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SSQL
VERSION 2.2
COPYRIGHT (C) 1990 BY STEVE SILVA
SILVAWARE
3902 NORTH 87TH STREET
SCOTTSDALE, AZ 85251
Special thanks to the hard-working
students in CIS425 at the DeVry
Institute of Technology, Phoenix, Arizona.
***************************************************************
** READ THIS!!!!!!! **
** IF YOU HAVE A PREVIOUS VERSION OF SSQL, YOU NEED CONVERT **
** YOUR FILES. FROM YOUR DIRECTORY (or disk) THAT CONTAINS **
** THE .SQL FILES, TYPE A:CONVERT (assuming that the new **
** new SSQL disk is in drive A). **
***************************************************************
dBase is a trademark of Ashton-Tate.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-1
Key Words Needed to Understand the Documentation . . . . INTRO-1
What Is SQL And Why Is It So Important To Know? . . . . . INTRO-1
How Does This Implementation Of SQL Differ From Others? . INTRO-3
Strengths and Weaknesses of SSQL . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-4
Differences In The Registered Version . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-4
Install SSQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-6
Permission to copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-6
Changes from 1.4 to 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-7
Syntax Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-7
SSQL Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-8
Contents of Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-8
dBase Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRO-9
THE EXAMPLE DATABASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DATABASE-1
USING YOUR OWN WORD PROCESSOR FROM WITHIN SSQL . . . . . . WORD-1
USING SCRIPT FILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SCRIPT-1
EXTRACTING DATA FROM A SINGLE TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-1
Distinct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-2
Where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-3
search_expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-3
Special Search Expression - is null, is not null . . . . SELECT-5
Special Search Expression - like, not like . . . . . . . SELECT-6
And, Or, Not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-7
Any . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-11
In. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-12
All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-12
Between constant AND constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-13
Importance of the NULL (Unknown value) . . . . . . . . . SELECT-13
Mathmatical Functions Avg, Min, Max, Sum, Count . . . . . SELECT-15
Column Calculations (+, -, *, /) . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-18
Group by, Having . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-19
Order by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-20
Redirectto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SELECT-21
JOINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOIN-1
SIMPLE SUBQUERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUB-1
CORRELATED SUBQUERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COR-1
CONVERTING ENGLISH TO SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ENG-1
CREATE A TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CREATE-1
CREATE A VIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIEW-1
DROP A TABLE/VIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DROP-1
INSERT DATA INTO A TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INSERT-1
UPDATE DATA IN A TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UPDATE-1
DELETE DATA FROM A TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DELETE-1
TUTORIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TUTORIAL-1
******** ORDER FORM * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * LAST PAGE
KEY WORDS NEEDED TO UNDERSTAND THE DOCUMENTATION
SQL - Structured Query Language. A standard method of
interacting with a database. It is pronounced "SEQUEL"!!
However, over the years I have noticed more and more people
saying the letters S-Q-L.
TABLE - A table is typically known as a FILE in other systems.
You may ask why they don't just call a table a file. It is
because that although normally a table does refer to a specific
file, a table can refer to something that spans two or more
files. This can be done by "creating a view" (see
documentation). If you read a book on relational databases, they
will probably refer to a table as a relation.
ROW - A row corresponds to a record or a portion of a record in
a file. In relational theory it is called a tuple.
COLUMN - A column is typically known as a field in other
systems. In relational theory it is called an attribute.
The above names were created to give relational databases a
consistent and accurate view of data.
EXAMPLE:
You may have a TABLE named sales which contains COLUMNs called
date, custnum, partnum and quantity. Every time you made a
sale, you would add a ROW of data to the TABLE.
COLUMNS
-----------------------------
| | | |
date custnum partnum quantity
------ ------- ------- --------
880201 8524 AD873 928 <-- ROW
880203 7687 VF8709 87 <-- ROW
----------------------------------
^
|
TABLE
WHAT IS SQL AND WHY IS IT SO IMPORTANT TO KNOW?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It was developed as
a standard method to query (extract data from) a relational
database and do other operations to maintain relational
databases. Relational databases look at files as if they were
simply tables. SQL was developed years ago at a theoretical
level but because of its inherent inefficiencies and programming
complexity, it has been very difficult to create workable programs.
It provides the most flexible approach to extracting data from a
database. It allows us to extract data in seconds that would
take a knowledgeable programmer hours, days or weeks to extract,
even if the programmer had the most advanced non-SQL languages
available. For a sampling of the types of queries that SQL can
handle, refer to Appendix A.
INTRO-1
Most database management systems on PCs, minicomputers, and
mainframes have an SQL interface. So far, there is no "better"
language waiting to replace SQL so once you learn SQL, it
should serve you for many years.
INTRO-2
HOW DOES THIS IMPLEMENTATION DIFFER FROM THE OTHERS?
The following is a table from the January, 1988 issue of BYTE.
I have added SSQL to the end of the table for comparison:
SQL Command Informix Ingres Oracle SQLBase XDB XQL SSQL
2.0 5.0 5.1 3.2.2 II 1.0 2.1
($795) ($950) ($1295) ($995) ($395) ($795) ($30)
DML (Data Manipulation Language)
SELECT Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
COLUMNS Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
EXPRESSIONS Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
DISTINCT Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
FROM Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
WHERE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
GROUP BY Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
HAVING Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
ORDER BY Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
SUBQUERIES Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
UPDATE SET Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
WHERE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
SUBQUERIES Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
INSERT INTO Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1
SUBQUERY Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
DELETE FROM Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
SUBQUERIES Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
UNION Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
CORRELATED -
SUBQUERIES Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
DML Predicates
BETWEEN Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
LIKE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
IS NULL Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
EXISTS Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
ALL Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
ANY Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
SOME No No No No No No No
[NOT] Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
DML Functions
AVG Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
COUNT(*) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
COUNT Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
MAX Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
MIN Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
SUM Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
DDL (Data Definition Language)
ALTER TABLE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 2
CREATE TABLE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
NOT NULL Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes
CREATE INDEX Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
CREATE UNIQUE
INDEX Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
CREATE VIEW Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
DROP TABLE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
DROP INDEX Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No
1. Similar to the standard except that you cannot use a
calculation to update a set of rows.
2. Although the syntax is different, You can delete columns in a
table, change the names of the columns, change the size and data
type of a column, etc.
INTRO-3
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF SSQL
My emphasis has been on the Data Manipulation Language since
that is the most difficult to master and it is the most useful
to the end-user. Since the current version of SSQL cannot
create indexes, joining large tables tends to be slow in
comparison. When joining tables, SSQL on a PC with a RAM disk
can evaluate about 750-800 rows/minute. On a PC AT with a hard
disk it is about 3200 rows/minute. However, my next major
project will be to incorporate the use of index files which
should increase the speed dramatically.
I don't think SSQL can be touched on a price/performance basis
though. I use Oracle 5.1 - the stack of documentation is over
a foot high and it requires a PC AT with one megabyte of
extended memory. It is an excellent package but not everybody
needs the power of a $1,295 product.
SSQL documentation is oriented toward the end-user, not the
programmer. There are nearly 400 pages!!!! It contains many
detailed explanations and examples.
DIFFERENCES IN THE REGISTERED VERSION
PROGRAM
There is NO difference in the programs except that registered
users are assured of getting the most current version.
DISK-BASED DOCUMENTATION (UNREGISTERED USERS)
In order to fit everything on a single disk, there is only
enough documentation on some commands to explain the basics.
However, it does show all the ANSI SQL commands so you can see
for yourself that the commands actually work. You do not get
documentation on most of the utilities that make working in
this environment a bit easier and allow you, for example, to
output any query to a dBase file which gives you the ability to
customize reports.
FULL DOCUMENTATION (REGISTERED USERS)
Actually, it is much more than just documentation. It is a
book with nearly 400 pages. It was produced with a desk-top
publishing package, printed on a laser printer, and bound.
The name of the book is APPLYING SQL. Besides explaining all
the details of syntax, it shows the common constructs used in
SQL to make creating your own queries much easier. Much of
each chapter is centered around translating English into SQL
and how to note peculiarities and ambiguities in English that
can cause problems in writing queries.
Support is offered by mail or through CompuServe (73177,2771).
INTRO-4
One of the most complex (and useful) topics in SQL is the
correlated subquery. Most authors give you a page or two on
the topic. That is not nearly enough for you to be able to use
it on your own. My chapter on correlated subqueries is over 40
pages. One good gauge on the quality of a book on SQL is how
well it explains the correlated subquery and how well it
conveys the importance of the topic. It is an essential part
of SQL that opens up various categories of queries that cannot
be accomplished any other way.
The last chapter on queries is CONVERTING ENGLISH TO SQL. It
gives you over 50 pages on approaches to converting English to
SQL and dozens of examples. It explains how to break down a
sentence in English that simplifies its conversion. Many of
the common words used in queries are analyzed. As is often the
case with English, the same word in different contexts can
significantly change the meaning of the sentence and its
conversion to SQL. Much of the chapter explains how to convert
sentences with negation which can be VERY tricky. For
example, let's anylze the following query:
List the purchase dates when all of the following products were
purchased: MW, NM, GC.
The query, although a bit complex when solving it SQL, is
nonetheless rather straightforward. When we negate the query
it gets even more confusing (and realistic!!):
List the purchase dates when all of the following products were
NOT purchased: MW, NM, GC.
(if all the products were purchased, skip the date)
List the purchase dates when NONE of the following products were
purchased: MW, NM, GC.
(if any of the products were purchased, skip the date)
List the purchase dates when something other than the following
products were purchased: MW, NM, GC.
Once you see the solutions to these queries you will better
understand why SQL is "structured" and it should give you a
more critical understanding of English queries.
The full chapters on the joins, and subqueries have many more
examples and detailed explanations.
The power of SQL can be TOTALLY lost if the user does not
understand the basics of data normalization. Normalization
involves the rules for creating tables. If the tables are not
organized correctly, SQL cannot be used to its full potential.
It is important to note that the topic is discussed with the
non-technical end-user in mind. Since there have not been any
widely available SQL program, all the books on normalization
tend to be very theoretical and academically oriented.
INTRO-5
You also get full information on utilities to delete columns from
tables, modify column names, change the width of columns, create
tables which are subsets of a current table, etc.
INSTALL SSQL
There is no installation per se. Normally you just want to
copy the contents of the distribution disk into a subdirectory
on your hard disk. If you have a floppy disk system put the
SSQL disk in drive A and a blank formatted disk in drive B.
With the DOS prompt on drive A type:
COPY SSQL.EXE B:
COPY ERROR.DAT B:
COPY *.DBF B:
COPY *.SQD B:
The only things you have to remember is that SSQL.EXE and
ERROR.DAT have to be in the same directory and the database
files must be in your default directory.
Here is some more information about the files on the
distribution disk..
SSQL.EXE - The executable program.
ERROR.DAT - contains the error messages
The other files (tables, views, etc.) must be in your current
directory. In essence, your directory corresponds to your
complete database.
MEANING OF FILE EXTENSIONS
DBF - The dbase files. On the distribution disk, you have
BRANCH.DBF, SALES.DBF, PROD.DBF, MANU.DBF, EMP.DBF and
CUST.DBF.
SQD - Definition files. There is one for every DBF file.
VIE - The view files. These are text files that contain SELECT
statements which form the views.
TXT - Table output to disk. These files are created when you
use the REDIRECTTO option in the SELECT command to save your
report in a disk file instead of sending it to the printer.
EDIT.FIL - This contains the command to start your word
processor or text editor from within SSQL. See the section on
USING YOUR OWN WORD PROCESSOR for more details on this.
You can put SSQL.EXE and ERROR.DAT in a single directory and
set a path to it. You can then have various other directories
for the tables.
PERMISSION TO COPY
Please copy this disk and give it to a friend (or anybody else).
However, the following restrictions apply:
1. No changes can be made to the distribution disk, including the
documentation.
2. You cannot copy or reproduce the printed manual.
INTRO-6
Any commercial, educational, governmental and other such
organizations are required to purchase a copy of SSQL for every
building it is used in.
Quantity discounts available.
CHANGES FROM 1.4 TO 2.2
Bug fixes too numerous to mention.
dBase compatible files
Row width increased from 132 to 500 characters
Create table, create view, insert, update and delete are ANSI
standard
Add count(*)
Addition of drop table, drop view, and correlated subqueries
Ability to use calculations in the select list, in the where
clause, and update
The UNION command
table size increased from 20K to amount of memory.
