"Commonwealth/State Government Responsibilities",1,"chart084.cht","c","0"
The Governments of the six Australian States and the two Territories have the major responsibility for education including the administration and substantial funding of primary, secondary and technical and further education.
The Commonwealth also plays a significant role in education policy, programs and funding.
This chart represents the expenditure on education by the government and private sector. The total final expenditure on education, comprising final consumption expenditure and gross fixed capital expenditure (by governments and the private sector), rose by 2.9% from 1993-94 to $23.2 billion in 1994-95. This figure represented 5.1 per cent of Gross Domestic Product.
#
"Commonwealth/State Government Responsibilities - (2)",2,"h\3\educ3.jpg","c","kids10"
The State Governments administer their own systems of primary, secondary and technical and further education through government departments and agencies responsible to State Ministers.
The Australian Constitution empowers the Commonwealth Government to make grants to the States and to place conditions upon such grants. The Commonwealth Government is principally responsible for the funding of higher education institutions, and provides supplementary funding for schools, and technical and further education.
\BDescription:\b Primary School \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Preschool Education",3,"h\3\tony9.jpg","c","0"
All States and Territories have a policy of making preschool education available universally for children in the years prior to school entry. A majority of the States and Territories have made considerable progress towards this goal.
Most preschools are conducted on a sessional basis (that is, sessions of two to three hours for two to five days per week).
\BDescription:\b Children at pre-school \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Primary and Secondary Education",4,"chart085.cht","c","0"
School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia between the ages of 6 and 15 years (16 years in Tasmania).
In July 1995 the number of full-time students attending primary and secondary schools totalled 3,109,337, comprising 2,207,853 (71%) in government schools and 901,484 (29%) in non-government schools.
#
"Primary Education",5,"h\3\educ4.jpg","c","0"
Primary schooling provides a general elementary program lasting until Years 6 or 7. Students enter secondary schools at Year 7 in some State systems and at Year 8 in others.
Usually primary and secondary schools are separate institutions, but in some country areas there are area or central schools which provide both forms of schooling.
Non-government schools follow a similar pattern, but a significant, though declining, proportion are single sex institutions.
\BDescription:\b Primary school children \I(Webster Publishing)\i
In primary education the main emphasis is on the development of basic language and literacy skills, simple arithmetic, moral and social education, health training and some creative activities.
In the upper primary years there is development of the skills learned in the earlier years. English, mathematics, social studies, science, music, art and craft, physical education and health are studied.
There are also optional subjects such as religious instruction and, in some schools, foreign and community languages and instrumental music.
\BDescription:\b Primary school children in the classroom \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Secondary Education",7,"h\3\5_0068.jpg","c","0"
In secondary education, in some systems, the first one or two years of secondary school consist of a general program which is followed by all students, although there may be some electives.
In later years a basic core of subjects is retained with students being able to select additional optional subjects. In other systems, students select options from the beginning of secondary school.
The core subjects in all systems are English, mathematics, science and, usually, a humanities or social science subject. Optional subjects may include, for example, a foreign language, a further humanities or social science subject, commerce, art, crafts, music, home economics, a manual arts subject, agriculture, physical education or health education.
Some schools offer optional courses in subjects such as consumer education, conversational foreign languages, word processing, commerce studies, driver education, drama and leisure-time activities.
In senior secondary years, a wider range of options is available in the larger schools and there is an increasing trend towards encouraging individual schools to develop courses suited to the needs and interests of their students, subject to accreditation and moderation procedures.
Students in Australian secondary schools generally have different teachers for each separate subject area, though, like primary schools, variations may occur where open plan or more flexible methods have been adopted. Promotion is, again, generally chronological, but students may be grouped according to ability after an initial period in unstreamed classes.
Post-compulsory schooling in Australia is undergoing considerable change, with an increasing emphasis on vocational programs being incorporated into the senior secondary curriculum. Under the Australian Vocational Training System, students at school may obtain vocational education and training sector certificates as part of their senior study and undertake some parts of their programs in the workplace.
Examinations and assessment at each level are carried out by individual schools except Year 12 in those systems which have retained external examinations at Year 12 level. Students attaining the minimum school leaving age may leave school and seek employment, or enrol in a vocationally oriented course in a TAFE institution or a private business college. For many TAFE courses, completion of Year 10 of secondary school is a minimum entry requirement. For those continuing to the end of secondary school (Year 12), opportunities for further study are available in TAFE institutions, higher education institutions and other post-school institutions.
Students' eligibility for entry to higher education institutions is assessed during, or at the end of, the final two years of secondary schooling. Five States and the Northern Territory use different combinations of school assessment and public examinations. In Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory, eligibility to enter higher education is determined from moderated and standardised school assessments. Several education systems are currently reviewing their senior secondary school assessment procedures.
\BDescription:\b Sydney University \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Number of Schools",9,"chart086.cht","f","0"
Of the 9,865 schools operating in Australia in 1995, 7,366 (75%) were government schools operated by the State Directors-General of Education (or equivalent) and 2,499 (25%) were non-government schools.
#
"Number of Students",10,"chart087.cht","f","0"
The number of full-time students attending government schools in 1995 decreased by 7,085 (0.3%) from the 2,214,938 attending in 1994. The number of full-time students attending non-government schools in 1995 increased by 1.9% (17,042) from the 884,442 attending in 1994.
#
"Funding of Schools",11,"chart088.cht","f","0"
Major responsibility for funding government schools lies with State Governments, which provide about 90 per cent of schools' running costs. The Commonwealth contribution represents about 10 per cent.
The Commonwealth is the major source of public funding for non-government schools, providing about 65 per cent, while the States provide about 35 per cent.
#
"Tertiary Education",12,"f\3\tony44.jpg","c","0"
Tertiary education is provided in universities and Technical and Further Education (TAFE) institutions and other Vocational Education and Training (VET) institutions such as theological colleges, private business and commercial colleges and secretarial colleges.
There are 36 public institutions of higher education in the Unified National System (UNS) and one private university (Bond University in Queensland) recognised by the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee (AVCC). Institutions within the UNS receive Commonwealth funding according to an academic profile agreed between them and the Government.
A few institutions of higher education outside the UNS receive Commonwealth funding for teaching courses on a contract basis, and one other private institution (Notre Dame in Western Australia), all of which teach at university level.
\BDescription:\b University of NSW \I(Webster Publishing)\i
Apart from the Australian National University, the University of \JCanberra\j and the Australian Maritime College (not a member of the unified national system), which are established under the Commonwealth legislation, Australian universities operate under State legislation.
They are autonomous bodies responsible for their own governance and make their own decisions on, for example, matters of allocation of their funding, staffing and academic courses.
\BDescription:\b University students \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Vocational Education and Training",14,"h\3\tony48.jpg","c","0"
Most vocational education and training in Australia is provided in government administered colleges, generally referred to as Colleges of Technical and Further Education (TAFEs) or, to a lesser extent, Institutes of Technology. Vocational education and training is also provided in some higher education institutions, schools, agricultural colleges and adult education authorities and by private providers of education, such as business colleges.
\BDescription:\b North Sydney TAFE \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Technical and Further Education Students",15,"chart089.cht","c","0"
The TAFE institutions offer a wide range of vocational and non-vocational training programs, ranging from recreation and leisure, through basic employment and educational preparation to trades, para-professional and professional levels.
Primary responsibility for administration of the TAFE system lies with the State Governments. In 1995, recurrent funding of the TAFE system was about $3.4 billion, of which the States provided 59%, the Commonwealth 23% and the remaining 18% coming from fees and other sources.
Capital funding was $337 million, of which the Commonwealth provided 68% and the States 33%.
The Commonwealth Government and State Governments are strongly committed to provision of quality vocational education and training in Australia, and agreed in 1992 to establish a national vocational education and training system. Under this new system, a Ministerial Council, chaired by the Commonwealth Minister, determines national policy and priorities, strategic directions, funding arrangements and planning processes for vocational education and training, on the advice of the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA), which formally came into operation on 1 January 1994.
As part of the agreement to establish ANTA, the Commonwealth is providing an additional $1.55 billion growth funding for vocational education and training over the four years from 1993 to 1997, while the States are committed to maintaining their effort over the same period.
Not included in the accompanying chart are approximately 25,000 students, in which sex was not stated.
#
"Higher Education",16,"chart091.cht","c","0"
Higher education institutions offer a great variety of courses embracing such areas as agriculture, architecture, arts, business, dentistry, economics, education, engineering, health, law, medicine, music, science and veterinary science.
Fields of study with the largest numbers of award course students in 1995 were Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences (24%); Business Administration, Economics (22%); and Science (15%).
Higher education institutions are funded by the Commonwealth under the \IHigher Education Funding Act 1988.\i In 1994, the operating revenue of UNS institutions amounted to some $6.9 billion, 60% of which came from Commonwealth Government Grants. Commonwealth Government funding is also provided to higher education institutions through various research programs. In 1994, $301 million, or 4% of total revenue, was allocated in this way, almost all on the advice of the Australian Research Council (ARC).
In addition to government funding, institutions receive contributions from students, who are required to contribute to the cost of their education through the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) and from fee paying students. In 1994, 13% of revenue was raised from HECS.
The basic undergraduate course at most institutions is a bachelor degree course of three or four years duration. At some institutions, courses may also be offered at the diploma or associate diploma level.
All institutions in the Unified National System also offer postgraduate level study. One to two years of full-time postgraduate study is required for a master's degree and three to five years for a doctoral degree. Postgraduate diplomas and certificates are offered in some disciplines. In 1995, 77% of higher education students were enrolled in bachelor courses, with a further 21% enrolled in higher degree and other postgraduate courses.
All institutions provide full-time and part-time courses. In addition some institutions offer education courses which associate full-time study with periods of employment. Distance education courses are also offered.
Students can also enrol in higher education courses through the Open Learning Agency of Australia Pty Ltd. In 1995 there were 7,735 students enrolled in OLAA programs.
In 1995, 59% of students were enrolled in full-time study, 29% in part-time study and 12% in external studies.
#
"List of Universities in Australia",20,"g\2\5_0063.jpg","c","0"
\BNew South Wales\b
Australian Catholic University, North Sydney
Charles Sturt University, Bathurst
Macquarie University, North Ryde
Southern Cross University, Lismore
University of New England, Armidale
University of New South Wales, Sydney
University of Newcastle, Newcastle
University of Sydney, Sydney
University of Technology, Sydney
University of Western Sydney, St Marys
University of Wollongong, Wollongong
\BAustralian Capital Territory\b
Australian National University, Canberra
University of Canberra, Belconnen
\BQueensland\b
Bond University, Gold Coast
Central Queensland University, Rockhampton
Griffith University, Nathan
James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville
Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane
Southern Cross University, Gold Coast
University of Queensland, St Lucia
University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba
\BVictoria\b
Deakin University, Geelong
La Trobe University, Bundoora
Monash University, Clayton
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne
Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn
University of Melbourne, Parkville
University of Ballarat, Ballarat
Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne
\BSouth Australia\b
Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide
University of Adelaide, Adelaide
University of South Australia, Adelaide
\BWestern Australia\b
Curtin University of Technology, Perth
Edith Cowan University, Churchlands
Murdoch University, Murdoch
Notre Dame Catholic University
University of Western Australia, Nedlands
\BTasmania\b
University of Tasmania, Hobart
\BNorthern Territory\b
Northern Territory University, Casuarina
\BDescription:\b Sydney University \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Participation in Education",21,"chart094.cht","f","0"
A large proportion of persons in the age group 15 to 24 participate in education well beyond the compulsory school age of 15 (16 in Tasmania).
This chart shows the percentage of 15-24 year olds participating in education. In September 1995, 67% of 17 year olds were still at school while a further 10% had moved on to tertiary education.
Overall, the education participation rate of 15 to 24 year olds in September 1995 was 50%.
#
"Education Attendance and the Labour Force",22,16350057.jpg,g,0
An ABS survey in May 1995 revealed that an estimated 2,234,600 persons aged 15 to 64 years had attended an educational institution in the previous year (compared with 2,166,900 persons in the May 1994 survey). At the time of the survey only 70% (1,562,500) were still attending. Among this group were 68,800 persons who had changed from full-time to part-time study, and 41,900 of these were employed full-time.
Of the 672,100 persons who had ceased education since the previous year, 527,100 were employed; 92,800 were unemployed; and the remaining 52,200 were not in the labour force.
A large number of persons were involved in both study and work. The 1,562,500 persons continuing at an educational institution in May 1995 included 814,500 (52%) employed (374,300 of these in full-time employment) and 104,700 who were looking for work. There were also 22,500 persons who reported combining full-time study and full-time employment.
In May 1995, 4,864,200 (41%) persons aged 15 to 64 had completed a recognised post-school qualification.
A further 6,382,900 (54%) of the population had no recognised post-school qualifications. Of these, 811,300 (7%) were attending a tertiary institution in May 1995. Those persons still at school numbered 626,600 (5%).
Of those with post-school qualifications, the most commonly reported qualification was skilled vocational (for example, trade qualifications etc.) with 1,599,900. Bachelor degrees were reported by 998,700 persons, associate diplomas by 744,700 and 340,300 reported undergraduate diplomas. The smallest category was those with a higher degree, reported by 180,700 persons.
The accompanying table lists the educational attainment, as at May 1995, of all persons, aged 15 to 64.
#
"Government Assistance to Students",24,"spread301.spr","c","0"
In 1995, the Commonwealth Government provided assistance to students through the ABSTUDY, AUSTUDY and Assistance for Isolated Children (AIC) schemes.
AUSTUDY is the Commonwealth Government's means-tested and non-competitive scheme of financial assistance to secondary and tertiary students aged 16 and over.
ABSTUDY represents a major component of the Government's commitment, under the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Policy, to encourage Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to take full advantage of educational opportunities, to promote equality of education, to be involved in decision-making and to improve educational outcomes. The scheme provides financial assistance for Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who undertake approved secondary or tertiary education courses. Assistance is also available to primary students aged 14 and over.
The Assistance for Isolated Children Scheme (AIC) assists the families of primary, secondary, and in limited cases, tertiary students who, because of geographical isolation, a disability or other reason, do not have reasonable daily access to appropriate government schooling. Assistance is available for isolated children who board away from home, study by correspondence, or live in a second home, so that they can attend school daily.
#
!,!,!,!,!
2#
26,0
"Administration and Expenditure",1,"chart079.cht","f","0"
In all States, two systems of criminal justice exist; the federal criminal justice system, based on offences against Commonwealth laws, and the relevant State system, based on offences against State laws. Criminal law is administered principally through the Commonwealth, State and Territorial police forces, the National Crime Authority, and State and Territorial corrective or penal services.
There is no independent federal corrective service, and the relevant State or Territorial agencies provide corrective services for federal offenders.
In 1994-95, $6.25 billion (or approximately $346 per person) was expended by the Commonwealth, State, Territory and local governments on public order and safety. Compared to 1993-94, this represents an increase of 7.6% in total outlays.
#
"Federal Courts",2,"h\3\6_0070.jpg","f","0"
The judicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia is vested in the High Court of Australia, in the federal courts created by the Commonwealth Parliament and in the State courts invested by Parliament with federal jurisdiction.
The nature and extent of the judicial power of the Commonwealth is prescribed by Chapter III of the Australian Constitution.
\BDescription:\b Judges \I(DFAT)\i
#
"High Court of Australia",3,"b\1\6_0065.jpg","c","0"
The Australian Constitution provides that the judicial power of the Commonwealth of Australia should be "vested in a Federal Supreme Court, to be called the High Court of Australia". The Constitution requires that there shall be a Chief Justice and not less than two other Justices of the High Court. Currently there are six other Justices.
The Australian Constitution vests two types of jurisdiction in the High Court: appellate, under section 73; and original, under sections 75 and 76.
Original jurisdiction is conferred by section 38 of the \IJudiciary Act 1903\i in respect of: matters arising under treaty; suits between States; suits by the Commonwealth Government against the State; and matters in which a writ of mandamus or prohibition is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth or of a federal court.
The appellate jurisdiction of the High Court of Australia permits the High Court to grant leave to appeal from decisions of: State Supreme Courts; State courts exercising federal jurisdiction; the Federal Court of Australia; and the Family Court of Australia.
The High Court is the final court of appeal in Australia.
\BDescription:\b High Court of Australia \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Federal Court of Australia",4,"h\3\6_0070.jpg","c","0"
The Federal Court of Australia was created by the \IFederal Court of Australia Act 1976.\i
The Federal Court consists of an Industrial Division and a General Division. Matters arising under the \IIndustrial Relations Act 1988\i are dealt with in the Industrial Division and all other matters are dealt with in the General Division. The Court sits as required in each Australian State, in the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory.
The Federal Court has such original jurisdiction as is invested in it by laws made by the Commonwealth Parliament. Except in cases where a hearing had actually commenced before 1 February 1977, the jurisdiction formerly exercised by, respectively, the Federal Court of Bankruptcy and the Australian Industrial Court have been transferred to the Federal Court.
The Federal Court has been invested with original jurisdiction, concurrent with that of the High Court of Australia, in relation to matters in which a writ of mandamus, prohibition or an injunction is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth of Australia.
The Federal Court has appellate jurisdiction in relation to the decisions of single judges of the Court, decisions of the respective Supreme Courts of the Australian Territories (but not the Northern Territory), and certain decisions of State Supreme Courts when exercising federal jurisdiction.
\BDescription:\b \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Industrial Relations Court of Australia",5,"0","g","0"
The \IIndustrial Relations Reform Act 1993\i repealed Part III of the \IIndustrial Relations Act 1988\i, which gave jurisdiction to the Federal Court. All pending matters in the Federal Court arising under the \IIndustrial Relations Act 1988\i, except those that are part heard, will be transferred to the Industrial Relations Court of Australia. Thereafter, the Federal Court will not deal with matters arising under that Act.
The \IIndustrial Relations Reform Act 1993\i, also affects the CourtÆs jurisdiction in matters under sections 45D and 45E of the \ITrade Practices Act 1974\i. Upon proclamation of the \IIndustrial Relations Reform Act 1993\i, section 45E is repealed, section 45D is amended, and the Industrial Relations Court of Australia and not the Federal Court will have jurisdiction to hear cases dealing with boycott conduct as defined in Division 7 of Part VI of the \IIndustrial Relations Act 1988\i. All pending matters in the Federal Court arising under sections 45D and 45E, except those that are part heard, will be transferred to the Industrial Relations Court of Australia upon the proclamation. The Federal Court will continue to have jurisdiction in relation to the new section 45Dùdealing with conduct (not industrial) with anti-competitive purposes.
#
"Family Law",6,"h\3\6_0070.jpg","c","0"
The \IFamily Law Act 1975,\i which commenced operation on 5 January 1976, introduced a new law dealing with the dissolution and nullity of marriage, custody and welfare of the children, maintenance and the settlement of property between the parties to a marriage in Australia.
The Act also created the Family Court of Australia as a specialist court dealing only with matrimonial and associated proceedings.
The Act provides that there is only one ground for divorce - that of irretrievable breakdown of a marriage - which ground is established if the husband and wife have been separated and have lived apart from each other for 12 months, and there is no reasonable likelihood of their reconciliation.
\BDescription:\b \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Family Court of Australia",7,"chart207.cht","c","0"
Proceedings under the Family Law Act in the Family Court are heard in open court, although persons may be excluded from the Court by court order. Some proceedings may be heard in chambers. No publicity that identifies the person or persons involved in any proceedings under the Act is permitted unless otherwise directed by the Court.
The publication of law court lists and law reports, or other publications of a technical character directed to the legal or medical professions, is, however, exempted from this prohibition.
In 1996 there were 52,466 divorces granted, an increase over the 1994 figure of 48,256.
#
"State and Territory Courts",8,"b\1\6_0065.jpg","c","0"
Australian State and Territory courts have original jurisdiction in all matters brought under State or Territory statute laws, and in matters arising under federal laws, where such matters have not been specifically reserved to courts of federal jurisdiction.
Most criminal matters, whether arising under Commonwealth, State or Territory law, are dealt with by State or Territory courts.
\BDescription:\b \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Types of Courts",9,"g\6\1_0082.jpg","c","0"
The States may vary slightly in the types and names of courts available, but in general include the following:
* Supreme Court, the highest court in the State, which can hear both criminal and civil matters. This court also includes a court of appeal.
* District Court, which can also hear civil and criminal matters of a slightly lesser nature than the Supreme Court. It also can hear appeals from lower courts.
* Lower Courts, which may be called Local Courts, Magistrate's Courts or Courts of Petty Sessions, depending upon the State. These courts hear minor civil issues, minor criminal charges and committal proceedings for serious criminal charges to be heard in the District or Supreme Courts.
* Children's Court for juvenile offenders
* Coroner's Court for investigating natural and unnatural deaths and similar matters.
\BDescription:\b Goulburn Courthouse \I(DFAT)\i
#
"The Police",10,"h\3\police.jpg","c","0"
Australia is served by eight police forces: one in each State and the Northern Territory, and the Australian Federal Police who are also responsible for policing the Australian Capital Territory. The National Crime Authority also has a policing role.
The principal duties of the police are the prevention and detection of crime, the protection of life and property, and the enforcement of law to maintain peace and good order. They may perform a variety of additional duties in the service of the State, including prosecution of summary offences, regulation of street traffic, acting as clerks of petty sessions, Crown land bailiffs, mining wardens and inspectors under the Fisheries and other relevant Acts.
With the exception of the Australian Federal Police and the National Crime Authority, police forces in Australia are under the control of the State and Northern Territory Governments, but their members perform certain functions on behalf of the Commonwealth Government, such as the registration of aliens, and in conjunction with the Australian Federal Police and other Commonwealth officers they enforce various Commonwealth Acts and Regulations.
\BDescription:\b Australia's police at work \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Australian Federal Police (AFP)",11,chart080.cht.jpg,g,0
The AFP is a Commonwealth Statutory Authority brought into existence by the \IAustralian Federal Police Act 1979.\i The AFP has its headquarters in Canberra. Its Criminal Investigations Program is conducted through six Regional Commands, its Headquarters Investigations Department and its numerous Liaison Officers in many overseas countries.
In the Australian Capital Territory, the AFP provides a full range of general community policing services, including traffic control, special operations, search and rescue services and conventional crime investigations.
The Australian Federal Police is responsible for the prevention, detection and investigation of criminal offences such as drug offences, money laundering, organised crime, identifying the proceeds of crime, and fraud against Commonwealth revenue and expenditure such as social security fraud and taxation fraud.
#
"National Crime Authority (NCA)",12,0,g,0
The NCA was established by the Commonwealth Government in July 1984 as provided by the \INational Crime Authority Act 1984.\i Similar legislation was passed in each State, the Northern Territory and subsequently the Australian Capital Territory, to underpin the work of the NCA in those jurisdictions, making the NCA the only law enforcement agency in Australia whose investigations are not limited by jurisdictional or territorial boundaries.
The decision to establish the NCA was taken in response to the findings of several Royal Commissions conducted in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which revealed the extent of organised criminal activity in Australia. The NCA's mission is to counteract organised criminal activity and reduce its impact on the Australian community, working in cooperation and partnership with other agencies.
#
"Police Force Sizes",13,chart080.cht.jpg,c,0
The number of sworn police officers is shown in this chart. The figures have been supplied by the respective police agencies, and are not directly comparable (for example, the figures do not differentiate between full-time and part-time officers).
AFP stands for Australian Federal Police.
#
"Drug Offences",14,spread219.spr.jpg,c,0
To combat the perceived serious and growing threat posed by the traffic in and abuse of drugs of dependence, there is close cooperation between the Commonwealth Government, State and Territory Governments, the various police forces, and other agencies.
In addition to other law enforcement agencies, the Australian Customs Service has responsibility for the enforcement of laws controlling the illicit importing and exporting of drugs.
A total of 54,815 arrests were made for drug-related offences in Australia during 1994, with 85% being for cannabis.
This table shows estimates of drug seizures by commonwealth agencies.
#
"Crimes, Introduction",15,"0","g","0"
This section presents statistics on crimes recorded by State and Territory police forces in Australia. The statistics have been compiled according to national standards and classifications prepared by the ABS and provide a measure of the level of crime in Australia. There is considerable variation in the criminal laws of Australian States and Territories and this section includes only those crimes for which nationally comparable definitions have been developed. We also present information about where offences took place, whether a weapon was used, and information about the age and sex of victims and their relationship to the offender.
Users of these statistics should be aware of several issues relating to their interpretation. These statistics only cover crimes reported to, or otherwise detected by, police. Not all crime comes to the attention of police. In order to gain a more comprehensive picture of the nature and extent of crime, these statistics should be complemented with information from other sources such as the series of national and State crime victims surveys conducted by the ABS. In addition, fluctuations in recorded crime from month-to-month and year-to-year may be influenced by changes in community attitudes in reporting crime, changes in police procedures, or changes in crime reporting systems rather than a change in the incidence of criminal behaviour.
#
"Crimes, Summary of Findings",16,"chart211.cht","c","0"
Some of the major findings contained in this section are as follows:
╖ Police recorded 321 victims of murder in Australia in 1995, 11.5% higher than the 1994 total. Weapons were used in 66% of murders and the weapon was a firearm in 18% of cases. Private dwellings were the location of 57% of murders.
╖ A total of 665 victims were killed as a result of murder, manslaughter and culpable driving in Australia during 1995.
╖ Over 100,000 people were victims of assault in Australia in 1995 and more than 40% of victims were between 20-34 years of age. Most victims (58%) were male.
╖ There were 12,809 victims of sexual assault in Australia during 1995. Victims were aged less than 20 years in 61% of cases. Females were the victim in 82% of recorded sexual assaults. The most frequent location for sexual assault was a private dwelling (57%).
╖ A total of 16,466 victims of robbery were recorded by police in 1995. Weapons were used in 40% of these robberies and in 13% of cases, the weapon was a firearm. The most common site for armed robbery was retail premises (47%), with unarmed robberies most frequently occurring on a street or footpath.
╖ A total of 384,897 victims of unlawful entry with intent (burglary/break and enter) were recorded in 1995. In almost 79% of cases the intention was to steal property. In 59% of cases of unlawful entry with intent, the location was a private dwelling.
╖ Nationally, 126,919 motor vehicles were recorded stolen in 1995. The most common location for the theft to occur was in the street (37%).
╖ A total of 489,785 victims of other theft (not involving unlawful entry or motor vehicle theft) were recorded. Retail premises were the location in 25% of cases.
#
"Murder and Attempted Murder",17,"chart210.cht","c","0"
There were 321 murders recorded in Australia during 1995, a rate of 1.8 victims per 100,000 people. This represents an increase of 11.5% from the 1994 total of 288. During 1993, police recorded 300 victims of murder across Australia.
The majority of murder victims were males (58%), and 55% were aged between 20-44 years. The most common site of murder was a private dwelling (57% of cases) and most murders were committed with some type of weapon (66%). A firearm was used in 18% of murders. For those jurisdictions where data on the relationship between the victim and the offender was available, the majority of murders were committed by someone known to the victim.
The jurisdictions recording the highest murder rates were the Northern Territory with 12.7 victims per 100,000 people and Western Australia with a rate of 2.54 victims for every 100,000 people. The lowest murder rates were recorded in the Australian Capital Territory (0.33 victims per 100,000) and Tasmania (1.27 victims per 100,000).
Police recorded 301 victims of attempted murder in 1995 with a similar pattern of offence location and victim characteristics to that of actual murders. In 75% of cases, a weapon was involved. The weapon was a firearm in 27% of attempted murder cases.
Australian police recorded 314 victims of culpable driving in 1995 and another 30 people died as a result of manslaughter offences. Six manslaughter offences were committed with weapons (20%).
#
"Assault",18,"chart212.cht","c","0"
The largest category of offences against a person in 1995 was assault, which is the direct infliction of force, injury or violence upon a person including attempts or threats.
Police recorded 101,149 assaults in 1995, a rate of 560 victims per 100,000 people. Males constituted 58% of assault victims, and the highest rate of assault was for victims aged between 20-34 years (41%).
The most frequent locations of assault offences were private dwellings (31%), streets and footpaths (25%) and recreational facilities (8.2%). Approximately 10% of assaults involved a weapon.
The highest rate of assault was recorded in the Northern Territory with 1,167 per 100,000 people, while Victoria recorded the lowest rate of 351 for every 100,000 people.
#
"Sexual Assault",19,"chart213.cht","c","0"
Sexual assault is physical assault of a sexual nature towards another person where that person does not give consent, or gives consent as a result of intimidation or fraud, or is legally deemed incapable of giving consent because of youth or temporary/permanent incapacity.
There were 12,809 victims of sexual assault recorded by police in 1995, a rate of 71 victims per 100,000 people. The 1995 data represent an increase of 0.7% on the 1994 figure of 12,722 and are also comparable to the 1993 figure of 12,555. Over 80% of victims were female, and victims aged 14 years or younger made up 42% of cases, with a further 19% aged between 15-19 years.
The most common locations for sexual assaults were private dwellings (57%), followed by streets and footpaths (8.5%) and open space (4.7%). A weapon was used in 2% of sexual assaults.
South Australia and Western Australia had the highest rates of sexual assault in Australia at 92.1 and 103 per 100,000 people respectively. The lowest rates of 24.7 and 33.8 respectively were recorded in the Australian Capital Territory and Tasmania.
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"Kidnapping/abduction",20,"chart214.cht","c","0"
Kidnapping/abduction is the unlawful seizing or taking away of another person by force, deception, against that person's will or against the will of any parent, guardian or other person having lawful custody or care of that person.
Australian police recorded 469 victims of kidnapping/abduction in 1995, a rate of 2.6 per 100,000 people. The victim was aged less than 15 years in 45% of cases and 62% of victims were aged less than 20 years. Females were the victim in 66% of cases, and males in 33% of offences.
The most common place for the offence to occur was the street or footpath, from where 49% of victims were taken. The other common location recorded for kidnapping or abduction was private dwellings, from which 19% of victims were taken. Weapons were used in the kidnapping/abduction of 11% of victims. A firearm was recorded as the weapon in 2.6% of cases.
New South Wales accounted for 178 or 38% of these victims, a rate of 2.9 per 100,000 people. South Australia and the Northern Territory recorded higher rates at 5.3 and 6.3 respectively.
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"Robbery",21,chart215.cht.jpg,c,0
Robbery is the unlawful taking of property, without consent, under confrontational circumstances from the immediate possession, control, custody or care of a person accompanied by force or threat of force or violence and/or placing the victim in fear.
New South Wales progressively introduced a new offence recording system from April 1994. Under the new system, victims of robbery in New South Wales include trauma victims as well as those suffering financial loss, a category of victim not included under the previous system. The comparability of data for New South Wales and Australia with other jurisdictions and for earlier periods has been affected as a consequence.
A total of 16,466 victims of robbery were recorded in Australia during 1995 of which 6,631 (40%) were armed robberies and 9,835 were unarmed robberies. A firearm was used in the commission of 13% of robberies. In 1994 armed robbery victims constituted 36% of total recorded robbery victims and 42% in 1993.
During 1995, males were the victims of armed robbery in 46% of cases, 26% of victims were female and 25% of victims were organisations or businesses.
There were 9,835 victims of unarmed robbery, representing 60% of the total number of robbery victims reported to police. Victims of unarmed robbery constituted 64% of robbery victims in 1994 and 58% in 1993. In 1995, most victims of unarmed robbery were male (59%), 32% were female, and the victim was an organisation or business in 7% of cases.
Disparate location data were recorded for armed robberies and unarmed robberies. For example, the most common location for armed robbery was retailing locations (47%), while most unarmed robberies were from community locations such as streets and footpaths (46%). Slightly more than 13% of unarmed robberies were from retail locations.
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"Blackmail/extortion",22,"chart216.cht","c","0"
Victims of blackmail/extortion numbered 152 for Australia in 1995 (a rate of 0.8 per 100,000 people). There were 56 victims recorded in Victoria (1.24 per 100,000 people) and 51 in Queensland (1.56), while Tasmania (0.42) and the Northern Territory (1.15) recorded lower counts of two victims each, with one victim in the Australian Capital Territory. Police recorded 156 and 142 victims of blackmail/extortion in 1994 and 1993 respectively.
#
"Unlawful Entry with Intent (UEWI)",23,"chart217.cht","c","0"
Offences involving UEWI are often described as burglary or break and enter offences. A total of 384,897 premises were recorded by police as having been victims of these offences in 1995. In almost 80% of cases, the intention was to steal property. Across Australia, a total of 184,653 private dwellings were recorded as the victims of an unlawful entry offence related to property theft. A further 40,767 private dwellings were recorded as the victim of other types of unlawful entry offences.
Instances of UEWI offences have been relatively consistent over recent years with 379,505 recorded in 1994 and 382,245 in 1993.
Victimisation rates for the States and Territories vary with the highest rate per 100,000 people occurring in Western Australia (3,524) and the Northern Territory (3,039). The lowest rates were recorded in Victoria (1,575) and the Australian Capital Territory (1,602).
#
"Motor Vehicle Theft",24,"chart218.cht","c","0"
A total of 126,919 motor vehicles were recorded stolen in Australia in 1995. The most common location for motor vehicle thefts was streets (37% of thefts), followed by car parks (19%) and garages and driveways associated with residences (17%).
The incidence of motor vehicle theft has increased over the last two years, with 112,578 recorded in 1993, increasing to 119,469 (a 6.1% increase) in 1994 with a further 6.2% increase to the 1995 total of 126,919.
The highest victimisation rates, in terms of population, occurred in Western Australia, with 1,032 motor vehicles stolen for every 100,000 people, and New South Wales, which recorded a rate of 762 per 100,000 people. Tasmania recorded the lowest rate, at 476 per 100,000 people with the Australian Capital Territory the next lowest at 512.
#
"Correctional Services",25,chart219.cht,c,0
Correctional services are responsible for administering those penalties handed down by the criminal courts which require some form of supervision of the offender. This may include imprisonment on either a full or part-time basis, community service and other forms of supervised work, home detention or good behaviour bonds under supervision.
All States and the Northern Territory operate prisons and other correctional services. Separate provisions exist in each State and Territory for dealing with juvenile offenders. Convicted adult prisoners from the Australian Capital Territory serve their sentences in New South Wales prisons.
The total prison population in Australia has grown from 9,826 in 1982 to 16,944 in 1994. The unsentenced prisoner population, that is, prisoners awaiting their court trial, has grown from 996 in 1982 to 1,946 in 1994, while the population of sentenced prisoners has grown from 8,830 to 14,998 in 1994.
In December 1995, the prison population in Australia averaged 16,059, a rate of 117.5 per 100,000 adult population. By far the majority of prisoners were male (95%). Prisoners also tended to be relatively young (median age of 31 years).
The most common offences for males in 1995 were sexual offences, break and enter, robbery and assault. For women, the most common offences were fraud and misappropriation, dealing and trafficking in drugs, and break and enter.
New South Wales accounts for the majority of Australian prisoners, with 45% of the total. The next largest jurisdiction is Victoria, with only 15% of the total.
