Microsoft Bookshelf 1991/msbookshelf91.7z/BOOKS/CCE.DB

Text File | 1991-05-07 | 11MB | 158,019 lines

%@1@%%@AB@%The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia%@AE@%%@EH@%



%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aachen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aachen%@AE@%%@CR:AACHEN          @%%@QR:Aachen@% or %@AB@%Aix-la-Chapelle,%@AE@% city (1986 pop. 238,600), North%@EH@%
Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany. It is an industrial center producing
textiles, machinery, and other manufactures. Its mineral baths have been
famous since Roman times. %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% made it his northern capital,
building a palace and cathedral there, and the city was (936-1531) the
coronation place of German kings. Later it was taken by France (1801) and
then by Prussia (1815). After %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% Aachen was occupied by the
Allies, and two thirds of it was destroyed during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aakjaer, Jeppe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aakjaer, Jeppe%@AE@%%@CR:AAKJAER         @%%@QR:Aakjaer, Jeppe@%, 1866-1930, Danish poet. His lyric gift is apparent in%@EH@%
%@AI@%Songs of the Rye%@AE@% (1906) and %@AI@%Heimdal's Wanderings%@AE@% (1924). He also wrote
novels, mostly about his native Jutland, e.g., %@AI@%The Peasant's Son%@AE@% (1899).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aalto, Alvar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aalto, Alvar%@AE@%%@CR:AALTO           @%%@QR:Aalto, Alvar@%, 1896-1976, Finnish architect. He adapted Finnish building%@EH@%
traditions to modern technology. Among his buildings are the Maison Carre
in Paris and Baker House in Cambridge, Mass. (1947-48). He was also
famous for his designs for laminated-wood furniture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aardvark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aardvark%@AE@%,%@CR:AARDVARK        @%%@QR:aardvark@% nocturnal %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Orycteropus%@AE@%) found in Africa. About 6%@EH@%
ft (180 cm) long, it has a long snout, large, erect ears, a body almost
devoid of hair, and a long tail. It claws open ant and termite nests with
its forefeet and uses its long, sticky tongue to capture insects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aaron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aaron%@AE@%,%@CR:AARON1          @%%@QR:Aaron@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, the first high priest, the brother of %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@%, and his%@EH@%
spokesman. Through him Jehovah performed miracles, although Aaron had
made the %@AU@%GOLDEN CALF%@BO:          3b2769@%%@AE@% and allowed its worship. His descendants became
temple priests.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aaron, Hank%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aaron, Hank%@AE@%%@CR:AARON2          @%%@QR:Aaron, Hank@% (Henry Louis Aaron), 1934-, American baseball player; b.%@EH@%
Mobile, Ala. A right-handed batter, he played with the Braves (1954-74)
in Milwaukee and Atlanta and with the Milwaukee Brewers (1975-76). In
1974 he broke Babe %@AU@%RUTH'S%@BO:          82715e@%%@AE@% career record for home runs, finishing with
755. He set records for runs batted in, extra-base hits, and total bases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abacus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abacus%@AE@%,%@CR:ABACUS          @%%@QR:abacus@% an ancient computing device using movable beads strung on a%@EH@%
number of parallel wires within a frame. Each wire represents a decimal
place: ones, tens, hundreds, and so on. The beads are grouped to form
numbers and shifted in specified patterns to add, subtract, multiply, or
divide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abadan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abadan%@AE@%,%@CR:ABADAN          @%%@QR:Abadan@% city (1976 pop. 294,068), Khuzestan prov., SW Iran, on Abadan%@EH@%
Island, in the %@AU@%SHATT AL ARAB%@BO:          880417@%%@AE@% delta, at the head of the %@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@%.
After oil was discovered (1908) nearby, Abadan became the terminus of oil
pipelines and an oil-refining and shipping center. Iraqi forces damaged
its major oil refinery in their invasion of Khuzestan in 1980.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abalone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abalone%@AE@%,%@CR:ABALONE         @%%@QR:abalone@% marine %@AU@%GASTROPOD%@BO:          383d83@%%@AE@% mollusk (genus %@AI@%Haliotis%@AE@%), covered by a single%@EH@%
ear-shaped shell perforated with respiratory holes on one side. The
abalone is hunted for its large, edible muscular foot and the iridescent
%@AU@%MOTHER-OF-PEARL%@BO:          644fd5@%%@AE@% lining of its shell, used for buttons. It feeds by
scraping the substrate with its rasping tongue (radula).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abandonment%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abandonment%@AE@%,%@CR:ABANDONMENT     @%%@QR:abandonment@% in U.S. law, voluntary, intentional, and absolute%@EH@%
relinquishment of rights or property without conveying them to any other
person. Abandonment also means willfully leaving one's spouse or
children, intending not to return. In many states the abandonment of a
child is a criminal offense.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abbas I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abbas I%@AE@%%@CR:ABBAS.I         @%%@QR:Abbas I@% (Abbas the Great), 1557-1629, shah of %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@% (1587-1628), of the%@EH@%
Safavid dynasty. He broke the power of the tribal chiefs, ended the Uzbek
threat, and extended his domain at the expense of the Turks and
Portuguese.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abbasid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abbasid%@AE@%%@CR:ABBASID         @%%@QR:Abbasid@% or %@AB@%Abbaside,%@AE@% Arabic family descended from %@AB@%Abbas,%@AE@% d.653, the uncle%@EH@%
of %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@%. They rose to power by massacring the ruling Umayyad family
and held the %@AU@%CALIPHATE%@BO:          174259@%%@AE@% from 749 to 1258. Prominent Abbasid caliphs
include al-%@AU@%MANSUR%@BO:          5b222b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HARUN AR-RASHID%@BO:          405115@%%@AE@%, under whom the caliphate reached
its greatest power. The long Abbasid decline ended with their overthrow
(13th cent.) by the Seljuk Turks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abbey Theatre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abbey Theatre%@AE@%:%@CR:ABBEY.THEATRE   @%%@QR:Abbey Theatre@% see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abbott, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abbott, George%@AE@%,%@CR:ABBOTT          @%%@QR:Abbott, George@% 1889-, American theatrical director and playwright; b.%@EH@%
Forestville, N.Y. He was a master of %@AU@%FARCE%@BO:          31b828@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@%. His hits include
%@AI@%Three Men on a Horse%@AE@% (1935), %@AI@%Damn Yankees%@AE@% (1955), and %@AI@%Fiorello!%@AE@% (1960;
Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abbott and Costello%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abbott and Costello%@AE@%,%@CR:ABBOTT.ELLO     @%%@QR:Abbott and Costello@% American comedy team. Its members were William "Bud"%@EH@%
Abbott, 1898-1974, and Lou (Cristillo) Costello 1908-59. They performed
(1931-57) routines ("Who's on First") on the stage, radio, and television
and in a series of successful films, including %@AI@%Buck Privates%@AE@% (1941).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abbreviation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abbreviation%@AE@%,%@CR:ABBREVIATION    @%%@QR:abbreviation@% in writing, arbitrary shortening of a word, usually by%@EH@%
cutting off letters from the end, as in U.S. and Gen. (General).
Contraction serves the same purpose but is understood strictly to be the
shortening of a word by cutting out letters in the middle, the omission
sometimes being indicated by an apostrophe, as in the word %@AI@%don't.%@AE@% Most
abbreviations are followed by a period. Usage, however, differs widely,
and recently omission of periods has become common, as in NATO and UN. A
period is never used when apostrophes appear. A list of abbreviations
used in this encyclopedia may be found at the front of the book.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abd al-Hamid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abd al-Hamid%@AE@%,%@CR:ABD.ALHAMID     @%%@QR:Abd al-Hamid@% sultans of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% (Turkey). %@AB@%Abd al-Hamid I,%@AE@%%@EH@%
1725-89 (r.1774-89), witnessed the decline of Turkey and the rise of
Russia as the foremost power in the area. %@AB@%Abd al-Hamid II,%@AE@% 1842-1918
(r.1876-1909), suspended (1876) the constitution and ruled as an absolute
monarch. The last %@AU@%RUSSO-TURKISH WAR%@BO:          8263a1@%%@AE@% was a disaster, resulting in a great
loss of Turkish lands. He was eventually deposed by the Young Turks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abd ar-Rahman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abd ar-Rahman%@AE@%,%@CR:ABD.ARRAHMAN    @%%@QR:Abd ar-Rahman@% Muslim rulers of Spain. %@AB@%Abd ar-Rahman,%@AE@% d. 732, governor of%@EH@%
Spain (721-32), fought the Franks and was defeated by %@AU@%CHARLES MARTEL%@BO:          1c1ada@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Abd
%@AB@%ar-Rahman I,%@AE@%  d.788, first Umayyad emir of Cordoba (756-88), escaped to
Spain after his family's massacre by the Abbasid. There he defeated (756)
the emir of Cordoba and established himself in power. %@AB@%Abd ar-Rahman III%@AE@%
(891-961), Umayyad emir and first caliph (929-61) of Cordoba, regained
lands lost by his predecessors, maintained a powerful military force, and
made Cordoba one of the greatest cities in the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abdias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abdias%@AE@%:%@CR:ABDIAS          @%%@QR:Abdias@% see %@AU@%OBADIAH%@BO:          6c876c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abdomen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abdomen%@AE@%,%@CR:ABDOMEN         @%%@QR:abdomen@% in vertebrates, portion of the trunk between the diaphragm and%@EH@%
lower pelvis. In humans the abdominal cavity is lined with a thin
membrane, the peritoneum, which encloses the %@AU@%STOMACH%@BO:          8f414e@%%@AE@%, intestines, %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%GALL BLADDER%@BO:          377bdb@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%PANCREAS%@BO:          708218@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KIDNEYS%@BO:          4f8165@%%@AE@%, urinary bladder, and, in the
female, reproductive organs are also located within the abdominal cavity.
In insects and some other invertebrates the term %@AI@%abdomen%@AE@% refers to the
rear portion of the body.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem%@AE@%,%@CR:ABDULJABBAR     @%%@QR:Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem@% 1947-, American basketball player; b. N.Y.C. as%@EH@%
Ferdinand Lewis ("Lew") Alcindor. He led the Univ. of California, Los
Angeles, to three national titles (1967-69) and played center for the
Milwaukee Bucks (1969-75) and Los Angeles Lakers (1975-88). The 7 ft 2
in. (218 cm) Abdul-Jabbar won most-valuable-player honors six times and
scored a total of 37,639 points (breaking the all-time record).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abdullah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abdullah%@AE@%,%@CR:ABDULLAH        @%%@QR:Abdullah@% 1882-1951, emir of Transjordan (1921-46) and king of %@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d2f7b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1946-51). In the first %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WAR%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@% he commanded the Arab Legion and
annexed those portions of Palestine not assigned to Israel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%a Becket, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%a Becket, Thomas%@AE@%:%@CR:A.BECKET        @%%@QR:a Becket, Thomas@% see %@AU@% THOMAS A BECKET, SAINT%@BO:          952656@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abe Kobo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abe Kobo%@AE@%,%@CR:ABE.KOBO        @%%@QR:Abe Kobo@% 1924-, Japanese novelist and dramatist. Often compared to%@EH@%
%@AU@%KAFKA%@BO:          4df9b9@%%@AE@%, he treats the contemporary human predicament in a realistic yet
symbolic style. His minute descriptions of surrealistic situations often
lend his works a nightmarish quality. Among Abe's novels are %@AI@%Woman in the
%@AI@%Dunes%@AE@% (tr. and film 1964) and %@AI@%Secret Rendezvous%@AE@% (tr. 1979). His plays
include %@AI@%Friends%@AE@% (tr. 1969).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abel%@AE@%,%@CR:ABEL1           @%%@QR:Abel@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, son of %@AU@%ADAM%@BO:            ee16@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EVE%@BO:          30e3e2@%%@AE@%. A shepherd, he was killed by his%@EH@%
brother %@AU@%CAIN%@BO:          16d5bb@%%@AE@%. Gen. 4.1-8.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur)%@AE@%,%@CR:ABEL2           @%%@QR:Abel, I(orwith) W(ilbur)@% 1908-87, American labor leader; b. Magnolia,%@EH@%
Ohio. He worked in a Canton rolling mill at 17 and was appointed (1937)
staff representative of the organization that became the United
Steelworkers of America. He was an Ohio district director of the union
(1942-52), became (1953) secretary-treasurer, and served (1965-77) as
president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abel, Niels Henrik%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abel, Niels Henrik%@AE@%,%@CR:ABEL3           @%%@QR:Abel, Niels Henrik@% 1802-29, Norwegian mathematician. One of the greatest%@EH@%
mathematicians of the 19th cent., he pioneered in the theory of elliptic
functions, investigated generalizations of the binomial theorem, and
proved the impossibility of representing a solution of a general equation
of fifth degree or higher by a radical expression.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abelard, Peter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abelard, Peter%@AE@%%@CR:ABELARD         @%%@QR:Abelard, Peter@%, 1079-1142, French philosopher. Because his fame as a%@EH@%
dialectician drew so many students, he is regarded as the founder of the
Univ. of Paris. His secret marriage to a pupil, Heloise, ended when her
uncle, Canon Fulbert of Notre Dame, hired ruffians to emasculate him.