The non-standard 'into' is changed to 'redirectto' to eliminate
the conflict with the ANSI 'into'
Complete revision of documentation for registered users.
SYNTAX DIAGRAMS
Many chapters begin with a syntax diagram that concisely
describes a command and its options. It takes some practice to
read them but there are only four basic components:
lowercase_letters - they describe something that you must supply.
The rules for correctly writing this part of the command follow
in the documentation. It may represent a single word, such as
the syntax for table_name or a rather complicated series of words
that is needed for a column_definition.
[ ] - items between square brackets are optional.
... - three dots mean previous item may be repeated.
UPPER CASE LETTERS and all other symbols such as '(', ')', ';',
'.', and ',' - these must be typed as shown. Although when
typing the command, you can use lower case instead of upper case
letters. For example, refer to the syntax diagram for creating
tables.
Since CREATE TABLE is in uppercase, it must
always be typed as shown. The items in lowercase such as
table_name, column_definition, and uniqueness_constraint must be
replaced by information you supply. The rules for forming the
phrases required by the words in lowercase will be contained in
the chapter. The item called column_definition is repeated. The
first occurance is outside of the square brackets which means
that it is required. The second occurance of column_definition
INTRO-7
is within square brackets which means that it is optional. There
is a comma after the left square bracket which means that if you
add another column_definition, there must be a comma before it.
There are three dots after the second occurance of
column_definition which means that column_definitions can be more
than two column_definitions. Other symbols, such as '(', ')' and
';' must be included at the positions shown in the example. In
SQL, spacing and lines make no difference. You can create a
table with all the components on a single line or put each word
on a separate line.
SSQL SPECIFICATIONS
Requires only one floppy diskette
Program only takes up about 122K
Minimum Memory 256K
Maximum number of columns 128
Maximum length of a row 500 bytes (characters)
Maximum number of rows
It is limited by memory. With a 640K PC, the OUTPUT size of the
table cannot exceed about 400K. The tables on the disk can be
larger, you just could not display all the rows and columns at
once. Also, you could join multiple large tables as long as the
resultant table was not over 400K. This means that a table with
rows 100 characters wide could contain about 4,000 rows.
Maximum levels of subqueries 14
Maximum number of tables you can join 14
CONTENTS OF DISK
READ.ME - Basic information
SSQL.EXE - The executable file
ERROR.DAT - Contains error messages
EDIT.FIL - The text file with the location of your word processor
BRANCH.DBF, PROD.DBF, EMP.DBF, MANU.DBF, SALES.DBF, CUST.DBF,
BRANCH.SQD, PROD.SQD, EMP.SQD, MANU.SQD, SALES.SQD, CUST.SQD,
- The tables used in the documentation
SSQL.DOC - Documentation
ORDER.FRM - Order form. type: COPY ORDER.FRM PRN
for a printout
PRINTDOC.BAT - The batch file to print the documentation
CONVERT.EXE - Converts the older .SQL files to .DBF and .SQD
RUN - ALTHOUGH THIS IS NOT ON THE DISK IT WILL BE AFTER
THE FIRST TIME YOU RUN SSQL. IT CONTAINS YOUR
LAST COMMAND
INTRO-8
DBASE COMPATIBILITY
SSQL creates dBase III compatible files and it can read any
dBase file with the following exceptions:
No memo data type
No field length over 132
A significant difference between SQL and dBase is the ability
of SQL to store a null (see SELECT-13 for more information).
Even dBase IV cannot store a null. The way I have done it is
that character columns are filled with blanks, and numeric
columns contain -0 (negative zero). You will never see a -0
when using SSQL, the column value will be blank. This
information might be useful if you manipulate files created by
SSQL in dBase.
You will notice that every .DBF file created by SSQL has a
corresponding .SQD file. This stores information specific to
file creation - Not Null and Unique (see CREATE-2 for more
information). If you access a dBase file not created through
SSQL, the .DBF file is created with Not Null set for every
column and no uniqueness constraints.
If you change the number of fields in a dBase file after it has
been accessed by SSQL, you should delete the corresponding .SQD
file. Otherwise, the Not Null and Uniqueness constraints will
not be correct.
INTRO-9
THE EXAMPLE DATABASES
There are two sets of simplified databases. The manufacturing
database is primarily used for examples throughout the
documentation. The law firm data is primarily used for the
questions at the end of the chapters.
MONOLITH MANUFACTURING
Monolith Manufacturing manufactures and markets high tech
products in the western states. There are manufacturing
facilities in various states. Products are manufactured in
batches at each facility. When the batch is finished an entry is
made in the table with the date the batch was finished, the
product code, the state where the product was manufactured, the
quantity of saleable items and the percent of defects in the
batch if that is tracked. Related to the manufacturing table is
the product table which simply has the description that
corresponds to each product code.
The sales portion of the business has as its core the sales
table. When a sale is made, an entry is made which contains the
date of sale, branch code, customer code, salesperson number,
product code and quantity purchased. Related to the sales table
are the branch table, the employee table and the customer table.
The branch table contains the branch code, the state the branch
is in and the employee number of the manager. The employee table
contains the employee number, the name of the employee, and the
employee's manager number if the employee has a manager (the
president does not have a manager). All manager numbers have an
entry in the employee number column since all managers are also
employees. The customer table contains the customer code, the
customer name and the state where the customer resides.
The following contains details on the Monolith's six tables. The
data types correspond to the types used in the create table
command. When a column in one table corresponds to a column
(especially a primary key) in another table, it is in the form of
TABLE.column. This information will be useful when we need to
retrieve information that spans tables. In chapter 22, we will
refer to these columns as having common domains.
SALES TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
date date Date of sale
bc char(2) Branch code BRANCH.code
cc char(2) Customer code CUST.code
sn numeric(2) Salesperson number EMP.code,
EMP.mgrnum, BRANCH.mgrnum
pc char(2) product code PROD.code, MANU.code
qty numeric(3) quantity
Key is date, bc, cc, sn, pc
DATABASE-1
BRANCH TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
code char(2) branch code SALES.bc
st char(2) state code CUST.st, MANU.mst
mgrnum numeric(2) manager number EMP.enum,
EMP.mgrnum, SALES.sn
KEY is code
EMP TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
enum numeric(2) employee number EMP.mgrnum, BRANCH.mgrnum,
SALES.sn
name char(20) employee name
mgrnum numeric(2) manager number EMP.enum,
BRANCH.mgrnum, SALES.sn
KEY is enum
PROD TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
code char(2) product code MANU.code, SALES.pc
descrip char(15) product description
KEY is code
MANU TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
date date date of manufacture
code char(2) product code PROD.code
mst char(2) state where product BRANCH.st, PROD.st
is manufactured
defects numeric(3) percent defects in batch
qty numeric(3) quantity manufactured
KEY is date, code, ms
CUST TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
code char(2) Unique customer code SALES.cc
name char(15)
st char(2) State MANU.mst, PROD.st
rating numeric(2)
KEY is code
COLE'S LAW FIRM
Cole's Law offers service in a variety of specialties such as
Real Estate, Computers, Crime, and Patents. All attorneys work
in only one of the specialties. Each attorney is assigned a
category as follows:
1 - Partner
2 - Associate
3 - Clerk
DATABASE-2
All associates and clerks have supervising attorneys.Clients are
also put in categories but they are defined very differently. It
is related to yearly billings:
1 - over $1,000,000 yr
2 - $500,000 - $999,999
3 - $100,000 - $499,999
4 - less than $100,000
Since attorneys get bonus points for bringing clients to the
firm, we also track the originating attorney.
Cases are based on a unique case number. A client could be
associated with many cases. There is a primary attorney in each
case. The main topic of the case will always relate to the
specialty of the primary attorney. Not all attorneys on the case
will have the same specialty however.
Work on the cases is organized by date, case number and attorney
number. The hours worked are for a single day.
SPCLTY TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
code char(2) unique specialty ATTORNEY.spec
descrip char(15) specialty
KEY is code
ATTORNEY TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
num char(2) unique number
name char(15)
city char(10)
st char(2)
supatt char(2) Supervising attorney ATTORNEY.num,
CLIENT.origatt,
CASE.primatt,
CASEWORK.attnum
spec char(2) Specialty of att. SPCLTY.code
cat numeric(1) Category
yrs numeric(2) Years of service
salary numeric(8)
KEY is num
CLIENT TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
num char(2) CASE.clnum
name char(20)
city char(10)
st char(2) State
cat numeric(1) Category
origatt char(2) Originating attorney ATTORNEY.num,
ATTORNEY.supatt,
CASE.primatt,
CASEWORK.attnum
KEY is num
DATABASE-3
CASE TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
num char(2) Case number
city char(10)
st char(2) State
clnum char(2) Client number CLIENT.num
primatt char(2) Primary attorney num. ATTORNEY.num,
ATTORNEY.supatt,
CLIENT.origatt,
CASEWORK.attnum
KEY is num
CASEWORK TABLE
column data Common columns in
name type description other tables
date date Date worked
casenum char(2) Case number CASE.num
attnum char(2) Attorney number ATTORNEY.num,
CLIENT.origatt,
CASE.primatt,
ATTORNEY.supatt
hours numeric(5,2) Hours worked on date
KEY is date, casenum, attnum
DATABASE-4
USING YOUR WORD PROCESSOR
You can modify any SSQL command by calling your text editor or
word processor from within SSQL. You must first specify which
text editor or word processor you are using in a file called
EDIT.FIL. The file must contain the path and name of the text
editor or word processor. YOU CANNOT CALL A BATCH FILE. The
distribution disk contains an EDIT.FIL with the following:
C:\PCWRITE\ED
The command to start PC-Write is ED and it resides on drive C: in
the PCWRITE directory. You can replace the above line with the
path and program name of your own. The EDIT.FIL must reside on
your default directory. The syntax is:
EDIT [file_name];
The file_name is any valid name which will be accepted by your
word processor on the command line. For example, if you want to
edit MGRORG, you would type:
edit mgrorg;
As is true with all commands except calling a script file, you
must end this one with a ';'. When you exit your word
processor/text editor, you will return to SSQL. Refer to the
next section to find out how to process the file you just
created.
There is a special case when you want to edit the last SSQL
command that you typed. Every command you type except edit and
exit is stored in a file called RUN. To edit the last command
entered type:
edit run;
If your word processor does not allow you to type the file name
that you want to edit after the word processor command in
EDIT.FIL simply type:
edit;
WORD-1
CALL SCRIPT FILE
A script file is a text file which contains an SSQL command. The
script file can then be called from SSQL and the command it
contains will be processed.
SYNTAX:
@file_name
The file_name can be any valid DOS file name.
The file must be text only, no special word processing formats
allowed. PC-Write or Qedit are excellent choices because they
always produce standard text. If you use WordPerfect, save the
file using Text Out (Ctrl-F5). If you use Wordstar, I feel sorry
for you but anyway, use the non-document format.
COMMENTS IN THE SCRIPT FILE
You can precede a comment by two dashes and from that point to
the end of the line will not be processed by SSQL. The comment
can be at any place in the line, not necessarily at the beginning
as the following example shows.
You can create a file called MGRORG which contains:
--This query finds the names of managers who have
-- salespeople who have sold products to Organomice
select name --Get names
from emp
where enum in
(select mgrn --of managers
from emp
where enum in
(select sn -- who have salespeople
from sales,cust -- who have sold products to
where cc = code -- Organomice
and name = 'Organomice'));
From SSQL, you would simply type:
@MGRORG
The file you created would be displayed on the screen and then
the result would appear.
The script file can contain multiple commands.
SCRIPT-1
QUERIES - SINGLE TABLE
OVERVIEW
The select command is used to retrieve data from tables. The
select command is covered in three later chapters too. Although
the use of select on a single table is relatively easy,
translating from English to SQL (or most other query languages)
can be rather tricky. The approach of this chapter is not merely
to explain the syntax of the command, it should give you a more
critical approach to applying SQL.
SYNTAX:
SELECT [DISTINCT] column_name [,column_name ...]
FROM table_name [,table_name ...]
[WHERE search_expression]
[REDIRECTTO file_name] <--Non-Standard
[GROUP BY column_name [,column_name ...]