Overall imprisonment rates also vary between jurisdictions. The average daily prison population rate for the Northern Territory is over twice that of the next largest jurisdiction, Western Australia.
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"Indigenous Imprisonment",26,chart242.cht,c,0
There are three different indices used to measure indigenous imprisonment in Australia: the number of indigenous prisoners; the number as a proportion of the adult indigenous population (rate per 100,000 adult indigenous population); and the comparison (ratio) of indigenous to non-indigenous rates of imprisonment.
Based on counts taken on or near the first day of the month, in the June quarter 1996 the number of indigenous persons in prison in Australia averaged 3,136 (19% of all prisoners in Australia).
The national indigenous imprisonment rate for the quarter was 1,768 per 100,000 adult indigenous population and the ratio of indigenous to non-indigenous rates of imprisonment was around 18:1, that is, the national rate of indigenous imprisonment was 18 times greater than the rate of non-indigenous imprisonment.
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15,0
"Commonwealth Health Responsibilities",1,tony25.jpg,c,0
At the national level, health services in Australia are administered by the Commonwealth Government, through two ministers appointed to the Portfolio of Health and Family Services. The Minister for Health and Family Services takes an overview role for the whole portfolio and is responsible for most of the health services, including Medicare benefits, pharmaceutical benefits, hospitals, private health insurance and medical workforce issues, public health, and Aboriginal health issues. The Minister for Family Services is responsible for certain services, including family and children's services, aged and community care services, and disability programs.
The Minister for Veterans' Affairs also administers health services for ex-service personnel and their dependants.
The State and Territory Governments are heavily involved in the direct provision of health services. Each has a Minister who is responsible to the Government of the particular State or Territory for the administration of its health authorities.
In some States/Territories, the responsibility for health services is shared by several authorities, while in others one authority is responsible for all these functions.
Five National Health Priority Areas have been agreed between the Commonwealth and the States/Territories - cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, injury prevention and mental health.
The following pages provide up-to-date summaries of various health status factors as contained in the \IAustralian Bureau of Statistics 1997 Year Book.\i
\BDescription:\b Donating blood \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Private Health Insurance",3,chart076.cht.jpg,c,0
The steady decline in the proportion of the population covered by private health insurance for hospital cover has continued, falling from 44.5% in June 1990 to 31.9% in July 1997.
The Federal Government has set a target of 35.5% coverage by July 1988. The health insurance rebate scheme, effective from 1 July 1997, is said to be an incentive for people to take out private health insurance.
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"Overweight and Obesity",4,"chart196.cht","f","0"
Overweight and obesity are risk factors for many health conditions, including coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, high blood pressure, diabetes and respiratory and musculoskeletal problems.
This chart shows the percentage of people overweight in 1989-90 and 1994-95.
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"Physical Activity",5,"chart197.cht","f","0"
Regular physical activity is important in the prevention of many health conditions, including coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis and obesity. It also provides health benefits associated with improved self esteem.
This chart shows the percentage of the population that engages in physical activity in 1989-90 and 1994-95.
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"Use of Tobacco",6,"chart198.cht","f","0"
Tobacco smoking is a risk factor for heart disease, stroke, lung cancer and chronic lung disease.
In 1994-95, approximately 3.2 million adult Australians were smokers, compared with 3.5 million in 1989-90. In 1994-95, a higher proportion of men (27.3%) were smokers than women (22.7%). Twice as many young adults (aged 18-34 years) were smokers (31.2%) as adults aged 55 years and over (15.5%).
This chart shows the various percentages for 1989-90 and 1994-95.
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"Use of Alcohol",7,"chart199.cht","f","0"
High levels of alcohol consumption have been linked to increased risk of heart disease, stroke, brain and liver damage, and some cancers. Alcohol intoxication is also a leading cause of road traffic accidents.
In 1994-95, 8% of adult Australians drank alcohol at levels considered by the National Health and Medical Research Council to be dangerous to their health. This percentage has decreased since 1989-90, when 11% of adults drank at dangerous levels. In 1994-95, men were nearly twice as likely to drink at risk levels (9.7%) as women (5.5%). The age group most likely to drink at risk levels was the 18-34 years age group (8.9%).
This chart shows the percentages of the male and female population at risk levels.
#
"Use of Illicit Drugs",8,"indi0032.jpg","c","0"
The 1995 National Drug Strategy Household Survey found that, of persons aged 14 years and over, respondents were most likely to have ever tried marijuana/hash (31%). The next highest category was amphetamines (6%). Thirteen per cent of respondents had used marijuana/hash in the twelve months prior to the survey, and 2% had used amphetamines. In the twelve months before the survey, each of the following drugs had been used by 1% of respondents: cocaine/crack, hallucinogens, inhalants, ecstasy/designer drugs and injected drugs.
The 1995 National Drug Strategy Household Survey asked respondents what drugs they thought of when people spoke about a drug problem. Heroin and marijuana were each mentioned by 28% of respondents. Thirteen per cent mentioned alcohol, 7% mentioned cocaine, 4% mentioned amphetamines and 5% mentioned tobacco.
\BDescription:\b A marijuana plant \I(Luke Fallon)\i
#
"Use of Medication",9,"spread430.spr","c","0"
The Drug Utilization Sub-Committee (DUSC), which maintains a database that estimates community prescription drug use in Australia, reports that 173 million prescriptions were dispensed in 1995. Of the ten most commonly used prescription drugs in the community, two were antibiotics, two were pain relievers, and two were used in the management of high blood pressure. Other commonly prescribed types of medication were for the treatment of asthma, the management of duodenal and gastric ulcers, insomnia and a cholesterol-lowering drug.
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"Dental Health",10,"chart200.cht","f","0"
According to the 1996 National Dental Telephone Interview Survey, an estimated 9.7 million people aged 5 years and over had a dental consultation in the twelve months prior to survey interview. The most common types of treatment or service received were teeth cleaned and scaled (65.6%) and teeth filled (41.4%).
Males (44.2%) were more likely to have had teeth filled than females (38.9%). The type of treatment or service provided varied with age. Those aged 5 to 24 years were less likely to have teeth filled than older age groups.
Under the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System, State and Territory health authorities submit reports of communicable disease notifications for compilation by the Commonwealth Department of Health and Family Services. Since 1991, 44 diseases have been included, as recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council.
This table shows the number of cases notified in 1993 and 1994. (You will need to use the scroll buttons on the extreme right of the screen to view the full list of diseases in this table.)
#
"HIV and AIDS",12,"spread125.spr","c","0"
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) surveillance is conducted by the National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research in collaboration with the State and Territory health authorities and the Commonwealth of Australia.
A total of 19,453 HIV diagnoses had been reported to 31 December, 1995. Of these, 6,567 cases had been diagnosed as having AIDS and 4,723 of those had died. Of all persons who were diagnosed as having HIV, 12,776 reported the source of exposure to the virus. Of these, 80.5 per cent reported male homosexual/bisexual contact as the exposure category.
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"Causes of Death",13,"spread218.spr","f","0"
In comparison with other countries, Australia ranks amongst those with the lowest mortality levels and the highest expectations of life.
The number of deaths registered in 1995 was 125,124.
This table illustrates selected causes of death in Australia for 1995, broken down into States. The figures are given per 100,000 of population.
Rd Acc. stands for road accidents.
#
"Health Work Force",14,"chart073.cht","c","0"
According to labour force estimates, in 1995-96 there were approximately 268,800 people employed in health occupations in Australia, comprising just over 3% of the total number of employed people. The largest component of the medical workforce was registered nurses (160,500 people), of whom 92.3% were women.
There were approximately 30,800 general medical practitioners in 1995-96 and 15,000 specialist medical practitioners. About 75% of general medical practitioners and 77.3% of specialist medical practitioners were male.
The accompanying bar chart shows the number of people employed in five major areas of the health industry in 1995-96.
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"Health Expenditure",15,"chart075.cht","f","0"
Total health expenditure (both public and private sectors) in 1994-95 was $38,500 million or $2,145 per person. Health expenditure per person increased at an average annual rate of 2.8% in real terms between 1982-83 and 1994-95. Health expenditure as a proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated to be 8.4% in 1994-95.
Health expenditure by Australian Governments in 1994-95 was $26.3 billion or $1,468 per person.
This chart shows the health expenditure for 1994-95 plus the previous two years.
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7,0
"Involvement and Expenditure",1,"spread303.spr","c","0"
Australia's involvement in Social Security began with the introduction of old-age and invalid pensions in 1910 and maternity allowances in 1912. Social security payments of this kind, then considered radical, gained Australia a reputation as a pioneer in public welfare.
Today, the social security system in Australia provides income support to people and families who are without adequate income for reasons such as age, disability, unemployment or sole parenthood. It also provides the framework to support access to employment for those with the ability to participate in the workforce.
The expenditure on social security and welfare programs in 1995-96 was $37 billion.
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"Retired People",2,"chart144.cht","c","0"
Pensions are subject to income and assets test, and Australian residency requirements must be met. The age pension is available to men who are over 65 and women who are over 60 years and six months. The minimum qualifying age will be increased by six months at two year intervals from July 1995 until July 2013, when it will be 65 years.
Pensioners may also qualify for a range of concessions.
Australia has social security agreements with the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italy, Canada, Spain, Malta, Ireland, Portugal, Cyprus, the Netherlands and Austria.
The Federal Government funds a range of home and community support and transport services for frail older people and younger people with disabilities at home, as well as a benefit to people who care for chronically ill relatives at home.
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"Sick and Disabled People",3,"chart146.cht","c","0"
Disability Support Pension is paid to a person aged 16 or over who has a physical, intellectual or psychiatric impairment of at least 20% and who is assessed as being unable to work for at least 30 hours a week at full award wages, or to be retrained for such work, for at least two years.
Disability Support Pensioners and other people with disabilities can gain access to rehabilitation, training, labour market programs or labour force re-entry assistance.
Carer Pension is paid to people who are without other means of support because they are providing constant care or supervision to a person with a physical, intellectual or psychiatric disability.
Child Disability Allowance is payable to parents or guardians of a child under 16 years or a full-time student aged 16 to 21 years who lives in the family home, whose physical, intellectual or psychiatric disability requires a high level of daily care and attention.
Sickness Allowance is paid to people over school leaving age who are temporarily unable to work or continue with their full-time studies because of sickness.
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"Unemployed People",4,"chart147.cht","c","0"
Prior to September 1996 income support for unemployed adults consisted of two separate payments: Job Search Allowance (JSA) for those who had been unemployed for less than 12 months and Newstart Allowance (NSA) for those who had been unemployed for a year or more. From September 1996, JSA and NSA were amalgamated into a single payment called Newstart Allowance.
To be eligible for NSA, a person must be willing to undertake suitable paid work. NSA recipients must also be registered with the Commonwealth Employment Service (CES), must be taking reasonable steps to obtain work and must not be unemployed due to industrial action. Recipients of NSA must be permanent residents of Australia. Eligibility is subject to income and assets tests.
Youth Training Allowance (YTA) is paid to unemployed people under the age of 18 years participating in the Youth Training Initiative (YTI) which seeks to ensure that young people do not become long-term unemployed.
From 1 July 1995, Partner Allowance is payable to partners of persons in receipt of Job Search, Newstart, Sickness Allowance, Special Benefit, Rehabilitation Allowance, Age Pension, Disability Support Pension, Disability Wage Supplement, Mature Age Allowance or the Department of Veterans' Affairs Service Pension.
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"Families with Children",5,"spread431.spr","c","0"
Family Payment is payable, subject to income and assets tests, to a person in respect of dependent children under 16 years or dependent full-time students aged 16 to 18 years who are not in receipt of a pension, benefit or allowance in their own right or a prescribed education scheme payment.
Family Payment comprises a minimum rate of payment available to most families with children and a higher rate of payment which is provided to low income families.
An additional allowance, also subject to income and assets tests, is payable in respect of multiple (three or more) births until the children turn six years.
Generally, to be granted family payment, the person and the child must be in Australia and be Australian citizens, or have been given permission to remain in Australia permanently.
At June 1996 there were 1,827,861 families receiving family payment. Expenditure on family payment for 1995-96 was $5.877 billion.
The Commonwealth Government announced the family tax initiative from 1 January 1997 to provide additional assistance to most families with children. The majority of eligible families receive assistance through the taxation system.
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"Families with Children - (2)",6,"chart194.cht","0","c"
Sole Parent Pension may be paid to a person who has a child under 16 years or a child attracting child disability allowance, and who is a natural or adopted child, and in the person's legal custody.
Sole Parent Pension may be paid to: a person who is not a member of a couple (including widowed, divorced, separated or unmarried persons); a person whose legal or de facto partner has been in gaol for at least 14 days; a person who is unable to live with his or her partner or de facto partner in the matrimonial home because of the spouse's or de facto partner's long-term illness or infirmity; a person who satisfies the residency qualification; and a person who has taken reasonable action to obtain child support, if appropriate.
At June 1996 there were 342,290 recipients of the Sole Parent Pension. Total expenditure on Sole Parent Pension for 1995-96 was $2.76 billion.
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"Additional Allowances for Families",7,family.jpg,c,g
Parenting Allowance, which incorporates the former Home Child Care Allowance, was introduced from 1 July 1995 as a payment for partners of income suport recipients (both allowees and pensioners), partners of low income earners and those with low personal income. At June 1996 there were 660,347 Parenting Allowees. Expenditure on Parenting Allowance for 1995-96 was $2,091 million.
Maternity Allowance was introduced from February 1996. This payment assists families with the costs associated with a new baby (including forgone income as a result of the mother being unable to participate in the paid workforce around the time of the birth of the child). Maternity Allowance is a non-taxable, lump sum payment for each new child to families who meet the Family Payment residence, income and assets tests.
\BDescription:\b Family outing \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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7,0
"Working Conditions",1,"h\3\5_0085.jpg","c","0"
Working conditions are regulated by legislation and industrial awards. Awards are legal decisions made by independent industrial tribunals which govern pay and conditions of employment.
Under the Constitution, the power of the Australian Parliament to regulate labour relations is limited to conciliation and arbitration of industrial disputes extending beyond one State. State parliaments can regulate industrial relations within their borders. Industrial tribunals exist at a federal level and in all States except Victoria.
In recent years there has been a gradual decentralisation of the wages system, with greater emphasis on wage increases and an industry or enterprise being tied to productivity improvements in that industry or enterprise.
Superannuation is an area that has seen marked change in recent years. By the beginning of the next century, it is estimated that working Australians will be saving 15% of their wage into superannuation funds.
\BDescription:\b Men working in a factory \I(DFAT).\i
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"Labour Force",2,"chart142.cht","c","0"
In August 1997, Australia's labour force averaged 8.3 million - 6.2 million people worked full-time.
Manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, construction and community services accounted for 62 per cent of all employment. The unemployment rate for 15-19 year olds as at August 1997 was 27.3 per cent. The unemployment rate in August 1997 was 8.7 per cent.
One of the most important labour force measurements is the participation rate, which represents the proportion of the working age population who are in the labour force. In August 1997, the participation rate was 62 per cent.
This chart shows the unemployment rates for 1984, 1988, 1993, 1995 and 1997.
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"Associations and Unions",3,"chart143.cht","c","0"
Towards the end of 1997 about 2.1 million employees (31 per cent) were union members. This figure is way down from the 2.5 million or 46 per cent of the workforce in 1986. This is mainly due to the Federal Government's introduced legislation outlawing compulsory unionism.
At June 1995 there were 142 trade unions in Australia, with numbers falling substantially as a result of amalgamations.
The number of trade unions with less than 1,000 members has decreased from 124 in 1991 to 69 in 1995.
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"Wages and Conditions",4,"f\4\5_0074.jpg","c","0"
Federal and State industrial tribunals regulate rates of pay and conditions for 80 per cent of employees covered by awards or industrial agreements.
Most awards prescribe minimum rates. Management and labour may negotiate above-award rates and conditions. They may also register agreements which apply only to their individual enterprise.
Well over one third of the employees within the federal system are covered by such agreements, and this number is rapidly increasing. These agreements cannot undermine the basic standards established in awards.
\BDescription:\b Working conditions in a factory \I(DFAT)\i
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"Wages and Conditions - (2)",5,"spread243.spr","c","0"
Although award rates are fixed without regard to the sex of the employee, women's average weekly earnings in the private sector are about 80.2% of men's earnings. In the public sector, women's weekly earnings are approximately 89% of men's earnings.
The standard working week in Australia is 38 hours in most industries, and significant flexibility in the arrangement of working hours has been introduced. Almost all employees receive four weeks paid annual leave.
This table shows average weekly earnings of Australia's working population from 1988 to 1997.
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"Superannuation for Employees",6,"spread432.spr",c,0
Over recent years superannuation has assumed a major role in Australian industrial relations and government policy on labour and social welfare. Less than a decade ago superannuation was available as an employment benefit only to a select group of occupations and industries. Most workers had to rely on personal savings and the age pension for income in their retirement. In response to the expected increase in age pension liabilities as the Australian population ages, moves were made by the Government for workers to be more reliant on superannuation in retirement.
In 1992 the Superannuation Guarantee Charge was introduced, which aimed to extend superannuation coverage to all employees and progressively increase the level of superannuation contributions.
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"Training Employees",7,5_0057.jpg,c,typing0
Training continues to be a major element of labour market reform in Australia. The 1993 Survey of Training and Education found that in the 12 months prior to that survey, an estimated 86% of those who had a wage or salary job in that 12 months undertook some form of training. The greatest proportion of wage or salary earners by occupation who undertook training in 1993 were professionals. An estimated 96% of professionals received some form of training in the 12 month period and 70% undertook study or training courses. Plant and machine operators, and drivers, had the lowest proportion receiving some form of training (72%).
Improved work performance was reported by 80% of employers as a reason for training employees.
\BDescription:\b Employee training is a major element of the labour market \I(DFAT)\i
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42,0
"Introduction to International Relations",1,"h\3\tony34.jpg","c","0"
The basic condition underlying the shaping and conduct of Australia's foreign policy is that Australia is a significant middle-level power with a strong Asia-Pacific orientation.
Australia has a wide spread of regional and global interests, not least as a major trader and a country of immigration. Trade and investment with the Asia-Pacific region and with the Americas and Europe, make a significant contribution to Australia's prosperity. It is a relatively affluent and resource-rich country in a populous and dynamic region.
The political, economic and strategic importance to Australia of the countries of the Asia-Pacific region has led to the development of broader and deeper relationships with those countries, including with the United States where we share an enduring alliance relationship. At the same time, links with Britain and other European countries are important features in Australian foreign policy in terms of cultural traditions, security, strategic interests, trade and investment.
The Asia-Pacific region as a whole now accounts for about half of global production and about 40% of global trade. More than 60% of Australian merchandise exports are sold to Asian economies, and North Asia and South East Asia accounted for over 60% of Australia's total growth in merchandise exports between 1983 and 1993. Of Australia's top 12 markets, 11 are members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group.
Awareness of the growing nexus between security and economic development has led successive Australian Governments to promote and maintain friendly and cooperative relations with the countries of the Asia-Pacific region, both as a means to secure our strategic interests and to develop mutually profitable trade and investment links and exchanges of technology. Australia gives special attention to its regional neighbours such as the United States, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the member countries of ASEAN (the Association of South East Asian Nations), New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and the other South Pacific countries.
International issues including global trade rules, economic cooperation, arms control and disarmament, conflict prevention and resolution, global environmental protection, human rights, status of women, refugees and post-cold war world security have assumed importance, together with an increasing recognition of the growing interdependence of the world community. Australia regards as a high priority its participation in the resolution of these global issues not only in the United Nations and other multilateral forums, such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO), but also in the regional context through plurilateral bodies such as APEC.
\BDescription:\b Parliament House \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Indonesia",2,"h\3\20610064.jpg","c","0"
Indonesia's importance to Australia is dictated by its position as Australia's largest, most populous neighbour, its location across important air and sea routes, its key role in regional affairs, and its export and investment market potential. Australia's relationship with Indonesia is a vital part of its engagement with Asia and provides a springboard for closer strategic and economic involvement in South East Asia. Australia also works closely with Indonesia on multilateral issues and in major regional forums, particularly APEC and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF).
The Australia-Indonesia Agreement on Maintaining Security, which was signed in 1995, is a significant and natural extension of this cooperation between Australia and Indonesia. It sets out the common interests of both countries in the peace and security of the region and underlines the intention of both to cooperate in support of our long shared long-term strategic interests. The Australia-Indonesia Ministerial Forum, which meets every two years, gives government impetus to strengthening and broadening the bilateral economic relationship.
\BDescription:\b Indonesian women performing a traditional dance \I(Claire Leimbach)\i
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"Australia's Relations with The Philippines",3,0,g,0
The bilaterial relationship with the Philippines is friendly and long-standing. The 50th anniversary of Australia-Philippines diplomatic relations occurred in 1996. Under the administration of President Fidel Ramos, the Philippines is experiencing a new era of political stability and economic growth since 1992. Gross National Product (GNP) grew by 5.5% in 1995 and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted growth of at least 6.5% in 1996. The Philippines has also reoriented its foreign policy away from the United States towards its own region. Aside from its membership of ASEAN, the Philippines is an active supporter of APEC, which it chaired during 1996, and the ASEAN Regional Forum. In the past five years, Australia's two-way trade with the Philippines has more than doubled.
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"Australia's Relations with Singapore",4,"0","g","0"
Relations between Australia and Singapore have become more productive, diverse and mutually beneficial than ever before. Australia and Singapore are now engaged in significant cooperation and dialogue on major regional and global economic, political and security issues, including APEC, the ASEAN Regional Forum, prospects for an AFTA-CER linkage, and cooperation in developing linkages in the Indian Ocean region. Our relations with Singapore also encompass trade and investment, defence, students, civil aviation, tourism, immigration and cultural relations.
These linkages have been assisted by historical ties, comparable political and legal structures, similar regional security objectives, common interests in enhanced regional economic cooperation and well established commercial exchanges.
Australia/Singapore trade for 1995-96 was valued at $6,163 million. Singapore is Australia's seventh largest trading partner.
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"Australian's Relations with Malaysia",5,"h\3\28810050.jpg","c","0"
Malaysia's rapid economic development, location, active participation in the South East Asian region and its long-standing relationship with Australia in many spheres have a direct impact on Australia's interests. The bilateral relationship has active and cooperative relations in a number of areas including defence, trade and investment, education and other diverse activities including narcotics control, tourism and aviation.
Total bilateral trade reached $3,917 million for 1995-96, with Australia's exports totalling $2,281 million. Malaysia's views have become an increasingly important factor in Australia's regional economic and security concerns, as Malaysia has expanded its influence and taken an increasingly active role in regional fora, particularly ASEAN and APEC.
\BDescription:\b Malaysian fishing village \I(Peter Power)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Thailand",6,"0","g","0"
Australia's relations with Thailand are of long standing, close and cordial. Our bilateral relationship spans a wide range of fields, including trade, defence cooperation, tourism, education, narcotics control, refugee resettlement and development cooperation. We maintain a constructive dialogue with Thailand on a range of bilateral, regional and international economic and political matters including APEC, the Cairns Group and regional security issues including Cambodia and Myanmar (formerly Burma).
Trade continues to expand at a rapid rate - two-way merchandise trade was $2,777 million in 1995-96 with the balance in Australia's favour - encouraged by both Governments and by regular bilateral visits.
Former Prime Minister Keating visited Thailand in April 1994, and Mr Banharn Silpa-Archa visited Australia in 1995 as opposition leader shortly before being elected Prime Minister. The Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs, Mr Downer, included Thailand in his first overseas visit to emphasise the importance the Government places on relations with regional nations.
#
"Australia's Relations with Brunei",7,"0","g","0"
Brunei is a country of increasing importance to Australia. Although a small nation, it is situated in a region of major strategic, political and economic interest and is a member of three regional groupings of significant importance to Australia -- APEC, ASEAN and the ASEAN Regional Forum. As Australia's consultative partner in ASEAN, Brunei has provided useful insight into internal ASEAN dialogue. Brunei is an important link in Australia's developing partnership and integration with South East Asia. Trade between Australia and Brunei, valued at $77 million in 1995-96, is an important component of the bilateral relationship.
#
"Australia's Relations with Vietnam",8,"h\3\28820025.jpg","c","0"
Vietnam continued the process of integration with the region, becoming a member of ASEAN in 1995. Despite the increased profile of Vietnam's relationships with ASEAN nations and major investors such as Taiwan and South Korea, Australia remained an established and long-term political and economic partner and has consolidated and expanded relations with Vietnam across a range of issues.
Australia is a significant foreign investor in Vietnam. Bilateral trade has been growing quickly, reaching $528 million in 1995-96, and is expected to continue to grow as the Vietnamese economy develops. Dialogues on strategic, security, human rights and veterans' affairs continue to evolve.
\BDescription:\b Halong Bay, Vietnam \I(Peter Power)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Myanmar (formerly Burma)",9,12020099.jpg,c,0
Although the Nobel Peace Prize winner, Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, was released from house arrest in 1995, the State Law and Order Restoration Committee, Burma's military government, has made very little progress towards political liberalisation.
Australia continues to play a prominent role, both directly in our dealings with Burma and through international fora such as the United Nations, in supporting Burma's democracy movement, and in pressing the State Law and Order Restoration Council to implement human rights and political reforms.
\BDescription:\b Streets of Maymo, Myanmar \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Cambodia",10,"0","g","0"
Australia's principal policy objectives in Cambodia are to support the democratically elected Government to help raise overall living standards and to rebuild civil and economic structures. As a signatory to the Paris Accords, Australia takes an active interest in developments in Cambodia, particularly in the areas of good governance, human rights, landmine clearance and development. Cambodia's upcoming membership of ASEAN accords it strategic importance to Australia. Cambodia offers limited opportunities for Australian business and investment (exports of $22 million in 1995-96) but there is long-term potential.
#
"Australia's Relations with Laos",11,0,g,0
Australia has a positive reputation in Laos, built over more than 40 years of unbroken diplomatic relations and supplemented by Australia's high profile program of bilateral aid. Laos is of relatively high strategic and economic value to Australia because of its position in the Mekong Basin Region and upcoming membership of ASEAN. The opportunities for expanding Australian commercial activities in Laos are also disproportionate to Laos's size. Laos is resource-rich but infrastructure poor; Australia can benefit and contribute on both counts. Australia is a significant foreign investor in Laos. Exports to Laos were $15 million in 1995-96.
#
"Australia's Relations with India",12,"h\4\28830087.jpg","c","0"
India is becoming an increasingly important regional partner for Australia and there was significant growth in Australia-India trade and investment throughout 1996. Merchandise exports to India rose by 21%, from $979 million in 1994-95 to $1,181 million in 1995-96. Australian investment in India rose to an estimated $550 million, while approvals for new investment increased from $177 million in 1994 to $601 million in 1995.
There is ongoing high-level dialogue with India on a wide range of important issues, including disarmament, nuclear non-proliferation, regional economic and security organisations, including APEC and the ASEAN Regional Forum, the environment, women's development and other social issues, international law enforcement, and science and technology. A major initiative, Australia India-New Horizons, which took place in India in late 1996, will promote Australian capabilities in India across the spectrum - including business, culture, sport, science and technology and the environment.
\BDescription:\b A rickshaw in Calcutta \I(Peter Power)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Pakistan",13,"0","g","0"
A key Australian Government objective in Pakistan is the expansion of trade and investment. Australian exports increased by around 36% between 1994-95 and 1995-96. Australian investment in Pakistan has risen from a negligible amount a few years ago to around $300 million in mid-1996. Representations to the Pakistan Government on behalf of companies investing in Pakistan contributed to this growth.
The Australian High Commission in Islamabad facilitated the visit to Australia of a high-level business mission from Pakistan in February 1996, which was particularly successful in highlighting investment opportunities in Pakistan for Australia.
#
"Australia's Relations with Bangladesh",14,"0","g","0"
Australian objectives in Bangladesh are to support the development of democracy and to improve the environment for Australian trade and investment, against the background of the long-running political dispute between the oppostion parties and the Bangaldesh Government. Despite the negative economic effects of the protracted political deadlock in the country, Australian exports to Bangladesh in 1995-96 surged by 86% to $171 million. The staging of elections in June 1996 provided the opportunity to support Bangladesh democracy through assistance to the Commonwealth Election Observer Mission.
#
"Australia's Relations with Sri Lanka",15,"h\4\28820070.jpg","c","0"
Against the background of the ongoing conflict in Sri Lanka between the Government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), Australia-Sri Lanka relations are strengthening, especially in economic areas. Exports increased by 37% in 1995-96, and Australia - with current investments valued at $385 million - became the largest foreign investor in Sri Lanka. Further investment proposals, valued at over $1 billion, are in the pipeline. Several successful high-level visits have taken place, including by the then Foreign Minister Gareth Evans and a visit to Australia by the Sri Lankan Minister for Justice. An Australian Parliamentary Delegation visited Sri Lanka in October 1995.
\BDescription:\b Sri Lankan fishermen \I(Peter Power)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with China",16,"h\4\32180024.jpg","c","0"
Australia and China enjoy a wide-ranging relationship encompassing frequent ministerial and official level contacts underpinning substantial and growing economic and trade ties. China is Australia's fifth largest trading partner, while Australia is China's tenth largest partner (having entered the top 10 in 1996 for the first time). Two-way trade reach $7,783 million in 1995-96, with Australian exports at $3,772 million and imports at $4,011 million. Two-way trade was expected to reach $8 billion by the end of 1996. Trade with China constitutes 5% of Australia's total trade.
Australian investment in China is also expanding rapidly. Firms are increasingly producing for export from China, and to service the increasingly affluent Chinese market. Total Australian realised investment in China to the end of 1995 was over $1 billion.
Chinese investment in Australia is also growing, particularly in the resources sector. The Joint Ministerial Economic Commission (JMEC) is the key government mechanism for the management of the economic relationship. JMEC meets biennially at Ministerial level. The ninth session of JMEC will be held in Australia in the second half of 1997.
\BDescription:\b Chinese New Year \I(King/Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Hong Kong",17,01240001.jpg,c,0
In 1995-96, Hong Kong was Australia's tenth largest trading partner with two-way trade valued at $4,034 million. Exports to Hong Kong totalled $3,064 million, making it Australia's eighth largest export market. Hong Kong is Australia's sixth largest market for export of services, worth $905 million in 1994-95. Some 30,000 Australians live in the territory and more than 350 Australian companies are based in Hong Kong. Hong Kong is Australia's sixth largest destination for foreign investment, worth $3,200 million in 1994-95 and the fourth largest source of foreign investment in Australia with investment of HK$14,500 million in 1994-95.
\BDescription:\b Hong Kong street scene \I(King/Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Taiwan",18,"0","g","0"
Australia's commercial relationship with Taiwan has expanded significantly over recent years, with two-way trade reaching $6,027 million in 1995-96. Taiwan is Australia's seventh largest export market, valued at $3,422 million. In the absence of diplomatic relations with Taiwan, Australian commercial interests are represented by the Australian Commerce and Industry Office (ACIO) in Taipei.
Direct airlinks were established in 1991, and arrangements on investment promotion and patents were signed in August 1993 by the Australian Commerce and Industry Office and the relevant Taiwan agencies. A Double Tax Agreement was signed in May 1996 which will provide more favourable conditions for Australian businesses operating in Taiwan.
Over 155,000 Taiwanese tourists visited Australia in 1995-96, making Taiwan Australia's seventh largest source of visitors.
#
"Australia's Relations with Japan",19,"h\4\01550023.jpg","c","0"
Japan remains Australia's largest trading partner, with two-way trade in 1995-96 of $27,220 million, over 17.5% of Australia's total trade, and with a surplus of $5,600 million in Australia's favour. While unprocessed primary products accounted for around 44% of total merchandise exports to Japan, exports of manufactured products continued to grow and accounted for around 14% of total exports in 1995-96.
Tourism continues to expand, with more than 810,000 Japanese visitors to Australia in 1995-96. Japan is the third largest source of foreign investment in Australia, behind the United Kingdom and the United States. While total investment from Japan has declined in recent years, the proportion directed to the manufacturing sector has increased, with around 30% of Japanese foreign direct investment in Australia in 1995 being in this sector.
There is an active agenda of bilateral consultations between Australia and Japan, both at Ministerial and officials' levels. Since the Howard Government took office, the Prime Minister and several key Ministers, including the Ministers for Foreign Affairs and Trade, have visited Japan. The Japanese Prime Minister visited Australia in 1997. Several Ministers participated in the November 1996 meeting of the Australia Japan Ministerial Committee (AJMC) in Tokyo, which considered a range of proposals for further deepening and broadening the relationship.
During the period 1996-98 Japan and Australia will jointly celebrate a number of significant anniversaries in the Australia-Japan relationship which have been designated the 'Friendship Anniversaries'. These include the twentieth anniversary of the Basic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, the fortieth anniversary of the signing of the Australia-Japan Commerce Agreement and the centenary of the opening of the Japanese Consulate in Sydney.
\BDescription:\b A Japanese potato seller \I(Peter Power)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Korea",20,"h\4\28830006.jpg","c","0"
Relations between Australia and the Republic of Korea (ROK) continue to expand across the board, building on the strong complementarities in trade and shared political, strategic and economic interests in the Asia-Pacific region. The active agenda of bilateral cooperation was further supplemented in 1996 by the inauguration of consultations on political-military, development cooperation and UN issues.
The ROK is Australia's second largest export market and fourth largest trading partner, with exports of $6,608 million in 1995-96. Although our exports to the ROK continue to be dominated by primary products, particularly non-monetary gold, coal and iron ore, there has been rapid growth in recent years in exports of Australian manufactures, reflecting our increased competitiveness in non-traditional areas and the success of efforts to promote Australia as a source of high technology and higher valued-added products. Services exports have also registered strong growth, with the ROK becoming our largest source of fee-paying students (with almost 6,200 student visas issued in 1995 compared with around 4,000 in 1994), and one of our fastest growing tourism markets with 196,000 Korean visitors in 1995-96, compared with only 9,000 in 1983.
Relations between the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) and Australia remain suspended following the DPRK's decision in 1975 to close its Embassy in Canberra and expel Australian diplomats from Pyongyang. Trade remains at low levels, reflecting the DPRK's economic difficulties and shortages of foreign exchange.
In response to serious food shortages following severe flooding in 1994-95, Australia contributed a total of $1.1 million to two UN emergency appeals for the DPRK. Australia has also provided strong support for the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organisation (KEDO), which has played a key role in addressing concerns about nuclear proliferation on the Korean Peninsula, and for the Four Party Meeting proposal (involving the ROK, DPRK), the United States and China) aimed at achieving a permanent peace treaty on the Korean Peninsula.
\BDescription:\b Korean basket maker \I(Peter Power)\i
#
"Australia and the South Pacific",21,"h\4\06610003.jpg","c","0"
Australia, as the prominent player in the South Pacific region, maintains active and friendly relations with Pacific island countries and seeks to encourage sound government, balanced development and sustainable resource management in the region.