Becoming a monk, he built a hermitage and monastery, the Paraclete, which
he later presented to Heloise, who had become an abbess. Abelard's first
theological work had been burned (1121) as heretical; in 1140 the mystic
St. %@AU@%BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX%@BO:           efc37@%%@AE@% secured his condemnation by the council of Sens,
and he retired in submission to Cluny. Following %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@% in theology,
Abelard espoused the method of %@AU@%ARISTOTLE'S%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@% dialectic, holding that the
system of %@AU@%LOGIC%@BO:          5634cd@%%@AE@% could be applied to the truths of faith. His view of
universals anticipated the conceptualism of St. %@AU@%THOMAS AQUINAS%@BO:          952e01@%%@AE@%. His most
influential and controversial work, %@AI@%Sic et non,%@AE@% collected contradictory
writings of the Church fathers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of%@AE@%,%@CR:ABERDEEN        @%%@QR:Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th earl of@% 1784-1860, British%@EH@%
statesman. He served in the cabinets of %@AU@%WELLINGTON%@BO:          a06c35@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PEEL%@BO:          729103@%%@AE@% as foreign
secretary (1828-30; 1841-46). In 1842 he settled the Northeast Boundary
Dispute with the U.S. by the %@AU@%WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY%@BO:          a0200c@%%@AE@%. As prime minister
(1852-55) he was quite successful in home affairs, but he resigned after
failing to prevent British involvement in the unpopular %@AU@%CRIMEAN WAR%@BO:          24a5c9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aberhart, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aberhart, William%@AE@%,%@CR:ABERHART        @%%@QR:Aberhart, William@% 1878-1943, premier of %@AU@%ALBERTA%@BO:           2e4d4@%%@AE@% (1935-43). He helped to%@EH@%
organize (c.1932) the %@AU@%SOCIAL CREDIT%@BO:          8abaed@%%@AE@% movement to make direct payments to
all citizens and headed the first Social Credit government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abernathy, Ralph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abernathy, Ralph%@AE@%,%@CR:ABERNATHY       @%%@QR:Abernathy, Ralph@% 1926-, American civil rights leader; b. Linden, Ala. A%@EH@%
Baptist minister, he helped organize the Montgomery bus boycott (1955).
He was treasurer, vice president, and, after the assassination of Martin
Luther %@AU@%KING%@BO:          4fb6d8@%%@AE@%, Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership
Conference. An advocate of nonviolence as the only acceptable means to
social change, he led the Poor People's Campaign on Washington, D.C.,
after King's death. He resigned (1977) from the SCLC and has worked with
%@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% and peace groups.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aberration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aberration%@AE@%,%@CR:ABERRATION      @%%@QR:aberration@% in optics, condition that causes a blurring and loss of%@EH@%
clearness in the images produced by lenses or mirrors. Spherical
aberration is the failure of a %@AU@%LENS%@BO:          53db0f@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%MIRROR%@BO:          61686a@%%@AE@% of spherical section to
bring parallel rays of light to a single focus; it can be prevented by
using a more complex parabolic section. Chromatic aberration, the blurred
coloring at the edge of an image, arises because some colors of light are
bent, or refracted, more than others after passing through a lens; it can
be cured by using a corrective lens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aberration of starlight%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aberration of starlight%@AE@%,%@CR:ABERRATTARLIGHT @%%@QR:aberration of starlight@% angular displacement, caused by the earth's%@EH@%
orbital motion, of the apparent path of light from a star, resulting in a
displacement of its apparent position from its true position.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abidjan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abidjan%@AE@%,%@CR:ABIDJAN         @%%@QR:Abidjan@% city (1982 est. pop. 951,216), former capital of Ivory Coast, on%@EH@%
the Gulf of Guinea. It is the largest city and administrative center of
Ivory Coast. Its port is on an island connected with the rest of the city
by two bridges. Coffee, cocoa, timber, pineapples, and plantains are the
chief exports. Processed food, textiles, automobiles, and chemicals are
among the manufactures. One of Africa's most modern cities, it has an
international airport nearby and growing tourism. Abidjan became (1934)
the capital of France's Ivory Coast colony, but the capital was moved to
Yamousoukro in the 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abilene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abilene%@AE@%,%@CR:ABILENE         @%%@QR:Abilene@% city (1986 est. pop. 112,430), seat of Taylor co., W central%@EH@%
Texas; inc. 1882. First settled (1881) by buffalo hunters, it grew as a
cattle-shipping point. It is a center of industry (e.g., petroleum,
aircraft, electronics) and agriculture (e.g., cattle, cotton, sorghum)
and serves as headquarters for regional oil interests. It is the site of
Abilene Christian Univ., Hardin-Simmons Univ., and McMurry College.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ablative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ablative%@AE@%:%@CR:ABLATIVE        @%%@QR:ablative@% see %@AU@%CASE%@BO:          199b65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ablaut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ablaut%@AE@%%@CR:ABLAUT          @%%@QR:ablaut@% [Ger.,=off-sound], in %@AU@%INFLECTION%@BO:          481801@%%@AE@%, vowel variation (as in English%@EH@%
%@AI@%sing, sang, sung, song%@AE@%) caused by former differences in syllabic accent.
In a prehistoric period the corresponding forms of the language (known
through scientific reconstruction) had differences in accent, not
differences in vowel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ABM%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ABM%@AE@%%@CR:ABM             @%%@QR:ABM@% (antiballistic missile): see %@AU@%MISSILE, GUIDED%@BO:          61768c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abolitionists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abolitionists%@AE@%,%@CR:ABOLITIONISTS   @%%@QR:abolitionists@% in U.S. history, especially from 1830 to 1860, advocates%@EH@%
of the compulsory emancipation of black slaves. Abolitionists are to be
distinguished from free-soilers, who opposed the extension of %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%.
The active campaign had its mainspring in the revival (1820s) in the
North of evangelical religion, with its moral urgency to end sinful
practices. It reached crusading stage in the 1830s, led by Theodore D.
Weld, the brothers Arthur and Lewis Tappan, and William Lloyd %@AU@%GARRISON%@BO:          3817a6@%%@AE@%.
The American Anti-Slavery Society, established in 1833, flooded the slave
states with abolitionist literature and lobbied in Washington, D.C.
Writers like J.G. %@AU@%WHITTIER%@BO:          a161ab@%%@AE@% and orators such as Wendell %@AU@%PHILLIPS%@BO:          74d096@%%@AE@% lent
strength to the cause. Despite unanimity on their goal, abolitionists
were divided over the method of achieving it, Garrison advocating moral
suasion, others direct political action. %@AI@%Uncle Tom's Cabin,%@AE@% by Harriet B.
%@AU@%STOWE%@BO:          8f6e3b@%%@AE@%, became an effective piece of abolitionist propaganda, and the
%@AU@%KANSAS%@BO:          4e36c8@%%@AE@% question aroused both North and South. The culminating act of
abolitionism was John %@AU@%BROWN'S%@BO:          1477b2@%%@AE@% raid on Harpers Ferry. Abolitionist demands
for immediate freeing of the slaves after the outbreak of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%
resulted in Pres. Lincoln's %@AI@%Emancipation Proclamation.%@AE@% The abolitionist
movement was one of high moral purpose and courage; its uncompromising
temper hastened the demise of slavery in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abominable snowman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abominable snowman%@AE@%%@CR:ABOMINAMAN      @%%@QR:abominable snowman@% or %@AB@%yeti,%@AE@%manlike creature associated with the%@EH@%
Himalayas. Known through tracks ascribed to it and alleged encounters, it
is supposedly 6 to 7 ft (1.8 to 2.1 m) tall and covered with long hair.
While many scholars dismiss it as a myth, others claim it may be a kind
of ape.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abortion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abortion%@AE@%,%@CR:ABORTION        @%%@QR:abortion@% expulsion of the embryo or fetus before it is viable outside%@EH@%
the uterus, i.e., before the 28th week after conception, in humans (see
%@AU@%REPRODUCTION%@BO:          7e3cff@%%@AE@%). Spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, may be caused by
death of the fetus due to abnormality or disease or by trauma to the
expectant mother. Abortion may also be induced, the fetus removed from
the uterus by such procedures as vacuum suction, dilation and curettage,
intrauterine saline injection, and hysterotomy (surgical incision of the
uterus). Abortion was long practiced as a form of %@AU@%BIRTH CONTROL%@BO:          101f6d@%%@AE@% until
pressure from the Roman Catholic Church and changing opinion led in the
19th cent. to the passage of strict antiabortion laws. Attitudes toward
abortion have become more liberal in the 20th cent. By the 1970s,
abortion had been legalized in most European countries, the USSR, and
Japan; in the U.S., according to a 1973 Supreme Court ruling (see %@AU@%ROE V.
%@AU@%WADE%@BO:          803a6a@%%@AE@%), abortions are permitted during the first six months of pregnancy.
Abortion remains a controversial issue in the U.S., however, and in 1977
Congress barred the use of Medicaid funds for abortion except for
therapeutic reasons and in certain other specified instances.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abraham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abraham%@AE@%%@CR:ABRAHAM         @%%@QR:Abraham@% or %@AB@%Abram,%@AE@%progenitor of the Hebrews. He is an example of the man%@EH@%
devoted to God, as in his willingness to sacrifice his son %@AU@%ISAAC%@BO:          49e349@%%@AE@%. Revered
by several religions, he is principally important as the founder of
%@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%. He received the promise of %@AU@%CANAAN%@BO:          17dfc7@%%@AE@% for his people, who are
descended from Isaac. Gen. 11-25. Through another son, %@AU@%ISHMAEL%@BO:          49f9a4@%%@AE@%, he is
considered by Muslims an ancestor of the Arabs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abram%@AE@%:%@CR:ABRAM           @%%@QR:Abram@% see %@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abrams, Creighton Williams%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abrams, Creighton Williams%@AE@%,%@CR:ABRAMS          @%%@QR:Abrams, Creighton Williams@% 1914-74, U.S. military officer; b.%@EH@%
Springfield, Mass. He served with distinction in World War II, in Korea
(1953-54), and in West Germany (1960-62). In 1964 he was promoted to
general. After serving as deputy commander of the U.S. forces in the
%@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% under Gen. William C. %@AU@%WESTMORELAND%@BO:          a0c734@%%@AE@%, he was commanding general
(1968-72). He was also U.S. army chief of staff (1972-74).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abrasive%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abrasive%@AE@%,%@CR:ABRASIVE        @%%@QR:abrasive@% material used to grind, smooth, cut, or polish another%@EH@%
substance. Natural abrasives include %@AU@%SAND%@BO:          83ed2f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PUMICE%@BO:          7af5e7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CORUNDUM%@BO:          23a472@%%@AE@%, and ground
%@AU@%QUARTZ%@BO:          7b9548@%%@AE@%. Carborundum (%@AU@%SILICON CARBIDE%@BO:          8925a5@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%ALUMINA%@BO:           4340f@%%@AE@% (aluminum oxide) are
major synthetic abrasives. The hardest abrasives are natural or synthetic
%@AU@%DIAMONDS%@BO:          28a6e2@%%@AE@%, used in the form of dust or minuscule stones.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abravanel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abravanel%@AE@%%@CR:ABRAVANEL       @%%@QR:Abravanel@% or %@AB@%Abarbanel, Judah,%@AE@%c.1460-c.1523, Jewish philosopher, also%@EH@%
known as Leone Ebreo; b. Lisbon. He was influenced by the scholars of the
Platonic Academy of Florence and by %@AU@%MAIMONIDES%@BO:          59cf97@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%IBN GABIROL%@BO:          464884@%%@AE@%. His
%@AI@%Philosophy of Love%@AE@% (pub. posthumously, 1535), a classic exposition of
platonic love, had a profound effect on philosophers of the 16th and 17th
cent., notably %@AU@%BRUNO%@BO:          14bc17@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SPINOZA%@BO:          8d99f9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Absalom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Absalom%@AE@%%@CR:ABSALOM         @%%@QR:Absalom@%, beloved son of %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@%. He murdered his brother %@AU@%AMNON%@BO:           4cd90@%%@AE@% and fled.%@EH@%
After being forgiven by David, Absalom stirred up a rebellion, in which
he died. 2 Sam. 13-19.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abscam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abscam%@AE@%,%@CR:ABSCAM          @%%@QR:Abscam@% U.S. scandal resulting from an investigation begun in 1978 by the%@EH@%
Federal Bureau of Investigation. The FBI created a front (Abdul
Enterprises, Ltd., hence, Abscam) for its agents, who, posing as
associates of an Arab sheik, offered selected public officials money or
other considerations in exchange for special favors. The videotaped
meetings resulted in the indictments (1980) and convictions of one
senator and four congressmen on charges including bribery and conspiracy;
another congressman was convicted on lesser charges. The FBI's tactics
raised questions about entrapment, and the conviction of Florida
Congressmen Richard Kelly was overturned (1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abscess%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abscess%@AE@%,%@CR:ABSCESS         @%%@QR:abscess@% accumulation of pus in tissues as a result of infection.%@EH@%
Characterized by inflammation and painful swelling, it may occur in
various parts of the body, e.g., skin, gum, eyelid, and middle ear. Many
abscesses respond to treatment with %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%; others require surgical
drainage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%absentee ownership%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%absentee ownership%@AE@%,%@CR:ABSENTEHIP      @%%@QR:absentee ownership@% system under which a person (or a corporation)%@EH@%
controls and owns capital, such as land or factories, in a region where
that person does not reside and employs others to supervise and work it.
Revolution and reform have abolished or greatly reduced the amount of
absentee control throughout the world. In the U.S. the term has been
applied to the concentration of economic power through various corporate
devices.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%absolute value%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%absolute value%@AE@%,%@CR:ABSOLUTE.VALUE  @%%@QR:absolute value@% magnitude of a mathematical expression, disregarding its%@EH@%
sign; thus the absolute value is always positive. In symbols, if |%@AI@%a%@AE@%|
denotes the absolute value of a number %@AI@%a,%@AE@% then |%@AI@%a%@AE@%|=%@AI@%a%@AE@% for %@AI@%a%@AE@%>0 and |%@AI@%a%@AE@%|=-%@AI@%a%@AE@%
for%@AI@% a%@AE@%<0.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%absolute zero%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%absolute zero%@AE@%,%@CR:ABSOLUTE.ZERO   @%%@QR:absolute zero@% the zero point of the ideal gas temperature scale, denoted%@EH@%
by 0 degrees on the %@AU@%KELVIN%@BO:          4ed396@%%@AE@% and Rankine temperature scales (-273.15 deg
C.; -459.67 deg F). At this point, the volume of an ideal gas would be
zero and, theoretically, all molecular motion would cease. In actuality,
all gases condense well above this point. See also %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%absorption%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%absorption%@AE@%,%@CR:ABSORPTION      @%%@QR:absorption@% taking of molecules of one substance directly into another%@EH@%
substance. Absorption may be either a physical or a chemical process.