[HAVING criteria]]
[ORDER BY column_name [,column_name ...]
If you want all the columns in a table you can replace the list
of column names with an asterisk (*).
The select command produces a report in the form of a table.
Although the basic use of the select takes a short time to learn,
the more advanced uses take a long time to master.
The tables used in this chapter are on the distribution disk so
you can try entering the commands yourself.
All the examples have each clause starting on a new line for
purposes of clarity. It is not necessary to have them on separate
lines. It is sometimes advantageous to keep the query on one line
because if you need to make a correction, you cannot backup a
line. However, to make correcting command much easier, you can
call your word processor from within SSQL. This is described in
the full documentation.
THE BASICS OF SELECT
Find all the data in the manu table.
select *
from manu;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/01/87 GC ID 0 55
02/02/87 NM CA 17 93
02/02/87 DD ID 25
02/03/87 DD WA 22 46
02/02/87 NM WA 15 25
02/04/87 DD AZ 12 25
02/04/87 DD CA 15 25
02/06/87 GC AZ 4 43
9 rows selected
SELECT-1
Instead of typing all the column names, you can use the * to
denote all column names. On the next line, the "from manu" tells
us that we want the data to come from the table named "manu". All
select commands must end with a semi-colon (;). If we just wanted
the product code and the state that it was manufactured in you
would type:
select code, mst
from manu;
code mst
---- ---
GC ID
GC ID
NM CA
DD ID
DD WA
NM WA
DD AZ
DD CA
GC AZ
9 rows selected
DISTINCT
The optional statement "distinct" will eliminate all rows with
duplicate columns that you have specified. If you wanted to find
out all the different states where products are manufactured, you
would type:
select distinct mst
from manu;
mst
---
ID
CA
WA
AZ
4 rows selected
As you can see only 4 rows were found. This is because there can
be more than one row with the same state. Only the first
occurrence of each data element is retained.
The "distinct" modifier can be used with one or more column names
in a select statement. However, the "distinct" modifier operates
on the whole row, not just a single column. In the manu table,
the primary key is date, code, mst. What if we wanted not only
the state where the products are manufactured but the product
codes too. Notice what happens with the following:
SELECT-2
select mst, code
from manu;
mst code
--- ----
ID GC
ID GC
CA NM
ID DD
WA DD
WA NM
AZ DD
CA DD
AZ GC
9 rows selected
Some of the rows are duplicated because it is possible to
manufacture the same product in the same state but on a different
date. To get rid of the duplication of rows we can add the
"distinct" modifier.
WHERE
The where clause of the select command is the most powerful and
complex part of SQL. Our discussion will be broken down into
various phases. The first phase is using the where with a single
table name. Later you will see it used with multiple tables and
you will find that you can even put another select command within
the where clause.
search_expression
The simplest search expression relates a column name to a
constant. A constant is an exact value that you enter. All column
values are tested against the constant value. If the column name
that you are testing is defined as a character, the constant must
be enclosed in single quotes or double quotes. The constant you
are searching for may not contain a quote. If the column name you
are testing for is defined as numeric, the constant is a number
without any quotes.
You can relate the column name to the constant in the following
ways:
= equal
<> not equal
!= not equal
~= not equal
> greater than
less than
>= greater than or equal
<= less than or equal
IS NULL column value is null
IS NOT NULL column value is not null
LIKE like a pattern
NOT LIKE not like a pattern
SELECT-3
Find out which customers are in Arizona.
select *
from cust
where st = 'AZ';
code name st rating
---- --------------- -- ------
ZZ Organomice AZ 34
DD QuarkCo AZ 10
2 rows selected
Spaces are optional on either side of the "=". You could have
typed:
where st='AZ';
Instead of single quotes you could have used double quotes:
where st="AZ";
In the manu table, the column name "defects" is the percent of
defects when the product was manufactured. The statement below
shows you how to get a list of all the information for those
products with defects over 10%.
select *
from manu
where defects > 10;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/02/87 NM CA 17 93
02/03/87 DD WA 22 46
02/02/87 NM WA 15 25
02/04/87 DD AZ 12 25
02/04/87 DD CA 15 25
6 rows selected
The symbols such as <, >, =, <=, >=, and != can be used with
character data too. For example, the statement below shows how to
retrieve all customer names alphabetically greater than Machado.
SELECT-4
select name
from cust
where name > "Machado";
name
---------------
Technoharps
Organomice
QuarkCo
Marswarp
Multicrud
5 rows selected
SPECIAL SEARCH EXPRESSION - IS NULL, IS NOT NULL
Nulls are an important concept in relational databases. For
example, let's look at the percentage of defects in Idaho:
select *
from manu
where mst = 'ID';
date code mst defects qty
------ ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/01/87 GC ID 0 55
02/02/87 DD ID 25
3 rows selected
In Idaho, the batch of MW on 02/07/87 has 12% defects, GC on 02/01/87
has 0% defects but there is nothing listed for DD. This "nothing"
is called a null. It does not mean zero or blank. A null means
that the data element is unknown. In our case, product DD in
Idaho is not tracked for defects like other products. This isn't
to say that there are zero defects. It just means we have no
entry.
If we wanted to look at all products for which we do not track
defects, we would use the following:
select *
from manu
where defects is null;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/02/87 DD ID 25
1 row selected
SELECT-5
We could find all the products for which we track defects by
using is not null:
select *
from manu
where defects is not null;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/01/87 GC ID 0 55
02/02/87 NM CA 17 93
02/03/87 DD WA 22 46
02/02/87 NM WA 15 25
02/04/87 DD AZ 12 25
02/04/87 DD CA 15 25
02/06/87 GC AZ 4 43
8 rows selected
Null values can be used with both numeric columns and character
columns.
SPECIAL SEARCH EXPRESSION - LIKE, NOT LIKE
An expression with like is used when we want to retrieve data
that is similar in some way to another set of characters. The
like expression can only be used with character data. This is
explained in the full documentation.
AND, OR, NOT
We can link expressions with ands and ors. If you use an and,
both expressions have to be true in order to add the row to the
table we are producing. If you use an or, only one of the
expressions has to be true. You can use as many ands and ors as
you want in a query. The expressions are evaluated from left to
right. All the ands are done first, then evaluation starts again
from the left and the ors are processed.
If you want to reference different column names in a search, the
logic as stated in English is typically the same as it is in SQL.
Usually there is no confusion between the and and the or unless
you are dealing with the same column name.
Find all products in Washington with defects over 16%:
select distinct code
from manu
where mst = 'WA' and defects > 16;
code
----
DD
1 row selected
SELECT-6
Generally, the use of a single and or an or in a where clause is
more or less common sense unless you are referring to the same
column name. What if you wanted to find all the products
manufactured in Washington and Idaho? This has two meanings in
everyday English:
1. Out of all the products we manufacture, I want a list of the
ones we manufacture in Washington and a list of the ones we
manufacture in Idaho.
2. Out of all the products we manufacture, I want a list of each
one we manufacture in BOTH Washington and Idaho.
We will accept the first meaning in this example. It is
interesting to note that we could have also said, "List all the
products manufactured in Washington or Idaho." It seems odd that
in English "or" can have the same meaning as "and". Even if you
don't agree with my interpretation, beware that others do and
that it may cause communication problems.
In the English version you use the "and" so there is a tendency
to always use the "and" in the SQL version too. This would be
wrong. The English perspective and the SQL perspective are
different. The English perspective often looks at the whole group
of items. The SQL perspective looks at one item at a time. To
translate Washington and Idaho into SQL we look at it from its
perspective. We will look at each item. If that item is
manufactured in Washington or Idaho, we will add it to our table.
Notice that when we look at it from the SQL perspective, we use
the "or" instead of the "and". This not just a quirk of SQL
logic, it is common to virtually all data bases. The statement
below shows how to find out all the products manufactured in
Washington and Idaho:
select distinct code
from manu
where mst='WA' or mst='ID';
code
----
GC
DD
NM
3 rows selected
It is interesting to note what the meaning would be if we used an
and instead of an or. Would it tell us every product manufactured
in BOTH Washington and Idaho? No, it wouldn't as you can see in
the following:
select distinct code
from manu
where mst='WA' and mst='ID';
no rows found
SELECT-7
Actually, it makes no sense. How could a state for an individual
item be both WA and ID?????
But how WOULD you find out every product manufactured in both
Washington and Idaho? The search strategy is rather complex and
the topic is covered under joining tables and again when we
discuss subqueries.
In order to express the opposite logic, you use the not but you
have to be careful. The statement below shows how to find the
products manufactured outside of Washington or Idaho.
select *
from manu
where not (mst='WA' or mst='ID');
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/02/87 NM CA 17 93
02/04/87 DD AZ 12 25
02/04/87 DD CA 15 25
02/06/87 GC AZ 4 43
4 rows selected
Again, we must be careful about how we express the query in
English. The query above cannot be translated as: Find the
products NOT manufactured in Washington or Idaho. The query above
retrieved some products that happen to be manufactured in Idaho
or Washington. We really did not care. The only constraint we
cared about was the state in which it was manufactured. The query
could accurately be translated in fractured English: Find the
products manufactured not in Washington or Idaho. By changing the
statement to one that requests products not manufactured in
Washington or Idaho, we change the words modified by "not" from
the states to products manufactured. To find the products not
manufactured in Washington or Idaho we must first find the set of
all products manufactured in Washington or Idaho:
select distinct code
from manu
where mst = 'WA' or mst = 'ID';
code
----
GC
DD
NM
3 rows selected
SELECT-8
Then we must find all the products in the other states that are
not in the above set of three products. We end up with the
following which finds that there are not any products
manufactured in the other states that are not manufactured in
Washington and Idaho.
select distinct code
from manu
where code != 'NM' and code != 'GC' and code != 'DD';
no rows found
Well, you may ask, what IS the select statement to find the
products not manufactured in Washington or Idaho? Not so fast.
Actually, it would require a subquery that is covered in the
section on subqueries.
If I may digress...
I know. Just a few pages into the basics of the select statement
and you are ready to give up. Remember, the logic of SQL is not
all that difficult. The main problem is that you do not think
critically about the meaning of sentences. Much has been written
about the problems of communication between humans and computers.
Most of the problems are actually caused by the end-user and the
"computer expert". I put the burden on the "computer expert" who
should know enough about English to note the subtlties and
ambiguities of what the end-user is requesting. This is just as
relevant for interpreting queries as it is building complete
application systems.
Meanwhile, back at the ranch...
Normally, if a condition is true, we add that row to the table.
By using the not, if the condition is false, we add the row to
the table. On the first row of the select statement to find
products manufactured outside Idaho and Washington, the state is
CA. It was selected because it is not equal to WA or ID. Just as
we can express the same thought in English more than one way, we
can do the same with SQL. We could have written:
select *
from manu
where mst != 'WA' and mst != 'ID';
OR
select *
from manu
where not (mst = 'WA') and not (mst = 'ID');
SELECT-9
What if we would have written or instead of and in the two
examples above? Every row would have been selected. No matter
what the state is, it would either be not equal to WA or not
equal to ID!
Remember that whenever you use the not, you must enclose the
expression in parentheses.
You can have as many ands and ors in a query as you need. What if
you wanted all products in Washington and Idaho with defects less
than 16%?
select *
from manu
where (mst='WA' or mst='ID') and defects < 16;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/01/87 GC ID 0 55
02/02/87 NM WA 15 25
3 rows selected
We find that only two products are selected. Notice that
parentheses enclose the or expression. This is because without
the parentheses the and expression would have been executed
first. Remember that without parentheses the ands are processed
first and the ors are processed next. Not inserting the
parentheses would have changed the meaning considerably:
select *
from manu
where mst='WA' or mst='ID' and defects < 16;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/01/87 GC ID 0 55
02/03/87 DD WA 22 46
02/02/87 NM WA 15 25
4 rows selected
The above query is the equivalent of saying, "List all products
in Washington and list all products in Idaho with defects under
16%." Another way of stating it is "In looking through all the
products, if a product is manufactured in Washington or an Idaho
product has under 16% defects, add it to the list." The important
concept is that the 16% defects relates to the products
manufactured in Idaho, not all products.
SELECT-10
SETS (used with constants)
Instead of relating items one at a time, we can relate groups of
items at once. These groups are called sets. They are enclosed
parentheses and the constants are separated by commas.