Australia is the largest single aid donor in the South Pacific, conducting substantial aid and defence cooperation programs in the region, budgeted respectively at $449 million and $42 million in 1996-97 (including Papua New Guinea). A focus of such assistance is to seek to improve the competitiveness of Pacific island countries through encouraging and facilitating economic reform in the region.
Australia actively participates in and strongly supports a range of South Pacific regional bodies, including the South Pacific Forum, the South Pacific Commission, the Forum Fisheries Agency and the South Pacific Regional Environmental Program. Australia hosted the South Pacific Forum in Brisbane in August 1994 and, as Forum Chair, worked hard to implement the key decisions and outcomes of this meeting. Australia also took the lead in articulating the response of South Pacific countries to France's announcement in June 1995 of resumed nuclear testing on Mururoa Atoll.
\BDescription:\b Sunset in Samoa \I(David Ireland)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with New Zealand",22,"h\4\01720001.jpg","c","0"
Relations between Australia and New Zealand reflect their shared history, similarities in political and social structure and the importance of economic links. Although some differences of view exist in the area of defence policy, Australia and New Zealand also share mutual security arrangements which are embodied in the ANZUS Treaty. The cooperative nature of the relationship between the two countries is exemplified in the Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement (CER), which has achieved full free trade in goods and most services between the two countries.
Work on CER is now focusing on "third generation" trade facilitation initiatives such as a scheme for mutual recognition of regulations relating to goods and the registration of occupations, and the development of a joint food standards-setting system. Australia and New Zealand also often work closely in their approaches to the international political and economic environment.
\BDescription:\b New Zealand countryside \I(Colin Taylor)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Papua New Guinea",23,"0","g","0"
Australia and Papua New Guinea (PNG) have a very close relationship based on ties that have continued at all levels of society since PNG attained its independence in 1975. In 1995-96 Australian exports were valued at $1,036 million and imports at $1,221 million. The total level of Australian investment in PNG was about $2,200 million as at 30 June 1995.
The 1987 Joint Declaration of Principles (JDP) provides a framework for bilateral relations between Australia and PNG and covers a range of issues including defence, trade, investment, development assistance, consular relations, communications and border administration. An important element of the JDP is its consultative mechanism, the Australia-PNG Ministerial Forum. The ninth Forum took place in Adelaide in September 1996.
PNG is the largest single recipient of Australian development assistance, accounting for about one-fifth of the development cooperation program, at around $300 million per annum. The 1989 Treaty on Development Cooperation establishes principles, levels and forms of Australia's aid to PNG. Under the Treaty, budget support is being progressively phased out and by the year 2000 will be wholly replaced by jointly programmed aid directed at fostering PNG's development and self-reliance.
The Torres Strait Treaty between Australia and PNG entered into force in February 1985. The Treaty defines maritime boundaries and sets down provisions to protect the traditional way of life of inhabitants on both sides of the border, to protect the environment, to regulate the exploitation of resources and to ensure freedom of navigation and overflight.
#
"Australia's Relations with the Americas",24,"0","g","0"
Australia continues to have a substantial and wide-ranging political, economic and security relationship with the United States based on strong cultural and historical ties.
A formal security treaty has linked the two countries for over 40 years, and at the most recent Australia-United States Ministerial (AUSMIN) Talks in July 1996, the two sides released two important statements, a Joint Security Declaration ('the Sydney Statement') and a Joint Communique, both of which re-affirmed Australia and United States commitments to the ANZUS alliance and to a continued United States strategic and economic engagement in the Asia-Pacific region.
The economic relationship with the United States is also significant. The US is Australia's second largest trading partner and the largest recipient of Australian overseas investment. It is also the country which is Australia's largest source of foreign investment. Two-way trade in goods exceeded $22,000 million in 1995-96, with the trade balance heavily in favour of the United States.
Canada is a country comparable with Australia in terms of institutions and traditions, geographical size and international outlook. This has allowed a close degree of cooperation and interchange of ideas between the two nations at many levels, particularly in the multilateral arena in key institutions such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and regionally in APEC.
Australia is taking an increasing interest in developments in Latin America, especially those related to trade and investment. In recent times, Latin America has been characterised by a shift toward progressive trade liberalisation, privatisation and budget consolidation policies which has accompanied a trend towards democracy. The result has been generally sound economic performance and a more positive business environment for foreign firms.
Australia initiated exchanges with Latin American countries on trade liberalisation matters, for example through a high-level dialogue between Australia and New Zealand and Mercosur, the Latin American Common Market comprising Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay. There was a significant increase in political and official contacts during 1996, including through meetings of APEC and the Cairns Group. The focus of Australia's links with the Caribbean is in sport, culture and multilateral cooperation.
#
"Australia's Relations with Europe",25,"h\4\14070082.jpg","c","0"
Australia maintains constructive relations with the countries of Western Europe and the European Union (EU) and its institutions. Bilateral relations with the individual countries of Western Europe continue to be of very considerable importance to Australia. During 1996 special emphasis was given to developing strong relations with Germany and the United Kingdom.
Australia's historical, cultural and social links with Europe underpin these bilateral ties and Europe is a leading source of technology and ideas. Cooperation with European countries on a number of international issues is extensive, and our trade and investment links continue to develop.
The EU is Australia's largest source of investment funds and major host of Australian overseas investment, its largest source of imports and its second largest market for exports of goods and services. Australia and the EU developed a new, broader relationship during 1996. The bilateral agenda with the European Commission was extended to include constructive exchanges on a wide range of issues on which the two sides share concerns and interests.
Despite continuing political and economic uncertainties in Russia and the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the promotion and facilitation of trade and investment is a key element of Australian government activity in that region. Constructive exchanges have taken place with Russia on several important bilateral agreements under negotiation and on a range of foreign policy issues. Several important Russian visitors were welcomed to Australia during 1996, including former Prime Minister Gaidar and the Governor of Nizhny Novgorod, Mr Boris Nemtsov. The government has also produced a major study on the economic prospects of, and opportunities for trade and investment in Pacific Russia. The successful implementation of the first round of Russian presidential elections in June 1996 was welcomed by the government.
In Central Europe, the continuing conflict in Yugoslavia remained a source of concern in 1996. The achievement of the Dayton Framework Agreement in November 1995 for the restoration of peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina and respect for its sovereignty was endorsed by the government as a major breakthrough. Australia also maintained its humanitarian aid to the former Yugoslavia.
On the economic front, the government, during 1996, promoted the expansion of Australian commercial interests in the region, including through the conclusion of double taxation and investment promotion and protection agreements and the despatch of government-business economic missions to Bulgaria, Slovenia, Slovakia and Poland. The pursuit by a number of Central European countries of early membership of the EU highlights the importance of an enhanced Australian commercial presence in this region.
\BDescription:\b Cathedral of Milan, Italy \I(Colin Taylor)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with the Middle East",26,"h\4\12030070.jpg","c","0"
Australian involvement in the Middle East is underpinned by commercial interests and long-standing friendships.
Australia has a substantial commercial imperative in the maintenance of existing (largely commodity) markets and the development of new markets which reflect our changing trade and commercial profile, notably in the provision of services.
Australia continues to promote the search for a comprehensive, just and lasting regional peace. Australia is fundamentally committed to Israel's right to exist within secure and recognised borders. The Government supports the right of the Palestinians to self-determination and also acknowledges that the question of self-determination and the ultimate shape of the Palestinian entity, including the possibility of an independent state, is subject to the final status negotiations between the parties directly involved. Australia has played a prominent role in multilateral tracks of the peace process, most notably in the Arms Control and Regional Security Group and the Water Resources Working Group.
The Middle East is of strategic concern with regional disputes and tensions frequently having global significance. Australia has committed personnel and resources to activities designed to strengthen regional security; the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) and the Multinational Interception Force (MIF).
Political and humanitarian developments in the region command considerable attention, given the resonance such issues have in the Australian community. Concern for the universal application of human rights and the pursuit of other items on the international agenda (e.g. terrorism, narcotics and the environment) have become prominent among Australia's regional priorities in recent years.
\BDescription:\b Mosque in Cairo \I(Peter Power)\i
#
"Australia's Relations with Africa",27,"0","g","0"
Africa held a higher profile for Australia in 1995-96. Australia's Foreign Minister attended the Organisation of African Unity Heads of Government Summit in Cameroon in the middle of 1996 and special envoys visited most African countries. Regular contact was maintained with African leaders at multilateral events. Australia attended the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Consultative Conference held in South Africa in February 1996. The 'good governance' program, administered by the Australian High Commission in Harare promoted democratic processes and principles of good governance in several southern African nations.
The development of an improved framework for expanding our grade and investment markets, and assisting in the promotion of a wide range of economic and social reform programs, was a particular concern in strengthening the relationship with South Africa. Considerable progress was made in promoting South Africa as a potential market, particularly for elaborating transformed manufactures. South Africa's participation as a feature market at the National Trade and Investment Outlook Conference held in Melbourne in December 1995 proved very successful.
The finalisation of South Africa's provincial elections and the commencement of the reconciliation process have reduced substantially the level of political violence in the country. Crime, unemployment and attracting foreign investment through trade liberalisation and economic reform will continue to be the main priorities for the South African Government.
Total Australian aid flows to Africa in 1995-96 were around $180 million or 12% of total Australian aid. The aid is distributed, inter alia, through our contributions to the World Bank, direct bilateral aid programs, humanitarian aid including the World Food Program, and through non-government organisations (NGOs). In 1995 a review of Australia's aid to Africa resulted in full country programs for South Africa, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe, and an increased emphasis on regional assistance, especially through the Southern African Development Community (SADC). In addition, Australia also provides aid to a wide range of African countries through various multilateral and NGO programs.
In recent years Australia has had a significant involvement in peacekeeping and humanitarian relief operations in Namibia, Somalia, Rwanda and Mozambique, and assisted with landmine clearance in Angola and Mozambique.
#
"Australia and the Indian Ocean",28,"h\4\27290078.jpg","c","0"
Australia was a leading player in the development of Indian Ocean regional cooperations in 1995, initiating one of the two major tracks along which cooperation has developed and playing a significant role in shaping the other.
In June 1995 the Australian Government, together with the Western Australian Government, sponsored an International Forum on the Indian Ocean Region (IFIOR) in Perth. This meeting, which attracted 122 participants from 23 countries in the region, launched a 'second track' non-governmental process to complement the 'first track' inter-governmental dialogue which had begun several months earlier in Mauritius. A key outcome of IFIOR was the establishment of a Consultative Business Network, through which the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, in partnership with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, has promoted business links in the region.
At the Government's initiative, the Indian Ocean Centre was established in July 1995 at Curtin University in Perth as a research centre to support the various emerging regional dialogues exploring aspects of regional cooperation. With principal funding and support for the Sub-program, the Centre coordinated the regional activities of the Indian Ocean Research network, supported the work of the Business Network and worked with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade in building both 'first' and 'second track' dialogue.
Another key achievement in the inter-governmental process was the proposal to create a new regional body, to be known as the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC). Australia worked closely with India in the process of drafting the Charter of the new Association.
\BDescription:\b The Indian Ocean \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"APEC",29,"h\4\01240001.jpg","c","0"
The Asia-Pacific includes a number of the fastest growing economies in the world. Rapid development in the region over several decades has been accompanied by massive structural change, with the impetus of manufactures export-led growth increasingly spreading from Japan and the newly industrialising economies (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore) to China, ASEAN and other economies. Regional economies now account for around 56% of world output and 46% of world exports. Economic interdependence has increased as the region has developed, reflecting strong economic complementarities and substantial intra-regional flows of trade, investment and technology.
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation process, established in 1989 as a result of an Australian initiative, has developed rapidly against this background. APEC's initial Ministerial Meeting, held in Canberra in November 1989, included 12 economies: Australia, New Zealand, ASEAN(6), Japan, Korea, the United States and Canada. Membership was expanded in 1991 to include the economies of China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. In 1993, Mexico and Papua New Guinea were admitted, and Chile joined in 1994. APEC's agenda has expanded quickly, with initial cooperation and consultation broadening to a much stronger focus on trade and investment facilitation and liberalisation. An important step forward occurred in November 1993, when the first meeting of APEC Economic Leaders was hosted by US President Clinton.
The second meeting of APEC Economic Leaders, hosted by President Soeharto in Bogor Indonesia, in November 1994, set in train a further expansion of APEC as an economic forum. APEC Leaders made a firm commitment at Bogor to achieving free, open trade and investment in the region by 2020, with industrialised economies achieving this goal by the earlier date of 2010.
At Osaka in November 1995, Leaders endorsed a detailed plan - the Osaka Action Agenda - setting out how these and other APEC goals would be achieved. The implementation process focuses on each APEC member preparing an Individual Action Plan (IAP), tabled by the annual Ministerial and Leaders meetings in the Philippines in November in 1996. IAPs are expected to be gradually improved over time as economies find it possible to move further towards the Bogor goals.
About 76% of AustraliaÆs merchandise exports were directed to APEC economies in 1995-96, up from 64% in 1975. Exports to ASEAN have been growing particularly rapidly. Imports from APEC had risen to 67% of total merchandise imports by 1995-96, up from 52% in 1975. Australia has a strong stake in trade and investment liberalisation in the region and in steps to harmonise trade-related practices and procedures, particularly in the areas of standards, customs and movement of business personnel. The further development of APEC, consistent with the Bogor Declaration, should also contribute to the broader objective of building regional cohesiveness in the context of rapid change.
\BDescription:\b Streets of Hong Kong \I(King/Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Regional Security Dialogue - the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)",30,"h\4\27280003.jpg","c","0"
In the 1990s Australia has worked actively with countries of the Asia-Pacific to encourage, for the first time in the history of the region, the development of a multilateral, cooperative approach to regional security issues.
The establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) as a region-wide venue to discuss security-related issues is the most important step forward to date in the emergence of new multilateral processes. The ARF met first on 25 July 1994 in Bangkok and held its third meeting on 23 July 1996 in Jakarta. The ARF is attended by the Foreign Ministers, accompanied by only one senior official, from all the major countries in the Asia-Pacific region. It now comprises 21 participants with the addition of India and Burma at the third ARF, following agreement by Ministers on criteria for new members. These are: Australia, Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Canada, China, the EU (represented by the Presidency), India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, New Zealand, the ROK, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam and the United States.
The Foreign Ministers meet in an informal setting to discuss regional political and security issues of concern or potential concern and to agree on cooperative measures which they might take to contribute to maintenance of peace and security in the region and to the avoidance of conflict. Ministers increasingly have shown themselves comfortable discussing sensitive issues such as the South China Sea and Burma, frankly but in a non-confrontational way.
In addition to the Ministerial-level discussions of the ARF, and linked directly to it, there are a number of 'first track', official-level meetings and 'second track', academic forums (in which officials participate in their private capacity). The most important of these at the official-level is the annual May ARF Senior Officials' Meeting which, as well as being a preparatory meeting for the ARF, is a regional security dialogue in its own right, as it discusses current political and security issues in the region.
In the 1996-97 intersessional period, official-level groups will meet to discuss confidence-building measures, peacekeeping, search and rescue and disaster relief coordination. Under the umbrella of the peacekeeping group, Australia will co-organise with Malaysia a 'train-the-trainers' activity. Officials from all ARF countries participate in these activities, which are directed towards elaborating concrete cooperative measures for adoption by the ARF. The ARF has also indicated a number of proposals which it would like to see considered in second-track ARF meetings. In late 1996 second track ARF seminars were held on preventive diplomacy and on non-proliferation. Australia, along with Germany (on behalf of the EU), and Indonesia co-sponsored the non-proliferation seminar.
There are a large number of other important second-track academic meetings which contribute to multilateral regional security dialogue and cooperation. One second-track dialogue process is the Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific (CSCAP), founded by 'strategic studies' institutes in 1993. CSCAP currently has 14 country/institution members (Australia, Canada, the DPRK, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mongolia, New Zealand, Philippines, ROK, Russia, Singapore, Thailand and the United States) and two associate member institutions from India and the EU. The Australian National Committee of CSCAP is co-chaired by Professor Ball of the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre and Professor Harris of the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at the Australian National University.
\BDescription:\b Winter in Canada \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"ANZUS",31,"h\4\01720003.jpg","c","0"
Following a review in 1983 of the ANZUS Treaty by the Australian Government, including a re-examination with its ANZUS partners at the 1983 ANZUS Council Meeting in Washington, the Government reaffirmed the alliance as fundamental to Australia's national security and foreign and defence policies. The text of the ANZUS Treaty of 1952 can be found in \ITreaty Series No. 2,\i for 1952, printed by the then Department of External Affairs. In 1984, the New Zealand Government implemented a policy of denying the entry to New Zealand of nuclear-powered warships or of warships (or aircraft) which might carry nuclear weapons.
Consequently the United States, at the Australia-United States ministerial talks in August 1986, formally suspended its security obligations to New Zealand under the ANZUS Treaty pending adequate corrective measures. Both the United States and Australia agreed that the relationship between the United States and Australia under the ANZUS Treaty, and the rights and obligations assumed by the United States and Australia towards each other under the Treaty, would remain constant and undiminished. ANZUS continues to govern the bilateral defence relationship between Australia and the United States and that between Australia and New Zealand.
The 1994 Defence White Paper \IDefending Australia\i noted that Australia's defence alliance with the United States continued to be a key element of Australia's defence policy and that the relationship formalised in the ANZUS Treaty reflected the close alignment of enduring strategic interests.
\BDescription:\b South Island, New Zealand \I(Colin Taylor)\i
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"Nuclear Issues",32,"0","g","0"
Australia's strong commitment to effective nuclear disarmament and arms control is reflected in its support for the international non-proliferation regime. Australia ratified the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1973 and encourages universal adherence to it. The NPT currently has 183 member states and is a central part of the international security framework. The NPT was made a permanent treaty at the NPT Review and Extension Conference which was held in April-May 1995, twenty-five years after the Treaty's entry into force.
Australia has continued to encourage new adherents to the NPT and scrupulous fulfilment of the obligation for all Non-Nuclear Weapon States Parties to conclude a safeguards agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
Australia is a founding member of the IAEA and provides political and financial support to the organisation. Australia's active participation, including contributions to the IAEA regular budget and to the Technical Assistance and Cooperation Fund, helps the Agency to continue to function in an effective and efficient manner. Through membership of the IAEA, Australia is able to promote non-proliferation objectives and contribute to regional and international nuclear cooperation and technical assistance, including in the areas of nuclear science and technology and nuclear waste safety. Australia has been working with other countries through the Agency to strengthen the international nuclear safeguards regime in the light of the lessons of the Gulf War.
The stringent nuclear safeguards conditions applied to exports and subsequent use of Australian uranium are set out as binding international legal obligations in the bilateral nuclear safeguards agreements which customer countries must enter into before any uranium exports from Australia are permitted. These conditions include an undertaking not to use Australian-obligated nuclear material (AONM) for any military or explosive purpose and the acceptance of IAEA safeguards in order to verify that undertaking and a strict system for accounting for quantities of AONM as it moves through the civil nuclear fuel cycle. Australia has concluded 14 bilateral nuclear safeguards agreements covering 24 countries.
Australia has long recognised the importance of effective controls on nuclear and nuclear-related dual-use items and is an active member of the Nuclear Suppliers' Group and the Zangger Committee. These groups bring together countries that are principal suppliers of nuclear material and associated material, equipment and technology, and have established guidelines governing export control mechanisms to ensure that trade and cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear technology do not contribute to proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Australia is also a member of the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which consists of all European Member countries of OECD as well as Canada, Japan, the ROK, Mexico and the United States.
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"Disarmament and Arms Control",33,"0","g","0"
Australia promotes global security and stability by working for arms control and disarmament objectives at the United Nations in New York, the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva and many other world forums. A key foreign policy objective is to establish and strengthen international arrangements against the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and missile delivery systems capable of carrying them. This contributes to keeping Australia's region and other regions free from any such proliferation and so contributes to maintaining a positive security environment both in our region and globally.
The conclusion of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) has been a high priority for Australia for a number of years. When over two years of negotiations in the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva failed to gain agreement on the Treaty text, Australia initiated a resolution in the UN General Assembly which saw the treaty adopted and opened for signature on 10 September 1996. The CTBT will lock into place an end to nuclear testing by the five nuclear weapon states - the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, France and China.
Australia, together with other South Pacific countries, was instrumental in negotiating the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Rarotonga), which came into effect on 11 December 1986. The signature by France, the United Kingdom and the United States of the Protocols of the Treaty of Rarotonga in March 1996 fulfilled a long-standing Australian South Pacific Forum objective. The past year has also seen the establishment of two new nuclear weapon free zones: the Southeast Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone in December 1995 and the African Nuclear Weapon Free Zone, also known as the Treaty of Pelindaba, in April 1996.
The opening for signature of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) on 13 January 1993 saw the achievement of a long-standing Australian objective. When it enters into force (180 days after the 65th ratification), the CWC will put in place a global ban on chemical weapons, including a requirement that all existing stocks of these weapons be destroyed. It also provides for an effective mechanism to verify compliance with the Convention. The CWC is expected to enter into force during the first half of 1997. Australian has strongly supported efforts to achieve an effective CWC, both during the negotiation of the treaty at the Conference on Disarmament and subsequently in the Preparatory Commission for the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, the international organisation based in The Hague which will be responsible for implementation of the CWC. Australia was the sixth country to ratify the CWC, following enactment of the \IChemical Weapons (Prohibition) Act 1994.\i A Chemical Weapons Convention Office has been established to manage implementation of the CWC within Australia.
Australia has also maintained, since 1988, a program of cooperation with South East Asian and South Pacific countries on CWC issues -- the Chemical Weapons Regional Initiative. This program is now focused on helping these countries with their national implementation of the Convention.
Australia also strongly supports efforts to strengthen the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), particularly the development of international arrangements to verify compliance with the treaty. These are needed if the BWC is to provide an effective global ban on these inhumane and potentially devastating weapons. Australia has accordingly been an active participant in the negotiations in the Ad Hoc group of BWC parties established by the special conference of BWC States Parties in 1994. These negotiations are expected to result in the development of protocol to the BWC containing verification measures.
Australia chairs a group of 29 countries called the Australia Group, which works towards harmonising the export licensing measures of participating countries over chemicals, biological agents and equipment which can be used in the production of chemical and biological weapons. The Group's activities assist the achievement of the non-proliferation objectives of the CWC and BWC. As well as participating in the work of the Nuclear Suppliers' Group, Australia is an active participant in the Missile Technology Control Regime: these two bodies enable similar cooperation in the nuclear weapons and missile fields.
Concerned about the scale of the widespread civilian suffering caused by the use of anti-personnel mines, Australia in April 1996 suspended the use of landmines by the Australian Defence Force and announced that it would support a global ban on landmines. Australia played an active role in negotiations to strengthen the Inhumane Weapons Convention which concluded with the adoption of an amended Protocol governing the use and transfer of landmines on 3 May 1996. Australia participated in a meeting of like-minded states in Ottawa in October 1996 which developed a strategy for achieving a global ban. Australia hopes to be one of the first states to ratify the amended Protocol and is encouraging other states to also move quickly, in order to bring the amended Protocol into force as soon as possible.
Australia is a strong supporter of the UN Conventional Arms Register and has provided data on our major arms imports and exports. It has also urged our regional neighbours to participate at the CD and the UN in discussions on further multilateral measures to increase transparency in the area of conventional armaments.
Australia is a party to the following disarmament and arms control agreements: the Partial Test Ban Treaty; the Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases; and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare; the Outer Space Treaty; the Sea-Bed Arms Control Treaty; the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty; the Chemical Weapons Convention; the Biological Weapons Convention; the Environmental Modification Convention; the Antarctic Treaty; the Inhumane Weapons Convention; the Moon Treaty; and the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty.
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"The Commonwealth",34,"0","g","0"
The Commonwealth is an association of 53 countries drawn from every region of the globe and comprising one-quarter of the worldÆs population. Australia seeks, through its Commonwealth membership, to foster international peace and security and political, social and economic advancement. The last Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was held in Auckland, New Zealand in November 1995 and the next meeting will be held in Edinburgh, Scotland in October 1997.
The Auckland CHOGM agreed to establish the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), comprising the Foreign Ministers from eight countries, not including Australia, in response to the continuing violations of the principles contained in the Harare Declaration by some Commonwealth countries, in particular Nigeria. The Harare Declaration is a key Commonwealth document which sets out the principles by which member states will abide, including the protection and promotion of fundamental political values, democracy, democratic processes and institutions, the rule of law and the independence of the judiciary. CMAGÆs task is to assess the nature of the infringement and recommend measures for collective Commonwealth action aimed at the speedy restoration of democracy and constitutional rule.
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"International Trade Relations",35,"0","g","0"
With formal trade barriers being dismantled and international competition increasing, trade policy can no longer be concerned simply with controls imposed at the border. The future trade policy agenda is being shaped by pressures which go beyond new or more advanced forms of government intervention in the trade of goods and services and into the issues which affect the international movement of capital, labour and technology.
Globalisation of production is one of the driving forces behind the future trade policy agenda. Firms are increasingly organising their activities on a regional or global scale to achieve efficiencies. This usually involves a search for the optimal mixture of trade and investment activities most likely to secure the firmÆs commercial objectives. There is a view that traditional trade policy mainly concerned with border measures is not capable of dealing with all of the issues arising from this trend.
\BThe Multilateral Framework\b
For nearly 50 years the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed in 1947 provided basic rules for the conduct of international trade. The GATT was not an organisation but a treaty to which governments became contracting parties. It was replaced as of 1 January 1995 by the Agreement establishing the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This created for the first time an international organisation with a permanent existence to be responsible for the trading relationships between countries. It has much broader scope than the GATT in terms of the commercial activity and trade policies to which it applies.
The key provisions of the GATT provided for non-discriminatory trade between members. This was established through adherence to the principles of most-favoured-nation (MFN) treatment and national treatment. These mean, respectively, that the goods of all members will be granted treatment no less favourable than any other, and that once goods have entered they must be treated the same as domestically produced goods.
\BAustralia's Role in the Multilateral Trading System\b
As exports make an increasing contribution to the economy, expanding market access for Australian goods and services is central to creating wealth and goods. The multilateral trading system enables middle-sized nations like Australia to defend and protect market access for their exporters. Its system of rules provides transparency, predictability and fairness for Australia's firms in international markets.
In the GATT and now in the WTO, Australia has been a staunch advocate for the establishment and close monitoring of multilateral rules. Australia has played a key role in strengthening the institutional development of WTO. Australia representatives have been the chairs of a number of WTO committees including Negotiating Group on Maritime Transport Services, the Dispute Settlement Body and the Working Party on State Trading Enterprises.
An important innovation for the WTO is the introduction of Ministerial Conferences as the management body of the organisation. The first biennial WTO Ministerial Conference was held in Singapore in December 1996. The conference presented another opportunity for Australia to take a key role in exercising its responsibility for influencing the direction and development of the multilateral trading system. Australian initiatives on the built-in agenda, environment and industrials, have become the focus of international attention as providing the core elements of a post Singapore-work program.
Australia has taken a leading role in the work on agriculture. Ministers of the Cairns Group of agricultural fair traders, which Australia co-chairs, agreed at their 1996 meeting in Cartegena (Colombia) the terms of the 'Cartagena Compact' initiative which set the Group's objectives for the Singapore Ministerial and post-Singapore agricultural work program of the WTO.
Australia's approaches to APEC and in the promotion of closer links between Australia and New Zealand and the members of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) are strengthening trade and economic cooperation at the regional level.
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"Law of the Sea",36,"h\4\14050008.jpg","c","0"
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) entered into force in 1994, with Australia an original party. UNCLOS provides for the creation of several international institutions, including the International Sea-bed Authority (ISA) and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (the Tribunal). The past year has seen much activity concerned with the creation of these institutions.
The ISA is the institution which will manage the exploitation of the resources of the deep sea-bed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. It is based in Kingston, Jamaica. The first council (the executive arm) of the ISA was elected in March 1996. Australia was elected for a two-year term in the chamber, composed of states which are land-based producers of minerals also found on the deep sea-bed.
The Tribunal is the judicial organ established by UNCLOS. It is one of the means of compulsory dispute settlement which states may choose under UNCLOS. The first election of the 21 members of the Tribunal was held in August 1996. No Australian was elected.
\BDescription:\b Coast of South Australia \I(Colin Taylor)\i
Australia continues to be actively involved in addressing environmental issues of international importance. Many of these issues have transboundary or global effects. Others are localised but occur in many localities simultaneously. These problems include depletion of the ozone layer, climate change, loss of biological diversity, desertification, management of hazardous chemicals and transfer/disposal of hazardous waste. Australia has a significant national interest in many of these issues, being a mega-diverse country in terms of its species and habitat, having an important agricultural industry which is a significant exporter, being a dry continent with very limited supplies of freshwater, and having a huge coastline and surrounding oceans and extensive Antarctic territories. International efforts to address these issues not only have important environment implications but affect trade, human health, political/economic/environmental security and social welfare in general.
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, brought to the worldÆs attention the need for development to be placed on a æsustainableÆ path whereby development meets the needs of the present without jeopardising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Outcomes of UNCED included Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity and a Statement of Principles on Forests. Internationally, attention is focusing on elaborating protocols to the post-Rio Conventions objectives, as well as on addressing other areas of Agenda 21. Australia is heavily involved in addressing the domestic regulatory and economic implications of these conventions.
Australia has placed priority on coalition-building to increase the level of cooperation with countries which share similar views on environmental issues of international importance, such as the Group of Temperature Southern Hemisphere Countries on Environment, known as the Valdivia Group, and cooperation in international environment forums within the grouping of non-EU OECD countries known as JUSCANZ. Australia was also an active participant in the establishment of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), a collaborative effort among a number of nations to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs and similar ecosystems.
\BDescription:\b Desert sand dunes \I(DFAT)\i
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"Antarctica",38,"0","g","0"
Australia has had a long association with Antarctica, commencing with early expeditions and continuing with an active scientific program. Antarctica's importance to Australia derives from its geographical proximity, the history of Australian involvement there and Australian administration of the Australian Antarctic Territory. Australia maintains three permanent bases in the Territory: Casey, Davis and Mawson.
As one of the twelve original signatories, Australia attaches particular significance to the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, which serves important Australian scientific, environmental and security interests. Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are now held annually in one of the Consultative Party States. The twentieth ATCM was held in Utrecht, the Netherlands in April/May 1996. There are now 42 governments which are parties to the Antarctic Treaty. Of these, 26 are Consultative Parties (ATCPs) entitled to participate fully in Consultative Meetings.
Hobart is host to the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which is responsible for developing measures necessary for the conservation of the Antarctic marine ecosystem. The Commission and its Scientific Committee meet annually.
On 22 May 1989, the Australian Government announced that it was opposed to mining in Antarctica and that it would not sign the Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities. Instead the Australian and French Governments pursued the negotiation of a comprehensive environmental protection regime for Antarctica and its dependent and associated ecosystems. Following consultations, the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was opened for signature in Madrid on 4 October 1991. The Protocol designated Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science. When it enters into force, the Protocol will establish a comprehensive regime for assessing the environmental impact of activities in Antarctica and guidelines for waste disposal, marine pollution, the conservation of fauna and flora and area protection and management. Mining activities are specifically prohibited for at least the next 50 years. All 26 ATCPs must ratify the Protocol for it to enter into force. As at August 1996 there remained four ATCPs yet to ratify.
Consistent with the priority attached to protecting the Antarctic environment, Australia enacted its principal legislation to implement the Protocol in December 1992. Australia was the first country to do so. Australia ratified the Protocol on 6 April 1994.
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"Treaties",39,"0","g","0"
Treaties that Australia is contemplating are tabled in Commonwealth Parliament for at least 15 sitting days for scrutiny before binding action. The texts of bilateral and multilateral treaties to which Australia is a party are printed in the Australian Treaty Series when they enter into force. AustraliaÆs current position with regard to particular treaties may be ascertained by referring to the Australian Treaty List. Monthly updates are contained in the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade publication \IInsight.\i
In addition, the texts of multilateral treaties, in the negotiation of which Australia has participated but to which it has yet to become a party, are printed in annual volumes of \ISelect Documents on International Affairs\i. The foregoing publications are available from Commonwealth Government Bookshops, except \IInsight\i, which is available from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Canberra.
The texts of Australian treaties and related domestic law are available electronically through the Australian Legal Information Institute, at the Internet site http://www.austlii.edu.au.
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"Human Rights",40,"0","g","0"
Human rights issues are prominent on the GovernmentÆs international agenda, consistent with AustraliaÆs strong commitment to the universal protection and promotion of internationally accepted human rights standards, and its belief that strategies to ensure the observance of human rights have a preventive security dimension.
Australia is actively involved in human rights promotion through multilateral channels including the UN General Assembly, the Commission on Human Rights, the Commission on the Status of Women, and numerous other UN bodies and meetings. The Government provides technical assistance for the promotion of human rights through UN programs and on a bilateral basis through the AusAID program.
Australia also promotes the establishment of national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region, on the basis that positive action at the national level is the surest means of improving human rights observance.
In addition to multilateral and institution-building activity, Australia works to promote human rights through direct contact with other governments. Australia regularly makes bilateral representations, on behalf of individuals or groups, many of which are made on behalf of the Amnesty International Group of the Australian Parliament. Since 1987, when the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade first started maintaining a register of human rights representations, the Australian Government has raised over 4000 individual and group cases with other governments.
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"Consular Services and Passports",41,20610013.jpg,g,0
The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade protects the interests of Australian citizens overseas in accordance with international law. Consular officers are often called upon to assist Australians who are hospitalised, who have been victims of crime or who have been detained or imprisoned overseas. Consular services to Australian citizens are provided by all Australian diplomatic and consular posts and by 31 honorary consuls. There are also 11 countries, mostly in Africa, where Canadian diplomatic and consular posts provide consular assistance to Australians under the Australia Canada Consular Sharing Agreement. Honorary consuls are appointed where there is a need for an Australian presence and for consular services that cannot be met within the resources of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. An Australian citizen is often appointed as honorary consul. In the absence of an appropriate Australian candidate, consideration is given to non-Australians.
Under the authority of the Passports Act 1938 the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade provides travel documents to eligible Australian citizens. In Australia, there is a passport office in the capital city of each State and Territory. There is also an office in Newcastle. Overseas, all diplomatic and consular posts issue passports. In 1995-96 there were 699,645 passports issued. Most applications (75.7%) were lodged at one of Australia PostÆs network of offices through Australia, under an agency agreement with Australia Post. A passport information and enquiry service is available to the general public and over 568,000 calls were handled in 1995-96. To support the Department of Foreign Affairs and TradeÆs consular operations, the passport information and enquiry service incorporates a facility to handle large numbers of telephone enquiries from the public about overseas crises which might involve Australians.
The Government seeks to project Australia overseas as a diverse, creative, technologically advanced and sophisticated country which is making its own distinctive and significant contribution to the Asia-Pacific region and the global community. The international cultural relations program plays a significant and unique role in conveying abroad these messages about modern Australia in support of key foreign and trade policy objectives. Cultural relations activities span a wide range of fields from the visual and performing arts, sport, science and technology, Australian studies, environment and other æpeople to peopleÆ contacts.
