydney in 1925 and Brisbane in 1929 to control mosquito larvae in dams. This fish has had certain success in mosquito control but evidence is mounting that it also has a detrimental effect on native aquatic fauna.
The mosquitofish attacks native fish and causes substantial damage to their fins as well as aggressively competing with them for food. It has caused the decline of a native fish on Stradbroke Island, Queensland.
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"Insects and Molluscs",41,"d\10\d_0019.jpg","c","0"
Most of the well known pests such as the garden snail, the fruit fly and the cattle tick found their way here by mistake and have become a great cost to Australian society.
These accidental introductions are still occurring, with one of the best known recent examples being the arrival of the European wasp.
The honeybee was deliberately introduced but soon became established in the wild. There is evidence that the honeybee is a more efficient forager than native pollinators and therefore competes with them for food. However, it is a less efficient pollinator than the native animals that have evolved with the Australian flora.
This means that if the native pollinators are forced out by competition for food then some native plants may remain unpollinated and fail to reproduce.
\BDescription:\b Many Australian natives depend on the effective pollination of native insects \I(Webster Publishing)\i