Physical absorption depends on the solubility of the substance absorbed,
and chemical absorption involves chemical reactions between the absorbed
substance and the absorbing medium. See also %@AU@%ADSORPTION%@BO:           1593e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%abstract expressionism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%abstract expressionism%@AE@%,%@CR:ABSTRACSIONISM  @%%@QR:abstract expressionism@% movement in painting that emerged in New York%@EH@%
City in the mid-1940s and attained prominence in American art in the
following decade; also called action painting and the New York School.
Given impetus by the work of Arshile %@AU@%GORKY%@BO:          3b9a35@%%@AE@%, abstract expressionism is
marked by an attention to surface qualities, i.e., brushstroke and
texture; the use of huge canvases; the harnessing of accidents that occur
while painting; and the glorification of the act of painting itself. The
first important school in American painting to declare independence from
European styles and to influence art abroad, abstract expressionism
enormously affected the kinds of art that followed it, especially in the
use of color and material. Major artists in the movement include Jackson
%@AU@%POLLOCK%@BO:          779e15@%%@AE@%, Willem %@AU@%DE KOONING%@BO:          278507@%%@AE@%, Hans %@AU@%HOFMANN%@BO:          43686e@%%@AE@%, Robert %@AU@%MOTHERWELL%@BO:          6451b6@%%@AE@%, Franz %@AU@%KLINE%@BO:          502ce7@%%@AE@%,
and Mark %@AU@%ROTHKO%@BO:          81689e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu al-Ala al-Maari%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu al-Ala al-Maari%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.ALARI       @%%@QR:Abu al-Ala al-Maari@% 973-1057, Arabic poet. He was blind from childhood.%@EH@%
Brilliantly original, he discarded classicism for intellectual urbanity.
Later he favored ascetic purity and wrote more stereotypical poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.ALFHAN      @%%@QR:Abu al-Faraj Ali of Esfahan@% 897-967, Arabic scholar. He is mainly known%@EH@%
for his poetic anthology %@AI@%Kitab al-Aghani%@AE@% [book of songs], an important
source for information on medieval Islamic society.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu Bakr%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu Bakr%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.BAKR        @%%@QR:Abu Bakr@% 573-634, 1st caliph, father-in-law and successor of %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
He was probably the Prophet's first convert. During his critical two-year
caliphate (632-34), %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@% began the phenomenal growth that was to make it
a world religion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu Dhabi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu Dhabi%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.DHABI       @%%@QR:Abu Dhabi@% city (1980 pop. 265,702), capital of the %@AU@%UNITED ARAB EMIRATES%@BO:          99fd48@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu Hanifa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu Hanifa%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.HANIFA      @%%@QR:Abu Hanifa@% c.699-767, Muslim theologian. A wealthy merchant from Kufa,%@EH@%
Iraq, he founded Hanifi, the first of Islam's four orthodox schools of
law. His thinking reflects a concern for the solidarity of the Muslim
community. Accorded official status in many countries formerly under
Ottoman administration, Hanifi is the most widespread of Islamic legal
systems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abuja%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abuja%@AE@%,%@CR:ABUJA           @%%@QR:Abuja@% designated federal capital of Nigeria. Plans to move the capital%@EH@%
from %@AU@%LAGOS%@BO:          519593@%%@AE@% were approved in 1976, and a 3,000-sq mi (7,770-sq km) capital
territory was created near the old town of Abuja (now renamed Sulaija).
The site, near the center of the country, has a good climate and is
sparsely populated. The move is to be completed about 1990.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu Nuwas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu Nuwas%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.NUWAS       @%%@QR:Abu Nuwas@% d. c.810, Arabic poet. A favorite of the caliphs %@AU@%HARUN%@EH@%
%@AU@%AR-RASHID%@BO:          405115@%%@AE@% and Amin, he spent much time in Baghdad. His exquisite poetry
echoes the extravagance of court life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.SAIR        @%%@QR:Abu Said ibn Abi al-Khair@% 967-1049, Persian poet, a Sufi and a %@AU@%DERVISH%@BO:          2829a0@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
He was the first to write rubaiyat (quatrains) in the Sufistic strain
that %@AU@%OMAR KHAYYAM%@BO:          6dba3a@%%@AE@% made famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu Simbel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu Simbel%@AE@%%@CR:ABU.SIMBEL      @%%@QR:Abu Simbel@% or %@AB@%Ipsambul,%@AE@%village, S Egypt, on the %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@% R. Its two temples,%@EH@%
hewn (c.1250 BC) out of rock cliffs in the reign of %@AU@%RAMSES II%@BO:          7c9a71@%%@AE@%, were
dismantled and raised over 200 ft (61 m) to avoid waters rising behind
the %@AU@%ASWAN HIGH DAM%@BO:           93696@%%@AE@%. The project was completed (1966) with %@AU@%UNESCO%@BO:          99ab81@%%@AE@% aid.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus%@AE@%,%@CR:ABU.TAMS        @%%@QR:Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aus@% c.805-c.845, Arabic poet, compiler of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%HAMASA%@BO:          3f6e1a@%%@AE@%. Often describing historical events, his poems of valor are
important as source material.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Abyssinian cat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Abyssinian cat%@AE@%:%@CR:ABYSSINIAN.CAT  @%%@QR:Abyssinian cat@% see under %@AU@%CAT%@BO:          19fbb3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ac%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ac%@AE@%,%@CR:AC1             @%%@QR:Ac@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%ACTINIUM%@BO:            e279@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AC%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AC%@AE@%:%@CR:AC2             @%%@QR:AC@% see %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOTOR, ELECTRIC%@BO:          647ad2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acacia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acacia%@AE@%,%@CR:ACACIA          @%%@QR:acacia@% plant (genus %@AI@%Acacia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family, mostly tropical and%@EH@%
subtropical thorny shrubs and trees. Some have a feathery foliage
composed of leaflets; others have no leaves but have flattened leaflike
stems containing chlorophyll. Various species yield lac (for shellac),
catechu (a dye), gum arabic, essential oils, tannins, and hardwood
timber.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%academic freedom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%academic freedom%@AE@%,%@CR:ACADEMIM        @%%@QR:academic freedom@% right of scholars to study, inquire, teach, and publish%@EH@%
without control or restraint from the institutions that employ them. The
concept is based on the notion that truth is best discovered through open
investigation of all data. Its less clearly developed corollary is the
obligation to pursue open and thorough inquiry regardless of personal
considerations. Initiated during the %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@% by scholars outside
the university, academic freedom gained general acceptance only after
university education was secularized.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Acadia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Acadia%@AE@%%@CR:ACADIA          @%%@QR:Acadia@%, region and former French colony, centered on %@AU@%NOVA SCOTIA%@BO:          6be561@%%@AE@%, but%@EH@%
including also %@AU@%PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND%@BO:          7991f9@%%@AE@% and much of the mainland coast from
Quebec to Maine. In 1605 the French founded Port Royal (now %@AU@%ANNAPOLIS
%@AU@%ROYAL%@BO:           5c17e@%%@AE@%), the first and chief town. During the %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%, the
Peace of Utrecht (1713) gave Britain possession of the Nova Scotian
peninsula, and, by the Treaty of %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          714f41@%%@AE@% (1763), all of Acadia fell to
Britain. Doubting the loyalty of the French inhabitants (called
Acadians), the British expelled many of them in 1755 and 1758. Most were
scattered among the British colonies to the south, many of them later
returning to the area. Other exiles found havens elsewhere, notably the
Cajuns of S Louisiana, who still preserve a separate folk culture. The
sufferings of the expulsion are depicted in %@AU@%LONGFELLOW'S%@BO:          5685c5@%%@AE@% poem %@AI@%Evangeline%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Acadia National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Acadia National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:ACADIA..PARK    @%%@QR:Acadia National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acanthus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acanthus%@AE@%,%@CR:ACANTHUS        @%%@QR:acanthus@% common name for the Acanthaceae, a family of chiefly perennial%@EH@%
herbs and shrubs, mostly tropical. Many members have decorative spiny
leaves and are cultivated as ornamentals, e.g., bear's breech, whose
ornate leaves provided a motif often used in Greek and Roman art and
architecture. In Christian art, the acanthus symbolizes heaven.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Acapulco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Acapulco%@AE@%,%@CR:ACAPULCO        @%%@QR:Acapulco@% city (1980 pop. 409,335), winter resort on the tropical Pacific%@EH@%
coast of S Mexico, known for its fine beaches, luxury hotels and villas,
and deep-sea fishing. Founded (1550) on a natural harbor, it was a base
for Spanish explorers and was important in trade with the Philippines. It
became a favored haunt of wealthy vacationers in the 1920s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acceleration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acceleration%@AE@%:%@CR:ACCELERATION    @%%@QR:acceleration@% see %@AU@%MOTION%@BO:          64539b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%accelerator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%accelerator%@AE@%:%@CR:ACCELERATOR     @%%@QR:accelerator@% see %@AU@%PARTICLE ACCELERATOR%@BO:          71b454@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%accounting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%accounting%@AE@%,%@CR:ACCOUNTING      @%%@QR:accounting@% classification, analysis, and interpretation of the%@EH@%
financial, or bookkeeping, records of an enterprise, used to evaluate the
progress or failures of a business and to recognize the factors that
determine its true condition. In the U.S. accountants who pass a required
examination are granted the title Certified Public Accountant (CPA). A
branch of accounting is %@AB@%auditing,%@AE@% the examination of accounts by persons
who have had no part in their preparation. Annual audits are required for
all publicly held businesses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Accra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Accra%@AE@%,%@CR:ACCRA           @%%@QR:Accra@% city (1984 pop. 964,879), capital of Ghana, on the Gulf of Guinea.%@EH@%
The nation's largest city and its administrative and economic center,
Accra is linked by road and rail with %@AU@%KUMASI%@BO:          51049d@%%@AE@%, in the interior, and with
the seaport of Tema. Manufactures include processed food, timber, and
textiles. The city became (1876) the capital of the British Gold Coast
colony and grew economically after completion (1923) of a railroad to the
interior. Riots in the city (1948) accelerated the movement for Ghana's
independence. Today Accra is a sprawling, modern city with wide avenues;
points of interest include a 17th-cent. Danish castle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acculturation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acculturation%@AE@%,%@CR:ACCULTURATION   @%%@QR:acculturation@% the more or less continuous interaction between social%@EH@%
groups brought about by accommodation and resulting in the intermixture
of shared, learned behavior patterns. It may result in almost complete
absorption of the %@AU@%CULTURE%@BO:          254507@%%@AE@% of one of the groups or a relatively equal
merging of traits and patterns from both cultures. Not infrequently,
acculturative processes result in social disturbance and individual
psychological maladjustment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%accusative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%accusative%@AE@%:%@CR:ACCUSATIVE      @%%@QR:accusative@% see %@AU@%CASE%@BO:          199b65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acetaminophen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acetaminophen%@AE@%,%@CR:ACETAMINOPHEN   @%%@QR:acetaminophen@% an %@AU@%ANALGESIC%@BO:           50835@%%@AE@% and fever-reducing medicine similar in effect%@EH@%
to %@AU@%ASPIRIN%@BO:           8c836@%%@AE@%. Gentler to the stomach than aspirin, it lacks aspirin's
anti-inflammatory effect.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acetone, dimethyl ketone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acetone, dimethyl ketone%@AE@%,%@CR:ACETONE         @%%@QR:acetone, dimethyl ketone@% or %@AB@%2-propanone%@AE@%(CH%@AH@%3%@AE@%COCH%@AH@%3%@AE@%), colorless, flammable%@EH@%
liquid. Acetone is widely used in industry as a solvent for many organic
substances and is a component of most paint and varnish removers. It is
used in making synthetic %@AU@%RESINS%@BO:          7e6390@%%@AE@% and fillers, smokeless powders, and many
other organic compounds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acetylcholine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acetylcholine%@AE@%,%@CR:ACETYLCHOLINE   @%%@QR:acetylcholine@% organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and%@EH@%
nitrogen, essential for the conduction of nerve impulses in animals. It
is found in highest concentrations on neuron surfaces and is liberated at
nerve cell endings. There is strong evidence that acetylcholine is the
transmitter substance that conducts impulses from one cell to another in
the parasympathetic nervous system, and from nerve cells to smooth
muscle, skeletal muscle, and exocrine glands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acetylene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acetylene%@AE@%%@CR:ACETYLENE       @%%@QR:acetylene@% or %@AB@%ethyne%@AE@%(HC=CH), a colorless gas and the simplest alkyne (see%@EH@%
%@AU@%HYDROCARBON%@BO:          45e32c@%%@AE@%). Explosive on contact with air, it is stored dissolved under
pressure in %@AU@%ACETONE%@BO:            a63c@%%@AE@%. It is used to make neoprene %@AU@%RUBBER%@BO:          81a003@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PLASTICS%@BO:          769462@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%RESINS%@BO:          7e6390@%%@AE@%. The oxyacetylene torch mixes and burns oxygen and acetylene to
produce a very hot flame-as high as 6300 degF (3480 degC)-that can cut
steel and weld iron and other metals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Achaea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Achaea%@AE@%%@CR:ACHAEA          @%%@QR:Achaea@%, region of ancient %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, in the N Peloponnesus on the Gulf of%@EH@%
Corinth, home of the %@AB@%Achaeans%@AE@%, the ruling class in the %@AU@%PELOPONNESUS%@BO:          72b660@%%@AE@% from
c.1250 BC Before the 5th cent. BC the Achaean cities joined in the First
%@AB@%Achaean League%@AE@%, which was dissolved after it opposed (338 BC) %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@%
of Macedon. The Second Achaean League, formed in 280 BC, almost drove
%@AU@%MACEDON%@BO:          58a317@%%@AE@% from Achaea but was stopped by %@AU@%SPARTA%@BO:          8d347b@%%@AE@%. In 198 BC, with Roman aid,
the league won power. Later, suspecting pro-Macedonian sympathies, Rome
deported many Achaeans (168 BC) to Italy. In 146 BC Achaea waged a
suicidal war against Rome, which easily won, dissolved the league, and
ended Greek liberty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Achaemenids%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Achaemenids%@AE@%%@CR:ACHAEMENIDS     @%%@QR:Achaemenids@%, dynasty of ancient %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@%. The Achaemenid rulers (c.550-330%@EH@%
BC) included %@AU@%CYRUS THE GREAT%@BO:          25c4e2@%%@AE@%, Cambyses, %@AU@%DARIUS I%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@%, Xerxes I, and
%@AU@%ARTAXERXES I%@BO:           8334b@%%@AE@%. The dynasty ended with %@AU@%DARIUS III%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Achebe, Chinua%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Achebe, Chinua%@AE@%,%@CR:ACHEBE          @%%@QR:Achebe, Chinua@% 1930-, Nigerian novelist. His novels, written in English,%@EH@%
depict Ibo society and the impact of colonialism, e.g., %@AI@%Things Fall Apart%@AE@%
(1958) and %@AI@%A Man of the People%@AE@% (1966). A former broadcaster and diplomat
for Biafra, he has also published poetry, e.g., %@AI@%Christmas in Biafra%@AE@%
(1973).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Acheson, Dean Gooderham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Acheson, Dean Gooderham%@AE@%,%@CR:ACHESON         @%%@QR:Acheson, Dean Gooderham@% 1893-1971, U.S. secretary of state (1949-53); b.%@EH@%
Middletown, Conn. Serving Pres. %@AU@%TRUMAN%@BO:          982df7@%%@AE@%, he established the policy of
containment of Communist expansion. He also helped to establish the %@AU@%NORTH
%@AU@%ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION%@BO:          6b6d38@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Achilles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Achilles%@AE@%,%@CR:ACHILLES        @%%@QR:Achilles@% in Greek mythology, foremost hero of the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%; son of%@EH@%
Peleus and Thetis. Thetis attempted to make him immortal by bathing him
in the river %@AU@%STYX%@BO:          901214@%%@AE@%, but the heel she held remained vulnerable. Knowing
Achilles was fated to die at Troy, Thetis disguised him as a girl and hid
him at Skyros. He was found by %@AU@%ODYSSEUS%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@%, who persuaded him to go to war.