\BDescription:\b Jampijinpa Ross, Aboriginal artist \I(DFAT)\i
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"Economic Importance",1,"h\4\2_0071.jpg","c","0"
Just as tourism is a dominant force in the global economy, it is one of Australia's largest and most dynamic sectors of commerce too.
In recent years, tourism has experienced unprecedented growth and made a substantial contribution to national economic development. It has matured into a prominent, sophisticated activity with the potential to play a significant role in securing Australia's future prosperity.
\BDescription:\b Tourists at \JAyers Rock\j \I(DFAT)\i
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"Tourism Growth",2,"a\8\tony14.jpg","c","airp10"
It is estimated by the Bureau of Tourism Research that tourism directly and indirectly contributed 6.6 per cent to Gross Domestic Product in 1993-94 and accounted for some 536,000 jobs (6.9% of total employment).
In 1993-94 domestic tourism expenditure was an estimated $32.5 billion. In addition, $3.8 billion was spent domestically by Australians prior to departure on overseas visits. In 1995-96, international tourism to Australia generated export earnings of $14.1 billion. This accounted for 12.8% of Australia's total export earnings and 63.1% of services exports.
While growth in tourism flows to Australia in the mid to late 1980s was almost twice the international growth rate in tourism flows to all countries, Australia's share of world tourism is still small, accounting for only 0.5 per cent of total international visitor arrivals in all countries.
Because Australia is a long haul destination for most international travellers, this share is never likely to be large. However, starting from a low base, there is still considerable potential for growth.
\BDescription:\b Sydney International Airport \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Domestic Tourism",4,a4_0098.jpg,c,0
The domestic travel market was relatively stagnant in the late 1980s and experienced an overall small downward trend in visitor nights during the early 1990s. Because of changes in survey methods, it is not possible to compare the latest figures, for 1994-95, with earlier figures.
In 1995, Australian residents, 15 years of age and over, spent a total of 251.8 million nights visiting other parts of the country. Each trip took an average of four nights, and each person in the population group made an average of four trips. Residents of the Australian Capital Territory were the most frequent travellers (average of six trips), while residents of the Northern Territory tended to stay away for the longest period (average of seven nights).
\BDescription:\b Sydney domestic terminal \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"International Visitors",5,spread215.spr.jpg,c,0
In 1995 the number of international visitors to Australia grew strongly, continuing the high growth experienced since the mid-1980s. The total number of visitors in 1995 was 3,725,800, representing an increase of 10.8% on 1994 and continuing the double digit growth rates of recent years.
The range of countries which are significant sources of visitors is widening, with the result that the degree of dependence on the traditional source countries of Europe and North America is lessening. Particularly large increases are being experienced from some of the rapidly developing South-East Asian countries.
The largest category of international visitors during 1995 was those arriving for 'holiday' purposes, accounting for just over 60% of all visitor arrivals. In addition, another 19% arrived for the purpose of 'visiting friends/relatives' while 12% arrived for 'business' purposes. Arrivals for 'education' purposes are increasing and in 1995 accounted for nearly 3% of total visitor arrivals.
While the numbers of foreign visitors coming to Australia has grown rapidly in recent years, the number of Australian residents visiting overseas has also increased. However, the increase has been smaller, and since around the mid-1980s the numbers of inbound visitors have generally been higher than the numbers of outbound visitors. Consequently, tourism has been improving the net positive contribution of the travel item to Australia's balance on current account.
This table shows visitor arrivals and Australian departures from 1989 to 1995.
In 1995, 10% of Australians travelling overseas stayed abroad less than a week, while nearly 40% stayed away for over a month. In addition to distances involved in getting to destination countries, the high proportion of Australians 'visiting friends/relatives' also contributed to long periods of stay, as such travellers traditionally tend to stay in destination countries longer than other types of visitors. In 1995, nearly 60% of such visitors stayed away for over a month.
While the numbers of Australian residents departing for visits abroad varies from month to month, there are not great seasonal fluctuations. The largest number of departures in 1995 was in December (11%), followed by September (10%). In general, the Australian winter months were more popular than the summer months for departing to other countries.
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"Countries Visited",7,chart049.cht.jpg,c,0
This chart depicts the regions of the world frequented by Australian residents during 1995.
The number of Australian residents visiting overseas has increased slightly over the last few years, but since the 1980s the numbers of inbound visitors have generally been higher than the numbers of outbound visitors. In 1995 the number of Australian residents that travelled abroad was 2,518,600.
Australians travel abroad to visit a wide variety of main destinations. The most popular destination is New Zealand, which was the main destination for 15% of Australian residents visiting overseas in 1995. This was following by the United States at 12% then the United Kingdom at 11%.
Almost 40 per cent of overseas visitors who arrived in Australia during 1995 intended to stay for more than two weeks while 20 per cent intended to stay for more than a month.
Visitor arrivals are seasonal and numbers fluctuate somewhat during the year. In 1995, the most arrivals were in December, with 11 per cent of total arrivals, while the fewest arrivals were in May, with nearly 7 per cent of total arrivals.
In 1995, international visitors to Australia each spent an average of $1,936. Highest spenders were visitors from Indonesia who spent an average of $3,409. On average, visitors from Scandinavia, Canada, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Germany were high spenders. The lowest average expenditure, $1,160 per visitor, was by visitors from New Zealand.
On average, food, drink and accommodation accounted for over a third of expenditure, while just under a third of expenditure was on shopping. High spenders on food, drink and accommodation tended to be from Europe and North America, while visitors from Asian countries tended to direct a high proportion of expenditure on shopping.
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"Visitor Countries",10,"chart050.cht","c","0"
This graph depicts the regions of the world where Australia's visitors came from during 1995.
The most popular country of visitors to Australia included Japan with 21% of total visitors in 1995. This was followed by New Zealand at 14%, the United Kingdom at 9% and the USA at 8%.
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"Domestic Travel - Holiday",11,map10.jpg,c,0
In 1995, the main purposes of domestic trips were pleasure or holiday (42%), visiting friends or relatives (29%), and business (14%).
This map and the following two maps indicate the person nights spent in the different States in 1995 for the three different reasons stated. This map covers pleasure or holiday.
New South Wales (34,168,000) and the Australian Capital Territory (1,487,000) are included as one figure in this map.
This map shows the person nights of domestic travel for the purpose of visiting friends/relatives during 1995. This accounted for 29% of the reasons for domestic travel.
New South Wales (23,389,000) and the Australian Capital Territory (1,526,000) are included as one figure in this map.
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"Domestic Travel - Business",13,map9.jpg,c,0
This map shows the person nights of domestic travel for the purpose of business during 1995. This accounted for 14% of the reasons for domestic travel.
New South Wales (9,854,000) and the Australian Capital Territory (1,123,000) are included as one figure in this map.
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20,0
"Characteristics of Australian Farms",1,"0","g","The gross product of agriculture"
The gross product of agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting in 1994-95 was $12,747 million, 3% of GDP. Agriculture constituted the major proportion of this total, as indicated by the fact that 377,100 of the 404,400 people employed in the above group of industries were employed in agriculture and services to agriculture. As at August, 1995, 5% of employed persons were employed in agriculture and services to agriculture.
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"Gross Value of Agricultural Commodities Produced",2,"spread410.spr","c","0"
The gross value of agricultural commodities produced is the value of recorded production at the wholesale prices realised in the market place. This table shows the 1994-95 figures and the 1995-96 preliminary figures for the gross value of agricultural commodities.
You will need to use the scroll bar at the extreme right of the screen to view all entries in this table.
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"Employment in Agriculture",3,"chart044.cht","c","0"
This chart shows employed persons in agriculture broken down into males and females from 1990 to 1996.
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"Crops",4,"map13","c","0"
The associated diagram shows the area of crops, in hectares, in the States and Territories of Australia for 1994-95.
Main crops include cereal grains such as wheat, oats, barley, grain sorghum, maize and rice, as well as vegetables, fruit, grapes, oilseeds, cotton, sugar and fodder crops.
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"Wheat",5,"map14","c","0"
This diagram shows the wheat for grain production in tonnes by State for 1995-96.
Wheat is Australia's most important crop. It is produced in all States but primarily on the mainland in a narrow crescent known as the wheat-belt. Inland of the Great Dividing Range, the wheat-belt stretches in a curve from central Queensland through New South Wales, Victoria and southern South Australia. In Western Australia, the wheat-belt continues around the south-west of the State and some way north, along the western side of the continent.
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"Oats",6,"map15","c","0"
This diagram shows the oats for grain production in tonnes by State for 1995-96.
Oats are traditionally a cereal of moist, temperate regions. However, improved varieties and management practices have enabled oats to be grown over a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. They have a high feed value and produce a greater bulk of growth than other winter cereals; they need less cultivation and respond well to superphosphate and nitrogen. Oats have two main uses: as a grain crop, or as a fodder crop (following sowing, or fallow or rough sowing into stubble or clover pastures).
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"Barley",7,"map16","c","0"
This diagram shows the barley for grain production in tonnes by State for 1995-96.
Barley contains two main groups of varieties, 2-row and 6-row. The former is generally, but not exclusively, preferred for malting purposes. Barley is grown principally as a grain crop although in some areas it is used as a fodder crop for grazing, with grain being subsequently harvested if conditions are suitable. It is often grown as a rotation crop with wheat, oats and pasture. When sown for fodder, sowing may take place either early or late in the season, as it has a short growing period.
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"Vegetables",8,"chart037.cht","c","0"
The area sown to vegetables reached a peak of over 200,000 hectares in 1945. It remained static around 109,000 hectares from the mid-seventies to the mid-eighties, increased until the end of the decade but has levelled out in recent years.
Yields from most vegetable crops have increased due to variety breeding for increased yields, greater use of irrigation and better control of disease and insect pests.
In 1995-96, potatoes were the largest vegetable crop in terms of both area and weight.
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"Fruit",9,"chart038.cht","c","0"
A wide variety of fruit is grown in Australia, ranging from pineapples, mangoes and pawpaws in the tropics, to pome, stone and berry fruits in the temperate regions.
The most important fruit crops in Australia are apples, oranges, bananas and grapes.
However, some other fruit types have experienced considerable growth in recent years. These include kiwi fruit and strawberries. The most significant crops in terms of gross value of production are apples and bananas. In 1994-95, the value of the banana crop increased by 25 per cent while the value of the apple crop rose 14 per cent.
#
"Grapes",10,"chart039.cht","c","0"
Grapes are a temperate crop which require warm to hot summer conditions for ripening and predominantly winter rainfall.
Freedom from late spring frosts is essential. Grapes are grown for wine-making, drying and, to a lesser extent, for table use.
Some of the better known wine producing areas are the Barossa, Clare, Riverland, Southern Districts and Coonawarra (South Australia); north-eastern Victoria and Great Western (Victoria); Hunter and Riverina (New South Wales); Sunraysia (New South Wales and Victoria); and Swan Valley and Margaret River (Western Australia).
The gross value of viticultural production for 1994-95 increased by 14 per cent from 1993-94 to $511 million.
#
"Cotton",11,"chart208.cht","c","0"
Cotton is grown primarily for its fibre (lint). When the cotton is matured, seed cotton is taken to a gin where it is separated (ginned) into lint and seed. Lint is used for yarn while seed is further processed at an oil mill. There the short fibres (linters) remaining on the seed after ginning are removed. They are too short to make into cloth but are used for wadding, upholstery and paper. The seeds are then separated into kernels and hulls. Hulls are used for stock feed and as fertiliser, while kernels are crushed to extract oil. The oilcake residue (crushed kernels) is ground into meal which is a protein roughage also used as stock feed.
Seed cotton production in 1994-95 rose marginally following two consecutive falls. Yield also improved, up from 2.7 tonnes per hectare in 1993-94 to 3.2 tonnes per hectare in 1994-95.
#
"Sugar",12,"chart209.cht","c","0"
Sugar cane is grown commercially in Australia along the east coast over a distance of some 2,100 km, in a number of discontinuous areas from Maclean in northern New South Wales to Mossman in Queensland. The geographical spread contributes to the overall reliability of the sugar cane crop and to Australia's record as a reliable sugar supplier.
Approximately 95% of production occurs in Queensland, with some 75% of the crop grown north of the Tropic of Capricorn in areas where rainfall is reliable and the warm, moist and sunny conditions are ideal for the growing of sugar cane. Farm sizes generally range between 20 and 70 hectares.
#
"Livestock Population",13,chart045.cht.jpg,c,0
The numbers of each of the principal categories of livestock in Australia from 1993 to 1996 are shown in this chart. Cattle numbers exclude house cows and heifers.
The years in which the numbers of livestock attained their peaks are as follows: cattle, 1976 (33,434,000); sheep, 1970 (180,080,000); and pigs, 1973 (3,259,000).
#
"Cattle Population",14,map17.jpg,c,0
Cattle-raising is carried out in all States, the main object in certain districts being the production of stock suitable for slaughtering and in others the raising of dairy herds.
In many areas, cattle are raised for both dairy and beef purposes. While dairy cattle are restricted mainly to southern and to coastal districts, beef cattle are more concentrated in Queensland and New South Wales.
Cattle numbers in Australia increased slowly during the 1960s and 1970s, despite seasonal changes and heavy slaughterings, to a peak of 33.4 million in 1976.
Beef cattle production is often combined with cropping, dairying and sheep. In the northern half of Australia, cattle properties and herd sizes are very large, pastures are generally unimproved, fodder crops are rare and beef is usually the only product.
The industry is more intensive in the south because of the more favourable environment including more improved pasture.
Drought conditions in the early 1980s led to a decline in the beef herd until 1984. For the next five years, the size of the herd remained relatively static. Since 1989, cattle numbers have gradually increased, despite drought conditions which have prevailed in many parts of Queensland and north-western New South Wales.
The accompanying diagram shows the preliminary figures for the 1996 cattle population in the different Australian States.
#
"Sheep Population",15,map18.jpg,c,0
With the exception of a short period in the 1860s, when the flocks in Victoria outnumbered those of New South Wales, the latter State has occupied the premier position in sheep raising.
Western Australia is presently the second largest sheep raising State, with Victoria ranking third in numbers of sheep.
Sheep numbers reached a peak of 180 million in Australia in 1970. Following subsequent falls, by March 1990 flock numbers had risen to 170 million. However, poor market prospects for wool since 1990 have had a marked impact on flock size, and numbers have declined since then.
This diagram shows the 1996 sheep population by State.
#
"Pig Population",16,map19.jpg,c,0
This diagram shows the pig population in Australia by State in 1996.
#
"Wool Production",17,"chart040.cht","c","0"
Wool as shorn from the sheep ("greasy wool") contains an appreciable amount of grease, dirt, vegetable matter and other extraneous material. The exact quantities of these impurities in the fleece vary between differing climatic and pastoral conditions, seasonal fluctuations and the breed and condition of the sheep.
It is, however, the clean wool fibre that is ultimately consumed by the textile industry, and the term "clean yield" is used to express the net wool fibre content present in greasy wool.
Following a gradual upward trend of clean yields to 66% of the Australian clip in 1992-93, this has now fallen to 65% in 1995-96.
Preliminary estimates of the gross value of wool produced in 1995-96 are 55% lower than in 1988-89, the peak year in the wool boom of the 1980s and 19% below the 1994-95 gross value.
This chart shows the total wool production from 1987 to 1996.
#
"Dairying",18,chart041.cht.jpg,c,0
Dairying is a major Australian rural industry, ranking third behind the wheat and beef industries in terms of value of production.
The preliminary estimate of the gross value of dairy production at farm gate prices in 1995-96 was $2,965.8 million or approximately 11 per cent of the gross value of rural production. The gross value of this industry at an ex-factory level is approximately $6,000 million per year.
The dairying industry is also one of Australia's leading rural industries in terms of the proportion of downstream employment and processing it generates. Employment at manufacturing, processing and farm establishments is estimated to be in the vicinity of 60,000 people.
Australian milk production has risen steadily over the past seven years and in 1995-96 was 8,716 million litres, an increase of 6 per cent compared with the previous year. The preliminary 1995-96 figure for average production per dairy cow of 4,445 litres was around a third higher than the levels of the early 1980s.
In 1994-95, Australians consumed 173,823 tonnes of cheese, 5 per cent more than the previous year. On a per capita basis, this was 9.7 kg per person, 20 per cent more than that consumed in 1984-85.
#
"Beekeeping Production",19,chart220.cht.jpg,c,0
The beekeeping industry consists of 300-400 full-time apiarists, who account for about 70% of the Australian honey production, and a large number of part-time apiarists who produce the rest. Some of these apiarists move as far afield as from Victoria to Queensland in an endeavour to obtain a continuous supply of nectar for honey from suitable flora.
While honey production remains the predominant sector of the industry, production of breeding stock and a provision of pollination services are also significant.
#
"Other Agricultural Industries",20,emu.jpg,c,0
The list of agricultural commodities that are now produced in Australia has continued to expand. Some, such as goat (either for fibre, meat or milk) and deer (meat and velvet) production, are now well established. Newer ventures conducted by the livestock farming industry include: sheep milk farming; emu farming; ostrich farming; rabbit farming; crocodile farming; and alpaca farming.
In horticulture, established crops now include tea and coffee. Other crops more recently introduced include a large variety of fruits and vegetables (mainly from Asia), herbs and pyrethrum, an important oil.
\BDescription:\b Emu farming is now conducted in Australia \I(Webster Publishing)\i
Forests are an important sustainable natural resource providing a wide range of indispensable products and benefits to the community.
Forest vegetation cover protects the soil from water and wind erosion, reduces flooding and siltation of water bodies and maintains the water quality. Forests provide habitats for a wide variety of native animals and plants. They also act as a sink to absorb greenhouse gases.
\BDescription:\b A creek running through the \JWarrumbungle\js \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Forest Management",2,"d\10\2_0054.jpg","c","0"
The forests and wood products industries based on native and plantation forests contribute substantially to Australia's economy, especially to employment in rural areas.
Forests are also valuable ecosystems providing a gene pool of great diversity for scientific investigation; a source of honey, oils, gums, resins and medicines; and a resource base for education, tourism and recreation and other purposes.
Forests cannot necessarily provide for all uses at the same time, yet careful management will ensure that the forests provide multiple benefits in the long term for the Australian community.
Farm forestry is becoming increasingly important as a potential commercial source of wood. A broad range of programs has been implemented by government and private agencies to promote tree planting on Australian farms.
Native forest is defined as land dominated by trees with an existing or potential mature height of 20 metres or more, including native stands of cypress pine in commercial use regardless of height. The total area of native forest was estimated at 40.7 million hectares as at 30 June 1993 (about 5 per cent of Australia's land area).
\BDescription:\b School children planting trees \I(DFAT)\i
Over half of the world's known plant and animal species are found in rainforests. Rainforests are the traditional home of many tribal peoples and also play an important role in contributing to global climatic stability. However, destruction of tropical forests in developing countries is occurring because of activities largely associated with population pressures and poverty.
Australia has only a relatively small area of tropical forest (an estimated 1.4 million hectares), confined to northern and eastern Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Much of this forest is already under various forms of protection. For example, the Queensland Wet Tropics World Heritage Area covers almost 890,000 hectares, including most of the tropical forest in North Queensland.
\BDescription:\b Daintree rainforest, North Queensland \I(DFAT)\i
This map depicts the cypress pine forest area by hectares, per State as at June 1993.
#
"Existing Forest Estate - Public Ownership",7,map5.jpg,c,0
This map shows, in hectares, the public ownership of forests by State, as at June 1993.
Of the 40.7 million hectares of native forest at June 1993, 29.4 million hectares (72%) were publicly owned and 11.3 million hectares (28%) were private land. Of the publicly owned forests, 6.6 million hectares (16%) were in National Parks or in World Heritage areas, 12.1 million hectares (30%) were managed by State forest authorities for various uses, including wood production, and 10.7 million hectares (27%) were vacant or leasehold Crown land.
This map shows the coniferous plantation areas (mainly \IPinus radiata)\i by hectares for each State as at March, 1995.
Under the National Forest Policy Statement (NFPS) agreed to by the Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments in 1992, Australia is committed to expanding its plantation to provide additional resources for the forestry sector. Commonwealth Government programs have supported the expansion of Australia's plantation resource base for many years.
The National Afforestation Program (NAP) was established in 1987-88 as a three year grants program to stimulate an expansion in the commercial hardwood timber resource and to assist in land rehabilitation through broadacre commercial plantations (including farm forestry).
This map shows the broadleaved plantation areas (mainly eucalyptus) by hectares for each State as at March, 1995.
#
"Wood and Paper Products",11,5_0075.jpg,c,0
Australia's wood and paper products industries are important components of Australia's primary and secondary industries. They are particularly important in providing economic development and employment in many regions of rural Australia.
The industries include hardwood and softwood sawmilling, plywood and panels manufacturing, woodchip export and pulp and paper industries. Over 61,000 people are directly employed in growing and harvesting of wood and the manufacture and processing of wood and paper products. The wood and paper products industries contribute about two per cent to gross domestic product.
In 1994-95, the value of exports of forest products totalled $1,004 million, of which 56% were woodchips and 22% paper and paperboard products. In the same year, the value of imports of forest products was $2,999 million, of which 53% was paper and paperboard products and 18% sawn wood. This indicates a trade deficit in forest products of $1,995 million in 1994-95.
Australia produces 79% of its sawn timber needs, of which native forests provide about 43%, with the balance coming from softwood plantations.
\BDescription:\b Transporting pine logs - Albury \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Fisheries Resources",12,"a\8\dfat51.jpg","c","0"
Australia's fisheries stocks are extremely diverse but, by world standards, its marine ecosystem is relatively unproductive. The Australian Fishing Zone (AFZ) covers an area 16 per cent larger than the Australian land mass and is the third largest fishing zone in the world.
However, Australia's fish production is insignificant by world standards. This reflects low productivity of the oceans rather than under-exploitation of the resource. However, while some species are currently overharvested, some fish resources such as albacore and southern whiting are not being used optimally.
Over 3,000 species of marine and freshwater fish, and at least an equal number of crustacean and mollusc species, occur in and around Australia. Despite this, less than 100 of these are commercially exploited. Australia's major commercially exploited species are prawns, rock lobster, abalone, tuna, other fin fish, scallops, oysters and pearls.
Australian fishing operators concentrate their efforts on estuarine, coastal, pelagic (surface) species and demersal (bottom living) species that occur on the continental shelf.
In 1993-94, Australians consumed 3.5 kg of edible weight fresh and frozen fish per person, sourced from Australian waters, and 2.1 kg of imported fish. The consumption per person of crustaceans and molluscs (such as prawns, lobsters, crabs and oysters) was 1.5 kg. A further 3.1 kg per person was consumed in the form of prepared seafood products.
The level of fishing effort exerted by the fishing fleet has increased rapidly over the last decade to the point where almost all the major known fish, crustacean and mollusc resources are fully exploited. Some major fisheries such as southern bluefin tuna, gemfish and shark have suffered serious biological depletion.
Australia has enjoyed a relatively long history of success in the farming of the Sydney rock oyster. Pearl culture operations and ornamental fish farming are well established. The production of juveniles of several species of fin fish, molluscs and crustaceans has been undertaken for some years, initially for restocking wild populations and subsequently for grow-out operations.
\BDescription:\b Cray fishing in Western Australia \I(DFAT)\i
As in many other developed countries, there has been a surge of interest and investment in many types of aquatic farms over the last decade. Notable successes are the salmon industry in Tasmania and commercial cultivation of the Pacific oyster, blue mussel and rainbow trout.
Aquaculture, or 'fish farming,' is an alternative to harvesting the naturally occurring fish stocks and has considerable potential as a means of ensuring sustainability of harvesting yields. Aquaculture industries are established in all States, with species involved ranging from pearl oysters to freshwater trout. Aquaculture has experienced rapid growth during the past six years, with the value of production rising from $188 million in 1989-90 to $419 million in 1994-95.
Developmental work is taking place in a number of areas including barramundi, freshwater crayfish (yabbies and marron), prawns, mussels, and algae, and research is continuing into the hatchery rearing of species such as abalone, scallops, giant clams, flat and pearl oysters.
Over half of the established aquaculture output by value goes to markets other than for direct consumption. However, the newer emerging industries are producing mainly food.
\BDescription:\b Commercial collecting of fish \I(\JGreat Barrier Reef\j Marine Park Authority)\i.
#
"Production/Processing of Fisheries Products",14,"chart063.cht","c","0"
This chart shows the gross value of the Australian commercial fishing industry. As the value of materials used in the course of production is not available, it is not possible to show net values.
Gross value of production is the value placed on recorded production at the wholesale price realised in the principal markets.
In general, the principal markets are the metropolitan markets in each State, although, in cases where commodities are consumed locally or where they become raw material for a secondary industry, these points are treated as the principal markets.
#
"Selected Major Fisheries",15,"chart065.cht","c","0"
The gross value of fisheries production in 1994-95 is estimated to have been $1,745 million. Between 1993-94 and 1994-95 the main increase in gross value of production occurred in pearls (particularly in Western Australia, up 90%), tuna (7%), prawns (4%) and rock lobster (1%).
The gross value of production in some fisheries fell in 1994-95. Although landings of abalone rose, lower prices depressed the total value of production by 17% to $148 million. Decreased landings depressed the value of scallop production to $51 million. Reflecting increases in production, the gross value of fin fish increased by 3% to $478 million.
The 1994-95 figures in this chart are provisional estimates.
#
"Exports of Fisheries",16,chart066.cht.jpg,c,0
Exports of fisheries products come under Commonwealth jurisdiction, while domestic market activity comes under that of the corresponding States or Territories.
A significant proportion of Australian fisheries production (edible and non-edible) is exported. In 1994-95 the value of exports was $1,358 million, approximately 78 per cent of the total value of Australian production.
The Australian fisheries export industry depends on a limited range of products sold on a few major markets, and in 1994-95, exports to Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan accounted for about 76 per cent of the value of all exports of fisheries products.
In 1994-95 the most valuable exports included rock lobster ($474 million), prawns ($231 million) and pearls ($211 million).
The details contained in the accompanying chart for 1994-95 are provisional estimates.
#
"Imports of Fisheries",17,chart067.cht.jpg,c,0
In 1994-95, Australia imported $666 million of edible and non-edible fisheries products, 25 per cent of which came from Thailand and 18 per cent from New Zealand.
The most valuable categories of imported seafood included prawns from Thailand ($66 million), canned fish from Thailand ($39 million) and from the United States ($33 million), and frozen fish fillets from New Zealand ($36 million).
The figures contained in the accompanying chart for 1994-95 are provisional estimates.
#
!,!,!,!,!
10#
33,0
"Mining Definition and Contribution",1,"f\3\2_0070.jpg","c","0"
Mining, as defined in the 1993 edition of the \IAustralian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (ANZSIC)\i, broadly relates to the extraction of minerals occurring naturally as solids such as coal and ores; liquids such as crude petroleum; or gases such as natural gas.
The mining industry contributed $16,889 million or 4 per cent of Australia's gross domestic product (GDP) in 1994-95.
\BDescription:\b Mining coal at Peak Downs \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Mining Turnover",2,"chart054.cht","c","0"
Turnover in the mining industry remained relatively unchanged at $28,936 million (down less than 1% from 1993-94).
The mining industries which recorded the largest rises in turnover were silver/lead/zinc, up $129 million to $1,064 million; and mineral sands, up $110 million to $631 million. Other industries to show increases in turnover were other metal ores, up $389 million to $1,070 million; bauxite, up $56 million to $856 million; and copper ore, up $53 million to $1,109 million.
Industries that declined in turnover were coal, down $531 million to $9,342 million; oil and gas, down $124 million to $7,681 million; iron ore, down $99 million to $3,103 million; and gold ore, down $68 million to $4,169 million.
This chart shows the turnover figures for selected categories.
#
"Mining Industry Employment",3,map20.jpg,c,0
Employment in the mining industry dropped by 2% to 55,348 persons between June 1994 and June 1995.
This map shows the number of persons employed in the mining industry in the 1994-95 period.
#
"Mining in New South Wales",4,"map21.jpg","c","0"
Mining in New South Wales in 1994-95 generated a turnover of $4,589 million. It employed 14,869 people, and the total wages and salaries amounted to $1,059 million.
This table shows mining turnover for each State during 1994-95.
#
"Mining in Victoria",5,"map21.jpg","c","0"
Victorian mining turnover in 1994-95 was $3,435 million. The industry employed 2,036 people in Victoria and the total wages and salaries amounted to $140 million.
This table shows mining turnover for each State during 1994-95.
#
"Mining in Queensland",6,"map21.jpg","c","0"
Mining turnover in Queensland in 1994-95 was valued at $6,669 million.
The State's mining industry employed 14,756 people and total wages and salaries amounted to $964 million.
This table shows mining turnover for each State during 1994-95.
#
"Mining in South Australia",7,"map21.jpg","c","0"
The mining industry in South Australia employed 2,123 people in 1994-95 and generated $107 million in wages and salaries. Turnover in 1994-95 was $940 million.
This table shows mining turnover for each State in during 1994-95.
#
"Mining in Western Australia",8,"map21.jpg","c","0"
Turnover in the Western Australian mining sector in 1994-95 was $11,817 million.
Total employment was 18,736 persons with wages and salaries totalling $1,140 million.
This table shows mining turnover for each State during 1994-95.
#
"Mining in Tasmania",9,"map21.jpg","c","0"
Metallic minerals account for almost all mining production in Tasmania. In 1994-95, turnover for the State was $371 million.
Employment was 1,086 persons, with a wages and salaries bill of $77 million.
This table shows mining turnover for each State during 1994-95.
#
"Mining in the Northern Territory",10,"map21.jpg","c","0"
Mining turnover in the Northern Territory for 1994-95 was $1,115 million. Mining is the dominant sector of the Northern Territory economy contributing about a quarter of its GDP. Northern Territory employment in the mining industry in 1994-95 was 1,742 people earning $104 million in wages and salaries.
This table shows mining turnover for each State during 1994-95.
#
"Mineral Production",11,"chart056.cht","c","0"
Australian production in the metallic minerals, coal, oil and gas industries for 1994-95 was valued at $26,741 million, an increase of 4 per cent over the previous year. Metallic minerals production dominated with 44 per cent of the total, while oil and gas was 29 per cent of the total and coal was 27 per cent.
By value, the two largest components of metallic minerals production were gold and iron ore which accounted for $4,246 million and $3,020 million respectively, for a combined share of 62 per cent.
#
"Mineral Production - (2)",12,"chart057.cht","c","0"
Western Australia accounted for both the largest share of metallic minerals production with $7,908 million or 67 per cent, and the largest share of total mineral production with $11,835 million, 44 per cent of the total.
The increase in the value of mineral production in 1994-95 was primarily due to growth in metallic minerals, which rose 8 per cent to $11,719 million.
The value of production of the oil and gas industry rose to $7,683 million in 1994-95 from $7,423 million in 1993-94. This represented an increase of $260 million or 3.5%, primarily due to increased production despite falls in prices for some commodities.
The value of coal production fell 1 per cent, primarily due to lower prices. The total value of the coal industry (excluding Tasmania) was $7,339 million in 1994-95. Queensland and New South Wales are the major coal producing States, with 45 per cent and 44 per cent of production respectively.
In 1994 Australia remained the world's largest producer of bauxite (39 per cent of total world production); diamonds (37 per cent); lead (19 per cent); and zircon, a mineral sands concentrate (56 per cent).
#
"Australia's Major Exports",13,"h\4\14120070.jpg","c","0"
Australia is the world's largest exporter of black coal, iron ore, alumina, lead, diamonds and mineral sands products, the second largest exporter of zinc, and the third largest exporter of aluminium and gold.
Exports of mining products rose in value by 2% in 1994-95 to $14,904 million or 22% of total merchandise exports. This followed a fall of 8% in 1993-94.
The percentage contributions of the major mineral products to total exports have remained stable over the periods 1990-91 to 1994-95.
Black coal remains the largest single export item and the main mineral exported, with a value of $6,792 million in 1994-95, 10% of total exports.
Other major exports were iron ore ($2,771 million, 4% of total exports), crude oil ($1,726 million, 3%), zinc ores ($404 million, 1%) and uranium ($188 million, less than 1%).
Exports of mining products together with basic manufactures of mineral origin rose by 2% in 1994-95. However, as a proportion of total exports they declined slightly from 36% in 1993-94 to 35% in 1994-95.
A significant increase in nickel and aluminium export earnings offset the decline in export earnings from most other mineral resources. The value of nickel exports rose $340 million (58%) to $925 million following increased export volumes and higher world nickel prices. Although aluminium export volumes were reduced as Australian producers maintained production cuts introduced in the first half of 1994, sharply higher aluminium prices in 1994-95 resulted in Australian export earnings rising $346 million (19%) to $2,169 million.
The main minerals with declines in export earnings were gold and coal. The value of gold exports fell $467 million (9%) to $4,819 million, following lower bullion production in Australia and overseas. The value of coal exports fell $374 million (5%) to $6,792 million, despite increased export volumes, because of lower negotiated contract prices with Japanese steel mills and electricity utilities.
In 1994-95, mining imports were $2,804 million, a rise of 9% on the 1993-94 total of $2,573 million.
With the inclusion of basic manufactures of mineral origin, imports of mineral resources were valued at $6,141 million in 1994-95. This represents a rise of $350 million (6%) on the 1993-94 figure.
The major contributors to the increase were crude oil, other refinery feedstock and petroleum refinery products, up $233 million (6.8%) to $3,678 million; and iron ore, ingot steel and ferro alloys, up $198 million (24%) to $1,023 million. The major offsetting fall occurred for imports of refined gold, down $271 million (28%) to $708 million.
\BDescription:\b BHP Port Kembla \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Gold Production",15,map22.jpg,c,0
Gold production (content of all minerals) in Australia during 1994-95 was 243,213 kilograms.
Western Australia accounted for most production with 77%, followed by Queensland with 11%, the Northern Territory (7%), New South Wales (4%).
The gold mining industry employed 8,238 people as at June 1995, 15% of total employment in the metallic minerals, coal, oil and gas industries, making it the second highest employer in the mining sector behind coal.
This diagram depicts graphically the percentages of gold production by State.
#
"Gold Export Markets",16,chart059.cht.jpg,c,0
Gold is Australia's second biggest export earner, having overtaken wool in 1990-91. In 1994-95 it accounted for 7% of total exports at a value of $4,820 million. The main markets were Singapore ($1,573 million), Japan ($1,310 million) and Republic of Korea ($1,004 million).
Australia accounts for about 11% of estimated world gold production. South Africa is the world's biggest gold producer with 24%.
#
"Iron Ore Production",17,chart060.cht.jpg,c,0
Iron ore production in 1994-95 was 136.8 million tonnes, of which 94% or 128.7 million tonnes were exported. Iron ore mining employed 6,090 people at the end of June 1995.
Almost 97% of production takes place in Western Australia's Pilbara region. Iron ore is also mined in South Australia and Tasmania.
Iron ore accounted for $2,771 million or 4% of total exports in 1994-95. Japan is Australia's largest market, taking nearly half of its exports (in dollar terms).