You saw above how you can use =, !=, <, >, <=, and >=. We can
expand that concept to include any and all. This chapter has a
brief introduction to sets. Sets are the main topic of the
chapters on subqueries where instead of using constants in sets,
we use select statements.
ANY
As you will see, the use of the any with constants is simply a
short-hand method of writing a series of comparisons with ors.
The any may be combined with any of the comparison operators:
=any equal to any
>any greater than any
<any less than any
!=any not equal to any
>=any greater than or equal to any
<=any less than or equal to any
Although there are many possible combinations with any, very few
are of any use. With constants, the only one that is typically
used is =any.
Let's rewrite the query concerning all products manufactured in
Washington or Idaho:
select distinct code
from manu
where mst =any ('WA','ID');
code
----
GC
DD
NM
3 rows selected
Translated into English it would be: Select the description from
the manufacturing table where the state of manufacture is equal
to any of the following - WA or ID.
We can use numbers too. What if you wanted to know the basic
information on products that have a percentage of defects of 12%
or 15%?
SELECT-11
select date, code, mst
from manu
where defects =any (12,15);
date code mst
-------- ---- ---
02/07/87 GC ID
02/02/87 NM WA
02/04/87 DD AZ
02/04/87 DD CA
4 rows selected
IN
An equivalent to =any is in. The above query could be translated:
select date, code, mst
from manu
where defects in (12,15);
The above two queries could be translated into a query without a
set:
select date, code, mst
from manu
where defects = 12 or defects = 15;
ALL
The all can be combined with all the comparison operators just as
was seen with the any. The only common use with constants occurs
with the !=all which allows us to exclude a set of data. In the
following statement we show information on products manufactured
outside of Washington and Idaho.
select date, code, mst
from manu
where mst !=all('WA','ID');
date code mst
-------- ---- ---
02/02/87 NM CA
02/04/87 DD AZ
02/04/87 DD CA
02/06/87 GC AZ
4 rows selected
Although we translated =any as "equal to any item in the set",
!=all is usually translated as "not equal to any item in the
set". Another way to state the above query is to find products
manufactured in a state that is not any of the following -
Washington and Idaho. Confusing, isn't it?? Just remember that
SELECT-12
!=all is the opposite of =any. This ambiguity in English is
related to a riddle I heard Theo ask on the Cosby show: "What
two coins add up to 30 cents and one of them is not a quarter?"
The answer, of course, is a nickel and a quarter. The nickel is
not a quarter which satisfies the rule. Theo was applying a
!=any to the set when a typical listener would think that !=all
was actually meant.
BETWEEN constant AND constant
An easy way to select a range of values is use the between/and
component of the where clause. The following shows how to find
the basic information for products with defects between 12% and
16%:
select date, code, mst, defects
from manu
where defects between 12 and 16;
date code mst defects
-------- ---- --- -------
02/07/87 GC ID 12
02/02/87 NM WA 15
02/04/87 DD AZ 12
02/04/87 DD CA 15
4 rows selected
Notice that when we use the between, we include the 12 and the
16. Unfortunately, the word "between" can have more than one
meaning in standard English. If you say "The treasure is located
between San Francisco and Walnut Creek", you would assume that
the treasure is not IN San Francisco or Walnut Creek. That is,
you would not include the end points - San Francisco or Walnut
Creek. If you say "This insurance plan is available for those
people between the ages of 18 and 65", you would assume that if
you are 18 or 65, you are eligible. That is, you would include
the end points. In English, when the word between is used with
numbers, the end points are included. In other cases, the end
points are not included. Silly, isn't it!! Just remember that in
SQL, between includes the end points.
IMPORTANCE OF THE NULL (UNKNOWN VALUE)
Now that you understand the basics of how the where clause works,
we need to complicate it a bit with considering the unknown value
(the null). If the where clause evaluates to TRUE, then the row
is displayed, otherwise, it is not displayed. In most non-SQL
databases, the where clause only evaluates to TRUE and FALSE. In
SQL we have TRUE, FALSE, and UNKNOWN. We can use truth tables to
show the relationship.
SELECT-13
AND |TRUE FALSE UNK OR |TRUE FALSE UNK
---------------------- -----------------------
TRUE |TRUE FALSE UNK TRUE |TRUE TRUE TRUE
FALSE|FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE|TRUE FALSE UNK
UNK |UNK FALSE UNK UNK |TRUE UNK UNK
NOT
------------
TRUE |FALSE
FALSE |TRUE
UNK |UNK
This can cause some confusing results until you are used to it.
For example, there are nine rows in the manu table. However, the
two queries below result in a total of only eight rows.
select *
from manu
where defects = 15;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/02/87 NM WA 15 25
02/04/87 DD CA 15 25
2 rows selected
select *
from manu
where defects != 15;
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/01/87 GC ID 0 55
02/02/87 NM CA 17 93
02/03/87 DD WA 22 46
02/04/87 DD AZ 12 25
02/06/87 GC AZ 4 43
6 rows selected
At first glance you would think that defects are either equal to
fifteen or not equal to fifteen. However there is one instance
where defects has an unknown value so it is not displayed.
Intuitively you may be saying to yourself that since an unknown
value is not equal to fifteen, it should be displayed, but that
is not the way it works. If you look at both the AND truth table
and OR truth table, there is no difference between the false and
the unknown since a result of FALSE or UNKNOWN will prevent a row
from being displayed. However, in the truth table for NOT, there
is a difference. The opposite of unknown is still unknown.
SELECT-14
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS - AVG, MIN, MAX, SUM, COUNT
All the aggregate functions operate on numeric columns except
count which will operate on any columns.
SYNTAX:
AVG([DISTINCT] column_name)
MIN(column_name)
MAX(column_name)
SUM([DISTINCT]column_name)
COUNT([DISTINCT]column_name)
SUMMARY
AVG - without DISTINCT: The average of all values in a column
AVG - with DISTINCT: The average of non-duplicate values
MIN - The minimum value in the column
MAX - The maximum value in the column
SUM - without DISTINCT: The sum of all values in the column
SUM - with DISTINCT: The sum of non-duplicate values
COUNT - without DISTINCT: the number of column values
COUNT - with DISTINCT: the number of non-duplicate column values
Notice that some of the functions have the distinct option. This
will exclude all rows in the table which have duplicate column
values. The follwing two examples show the difference.
select count(mst)
from manu;
CNT(mst)
--------
9
9 rows selected
The above query can be translated as:
How many rows have values in the mst column? There are a total of
9. This is not very useful because every row is going to have an
entry for mst. The answer will always be the total number of rows
in the table since the mst column was created with the "not null"
constraint.
The following query is typically more useful. It answers the
question: "How many different states manufacture products?"
select count(distinct mst)
from manu;
CNT(mst)
--------
4
9 rows selected
SELECT-15
Typically, when you are using a column name with count, you will
modify it with distinct. When querying a table with a multiple
part key, all columns will have the possibility of having
duplicate entries. This is the case with the manu table with a
key of date, code, mst. With such tables, you will modify the
column name with distinct. When you query a table that has a key
based on a single column, the only column you can be assured of
not having duplicates is the key column. If you want to count all
the rows in the table, there is a short-cut:
select count(*)
from manu;
CNT(*)
------
9
9 rows selected
At this point, you may ask what use the column name is without
the distinct modifier? It is that wonderful concept of the null
that has been touched on before and will be discussed in more
detail about the other functions. The count function will not
count rows that have a null value in the column you are counting.
Actually, all the functions skip rows with nulls. In the employee
table, not everyone has a corresponding manager number. The entry
for employees without a manager is a null (actually only the
president doesn't have a manager in this table). The following
tells us how many employees have managers.
select count(mgrnum)
from emp;
CNT(mgrnum)
-----------
14
15 rows selected
This can be contrasted with the following query. Notice how
simply adding the word "distinct" completely changes the meaning
of the query to finding how many managers there are in the
company.
select count(distinct mgrnum)
from emp;
CNT(mgrnum)
-----------
7
15 rows selected
SELECT-16
The functions also can be used with the where clause. The
following shows how many batches of product DD are in the table.
select count(*)
from manu
where code = 'DD';
CNT(*)
------
4
4 rows selected
Before we discuss the other functions, let's look at the
percentage of defects in Idaho:
select *
from manu
where mst = 'ID';
date code mst defects qty
-------- ---- --- ------- ---
02/07/87 GC ID 12 15
02/01/87 GC ID 0 55
02/02/87 DD ID 25
3 rows selected
In Idaho, the are three entries: 12, 0, and "nothing". This
"nothing" is called a null. Nulls are important in relational
data bases. It does not mean zero or blank. A null means that the
data element is not relevant in the row. In our case, product DD
is not tracked for defects like other products. This isn't to say
that there are zero defects. It just means we have no entry.
Because there are only two valid entries for defects in Idaho,
the functions will not take into account the null data element.
The average percentage of defects will be 12/2 = 6, not 12/3 = 4:
select avg(defects)
from manu
where mst='ID';
AVG(defects)
------------
6
3 rows selected
The sum function totals the numeric values in the column(s)
requested. Below we sum the number of product DD that has been
manufactured.
SELECT-17
select sum(qty)
from manu
where code = 'DD';
SUM(qty)
--------
121
4 rows selected
More than one function can be used in a query:
select avg(qty), sum(qty)
from manu
where code = 'DD';
AVG(qty) SUM(qty)
-------- --------
30 121
4 rows selected
Except for the group by clause, you cannot retrieve column values
and functions based on column values in the same query.
COLUMN CALCULATIONS (*, /, +, -)
Numeric columns can be used in calculations. The following
symbols are used:
* = multiplication
/ = division
+ = addition
- = subtraction
The following shows the values if the defects doubled.
select code, defects*2
from manu;
code defects
---- ------------
GC 24
GC 0
NM 34
DD
DD 44
NM 30
DD 24
DD 30
GC 8
9 rows selected
SELECT-18
In a calculation, multiplication and division are processed
first, then the addition and subtraction. The order of
processing can be changed by adding parentheses. Calculations
within parentheses are calculated first. More than one column
can be used in a calulation and even the same column can be
referenced more than once. The column name for the calculation
is taken from the first column name however you can rename the
column (as shown in the full documentation). The data type for
the calculation is based on the first column in the calculation.
Calculations can occur also in the where clause.
GROUP BY, HAVING
The group by clause is normally used with aggregate functions.
It has two operations:
1. It sorts by the column name.
2. The aggregate functions only operate based on the rows that
have the same column name. The functions in essence create
sub-totals based on the column name.
What if we wanted to know the average defects in each state:
select mst, avg(defects)
from manu
group by mst;
mst AVG(defects)
--- ------------
AZ 8
CA 16
ID 6
WA 18
4 rows selected
The column name after the group by must exist on the line with
the select. After the select you can only have column names in
the group by and aggregate functions - nothing else.
You can restrict the group by clause with the having component.
In SSQL you are allowed one simple selection that includes the =.
<, <=, >, >=, and !=. As with the group by, the column name
in the having component must exist in the select clause.
If you only wanted a list of states with defects over 10% you
would use the following:
SELECT-19
select mst, avg(defects)
from manu
group by mst having avg(defects) > 10;
mst AVG(defects)
--- ------------
CA 16
WA 18
2 rows selected
The group by clause can have up to two fields. This is when you
want a group within a group.
The group by clause can be used with the where clause. When we
found the average defects in each state we could have modified it
by excluding product DD.
The where clause and the having clause are related. However, the
where clause operates on the whole table without regard for the
grouping. The having clause operates on the data that has
already been grouped. Because of the way the having clause
works, most of the time the having clause contains an operation
with an aggregate function because that is the basic purpose of
the group by clause.
ORDER BY
The order by clause sorts the output of the table based on the
column name(s) listed. The original table is not changed. As
with the group by clause, the order by clause can be used with
the where clause. For example, the following query will produce
a list of manufacturing information sorted by defects for those
items manufactured in Idaho.
select date, code, defects
from manu
where mst = 'ID'
order by defects;
date code defects
-------- ---- -------
02/02/87 DD
02/01/87 GC 0
02/07/87 GC 12
3 rows selected
You also can produce a sort within a sort. The following query
will produce an ordered list of dates and within each date the
state will be sorted.