At Troy he quarreled with %@AU@%AGAMEMNON%@BO:           1f531@%%@AE@% and sulked in his tent until his
friend Patroclus was killed by %@AU@%HECTOR%@BO:          41262a@%%@AE@%. Filled with grief and rage,
Achilles slew Hector and dragged his body to the Greek camp. He was later
killed by %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          7146d2@%%@AE@%, who wounded his heel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acidophilus milk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acidophilus milk%@AE@%:%@CR:ACIDOPHK        @%%@QR:acidophilus milk@% see %@AU@%FERMENTED MILK%@BO:          32a4d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acid rain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acid rain%@AE@%,%@CR:ACID.RAIN       @%%@QR:acid rain@% form of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) containing%@EH@%
high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids (pH below 5.5-5.6). Produced when
sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen oxides combine with atmospheric
moisture, acid rain can contaminate drinking water, damage vegetation and
aquatic life, and erode buildings and monuments. It has been an
increasingly serious problem since the 1950s, particularly in the NE
U.S., Canada, and W Europe, especially Scandinavia. Automobile exhausts
and the burning of high-sulfur industrial fuels are thought to be the
main causes, but natural sources, e.g., volcanic gases and forest fires,
may also be significant. See also %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WASTE DISPOSAL%@BO:          9f7b15@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acid rock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acid rock%@AE@%:%@CR:ACID.ROCK       @%%@QR:acid rock@% see %@AU@%ROCK MUSIC%@BO:          800289@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acids and bases%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acids and bases%@AE@%,%@CR:ACIDS.AND.BASES @%%@QR:acids and bases@% two related classes of chemicals; the members of each%@EH@%
class have a number of common properties when dissolved in a solvent,
usually water. Acids in water solutions exhibit the following common
properties: they taste sour; turn %@AU@%LITMUS%@BO:          55b6c9@%%@AE@% paper red; and react with
certain metals, such as zinc, to yield hydrogen gas. Bases in water
solutions exhibit these common properties: they taste bitter; turn litmus
paper blue; and feel slippery. When a water solution of acid is mixed
with a water solution of base, a %@AU@%SALT%@BO:          83a8e6@%%@AE@% and water are formed; this process,
called neutralization, is complete only if the resulting solution has
neither acidic nor basic properties. When an acid or base dissolves in
water, a certain percentage of the acid or base particles will break up,
or dissociate, into oppositely charged ions. The Arrhenius theory of
acids and bases defines an acid as a compound that can dissociate in
water to yield hydrogen ions (H%@AH@%+%@AE@%) and a base as a compound that can
dissociate in water to yield hydroxyl ions (OH%@AH@%-%@AE@%). The Bronsted-Lowry
theory defines an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor.
The Lewis theory defines an acid as a compound that can accept a pair of
electrons and a base as a compound that can donate a pair of electrons.
Each of the three theories has its own advantages and disadvantages; each
is useful under certain conditions. Strong acids, such as %@AU@%HYDROCHLORIC
%@AU@%ACID%@BO:          45e909@%%@AE@%, and strong bases, such as potassium hydroxide, have a great
tendency to dissociate in water and are completely ionized in solution.
Weak acids, such as acetic acid, and weak bases, such as %@AU@%AMMONIA%@BO:           4c00e@%%@AE@%, are
reluctant to dissociate in water and are only partially ionized in
solution. Strong acids and strong bases make very good %@AU@%ELECTROLYTES%@BO:          2d82b5@%%@AE@% (see
%@AU@%ELECTROLYSIS%@BO:          2d7e18@%%@AE@%), i.e., their solutions readily conduct electricity. Weak
acids and weak bases make poor electrolytes. See also %@AU@%AMPHOTERISM%@BO:           4eb37@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%BUFFER%@BO:          153230@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CATALYST%@BO:          1a13a9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%INDICATORS, ACID-BASE%@BO:          47aed3@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TITRATION%@BO:          962d1c@%%@AE@%; article on %@AI@%p%@AE@%H.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ACLU%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ACLU%@AE@%:%@CR:ACLU            @%%@QR:ACLU@% see %@AU@%AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION.%@BO:           47906@%%@AE@%%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Acmeists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Acmeists%@AE@%,%@CR:ACMEISTS        @%%@QR:Acmeists@% school of Russian poets that arose in 1912 in reaction to the%@EH@%
%@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%; it emphasized concreteness of imagery and clarity of
expression. The leading Acmeists were Nikolai Gumilev, Anna %@AU@%AKHMATOVA%@BO:           2793f@%%@AE@%,
and Osip %@AU@%MANDELSTAM%@BO:          5abd65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acne%@AE@%,%@CR:ACNE            @%%@QR:acne@% inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands, characterized by%@EH@%
blackheads, cysts, and pimples. The lesions appear on the face, neck,
chest, back, and arms, and may be mild to severe. Most prevalent during
adolescence, acne may appear in adulthood. Its cause is unknown, but
contributing factors include genetic predisposition and hormonal changes
during puberty. Treatment includes use of cleansers, %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%,
surgical drainage of lesions, and, for severe cases, retinoic acid
derivatives.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Acoma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Acoma%@AE@%%@CR:ACOMA           @%%@QR:Acoma@% or %@AB@%Acoma,%@AE@%pueblo in W central New Mexico, situated atop a%@EH@%
steep-sided 357-ft (109-m) %@AU@%MESA%@BO:          5f100d@%%@AE@%. Founded c.1100-1250, it is considered
the oldest continuously inhabited community in the U.S. The resident
%@AU@%PUEBLO INDIANS%@BO:          7ac21a@%%@AE@% retain aspects of their 700-year-old culture; the men are
weavers, the women highly skilled and renowned potters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aconcagua%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aconcagua%@AE@%,%@CR:ACONCAGUA       @%%@QR:Aconcagua@% mountain 22,835 ft (6,960 m) high, in the %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@% of Argentina.%@EH@%
It is the highest peak in the Americas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acorn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acorn%@AE@%:%@CR:ACORN           @%%@QR:acorn@% see %@AU@%OAK%@BO:          6c6fa3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acoustics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acoustics%@AE@%,%@CR:ACOUSTICS       @%%@QR:acoustics@% the science of %@AU@%SOUND%@BO:          8bb9a2@%%@AE@%, including its production, propagation,%@EH@%
and effects. An important practical application of acoustics is in the
designing of auditoriums, which requires a knowledge of the
characteristics of sound %@AU@%WAVES%@BO:          9fd548@%%@AE@%. Reflection of sound can cause an %@AU@%ECHO%@BO:          2c12c6@%%@AE@%,
and repeated reflections in an enclosed space can cause reverberation,
the persistence of sound. Some reverberation in auditoriums is desirable
to avoid deadening the sound of music. Reflection can be reduced through
the proper configuration and texture of walls, and by the use of
sound-absorbent materials. Another acoustical problem is %@AU@%INTERFERENCE%@BO:          48c4ca@%%@AE@%,
which can create "dead spots" in auditoriums for certain frequencies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acquired characteristics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acquired characteristics%@AE@%,%@CR:ACQUIRES        @%%@QR:acquired characteristics@% modifications produced in an individual plant%@EH@%
or animal as a result of mutilation, disease, use and disuse, or any
distinctly environmental influence. Belief in the inheritability of
acquired characteristics was accepted by %@AU@%LAMARCK%@BO:          51b77b@%%@AE@% but ultimately rejected
by modern geneticists, who have affirmed that inheritance is determined
solely by reproductive cells and unaffected by somatic (body) cells.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acquired immune deficiency syndrome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acquired immune deficiency syndrome%@AE@%:%@CR:ACQUIRENCY.SYN  @%%@QR:acquired immune deficiency syndrome@% see %@AU@%AIDS%@BO:           2376a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acropolis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acropolis%@AE@%,%@CR:ACROPOLIS       @%%@QR:acropolis@% elevated, fortified section of ancient Greek cities. The%@EH@%
Acropolis of Athens was adorned in the 5th cent. BC with some of the
world's greatest architectural monuments. The remains of the %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%ERECHTHEUM%@BO:          2fbc7a@%%@AE@%, and Propylaea still stand.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acrylic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acrylic%@AE@%,%@CR:ACRYLIC         @%%@QR:acrylic@% more common name for polyacrylonitrile. Acrylic is a polymer%@EH@%
composed of the acrylonitrile monomer CH%@AH@%2%@AE@%:CHCN. It is used as a fiber in
%@AU@%SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS%@BO:          91f393@%%@AE@% such as Arilan and Orlon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Actaeon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Actaeon%@AE@%%@CR:ACTAEON         @%%@QR:Actaeon@%, in Greek mythology, a hunter. Because he saw %@AU@%ARTEMIS%@BO:           838b4@%%@AE@% bathing%@EH@%
naked, she changed him into a stag, and he was killed by his own dogs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%actinide series%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%actinide series%@AE@%,%@CR:ACTINIDE.SERIES @%%@QR:actinide series@% the radioactive metals, with atomic numbers 89 through%@EH@%
103, in group IIIb of the %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%. They are %@AU@%ACTINIUM%@BO:            e279@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%THORIUM%@BO:          954b9c@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%PROTACTINIUM%@BO:          7a2246@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%URANIUM%@BO:          9afbf2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEPTUNIUM%@BO:          684113@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PLUTONIUM%@BO:          76fa88@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AMERICIUM%@BO:           4a92b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CURIUM
%@AU@%%@BO:          25688e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BERKELIUM%@BO:           ed01b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CALIFORNIUM%@BO:          173d7e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%EINSTEINIUM%@BO:          2d2117@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FERMIUM%@BO:          32ac35@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MENDELEVIUM
%@AU@%%@BO:          5ea335@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NOBELIUM%@BO:          6a6ddb@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LAWRENCIUM%@BO:          530038@%%@AE@%. All members of the series have chemical
properties similar to actinium. Those elements with atomic numbers
greater than 92 are called %@AU@%TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS%@BO:          977dcd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%actinium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%actinium%@AE@%%@CR:ACTINIUM        @%%@QR:actinium@% (Ac), radioactive element; discovered in 1899 by Andre Debierne%@EH@%
in uranium residues from pitchblende. Actinium, a silver-white metal, is
the first member of the %@AU@%ACTINIDE SERIES%@BO:            ddd8@%%@AE@%. The most stable isotope has a
half-life of 21.6 years. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%action painting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%action painting%@AE@%:%@CR:ACTION.PAINTING @%%@QR:action painting@% see %@AU@%ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:            754d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%activation energy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%activation energy%@AE@%:%@CR:ACTIVATGY       @%%@QR:activation energy@% see %@AU@%CATALYST%@BO:          1a13a9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%active%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%active%@AE@%:%@CR:ACTIVE          @%%@QR:active@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1c55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Acts of the Apostles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Acts of the Apostles%@AE@%,%@CR:ACTS.OFSTLES    @%%@QR:Acts of the Apostles@% fifth book of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, between the%@EH@%
%@AU@%GOSPELS%@BO:          3ba55d@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%EPISTLES%@BO:          2f8556@%%@AE@%. The only contemporary historical account of
%@AU@%CHRISTIANITY'S%@BO:          1df35f@%%@AE@% early expansion, it was written between AD 60 and 80 as a
sequel to the Gospel of St. %@AU@%LUKE%@BO:          57c990@%%@AE@%, who is its traditional author. The Acts
chiefly deal with the work of St. %@AU@%PETER%@BO:          73f868@%%@AE@% (1-12) and St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@% (13-21).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%acupuncture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%acupuncture%@AE@%,%@CR:ACUPUNCTURE     @%%@QR:acupuncture@% technique of medical treatment, based on traditional Chinese%@EH@%
medicine, in which a number of very fine metal needles are inserted into
the skin at any of some 800 specially designated points. In China it has
long been used for pain relief and treatment of such ailments as
%@AU@%ARTHRITIS%@BO:           846a1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ULCERS%@BO:          998a57@%%@AE@%. More recently it has been used as an
%@AU@%ANESTHESIA%@BO:           56524@%%@AE@% for childbirth and some surgery. (Unlike conventional
anesthesia, it does not lower blood pressure or depress breathing.) It
has been suggested that acupuncture works by stimulating the production
of %@AU@%ENDORPHINS%@BO:          2ec691@%%@AE@%. U.S. research on acupuncture has focused on its use in
pain relief and anesthesia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ADA%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ADA%@AE@%:%@CR:ADA             @%%@QR:ADA@% see %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adam%@AE@%%@CR:ADAM1           @%%@QR:Adam@% [Heb.,=man], in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, the first man. His story, from his%@EH@%
creation to his expulsion (with %@AU@%EVE%@BO:          30e3e2@%%@AE@%, his wife) from the Garden of %@AU@%EDEN%@BO:          2c5d8a@%%@AE@%,
is told in Gen. 1.26-5.5. To St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%, Adam represented the earthy side
of man, as in 1 Cor. 15.20-22, 42-58.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adam, Adolphe Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adam, Adolphe Charles%@AE@%%@CR:ADAM2           @%%@QR:Adam, Adolphe Charles@%, 1803-56, French composer. His more than 50 stage%@EH@%
works include the ballet %@AI@%Giselle%@AE@% (1841). He also wrote the popular song
%@AI@%Cantique de Noel%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adam, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adam, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAM3           @%%@QR:Adam, Robert@% 1728-92, and %@AB@%James Adam,%@AE@% 1730-94, Scottish architects,%@EH@%
brothers. Robert possessed the great creative talents. They designed
public and private buildings in England and Scotland, and numerous
interiors, pieces of furniture, and decorative objects. Robert's light,
elegant style was a personal reconstitution of Palladian, Renaissance,
and antique elements. The Adam manner grew vastly popular and has never
disappeared. Interesting examples of Adam planning and decoration are at
Osterly Park (1761-80) and Syon House (1762-69), both near London.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adams%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adams%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAMS1          @%%@QR:Adams@% family of distinguished Americans from Massachusetts. %@AB@%John Adams%@AE@%%@EH@%
was president of the U.S. (see separate article). He and his wife,
Abigail (Smith) Adams, were the parents of %@AB@%John Quincy Adams,%@AE@% who was
also president of the U.S. (see separate article). His son, %@AB@%Charles
%@AB@%Francis Adams,%@AE@% 1807-86, b. Boston, was U.S. minister to Great Britain
(1861-68). He maintained the Northern cause with a wisdom and dignity
that won British respect, and he is credited with preventing British
recognition of the %@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@%. Later he represented the U.S. in the
settlement of the %@AU@%ALABAMA CLAIMS%@BO:           2994a@%%@AE@%. His son %@AB@%Charles Francis Adams,%@AE@%
1835-1915, b. Boston, was an economist and historian. An expert on
railroad financing, he was president of the Union Pacific RR (1884-90).