Other important markets are China (18%), Republic of Korea (15%), Taiwan (5%), the United Kingdom (4%) and Germany (4%).
#
"Crude Oil and Condensate",18,"h\4\7_0042.jpg","c","0"
Indigenous production of crude oil and condensate in 1994-95 was 31,301 megalitres (539 thousand barrels per day), compared to the 1993-94 figure of 29,583 megalitres.
In 1994-95, the Bonaparte Basin produced 1,588 megalitres of crude oil, nearly 6% of the total indigenous oil production. Production of crude oil from the Gippsland Basin accounted for 51% of total indigenous crude oil production. The North West Shelf was the major producer of condensate during 1994-95 with 63% of indigenous production sourced in that region.
Export volumes of crude oil and condensate increased by 16% to 11,434 megalitres in 1994-95 compared with 1993-94. The main markets were Japan, Indonesia and Singapore. Imports of crude oil and condensate increased by 2% to 20,641 megalitres.
\BDescription:\b Oil drilling platform near Darwin \I(Peter Jarver)\i
#
"LPG and Natural Gas",19,"h\4\1_0054.jpg","c","0"
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a valuable co-product of oil and gas production and petroleum refining. LPG is an alternative transport fuel for high mileage vehicles in urban areas as well as a petrochemical feedstock and domestic fuel.
Production of naturally occurring LPG in Australia in 1994-95 was 3,479 megalitres. The major contributors were the Bass Strait fields (2,558 megalitres or 71% of total production) and the Cooper Basin (936 megalitres or 26% of total production). About 33% of domestic LPG production is exported (1,189 megalitres in 1994-95), mainly to Japan.
During 1994-95, 28,176 million cubic metres of natural gas (including liquefied natural gas (LNG)) were produced for domestic consumption and export, representing an increase of 13% from the 1993-94 production level. In 1994-95, 10,690 million cubic metres of natural gas from the export phase of the North West Shelf Project were liquefied for shipment. This export earned $1,210 million and was 32% of total Australian gas production.
It is estimated that exports of LNG to Japan will continue to expand, rising to a peak of about 7 million tonnes per year by 1995-96.
\BDescription:\b Moomba Gas Refinery, SA \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Bauxite and Alumina Production",20,1_0049.jpg,c,0
Australia is the world's largest bauxite and alumina producer and the fourth largest aluminium producer.
Bauxite mining employed 1,713 people nationally (June 1995) at mines in Western Australia south of Perth, in the Northern Territory on the Gove Peninsula, and in Queensland at Weipa. Generally the bauxite ore is not sold but processed to alumina for sale or for conversion to aluminium.
Alumina production reached 12.9 million tonnes in 1994-95, while refined aluminium production was 1.3 million tonnes.
In 1994-95 alumina ranked fifth by value among the major commodity exports with 3% of total exports, 10.3 million tonnes valued at $2,237 million; aluminium ranked sixth with 3% of exports, 0.9 million tonnes worth $2,169 million.
Japan was the major market for aluminium, taking 34% while Northeast and Southeast Asia (including Japan) together accounted for over 92% of exports.
\BDescription:\b Bauxite mining in NT \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Coal Production",21,1_0060.jpg,c,0
Black coal is currently the largest source of primary energy in Australia. By world standards, in relation to present population and consumption, Australia has ready availability of easily worked deposits of coal. The country's main black coal fields are located in New South Wales and Queensland, not far from the coast and the main centres of population.
Of Australia's identified resources of black coal, currently estimated at 76 gigatonnes (Gt), about 54 Gt are considered to be economically recoverable. They are located largely in the Sydney Basin in New South Wales and the Bowen Basin in Queensland. There are other coal-bearing basins in New South Wales and Queensland, while small deposits are being worked in Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania.
Black coal production in 1994-95 was 192 million tonnes, most of it from Queensland (94.5 million tonnes) and New South Wales (88.6 million tonnes). The coal industry was the largest employer in the mining sector at June 1995, employing 25,295 people.
More than 45% of New South Wales coal production is from underground mines, whereas over 86% of Queensland coal production is from open-cut mines.
Black coal produced in South Australia and Western Australia is used for electricity generation, while coal mined in Tasmania is used for industrial purposes such as steam generation.
Australia's Economic Demonstrated Resources (EDR) of brown coal were estimated to be around 41 gigatonnes at December 1994. The main deposits are located in Victoria's Latrobe Valley (over 39 gigatonnes). Small deposits exist in other areas of south Gippsland, in south-eastern Victoria at Gelliondale and in the south-central region at Anglesea, Bacchus Marsh and Altona. Deposits are also known to exist at many places along the southern margin of the continent, and as far north as central Queensland. Large deposits are being tested in the Kingston area of South Australia, the Esperance area of Western Australia and at Rosevale in the north-east of Tasmania.
\BDescription:\b Newlands coal mine \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Coal Export Markets",22,chart061.cht.jpg,c,0
Black coal is Australia's biggest export earner accounting for 10% of the total value of exports in 1994-95 or $6,792 million, down from $7,189 million in 1993-94.
By far the biggest market for Australian coal was Japan which bought 65.1 million tonnes for $3,326 million, 47% of total sales. The Republic of Korea bought 17.3 million tonnes for $880 million (13%) and Taiwan 8.4 million tonnes for $399 million (6%).
Two-thirds of black coal production, consisting of steaming coal and hard and soft coking coal, is exported.
#
"Diamond Mining",23,dfat59.jpg,c,0
Diamonds were first extracted in 1982 in Western Australia.
Australia is now the world's largest producer of diamonds (gem and industrial) with 37% of world production in 1994. Most of this is from the Argyle Diamond Mine in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. This mine commenced operations in December 1985 and is the world's biggest single mine producer of diamonds.
In 1994-95, 34.7 mega carats of diamonds (sorted and unsorted) were exported, with a value of $570 million.
\BDescription:\b Argyle Diamond Mine, WA \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Uranium Mining",24,1_0063.jpg,c,0
Australia has about 40% of the world's low-cost uranium reserves (excluding the current and former centrally planned economies). Deposits occur in the Northern Territory, Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland.
Australia's reasonably assured uranium resources, at December 1994, totalled 630,000 tonnes of uranium recoverable at less than $US80 per kg of uranium.
The Australian Government no longer maintains its "three mines" policy with regard to uranium mining. However, restrictions on the export of uranium still apply.
The Ranger deposit was discovered in 1969, 250 kilometres east of Darwin, and mining commenced in 1981. There was no uranium production at this mine during 1994-95.
The Nabarlek deposits were discovered in 1970. The Nabarlek 1 deposit is completely mined out and the mine has been on care and maintenance since 1989.
The Olympic Dam deposits were discovered in 1975 and mining commenced in 1988.
Sales of uranium (contained in uranium oxide) for 1994-95 were 2,232 tonnes, with 1,313 tonnes from Ranger and 918 tonnes from Olympic Dam.
Uranium oxide exports in 1994-95 were 4,069 tonnes, valued at $188 million.
All Australian uranium production is exported, in the form of yellow cake, principally for use as fuel for nuclear power stations. Minor quantities are used in medical, industrial and scientific applications. Australia has no nuclear power stations.
All exports of Australian uranium are subject to the most stringent safeguards which provide assurance that none of the material is diverted from peaceful uses.
In 1994 Australia produced 10% of the world's uranium (excluding the centrally planned economies).
\BDescription:\b Uranium mining \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Oil and Gas Resources",25,"0","g","0"
The prospects of further discoveries of petroleum in Australia are considered to be only modest, the most prospective area being the sedimentary basins off the north-west coast. Consistent with the existing pattern of discoveries, undiscovered oil is likely to be of the light, low sulphur type, and more gas fields than oil fields should be found.
Assessments by the Bureau of Resource Sciences indicate that there is an average probability of finding at least another 380 gigalitres (2,400 million barrels) of crude oil in Australia. This compares with demonstrated economically recoverable resources of 297 gigalitres (1,866 million barrels) and demonstrated sub-economically recoverable resources of 29 gigalitres (186 million barrels) as at December 1994.
#
"Mineral Exploration",26,"map23","c","0"
Australia has the world's largest economically recoverable resources of lead, mineral sands (ilmenite, rutile and zircon), silver, uranium, zinc and gem/near gem diamonds. Australia has almost all of the world's opal resources, and a significant share of the world's sapphire resources.
Exploration consists of the search for new ore occurrences and undiscovered oil or gas, and/or appraisal intended to delineate or extend the limits of known deposits of minerals and oil or gas reservoirs by geological, geophysical, geochemical and other methods.
This includes drilling, but excludes activities of a developmental or production nature. Exploration for water is excluded.
This map shows expenditure on private mineral exploration other than for petroleum in Australia, by State, for 1994-95.
Australia's most important petroleum basins are under Bass Strait and off north-western Australia. Petroleum has been identified in Australian sediments as old as middle Proterozoic, but the main onshore petroleum accumulations are in sedimentary strata of middle Palaeozoic and younger ages and include the Bowen/Surat, Cooper/Eromanga, Otway and Perth Basins.
Petroleum expenditure for all States and Territories for 1994-95 was $688.8 million, an increase of 36% compared to 1993-94.
Expenditure on exploration in production leases increased 49%, while exploration in all other areas increased 34%.
Offshore exploration expenditure increased by 44% to $519.8 million and onshore exploration expenditure increased 17% to $169 million in 1994-95 compared to 1993-94.
This chart shows expenditure on private petroleum exploration in Australia from 1992-93 to 1994-95.
#
"Energy Resources",28,2_0073.jpg,c,0
Australia's energy consumption has increased, on average, by 2.7% per annum over the last 20 years.
Energy is fundamental to Australia's standard of living and economic performance. It has an important role to play in restructuring Australia's economy and improving its competitiveness.
The Commonwealth Government has a significant involvement in the activities of the energy sector. Its responsibilities for export policy and offshore petroleum activities have a major impact on specific development projects.
Key Australian energy policy objectives are:
* responsible development of a growing, internationally competitive energy export sector;
* promotion of efficient production, distribution and use of energy to maximise its contribution to Australia's economic performance;
* development of a flexible, dynamic energy sector capable of responding effectively to change;
* integration of economic efficiency in the production and use of energy with environmental goals through the principles of ecologically sustainable development; and
* promotion of domestic R&D aimed at efficient, ecologically sustainable energy production, diversification and use, complemented with international energy R&D cooperation.
Australia has abundant reserves of coal, natural gas and uranium to meet both its short and long-term domestic energy needs, and it is a major exporter of certain commodities. Crude oil and condensates are the only energy commodites where total reserves are limited.
Given currently known resources, it can continue current production rates in these energy sources for 300 years (black coal), 45 years (gas), and 145 years (uranium).
Australia is one of only five Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries that are net energy exporters.
\BDescription:\b Newcastle factories \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Australia's Energy Position",29,"f\2\2_0067.jpg","c","0"
Australia is:
* the world's largest exporter of black coal, accounting for around one-third of the world seaborne coal trade;
* a major uranium producer and exporter; and
* an exporter of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), liquefied natural gas (LNG) and other petroleum products.
The two main applications of solar energy to generate power in Australia are photovoltaics and solar thermal technologies. Photovoltaic (solar) cells currently provide electricity for remote telecommunication stations, navigational aids, and water pumps. Telstra is a leading user of photovoltaic cells to provide power supply systems for its remote and rural area telecommunication program. The cost of photovoltaic technologies is expected to decline considerably in the next 10-20 years, increasing the prospects for their more extensive use.
Solar thermal technologies are used to convert solar energy to electricity, as well as to provide space heating and hot water for domestic and commercial uses. Australia has a well established domestic solar water heater industry. At June 1994, domestic solar water heaters were installed on some 300,000 or 5% of Australian houses. In Western Australia 25% of the households have solar water heaters installed, while in the Northern Territory the figure is 58%.
Passive solar design is another means of using solar technology throughout Australia. Careful attention to building design, materials and orientation can greatly decrease heating and cooling requirements (and increase comfort) for a modest increase in construction costs over conventional buildings. Passive solar design principles have shown that solar energy can meet up to 90% of normal household space heating needs.
\BDescription:\b Swimming pool solar heating connected to a house roof \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Wind Energy",31,1_0071.jpg,c,0
Of the renewable energy technologies to emerge in the last 10-15 years, wind farms are probably the most promising and lowest cost option for large-scale power supplies. Australia's best wind resources are located in coastal regions of southern Australia, particularly in Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia. These areas have low levels of solar radiation but high and consistent wind speeds. Southern Australia alone has sufficient wind energy resources to provide at least 10% of Australia's electricity needs, if those resources could be harnessed.
The largest commercial wind energy system in Australia is found at Esperance on the south-west coast of Western Australia where State Energy Commission of Western Australia has commissioned a 2.5 megawatt wind farm that provides about 14% of the town's power needs. In Victoria, a wind turbine has been installed at Breamlea, south-west of Melbourne, which produces some 100,000 kWh per year.
Wider use of windpower is constrained by such factors as variations in wind speeds, aesthetic value, noise, bird movements and interference with telecommunications systems.
\BDescription:\b A windmill operating in rural Australia \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Biomass Energy",32,2_0080.jpg,c,0
\BWood\b
In Australia, wood is used for industrial boilers and dryers, metallurgical processes, cooking, and home heating. About six megatonnes of firewood are currently used annually in Australia, equivalent in energy terms to about 100 petajoules. The main sources of wood fuels are forestry residues, sawlogs, pulplogs, and occasionally forest logging.
Solid wood fuels in Australia are mainly firewood, woodchips, fuel pellets, charcoal and wood wastes. Wood is also processed to yield ethanol and methanol as liquid fuels. Under high temperatures (approximately 900░C in the presence of oxygen), wood is gasified to produce combustible gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane.
\BBagasse\b
Bagasse is the fibrous residue from the production of sugar, and is used as fuel to provide process energy in sugar mills in New South Wales and Queensland. It is burnt and the heat is converted into electricity, providing about 70 petajoules. Bagasse is the second largest renewable energy source used in Australia, after wood fuel. It is also an important feedstock for fuel ethanol production.
\BEthanol\b
In March 1994, the Commonwealth Government launched a $3.94 million Ethanol Research and Development Program as part of its lead abatement strategy. The aim of the program is to encourage ethanol production through improved technologies and its use in vehicle fuel blends. Traditionally, ethanol has been produced from expensive feedstocks such as sugar and grains. This program focuses on the use of low cost feedstocks such as forestry wastes, sawdust, cereal straws, cotton trash and municipal tree trimmings.
Ethanol has a high blending research octane number, ranging from 105-120, which makes it a useful partial substitute for lead in petrol. It also has the potential to reduce lead and greenhouse gas emissions.
The goal of the Ethanol Research and Development Program is to encourage establishment of a sustainable ethanol transport fuel industry in Australia, and to eventually serve as a viable economic competitor to petroleum-based fuels. However, cost of production has made it uneconomic at current oil prices. The cost of production of ethanol from traditional feedstocks (sugar and grain) is about 77-80 cents per litre, compared to about 23 cents per litre for petrol.
Presently there are over 90 petrol stations throughout New South Wales and Victoria selling a fuel ethanol blend.
\BDescription:\b Sugarcane fields. Bagasse is a form of biomass energy and is the residue remaining after extracting the juice from sugarcane. \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Electricity and Gas Supplies",33,"h\4\14120065.jpg","c","0"
In 1994-95 Australia's total electricity generation increased by 2%, from 161,813 kWh in 1993-94 to 165,063 kWh. Electricity consumption reached 140,527 kWh (85% of total generated), of which New South Wales and Victoria used 35% and 23% respectively.
Australia's natural gas reticulation and transmission systems reached 76,352 km in 1994-95. This represents an increase of 1,692 km from 1993-94. About 370,000 terajoules of natural gas were sold to 2.8 million customers, yielding $2,350 million.
The number of customers for electricity as at June 1995 was 7,920,713 and the electricity consumption was 140,527 million kWh. The number of customers for natural gas as at June 1995 was 2,800,611.
As at June 1995, there were 80 electricity establishments and 22 gas establishments in Australia.
\BDescription:\b Cable tower connecting electrical power lines \I(DFAT)\i
Manufacturing broadly relates to the physical or chemical transformation of materials or components into new products, whether the work is performed by power-driven machines or by hand.
\BDescription:\b Working in a clothing factory \I(DFAT)\i
The manufacturing industry is an important sector of the Australian economy, contributing about 15% of Australia's gross domestic product (GDP) and about 13% of employment. However, despite significant increases in the value of manufacturing industry's gross product (increasing more than 20% over the past 10 years), the industry's share of GDP has fallen over the past 20 years from around 20% to its current 15%.
Similarly, employment in the manufacturing industry has fallen from around 1.25 million persons 20 years ago to 932,000 at June 1995.
\BDescription:\b Working at the Arnott's biscuits factory \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Manufacturing Trends",3,"0","g","0"
Manufacturing production in 1995-96 was 11% higher than five years earlier, 26% higher than 10 years earlier and 37% higher than 15 years earlier.
Over the period from 1990-91 to 1995-96, the index of manufacturing production fell initially but then increased steadily.
Generally, production for the individual subdivisions of the manufacturing industry demonstrated has also grown over the five years to 1995-96. Large growth over the period was recorded for wood and paper product manufacturing (14%); petroleum, coal, chemical and associated product manufacturing (18%); metal product manufacturing (14%), machinery and equipment manufacturing (15%); and other manufacturing (21%).
The only subdivision which did not grow over the five years to 1995-96 was the textiles, clothing, footwear and leather manufacturing industry. Production in this industry has fallen steadily since 1988-89, and in 1995-96 was almost 18% below the level of 1990-91.
#
"Structure of the Industry",4,"h\4\1_0042.jpg","c","0"
At 30 June 1995 manufacturing establishments in Australia employed 932,100 persons. During 1994-95 those establishments paid $29,851 million in wages and salaries, and recorded $193,823 million in turnover.
The manufacturing subdivisions with the most persons employed at 30 June 1995 were machinery and equipment manufacturing (202,800); food, beverages and tobacco manufacturing (163,100); and metal product manufacturing (147,400). Of the manufacturing subdivisions, non-metallic mineral product manufacturing (39,000) was the smallest employer, accounting for only 4.2% of manufacturing employment.
Food, beverages and tobacco was also the largest contributor to total manufacturing turnover. Its turnover of $41,010 million was 21% of the total manufacturing. Other subdivisions making major contributions were machinery and equipment manufacturing (20%); metal product manufacturing (18%); and petroleum, coal, chemical and associated product manufacturing (16%).
\BDescription:\b Manufacturing pegs \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Manufacturing Turnover",5,map26.jpg,c,0
This map shows turnover per State during 1994-95.
New South Wales (34%) and Victoria (32%) together accounted for almost two-thirds of national manufacturing turnover in 1994-95. New South Wales contributed 46% of the national turnover of the textiles, clothing, footwear and leather manufacturing industry; 40% of the national turnover of the machinery and equipment manufacturing industry; and 20% to 35% of the national turnover of the remaining manufacturing industries.
Although Queensland accounted for only 14% of national manufacturing turnover, it contributed 22% of national turnover for non-metallic mineral product manufacturing and 21% for food, beverages and tobacco manufacturing.
Similarly, South Australia, which accounted for 9% of national manufacturing turnover, contributed 19% of national turnover for machinery and equipment manufacturing.
#
"Manufacturing Employment",6,map27.jpg,c,0
This map shows the number of people employed by State in the manufacturing industry as at June 1995.
New South Wales (33%) and Victoria (32%) dominate manufacturing employment in Australia, accounting for almost two-thirds of national manufacturing employment as at June, 1995. In all industries, New South Wales and Victoria are the two largest employing States. However, different industries predominate, in terms of employment, in different States.
New South Wales manufacturing establishments employ 40% of persons in printing, publishing and recorded media, and 37% of those in the metal product manufacturing industry. Some 46% of all persons employed by textiles, clothing, footwear and leather manufacturers are located in Victoria.
Queensland establishments employ 21% of persons in food, beverages and tobacco manufacturing and 19% of those in non-metallic mineral product manufacturing. South Australia accounts for 15% of employment in the machinery and equipment manufacturing industry.
#
"Manufacturing Labour Costs",7,spread433.spr.jpg,c,0
Major labour costs in the manufacturing industry increased by 6.5% between 1991-92 and 1993-94. In both years, earnings comprised around 88% of total labour costs for the manufacturing industry, which is comparable with the proportion for all industries.
Total labour costs per employee in 1993-94 of $36,570 represented an increase of 4% over 1991-92 costs per employee. For 1993-94, the total labour costs per employee in the manufacturing industry were substantially higher than the average of $32,755 per employee for all industries.
#
"Industrial Disputes",8,spread434.spr.jpg,c,0
There were 156 industrial disputes in the manufacturing industry during the calendar year 1995. These disputes involved over 86,000 employees and resulted in the loss of almost 160,000 working days.
Compared to experience in 1994, this represented a small fall (5%) in the number of disputes, but increases of 72% in employees involved and 30% on working days lost. However, the number of disputes, employees involved and working days lost in 1995 were all substantially below the 1993 experience (down 8%, 51% and 33% respectively).
Manufacturing industry accounted for 24% of all disputes during 1995 compared to 29% in 1994. Manufacturing industry employees involved in disputes were 25% of all employees involved in disputes during 1995, a marked increase on the 19% recorded in 1994. Manufacturing industry disputes were responsible for 29% of working days lost during 1995, which was also higher than in 1994 (25% of working days lost).
Between 1982 and 1986, a fall in the proportion of manufacturing employees with trade union membership, coupled with a contraction in manufacturing industry employment, resulted in a decrease in union membership of nearly 90,000 persons in the industry.
The number of manufacturing employees with union membership fell a further 123,800 persons (23%) between 1986 and 1994, resulting in an overall fall of 213,400 persons (34%) between 1982 and 1994. Despite this large fall in membership numbers, manufacturing industry continues to have a higher rate of union membership than the average for all industries.
The number of trade union members in all industries decreased between 1982 and 1994. In percentage terms, membership followed a downward trend similar to that in manufacturing.
Although 45% of permanent manufacturing employees belonged to a trade union in 1994, only 16% of casual employees were members. Membership rates for permanent female employees were significantly lower than for permanent male employees. The membership rate for casual manufacturing employees was higher than the all industries average.
#
!,!,!,!,!
12#
11,0
"Total Exports",1,chart135.cht,c,0
For the year ended June 1996, exports were $75,999 million, up $8,948 million (13%) on the previous financial year.
The most significant contributors to the rise were cereal and cereal preparations, up $2,405 million (95%) to $4,927 million; metalliferous ores and metal scrap, up $1,065 million (14%) to $8,669 million; coal, coke and briquettes, up $899 million (13%) to $7,837 million; and non-ferrous metals, up $525 million (12%) to $5,043 million.
The export commodities recording the biggest falls were textile fibres and their wastes, down $538 million (12%) to $4,056 million; and meat and meat preparations, down $368 million (10%) to $3,293 million.
Australia's major commodity exports for 1995-96 and their principal markets were:
╖ coal, $7,774 million - 10% of total exports: Japan (43%), Republic of Korea (13%), India (8%) and Taiwan (7%);
╖ non-monetary gold, $5,625 million - 7% of total exports: Republic of Korea (39%), Singapore (21%), Japan (16%) and Switzerland (8%);
╖ wheat, $3,363 million - 4% of total exports: principal market information is confidential; and
╖ iron ore, $2,863 million - 4% of total exports: Japan (45%), China (20%) and Republic of Korea (14%).
#
"Total Imports",2,chart243.cht,c,0
For the year ended June 1996, imports were $77,819 million, up $3,200 million (4%) on the previous year. The most significant rises were recorded for: petroleum, petroleum products and related materials, up $626 million (17%) to $4,234 million; transport equipment (excluding road vehicles) up $461 million (23%) to $2,514 million; electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, parts, up $406 million (8%); to $5,315 million; and telecommunications and sound recording and reproducing equipment, up $397 million (12%) to $3,759 million.
Partly offsetting these rises were falls in road vehicles (including air-cushion vehicles), down $698 million (8%) to $7,980 million; and cork and wood, down $192 million (31%) to $421 million.
Australia's major commodity imports for 1995-96 and their principal sources were:
╖ passenger motor vehicles, $3,983 million - 5% of total imports: Japan (49%), Republic of Korea (16%), Germany (13%) and the United Kingdom (7%);
╖ computer equipment, $3,592 million - 5% of total imports: the United States (29%), Singapore (20%), Japan (16%) and Taiwan (12%);
╖ telecommunication equipment, parts and accessories (excluding television and radio receivers) $2,589 million - 3% of total imports: the United States (21%), Japan (14%), Sweden (13%) and Germany (13%);
╖ aircraft and associated equipment, $2,093 million - 3% of total imports: the United States (72%), the United Kingdom (10%), France (7%) and Canada (4%).
#
"Economic Growth",3,"chart136.cht","c","0"
The accompanying chart measures GDP by the expenditure approach. This involves summing all final expenditures on goods and services (i.e. those goods and services which are not processed any further), adding on the contribution of exports and deducting the value of imports. Final expenditures consist of final consumption expenditure, gross fixed capital expenditure and increase in stocks. Exports are included in GDP because they are part of Australian production even though they are sold to overseas purchasers. Imports are deducted because, although they are included in final expenditures (e.g. when someone buys an imported video recorder its value is included as part of private final consumption expenditure), they are not part of Australian production.
The May 1997 Budget forecast economic growth at 3.75 per cent for 1997-98, compared to 3.25 per cent in 1996-97.
Business investment is expected to continue to grow in 1997-98. Employment growth is expected to rise from 1.25 per cent to 2 per cent, creating approximately 160,000 new jobs.
#
"Inflation",4,"chart137.cht","c","0"
The description of the Consumer Price Index (CPI) commonly adopted by users is in terms of its perceived uses; hence the frequent references to the CPI as a measure of inflation, a measure of changes in purchasing power, or a measure of changes in the cost of living. None is strictly correct. In objective statistical terms the most appropriate general description is: a measure of changes, over time, in retail prices of a constant basket of goods and services.
As such, the CPI is a general indicator of the rate of change in prices paid by household consumers for the goods and services they buy.
The CPI is a quarterly measure of the change in average retail price levels. It provides a method of comparing the average price level for a quarter with the average price level of the reference base year or changes in the average price level from one quarter to any other quarter.
After recording an annual average rate of inflation of around 8 per cent throughout the 1980s, the annual rate fell to 1% in 1992. In 1996 it increased to 3%.
While the decline from the 1980s partly reflected subdued demand pressures, continued wage restraint and broadly based decline in inflationary expectations were important influences, and provided a significant stimulus to Australia's international competitiveness.
This chart shows the inflation rate since 1986. All results are for June 30; the 1997 and 1998 results are estimated forecasts.
#
"Profits and Wages",5,"chart138.cht","c","0"
The award rates of pay indexes are based on a representative sample of award classifications, designed to measure trends in rates payable under awards, determinations and collective agreements. The indexes are based on the industry and occupation structures existing in May 1985.
Wage variations from enterprise bargaining awards and agreements are generally excluded from award rates of pay indexes.
The Federal Government is counting on the low underlying inflation rate of 2 per cent to restrain pay increases in the coming year. Average earnings are expected to increase by 4 per cent in 1997-98.
This chart indicates the average weekly earnings for full-time adult males and females as at July, 1997.
#
"Balance of Payments",6,"chart244.cht","c","0"
Balance of payments transactions can be broadly divided into three categories. The first comprises transactions in goods, services and income between residents of Australia and non-residents. The second covers financial transactions involving claims on and liabilities to the rest of the world. The third category, described as unrequited transfers, records only the offsetting entries for one-sided balance of payments transactions, such as gifts in cash and kind, which have non 'quid pro quo'.
By convention, the first and third of the above categories are combined to form the current account while the second, together with the two changes not arising from transactions, are shown separately in the capital account.
The balance of payments traditionally comprises a current account deficit largely financed by a net inflow of private capital, reflecting Australia's position as a net capital importer drawing on foreign savings in order to allow faster development of domestic resources.
Australia's current account deficit was $20.3 billion in 1995-96, a decrease of $7,272 million (or 26%) on the deficit recorded for 1994-95. The decrease in the deficit in 1995-96 was due to a decrease of $6,317 million in the merchandise trade deficit; a decrease of $1,333 million in the net services deficit; and an increase of $737 million in the net unrequited transfers surplus.
The budget estimate for 1996-97 was $20 billion and $21 billion for 1997-98.
The accompanying chart shows the current account deficit for the years 1989 through 1998. The 1996-97 and 1997-98 figures are estimated forecasts.
#
"Budget Deficit",7,chart244.cht.jpg,g,0
The deficit/surplus reflects the balance between government outlays and government revenue. It measures the extent to which government is increasing (surplus) or decreasing (deficit) its net financial position.
The annual federal budget of revenue and expenditure must be passed by both houses of Parliament. The Government may also announce additional or supplementary budget measures in economic statements.
The six State and two Territory governments also deliver annual budgets. The States receive about half of their total revenue from the Federal Government.
The federal budget deficit was 2.1 per cent of GDP in 1995-96. For 1996-97, the estimated figure is 1.3 per cent.
Federal Government outlays are expected to be $126.9 billion in 1997-98.
Of this, $50,938 million is allocated to social security; $20,700 million to health; $10,405 million to defence; $8,920 million to public debt interests; $17,053 million to other governments; and $10,980 million to education.
Federal Government revenue is expected to be $133.3 billion in 1997-98.
This is broken down into $62,050 million from PAYE tax; $18,590 million from company tax; $14,170 million from sales tax; $13,540 million from excise duty; $3,918 million from non-tax revenue; $3,150 million from fringe benefits tax; and the balance from other taxes.
#
"Company Taxation",10,"chart193.cht","c","0"
The rate of company taxation is currently 36 per cent. The last increase (at 3 per cent) was in the 94/95 fiscal year. An imputation system of company taxation means that distributed income is effectively taxed only once by crediting the company tax paid on the underlying income against the income tax payable by domestic shareholders.
#
"Foreign Ownership in Australia",11,1_0031.jpg,g,0
Of the total equity on issue by Australian enterprise groups at 31 December 1995, non-residents held equity valued at $182 billion (30%) and residents held $420.3 billion (70%).
When analysed by sector, it can be seen that the proportion of equity held by non-residents in private corporate trading enterprises increased from 40% at 30 June 1992 to 42% at 30 June 1994. It has varied between 42% and 45% since then, with 44% being recorded at 31 December 1995.
The value of non-residents' equity in banks rose steadily over the period 30 June 1992 to 31 December 1995. However, as a proportion of the total equity issued by banks, foreign-owned equity at 31 December 1995 was the same as at 30 June 1992. During that period the highest proportion of total equity held by non-residents was at 30 September 1994 (25%).
Non-resident equity holdings in non-bank deposit-taking institutions rose steadily as a proportion of the amount on issue, from 23% at 30 June 1992 to 29% at 31 December 1994. Although the amount of equity issued by the sector held by non-residents has continued to rise, the percentage of foreign ownership at 31 December 1995 had fallen to 24%.
The other financial institutions sector is largely composed of general insurers. Foreign ownership of equity in these institutions declined from 15% at 30 June 1992 to 11% at 30 June 1994, stayed at this level until 30 June 1995, rose to 12% at 30 September 1995 and remained at this level at 31 December 1995.
The construction sector engages in three broad areas of activity - residential building (houses, flats, etc.), non-residential building (offices, shops, hotels, etc.), and engineering construction (roads, bridges, water and sewerage, etc.).
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) conducts surveys of the industry periodically, the most recent being in 1988-89. The ABS also conducts regular monthly and quarterly collections for more up-to-date information.
\BDescription:\b A home under construction \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Significance in the Economy",3,"g\9\tony17.jpg","c","handsaw0"
The construction industry is an important sector of the Australian economy. Not only is it significant in its own right, but it has an influential effect on other sectors of the economy.
In 1995-96, the construction industry contributed approximately 6% to the gross product of all industries. It employed 600,000 people, either as employees or self-employed contractors, which was 7% of the employment of all industries.
\BDescription:\b Townhouses under construction \I(Webster Publishing)\i
#
"Structure of the Construction Industry",4,"h\4\1_0036.jpg","c","0"
Construction activity is undertaken by both private and public sectors in Australia. The private sector is engaged in all three categories of construction (residential, non-residential and engineering), whereas the public sector plays a key role in initiating and undertaking engineering construction activity. The public sector has a minor role in residential and other building activity.
\BDescription:\b Construction workers in Melbourne \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Construction Industry Trends",5,chart192.cht.jpg,c,0
In the 1995-96 financial year, estimated construction activity at average 1989-90 prices (original terms) was $38,893 million. This was 1% below the 1994-95 estimate of $39,423 million.
A fall of 17% in residential building activity from $17,407 million in 1994-95 to $14,450 million in 1995-96 more than offset increases in non-residential construction activity.
Non-residential building activity rose by 13% from $10,216 million in 1994-95 to $11,497 million in 1995-96. Engineering construction rose by 10% from $11,800 million in 1994-95 to $12,947 million in 1995-96.
The area of construction with the largest contribution to total activity in 1995-96 was residential building with 37% of the total, while engineering construction and non-residential building accounted for 33% and 30% respectively.
Off the $38,893 million of construction expenditure in 1995-96, $26,875 million (69%) was work done for the private sector. Of this, $13,873 million (52%) was on residential building, $8,396 million (31%) on non-residential building and the remaining $4,606 million (17%) on engineering construction.
Public sector construction expenditure showed a different pattern, with $8,341 million (69%) out of a total expenditure of $12,018 million being spent on engineering construction. Non-residential building ($3,101 million) accounted for 26% of total expenditure, with the remaining $577 million (5%) being spent on residential building.
The total value of engineering construction work done during 1995-96 was $14,595 million, a 12% rise on the 1994-95 estimate of $13,015 million. Engineering construction work done for the public sector rose by $332 million (4%) to $9,457 million and work done for the private sector increased by $1,248 million (32%) to $5,138 million.
Overall, significant expenditure occurred in roads, highways and subdivisions (30% of total value of engineering construction work done); telecommunications (19%); heavy industry (15%); and electricity generation, transmission and distribution (9%).
In terms of work done for the public sector, engineering construction activity centred around roads, highways and subdivisions, which accounted for 34% of total public sector activity; telecommunications which was 28%; railways which was 11%; and electricity generation, transmission and distribution which was 9%.
In terms of work done for the private sector, major construction activity was undertaken in heavy industries, which rose by $520 million to $2,156 million and accounted for 42% of total private sector expenditure in 1995-96; and roads, highways and subdivisions, which fell by $11 million to $1,098 million but still accounted for 21% of total private sector expenditure.
#
"Residential Building",7,"h\4\1_0035.jpg","c","0"
Residential building involves the construction of dwelling units, which comprises new houses, new other residential building (flats, apartments, villa units, townhouses, duplexes, etc.) and dwellings created as part of alterations and additions to existing buildings (including conversions to dwelling units) and as part of the construction of non-residential building.