SELECT-20
select date, mst, code, qty
from manu
order by date, mst;
date mst code qty
-------- --- ---- ---
02/01/87 ID GC 55
02/02/87 CA NM 93
02/02/87 ID DD 25
02/02/87 WA NM 25
02/03/87 WA DD 46
02/04/87 AZ DD 25
02/04/87 CA DD 25
02/06/87 AZ GC 43
02/07/87 ID GC 15
9 rows selected
The order by clause assumes ascending order. You can reverse the
order by finding out in the full documentation
When there are two columns to sort, one can be in ascending order
while the other is in descending order.
In the current version of SSQL, you are limited to two sort
columns.
REDIRECTTO file_name
Normally the report that is produced by the select command is
displayed on the monitor. However, with the redirectto clause,
the report can be redirected to a text file or to the printer.
The text file is in standard ASCII text. That is, there are no
special characters in it. The file name you give it must not
have an extension because SSQL adds the extension ".txt".
If you wanted all the Arizona products stored in a file called
ARIZ.TXT and you wanted the report sorted by product code, you
would use the following query.
select *
from manu
where mst='AZ'
redirectto ariz
order by code;
The output would be stored in a file called ARIZ.TXT on your
default drive. To display the file on the monitor, you would
exit SSQL and the following at the DOS prompt:
type ariz.txt
SELECT-21
You also can have the report sent to the printer. Replace the
file name with prn or lpt1. Make sure the printer is on when you
use this option.
UNION
The union command allows you to combine output from two or
three different select statements. The two select statements
must have exactly the same output format - the same number of
columns and each column in the corresponding tables must be of
the same data type. For the following example, I assume that
there are two tables with the same structure as SALES called
SALESCA and SALESAZ however it is not necessary that the tables
have the same structure, just the output columns. The
following statement will get the customer code and quantity
from SALESCA for those customers who have purchased over 50 of
a particular item. The output will also contain all the
customers and corresponding quanitities from the SALESAZ table.
The output is sorted by customer code.
select cc,qty
from salesca
where qty > 50
union
select cc,qty
from salesaz
order by cc;
EXERCISES (ANSWERS IN THE FULL DOCUMENTATION)
IT IS IMPORTANT TO USE ONLY THE INFORMATION IN THE QUESTION TO
FORMULATE THE QUERY. For example, it is not acceptable in
question 15 to look at the data and just select attorneys that
have a category of 1.
1. List the rows in the attorney table.
2. List the rows in the attorney table but just the following
columns in the following order: name, salary, years of service
3. List the different case numbers in the casework table.
4. List the attorney names for attorneys with real estate
specialties.
5. List the attorney names for attorneys with over 15 years of
service
6. List the client names for clients not in California.
7. List the client columns for clients who do not have
originating attorneys.
8. List the cases that have primary attorneys.
9. List the clients whose names end in Inc.
10. List the client names that contain the word Discount.
11. List the casework information for August of any year.
12. List the attorney names for category 1 and category 2
attorneys.
SELECT-22
13. List category 1 attorneys where the salary is over $50,000.
14. Attorney names for all category 1 attorneys and category 2
attorneys that earn over $40,000 and have over 4 years of
service.
15. List the attorneys who do not have a category of 2 or 3.
16. Do number 15 another way.
17. Do number 16 another way.
18. List the attorneys who are category 1 or 2 and receive a
salary of over $50,000.
19. List the attorney names for attorneys who have worked 5, 6,
10, or 12 years.
20. Do number 19 another way.
21. List the attorneys who have salaries greater than or equal to
$40,000 and less than or equal to $60,000.
22. Do number 21 another way.
23. How many different originating attorneys are there?
24. What is the average years of service for category 1
attorneys?
25. Who has the most years of service?
26. List the number of entries in the casework table, by case
number.
27. How many hours has each attorney worked?
28. What is the average salary by category?
29. What is the lowest salary in each specialty? Only include
salaries greater than $30,000.
30. How would you do #29 except save it in a file called
NUM29.TXT?
31. Sort the casework table by case number, and within case
number the attorney number.
SELECT-23
JOINING TABLES
Often, the data we need exists in more than one table. In order
to extract the data, we need to select the appropriate columns
and join the tables. The type of join primarily discussed is
called a natural join but for the sake of brevity I will just use
the word "join" alone.
Whenever we join tables, there must normally be a common column.
Hear the common column contains the customer code. It is not
important that the column names are different. The important
aspect is that they describe precisely the same thing - i.e.,
they have a common domain.
In SQL, the join operation normally has three basic components:
SELECT column names - for duplicate names, precede the column
name with the table name and a period as in prod.code
FROM table names separated by commas
WHERE common columns are set to be equal
The following shows how to combine the sales information from
the sales table and the customer name from cust:
select name, pc, qty
from sales, cust
where cc=code;
name pc qty
--------------- -- ---
Organomice MW 23
Organomice DD 34
QuarkCo AB 2
Marswarp MW 81
Technoharps NM 3
Technoharps MW 41
Technoharps GC 33
Compugorp MW 125
Compugorp MW 947
Compugorp DD 452
Compugorp NM 32
name pc qty
--------------- -- ---
QuarkCo GC 845
Organomice NM 45
Organomice MW 73
Compugorp GC 50
Compugorp DD 32
Compugorp GC 77
17 rows selected
MUCH MORE IN THE FULL DOCUMENTATION
JOIN-1
EXERCISES (ANSWERS IN THE FULL DOCUMENTATION)
Use only the information contained in the question!!!
1. List the attorney name and the specialty description (not
just the specialty code) for each attorney.
2. List the casework table except replace the attorney number
with the attorney name.
3. List the attorney name and specialty description for all
originating attorneys who have clients in California.
4. List the case numbers for all primary attorneys who are
partners.
5. List the attorney name and case numbers for all attorneys who
are partners and work with clients from California.
6. List the attorney name and the number of hours worked by each
attorney.
7. List the attorney name and the number of hours worked by each
attorney where the total number of hours is over
8. List the attorney name and his or her supervisor's name for
all those attorneys who do not work for partners.
9. List any attorney who works for a client who has a case in
Mesa, Arizona.
10. List all attorneys who work on at least one case outside
Mesa, Arizona.
11. List the client name, case number, and originating attorney
name for all clients in California. Sort the report by case
number within client name.
JOIN-2
SIMPLE SUBQUERIES
OVERVIEW
In previous chapters, any comparison operation was done with
actual values or a column name. Whenever we used the =, !=, <,
> , <=, >=, in, all, or any there was a column name on one
side and either a column name, an actual value or for the in,
all, or any, a set of actual values on the other side. The
problem is that often the values on right side of the comparison
operation are not known until the query is made. In such cases
the right side of the comparison is stated as a separate select
command that is called a subquery. The result of the subquery is
obtained first and the data is passed back to the previous query.
Many queries can be linked together in this way.
Another way of looking at it is that often, we need to break down
our problem into more than one query. Each query will have its
own select. We need subqueries when, in analyzing a problem, we
find that we need information from one query before we can
process another query. Sometimes we can either join tables or use
a subquery. Typically, subqueries retrieve information more
rapidly than joining tables.
SUBQUERIES WITH =, !=, <, >, <=, AND >=
These operators can be used with any subquery that produces a
single value. It is commonly used with subqueries that contain
an aggregate function. The following shows the customer codes and
quantity for those customers who have purchased more of product
MW in a single purchase than the total purchased by customer BB.
select cc, qty
from sales
where pc = 'MW'
and qty >
(select sum(qty)
from sales
where cc = 'BB'
and pc = 'MW');
cc qty
-- ---
EE 81
AA 125
AA 947
ZZ 73
4 rows selected
This method also can be used with any column where we know it can
only return a single value.
SUB-1
SET EXPRESSIONS - IN
In the section on simple select statements, we used any and in
with constants (actual values). The true power of the set
expressions involves its use in subqueries.
We will first compare a join with a subquery. If we wanted to get
product codes for all products purchased by customers in
California, we could join the SALES table and the customer table.
select distinct pc
from sales, cust
where cc = code
and st = 'CA';
pc
--
MW
1 row selected
Another approach would be to break it down into two queries. We
know that we need a list of product codes from the SALES table.
The SALES table has customer codes but it doesn't have
information on states. Another way to state the problem is that
we want all product codes from the SALES table where the customer
code is in the set of customers that are in California. find the
customers in California.
select distinct pc
from sales
where cc in
(select code
from cust
where st='CA');
pc
--
MW
1 row selected
THERE IS MUCH MORE IN THE FULL DOCUMENTATION
EXERCISES (ANSWERS IN THE FULL DOCUMENTATION)
Use only the information found in the questions. You will notice
that some of the questions are the same as the ones in the
chapter on joins.
1. List the case numbers that Hilda Wildabeas has worked on.
2. List the case numbers for all primary attorneys who are
partners.
SUB-2
3. List the attorney name for all attorneys who are partners and
work with clients from California. (Not just as primary
attorneys)
4. List any attorney who works for a client who has a case in
Mesa, Arizona.
5. List all attorneys who work on at least one case outside
Mesa, Arizona.
6. List all attorneys who do not work on any cases in Mesa,
Arizona.
7. List attorneys with above average years of service.
8. List the names of attorneys who are originating attorneys
9. List attorney numbers for attorneys who work on both case 01
and case 04.
10. List attorney numbers for attorneys who do not work on case
01 or 04.
11. List attorney names for originating attorneys who do not have
clients in California.
SUB-3
CORRELATED SUBQUERIES
OVERVIEW
A correlated subquery is a subquery that refers to a table
OUTSIDE the subquery. This causes correlated subqueries to be
processed differently from simple subqueries. Simple subqueries
are processed once, and the result is passed back to the main
query. The correlated subquery is processed for every row in the
main query. This allows us to process a subquery based on a
particular column value in each row of the main query. It can get
even more complex with multiple levels of subqueries. With simple
subqueries, each subquery is isolated and passes back a single
set of values to the previous level. With correlated subqueries,
each subquery can depend on more than one of the previous levels.
If we are working on the SALES table we can have a subquery that
is processed for each customer or product, not the whole table.
Another way of looking at it is that for each row in the main
query we can take a value, say customer code, and process a
subquery based on the customer. The value it produces for the
customer can be compared to another value in the same row in the
main query. We will do that in the next section when we want to
display the complete row in a SALES table for every customer
purchase where the quantity purchased is above average FOR THAT
CUSTOMER. With a simple subquery we could only compare customer
purchases with average SALES for the whole table or a SINGLE
customer. Using the correlated subquery is sometimes like being
able to compare values to a subquery with a GROUP BY.
Often, we just want to test for the existence of a row in a
subquery based on a value in the first level of the query so SQL
has the exists predicate. By using the correlated subquery we can
create some rather complex tests on sets of data.
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
Let's contrast the correlated subquery with a simple subquery
that is produced below:
select *
from sales
where qty >
(select avg(qty)
from sales);
date bc cc sn pc qty
-------- -- -- -- -- ---
04/01/87 1A AA 10 MW 947
04/08/87 1A AA 10 DD 452
04/08/87 1B DD 11 GC 845
3 rows selected
COR-1
It solves the problem for displaying the complete row in the
SALES table for every customer purchase where the quantity
purchased is above average (based on the complete SALES table).
The way a simple subquery works is that it is processed ONCE, and
the result is passed back to the main query.
Now let's change the query a little bit. Now we want to display
the complete row in a SALES table for every customer purchase
where the quantity purchased is above average FOR THAT CUSTOMER.
Without knowing much else, it should at least be obvious that we
need to process the subquery more than once since the query
states that we need an average for EACH customer to compare the
quantity to. Actually, the correlated subquery is more
inefficient than this. Usually, for EVERY row in the first table,
the subquery is processed:
select *
from sales sales1
where qty >
(select avg(qty)
from sales
where cc = sales1.cc);
date bc cc sn pc qty
-------- -- -- -- -- ---
04/12/87 1B BB 27 MW 41
04/15/87 2A BB 33 GC 33
04/01/87 1A AA 10 MW 947
04/08/87 1A AA 10 DD 452
04/08/87 1B DD 11 GC 845
04/01/87 2A ZZ 12 NM 45
04/08/87 2A ZZ 12 MW 73
7 rows selected
On the last line of the subquery we set cc = sales1.cc. This
means that for every row in the first table, it will take the
customer code (sales1.cc), and compute the average quantity for
that customer. It will then determine whether the quantity is
greater than the average quantity. We had to use the alias sales1
to distinguish one SALES table from the other. Following any
table name we can rename it to avoid confusion or ambiguity. The
alias can be any name that would be a valid table name.