His works include %@AI@%Three Episodes of Massachusetts History%@AE@% (1892). His
brother %@AB@%Brooks Adams,%@AE@% 1848-1927, b. Quincy, Mass., was a historian. His
belief that civilizations rose and fell according to the growth and
decline of commerce was first developed in %@AI@%The Law of Civilization and
%@AI@%Decay%@AE@% (1895). Among his other important works are %@AI@%America's Economic
%@AI@%Supremacy%@AE@% (1900) and %@AI@%Theory of Social Revolutions%@AE@% (1913). His ideas
influenced another brother, %@AB@%Henry Adams,%@AE@% 1838-1918, b. Boston, who was
also a writer and historian. In developing a philosophy of history he
found a unifying principle in force, or energy, and applied it in two
books, %@AI@%Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres%@AE@% (1913) and %@AI@%The Education of Henry
%@AI@%Adams%@AE@% (1918). He also wrote %@AI@%History of the United States of America%@AE@% (9
vol., 1889-91).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adams, Ansel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adams, Ansel%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAMS2          @%%@QR:Adams, Ansel@% 1902-84, American photographer; b. San Francisco. Working%@EH@%
against the aesthetic of the 1930s, he produced superb regional
landscapes, notably of the American Southwest. He also wrote technical
manuals and helped to found the first museum and college photography
departments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adams, James Truslow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adams, James Truslow%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAMS3          @%%@QR:Adams, James Truslow@% 1878-1949, American historian; b. Brooklyn, N.Y.%@EH@%
His works include %@AI@%The Founding of New England%@AE@% (1921; Pulitzer), %@AI@%The Adams
%@AI@%Family%@AE@% (1930), and %@AI@%The Epic of America%@AE@% (1931). He was editor of the
%@AI@%Dictionary of American History%@AE@% (6 vol., 1940).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adams, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adams, John%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAMS4          @%%@QR:Adams, John@% 1735-1826, 2d president of the U.S. (1797-1801); b. Quincy%@EH@%
(then in Braintree), Mass.; father of John Quincy %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:           10887@%%@AE@%. He graduated
from Harvard Univ. in 1755 and became a lawyer. As a moderate but
forceful leader of the group who opposed British measures leading to the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, he later served in both %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESSES%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% and
argued eloquently for the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%, which he signed.
Adams served the new nation as a diplomat, negotiating the Treaty of
%@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          714f41@%%@AE@% (1783) to end the Revolution and serving (1785-88) as envoy to
Great Britain. He became Pres. %@AU@%WASHINGTON'S%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% vice president (1789-97) and
in 1797 succeeded him as president. Adams's administration as president
revealed his honest and stubborn integrity. Although allied with
Alexander %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f7530@%%@AE@% and the conservative, property-respecting Federalists,
he was not dominated by them in their struggle with the Jeffersonians
(see %@AU@%JEFFERSON, THOMAS%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%). By conciliation he prevented war with France
(see %@AU@%XYZ AFFAIR%@BO:          a3d73f@%%@AE@%). He did not wholly support the %@AU@%ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS%@BO:           3bf48@%%@AE@%.
After 1801 he lived in retirement in Quincy. His wife, %@AB@%Abigail (Smith)
%@AB@%Adams,%@AE@% 1744-1818, b. Weymouth, Mass., was the chief figure in the social
life of her husband's administration. Lively and intelligent, she was one
of the most distinguished and influential of American first ladies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adams, John Couch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adams, John Couch%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAMS5          @%%@QR:Adams, John Couch@% 1819-92, English astronomer. By mathematical%@EH@%
calculation based on irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus,
he and U.J.J. %@AU@%LEVERRIER%@BO:          54547b@%%@AE@% independently and accurately predicted (1845-46)
the position of the then unknown planet %@AU@%NEPTUNE%@BO:          683ade@%%@AE@%. Adams also made valuable
studies of the moon's motions, of the great meteor shower of 1866, and of
terrestrial magnetism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adams, John Quincy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adams, John Quincy%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAMS6          @%%@QR:Adams, John Quincy@% 1767-1848, 6th president of the U.S. (1825-29); b.%@EH@%
Quincy (then in Braintree), Mass; son of John and Abigail %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:            ff02@%%@AE@%; father
of Charles Francis Adams (see %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:            f417@%%@AE@%, family). As U.S. senator from
Massachusetts (1803-8), he angered his fellow Federalists by supporting
Jeffersonian policies (see %@AU@%JEFFERSON, THOMAS%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%). He gained fame as
secretary of state (1817-25) for Pres. James %@AU@%MONROE%@BO:          630212@%%@AE@%, his greatest
achievement being the %@AU@%MONROE DOCTRINE%@BO:          6309de@%%@AE@%. Elected president (1825) in the
House of Representatives through the support of Henry %@AU@%CLAY%@BO:          1f1eda@%%@AE@%, Adams had an
unhappy, ineffective administration, despite his attempts to institute a
program of internal improvements. He won new respect as a U.S.
representative from Massachusetts (1831-48), eloquently attacking all
measures that would extend %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adams, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adams, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAMS7          @%%@QR:Adams, Samuel@% 1722-1803, American Revolutionary patriot; b. Boston. His%@EH@%
speeches and writings helped to spark the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. He signed
the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%, was a member (1774-81) of the
%@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@%, and was governor (1794-97) of Massachusetts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adana%@AE@%,%@CR:ADANA           @%%@QR:Adana@% city (1985 pop. 776,000), capital of Adana prov., S Turkey, on the%@EH@%
Seyhan R. Turkey's fourth largest city, it is the commercial center of a
farming region where cotton, grains, and other crops are grown. The
city's manufactures include processed food and textiles. An ancient city
probably founded by the %@AU@%HITTITES%@BO:          43399d@%%@AE@%, it prospered from 66 BC as a Roman
colony. It later declined but was revived (AD c.782) by %@AU@%HARUN AR-RASHID%@BO:          405115@%%@AE@%.
In the 16th cent. it passed to the Ottoman Turks. Near Adana is a Hittite
archaeological site.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adaptation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adaptation%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAPTATION      @%%@QR:adaptation@% in biology, the adjustment of living matter to environmental%@EH@%
conditions, including other living things. Animals and plants are adapted
for securing food and surviving even in conditions of drought, great
heat, or extreme cold. Adaptations are believed to arise when genetic
variations that increase an organism's chances of survival are passed on
to succeeding generations. See also %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adaptive radiation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adaptive radiation%@AE@%,%@CR:ADAPTIVION      @%%@QR:adaptive radiation@% in biology, the evolution of an ancestral species%@EH@%
adapted to a particular way of life into several species, each adapted to
a different habitat. Illustrating the principle are the 14 species of
%@AU@%DARWIN'S%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@% finches, small land birds of the Galapagos Islands: 3 are
ground-dwelling seedeaters, 3 live on cactus plants and are seedeaters, 1
is a tree-dwelling seedeater, 7 are tree-dwelling insect eaters, but all
derive from a single species of ground-dwelling, seedeating finch that
probably emigrated from the South American mainland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Addams, Charles Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Addams, Charles Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:ADDAMS1         @%%@QR:Addams, Charles Samuel@% 1912-88, American cartoonist; b. Westfield, N.J.%@EH@%
His work, best known from %@AI@%The New Yorker%@AE@% magazine, is famed for its wit,
fantasy, and sense of the macabre.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Addams, Jane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Addams, Jane%@AE@%,%@CR:ADDAMS2         @%%@QR:Addams, Jane@% 1860-1935, American social worker; b. Cedar ville, Ill. In%@EH@%
1889 she and Ellen Gates Starr founded Hull House, a Chicago settlement
house that served the neighborhood poor and became a center for social
reform activities. A leader of the %@AU@%WOMAN SUFFRAGE%@BO:          a2d595@%%@AE@% and pacifist movements,
Addams shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize. She wrote several books on
social issues and two autobiographical volumes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%addax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%addax%@AE@%:%@CR:ADDAX           @%%@QR:addax@% see %@AU@%ANTELOPE%@BO:           604e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adder%@AE@%:%@CR:ADDER           @%%@QR:adder@% see %@AU@%VIPER%@BO:          9dbbad@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%addiction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%addiction%@AE@%:%@CR:ADDICTION       @%%@QR:addiction@% see %@AU@%DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Addis Ababa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Addis Ababa%@AE@%,%@CR:ADDIS.ABABA     @%%@QR:Addis Ababa@% city (1984 est. pop. 1,412,575), capital of Ethiopia. Addis%@EH@%
Ababa is Ethiopia's largest city, its administrative and communications
center, and the main trade center for coffee (Ethiopia's chief export),
tobacco, grains, and hides; much of its commerce is shipped by rail to
the port of %@AU@%DJIBOUTI%@BO:          299d5d@%%@AE@%. Addis Ababa became (1889) Ethiopia's capital and
was captured (1936) by the Italians and made the capital of %@AU@%ITALIAN EAST
%@AU@%AFRICA%@BO:          4a533f@%%@AE@%. It was retaken by the Allies in 1941 and returned to Ethiopian
rule. A modern city, it has been the site of many international
conferences and organizations, including the %@AU@%ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN
%@AU@%UNITY%@BO:          6ebb82@%%@AE@%. Notable buildings include Coptic and Roman Catholic cathedrals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Addison, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Addison, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:ADDISON         @%%@QR:Addison, Joseph@% 1672-1719, English essayist, poet, and statesman. His%@EH@%
%@AI@%Remarks on Italy%@AE@% (1705) recorded early travels. The prominence he
attained with the epic %@AI@%Campaign%@AE@% (1704) on %@AU@%MARLBOROUGH'S%@BO:          5be6d7@%%@AE@% victory at
Blenheim led to political appointments, and he served in Parliament
(1708-19). Addison contributed to his friend Richard %@AU@%STEELE'S%@BO:          8e8f9b@%%@AE@% periodical
the %@AI@%Tatler%@AE@% after 1710. There, and in the %@AU@%SPECTATOR%@BO:          8d4c58@%%@AE@% and %@AI@%Guardian,%@AE@% he
raised the English essay to an unequaled height. In prose marked by
simplicity, order, and precision, Addison advocated reason and moderation
in life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Addison's disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Addison's disease%@AE@%,%@CR:ADDISONE        @%%@QR:Addison's disease@% progressive disease brought about by atrophy of the%@EH@%
outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland; also called chronic
adrenocortical insufficiency. The deterioration of this tissue causes a
decrease in the secretion of vital steroid hormones, producing such
symptoms as %@AU@%ANEMIA%@BO:           56094@%%@AE@%, weakness, abnormal skin pigmentation, and weight
loss. The cause of the disease is unknown. Once thought inevitably fatal,
the disease is treated with adrenocortical hormones that enable its
victims to lead a nearly normal life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adelaide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adelaide%@AE@%,%@CR:ADELAIDE        @%%@QR:Adelaide@% city (1986 est. pop. 993,100), capital and chief port of South%@EH@%
Australia, at the mouth of the Torrens R., on Gulf St. Vincent. It has
automotive, textile, and other industries, and exports grains, wool,
dairy products, and fruit. Founded in 1836, it was named for William IV's
consort. The biennial Adelaide Festival of the Arts, begun in 1960, is
held in the Adelaide Festival Centre (opened 1977). It is also known for
its parks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aden%@AE@%,%@CR:ADEN1           @%%@QR:Aden@% city (1984 est. pop. 318,000), capital and chief port of Southern%@EH@%
Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), on the Gulf of Aden near
the southern entrance to the Red Sea. The city is built on two
peninsulas, each with a high volcanic headland. Most of the population
lives on Aden peninsula; Little Aden peninsula has an oil refinery and
other industries. Aden has been the chief trade center of S %@AU@%ARABIA%@BO:           6f4bc@%%@AE@% since
ancient times. It declined with the discovery (15th cent.) of an
all-water route around Africa to India, but revived when the %@AU@%SUEZ CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@%
opened in 1869. The region was held by Muslim Arabs (7th-16th cent.) and
by the Ottoman Turks (from 1538). The British captured Aden in 1839 and
made it a crown colony in 1935. In 1967 Southern Yemen became
independent; Aden has been its capital since 1970.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aden, Gulf of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aden, Gulf of%@AE@%,%@CR:ADEN2           @%%@QR:Aden, Gulf of@% western arm of the Arabian Sea, 550 mi (885 km) long,%@EH@%
between E Africa and SW Asia. It is connected with the %@AU@%RED SEA%@BO:          7d62c7@%%@AE@% by the %@AU@%BAB
%@AU@%EL MANDEB%@BO:           a9ca7@%%@AE@% and is an important link in the %@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN SEA%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@%-%@AU@%SUEZ
%@AU@%CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@%-%@AU@%INDIAN OCEAN%@BO:          47934f@%%@AE@% sea lane.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adenauer, Konrad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adenauer, Konrad%@AE@%,%@CR:ADENAUER        @%%@QR:Adenauer, Konrad@% 1876-1967, West German chancellor (1949-63). He was a%@EH@%
member of the Catholic Center party until 1933, when he was imprisoned by
the %@AU@%NAZIS%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@%. After World War II he was a founder and president of the
Christian Democratic Union. As chancellor, he presided over the
spectacular rebirth of West %@AU@%GERMANY'S%@BO:          398bcc@%%@AE@% economy, and guided that nation's
reentry into the European community and recovery in 1955 of its full
sovereignty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adenoids%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adenoids%@AE@%:%@CR:ADENOIDS        @%%@QR:adenoids@% see %@AU@%TONSILS%@BO:          969daf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adenosine triphosphate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adenosine triphosphate%@AE@%%@CR:ADENOSIOSPHATE  @%%@QR:adenosine triphosphate@% (ATP), compound composed of adenine (a %@AU@%PURINE%@BO:          7b18bb@%%@AE@%),%@EH@%
ribose, and three phosphate units; one of the most important
low-molecular-weight molecules in living matter. It is a rich source of
the chemical energy necessary for the success of a vast number of
chemical reactions in the cell. ATP also plays a role in kidney function,
transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, active transport of
materials through cell membranes, and synthesis of %@AU@%NUCLEIC ACIDS%@BO:          6c2767@%%@AE@% and
other large molecules.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adhesion and cohesion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adhesion and cohesion%@AE@%,%@CR:ADHESIOHESION   @%%@QR:adhesion and cohesion@% attractive forces between material bodies.%@EH@%
Adhesive forces act between different substances, whereas cohesive forces
act within a single substance, holding its atoms, ions, or molecules
together. Without these forces, solids and liquids would act as gases.