After a period of decline throughout 1989 and 1990, total dwelling unit approvals grew steadily during 1991 and 1992. After levelling out for a short period from February to May 1993, total dwelling unit approvals again grew steadily before peaking in July 1994. At that point, the level of dwelling unit approvals was 4% above that of the last peak in the trend series in October 1988. Since July 1994, however, the trend for total dwelling unit approvals declined continuously to December 1995, to a level almost 40% below the July 1994 peak.
The trend for total dwelling units approved was relatively flat between December 1995 and June 1996. Approvals for separate houses, which account for about 70% of all dwelling units approved, followed a similar pattern, although they were still showing a slight decline to June 1996.
\BDescription:\b Construction site in Melbourne \I(DFAT)\i
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"New Houses",8,"chart127.cht","c","0"
The number of new houses approved in 1995-96 was 87,418, a decrease of 24% from the 1994-95 figure of 115,019. Private sector approvals dominated, contributing 98% to the total number of new houses approved.
The estimated number of new houses commenced in 1995-96 was 86,184, a decrease of 25% from the 1994-95 figure of 114,577.
New house completions (94,049) decreased by 23% over the 1994-95 figure of 122,006.
The level of activity of other residential building construction is highly variable and does not follow the regular pattern experienced in house construction. This is because of the generally larger size of other residential building construction jobs and also by the extent of speculative building of private townhouses, home units and similar other residential building projects.
In 1995-96, 35,135 new other residential dwelling units were approved, a decrease of 33% from the 1994-95 figure of 52,225. Of the 35,135 new other residential dwelling units approved, 31,273 (89%) were owned by the private sector. In 1995-96 approvals of public sector owned new other residential dwelling units (3,862) were 21% fewer than in 1994-95 (4,870).
Of the 35,135 new other residential dwelling units approved in 1995-96, 57% were semi-detached, row or terrace houses, townhouses, etc., while 43% were flats, units or apartments, etc.
The number of new other residential dwelling units commenced in Australia during 1995-96 was 35,965, a fall of 31% from the number in 1994-95 of 51,911.
New other residential dwelling unit completions in 1995-96 totalled 40,953, a fall of 15% from the 1994-95 figure of 48,202.
\BDescription:\b A view of a construction site, Sydney \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Conversions",10,"h\4\construc.jpg","c","0"
Apart from the construction of new residential buildings, dwellings can be created as part of alterations and additions to existing buildings (including conversions to dwelling units) and as part of the construction of non-residential buildings.
In 1995-96, 2,016 such dwelling units were approved, a 48% decrease from the 1994-95 figure of 3,840.
The number of dwelling units commenced in Australia during 1995-96 as part of alterations and additions to existing buildings (including conversions to dwelling units) and as part of the construction of non-residential building was 2,402, 33% fewer than the 3,583 commenced in 1994-95. Of these dwellings commenced in 1995-96, 1,032 (43%) were in New South Wales and 905 (38%) were in Victoria.
Dwelling unit completions as part of alterations and additions to existing buildings (including conversions to dwelling units) and as part of the construction of non-residential buildings totalled 2,925 in 1995-96, a fall of 2% from the 1994-95 figure of 2,990.
\BDescription:\b Builder working on residential extension \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Value of Residential Building",11,"chart129.cht","c","0"
Approvals for total new residential buildings were valued at $12,106 million in 1995-96, 22% below the 1994-95 figure of $15,471 million. New house approvals were valued at $8,800 million, 20% below the 1994-95 figure of $10,943 million.
The value of new house approvals in 1995-96 represented 73% of the total value of new residential building approvals, compared with 71% in 1994-95. The value of new other residential building approvals in 1995-96 was $3,306 million, a fall of 27% from the 1994-95 value of $4,528 million. Approvals for alterations and additions to residential buildings totalled $2,284 million in 1995-96, a 6% fall from the 1994-95 figure ($2,433 million).
The value of work done on new residential buildings in 1995-96 was $13,107 million, making up 49% of the total value of building work done. The value of work done on alterations and additions to residential buildings in 1995-96 was $2,561 million.
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"Value of Non-residential Building",12,"spread007.spr","c","0"
The value of non-residential building approved in Australia in 1995-96 was $10,728 million, a 12% increase over the 1994-95 figure of $9,615 million.
The value of approvals increased in all categories except entertainment and recreational, which fell by $231 million (20%). In percentage terms, the largest rise was in the approval of other business premises which increased from $1,158 million to $1,720 million, a rise of 49%. Other significant rises were in offices, up $329 million to $1,801 million (22%); health, up $130 million to $766 million (20%); and factories, up $119 million to $989 million (14%).
The total value of work done on non-residential building in 1995-96 was $11,217 million, an increase of 15% over the 1994-95 figure of $9,746 million. This follows a 14% increase from 1993-94 to 1994-95.
All categories of non-residential building recorded increases in the value of work done in 1995-96, except health which fell by 15%. Significant increases were recorded in the categories of entertainment and recreational (53%); hotels, etc. (31%); miscellaneous (31%), other business premises (29%); factories (13%); religious (12%); and education (11%).
In the last 10 years, the proportion of construction industry employees who are trade union members has fallen from almost a half in 1986 to less than a third in 1995.
In 1986, 48% of construction industry employees were trade union members. In more recent years, this percentage fell to 42% in 1992, 35% in 1993, 34% in 1994 and 31% in 1995.
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"Housing",14,"h\4\1_0091.jpg","c","0"
Since Federation, Australian Governments, through their policies, have encouraged home ownership.
A high level of home ownership is seen as promoting a stable, healthy and productive society. In addition, a strong housing construction industry provides substantial employment both within the industry and in associated sectors of the economy, such as banking, real estate and manufacturing.
\BDescription:\b An aerial view of Paddington, Sydney \I(DFAT)\i
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"Transport Industry",1,1_0029.jpg,c,0
Transport can be described broadly as the movement of goods or persons from an origin to a destination. It is one of the most fundamental aspects of an advanced economy.
Buildings cannot be constructed without transportation of materials and persons, food must travel to get from farms to shops, and persons must travel to get to and from work, recreation and other facilities.
Transport has enormous economic and social impact, generates substantial employment and contributes significantly to gross domestic product (GDP), with numerous support industries ranging from automotive manufacturers to travel agencies.
There are also social costs of transport - such as road accidents, traffic congestion, fuel emissions, aircraft noise pollution and shipping oil spills. Information about all aspects of transport and its support industries is vital to effective planning by governments and industry.
\BDescription:\b GMH plant \I(DFAT)\i
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"Passenger Vehicles",2,"chart202.cht","c","0"
At 30 June 1996, there were 8.6 million passenger vehicles registered in Australia. South Australia had the highest number of registrations per 1,000 population (515) and the Australian Capital Territory had the second highest (512).
The lowest numbers of passenger vehicles per 1,000 population were in the Northern Territory (355) and New South Wales (415).
The low rate of passenger vehicle registrations in the Northern Territory reflects the greater use of light commercial vehicles in rural and remote areas. The low rate in New South Wales reflects the many households in Sydney that rely on public transport.
While light commercial vehicles are primarily constructed for the carriage of goods, many are used for the carriage of passengers. At 30 June 1996, there were 1.7 million light commercial vehicles registered in Australia. The Northern Territory had the highest registration of light commercial vehicles per 1,000 population (147) and Queensland had the second highest (114).
The lowest numbers of light commercial vehicles per 1,000 population were in the Australian Capital Territory (60) and South Australia (67). The high rates in the Northern Territory and Queensland partly reflect the higher proportion of people living outside capital cities in these states, while the low rates in the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia reflect the higher proportion of people living in urban areas.
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"Age of Motor Vehicle",4,"chart204.cht","c","0"
The average age of passenger vehicles in Australia has increased. In 1995, the average age of passenger vehicles registered was 10.4 years. The corresponding average ages in 1993, 1991 and 1988 were 10.2, 9.7 and 9.1 years respectively. The ageing of motor vehicles has implications for emissions, fuel use and safety.
The attached chart graphically depicts the increasing age of passenger vehicles.
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"Registered Motor Vehicles By Type",5,"chart122.cht","c","0"
This chart shows the number of passenger vehicles, light commercial vehicles, trucks and buses on register in 1995.
The total number of motor vehicles on register for Australia in 1995 was 10,650,902.
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"Registered Passenger Vehicles Per Population",6,"map30.jpg","c","0"
Passenger vehicles on register per 1,000 of population are shown in this diagram.
The figure of 606 vehicles per 1,000 of population in 1995 was the highest recorded.
Western Australia had the highest ratio in 1995 with 679 vehicles for every 1,000 people.
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"Registrations of New Passenger Vehicles",7,"chart205.cht","c","0"
In 1995, registrations of new passenger vehicles totalled 527,149. The top five makes (Ford, Holden, Toyota, Mitsubishi and Hyundai) accounted for 75% of them. Their shares of the market were 22%, 20%, 16%, 10% and 7% respectively.
This information is depicted graphically in the accompanying chart.
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"Passenger Vehicle Registrations by State",8,"chart124.cht","c","0"
This chart shows the passenger vehicle registrations by State for 1994-95 and 1995-96.
The number of persons killed in Australia as a result of road traffic accidents has fallen significantly between 1985 and 1996.
This chart shows the road traffic deaths from 1989 to 1996.
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"Water Transport",10,chart224.cht.jpg,c,0
New South Wales and Queensland between them account for 58% of ships registered in Australia. The majority of these ships are used for non-commercial purposes.
The accompanying chart shows the total number of ships registered by State as at June 1995.
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"International Air Transport",11,"spread002.spr","c","0"
At 31 December 1995, 49 international airlines were operating regular scheduled air services to and from Australia. The carriers and contracting states are shown in the accompanying table.
(You will need to use the scroll bar on the extreme right of the screen to view all entries in this table.)
Air France and Lufthansa withdrew from Australia in late 1995, while AOM French Airlines, Asiana Airlines, Egypt Air and Kiwi Travel International began services after 30 June 1995. Vietnam Airlines commenced scheduled operations in early 1996.
Air Zimbabwe, American Airlines and Canadian Airlines International (CAI) operate to and from Australia through a code-share arrangement with Qantas. Virgin Atlantic Airways serves Australia through a code-share arrangement with Malaysia Airlines.
Polynesian Airlines also operates services on behalf of Cook Islands International.
Qantas, which now includes Australian Airlines, operates international and domestic flights. British Airways purchased 25% of Qantas Airways Limited on 10 March 1993. The company was floated on the Australian Stock Exchange on 22 June 1995.
Ansett Australia operated its first international flight in its own right on 11 September 1993.
The accompanying table shows scheduled international airline traffic to and from Australia for the 1994-95 period.
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"Domestic Activity",13,"chart125.cht","c","0"
The Commonwealth Government deregulated domestic aviation in Australia and opened the nation's interstate air services to free competition from 31 October 1990.
As at June 1995 the Ansett group's fleet consisted of 75 aircraft, including two Boeing 747, six Boeing 767, 21 Boeing 737, five Boeing 727, 12 A320-200 Airbus and 12 British Aerospace 146 jet aircraft. Regional airlines in the Ansett group are Kendell Airlines, Aeropelican and Skywest Airlines.
Qantas operated a fleet of 31 Boeing 747, 22 Boeing 767, 35 Boeing 737, four A300 Airbus and eight British Aerospace 146 jet aircraft. Regional airlines in the Qantas group are Eastern Australia Airlines, Southern Australia Airlines, Sunstate Airlines and Airlink. The Qantas group operated 38 aircraft, the largest regional fleet in Australia.
This chart shows the number of passengers carried by the domestic airlines from 1988-89 to 1994-95.
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"Communication Services",1,0,g,0
The communication services industries encompass telecommunications, postal and courier services. Communication services is among the fastest growing industry sectors in Australia. It is estimated to have contributed between 3 and 4% to Australia's gross domestic production in 1995-96.
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"Telecommunications Carriers",2,0,g,0
The telecommunications services industry is defined to comprise those businesses mainly engaged in providing telecommunication services to the public, by wire, cable or radio.
There are currently two licensed general telecommunications carriers in Australia, Telstra and Optus, and three mobile carriers, Telstra, Optus and Vodafone. This situation is to change from mid-1997 when restrictions on the number of carriers are to be removed as part of new, pro-competitive regulatory arrangements. Along with carriers, the industry also includes a number of service providers/resellers operating under the AUSTEL class licence system as well as a number of consultancy businesses.
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"Telstra",3,chart229.cht,c,0
Telecom Australia and the Overseas Telecommunications Corporation merged on 1 February 1992 to operate as Australian and Overseas Telecommunications Corporation Ltd. The merged entity was renamed Telstra Corporation Ltd on 13 April 1993. Telstra is a general carrier, fully owned by the Commonwealth of Australia. It operates similarly to private sector companies, is profit driven and subject to the same taxation and government charges as a private sector company.
Telstra reports to the Australian Stock Exchange and to the Australian Securities Commission as a public company. Telstra provides both domestic and international services in competition with the other licensed carriers.
Telstra operates a full range of telecommunications facilities including: network access; equipment on customer premises; services for local, long distance and international calling and for cellular mobiles; advanced business and value added services; operator-assisted and directory services and products; pay-phones; payment cards; operator-assisted services; data services; broadband, broadcast and maritime services; Internet access; fault repair services; and billing services.
Telstra's dividend to the Commonwealth Government increased from $738 million to $944 million in 1994-95. Together with interest and taxes, the Commonwealth Government received $2,472 million from Telstra's operations during 1994-95.
Telstra employed 76,322 full-time staff at 30 June 1996.
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"Optus",4,chart230.cht,c,0
In November 1991, the Government announced that Optus Communications Pty Ltd would be the second general telecommunications carrier. Optus is a publicly listed company whose services include: services for long distance and international calling and for cellular mobiles; operator services; video and data services; broadcast services; value added network services; business services such as centrex, virtual private networks, and enhanced toll-free services; satellite services; private leased line services; and billing services.
Optus commenced mobile, long distance and international calling services in competition with Telstra during 1992. In September 1994 it introduced a satellite-based mobile communications system. The provision of Optus services is based on its optical fibre cable network, its digital cellular mobile nework and the national satellite system together with interconnection rights to other carriers' networks (on a payment basis).
Optus revenue for 1995-96 of $1,944 million represented a 36% increase over the 1994-95 result of $1,435 million. The main contributors to revenue were: long distance (42%); mobile services (39%); business network services (12%); and mobile equipment (7%).
Optus Vision began offering pay TV services on 20 September 1995 and local call services on 28 June 1996. Optus Communications' direct investment in Optus Vision was $372 million at 30 June 1996.
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"Vodafone",5,0,g,0
Vodafone is licensed to provide mobile telecommunications services, which it commenced in 1993. The company has highlighted its position as a specialist supplier of digital mobile communications.
The services offered by Vodafone as part of its mobile service include: directory assistance; message taking; call forwarding; and call barring.
As the holder of a mobile carrier licence, Vodafone installs and operates its own facilities for the provision of cellular mobile services. The facilities include base stations, switches, towers and cable. Vodafone uses Telstra facilities to access the fixed network.
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"Mobile Phones",6,chart231.cht,c,0
The digital mobile market is expected to be a major growth area in 1998 and beyond due to deregulation of the telecommunications market and the expected entry of more competitors.
The Government announced its commitment to phasing out the Analogue Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) mobile phone network by 1 January 2000, subject to appropriate safeguards, including possible retention of spectrum in rural areas with inadequate mobile coverage.
By early 1997 there were 4.5 million mobile phone users and it is estimated that this number will grow to 8 million by the year 2000. Australia is the third largest per capita mobile phone user in the world after Sweden and Finland.
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"Household Use of Communications",7,chart232.cht,c,0
In February 1996 the ABS conducted a survey which sought to measure the uptake of information and telecommunications technologies by households. The results for selected communications are shown in the accompanying chart. At the time of the survey, pay TV services were not widely available in all areas of Australia.
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"Postal Communications",8,chart233.cht,c,0
The Australian Postal Corporation (trading as Australia Post) is a government business enterprise owned by the Commonwealth of Australia. It operates under the \IAustralian Postal Corporation Act 1989.\i Australia Post is independent of Government funding, achieves a substantial profit from its activities and pays a full range of taxes and charges as well as allocating 60% of its after-tax profits as a dividend to the Government.
Australia Post offers letter and parcel delivery services within Australia and internationally. It also provides a range of related services including: electronic bulk mail handling, advertising mail, bill payment, money order and banking services, express delivery services and philatelic products and services.
Australia Post's legal obligations require it to: provide Australians with a universal letter service; carry standard letters within Australia at a uniform price; ensure that the letter service meets the social, industrial and commercial needs of the community; perform its function according to sound business practice; and perform its functions consistent with general policies of the Commonwealth Government.
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24,0
"Cultural and Natural Heritage",1,daa19.jpg,c,0
Cultural and recreational activities are essential to a shared sense of quality of life, and take many forms. At a national level these forms range across cultural heritage, creative and performing arts, music, literature, film and video, libraries, radio and televison, leisure, sports and recreation.
Australia's heritage is drawn from its cultural and natural environments.
Cultural heritage includes many different types of Indigenous sites, such as ceremonial grounds and rock art galleries, and historic places of significance.
Natural heritage includes places which are of scientific, archaeological, aesthetic and ecological importance. It can also include geological features and landscapes.
\BDescription:\b Aboriginal art - Kakadu National Park \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Museums and Art Museums",2,chart225.cht.jpg,c,0
Museums are defined by the International Council of Museums as institutions, generally housed in one or more buildings, primarily engaged in the collection, acquisition, conservation and exhibition of the material evidence of people, their culture and environment, for the purpose of education and enjoyment by the general public and/or specialists.
The main national museums and art museums in Australia are the National Maritime Museum, the Australian War Memorial museum, the National Science and Technology Centre (Questacon), the National Gallery of Australia, and the National Portrait Gallery at Old Parliament House in Canberra (operated by the National Library). The last major national survey of museums was conducted in 1993. The results provided an estimate of over 1,700 museums and art museums operating in Australia at that time.
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"Zoological and Marine Parks",3,chart226.cht.jpg,c,0
Zoological and marine parks (i.e. animal, fauna, bird life, reptile parks; aquaria; aviaries; butterfly houses; dolphinariums) are primarily engaged in the breeding, preservation, study and display of native and/or exotic fauna in captivity, enclosures or natural environments, so as to be accessible to the general public on payment of an entrance fee. The term \Imarine parks\i does not include declared 'marine parks' such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which have been created for conservation purposes only, and are treated for statistical purposes as part of the natural environment.
Melbourne was the location of the first zoo in Australia, Melbourne Zoo being founded in 1857. There are now zoos and wildlife sanctuaries all over Australia. As well as the four traditional zoos in Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth, there are numerous wildlife parks and sanctuaries, some associated with urban zoos and others privately owned. Some of the better known zoological parks and sanctuaries are Healesville Sanctuary (60 km from Melbourne), the Western Plains Zoo (Dubbo), Werribee Zoological Park (Melbourne suburbs), The Territory Wildlife Park (Darwin), Monarto Zoological Park (70 km from Adelaide) and Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary (Brisbane). The best known marine park in Australia is Seaworld at Surfers Paradise, Queensland.
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"Libraries",4,chart227.cht.jpg,c,0
The National Culture-Leisure Industry Statistical Framework divides libraries into five types: the National and State Libraries, Public Libraries, Special Libraries, Libraries in Higher Education Establishments and School Libraries.
Australia's library roots may be traced back to 1788 when the first fleet arrived at Botany Bay, bringing with it Australia's first literature (such as treatises and manuals of surgeons, navigators and surveyors, bibles and prayer books) and the notion of the library.
By 1821 Sydney had a Biblical Library. In 1826 the Australian Subscription Library and Reading Room was opened. In 1869 this was bought by the colonial government and became the first Free Public Library of Sydney. It has since evolved into the State Library of New South Wales.
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"Film and Video Production",5,chart228.cht.jpg,c,0
Australia has a well developed audiovisual production industry which is composed, for the most part, of small specialised companies. They produce programs ranging from feature films to sports coverage, documentaries and television commercials. A relatively small number of companies engage exclusively in film and television drama production. The majority specialise in the production of commissioned programs such as commercials and corporate communications.
Private and public television stations produce a large volume of programming - including drama and situation comedy, news and current affairs, light entertainment, infotainment, sketch comedy, sports coverage, and children's programs - at an estimated cost in excess of $838 million.
The film and video production industry comprises businesses mainly engaged in the production of motion pictures on film or video tape for theatre or television projection. Services such as casting, film editing and titling are also included.
The year 1995 marked one hundred years of film production in Australia. To celebrate this event, Film Australia Limited contributed a four-part documentary series entitled \IThe Celluloid Heroes.\i Webster Publishing also produced a CD-ROM in conjunction with Film Australia called \IHistory of Australian Film - Celluloid Heroes.\i
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"Multimedia",6,3_0070.jpg,g,0
Multimedia is rapidly emerging as a significant new creative medium. Multimedia presents on a computer some combination of media forms such as voice, music, video, photographs, animation and text, usually for the purposes of education, marketing, training or entertainment. A few years ago, different equipment or products were required to experience each of these methods of presentation, but recent advances in computer technology have enabled them all to be available on one package on a desktop computer. Therefore another simple definition of multimedia is a 'combination of previously separate media'. Multimedia is a subset of the broader 'new media' which has been defined as any and all of the following:
╖ enrichment of traditional means of communicating information (e.g. digital audio broadcasting, high definition TV, digital audio and video production or post-production);
╖ combination of previously separate media (e.g. multimedia, digital video conferencing, CD-ROM); or
╖ creation of entirely new media (e.g. hypertext, hypermedia, virtual reality).
Developments in the latter category of new media have made on-line services such as the Internet increasingly easy for people to use.
The terms 'multimedia' and 'new media' are often used interchangeably. The most important feature of multimedia is its potential for 'interactivity', the ability of the user to respond to what is presented and control what is presented next.
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"Radio and Television Broadcasting",7,3_0070.jpg,c,0
Radio and television broadcasting falls within the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth Minister for Communications and the Arts.
Commonwealth bodies which are involved include Telstra, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS), the Australian Broadcasting Authority (ABA), the Department of Communications and the Arts, the Australian Telecommunications Authority (AUSTEL), and the Spectrum Management Agency (SMA).
Basically, the Australian broadcasting system comprises the following types of services:
* national radio and television services broadcasting programs produced by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the Special Broadcasting Service;
* commercial radio and television services operated by companies under licence;
* subscription television services;
* public radio services operated by incorporated associations under licence on a non-profit basis; and
* parliamentary radio service to State capitals, \JCanberra\j and Newcastle.
\BDescription:\b A radio announcer in \JCanberra\j \I(DFAT)\i
The ABC is an independent statutory corporation established by the \IAustralian Broadcasting Commission Act 1983.\i The Act requires the ABC to:
* provide within Australia innovative radio and television services of a high order;
* provide programs that contribute to a sense of national identity, inform and entertain, and reflect the cultural diversity of the Australian community;
* provide radio and television programs of an educational nature;
* promote Australia's musical, dramatic and other performing arts; and,
* transmit to other countries radio and television programs of news, current affairs, entertainment and cultural enrichment that encourage awareness of Australia and an international understanding of Australian attitudes on world affairs.
At 30 June 1996, the ABC provided:
* six distinctly targeted radio networks across Australia on over 6,000 transmitters which include Metropolitan Radio stations in nine cities, Regional Radio with 39 regional stations and 11 smaller studios, Radio National, ABC-FM, and the Triple-J youth radio network;
* a national television service on about 600 transmitters;
* Radio Australia, an international radio service broadcast by shortwave and satellite in English and eight other languages to the Asia-Pacific regions and worldwide;
* Australia Television, an international satellite television service broadcasting to over 30 countries and territories in Asia and the Pacific;
* a 24 hour news and parliamentary broadcast radio service to all capital cities except Darwin, and to Newcastle;
* an international network of press offices; and,
* six State Symphony Orchestras employing about 490 musicians and providing about 650 performances to almost one million people.
The ABC also operates a network of retailing outlets (24 shops and 119 ABC centres) known as ABC Enterprises. Operations include the production of books, classical and contemporary recordings, audio cassettes, videos, multimedia and licensed products, and music and magazine publishing.
During 1995-96, the ABC established multimedia as a new output form for the Corporation. ABC Online, the Corporation's Internet publishing service, was launched during this period.
The SBS was established by the Commonwealth Government on 1 January 1978. Its principal function is to provide multilingual radio and television services that inform, educate and entertain all Australians and, in doing so, reflect Australia's multicultural society.
SBS television broadcasts to all State capital cities and to a number of regional centres. It now services areas containing in excess of 15.8 million people and delivers programs in over 60 languages.
SBS Radio became the world's first national multilingual radio service on 26 January 1994 with the commencement of services to Adelaide, Perth, Darwin and Brisbane. At 30 June 1995, SBS Radio was available in all capital cities except Canberra and Hobart, and the regional centres of Wollongong and Newcastle. During 1996 new transmitters in Canberra and Hobart were completed so that SBS National Radio now covers all State and Territory capital cities.
The Corporation is exploring the opportunities provided by new communications technologies. A new unit, Multimedia and New Developments, has been set up to examine service delivery through media such as the Internet, CD-ROM and pay-TV, as well as the multiple avenues which digital technology opens up for radio and television.
Delivery of SBS radio and television programs continues to be via the Optus satellite system, except for Sydney TV and radio and Melbourne radio services.
From 5 October 1992, the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal was replaced by a new regulatory body, the Australian Broadcasting Authority, established under the \IBroadcasting Services Act 1992.\i As well as planning the availability of segments of the broadcasting services bands (VHF/UHF television, FM and AM radio), the Authority has the power to allocate, renew, suspend and cancel licences and collect any fees payable for those licences.
The Authority is also empowered to conduct research into community attitudes on programming matters, develop program standards relating to broadcasting in Australia, assist broadcasting service providers (licensees) develop codes of practice, monitor compliance with licence conditions and investigate complaints about services.
Commercial television broadcasting services licences are subject to five year terms, compulsory standards on Australian content and children's television and a condition that the licensee be a suitable person. Ownership and control limitations also apply. Under these conditions, no person may be in a position to control more than one television licence in a market or control licences with a combined audience reach of more than 75% of the Australian population. Foreign control of television licences is also restricted. Commercial licences may be transferred at will, subject only to notification requirements under the ownership and control rules. Commercial radio broadcasting licences are subject to less restrictive ownership provisions.
Community radio and television are not subject to ownership limitations, and subscription radio broadcasting services and all categories of narrowcasting services are also not subject to ownership limits or suitability requirements.
The Authority issues 38 new commercial radio licences during 1995-96. It issued 453 non-satellite pay-TV licences.
The Broadcasting Services Act requires apparatus licences to be issued for all national televison and radio broadcasting services. During 1995-96, the Authority issued 1,002 national (ABC and SBS) radio and televison apparatus licences.
Sixty licences (36 commercial radio, five commercial television and 19 community radio) were renewed in 1995-96.
\BDescription:\b Television tower \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Introduction to Pay TV in Australia",11,"h\4\2_0036.jpg","c","0"
On the 26 January 1995, the transmission of subscription or pay television commenced in Australia, with the broadcast of the Galaxy microwave service from Centrepoint Tower in Sydney.
Rival service providers, Optus Vision and Foxtel, commenced their cable delivery of pay TV in September and October of the same year.
The Galaxy Franchisees, Austar and East Coast Television, also commenced microwave delivery of the Galaxy programming to selected urban centres in Regional Australia in Quarter 4 of 1996.
This section provides background as to the development of pay TV in Australia, and provides some explanation as to why there are so many unresolved questions regarding the delivery of the service.
\BDescription:\b OTC Earth Station, Oxford Falls, Sydney \I(DFAT)\i.
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"Historical Perspective of Pay TV",12,"h\4\2_0036.jpg","c","0"
In the early days of broadcast television, high powered transmitters were very expensive so they were located on high sites to provide the widest possible coverage. Many towns in the fringe areas received poor reception which led to the erection of community antennas and distribution of the received television signals by aerial strung coaxial cable to the homes of subscribers to the service.
This is how Community Antenna Television or CATV commenced in the USA in the early 1950s.
Later, locally sourced programming channels were added to the CATV broadcast channels to provide additional choice to the viewers. Cable delivered television services were then established by exclusive franchised operators in most centres of urban population throughout the USA in the late 1950s and 60s.
Cable or Pay TV then spread from the USA to most other developed countries in the 1970s and early 80s. In the mid 1980s, wireless and satellite technologies developed to enable economic provision of multi-channel television direct to the homes without the need of cable.
This enables homes remote from the centres of urban population to receive Pay TV. It also meant that new wireless and satellite services could be established to compete with the incumbent cable services in the urban centres.
With this advent of competing technologies, the Australian Government opted for a deregulated environment for the delivery of Pay TV. Through the Department of Communications and the Australian Broadcasting Authority, frequency spectrum and subscription television licences were allocated that enable competing Pay TV services to be established in the one geographical area.
The Government thus regulated a competitive environment and in doing so set the framework for a de-stabilised industry that led to the duplication of infrastructure and over provisioning of services in the main capital cities with only limited selected coverage throughout most of regional Australia.
Satellite delivered Pay TV channels were limited to a total of 10 till 1 July 1997, and advertising was also prohibited until the same date. Where duplicated cabling existed, access to the bandwidth by service providers was restricted.
New telecommunications legislation came in force as from 1 July 1997, requiring all cable operators to become carriers and to comply with all the applicable carrier rules and regulations as well as the rules applicable to being a broadcaster. With the potential of any new cable system being classed a declared service under the new Act, thus allowing access to the bandwidth by service providers, the possibility for new investment in the provision of cable systems is small.
\BDescription:\b OTC Earth Station, Oxford Falls, Sydney \I(DFAT)\i.
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"Delivery Technologies - Satellite Direct to Home",13,antenna.jpg,c,0
In the mid 1980s the Government established AUSSAT as a Government agency with a mandate for providing satellite services throughout Australia, but excluding Direct to Home (DTH) Pay TV.
AUSSAT management advised the Government that satellite technology was the only viable method of delivering Pay TV throughout Australia. The AUSSAT proposal was to use compressed digital transmission technology to deliver 10 channels of Pay TV direct to small satellite dishes on homes wherever they may be located throughout Australia.
By 1990, the Government decided to introduce limited competition to Telecom in the field of telecommunications. The Government passed legislation to amalgamate Telecom and OTC, and to sell AUSSAT to a second telecommunications carrier.
Part of the AUSSAT sale incentive package was that the AUSSAT satellites would be the sole satellite method of delivering Pay TV direct to homes in Australia, till July 1997.
In 1991-2 complementary broadcasting, radiocommunications and telecommunications legislation was proclaimed. This legislation initiated the far reaching changes in the telecommunications and broadcasting services industries that exist today.
In 1993 the Government auctioned the 10 satellite broadcasting licences and after a protracted evaluation exercise, the licences were finally issued to two companies with USA backers who established the Galaxy service. To comply with licence requirements this service was mandated to use compressed digital transmission to the international MPEG-2 standard.
The DTH service commenced in 1996 and is available in the capital cities through Australis/Galaxy and in the regional areas of the eastern states through either Austar or East Coast Television. The service is delivered using the Optus B3 satellite and the high powered SE Australia beam.
Satisfactory signal is obtained using 600 mm dishes in the SE region from Brisbane to Adelaide, with larger dishes required elsewhere. In Sydney, the dishes point roughly to the north east at an angle of elevation of about 50 degrees. For good reception this direction should be clear of obstructions or trees.
A home installation comprises a small dish mounted on the roof or side wall with a low noise amplifier block and a signal down converter associated with the dish. A low loss coaxial cable then carries the L band signal from the dish to an integrated receiver/decoder mounted on the TV set. This unit unscrambles the digital signal and converts it to PAL-B analogue format for inputting to the TV set, possibly via a VCR. A remote control is used to select the required channel from the integrated receiver/decoder.
\BDescription:\b Antenna for satellite Pay TV service \I(Webster Publishing)\i.
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"Delivery Technologies - Microwave or MDS",14,2_0036.jpg,c,0
During the 1980s the GovernmentÆs radio spectrum management group allowed the use of a portion of the microwave band 1.9-2.3 GHz for the provision of non-entertainment television services such as business data and education, and ethnic television programs of limited appeal, generally known as narrowcasting services. General appeal Pay TV services were specifically prohibited.
A total of 19 television channels were available in this microwave band, but little interest was shown in making use of the spectrum until after the passage of the Broadcasting Services Act in 1992, when the backers of the Australis Group amalgamated a majority of the licences in Sydney and Melbourne.
In 1993, in order to protect the interests of the groups who purchased at auction the 10 satellite Pay TV licences, the Government mandated that the microwave channels could not be used for Pay TV before 1 January 1995, or until a satellite service was introduced by one of the satellite licence holders, whichever was the earlier.
Separately the Spectrum Management Agency initiated auctions for the microwave licences not held by the Australis Group. In the first auction held in July 1994, Australis and its connections purchased most of the microwave licences in the capital cities and major regional centres. In the second auction held in June 1995, the Galaxy franchisees, Austar and East Coast Television, purchased virtually all of the 342 microwave licences allocated for regional Australia.
Thus by mid 1995 the satellite and microwave Pay TV delivery licences were in the possession of companies whose majority economic interest was held by USA cable television companies:
\BAustralis/Galaxy:\b Lenfest Communications and Tele-Communications Inc.
\BAustar:\b United International Holdings
\BEast Coast Television:\b Century Communications Corp.
In the Government run auctions, the smaller Australian ventures were out-bid or later sold out to the powerful USA interests.
The Australis/Galaxy group with their franchisees, set up an integrated delivery service with programs originating from new studios in Sydney using mainly international satellite feeds. Programming was sent to the Optus satellite earth station at Belrose for up-linking to the B3 satellite. Microwave headends were established in all capital cities and in 43 regional centres.
At the microwave headend the satellite Pay TV channels are received using a large dish to ensure good signals and converted to analogue PAL-B format for retransmission in the 1.9-2.3 GHz band. The headends are normally located on high ground in the centre of an urban area as the microwave signals need a virtual line of sight transmission path to each subscriberÆs home.
A grid-type microwave aerial is mounted on the roof of the home, and the signal downconverted to L band before transmission via a low loss coaxial cable to an integrated receiver/decoder mounted on the TV set. A remote control is used to select the required channel from the integrated receiver/decoder.
\BDescription:\b OTC Earth Station, Oxford Falls, Sydney \I(DFAT)\i.
In the early 1990s Telstra investigated the option of using broadband hybrid fibre coaxial (HFC) cable networks for the purpose of delivering Pay TV channels to its customers. Telstra implemented trials to several hundred homes in both the Centennial Park area of Sydney, and in the Cordeaux Heights area of Wollongong.
Based on the success of these trials, Telstra announced they would reticulate broadband cable to their customers. In April 1994 Telstra awarded contracts to the value of around $770 million for HFC cable plant and headend electronic equipment to pass 1.1 million homes in Sydney and Melbourne, over a period of 3 years. The major contract was awarded to Philips Industries for their range of cable analogue equipment. Soon after, Telstra commenced underground reticulation of the HFC cable.