COR-2
EXISTS/NOT EXISTS
The exists predicate tests for the existence of a row selected in
a subquery BASED ON DATA IN THE CURRENT QUERY (and possibly outer
queries). We do not care what data selected happens to be in the
subquery, we just want to know that it exists. The following
shows how to find the names of products in the SALES table.
select descrip
from prod
where exists
(select *
from sales
where code = pc);
descrip
---------------
Megawamp
Gigasnarf
Nanomouse
Dynamic Disk
4 rows selected
THE TRUE VALUE OF THE CORRELATED SUBQUERY CAN BE SEEN IN THE FULL
DOCUMENTATION - ABOUT 40 PAGES!!!
EXERCISES (ANSWERS IN THE FULL DOCUMENTATION)
1. List the state and the attorney with above average years of
service in that state.
2. List all attorneys who work in over 2 cases.
3. List all attorney numbers and corresponding cases for those
who have worked over 10 hours on a single case.
4. List the case numbers for all primary attorneys who are
partners.
5. List the attorney numbers for all attorneys (not just primary
attorneys) who are partners and work with clients from
California.
6. List the originating attorneys who have clients in all
states.
7. List the originating attorneys who have clients in all states
except California
COR-3
CONVERTING ENGLISH TO SQL
OVERVIEW
The previous chapters emphasized the point of view of SQL and
understanding all the parts. This chapter is more concerned with
the point of view of a person wanting to solve queries using SQL.
There are three pieces of important information - understanding
the database, understanding the query, and finally writing the
SQL statement.
***************************************************************
** THE FULL DOCUMENTATION HAS THE SQL STATEMENTS AND **
** EXPLANATIONS. THE FOLLOWING WILL GIVE YOU A GOOD **
** IDEA OF THE FLEXIBILITY OF SQL AND THE VARIETY OF **
** PROBLEMS THAT IT CAN SOLVE (IT SHOULD ALSO CONVINCE **
** YOU TO REGISTER SO YOU CAN GET THE FULL DOCUMENTATION!) **
***************************************************************
UNDERSTANDING THE DATABASE
In the chapter on the example databases, when a column was
described, any other common columns in other tables was mentioned
also. This commonality allows us to work with information that
spans tables. There are other ways to group this information
that may be useful. The first way is to group them by the common
domains. The Monolith Manufacturing database has four basic
domains (I do not count date): state, product code, employee
number, and branch code. We can group them as follows:
NAME TABLES COLUMN NAME
STATE CUST st
MANU mst
BRANCH st
PRODUCT MANU code
CODE PROD code
SALES pc
EMPLOYEE SALES sn
NUMBER EMP enum
EMP mgrnum
BRANCH mgrnum
BRANCH BRANCH code
CODE SALES bc
Whenever we join tables or use a subquery, we must use common
domains so the above information is essential.
ENG-1
GENERAL APPROACH TO SOLVING THE QUERY
(This section is only in the full documentation)
The Numbering Scheme For Queries
Each key word or words is given a number from 1 to 4. The number
is further divided into numbers to the right of a decimal as to
how the keywords are used. Each example is followed by a
letter. Query 3.2B corresponds to the second example(B) for the
second use(2) of keyword 3. Queries preceded by an 'N' means
that it is a negated version of the query. There may be more
than one way to negate it so the version is in the right-most
position as in: N3.2B.2.
1 - AND
The and is used to refer to information in columns. In its
simplest form, it is used to select which columns to display. It
is commonly used to determine which rows to display. As you will
see from the examples, there are many ways to translate and into
SQL.
1.1 Used to describe which columns to display.
1.1A List the date of manufacture, product code, and quantity.
1.2 Used when you need or:
1.2A List the rating for Organomice and Compugorp.
1.2B List the dates of purchase for products MW and NM.
1.3 Ambiguous
Solution could be an or a more complex construction. Usually the
ambiguity arises because we are referring to sets of values
instead of single values. The answer could be a union of the two
sets (or) or an intersection (subquery). Query 1.2A asks for
rating which will be a single value for each customer. In query
1.3A, we are concerned with two sets of values - products
manufactured in Washington and products manufactured in Idaho.
Just because it refers to sets of values does not necessarily
mean that it is ambiguous. Query 1.2B refers to sets but (in my
opinion) it is not ambiguous. Contrast 1.2B with 1.3B which I
think is ambiguous.
1.3A List the products manufactured in Washington and Idaho.
1.3B List the dates when products MW and NM were purchased.
1.4. Not Ambiguous
However the and translates into a more complex SQL statement.
What we are after here is often an intersection of the sets as
you can see in 1.4A and 1.4B. That is, we want values common to
all sets. An intersection can normally be achieved through a
series of subqueries.
1.4A List the products manufactured in both Washington and
Idaho.
1.4B List the dates when all of the following products were
purchased: MW, NM, and GC.
1.4C List the customers who are from Arizona and have purchased
product MW.
ENG-2
1.5 Definitely need an and in the where clause.
The and is used when we want to test two or more different
columns in a row within a single table.
1.5A List the customers who are from Arizona and have a rating
over 15.
1.6 Implied and
1.6A List the Arizona customers who have a rating over 15.
Same as 1.5A
1.6B List the Arizona customers who have purchased product MW.
Same as 1.4C
OR
2.1 Normally translates to or:
2.1A List the customer codes for customers who have purchased MW
or NM.
2.1B List the customers names for customers who have purchased
MW or NM.
2.1C List the customer names for customers who are from
California or have a rating less than 10.
2.2 Comparison operators <= and >=.
2.2A List customers who have a rating greater than or equal to
15.
3 - WHICH, WHO, WHOSE, THAT, WITH, WHERE
The above words have various meanings but I will emphasize their
use in clauses. Clauses connect parts of sentences. Sometimes
is makes a query clearer when it is converted to a form that has
a clause. The first six queries ask the same thing in different
ways.
3.1A Which customers have a rating over 10?
3.1B Who has a rating over 10?
3.1C List customers who have ratings over 10.
3.1D List customers with ratings over 10.
3.1E List every customer whose rating is over 10.
3.1F List every customer where the rating is over 10.
Queries 3.1C through 3.1D are the most straightforward because
the first part describes what is to be displayed and the second
part describes the logic to determine which rows we want. Many
of the following can be rewritten in a similar manner but I will
usually present only one approach.
3.2 Link tables
3.2A List the customer's states for customers who have purchased
products that are manufactured in Idaho.
3.2B Get branch codes for branches that sell products that are
sold by branches that sell product DD. This is a rather
convoluted one but shows the power of recognizing clauses.
Logically we want to find all the branches that sell product DD.
ENG-3
Then we want to take those branches and find all the products
they sell. With that set of products, we want to find all the
branches that sell those products. Notice how in 3.2B each
subquery corresponds to each clause. Be careful doing the
conversion. Sometimes the "that" does not have to be included.
Get branch codes for branches that sell products sold by branches
that sell product DD. In the previous sentence the "that" is
missing between "products" and "sold".
3.2C List the names of employees who have sold products to
Compugorp.
3.2D. Get customer names and product names for customers who have
purchased items that are manufactured outside their own state.
3.2E Get branch code, customer names and product names for those
who purchase products that are manufactured in their own state
from a branch in their own state.
3.2F Get branch numbers for branches that sell to both AA and
BB.
3.2G Who are the managers?
3.2H What are the names of managers who actually sold something?
3.2I What are the names of managers whose salespeople have sold
products to Organomice?
3.2J What are the names of managers whose salespeople have sold
products ONLY to Organomice? We have to add something to exclude
salespeople who sold to a customer other than Organomice.
3.2K List the names of Xero Xanadu's subordinates who sold
Technowidgits and what were the quantities sold?
3.2L Get branch codes for branches that sell to a Washington or
Arizona customer a product manufactured in Oregon.
3.2M Get all pairs of state values where the branch in the first
state sells to a customer in a second state.
3.4 Implied that or who
The words in parentheses in the following three queries are
optional.
3.4A Get product codes for products (that were) sold to any
customer in California.
3.4B Get product numbers and corresponding customer names for
products (that are) manufactured in the same state as a customer.
3.4C Get customer numbers for customers (who were) sold at least
one product from a branch in the same state.
4 - ANY/ALL
Translating any and all cause the same sort of problems that were
caused by and. This is because the way we use a word in English
may be different from the way we translate it to SQL.
First of all, I will skip over any queries in which the any or
all serve no purpose. Often they are added for emphasis and CAN
mean the same thing as in queries 4.1A and 4.1B. Normally, the
word any serves no purpose unless it is used in a comparison.
ENG-4
4.1 All and any not needed.
4.1A Get all product codes for all products purchased by
customers in California.
Same as 3.4A
4.1B Get any product code for any products purchased by any
customer in California.
Same as 3.4A
4.1C Get product codes for products purchased by customers in
California.
Same as 3.4A
4.2 All used as part of a FORALL quantifier
This was discussed in detail in the chapter on correlated
subqueries. It is used when we want to compare one set of values
to another set of values instead of comparing a single value to a
set of values or comparing a single value to a single value.
4.2A Get product codes for products purchased by all customers.
4.2B Get product codes for products purchased by all customers
in California.
4.2C Get product codes for products where the minimum defects is
greater than 10 and has been purchased by all customers.
4.2C Get customer names for customers who have purchased all
products.
4.2D States that manufacture all products sold by a branch in
the same state.
4.2E Branches that have sold all the products manufactured in
their own state.
4.2F Branches that have sold all the products to all the
customers.
4.3 Using any and all in comparisons
These are very deceiving. The use of any normally translates to
all in SQL or an equivalent construction. This idea is discussed
in the chapter on subqueries.
4.3A List products that have defects greater than any defect for
products manufactured in Idaho. Compare this to 4.3B.
4.3B List products that have defects greater than all defects
for products manufactured in Idaho.
Query 4.3A is normally interpreted as the same as 4.3B although
logically it means something different. If you think that they
are different in common English then I guess SQL has distorted
your thinking a bit. When a tennis player says that he is better
than ANY tennis player, we assume that he means that he is better
than ALL tennis players. The confusion is caused by the fact
that in most contexts any and all are very different as in the
following two sentences. Give me any book. Give me all the
books.
4.3C List products that have defects less than any (all) defects
for products manufactured in Idaho.
4.3D List products that have defects the same as any defects for
products manufactured in Idaho. In this case we cannot replace
the "any" with an "all" and retain the same meaning.
ENG-5
N - NEGATION
In this section I will take many of the above queries and negate
them.
N1.2a List the rating for all except Organomice and Compugorp.
N1.3A.1 List the products manufactured in neither Washington nor
Idaho.
N1.3A.2 List the products not manufactured in both Washington and
Idaho.
N1.3B.1 List the dates that products MW or NM were not
purchased.
N1.3B.2 List the dates that products other than MW or NM were
purchased.
N1.4B.1 List the dates when all of the following products were
not purchased: MW, NM, and GC.
N1.4B.2 List the dates when none of the following products were
purchased: MW, NM, and GC.
N1.4B.3 List the dates when something other than the following
products were purchased: MW, NM, and GC.
N1.4C.1 List the customers who are from Arizona and have not
purchased product MW.
N2.1B.1 List the customers names for customers who have not
purchased MW or NM.
N2.1B.2 List the customers names for customers have purchased
products other than MW and NM.
The difference between N2.1B.1 and N2.1B.2 is that the first one
would exclude any customer who has purchased MW or NM. The
second one would include the customer as long as the customer
purchased another product.
N3.2A.1 List the customer's states for those customers who have
not purchased products manufactured in Idaho.
N3.2A.2 List the customer's states for those customers who have
purchased products not manufactured in Idaho.
N3.2A.2 List the customers' states for those customers who have
purchased products manufactured outside (not in) Idaho.
The above differs from the previous query in that it will include
any product manufactured in Idaho IF it is manufactured outside
Idaho.
N3.2B.1 Get branch codes for branches that do not sell products
that are sold by branches that sell product DD.
N3.2B.2 Get branch codes for branches that sell products that
are not sold by branches that sell product DD.