%@AU@%SURFACE TENSION%@BO:          91177b@%%@AE@% in liquids results from cohesion, and %@AU@%CAPILLARITY%@BO:          1885a8@%%@AE@% results
from a combination of adhesion and cohesion. %@AU@%FRICTION%@BO:          3660b4@%%@AE@% between two solid
bodies depends in part on adhesion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adirondack Mountains%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adirondack Mountains%@AE@%,%@CR:ADIRONDTAINS    @%%@QR:Adirondack Mountains@% forested mountain wilderness area, NE New York,%@EH@%
with many scenic gorges, waterfalls, and lakes. The Adirondacks rise to a
high point of 5,344 ft (1,629 m) at Mt. Marcy and are geologically a
southern extension of the %@AU@%CANADIAN SHIELD%@BO:          1810c9@%%@AE@%. Lake Placid and Lake George
are important area resorts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adjective%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adjective%@AE@%:%@CR:ADJECTIVE       @%%@QR:adjective@% see %@AU@%PART OF SPEECH%@BO:          71c3b9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adler, Alfred%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adler, Alfred%@AE@%,%@CR:ADLER1          @%%@QR:Adler, Alfred@% 1870-1937, Austrian psychiatrist, early associate of%@EH@%
Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@% and founder of the school of individual psychology.
Rejecting Freud's emphasis on sex, Adler maintained that personality
difficulties are rooted in a feeling of inferiority (see %@AU@%COMPLEX%@BO:          214990@%%@AE@%)
deriving from restrictions on the individual's need for self-assertion.
His best-known work is %@AI@%The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology%@AE@%
(1923).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adler, Cyrus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adler, Cyrus%@AE@%,%@CR:ADLER2          @%%@QR:Adler, Cyrus@% 1863-1940, American Jewish educator; b. Van Buren, Ark.%@EH@%
Founder of the American Jewish Historical Society, American Jewish
Committee, and Jewish Welfare Board, he was president of Dropsie College
(1908-40) and the Jewish Theological Seminary (1924-40). He was an editor
of the %@AI@%Jewish Encyclopedia%@AE@%, and wrote articles and books.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adler, Felix%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adler, Felix%@AE@%,%@CR:ADLER3          @%%@QR:Adler, Felix@% 1851-1933, American educator and leader in social welfare;%@EH@%
b. Germany. Founder of the %@AU@%ETHICAL CULTURE MOVEMENT%@BO:          304a81@%%@AE@% (1876) and Society,
he also organized the Workingmen's Lyceum, the Workingmen's School, and
the Manhattan Trade School for Girls. He was for many years chairman of
the National Child Labor Committee, and wrote %@AI@%Creed and Deed%@AE@% (1877) and
%@AI@%An Ethical Philosophy of Life%@AE@% (1918), among other books.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adler, Larry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adler, Larry%@AE@%,%@CR:ADLER4          @%%@QR:Adler, Larry@% 1914-, American harmonica player; b. Baltimore. He played%@EH@%
with the world's major symphony orchestras and is generally credited with
elevating the harmonica to concert status in the classical music world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adolescence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adolescence%@AE@%,%@CR:ADOLESCENCE     @%%@QR:adolescence@% time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood.%@EH@%
Falling approximately between the ages of 12 and 21, adolescence is
characterized by physical changes leading to sexual maturity, problems of
sex-role identification and achievement, and movement toward personal
independence. Psychologists regard adolescence as a period of social
pressure specifically related to the society, not as a unique biological
period.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adonis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adonis%@AE@%,%@CR:ADONIS          @%%@QR:Adonis@% in Greek mythology, beautiful youth loved by %@AU@%APHRODITE%@BO:           6a3b4@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%PERSEPHONE%@BO:          739443@%%@AE@%. When he was killed by a boar, both goddesses claimed him.
%@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% decreed that he spend half the year above the ground with Aphrodite,
the other half in the underworld with Persephone. His death and
resurrection, symbolic of the seasonal cycle, were celebrated at the
festival Adonia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adoption%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adoption%@AE@%,%@CR:ADOPTION        @%%@QR:adoption@% act creating the legal relation of parent and child. It was%@EH@%
known in antiquity but was not part of the English %@AU@%COMMON LAW%@BO:          21060f@%%@AE@%. In the
U.S. it is governed by statute. Adoption's historical roots include the
need to continue a family line where there is no natural heir. Today the
usual focus is the child's welfare. A hearing before a judge is generally
required, as is consent of the natural parent or guardian and that of the
child if he or she is above a certain age. The natural parents generally
lose their rights and duties toward the child; the adoptive parents
assume them. Many states now permit adoption by unmarried adults.
Adoption by relatives is most common; in adoption by unrelated adults,
the courts attempt to ease adjustment to the adoptive family by
maintaining secrecy regarding the child's origin. In recent years,
however, a growing number of adopted children have attempted to identify
their natural parents. %@AU@%FOSTER CARE%@BO:          34bb0d@%%@AE@% is an arrangement in which a family or
institution provides a home for a child whose parents cannot care for him
(or her); unlike adoption, foster care is temporary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund%@AE@%,%@CR:ADORNO          @%%@QR:Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund@% 1903-69, German philosopher, sociologist,%@EH@%
and music critic. From 1928, he was closely associated with the Frankfurt
Institute for Social Research. When the Nazis came to power, he emigrated
to Britain (1934) and then the U.S. (1938), where with Max Horkheimer he
wrote the %@AI@%Dialectic of Enlightenment%@AE@% (1947) and collaborated on %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Authoritarian Personality%@AE@% (1950), a study of fascism. He returned to
Frankfurt (1949) and was director (1958-69) of the institute.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adrenal glands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adrenal glands%@AE@%,%@CR:ADRENAL.GLANDS  @%%@QR:adrenal glands@% pair of small endocrine glands (see %@AU@%ENDOCRINE SYSTEM%@BO:          2ebe7a@%%@AE@%)%@EH@%
situated atop the kidneys. The outer yellowish layer (cortex) secretes
about 30 steroid hormones, most importantly aldosterone, which regulates
water and salt balance in the body, and cortisol, which controls
carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. The inner reddish portion
(medulla) of the adrenals secretes the emergency-response hormones
%@AU@%EPINEPHRINE%@BO:          2f7384@%%@AE@% (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adrenaline%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adrenaline%@AE@%:%@CR:ADRENALINE      @%%@QR:adrenaline@% see %@AU@%EPINEPHRINE%@BO:          2f7384@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adrian I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adrian I%@AE@%,%@CR:ADRIAN.I        @%%@QR:Adrian I@% d. 795, pope (772-95). A Roman, he successfully urged%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% to defeat the %@AU@%LOMBARDS%@BO:          565551@%%@AE@% and acquired from him additional lands
for the %@AU@%PAPAL STATES%@BO:          70d930@%%@AE@%. He supported the Byzantine empress Irene in her
struggle against %@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adrian IV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adrian IV%@AE@%,%@CR:ADRIAN.IV       @%%@QR:Adrian IV@% d. 1159, pope (1154-59). The only Englishman to become pope,%@EH@%
he was originally named Nicholas Breakspear. In 1155 he defeated the
opposition of Arnold of Brescia and crowned Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FREDERICK
%@AU@%I%@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%. He later quarreled with Frederick and William I of Sicily. His
donation of Ireland as a fief to Henry II of England is disputed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adrian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adrian%@AE@%,%@CR:ADRIAN1         @%%@QR:Adrian@% Roman emperor: see %@AU@%HADRIAN%@BO:          3eea85@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adrian, Gilbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adrian, Gilbert%@AE@%:%@CR:ADRIAN2         @%%@QR:Adrian, Gilbert@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adriatic Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adriatic Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:ADRIATIC.SEA    @%%@QR:Adriatic Sea@% arm of the %@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN SEA%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@%, c.500 mi (800 km) long,%@EH@%
between Italy (W) and Yugoslavia and Albania (E). It is 58-140 mi (93-225
km) wide, with a maximum depth of c.4,100 ft (1,250 m). %@AU@%VENICE%@BO:          9c7c5c@%%@AE@% is the
chief port.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adsorption%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adsorption%@AE@%,%@CR:ADSORPTION      @%%@QR:adsorption@% the adhesion of molecules to the surfaces of solids, as%@EH@%
opposed to %@AU@%ABSORPTION%@BO:            7349@%%@AE@%, in which the molecules actually enter the
absorbing medium. Charcoal, for example, which has a great surface area
because of its porous nature, can adsorb large volumes of gases,
including most of the poisonous ones, and thus is used in gas masks and
filters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adult education%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adult education%@AE@%%@CR:ADULT.EDUCATION @%%@QR:adult education@% or %@AB@%continuing education,%@AE@%organized instruction provided to%@EH@%
men and women beyond the age of general public education. The range of
emphasis in adult education has come to include everything from the
job-oriented (see %@AU@%VOCATIONAL EDUCATION%@BO:          9e1568@%%@AE@%) to the purely academic. Modern
adult education probably began with European political groups and
vocational classes. In the U.S., some forms date from colonial times;
Benjamin %@AU@%FRANKLIN%@BO:          357a50@%%@AE@% was among those who established debating and discussion
groups. In the 19th cent. the %@AU@%LYCEUM%@BO:          583337@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT%@BO:          1c53b0@%%@AE@%
contributed to the growth of adult education. Public lectures were
popular, and the establishment of %@AU@%LAND-GRANT COLLEGES%@BO:          51e248@%%@AE@% stimulated the
demand for education in the developing heartland. By the end of the
century other forms, among them labor colleges, correspondence schools,
and factory and other vocational classes, had come into being. The %@AU@%GREAT
%@AU@%DEPRESSION%@BO:          3cd5ed@%%@AE@% brought an increased demand for practical training, and after
World War II the G.I. Bill of Rights enabled thousands to attend schools
and colleges. Adult education today faces an increasing demand created by
expanding leisure time, a highly competitive labor market, and greater
population growth, especially among young adults and those past
traditional retirement age. The field now embraces such diverse areas as
high-school equivalency; physical and emotional development; practical
arts; applied science; recreation; and academic, business, and
professional subjects; the courses are provided in schools, colleges,
libraries, work places, and other facilities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Advent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Advent%@AE@%,%@CR:ADVENT          @%%@QR:Advent@% Christian penitential season, lasting in the West from the Sunday%@EH@%
nearest Nov. 30 until Christmas. It is the first season of the church
calendar.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Advent Christian Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Advent Christian Church%@AE@%:%@CR:ADVENT.N.CHURCH @%%@QR:Advent Christian Church@% see %@AU@%ADVENTISTS%@BO:           164cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Adventists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Adventists%@AE@%,%@CR:ADVENTISTS      @%%@QR:Adventists@% members of a group of religious denominations whose%@EH@%
distinctive doctrine centers in their belief concerning the imminent
second coming of Christ. Adventism is specifically applied to the
teachings of William Miller. The largest group, the Seventh-Day
Adventists, were formally organized in 1863 and are fundamentally
evangelical. Other Adventist groups are the Church of God, the Advent
Christian Church, and the Primitive Advent Christian Church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%adverb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%adverb%@AE@%:%@CR:ADVERB          @%%@QR:adverb@% see %@AU@%PART OF SPEECH%@BO:          71c3b9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%advertising%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%advertising%@AE@%,%@CR:ADVERTISING     @%%@QR:advertising@% in general, any openly sponsored offering of goods,%@EH@%
services, or ideas through any medium of public communication. The main
advertising media include newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and
direct mail. The advertising agency, working on a commission basis, has
been largely responsible for the development of modern advertising.