By 1994 Optus had established itself as the second telecommunications carrier, initially targeting long distance and mobile services. Optus wished to provide a local loop service direct to its customers and did not want Telstra to have a monopoly in broadband services.
On 20 September 1994, Optus announced a Pay TV joint initiative called OPTUS VISION with the major USA cable company, Continental Cablevision. The joint venture planned to spend around $3 billion to cable up 3 million homes in the main capital cities by 1998.
Optus VisionÆs rollout differed from TelstraÆs rollout in that they strung their HFC cable on electricity poles in the same manner as used by most North American cable companies. The Optus Vision plans also differed from TelstraÆs in that their cable plant was designed to provide telephone and data services, as well as multiple television channels.
Both companies established cable headends at strategic locations in the main capital cities and then radiated out fibre cable from these headends to groups of around 1,000 homes, called serving areas. Multiple television channels are modulated into a light signal at the headend and transmitted by laser to a fibre node in the centre of a serving area.
At the fibre node the light signal is converted back to electrical signals representing frequency separated analogue television channels. These signals are then transmitted over semi-flexible coaxial cable for reticulation down the suburban streets. Cable amplifiers are used to boost the signals in the coaxial cable. Outside each group of homes a tap unit is spliced into the coaxial cable to allow the composite signal to be split off and delivered to each home via a flexible drop cable.
In the home the drop cable is run to the location of the TV set where a set top unit or decoder is installed. This unit unscrambles the television channels to allow clear viewing on the TV set. A remote control is used to select the required channel from the set top unit/decoder, and the signal may be passed through a VCR prior to entering the TV set. An external aerial input is not required as most cable TV services also carry all the broadcast television channels.
Different to one-way broadcast satellite or microwave services, the HFC cable is two-way technology providing a return path from the home to the headend. This return path allows the HFC cable to be used for many interactive applications now and in the future such as:
ò Telephony services (standard phone, fax and low speed PC modem)
ò High speed Internet services (cable modems)
ò High speed data services for business and computer networks, both point-to-point and wide area LANs
ò Video on Demand (videos selected by subscriber and delivered by dedicated channel)
ò Home games services
ò Home shopping and banking services
ò Home gambling services
It is in these two-way applications that both Telstra and Optus now believe the main revenue will flow from their cable rollouts.
\BDescription:\b OTC Earth Station, Oxford Falls, Sydney \I(DFAT)\i.
#
"Delivery Technologies - Switched Digital Video",16,2_0036.jpg,c,0
Two-way digital transmission of a full range of services is now available using a combination of fibre cable to small serving areas of 40-50 homes, and then from these fibre nodes reticulating via twisted pair copper cable to a digital set top box in the home. The transmission is by Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) technology where the information being transmitted is broken down into small packets and delivered at very high bit rates via fibre to the node, where it is then segregated to each particular subscriber.
Aerial construction is normally used for both the fibre reticulation and the twisted pair cabling. This technology has been selected by the ACT Electricity and Water Authority (ACTEW) for its TransAct communications project in Canberra. In this case the cable infrastructure is to be owned by ACTEW and service providers will pay a fee to ACTEW to use the network to deliver their services to their subscribers. A trial installation is expected to be operational in 1998.
For television distribution, each subscriber established a transmission link to a central server at the headend and the particular channel selected by the remote control is streamed down as digital bits to the subscriberÆs set top box where it is converted into the normal analogue input for the TV set. This method is readily adapted to delivery of video on demand from a library of movies stored in digital form on a magnetic disk or optical storage in the central server.
For telephony or internet, a switched connection is established and the interchange information is transmitted between the central switch at the headend server and the set top boxes of subscribers.
Switched digital is an efficient method of providing high bandwidth capacity to each subscriber, but the cost is significantly higher than HFC broadband cable technology.
\BDescription:\b OTC Earth Station, Oxford Falls, Sydney \I(DFAT)\i.
#
"Pay TV Operator - Australis/Galaxy",17,maynard.jpg,c,0
Australis operates the satellite and microwave service known as Galaxy in all the capital cities except Darwin but including the Gold Coast. Australis provides its 15 channel Galaxy programming to its franchisees in regional areas and to Foxtel in metropolitan areas.
At an early date Australis secured exclusive deals with several Hollywood studios for recent release movies but paid very high prices for this programming. Establishing the digital satellite services was also very costly for Australis resulting in high borrowing costs. This, coupled with low penetration and revenue as a result of cable competition from both Optus Vision and Foxtel in the capital cities, caused Australis to seek a merger with Foxtel.
Currently Galaxy offers a range of channels including:
Arena, BBC World, Channel V, CNBC, Comedy Channel, Country Music, Discovery, Encore, Fox Sports, Fox Sports 2, TVSN, TV1, Nickelodeon, Showtime and TNT/Cartoon Network. Optional channels for a higher subscription rate include: World Movies, Nightmoves and two other language channels.
Current subscription rates as at September 1997 are:
$49.95 per month for the basic package; additional $6.95 per month for World Movies; additional $14.95 per month for Nightmoves; and an additional $10 each for the language channels. The installation fee for microwave or satellite is currently $49.95.
\BDescription:\b Maynard presents on Channel V - Galaxy and Foxtel \I(Foxtel)\i.
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"Pay TV Operator - Optus Vision",18,0,g,0
Optus Vision commenced in September 1994 as a joint initiative between Optus Communications and Continental Cablevision of the USA with minor shareholdings by Kerry PackerÆs Publishing and Broadcasting and the Seven Network. Optus secured the rights to recent release movies from several Hollywood studios and local sports programming from the Seven and Nine Networks.
Late in 1996 US West, a major USA telephone company, bought out Continental Cablevision and thus became a major shareholder in Optus Vision. In March 1997, as part of a shareholding rationalisation, Optus Communications bought out the other shareholders in Optus Vision. In June 1997, the UK telephone group Cable and Wireless bought out Bell SouthÆs interest in Optus Communications and thus became the main influence in Optus Vision.
Optus Vision then decided not to continue its rollout of aerial HFC cable in Adelaide and to consolidate its Pay TV operations passing 2.5 million homes in Brisbane, the Gold Coast, Sydney and Melbourne.
At the same time Telstra, with Foxtel concurrence, decided to cease its cable rollout in both Adelaide and Perth. Thus the great cable race came to a halt.
Optus Vision provides a 26 channel service with a strong emphasis on local sport. Some of the channels shown by Optus Vision are also available on Galaxy and Foxtel.
Extra channels for a higher subscription rate include: AFL channel, Japanese, and four other language channels.
Optus offers a subscription rate of $29.95 per month for A channels; $39.95 per month for B channels; $37.95 per month for C channels; and $44.95 per month for D channels. The AFL channel is an extra $6 per month, the Japanese channel is an extra $25 per month and the four language channels are an extra $10 per month each. The current installation fee as at September 1997 is $29.95.
Optus Vision is also offering a cable telephone service to its subscribers in selected locations. For over a year this service was experiencing call drop-out difficulties which are now claimed to have been solved. Optus Vision is again actively marketing its telephony service at a lower tariff of 20 cents for the local call service. Internet and data services are expected to be offered in the near future.
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"Pay TV Operator - Foxtel",19,foxlog.jpg,c,0
Foxtel is a joint venture between Telstra and News Limited, with Telstra building the HFC cable network and Foxtel leasing Pay TV capacity on the cable for distribution of programming initiated by News Limited from its associated Fox and other international sources.
Telstra with Foxtel approval has decided to cease its cable rollout passing around 2.5 million of the planned 4.0 million homes, mainly in the eastern capital cities.
Foxtel offers a wide range of channels on its cable service, plus a high speed cable modem internet service in selected locations. Telstra/Foxtel have not announced the provision of any telephony services over the cable network.
The television channels include the following:
Arena, Asia Business News, BBC World, Bloomberg Cartoon Network, Channel V, CNNI, Country Music, Discovery, Encore, Fox Sports, Fox 8, Nickelodeon, Showtime, TNT, TV1, UKTV, Life Style Channel, Sky News Australia, Fox Sports 2, National Geographic. Channels for a higher subscription rate include: World Movies, Ent. plus 5 channels, Nightmoves, Hallmark, fX, Fox Soap/Talk, Comedy Channel and TVSN.
The current subscription rates as at September 1997 are: $42.95 per month for the basic channels; an extra $6.95 per month for World Movies; an extra $9.95 per month for Ent. plus 5 channels; and an extra $19.95 per month for Nightmoves. The current installation fee is $19.95.
\BDescription:\b Foxtel logo \I(Foxtel)\i.
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"Pay TV Operator - Austar",20,0,g,0
A Galaxy franchise who has established 41 microwave transmitter sites across eastern Australia from Cairns to Mt Gambia. Austar has also rolled out an HFC cable system in Darwin. Austar also provides the Galaxy programming by DTH satellite in locations of its franchise area not covered by the microwave transmissions.
Austar is owned by US communications company United International Holdings which has interests in Pay TV and telephone systems in 22 countries.
Austar operates its own subscriber management system and has leased satellite capacity from Optus Communications so it can be independent of Australis apart from taking the Galaxy programming feed.
Austar offers an MDS service comprising the 15 Galaxy channels plus CNN International for a monthly subscription fee of $39.95 with World Movies as an add on for $6.95. Installation fees are $49.95 for MDS and $199.00 for DTH.
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"Pay TV Operator - East Coast Television",21,0,g,0
A Galaxy franchise who has established microwave transmitters in Newcastle, Wollongong and Hobart. East Coast Television has the right to offer the Galaxy programming using DTH technology but it appears that owing to the cost of the installations and associated customer service, East Coast limits this offering.
US based Century Communications which has a major economic interest in East Coast Television and the A satellite licence, is attempting to sell its interests in Australian Pay TV to either Australis or to Austar.
East Coast Television offers the basic 10 channel Galaxy service for $49.95 with an installation fee of $199.00. As add-ons it offers World Movies for $6.95 and Nightmoves for $19.95.
Subscriber penetration in the East Coast franchise area has been limited.
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"Pay TV Operator - Northgate",22,0,g,0
Northgate Communications is the first of the independent cable operators to roll-out cable in regional Australia. In February 1997 NorthgateÆs Pay TV service commenced in selected suburbs of Ballarat in Victoria. Northgate Communications is backed by Northgate Communications Inc., a smaller cable company from California, USA.
Northgate is implementing a standard HFC Cable TV network based on 2,000 home fibre serving areas with full return path capability. Trials of a telephony service over the cable network have already commenced. Northgate plans to expand its services to other regional centres in Australia, subject to finance availability.
Northgate offers a basic 15 channel service for the low rate of $14.95. NorthgateÆs channels include:
CNN International, Country Music Television, CNBC, MSM, MTV Australia, TNT, Cartoon Network, Sky News Australia, EWTN, Knowledge TV, Kaleidoscope, Adrenalin Movies, Court TV, Ballarat Community and Weather.
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"Australian Programming Developments",23,0,g,0
Over the past few years much effort has been expended by the prospective Pay TV operators to secure guaranteed sources of future programming material. Deals have now been done with most of the Movie Production Houses in the USA for access to future film product. These deals are viewed to be extremely important as recently release movies and sport are deemed to be the draw cards that will attract the subscribers to the networks.
Additionally, a virtual war has erupted for control of key sports. Optus Vision appeared to win the first battle when the Australian Rugby League (ARL) won the initial legal battle against Super League. This allowed Optus to transmit the ARL games for the 1996 winter, without any rival Super League matches. However, Super League won its appeal to commence its own competition in 1997, airing on the rival Foxtel sports channel.
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"Possible Future Developments",24,0,g,
With the great cable race between Telstra and Optus reaching a stalemate after passing some 2.5 million of the 6.2 million TV homes in Australia, it is unlikely that any major broadband cable reticulation work will be performed in the near future apart from the switched digital service trial in Canberra.
MDS systems are operating in all capital cities except Darwin, which is served by cable, and in the largest 43 regional centres. Extension of these services to adjacent towns is possible at some time in the future.
The restriction on the number of DTH satellite licences ceased on 1 July 1997, and this technology could experience growth in the near future to better service the homes not now provided with either cable or MDS. A number of new international satellites have high-powered beams that illuminate much of Australia.
The growth of DTH services in the Americas and Europe have lowered the cost of digital equipment such that it can now economically compete with cable and MDS. The only limitations appear to be the lack of interactive services and the need for separate dishes if the orbiting locations of the individual satellites are far separated.
The possible desire of communities for additional telephone services and fast internet connections could initiate implementations of high bandwidth wireless telephone technologies in the local loop. Some systems such as the Proximity I as used by Ionica, the third UK carrier, have been trialled and are to be implemented by Telstra.
Digital television broadcast services are likely to be trialled in Australia before the year 2000. Digital can either provide a high definition service in each frequency slot or a number of reasonable quality standard PAL-B services. Broadcaster that opt for transmitting a number of standard television channels will provide additional competition to the Pay TV operators particularly if the service remains "free to air".
Broadcasters that opt to provide a high definition service must endure a smaller viewing audience until the price of high definition TV sets becomes affordable by the general public.
The Government has yet to set the rules governing the introduction of digital television broadcasting into Australia.
Competition will provide a range of new television and broadband telecommunication services in the main centres of population in Australia. Regional centres are unlikely to be offered the same range of services owing to the smaller market size and the difficulty of providing good customer service in widely dispersed locations.
This section provides information about Australia's financial sector, the institutions that comprise it and their role as financial "intermediaries".
The financial sector comprises institutions engaged in the acquisition of financial assets and the incurring of liabilities, for example, borrowing and lending, providing superannuation, supplying all types of insurance cover, leasing, and investing in financial assets.
These financial institutions are for the most part incorporated businesses owned by the private sector, but public sector institutions (for example, Reserve Bank of Australia) and large unincorporated enterprises (for example, unit trusts, superannuation funds) are also included, provided they operate in the capital market.
The main types of financial institutions in Australia are banks, building societies, credit cooperatives, authorised money market dealers, money market corporations, pastoral finance companies, finance companies, cooperative housing societies, superannuation funds, unit trusts, common funds, friendly societies and insurance companies.
\BDescription:\b State Bank, Dee Why, NSW \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Banks",2,"h\5\tony61.jpg","c","0"
Banks are the largest deposit taking institutions in Australia. At the end of June 1996 there were 50 banks operating in Australia. All are authorised to operate by the \IBanking Act 1959.\i
Four major banks: the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, National Australia Bank, Westpac Banking Corporation and the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, account for over half the total assets of all banks. These banks provide widespread banking services and an extensive retail branch network throughout Australia.
The remaining banks provide similar banking services through limited branch networks often located in particular regions.
\BDescription:\b State Bank, Dee Why, NSW \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Reserve Bank",3,"spread224.spr","c","0"
The general functions of the Reserve Bank are set out in Section 10 of the \IReserve Bank Act,\i which states:
\I "It is the duty of the Board, within the limits of its powers, to ensure that the monetary and banking policy of the Bank is directed to the greatest advantage of the people of Australia and that the powers of the Bank under this Act, the Banking Act 1959, and regulations under that Act are exercised in such a manner as, in the opinion of the Board, will best contribute to:
(a) the stability of the currency of Australia;
(b) the maintenance of full employment in Australia; and
(c) the economic prosperity and welfare of the people of Australia".\i
The accompanying table shows the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank for the last three years.
#
"Liabilities and Assets of Banks",4,chart097.cht.jpg,c,0
The accompanying graph provides financial details of the assets and liabilities of banks in Australia.
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"Permanent Building Societies",5,"chart234.cht","c","0"
Permanent building societies are usually organised as financial cooperatives operating under State or Territory legislation. They are authorised to accept money on deposit. They generally borrow from their own members and provide finance principally in the form of housing loans to their members.
Permanent building societies are registered with the Reserve Bank under the \IFinancial Corporations Act 1974\i as category A financial corporations.
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"Credit Cooperatives",6,chart235.cht,c,0
Credit cooperatives - also known as credit unions - are similar to building societies in that they are organised on a cooperative basis and borrow from and provide finance to their own members.
Credit cooperatives mainly lend for purposes other than housing. Credit cooperatives are registered with the Reserve Bank under the \IFinancial Corporations Act 1974\i as category B financial corporations.
These dealers were authorised by the Reserve Bank to buy and sell debt securities (especially those issued by the Commonwealth Government) in the Official Short-term Money Market.
The Bank supported them by offering them an end-of-day repurchase facility. In return, the authorised dealers had to be willing traders in approved securities and adhere to other requirements of the Reserve Bank.
Authorised dealers financed their investments in securities by borrowing money on the wholesale market for short periods including overnight.
Authorised dealers were registered with the Reserve Bank under the \IFinancial Corporations Act 1974\i as category C financial corporations.
These arrangements came to an end on 9 August 1996, when the Reserve Bank withdrew all facilities from authorised dealers. This was a further move towards the introduction of real-time gross settlement (RTGS) in Australia.
Among other things, RTGS changes the way the Reserve Bank conducts its domestic market operations. Since 12 June 1996, the Reserve Bank has dealt directly with all members of the Reserve Bank Information and Transfer System. This significantly weakened the role of the authorised dealers and was the prelude to their cessation as a category.
Those companies which had residual operations either changed categories or transferred these operations to other registered companies and wound up the legal entity.
Money market corporations are similar to wholesale banks, and for this reason they are often referred to as merchant or investment banks. They have substantial short-term borrowings which they use to fund loans to authorised dealers as well as business loans and investments in debt securities.
Money market corporations are registered with the Reserve Bank under the \IFinancial Corporations Act 1974\i as category D financial corporations.
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"Finance Companies",9,"chart238.cht","c","0"
Pastoral finance companies incur liabilities in order to lend to rural properties. Pastoral finance companies are registered with the Reserve Bank under the \IFinancial Corporations Act 1974\i as category E financial corporations.
Finance companies borrow mainly on financial markets, for example by issuing debentures. They lend these funds to both businesses and persons. Their lending to businesses is sometimes called commercial lending and covers, for example, financial leasing of vehicle fleets. Their lending to persons is often in the form of instalment credit to finance retail sales by others.
Finance companies are registered with the Reserve Bank under the \IFinancial Corporations Act 1974\i as category F financial corporations.
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"General Financiers",10,"chart239.cht","c","0"
In contrast to finance companies, general financiers are funded by their parent or another member of their company group. Typically they lend to corporate customers which buy products produced by member companies of their group. For example, a general financier within a motor vehicle manufacturing group will lend to the group's dealers to finance their inventory of vehicles.
General financiers are registered with the Reserve Bank under the \IFinancial Corporations Act 1974\i as category G financial corporations.
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"Cash Management Trusts",11,chart240.cht,c,0
A cash management trust is an investment fund which is open to the public and which invests the pooled monies of unit-holders mainly in money-market securities such as bills of exchange.
As with other public unit trusts its operations are governed by a trust deed and its units are redeemable by the trustee on demand or within a short time.
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"Life Insurance Acts",12,"h\5\amp.jpg","c","0"
Life insurance companies offer termination insurance and investment policies. Termination insurance includes the payment of a sum of money on the death of the insured or on the insured receiving a permanent disability. Investment products include annuities and superannuation plans.
The life insurance industry in Australia consists of 43 direct insurers and eight reinsurers. As with the banking industry, the life insurance industry consists of a few very large companies holding a majority of the industry's assets and many smaller companies holding the remainder of the assets. Some of the larger life insurance companies include the AMP Society, National Mutual and Mercantile Mutual.
Life insurance companies are supervised by the Insurance and Superannuation Commission under the \ILife Insurance Act 1995.\i This came into effect on 1 July 1995 and replaced the \ILife Insurance Act 1945.\i
The main differences between the two Acts are that the 1995 Act promotes increased consumer protection measures and places greater requirements on office bearers. The Insurance and Superannuation Commissioner has increased monitoring and investigative powers. Life insurance companies are also required to maintain minimum levels of solvency and capital adequacy.
The operations of life insurance companies can be split effectively into two parts. The statutory funds contain policy owner monies that are invested according to policy owner expectations.
Superannuation funds have been established to provide retirement benefits for their members. Members make contributions during their employment and receive the benefits of this form of saving in retirement. In order to receive concessional taxation treatment, a superannuation fund must elect to be regulated under the \ISuperannuation Industry (Supervision) Act 1993.\i These funds are then supervised by the Insurance and Superannuation Commission.
A regulated fund must have an approved trustee or provide old age pensions under its governing rules. An election to be regulated under the Act is irrevocable. As at June 1996, there were approximately 120,000 superannuation funds regulated under the Act.
Most superannuation funds are either open to the general public or sponsored by an employer.
Superannuation funds are employer-sponsored if an employer contributes to the fund on behalf of an employee. Employer-sponsored funds generally have closed memberships restricted to the employees of particular companies. Industry funds, such as those operated by trade unions, are also considered to be employer-sponsored funds.
Approved deposit funds were established in 1984. They are continuing funds, maintained by approved trustees, to receive employees' eligible termination payments. This enables employees who terminate their employment with a particular employer to preserve their superannuation benefits until retirement age.
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"Friendly Societies",14,"chart109.cht","c","0"
These are organisations whose members originally came from specific crafts or religions. They evolved to offer the public at large a wide range of cradle-to-grave services.
By 1860, friendly societies were providing significant social welfare in Australia. Examples of the services now provided by friendly societies are: life, health, disability, funeral and general insurances; investment services; financial services similar to those of credit unions; and retirement and travel services. Friendly societies are registered under State legislation and operate in all States and Territories.
The accompanying chart summarises the assets of the 28 largest friendly societies which represent approximately 95 per cent of the assets of all societies in Australia.
General insurance companies are those institutions whose primary activity is the provision of insurance other than life and health insurance. Major types of general insurance include house, car and marine insurance.
The Insurance and Superannuation Commission supervises general insurers. All general insurers must be registered with the Commission under the \IInsurance Act 1973\i and submit quarterly and annual financial returns.
The Act provides the Commission with the power to exercise active supervision to ensure the solvency of companies carrying on general insurance business and therefore their ability to meet claims as they arise. The Act does not apply to State government-owned insurance offices.
#
"Stock Market",16,"chart112.cht","c","0"
The Australian stock market provides the mechanism for trading equities (shares), units in listed trusts, options, and some other fixed-interest securities.
It is operated nationally by Australian Stock Exchange Ltd (ASX) which is responsible for the day-to-day running and surveillance of stock market trading.
The stock market comprises two different markets - the primary market where new issues are made, and the secondary market where previously issued shares are traded.
Companies are classified according to their major type of activity, and ASX publishes various indexes (for example, All Ordinaries, All Industrials, All Resources), which represent the price performance of shares in various categories.
The stock market is controlled and regulated jointly by ASX and the Australian Securities Commission (ASC). ASX's business rules regulate market conduct and its listing rules regulate disclosure by listed companies and other matters. The ASC enforces the provisions of the Corporations Law.
This chart shows the value of Australian shares and units in trusts on issue for 1995-6 where a base 31 December 1979 = 500.
Coins are issued in the denominations of 5c, 10c, 20c, 50c, $1 and $2. $1 and $2 notes were replaced by coins in 1984 and 1988 respectively, and 1c and 2c coins ceased to be issued from February 1992.
This chart shows the value of decimal coins on issue for the years 1994-1996.
#
"Money Supply Measures",19,"chart115.cht","c","0"
The money supply, as measured and published by the Reserve Bank, refers to the amount of cash held by the public plus deposits with banks.
The measures range from the narrowest category, money base, through to the widest category, broad money, with other measures in between.
The measures mainly used are as follows:
* Money base, which comprises holdings of notes and coin by the private sector, deposits of banks with the Reserve Bank, and other Reserve Bank liabilities to the private sector.
* M3, which is defined as currency plus bank deposits of the private non-bank sector.
* Broad money, which is defined as M3 plus borrowings from the private sector by non-bank financial intermediaries (including cash management trusts) less their holdings of currency and bank deposits.
#
"Interest Rates",20,"chart099.cht","c","0"
Interest rates, as the price for money and credit, fluctuate with the supply of and demand for money or credit.
They are also affected by other factors such as government monetary policy, government regulation, borrower credit risk, and the maturity and marketability of the particular investment or asset involved.
The accompanying chart shows a selected range of interest rates offered to individuals and businesses in the market from 1993 to 1997.
#
"Foreign Exchange",21,"spread223.spr","c","0"
The foreign exchange market is the means whereby currencies of different countries can be bought and sold.
In October 1983 the Australian Government decided to float the Australian dollar, allowing its value to be determined by market forces with few exchange controls and little Reserve Bank intervention.
Prior to 1983, the Australian dollar was pegged to a basket of currencies which were weighted according to their trading significance to Australia.
This table shows the value of the A$ against major currencies from 1988 to 1997.
#
"Major Lending By Financial Institutions",22,"chart116.cht","c","0"
The lending activities of financial institutions are grouped for statistical purposes into four major types of lending - housing, personal, commercial and leasing.
This chart shows lending commitments by financial institutions in the four major areas listed above.
#
!,!,!,!,!
18#
10,0
"Defence Policy",1,"f\4\5_0050.jpg","c","0"
Australia's defence policy is part of an integrated national effort that seeks to guarantee the nation's future security and prosperity. It contributes to this objective in two related ways - by developing and maintaining the capacity to defend Australia and its interests from armed attack; and promoting a regional and global security environment which enhances Australia's security by reducing the likelihood of armed force being used against Australia.
The self-reliant defence of Australia remains the most important and demanding aim of Australia's defence policy. Hence the first objective is to build, maintain and support an Australian Defence force which is capable, without combat assistance from other countries, of defeating any attack which could be credibly mounted against Australia.
\BDescription:\b RAN Frigate \IHMAS Hobart (Courtesy DFAT)\i
Given the relatively small size of Australia's armed forces, limits on resources and the formidable geographical and environmental challenges that the defence of Australia presents, the development of more effective strategic and operational level planning and command and control is a high priority.
To ensure the most efficient and effective support for Australia's combat capabilities, it is part of defence policy to harness the skills and expertise of Australian industry and the private sector and to apply leading edge technology in the application and support of military force.
Australia's international defence relationships are an important adjunct and complement to its diplomatic efforts to shape the regional security environment. The United States is Australia's most important alliance partner and the two countries continue to share many common security interests.
Australia's relationship with the United States makes a very significant contribution to the quality and development of Australia's defence capabilities, through close consultations, training and exercises, and access to equipment, technology and intelligence.
Australia will continue to contribute to international peacekeeping, providing forces as determined by the Government to support multinational security efforts, and to provide technical and policy support for non-proliferation initiatives.
\BDescription:\b Australia's defence force \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Defence Budget",3,"spread244.spr","c","0"
The 1997-98 Defence budget of $10,405 million will enable Defence to maintain its capital investment programs, exercises, deployments and training activities.
The accompanying table shows the Defence outlay for 1995-96.
#
"Defence Organisation",4,5_0048.jpg,c,march0
Australia's defence policy is implemented through an integrated civil-military Defence Organisation. Resources and activities are managed through eight major programs: Forces Executive, Navy, Army, Air Force, Strategy and Intelligence, Acquisition, Budget and Management, and Science and Technology.
The four service programs, the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), and Headquarters ADF (Forces Executive), comprise the ADF. The remaining four programs in Defence provide policy advice to Government as well as procurement, scientific, logistical, financial and other support services to the ADF, and a range of services to government agencies and industry.
To provide management framework for its activities, the Defence Organisation works to a 10 year capability planning horizon and a five year financial programming horizon.
The Government instituted measures to achieve savings in Defence administration. Over the next three years, Defence will achieve reductions in running costs of $125 million per year, including a reduction of 1,200, or some 6%, in the average funded strength for civilian staff over two years. These savings will be directed to enhancing the combat effectiveness of the ADF.
\BDescription:\b Leopard tanks \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Forces Executive",5,5_0045.jpg,c,0
The objective of this program is to provide for the higher command and control of the ADF, and to provide corporate support to joint service units and elements within the program.
The program supports the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF) in his role as the Commander of the ADF, and the principal military adviser to Government. It seeks to enhance ADF corporate planning and to facilitate better command and control, information management and logistic arrangements for joint and combined operations.
The program develops guidance for planning to develop the capability of the ADF, options for investment in capability, concomitant military and personnel policies and for management of corporate communications.
\BDescription:\b Soldier outside Parliament House \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Royal Australian Navy",6,"f\2\5_0054.jpg","c","0"
The objective of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) is to provide maritime forces capable of effective maritime operations in the pursuit of Australia's security interests, using both regular and reserve forces and expanding in a timely manner against warning of more substantial conflict.
The Navy provides forces for maritime operations, including patrol and response, interdiction and strike, and peacetime activities.
The total force includes both regular and reserve personnel who operate surface ships, submarines and rotary wing aircraft in Australia's maritime environment. They are supported from a number of operational, training and support bases around the country, but principally in Sydney, Darwin and Perth.
\BDescription:\b Royal Australian Navy ships \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Defence Rescue 1997",7,0.jpg,c,bulimore.avi
On January 9, 1997 Tony Bullimore, the stricken British yachtsman, was rescued 2,600 km off the coast of Western Australia by the Australian Defence Force, who also saved Thierry Dubois, a French yachtsman nearby. The yacht Bullimore was sailing in, \IExide Challenger,\i in the Vendee Globe round-the-world race, tipped over on January 4 when the light weight keel broke.
In a miracle survival defying all odds, Bullimore kept calm and sheltered inside his yacht in 'the doghouse' from 4 to 9 January awaiting rescue. He used his emergency beacons to tell rescuers his position, including the life-saving EPIRB (Electronic Positioning International Radio Beacon). He kept warm by climbing into an immersion suit and eating biscuits, chocolate and other rations.
After calmly keeping himself alive while he waited in his unusual location, he eventually emerged and swam to the surface when he heard human voices and tapping on the upturned keel. He was rescued by the Royal Australian Naval frigate, \IAdelaide,\i and pulled from the water by naval officer, Pete Wicker. Despite his ordeal, Bullimore was safe and well, apart from some frostbite in his fingers and losing the top part of his thumb when a hatch slammed shut.
He received a huge welcome when the \IAdelaide\i arrived in Fremantle, Western Australia, some days later where he thanked the government and people of Australia for saving his life, in a marked contrast to the French yachtsman Thierry Dubois who was far less grateful. As the rescue mission cost the government more than $1 million, Bullimore's thanks were well received.
The popular Bullimore then underwent surgery in Western Australia to treat frostbite on his fingers, spending two hours in a decompression chamber to treat poor blood circulation to his feet. Rescued French yachtsman Thierry Dubois then flew to Adelaide to address the Australian Defence Forces involved in the sailing rescues.
\IThank you to Dept of Defence, Network 10 Ltd, Nine Network Australia Pty Ltd, Channel Seven Sydney and the ABC for supplying the video coverage.\i
The objective of the Army is to provide land forces capable of conducting effective land operations in the pursuit of Australia's security interests, using both regular and reserve forces, and expanding in a timely manner in response to warning of more substantial conflict.
Australia's strategic environment and geography dictate the need for highly mobile land forces capable of rapid deployment across considerable distances and able to conduct protracted and dispersed operations in harsh terrain where the existing infrastructure and resources are sparse.
The Australian Army comprises regular, reserve and civilian employees and is capable of undertaking operations in concert with the other two services or with overseas forces.
\BDescription:\b The Army in the Simpson Desert \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Royal Australian Air Force",9,"h\5\5_0052.jpg","c","heli10"
The objective of the RAAF is to provide air forces capable of conducting effective air operations in pursuit of Australia's security interests using both regular and reserve forces, and capable of expanding in a timely manner against warning of a more substantial conflict.
Air Power plays a major role in surveillance and intelligence gathering in Australia's sea and air approaches, denying those approaches to an adversary and defeating incursions into Australia's territory.
The RAAF emphasises joint operations with the Army and Navy, contributing to enhanced regional security and supporting the civilian community.
\BDescription:\b Australia's defence force \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Defence Personnel",10,5_0046.jpg,c,0
Although the Defence Organisation has its policy and administrative centre in Canberra, most of its personnel are located in some 600 units and establishments throughout Australia.
The ADF has some 58,000 regular personnel and 28,000 reserves, while the Department of Defence has some 20,000 civilians.
Of the civilian employees in the Defence Organisation, some 12,000 work directly for the ADF, some 2,500 are in the Defence Science and Technology Organisation, over 1,100 are in regional offices, and some 4,800 are in the central office.
Women represent 12.9% of the ADF. Some 90% of ADF positions are now available to women.
\BDescription:\b Defence force \I(DFAT)\i
#
!,!,!,!,!
19#
15,0
"Australian Advances",1,"g\2\5_0063.jpg","c","0"
Australian scientists and researchers have been responsible for many advances in the manufacturing, mining and agricultural industries.
They have made significant contributions in medical science, for example in research on the role hormones play in breast cancer, in the treatment of melanoma, in developing techniques to treat male infertility and in the development of a combined hearing aid-bionic ear.
Other advances made by Australian researchers are in the treatment of osteoporosis, hay fever, snoring, diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. The Nobel laureates Bragg (X-ray crystallography), Florey (penicillin), Burnet (immunology), Cornforth (steroid synthesis) and Eccles (brain physiology) are Australians or have strong Australian connections.
Australia has been a pioneer in solar energy research and Australian scientists are investigating other potential energy sources, including wind and sea power. Australian advances in technology include the development of an internationally accepted aircraft landing system, a heart pacemaker and computer hardware and software.
The main Australian Government research organisations are the \JCSIRO\j, the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, the Australian Institute of Marine Science and the Defence Science and Technology Organisation. As well as undertaking research within these agencies, the Government provides financial support for research in tertiary education institutions and industry.
\BDescription:\b Sydney University \I(DFAT)\i
#
"The CSIRO",2,"g\10\2_0052.jpg","c","0"
\JCSIRO\j is one of Australia's main scientific research bodies. Its work is directed toward rural, manufacturing, communications and information industries; knowledge and management of the natural environment; minerals and energy industries; and construction industries.
Briefly, CSIRO's primary statutory functions are to: carry out scientific research for the benefit of Australian industry, the community, national objectives, national or international responsibilities, or for any other purpose determined by the Minister; and encourage or facilitate the application or utilisation of the results of such research.
CSIRO employs about 7,000 people in more than 70 laboratories and field stations. CSIRO's budget for 1995-96 was $660 million, of which $417 million was provided directly by the Commonwealth Government.
\BDescription:\b Checking water from a sewerage plant \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Nuclear Science and Technology",3,"h\5\5_0060.jpg","c","0"
The Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) was established as a statutory authority under the \IAustralian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation Act 1987\i No. 3 as amended, and replaced the Australian Atomic Energy Commission.
Its mission is to benefit the Australian community by the development and peaceful application of nuclear science and technology in industry, medicine, agriculture, science and other fields.
\BDescription:\b Conducting experiments at Flinders University \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS)",4,gbrcrown.jpg,c,0
AIMS is one of Australia's key research agencies and the only one committed primarily to marine research, with emphasis on tropical marine science.