N3.2B.3 Get branch codes for branches that sell products that
are sold by branches that do not sell product DD.
The negation is on selling product DD. This is different from
saying: "...branches that sell products other than DD".
N3.2C.1 List the names of employees who have not sold products
to Compugorp.
N3.2D.1 Get customer names and product names for customers who
have purchased items not manufactured outside their own state.
N3.2D.2 Get customer names for customers who have not purchased
items manufactured outside their own state.
ENG-6
N3.2D.3 Get customer names for customers who have only purchased
items in their own state.
At first glance N3.2D.3 seems the same as N3.2D.2 but N3.2D.2
would display customers who have not purchased anything. We have
to add some more to make sure that the customer actually made a
purchase.
N3.2F.1 Get branch codes for branches that do not sell to both
AA and BB.
N3.2F.1 Get branch codes for branches that sell to neither AA
nor BB.
N3.2F.1 Get branch codes for branches that do not sell to AA or
BB.
N3.2G.1 What are the names of managers who did not sell
anything?
N3.2I.1 What are the names of managers whose salespeople have
not sold products to Organomice?
N3.2I.2 What are the names of managers whose salespeople have
sold products to everyone except Organomice? This becomes a
tough one because the opposite of "only Organomice" in 3.2I is
"everyone except Organomice" and "everyone" corresponds to the
FORALL quantifier covered in the chapter on correlated
subqueries. The core of this query has to do with "salespeople
selling to ALL customers (except Organomice)".
N3.2L.1 Get branch codes for branches that sell to a Washington
or Arizona customer a product not manufactured in Oregon.
N3.2L.2 Get branch codes for branches that sell to a Washington
or Arizona customer a product manufactured outside of Oregon.
N4.2A.1 Get product codes for products not purchased by all
customers.
N4.2A.2 Get product codes for products purchased by none of the
customers.
N4.2D.1 States that do not manufacture all products sold by a
branch in the same state.
N4.2D.2 States that manufacture no products sold by a branch in
the same state.
N4.2E.1 Branches that have not sold all the products
manufactured in their own state.
N4.2E.2 Branches that have sold none of the products
manufactured in their own state.
N4.2E.3 Branches that have sold all the products not
manufactured in their own state.
N4.2E.4 Branches that have sold all the products manufactured
outside their own state.
ENG-7
CREATE TABLE
OVERVIEW
The CREATE TABLE command is used to create a table file. You can
control the contents of the columns in two ways. You can prevent
a column from being null and you can make sure that a column or
set of columns never contain duplicate values. These
restrictions allow us to maintain valid primary keys when we use
the INSERT command to add rows to a table or the UPDATE command
to modify values in a table.
SYNTAX
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column_definition [, column_definition...]
[, uniqueness_constraint]
);
EXAMPLE:
The statement below shows how to create the cust table that the
documentation uses.
create table cust (
code char(2) not null unique,
name char(15) not null,
st char(2) not null,
rating numeric(2)
);
You can define up to 27 columns in a table.
As with all SQL commands, they can be in uppercase or lowercase.
After the name of the table, parentheses enclose the column
definitions. The column definitions are put on separate lines to
aid in readability. SQL never requires anything to be put on
separate lines or have specific spacing. Note that all column
definitions except the last one has a comma after it.
The above command states that there will be four columns in the
cust table:
code can have up to two characters. It is the primary key so
nulls will not be allowed and each code will be unique.
name can have up to fifteen characters. It must contain a value.
st is the state postal code and it can have up to 2 characters.
It must contain a value.
rating is the customer rating. Since NOT NULL is not specified,
the customer rating is optional - it does not have to be entered.
CREATE-1
COMPONENTS OF CREATE TABLE
table_name
A table name can be from 1 to 10 characters. The first eight
characters must be unique. The first character must be a letter
of the alphabet. The rest can be letters or digits, _
(underscore), or #. The table files are created on the disk as in
table_name.DBF and table_name.SQD. For example, the cust
table, created above would be stored as CUST.DBF and CUST.SQD
on your disk. However, from SSQL, you would always refer to it
as CUST. Since SSQL adds the extension of DBF and SQD to all
table files, you must not use a period in your table name.
column_definition
column_name data_type [NOT NULL [UNIQUE]]
column_name
A column name can be from 1 to 10 characters. The first
character must be a letter of the alphabet. The rest can be
letters or digits. In creating column names remember that when
you display a table, the full column name is displayed too as the
heading. Long column names tend to fill the screen (or printer)
very rapidly when you want to display many columns. The column
name is displayed exactly as you type it, retaining the uppercase
and lowercase letters. The create statement above created the
column names and hence the headings in lowercase letters. We
could have written it as shown below.
create table cust (
CODE char(2) not null unique,
NAME char(15) not null,
ST char(2) not null,
RATING numeric(2)
);
With the statement above, whenever we display data from the
table, the headings would in uppercase.
data_type
The data types in SQL fall into two broad categories - numbers
and characters. Within the numbers category, there are exact
numeric types and approximate numeric types. However, all
numeric data types are converted to the dBase numeric data
type. The other types are included to maintain compatibility
with ANSI SQL. Two non-standard data have been added to
maintain compatibility with dBase - Date and Logical.
CREATE-2
Numeric
(Exact Numeric)
NUMERIC[(length [,decimal_places])]
DECIMAL[(length [,decimal_places])]
DEC[(length [,decimal_places])]
INTEGER
INT
SMALLINT
(Approximate Numeric covered in the full documentation)
When you use numeric data types the values are always
right-justified (values are pushed to the right so all the
decimal lines up). Data must be of this type in order to use any
of the numeric functions such as avg, max, min, and sum.
The first three data types in the exact numeric category -
NUMERIC, DECIMAL, and DEC, can be used interchangeably. It
sounds a little odd that a data type called DECIMAL does not
necessarily mean that the contents of the column will contain a
decimal place since the modifier decimal_places is optional.
length (optional)
The length of the column be up to 12 digits (including the
decimal place. Without this specification, the length is 1.
decimal_places (optional)
The number of places to the right of the decimal. For Example:
cost numeric(5,2)
This would allow a maximum of 99.99 to be stored in the column.
This also could be defined as:
cost decimal(5,2)
or
cost dec(5,2)
It is allowable to use whole numbers even though you define it as
having decimals. For example, you want to enter grades that are
from 0 to 100 but when you calculate grade averages, you want it
calculated to one tenth of a grade point. You would define the
column as:
grade numeric(5,1)
You would enter the grades as whole numbers but when the average
is calculated, the decimal would be included.
With NUMERIC, DECIMAL and DEC, if you omit the dec_places
modifier, the result is a whole number.
Data types such as INTEGER (which is the same as INT) and
SMALLINT have lengths associated with them. The ANSI standards
state that the lengths shall be determined by the implementor so
I have picked lengths of ten and five respectively.
CREATE-3
INTEGER is the same as numeric(10) or decimal(10) or dec(10)
SMALLINT is the same as numeric(5) or decimal(5) or dec(5)
You can see that although there are six exact numeric data types,
you only need one.
Characters
CHARACTER[(length)]
CHAR[(length)]
These data types can be used for any column that you do not use
in a calculation. Although the data is usually a combination of
alphabetic and numeric data, it is alright if the column just
contains digits. The characters are left-justified. The maximum
column width is 80. CHARACTER and CHAR can be used
interchangeably. If you omit the length modifier, then the
length of the column is one.
Date
DATE
The DATE data type creates a column of 8 characters. Dates
are entered as mm/dd/yy.
Logical
LOGICAL - A one character column that can store Y, y, N, n,
T, t, F, f, or ?
NOT NULL
This modifier to a column definition will ensure that there is
always a value for this column. It prevents the INSERT and UPDATE
commands from allowing a column to contain a null value. When
used with the UNIQUE modifier, it is used to specify a primary
key. There are special commands to retrieve rows that only have
null values in a particular column or to exclude rows that have
null values in a particular column.
UNIQUE
This ensures that each value in the column is unique. If an
attempt is made to enter a duplicate value when inserting a new
row, an error results and the row is not added to the table. If
you use unique, it must be used with NOT NULL. This is typically
used when a single column is a primary key.
Uniqueness_constraint (covered in full documentation)
CHECKING THE STRUCTURE OF A TABLE
In order to display the create command used to create the table,
type STRUCT followed by the table name.
EXERCISES (Answers in full documentation)
The following are based on the law firm database as described in
the chapter on the example databases.
1. Create the SPCLTY table
2. Create the ATTORNEY table
3. Create the CLIENT table
4. Create the CASE table
5. Create the CASEWORK table
CREATE-4
CREATE A VIEW
OVERVIEW
A view is a derived table. A view describes an alternative
access to columns and tables that already exist. The create
table command allowed us to create a physical table that is also
called a base table. With a base table every column corresponds
to the source of data. We can always use the insert, update, and
delete commands on base tables. Views never exist as permanent
tables. Whenever you query a view, it creates a temporary table
based on your view. When the query is complete, the temporary
table is erased.
The view can reference an existing column under a different name
or keep the original name. The view can be based on more than one
table. You can reference as few or as many columns you want in
the tables you select.
SYNTAX
CREATE VIEW view_name [(column_name [,column_name...])] AS
select_statement
EXAMPLES:
Create a view which only shows less than the full number of
columns in a table. In a commercial database system, this can be
used to prevent users from seeing sensitive data. For example,
The employee table may include salary information. A view of
that table could have everything except the salary information.
It is necessary to have some background in the use of the select
command before attempting to create a view of a table. The
statement below shows the creation of a view called custa. It
is based on the cust table that has four columns: code, name,
st, and rating.
create view custa as
select code, name, st
from cust;
The column names are the same as they are in the original table.
The only difference is that rating is not part of the view.
When you use view custa in a query, it acts just like a regular
table. When it displays all the columns as shown below, you only
see the three columns specified in the view.
select *
from custa;
code name st
---- --------------- --
AA Compugorp WA
BB Technoharps OR
ZZ Organomice AZ
DD QuarkCo AZ
EE Marswarp CA
FF Multicrud NV
VIEW-1
We have no access to the rating column when using the custa view.
RULES FOR USING VIEWS
It is used in a select statement, NOT an insert, update, or
delete statement. To erase the view, use the drop view statement.
Can contain any select statement except one that has redirectto.
Views should only be used when they are absolutely needed. They
can add much confusion to a database design because it is easy to
forget which are tables and which are views.
(MORE IN THE FULL DOCUMENTATION)
VIEW-2
DROP TABLE/VIEW
OVERVIEW
The drop command is used to erase a table or view from the disk.
The drop table command is used to erase the description of the
table from the disk. The drop view command erases the view but
can never alter data or tables since the view simply describes
access to a table or tables.
SYNTAX
DROP TABLE table_name;
or
DROP VIEW view_name;
EXAMPLES:
drop table cust;
drop view custa;
COMPONENTS OF THE DROP COMMAND
table_name
The table_name must be a valid table name which contains NO data.
In order to delete all the data you can first type:
delete from table_name;
The delete command erases the data (see chapter 10 for more
details) and the drop table command erases the column
descriptions.
view_name
The view_name must be a valid view name. Since no data is
affected it can be used at any time.
DROP-1
INSERT DATA INTO A TABLE
OVERVIEW
The ANSI standards define two ways to add data to a table. One
requires us to type each value for each column in each row. The
other copies data from one table and puts it in another. It is
very useful for making corrections to tables. I only describe the
first type in this documentation. Registered users find out
about the more advanced use of the insert command and a special,
non-ANSI command which makes inserting data MUCH easier.
Both insert commands maintain the restrictions we may have
imposed through the CREATE TABLE command. We could have
specified NOT NULL and UNIQUE to prevent certain types of data
errors in our tables.
INSERT VALUES - SYNTAX
INSERT INTO table_name [column_name [,column_name...]]