Defenders of advertising say that it is meant to sell products, not
create values, and that it furthers product improvement through
competition, while critics contend that it creates false values and
impels people to buy things they neither need nor want. The U.S. is the
world leader in advertising expenditures, and the term "Madison Avenue"
(the street in N.Y.C. where many advertising agencies have had
headquarters) has come to symbolize the industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%A.E.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%A.E.%@AE@%:%@CR:AE              @%%@QR:A.E.@% see %@AU@%RUSSELL, GEORGE WILLIAM%@BO:          822274@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aegean civilization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aegean civilization%@AE@%%@CR:AEGEAN.TION     @%%@QR:Aegean civilization@%, cultures of pre-Hellenic %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%MINOAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          613426@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
flourished on Crete and %@AU@%MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          65cb03@%%@AE@% on the Greek mainland.
Sites of other cultures have been found at %@AU@%TROY%@BO:          981d40@%%@AE@% and in the Cyclades.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aegean Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aegean Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:AEGEAN.SEA      @%%@QR:Aegean Sea@% arm of the %@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN SEA%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@%, off SE Europe, between Greece%@EH@%
and Turkey, center of the classical Greek world. The island-studded sea
is c.400 mi (640 km) long, 200 mi (320 km) wide, and more than 6,600 ft
(2,010 m) deep off N %@AU@%CRETE%@BO:          248b02@%%@AE@% at its southern limit. Major islands include
%@AU@%EVVOIA%@BO:          310484@%%@AE@%, the Sporades, the %@AU@%CYCLADES%@BO:          259dd0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SAMOS%@BO:          83cdd0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KHIOS%@BO:          4f5796@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LESBOS%@BO:          5435a7@%%@AE@%, Thasos, and the
%@AU@%DODECANESE%@BO:          29b874@%%@AE@%. Sardines and sponges are taken from the sea, and some natural
gas has been found off NE Greece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aegisthus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aegisthus%@AE@%,%@CR:AEGISTHUS       @%%@QR:Aegisthus@% in Greek mythology, son of Thyestes. Aegisthus revenged his%@EH@%
brothers' murder by killing his uncle %@AU@%ATREUS%@BO:           99e55@%%@AE@%. He was later %@AU@%CLYTEMNESTRA'S%@BO:          1fa977@%%@AE@%
lover, helped her to slay %@AU@%AGAMEMNON%@BO:           1f531@%%@AE@%, and was himself killed by %@AU@%ORESTES%@BO:          6ea70f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aeken, Jerom van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aeken, Jerom van%@AE@%:%@CR:AEKEN           @%%@QR:Aeken, Jerom van@% see %@AU@%BOSCH, HIERONYMUS%@BO:          125d14@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aemilian Way%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aemilian Way%@AE@%:%@CR:AEMILIAN.WAY    @%%@QR:Aemilian Way@% see %@AU@%ROMAN ROADS%@BO:          80a181@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aeneas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aeneas%@AE@%%@CR:AENEAS          @%%@QR:Aeneas@%, in classical legend, a Trojan; son of Anchises and %@AU@%VENUS%@BO:          9c8ea6@%%@AE@%. After%@EH@%
Troy's fall he escaped, tarried with %@AU@%DIDO%@BO:          28de35@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%CARTHAGE%@BO:          197101@%%@AE@%, then went to
Italy, where his descendants founded Rome. His deeds are celebrated in
%@AU@%VERGIL'S%@BO:          9ca1fb@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Aeneid%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aeolians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aeolians%@AE@%:%@CR:AEOLIANS        @%%@QR:Aeolians@% see %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aerial%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aerial%@AE@%:%@CR:AERIAL          @%%@QR:aerial@% see %@AU@%ANTENNA%@BO:           60878@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aerobics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aerobics%@AE@%%@CR:AEROBICS        @%%@QR:aerobics@% [from Gr. meaning=with oxygen], endurance exercises in which the%@EH@%
volume of breathing is increased and the heart is forced to beat faster
than usual for a prolonged period of time, thereby pumping an increased
amount of oxygen-rich blood to the muscles being used. Such aerobic
activities as running, swimming, and cycling can strengthen the
cardiovascular system, improving the body's use of oxygen and allowing
the heart to work less strenuously.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aerodynamics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aerodynamics%@AE@%,%@CR:AERODYNAMICS    @%%@QR:aerodynamics@% study of gases in motion. Because the principal application%@EH@%
of aerodynamics is the design of %@AU@%AIRPLANES%@BO:           261f2@%%@AE@%, air is the principal gas with
which this science is concerned. Bernoulli's principle, which states that
the pressure of a moving gas decreases as its velocity increases, has
been used to explain the lift produced by a wing having a curved upper
surface and a flat lower surface (see %@AU@%AIRFOIL%@BO:           25258@%%@AE@%). Because the flow is
faster across the curved surface than across the plane one, a greater
pressure is exerted in the upward direction. Aerodynamics is also
concerned with the drag caused by air friction, which is reduced by
making the surface area of the craft as small as possible. At speeds
close to the speed of sound, or Mach 1 (see %@AU@%MACH NUMBER%@BO:          58d76a@%%@AE@%), there is also a
large, sudden increase of drag, which has been called the sonic, or
sound, barrier. Aerodynamics is also used in designing automobile bodies
and trains for minimum drag and in computing wind stresses on bridges,
buildings, and the like. The %@AU@%WIND TUNNEL%@BO:          a24f0e@%%@AE@% is one of the basic experimental
tools of the aerodynamicist. See %@AU@%SHOCK WAVE%@BO:          887ff4@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SONIC BOOM%@BO:          8b8cfd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aeronautics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aeronautics%@AE@%:%@CR:AERONAUTICS     @%%@QR:aeronautics@% see %@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AIRPLANE%@BO:           261f2@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AVIATION%@BO:           a4f19@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aerosol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aerosol%@AE@%,%@CR:AEROSOL         @%%@QR:aerosol@% a %@AU@%COLLOID%@BO:          205ebf@%%@AE@% in which small solid or liquid particles are suspended%@EH@%
in a gas. Natural aerosols such as fog or smoke occur throughout the
%@AU@%ATMOSPHERE%@BO:           9710e@%%@AE@%, which is itself an aerosol. The term is also used to describe
a container of paint, insecticide, or other substance held under pressure
by a propellant, which releases the substance in the form of a fine spray
or foam. The fluorocarbon %@AU@%FREON%@BO:          36432b@%%@AE@% was until recently the most common
aerosol propellant, but its use has diminished because it is thought to
contribute to the destruction of the %@AU@%OZONE%@BO:          6fdb76@%%@AE@% layer of the stratosphere.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aeschines%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aeschines%@AE@%,%@CR:AESCHINES       @%%@QR:Aeschines@% c.390-314? BC, Athenian orator. He became politically powerful%@EH@%
through his oratorical gifts. Opposing resistance to %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@% of
Macedon, he was the bitter rival of %@AU@%DEMOSTHENES%@BO:          27e841@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aeschylus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aeschylus%@AE@%%@CR:AESCHYLUS       @%%@QR:Aeschylus@%, 525-456 BC, Athenian tragic poet. First of the three great%@EH@%
Greek tragedians, he preceded %@AU@%SOPHOCLES%@BO:          8ba3a2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@%. He wrote perhaps
90 plays, of which seven survive intact. Often credited with inventing
%@AU@%TRAGEDY%@BO:          97260f@%%@AE@%, he added an actor to what had been a dialogue, thus increasing
its possibilities. His choral lyrics rank with those of %@AU@%PINDAR%@BO:          75cd12@%%@AE@%. Among his
best-known plays are %@AI@%The Seven against Thebes%@AE@% and %@AI@%Prometheus Bound.%@AE@% His
only extant trilogy, the %@AI@%Oresteia,%@AE@% a history of the house of %@AU@%ATREUS%@BO:           99e55@%%@AE@%, is
considered by many the greatest Attic tragedy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aesop%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aesop%@AE@%,%@CR:AESOP           @%%@QR:Aesop@% semilegendary ancient Greek fabulist, supposedly a slave. The%@EH@%
%@AU@%FABLES%@BO:          317402@%%@AE@% called Aesop's were preserved by various writers and include "The
Fox and the Grapes" and "The Tortoise and the Hare."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aesthetics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aesthetics%@AE@%,%@CR:AESTHETICS      @%%@QR:aesthetics@% branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art and the%@EH@%
criteria of artistic judgment. The conception of art as imitation of
nature was formulated by %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@% and developed by %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%, both of whom
held that beauty inheres in the object itself and may be judged
objectively. %@AU@%KANT%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@% held that the subject may have universal validity,
while other thinkers, e.g., %@AU@%HUME%@BO:          453d29@%%@AE@%, identified beauty with that which
pleases the observer. Modern philosophers especially concerned with
aesthetic questions have included %@AU@%CROCE%@BO:          24c1a9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CASSIRER%@BO:          19c518@%%@AE@%, John %@AU@%DEWEY%@BO:          2880b3@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%SANTAYANA%@BO:          8448a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AEthelbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AEthelbert%@AE@%%@CR:ATHELBERT1      @%%@QR:AEthelbert@%, d. 616, king of Kent (560?-616). Although he was defeated%@EH@%
(568) by the West Saxons, he later became the strongest ruler in S
England. In 597 he was converted to Christianity by St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE OF
%@AU@%CANTERBURY%@BO:           9c776@%%@AE@% and became the first Christian king of Anglo-Saxon England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AEthelbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AEthelbert%@AE@%,%@CR:ATHELBERT2      @%%@QR:AEthelbert@% d. 865, king of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@% (860-65), son of %@AU@%AETHELWULF%@BO:           19993@%%@AE@%. After his%@EH@%
father's death in 858, he ruled %@AU@%KENT%@BO:          4efe39@%%@AE@%, Surrey, %@AU@%SUSSEX%@BO:          91376f@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ESSEX%@BO:          301c45@%%@AE@%,
reuniting them with Wessex when in 860 he succeeded his brother
AEthelbald in that kingdom.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AEthelflad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AEthelflad%@AE@%%@CR:ATHELFLAD       @%%@QR:AEthelflad@% or %@AB@%Ethelfleda%@AE@% , d. 918, daughter of %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@% and wife of%@EH@%
AEthelred, ealdorman of %@AU@%MERCIA%@BO:          5edd6a@%%@AE@%. After her husband's death in 911, she
ruled the semi-independent Mercia alone and was known as the Lady of the
Mercians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AEthelred%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AEthelred%@AE@%,%@CR:ATHELRED        @%%@QR:AEthelred@% 965-1016, king of England (978-1016), called AEthelred the%@EH@%
Unready [Old Eng., without counsel]. He was the son of %@AU@%EDGAR%@BO:          2c616d@%%@AE@%, and the
half brother and successor of Edward the Martyr. A weak king, he reigned
at the height of Danish power. Although he began paying tribute through
the %@AU@%DANEGELD%@BO:          264d51@%%@AE@% to the Danes in 991, they returned in 997 to plunder his
realm, staying until 1000. In 1002 AEthelred married Emma, sister of the
duke of Normandy, possibly hoping to gain an ally. Although by 1009 a
navy existed, the treason of its commanders rendered it useless. In 1013
the Danish king Sweyn returned to conquer; he was well received in the
%@AU@%DANELAW%@BO:          264f35@%%@AE@% and London capitulated. AEthelred fled to Normandy but was
restored in 1014 on Sweyn's death. In 1016 AEthelred's son %@AU@%EDMUND
%@AU@%IRONSIDE%@BO:          2c73ee@%%@AE@% succeeded him, made a treaty with %@AU@%CANUTE%@BO:          185c3b@%%@AE@%, son of Sweyn, and
died. Canute succeeded him and married AEthelred's widow.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AEthelstan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AEthelstan%@AE@%:%@CR:ATHELSTAN1      @%%@QR:AEthelstan@% see %@AU@%ATHELSTAN%@BO:           94a59@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AEthelwulf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AEthelwulf%@AE@%%@CR:ATHELWULF       @%%@QR:AEthelwulf@%, d. 858, king of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@% (839-56), son of %@AU@%EGBERT%@BO:          2cb18c@%%@AE@% and father of%@EH@%
%@AU@%AETHELBERT%@BO:           19065@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@%. With his son AEthelbald, he won a notable victory
over the Danes at Aclea (851). He married Judith of France in 856. A man
of great piety, he learned while on a pilgrimage in Rome that AEthelbald
would resist his return. He left his son as king in Wessex and ruled in
Kent and its dependencies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aether%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aether%@AE@%:%@CR:AETHER          @%%@QR:aether@% see %@AU@%ETHER, %@BO:          304729@%%@AE@%in physics.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aetna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aetna%@AE@%:%@CR:AETNA           @%%@QR:Aetna@% see %@AU@%ETNA%@BO:          306c19@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aetolia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aetolia%@AE@%%@CR:AETOLIA         @%%@QR:Aetolia@%, region of ancient %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, N of the gulfs of Corinth and Calydon,%@EH@%
E of the Achelous R. It was the center of the %@AB@%Aetolian League%@AE@%, formed in
the 4th cent. BC to oppose the Achaean League (see under %@AU@%ACHAEA%@BO:            ad69@%%@AE@%) and the
Macedonians. With Rome it defeated %@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@% of Macedon (197 BC), but then
it allied itself against Rome with %@AU@%ANTIOCHUS III%@BO:           65a1a@%%@AE@% of Syria. His defeat
(189 BC) marked the end of the league's power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%affirmative action%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%affirmative action%@AE@%,%@CR:AFFIRMAION      @%%@QR:affirmative action@% U.S. program to overcome the effects of past%@EH@%
discrimination by giving some form of preferential treatment to ethnic
minorities and women. The term is usually applied to those plans that set
forth goals and time tables, required since the early 1970s of government
contractors and universities receiving public funds. The Equal Employment
Opportunities Act (1972) set up a commission to enforce such plans. The
establishment of racial quotas in the name of affirmative action brought
charges of so-called reverse discrimination in the late 1970s. The U.S.