It was established in 1972 and has its headquarters at Cape Ferguson, 50 km south of the coastal city of Townsville. More recently a laboratory has been established in Dampier, Western Australia.
The Institute's objectives are to promote the conservation and sustainable development of Australia's marine resources and to support internationally competitive Australian industries.
The research and development program is focused on research relating to the tropical coast and continental shelf and the development and application of technology to problems in this zone.
\BDescription:\b Crown-of-thorns starfish \I(GBR Marine Park Authority)\i
#
"Astronomy",5,"f\2\3_0057.jpg","c","0"
One of the world's largest optical telescopes, the 3.9m Anglo-Australian Telescope, is operated at Siding Spring Mountain, New South Wales, under an agreement between the British and Australian governments.
The Australia Telescope, a radio telescope opened in 1988, consists of a 64m-diameter steerable parabolic reflector near Parkes, NSW, six steerable and moveable 22m antennas at Culgoora, NSW, and a steerable antenna at Siding Spring. It is operated by the \JCSIRO\j Division of Radiophysics.
\BDescription:\b Halley's Comet \I(DFAT)\i
#
"Home Computer Survey",6,"0","g","0"
The information in the following pages in this section is based upon the Australian Bureau of Statistics' (ABS) February 1996 survey on the use of information technology (IT) in private homes.
An earlier survey was conducted in February, 1994.
The main findings from this 1996 survey are contained in the following pages.
#
"Changes Since February 1994",7,"0","g","0"
* Computer usage in private households in February 1996 increased to 30% Australia wide from the 23% recorded in February 1994.
* The total number of computers used in households increased to 2.5 million in February 1996 from 1.9 million in February 1994.
* Of these, 81% were desktop or personal PCs, compared with 75% in February 1994.
* About 23% of households which used a computer also had a modem compared with 17% in February 1994.
* Nearly 10% of households had a facsimile machine compared with 4% in February 1994.
* Approximately 41% of households which used a computer also had CD-ROM equipment, a substantial increase from the 13% recorded in February 1994.
* Integrated software packages were used by 43% of households with a computer, compared to 32% in February 1994.
#
"Number of Computer Users",8,spread403.spr.jpg,c,0
A total of 3.9 million persons aged 5 years and over used a household computer during the February 1996 survey.
#
"Computer Ownership",9,"spread404.spr","c","0"
Of the 2.5 million computers used in households, approximately 79% were owned by a member of the household, 8% were owned by a registered home business and 12% were owned by entities from outside the household. These include employers (9% of machines) and other persons or organisations (3% of machines).
#
"Reasons for Not Owning a Computer or Modem",10,spread405.spr.jpg,c,0
Of the 4.7 million households which did not use a computer at home, 41% indicated they had no use for a computer and 31% indicated that costs were too high.
Of the 1.5 million households which used a computer but did not have a modem, 45% indicated that they were not interested or would not use it and 27% indicated that costs were too high.
#
"Popular Uses of Computers",11,spread406.spr.jpg,c,0
The most popular use of household computers (which excludes dedicated games machines) was playing computer games. Half of these games players were aged 17 years or less.
Educational activities were also highly popular with household computer users. Just over 1 million persons indicated the use of 'mainly educational products'; 59% of these users were aged 17 or less.
#
"Internet Users",12,"0","g","0"
As at February 1996, there was an estimated 262,000 persons who used the Internet from home. This figure continues to rise at a rapid rate.
#
"Capacity of Computers",13,"spread407.spr","c","0"
The accompanying table provides details on the types and power of personal computers, broken down by capital cities and remainder of Australia.
#
"Use of Peripheral Equipment",14,"spread408.spr","c","0"
This table lists the use of peripheral equipment by percentage for the most popular peripheral items.
#
"Characteristics of IT Users",15,"0","g","0"
\BUsers\b
In February 1996, 3.9 million persons aged 5 years and over used household computers. Of these, 2.2 million were males and 1.7 million were females.
The age distribution of household computer users was:
* 36% were aged 5-17 years; 43% of this age group used a household computer;
* 13% were aged 18-25 years; 23% of this age group used a household computer;
* 25% were aged 26-40 years; 24% of this age group used a household computer;
* 22% were aged 41-55 years; 28% of this age group used a household computer;
* 5% were aged 56 years and over; 6% of this age group used a household computer.
\BUses\b
The most popular use for household computers, excluding dedicated games machines, was playing computer games. Half of the games players were aged 5-17 years.
A tenth of the 3.9 million persons who used a household computer used the computer solely for playing computer games.
Of the 2.3 million persons 5 years or older who played computer games on their household computer:
* 68% spent 1-5 hours per week playing computer games;
* 15% spent less than 1 hour per week playing computer games; and
* 12% spent 6-10 hours per week playing computer games;
Educational activities were also highly popular. Just over 1 million household computer users indicated the use of 'mainly educational products'. Of these users, 59% were aged 5-17 years.
There were 1.6 million household computer users 'doing work relevant to studies'; 46% of these were aged 5-17 years.
Of the 3.9 million persons who used a household computer:
* 53% spent 1-5 hours per week using a household computer for non-computer games activities;
* 17% spent 6-10 hours per week on non-computer games activities; and
* 9% spent less than 1 hour per week on non-computer games activities.
\BInternet Users\b
There were an estimated 262,000 users who indicated use of the Internet from home. The age distribution of these Internet users was:
* 11% were aged 5-17 years;
* 18% were aged 18-25 years;
* 38% were aged 26-40 years;
* 28% were aged 41-55 years;
* 6% were over 55 years.
About 178,000 Internet users were male and 84,000 were female.
\BOther on-line activities\b
There were about 140,000 household computer users who indicated using electronic mail.
There were about 116,000 household computer users who accessed other on-line services/databases.
\BWorking from home\b
Of those working from home:
* 833,000 persons used their household computer for 'doing work relevant to my employment (excluding own business)';
* 379,000 used it for 'doing work relevant to my business (excluding home based)';
* 422,000 used it for 'doing work for the home based business'; and
* 23,000 used it for 'other paid work from home via computer'.
\BMain Use\b
Of the 3.9 million household computer users:
* 34% identified playing computer games as their main use;
* 21% identified 'doing work relevant to studies' as their main use; and
* 25% identified using the home computer for work-related purposes as their main use.
\BNew services\b
One randomly selected adult from each household was asked about their willingness to use household technology for shopping from home:
* 78% said 'no' to home shopping;
* 70% said 'no' to home banking; and
* 95% said 'no' to home gambling.
#
!,!,!,!,!
20#
43,0
"1996 Census",1,1_0004.jpg,c,0
Australia's thirteenth national \ICensus of Population and Housing\i was taken on 6 August 1996. The population census is the largest statistical collection undertaken by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Its objective is to measure the number and key characteristics of people in Australia on census night.
It provides detailed information about the population for small geographic areas and for small population groups as well as for the States and Territories and for Australia as a whole. This information is intended to support the planning, administration and policy development activities of governments, business and other users.
This section highlights some of the interesting facts of contemporary Australian society as painted by the census. It summarises a number of findings in the areas of population, cultural diversity, living arrangements, education, work, income and housing.
Census data is not without limitations. Despite the application of detailed field collection procedures, some people are missed. Furthermore, not all people provide answers to every question. A sample survey conducted following the census estimated an undercount of 1.8%. Only the population figures presented in the first section include an adjustment for this underenumeration.
Other figures are purely the aggregation of the data collected on census night. For these other reasons, data presented in this report may differ from that derived from major ABS household surveys covering social and labour force topics.
Some tables and charts in this chapter refer to earlier census data as well as the 1996 Census. If not stated, the information indicated is for the 1996 Census. The data for this section was compiled from various ABS publications including \IAustralian Social Trends,\i Catalogue No. 4101.0, \IRegional Population Growth\i Catalogue No. 3218.0 and \ICensus of Population and Housing\i Catalogue No. 2015.0.
\BDescription:\b Australian Flag \I(DFAT)\i.
#
"Increasing Numbers",2,"chart151.cht","c","0"
Since the first national census in 1911, the population has quadrupled, from 4.5 million to 18.4 million. This increase is due to two factors: natural increase, which is the difference between births and deaths, and net overseas migration.
This chart shows the growth in population from 1954 to 1996.
#
"State Distribution",3,"map39","c","0"
In 1996, the majority of Australia's people still lived in New South Wales (33.9%) and Victoria (24.9%), despite the steady decline in their share of population over the past 35 years. The next most populous State, Queensland, had 18.3% of the total population, an increase from the 17.1% share it had held in 1991. Between 1991 and 1996, the population of Queensland grew by 12.7%, the highest growth rate of any State or Territory.
The population of the Northern Territory grew by 10.7%, Western Australia grew by 8.2%, the Australian Capital Territory grew by 5.9%, New South Wales grew by 5.2%, Victoria grew by 3.2%, South Australia grew by 1.8% and Tasmania grew by 1.2%.
Western Australia was the fourth most populous State and South Australia the fifth.
\BDiagram:\b Percentage of population in the States and Territories.
#
"Estimated Resident Population",4,"map40","c","0"
The census enumerates people according to where they spent census night. Census counts are recorded to each person's usual residence, adjusted for underenumeration, overseas visitors and Australian residents temporarily overseas to form the estimated resident population (ERP).
The ERP is the official population measure and has been used wherever possible in this section.
However, not all census statistics are available on an estimated resident basis, and in these cases, original census counts are used.
\BDiagram:\b States and Territories population figures (thousands)
#
"Urban Population",5,"chart152.cht","c","0"
Australia's people are concentrated in a small number of large cities, situated along the coast. Of the 14 cities with over 100,000 people, only \JCanberra\j-Queanbeyan is inland.
During the past five years, 1991-96, Tasmania, South Australia and Victoria experienced lower growth rates than the national average of 1.2%.
About two-thirds of Australia's population growth (655,100) occurred in capital cities. Sydney experienced the largest increase in population (205,500) while Brisbane also grew rapidly.
#
"Age and Sex Composition",6,"chart153.cht","c","0"
The age structure of a population is a function of many things, particularly fluctuations in fertility. Low birth rates in the 1930s and early 1940s resulted in relatively few people aged 50-65 years in 1996. The "baby boom" from the late 1940s to the early 1960s resulted in the large number of people aged 35-45 years.
The large number of people around 25 is due to fluctuations in the decline of the fertility rate between 1961 and 1976 and the "baby boom echo" where large numbers of the women born in the 1940s and 50s entered their child bearing years.
Overall there were more women than men in Australia in 1996 (9,262,600 females and 9,164,300 males), but this difference is not evenly spread across age groups. Women have lower mortality than men throughout their lives. As a consequence, the sex ratio (the number of men per 100 women) decreases with age.
Males outnumber females from birth to age 65, especially up to the age of 25, and in the 45-55 age group where the sex ratio reflects the higher proportion of males migrating to Australia in the early post war period. For every 100 women aged 85 and over, there are only 40 men.
#
"Trends in Marital Status",7,chart186.cht.jpg,c,0
A person's registered marital status does not necessarily reflect their living arrangements and family status. From 1947, the proportion of both men and women aged over 15 who were married, rose steadily, peaking in 1971.
The ages at which couples first marry have not remained static over the last half century. In the 30 years following the Second World War, there was a steady decline in the age at which people first married. The proportion of first marriages which involve women marrying younger men increased from 11% in 1974 to 20% in 1995.
There has been an increase in de facto partnering.
This chart shows the marital status in Australia for 1996.
#
"Marital Status and Age",8,"spread249.spr","c","0"
The highest proportion of married men and women is among the age group 35-49.
Marriage registration data shows that the median age at first marriage declined through 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, and then increased again through the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. The decline in age at first marriage was finally arrested in 1974. The median age of first marriage of bridegrooms and brides started to increase and has continued to increase steadily to 27.3 for bridegrooms and 25.3 for brides.
In every age group except 75 and over, the proportion of men never married was higher than for women. In 1996 data, 26% of all men aged 15 and over had never married, compared with 21% of women. Conversely, in every age group, the proportion of women who were widowed was higher than for men.
The highest proportion of people who were separated was among 35-44 year olds for both men and women. The highest proportion of people who were divorced was among 40-49 year olds for both men and women.
(To view all entries of this table, you will need to use the scroll bars on the extreme right of the screen.)
#
"Indigenous People",9,chart154.cht.jpg,c,0
Although Aboriginal people have been counted in each census since 1911, it was not until the 1971 census (the first census to be conducted after the repeal, in 1967, of section 127 of the Constitution which excluded Aboriginal people from the population counts) that they were officially included in the Australian population.
Since 1971 there has been a large increase in the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people counted.
This apparent large increase in numbers has not been solely due to natural increase. Other factors include a greater inclination to identify as being of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin and general improvements in census counting procedures.
In 1996, an awareness campaign on the importance of the census was directed towards Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Special field enumeration procedures were also used in Aboriginal communities. Although similar measures were taken in previous censuses this accounts for some of the increase.
#
"Range of Cultures",10,"h\5\1_0034.jpg","c","0"
Australia has a rich cultural diversity, and while culture cannot be directly measured from census data, the range of language, religion and birthplace data gives a valuable insight into multicultural Australia.
The 1996 Census counted 4.2 million overseas-born people. The top six birthplace groups accounted for 53% of the total overseas-born population and included people born in New Zealand and Vietnam. People born in Asian countries represented 22% of all people born overseas and five of the top 12 birthplace groups were from Asian countries. Approximately 2.6 million people had one or both parents born overseas.
There were 2.5 million people who spoke one of 68 languages other than English at home.
\BDescription:\b Australia has a wide range of cultural diversity \I(DFAT)\i
Between 1976 and 1996, the proportion of the population born overseas increased from 20% to 23% of the total population. Accompanying this increase there have been significant changes in the mix of source countries.
This chart shows the current situation as at 1996. People from the United Kingdom and Ireland still form the largest group. However, their numbers as a proportion of the total overseas-born population has declined, falling from 41% in 1976 to 29% in 1996.
There has also been a decline in the size of populations from other European countries. For example, Italian and Greek populations, the second and third largest in 1976, have declined numerically and proportionally.
#
"Birthplace - Countries of Birth",12,"spread250.spr","c","0"
The combined population from the main English speaking countries (MESC) of United Kingdom and Ireland, New Zealand, Canada, United States of America and South Africa continues to grow, but at a slower rate than the population from predominantly non-English speaking countries (NESC). In 1996 the NESC population represented 61% of those born overseas compared to 54% in 1976.
Australia has one of the largest immigrant populations in the world.
(You will need to use the scroll bars at the extreme right of the screen to view all entries in this table.)
#
"Birthplace of Australian Citizens",13,"spread251.spr","c","0"
People who have lived in Australia for longer are more likely to have become citizens.
However, there are differences between birthplace groups.
Recent arrivals of Korean and Malaysians include overseas students who are not permanent residents. This contributes to the low rate of citizenship among these groups.
(Don't forget to use the scroll bar to view all table entries.)
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"Languages Spoken at Home",14,"spread252.spr","c","0"
After English, the languages most widely spoken at home in Australia are Italian, Cantonese, Greek and Arabic (including Lebanese). The majority of people who speak these languages were born overseas. A total of approximately 2.5 million people spoke a language other than English at home.
There are a number of factors which influence whether the children of overseas born people (first generation Australians) speak their parents' language(s). These include time spent in Australia, cultural similarities to the Australian born population, and social structures within their culture.
(Don't forget to use the scroll bar to view all entries in the table.)
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"Proficiency in English",15,spread254.spr.jpg,c,0
Proficiency in English varied considerably according to which non-English language was spoken at home. People with a higher proficiency in English tend to have lived in Australia longer, or have greater cultural similarities to the Australian born population and often come from countries where English is commonly learnt.
People who speak languages such as Maori or Tamil, which are spoken in Commonwealth countries, where English is widely spoken, tend to be more proficient in English than those who speak languages from non-Commonwealth countries, where English is not as widely spoken.
(Don't forget to use the scroll bar to view all the table entries.)
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"Religion Percentages",16,chart156.cht.jpg,c,0
The question on religion included in the census is a voluntary one. While the religion with which people identify is recorded, the census does not measure the extent of involvement or commitment.
Between 1981 and 1996 the number of people counted in the census increased by 3.3 million, however the percentage of people identified as Christian was down almost 4% from the 1991 figure and people who stated no religion increased by just over 3%.
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"Christian Breakdown",17,chart157.cht.jpg,c,0
The number of people reporting a non-Christian religion more than doubled between 1981 and 1996, reflecting recent immigration patterns. Non-Christian religions account for approximately 3.5% of the number of people identifying with a religion.
This chart shows, out of the 70.5% of the population reporting a Christian religion, the percentage breakdown of the different faiths.
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"Households and Families",18,"h\5\4_0053.jpg","c","0"
People are classified into different types of households and families on the basis of their usual living arrangements and their relationships to other household members.
Households comprise a person living alone or two or more people who share a dwelling. A family consists of two or more related people within a household. Households can be either family or non-family households, and family households can have more than one family. Households composed of one person or unrelated people are termed non-family households.
In the 1996 Census, 4.8 million families were identified, with the average family size of 3.1. Out of the total number of families, 40.6% were couple families with dependants and 34.1% were couple only families. Of the couples with dependants, 55.7% of both parents were employed.
\BDescription:\b A family house \I(DFAT)\i.
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"Families",19,chart158.cht.jpg,c,0
Out of the 4.8 million families identified in the 1996 Census, 84% of these were 'couple families' of which 48% had dependants living with them. 85% of the 672,000 'one parent families' had a female parent. Of the 2.35 million persons who were not members of a family, 62% lived alone.
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"Family Size",20,"chart159.cht","c","0"
In June 1996 in Australia there were 134,200 couple families with children aged 0-14 in which both partners were not in employment (8% of couple families with children aged 0-14). Conversely, there were 930,200 couple families with children aged 0-14 in which both partners were employed (54% of couple families with children aged 0-14).
The proportion of two-income families and families with no employment income have both been increasing over the years. Between 1981 and 1996, the proportion of families with children aged 0-14 in which both parents worked increased 13%, from 41% to 54%. The proportion of families with children aged 0-14 in which neither parent was employed also increased, from 5% in 1981 to 8% in 1996. Consequently the proportion of families in which only one partner was employed has decreased.
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"People in Education",21,"chart163.cht","c","0"
In 1996, approximately 258,394 children attended preschools, 1.73 million children attended primary schools, and 1.2 million children attended secondary schools. There was over one million students in tertiary education.
There were more males than females in primary, secondary and tertiary education, reflecting the sex ratios in the relevant age groups. Within the tertiary sector, however, women outnumbered men by nearly 52,000 in higher education, while men outnumbered women by over 8,000 in TAFE.
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"Students in Primary Schools",22,chart164.cht.jpg,c,0
Between 1991 and 1996 the trend towards non-government schools continued in both primary and secondary schools.
In 1996, non-government schools accounted for 26.5% of primary school children, a small increase over the 1991 level of 25%.
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"Students in Secondary Schools",23,chart165.cht.jpg,c,0
There was also an increase in the proportion of secondary school students in non-government schools. Students in non-government secondary schools accounted for 35% of all students attending secondary schools.
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"Tertiary Education",24,"chart166.cht","c","0"
The number of students in tertiary education increased between 1991 and 1996. Demographic changes in the population structure accounted for some of the increase, however most of the increase was due to the increased emphasis placed on post secondary education as training prior to entering the full time labour force.
In 1986, the TAFE sector was marginally larger than the higher education sector. By 1991 the higher education sector had grown to be 27% larger, and in 1996 it was approximately 33% larger, with the greatest increase observed among women.
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"Full-time and Part-time Study",25,chart167.cht.jpg,c,0
Students in higher education are more likely than those in TAFE to study full-time, reflecting the strong vocational orientation of many TAFE courses, particularly those involving apprenticeships.
Overall, women are more likely to study full-time than men. This difference is most pronounced among TAFE students.
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"Qualifications",26,"chart168.cht","c","0"
Over 7 million people held post-school qualifications in 1996. Men are much more likely than women to have skilled vocational qualifications, primarily trade certificates.
The shift away from skilled vocational qualifications towards university qualifications among recent migrants is due to changes in Australia's immigration policy and the younger age profile of recent migrants.
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"Growth in the Labour Force",27,"chart169.cht","c","0"
The labour force is defined as those persons who are either employed or unemployed and is measured in terms of each person's activity status. The labour force measure thus represents the total supply of people available to work in the labour market at a given time.
The 1996 Census counted over 9 million people in the labour force, an increase of just over half a million in five years, and one and a half million in 10 years. The growth since 1986 reflected increasing participation rates among women.
The strong growth of the 1970s was a function of both increasing female participation rates and the "baby boom" children reaching working age.
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"Unemployment Figures",28,chart170.cht.jpg,c,0
Unemployment rates have increased over the last 20 years to a peak in 1993 of 11%. This reflects a change in the structure of the Australian economy coupled with adverse economic circumstances. By 1997 the unemployment rate as at July was 8.7%.
The youth unemployment rate has fluctuated over the years but remains high. The current youth unemployment rate as at July 1997 stands at 27.8%.
Between 1985-86 and 1995-96 the number of workers in the service industries increased by 31%, an increase of 1.4 million jobs. The service industries employed slightly more females than males (51% females in 1995-96).
Over the same period most employment growth occurred in white-collar occupations. The top ten fastest-growing occupation groups between 1985-86 and 1995-96 reflect the increased demand for white-collar workers as opposed to blue-collar workers. The greatest percentage growth (an increase of 91% or 102,800 workers) occurred in the personal service worker classification (this group includes child-care workers; enrolled nurses; dental nurses; home companions and aides; travel stewards and tourist guides).
The majority of the occupation groups in which employment shrank over the period 1985-86 to 1995-96 were low-skilled occupations or those that have been affected by the impact of technological and economic change. The greatest proportional decrease in employment occurred among miscellaneous clerks such as teachers aids; personnel clerks; legal and related clerks; and postal clerks and officers. This group had declined by 41% (70,800 fewer workers).
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"Full-time and Part-time Work",31,chart174.cht.jpg,c,0
The trend estimate of male full-time employment rose steadily from a low of 3,936,200 in late 1992 to a high of 4,210,500 in February 1996. From a low of 1,863,800 in August 1992, the trend estimate of female full-time employment increased to reach 2,082,800.
The trend estimate of males employed part-time has almost doubled over the last ten years, from 303,200 in July 1987. The trend estimate is now 576,700. Since July 1987 the trend estimate for females employed part-time rose by 42.5% to 1,563,600.
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"Unemployment Within the Population",32,"spread245.spr","c","0"
Some groups of people experienced levels of unemployment higher than the average. Higher rates of unemployment were observed amongst people with poor English skills, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and lone parents.
People with post-school qualifications, especially higher education qualifications, had lower unemployment rates than the general population.
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"Income Distribution",33,chart176.cht.jpg,c,0
The census collects information on income for all people aged 15 years and over including students, pensioners and housewives, as well as people in paid employment.
In 1996, 250,226 people received incomes of over $1500, of which 84% were men.
The median weekly income in 1996 was $292 per week, with half the population earning over this amount and the other half earning less than this amount, including people not earning any income at all.
The highest quintile (the 20% of the population with the highest incomes) had annual incomes of more than $62,000 and, together, they received 40.4% of total income.
The lowest quintile (the 20% of the population with the lowest incomes) had annual incomes below $10,000 and, together, received 5.8% of total income.
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"Income and Age",34,"chart178.cht","c","0"
In 1996, income increased with age to peak at about 35-44 years of age for women and men, then started to decline in older age groups.
Over 340,000 of 15-19 year olds had nil incomes and 676 had incomes of $1,500 or more per week. Their median income of $9,048 was 29.6% of the median for adult incomes.
Over 84,500 of 35-44 year olds earned $1,500 or more per week.
Almost 63% of aged people relied on the age pension.
Among households without children, young households (reference person aged under 25 years) and older households (reference person aged 55-64 years) experienced large reductions in real disposable income in the last ten years. This is linked to rising unemployment rates among 55-64 year olds combined with decreasing rates of full-time employment, particularly among 55-59 year old men, due to the continuing trend towards early retirement from full-time work.
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"Income and Sex",35,"chart179.cht","c","0"
In 1996, there were 39,752 women with incomes over $1,500 per week compared to 210,474 men with incomes over $1,500 per week.
In the 15-24 age group, men and women had similar median incomes.
However, between 25 and 50 there is a substantial gap reflecting the lower levels of labour force participation and greater incidence of part-time workers among women in the prime childbearing ages. This gap decreased in older age groups and in the post retirement years men's and women's median incomes converge.
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"High Income Households",36,"chart180.cht","c","0"
Approximately 1.8% of all Australian households received incomes of $78,000 or more. The proportion varied greatly within and between States/Territories.
The highest concentrations were in Western Australia, claiming six out of the top ten highest earning cities. Half the residents of the central urban area of Canberra earn in excess of $762 per week. The Australian Capital Territory's median income was $430 per week compared to the national median of $292.
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"Dwellings",37,"chart181.cht","c","0"
There were 7.1 million dwellings counted in the 1996 Census, of which about 680,000 were unoccupied. The latter included holiday homes, temporarily vacant dwellings, newly built dwellings and dwellings for sale or lease.
Separate houses were by far the most common dwelling type, accounting for 79% of all occupied dwellings and 83% of the population.
Separate houses accommodated an average of 3 people while flats, town houses etc. averaged 2 people per dwelling and improvised dwellings averaged 2.8 persons.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander improvised dwellings housed an average of 6.1 people and accounted for 15% of improvised dwellings.
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"Dwelling Size",38,"chart182.cht","c","0"
Approximately half the nation's dwelling stock are three bedroom houses.
There has been a trend towards larger houses during the last two decades. The proportion of households in a separate house with four or more bedrooms increased from 19% in 1991 to 23.3% in 1995.
Meanwhile the proportion of all dwellings with only one bedroom declined from 7% to 4.8%.
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"Renting, Owning and Purchasing",39,"h\5\tony51.jpg","c","0"
Of the 6.7 million households, 40% were in dwellings owned by a household member, 28.3% were in dwellings being purchased by a household member and 25.2% were in rented dwellings.
Whether a dwelling was owned, being purchased or rented is often related to the life cycle stage of the occupants, which can be approximated by their age.
Relatively few young households (15-24 year olds) were home purchasers (16%), reflecting the time taken to save a housing loan deposit, and also the lifestyle priorities of this age group.
Children are most likely to live in houses being purchased, reflecting the tendency of young Australian families to start buying their own homes.
In their late teens and early 20s people tend to leave their parents' home and start renting. In their 20s and 30s people are likely to start buying their first home and in their 40s and 50s pay off their mortgages.
After retirement, as incomes fall, so the rise in home ownership slows and there is a slight increase in the proportion who rent.
\BDescription:\b \I(Webster Publishing)\i
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"Renting, Owning and Purchasing Homes",40,chart183.cht.jpg,c,0
In 1994, the proportion of dwellings owned outright was 41.8%. The proportion being purchased was 28.3%. The shift towards home ownership was greatest in Tasmania, then Victoria and New South Wales.
Public renting decreased from 8% of households in 1991 to 6.2% in 1994. The Northern Territory had substantially higher levels of public rental than the rest of the country.
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"Rent and Mortgage Costs",41,chart184.cht.jpg,c,0
As might be expected, households with higher incomes tended to have higher housing costs.
74.3% of households spent 25% or less of their income on housing costs; 25.7% spent between 25% and 30% of their incomes; 18.5% spent between 30% and 40% of their incomes; 10.7% spent between 40% and 50% of their incomes and 6.7% spent more than 50% of their incomes on housing costs.
Rents and mortgage payments are highest in Sydney and Canberra. The median mortgage repayment by Australian home buyers has increased by 39% since 1991 to $780 per month. Sydney's median mortgage repayments are the highest in the country at $1000 per month.
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"Crime Rates",42,chart185.cht.jpg,c,0
National crime statistics show that crime rates varied considerably between Australia's States and Territories, and that no single State had the highest crime rate for all offence categories. New South Wales had by far the highest crime rate for robbery offences, but murder and assault were more prevalent in the Northern Territory while property crimes were more prevalent in Western Australia. In contrast, crime rates in Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory tended to be below national rates for most offence categories.
Crime rates per 100,000 people for murder were: New South Wales, 1.7; Victoria, 1.4; Queensland,1.8; South Australia, 1.5; Western Australia, 2.5; Tasmania, 1.3; Northern Territory, 12.7; and Australian Capital Territory, 0.3.
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"Deaths Due to Firearms",43,chart245.cht.jpg,c,0
Despite some large annual fluctuations, murders and manslaughters involving the use of firearms have generally declined in significance over the ten years to 1994. Using three-year averages because of the small numbers involved, the rate of firearms killings per million people fell from 6.8 in 1985 to 4.0 in 1994. In proportionate terms, murder and manslaughter deaths by firearms have generally decreased from 32% of all murder/manslaughters in 1985 to 20% in 1995.
A number of homicide incidents in Australia have involved multiple killings. A multiple killing is defined as any incident where two or more people are murdered. There have been 24 recorded multiple killings from the use of firearms between 1987 and April 1996, resulting in a total of 128 deaths.
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21#
94,0
"About the AusBuy Guides",1,"h\5\ausmade.jpg","c","0"
This section on the AusBuy Guides was provided by the Australian Owned Companies Association. This association is a non-profit organisation receiving no government funding or support. Their address is Friends of AusBuy, PO Box 440, Rydalmere, NSW, 2116 ph: (02) 9898 0309, fax: (02) 9638 5670. All information was correct at time of publication, although every week more Australian companies are bought by foreign interests, therefore some of the information may be out of date by the time you get to read it. If in doubt, please ring AusBuy on (02) 9898 0309.
\BWhy is it so important to buy Australian owned?\b
* Only ownership creates wealth and good jobs.
* Every unnecessary purchase of a foreign owned or made item reduces Australia's wealth, reduces Australian jobs and adds to our already large foreign current account deficit.
* About 80% of the contents of the average Australian supermarket trolley is now foreign owned or made. This is why during the last six financial years, Australia's deficits totalled $106 billion and 95% of this total ($100 billion) was interest and dividends paid to foreigners.
* Since June 1992, foreigners' incomes from dividends has increased by 152%. Did your income increase 150% in 5 years? The government ensures that foreigners always win!
* Jobs and growth in Australia have been paid for by the government selling off and mortgaging the country. In 1982, Australia owed foreigners a net total of $39 billion. By 1996, this debt had increased 630% to $285 billion. The personal share of this foreign debt is $16,000 for each man, woman and child in Australia.
\BDescription:\b Be wary of this logo - it doesn't necessarily mean Australian owned.
If every Australian averaged $50 per week buying Australian made products from Australian owned companies - instead of spending the same amount buying imported products from foreign owned companies, then Australia would:
* Save $20 billion a year on foreign debt
* Create 500,000 new jobs
* Not have another recession
The only way we can help keep profits and jobs in Australia is to buy Australian owned Australian made. Australia's labelling laws are a mess and there is no way anyone can be sure of buying Australian owned Australian made without the AusBuy Guides.
If we bought more Australian owned Australian made textiles, clothing and footwear, so that imports were cut in half, we would create another 104,000 jobs, doubling the number of Australians in this important industry. In addition to creating jobs, Australia's current account deficit and foreign debt would also be reduced by $2 billion.
Some of our politicians were known for wearing fully imported Italian Ermenegildo Zegna suits. These suits are often made from the best Australian wool. All the wool needed for a suit is bought from us for about $25. The complete suit is then sold back to us for up to $1000. Unfortunately, Italian cloth and suit manufacturers make profits while Australian wool growers effectively subsidise them.
Australia desperately needs to stop spending foreign currency on anything other than essentials:
* Every purchase of a fully imported product hurts Australia a lot
* Every purchase of an Australian made product from a foreign owned company hurts Australia significantly
* The best way to help Australia is to buy Australian made products from Australian owned companies
Ads for products made in Australia by foreign owned companies which state: "Help buy back Australia" or "The buck stops here" - are very misleading. The \Bonly\b way to buy back Australia and the \Bonly\b way to keep Australia Australian owned is to buy from Australian owned companies.
Australia desperately needs to stop spending foreign currency on anything other than essentials:
* Every purchase of a fully imported product hurts Australia a lot.
* Every purchase of an Australian made product from a foreign owned company hurts Australia significantly.
* The best way to help Australia is to buy Australian made products from Australian owned companies.
* Brand names marked with an asterisk are foreign owned but made under licence for Australia by Australian owned companies.
** CHL Apparel own the Hilton and Kayser brand names for underwear and sleepwear. Sara Lee (USA) own the Hilton and Kayser brand names for hosiery and socks.
\BNote:\b Some foreign outlets may be franchised to Australians.
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"Petrol/Additives",12,spread313.spr.jpg,e,0
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"Baby Care",13,"spread314.spr","e","0"
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"Baked Beans",14,"spread315.spr","e","0"
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"Biscuits",15,"spread316.spr","c","0"
Notes to table:
* Arnotts'/Sunshine's majority ownership is foreign but still Australian controlled.
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"Bread",16,"spread317.spr","e","0"
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"Breakfast Cereals",17,"spread318.spr","e","0"
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"Butter/Margarine",18,"spread319.spr","e","0"
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"Cakes/Cake Mixes",19,"spread320.spr","e","0"
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"Cheese",20,"spread321.spr","e","0"
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"Chips/Snacks",21,"spread322.spr","e","0"
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"Cleaning Products",22,spread424.spr.jpg,e,0
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"Confectionery",23,"spread323.spr","e","0"
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"Coffee and Powdered Drinks",24,spread324.spr.jpg,c,0
The following powdered drinks are Australian owned: Akta-Vite and Ultra Slim. The following powdered drinks are foreign owned: Jarrah, Milo, Horlicks, Ovaltine and Sustagen.
Most retailers of household items, such as Big W are Australian owned. IKEA is Swedish owned.
Following is a selection of foreign owned retailers:
Angus and Robertson
Athletes Foot
Body Shop
Brashs
Downtown Duty Free
Jeanswest
Footlocker
HMV
Rabbit Photo
Sportscraft
Sportsgirl
Tandy Electronics
Thomas Cook
Video Ezy
Williams the Shoeman
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"Audio/TV/Radio/Video",77,"0","g","0"
There is no major Australian owned manufacturer of household TV, radio and video equipment. The following are all foreign owned and almost all their products are foreign made:
Akai, Bang & Olufsen, Kenwood, Hitachi, Fujitsu, National Panasonic, Marantz, NEC, Philips, Pioneer, Sharp, Sanyo, Samsung, Sony, and TEAC.
The following Australian owned companies make excellent audio/speaker equipment:
Audiosound, Richter Acoustics and Krix.
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"Compact Discs and Tapes - Australian/Foreign",78,"spread374.spr","e","0"
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"Musical Instruments",79,"0","g","0"
Most musical instruments are foreign made but Australia has a number of makers of good quality guitars. They are:
Maton, Gilet, Noyce, Ironbark, Kinman, Box, Cameron, Fryer, Strung Art and Laughlin.