VALUES (column_value [,column_value]);
EXAMPLES:
The first example shows the typical way to use the insert command
since it does not reference any column names. The insert command
assumes that you will enter the data in the order that they were
created in the table. The second example shows that column names
can be referenced. The third example shows that the data entry
does not have to be in the order in which the columns were
created. Compare the order of the values to the first example.
insert into cust values('AA','Compugorp','WA',20);
or
insert into cust code, name, st, rating
values('AA','Compugorp','WA',20);
or
insert into cust name, code, rating, st
values('Compugorp','AA',20,'WA');
MORE DETAIL ON THE COMPONENTS OF THE SYNTAX
table_name
Any existing table in your database.
column_name
Normally column names are not used with the insert command. This
is because the insert command assumes that we are going to insert
values for all the columns in the table in the order in which
they were created. You saw this in the first example. It has the
same effect as the second example. In the third example we want
to insert data in a different order. This could be useful if the
source document that we are getting the data from presents the
data in a different order from which the table was designed.
INSERT-1
column_value
There are three types of column values: character, numeric and
null.
Character data
Character data must be enclosed in quotes or apostrophes. The
first example above could have been entered as:
insert into cust values("AA","Compugorp","WA",20);
Although you can enter SQL commands in uppercase or lowercase,
care must be taken when entering character data since everything
is stored exactly as entered. This can create problems when we
are retrieving data. Let's assume that Compugorp purchased some
Megawamps so we insert the following information into the sales
table: date, branch code, customer code, employee number, product
code and quantity.
insert into sales values('04/01/87','1A','aa',10,'MW',947);
Although SQL would accept the above insert command, we made a
critical logical error. The correct customer code for Compugorp
is 'AA', NOT 'aa'. This is an error that is rather difficult to
detect. Any time we relate the sales table with the cust table,
the above row in the sales table will not be retrieved. This
could cause reports to disagree. The section on correlated
subqueries explains how to detect this problem. Technically, it
is called referential integrity.
Another mistake that is easily made involves accidentally having
leading or trailing spaces in a character value. If we inserted
the data for Compugorp with the following:
insert into cust values('AA','Compugorp ','WA',20);
You will notice the space after the last 'p' in Compugorp. There
will not be a problem with it until you try a query that includes
the name of the company as shown below.
select *
from cust
where name = 'Compugorp';
The row with Compugorp will not be found because the query did
not contain the space after the last p! This is a very
frustrating error as I have seen quite a few students accuse me
of having a serious malfunction in my program with the look on
their faces suggesting what I could do with SSQL.
All columns have a particular length associated with them. This
denotes the maximum number of characters that the column can
contain. When we created the cust table, the name column was
defined as char(15) which means that the maximum number of
characters it can contain is 15. If more than 15 characters are
in the name, only the first 15 are saved.
INSERT-2
insert into cust values('GG','Bizzlesnarf & Sons','CA',10);
Although the above command would be allowed, when we retrieve the
customer name, only "Bizzlesnarf & " would be displayed.
Numeric Data
The basic rule to remember with numeric data is not to enclose
them in quotes as we can see above with the entry for rating.
The length of the column as specified in the create table command
must not be exceeded. Rating was created as numeric(2) which
means that the maximum number of digits is 2. The following
insert command would cause an error because the entry for rating
contains 3 digits instead of 2:
insert into cust values('AA','Compugorp','WA',123);
Because of the error, none of the values would be added to the
table.
Null data
I really should not write "null data" or "null value" because the
concept of the null means absence of a value. If we add a
customer that has no rating we would do something like:
insert into cust values('HH','MagnaMice','AZ',null);
There are NO QUOTES enclosing the word null. Like all other
keywords in SQL, it can be in uppercase or lowercase letters.
The null is different from a 0 (zero) in that a null means that
there is no rating. A 0 (zero) means that there IS a rating and
the rating is 0. This idea is further developed when discussing
data retrieval in the section on the select command.
INSERT-3
UPDATE DATA IN A TABLE
OVERVIEW
The update command is used to change column values in existing
rows based on criteria in a search_condition that is accomplished
through a where clause. If there where any constraints put on the
column values when the table was created such as not null or not
null unique, the update command makes sure that the constraints
are maintained before the columns are actually updated. Next to
the insert command, it is the most cumbersome to use. To make
updates a bit easier, I made a non-ANSI command which is fully
explained in the full documentation.
UPDATE SYNTAX
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = value [, column_name = value...]
WHERE search_condition
The value can be a mathmatical expression.
EXAMPLES:
In the first example, the rating for customer AA is increased
by 5.
update cust
set rating = rating + 5
where code = 'AA';
In the example below, the rating for customer CC is changed to a
null.
update cust
set rating = null
where code = 'CC';
The example below shows how to change the percent defects to 10
for a batch of product GC that occurred on July 21, 1987 in
Idaho.
update manu
set defects = 10
where date = '07/21/87' and code = 'GC' and mst = 'ID';
In the following, two columns are changed. For customer BB,
rating is changed to 14 and the state column is changed to Idaho.
update cust
set rating = 14, st = 'ID'
where code = 'BB';
UPDATE-1
The example below is a bit more involved. We want to change the
rating of branch 2A customers who have purchased above average
quantities (overall) to 30. The use of the select command in a
where clause is covered in a later section.
update cust
set rating = 30
where code in
(select distinct code
from cust, sales
where cc=code
and bc='2A'
and qty >
(select avg(qty)
from sales));
COMPONENTS OF UPDATE
table_name
Any existing table in your database.
column_name
Any valid column name in the table name accessed, including the
column(s) which form the key.
value
The value is anything appropriate for the data type of the
column. Any value that would work with the insert command will
work with the update command. As with the insert command, the
word null is valid to show that there is no value for the column.
Remember to put quotes around character values.
search_condition
The section on the select command has more detail on the
search_condition that is accomplished with the use of a where
clause. Typically, you want to update a single row. To update a
single row the search_condition must test for the primary key so
that will be explained here. The primary key allows you to
uniquely define each row. The cust table, which is used in most
of the examples above, has a primary key based on code. That is,
based on the value in code, we know only a single row will be
updated.
Compound keys are discussed in the full documentation.
UPDATE-2
DELETE ROWS FROM A TABLE
OVERVIEW
The delete command deletes rows based on the criteria in the
where clause. Without a where clause, all the data in the table
is deleted.
Refer to the section on the select statement for details on the
where clause. The basic difference between the select * and the
delete is that with select, the rows are displayed, and with
delete, the rows are deleted. Because of this, it is a smart
idea to use the select before you use the delete so you can see
the rows that you are going to delete.
You can only delete complete rows. If you want to delete column
data within a row, use the update command.
SYNTAX
DELETE FROM table_name
[WHERE search_expression]
EXAMPLES:
The following shows how to delete all the data from the cust
table.
delete from cust;
The following shows how to delete customers from the cust table
whose rating is less than 10.
delete from cust
where rating < 10;
COMPONENTS OF DELETE
table_name
Any existing table in your database.
search_condition
The section on the select statement has more detail on the
search_condition that is accomplished with a where clause. A
simple example is shown above. The command to delete customers
whose rating is less than 10 could create some problems if there
were customers in the sales table with customer codes that you
deleted. Whenever you delete a row that contains a primary key
that is used in another table, problems can arise. In order to
determine whether there are any of those customers in the sales
table, you could use the select command as shown below.
select *
from sales
where cc in (
select code
from cust
where rating < 10);
DELETE-1
To delete all the corresponding rows in the sales table for
customers whose rating is less than 10, you would simply take the
statement above and replace the "select * from" with "delete" as
shown below.
delete from sales
where cc in (
select code
from cust
where rating < 10);
The delete command below shows how to delete all rows in the
sales table that do not have a corresponding customer code in the
cust table. The not exists is covered in the full documentation.
delete from sales
where not exists
(select *
from cust
where code = cc);
HOW TO RESTORE DATA YOU HAVE JUST DELETED
Type it in again!!! (Therefore be very careful when you use this
command).
EXERCISES (Answers in the full documentation)
What are the commands to delete:
1. The attorneys with over 15 years of service.
2. The category 2 clients from Florida.
3. Client c2.
DELETE-2
TUTORIAL
OVERVIEW
This tutorial will take you through the basics creating a table,
inserting data into a table, updating rows in a table, deleting
rows from a table, retrieving data from a table, creating a view
of a table and dropping a table.
START SSQL
From the DOS prompt type SSQL and press ENTER:
CREATE THE TABLE
Before we can put any data into the table, you need to describe
the type(s) of data that it is going to contain. Often the table
we create is referred to as a base table. Base tables contain
actual data which is distinguished from a derived table (see
Create a View). It is assumed that you have already read the
introduction which contains the basic definitions of columns,
rows, and tables. You will create a shortened version of a
payroll table. For each employee you will store the last name,
the first name, salary, and city. The key will be
a combination of last name and first name. Type the following:
create table pay (
last char(15) not null,
first char(15) not null,
salary numeric(5),
city char(12),
unique(last, first)
);
Last name and first name can each be up to fifteen characters in
length. Since they are part of the primary key, nulls will not
be allowed in the columns. The combination of the column names
last and first are set to unique so there can be no duplicate
primary keys. The values for city are limited to twelve
characters. Salary is limited to five digits which means up to
$99,999.
If you made a mistake, skip to the last part of the tutorial to
find out how to drop a table which erases it from the disk so
you can start over.
INSERT DATA INTO THE TABLE
The following has has the commands to insert four rows of data
into the table. When you type them, be careful to include all the
appropriate quotes and commas. And yes, include the in correct
spelling of Scottsdale. You will correct it in the next section.
Note that Hippity Hopper has a null in place of his
salary. This means that the salary is not available which is
different from putting a salary of zero.
insert into pay values('Everski','Willy',45000,'Scottsdale');
insert into pay values('Everski','Wilshe',60000,'Scootsdale');
insert into pay values('Hopper','Hippity',null,'Phoenix');
insert into pay values('Nosebleed','Harvey',20000,'Peoria');
TUTORIAL-1
If you made any mistakes, you should be able to correct them
after going through the next section on updates.
UPDATE DATA IN A TABLE
You need to make two changes to the table. Scootsdale needs to
be changed to Scottsdale and the salary for Willy Everski needs
to be changed to 55,000. The where clause is needed to access
the specific row you need.
update pay
set city = 'Scottsdale'
where city = 'Scootsdale';
update pay
set salary = 55000
where last = 'Everski' and first = 'Willy';
DELETE A ROW FROM A TABLE
Harvey Nosebleed has been fired so you want to delete the row
that contains the data for Harv. Figure D-5 shows you how. In a
manner similar to the update, the where clause describes which
row should be deleted.
The where clause only includes the last name
because I know that all the other Nosebleeds have been fired.
However, the primary key is both last and first names. With the
Everskis you had to include both last and first names otherwise
both would have been updated. OK, technically we could have
gotten by with just the first names but I know you realize that
in a real-world scenario that would not be acceptable.
delete from pay
where last='Nosebleed';
RETRIEVE DATA FROM A TABLE
The select command is used to retrieve data from a table. The
following select command retrieves all the data in the table.
select *
from pay;
last first salary city
------------- ------------- ------ ------------
Everski Willy 55000 Scottsdale
Everski Wilshe 60000 Scottsdale
Hopper Hippity Phoenix
3 rows selected
TUTORIAL-2
The following shows how to retrieve the first name and last name for
all the rows.
select first, last
from pay;
first last
--------------- ---------------
Willy Everski
Wilshe Everski
Hippity Hopper
3 rows selected
The following displays the rows of employees which
have salaries of less than $58,000. Notice that the row for
Hippity Hopper is not displayed because all nulls are excluded.
select *
from pay
where salary > 58000;
last first salary city
------------- ------------- ------ ------------
Everski Willy 55000 Scottsdale
1 row selected
CREATE A VIEW
A view is an alternate way of looking at a table or even a
combination of tables. It is also known as a derived table
because a view is derived from one or more base tables. We will
create a view which excludes salary information. The view is
based on a select statement. The view accesses data in the base
table every time it is used in a select statement. There is
never any data contained in the view. The following creates the
view.
create view pay1 as
select last, first, city
from pay;
Now let's see what happens when all the columns of the view are
selected.
select *
from pay1;
last first city
--------------- --------------- ------------
Everski Willy Scottsdale
Everski Wilshe Scottsdale
Hopper Hippity Phoenix
3 rows selected
TUTORIAL-3
DROP A TABLE
When a table is dropped, the description of the table is erased
from the disk. The drop command will only work on an empty
table. The delete command is needed to delete all the data in
the table then the drop command erases the table from the disk.
delete from pay;
drop pay;
EXIT SSQL
This is a tough one - type EXIT and press ENTER
TUTORIAL-4