Supreme Court accepted such an argument in 1978 in the %@AU@%UNIVERSITY OF
%@AU@%CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE%@BO:          9ad857@%%@AE@%, but in 1979 the Court approved the use of
quotas in a case involving voluntary affirmative-action programs in
unions and private businesses. In the 1980s, under the Reagan
administration, the federal government's role in affirmative action was
considerably diluted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%affluent society%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%affluent society%@AE@%,%@CR:AFFLUENY        @%%@QR:affluent society@% a term coined by John Kenneth %@AU@%GALBRAITH%@BO:          37560b@%%@AE@% in %@AI@%The Affluent%@EH@%
%@AI@%Society%@AE@% (1958) to describe the U.S. economy after World War II. Such a
society is rich in private resources but poor in public services because
of a misplaced priority on increasing production in the private sector.
This derives from the conventional economic theory that resources are
always scarce. The term has lost its original ironic meaning and is now
used simply to indicate widespread prosperity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Afghan hound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Afghan hound%@AE@%,%@CR:AFGHAN.HOUND    @%%@QR:Afghan hound@% tall, swift %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 24-28 in. (61-71.1 cm);%@EH@%
weight, 50-60 lb (22.7-27.2 kg). Its long, silky coat may be any color.
The breed originated in Egypt c.5,000 years ago, was perfected in
Afghanistan, and was brought to England after World War I.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Afghanistan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Afghanistan%@AE@%,%@CR:AFGHANISTAN     @%%@QR:Afghanistan@% officially the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, republic%@EH@%
(1982 est. pop. 15,163,000), 249,999 sq mi (647,497 sq km), S central
Asia, bordered by Iran (W), Pakistan (E and S), the USSR (N), and China
(NE). Principal cities include %@AU@%KABUL%@BO:          4df22a@%%@AE@% (the capital), %@AU@%KANDAHAR%@BO:          4e1f43@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HERAT%@BO:          4221d3@%%@AE@%.
Most of Afghanistan is mountainous, and the towering ranges of the %@AU@%HINDU
%@AU@%KUSH%@BO:          42fb9e@%%@AE@% reach a height of more than 24,000 ft (7,315 m); fertile valleys and
plains, home of most of the population, nestle in the mountains. The land
is mainly dry, and the rivers (unnavigable for the most part) are used
for irrigation. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, although less
than 10% of the land is cultivated; corn, barley, rice, and fruit are
grown, and sheep are raised for skins, wool, and meat. Industry and
development of minerals are still in the beginning stages. Imports
(mostly manufactured goods) greatly exceed exports (wool, hides, fruit).
The population is diverse, including Afghans, Pathans, Hazararas,
Tadzhiks, Uzbeks, and nomadic Turkmen; almost all are Muslims. Afghan and
Iranian are the principal languages.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Afghanistan, astride the land route to India (through the famed
%@AU@%KHYBER PASS%@BO:          4f70c1@%%@AE@%), has fallen to many conquerors through the ages, e.g.,
%@AU@%DARIUS I%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@% (c.500 BC); %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% (329-327 BC); and numerous Arab
invaders (from the 7th cent. AD), who established Islam as the dominant
culture. Mahmud of Ghazni, who conquered (11th cent.) an empire
stretching from Iran to India, was the greatest of Afghanistan's rulers.
The country was later conquered by %@AU@%JENGHIZ KHAN%@BO:          4bcac6@%%@AE@% (c.1220) and %@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@%
(14th cent.). Afghanistan became a united state (1747) under Ahmad Shah,
who founded the Durani dynasty. During the 19th cent. Britain, to protect
its Indian empire from Russia, tried to establish authority in
neighboring Afghanistan; the result was two British-Afghan Wars (1838-42,
1878-80). An agreement (1907) gave Britain control over Afghanistan's
foreign affairs, but the emir Amanullah engaged Britain in a third Afghan
War (1919), which gave Afghanistan full independence. Amanullah embarked
on a modernization program, and in 1926 proclaimed a monarchy to replace
the emirate. The last king, Muhammad Zahir Shah, was overthrown in 1973
in a military coup led by Lt. Gen. Muhammad Daoud Khan, who proclaimed a
republic. Daoud was killed in a coup in 1978 and a pro-Soviet regime
installed. In 1979 a Soviet-backed coup, supported by an invasion of
Soviet troops, killed then-president Hafizulla Amin and replaced him with
Babrak Karmal, leader of a rival faction. Over 2 million Afghans fled to
Iran and Pakistan, but strong resistance from rebel forces within the
country continued. Despite international pressure, Soviet troops remained
in Afghanistan until early 1989.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AFL-CIO%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AFL-CIO%@AE@%:%@CR:AFLCIO          @%%@QR:AFL-CIO@% see %@AU@%AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%ORGANIZATIONS%@BO:           47e73@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Africa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Africa%@AE@%,%@CR:AFRICA          @%%@QR:Africa@% second largest continent, c.11,677,240 sq mi (30,244,050 sq km)%@EH@%
including Madagascar and smaller offshore islands. It is connected to
Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez. Mt. Kibo (19,340 ft/5,895 m), a peak
of %@AU@%KILIMANJARO%@BO:          4f9a9e@%%@AE@%, in Tanzania, is the highest point; the lowest point, 436
ft (133 m) below sea level, is the Qattarah Depression, in Egypt. E
Africa's lake-filled %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@% is the continent's most
spectacular feature. Mountain ranges include the %@AU@%ATLAS MTS%@BO:           96f9e@%%@AE@%. (N), the
Ethiopian Highlands and Ruwenzori Mts. (E), and the Drakensberg Mts. (S).
Chief rivers are the %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CONGO%@BO:          21fd86@%%@AE@% (Zaire), %@AU@%NIGER%@BO:          6a0d4c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ZAMBEZI%@BO:          a4d9be@%%@AE@%. Climatic
conditions range from hot and rainy all year near the equator, through
tropical savanna with alternating wet and dry seasons immediately north
and south of the equatorial region, to hot and dry in the great %@AU@%SAHARA%@BO:          82ec0a@%%@AE@%
desert, in the north, and the smaller %@AU@%KALAHARI%@BO:          4e004a@%%@AE@% desert, in the south. At
its north and south extremities the continent has a Mediterranean-type
climate. The countries of Africa are Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana,
Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, the Central African
Republic, Chad, The Comoros, the Congo Republic, Djibouti, Egypt,
Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
Ivory Coast, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao
Tome and Principe, Senegal, the Seychelles, Sierra Leone, the Somali
Republic, the Republic of South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo,
Tunisia, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; other political units are
Namibia and Western Sahara (see separate articles). African peoples, who
make up about 10% of the world's population, are divided into more than
50 nations and are further fragmented into numerous ethnic and linguistic
groups (see %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@%). See map of Africa in separate section.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African art%@AE@%,%@CR:AFRICAN.ART     @%%@QR:African art@% traditional art created by peoples S of the Sahara. The%@EH@%
predominant art forms are %@AU@%MASKS%@BO:          5cb566@%%@AE@% and figures, which were generally used in
religious ceremonies. The decorative arts, especially in %@AU@%TEXTILES%@BO:          946065@%%@AE@% and in
the ornamentation of everyday tools, were a vital art in nearly all
African cultures. Established forms evolved long before the arrival (15th
cent.) of the Portuguese in Africa, but most works older than 150 years
have perished. Their creators valued them for ritual use rather than
aesthetic accomplishment. Wood-often embellished with clay, shells,
beads, ivory, metal, feathers, and shredded raffia-was the dominant
material. In the Sudan and on the Guinea coast the wood-carving style was
highly abstract. Distortion often emphasized features of cultic
significance. The Bambara of W Mali are famous for their striking wooden
headdresses in the form of antelope heads. In NW Guinea the Baga made
snake carvings, drums supported by small standing figures, and
spectacular masks. The southern groups of Senufu of the Ivory Coast made
masks representing human features with geometric projections and legs
jutting out of each side of the face. During the 18th and 19th cent. the
%@AU@%ASHANTI%@BO:           89ddb@%%@AE@% kingdom of Ghana used a system of brass weights to weigh gold
dust; these weights were small figures cast in %@AU@%CIRE PERDUE%@BO:          1e960d@%%@AE@%. From N
Nigeria, the remarkable Nok terra-cotta heads are the earliest African
sculpture yet found (c.500-200 BC). The art of the Yoruba of S Nigeria is
often brilliantly polychromed. On the banks of the Middle Cross R. are
about 300 monolithic carvings, supposedly Ekoi ancestor figures from
between 1600 and 1900. The small tribes of the Cameroon did woodcarvings
and sculptures that include large house posts and ritual objects. Among
the Fang tribes of Gabon, decorative motifs on stringed musical
instruments emphasized the human figure. The Bapende of the W Congo made
ivory pendants portraying human faces, while the Baluba of the SE Congo
produced bowls and stools supported by slender figures. The dynamic and
expressive free-standing figures of the Badjokwe of S Congo and Angola
are particularly outstanding. African art came to European notice c.1905,
and such artists as %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MODIGLIANI%@BO:          62145f@%%@AE@% were influenced by it. The
Museum of Primitive Art (N.Y.C.) and the Field Museum of Natural History
(Chicago) have fine collections of African art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African languages%@AE@%,%@CR:AFRICANES       @%%@QR:African languages@% geographic rather than linguistic classification of%@EH@%
languages spoken on the African continent. These languages do not belong
to a single family but are divided among several distinct linguistic
stocks having no common origin. The principal linguistic families of
Africa are now generally said to be Hamito-Semitic; Niger-Kordofanian
(including Niger-Congo); Nilo-Saharan; and Khoisan, or Click. Two other
stocks, Indo-European and Malayo-Polynesian, are also represented. %@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@TH: 141  4843 03 38 38 @%%@AB@%MAJOR AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@AE@% %@AI@%(*Asterisk %@AE@%%@AI@%indicates a dead language)%@AE@%%@AB@%────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────%@AE@%%@NL@%%@AB@%Hamito-Semitic%@AE@% or %@AB@%Afroasiatic %@AE@%%@AB@%Languages%@AE@% %@AI@%(for Hamito-Semitic %@AE@%%@AI@%languages that were or are spoken in%@AE@%%@AI@%W Asia, see the Hamito-Semitic %@AE@%%@AI@%classification in the table "Major %@AE@%%@AI@%Languages of Europe, Asia and Some %@AE@%%@AI@%Islands of the Pacific and Indian %@AE@%%@AI@%Oceans" accompanying the %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% article)%@AE@%SEMITIC (spoken in North Africa and    Ethiopia)                             Arabic                                Egyptian Arabic, Western Arabic Ethiopic                              Amharic (or Abyssinian), Geez                                       (Classical Ethiopic),* Tigre,                                       TigrinyaHAMITICEgyptian (was spoken in Egypt)        Ancient Egyptian,* Coptic*Berber (spoken throughout North       Kabyle, Modern Berber, Rif, Siwi, Africa except Egypt)                  Tamachek, Tuareg, ZanagaCushitic (spoken in Ethiopia and      Agau, Beja, Burji, Galla, Geleba, adjoining regions)                    Gimira, Janjaro, Kaffa, Konso, Maji,                                      Saho-Afar, Sidamo, SomaliCHAD (spoken near Lake Chad, central  Angas, Bolewa, Gwandara, Hausa, Hiji,Africa, and in W Africa)              Kuseri, Mandara, Ngala, Ron, Shirawa,                                      Sokoro%@AB@%Indo-European Languages%@AE@% %@AI@%(for a full %@AE@%%@AI@%presentation of the Indo-European %@AE@%%@AI@%language family, see table %@AE@%%@AI@%accompanying the %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% article)%@AE@%GERMANICWest GermanicLow German                            Afrikaans (spoken in the Republic of                                      South Africa), English (spoken in                                       the Republic of South Africa,                                       Zimbabwe, and a number of other                                       African countries)ITALICRomance (spoken in a number of        French, Italian, Portuguese, SpanishAfrican countries)                    %@AB@%Khoisan%@AE@% or %@AB@%Click Languages%@AE@% %@AI@%(spoken %@AE@%%@AI@%in S and E Africa)%@AE@%                                      Hatsa (or Hadzapi)   SandaweSOUTH AFRICAN KHOISAN                 Bushman, Hottentot%@AB@%Malayo-Polynesian Languages%@AE@% %@AI@%(spoken %@AE@%%@AI@%in Madagascar; for a full %@AE@%%@AI@%presentation of the %@AE@%%@AI@%Malayo-Polynesian language family, %@AE@%%@AI@%see table accompanying the LANGUAGE %@AE@%%@AI@%article)%@AE@%WESTERN                               Malagasy%@AB@%Niger-Kordofanian Languages%@AE@%NIGER-CONGO (spoken in S and centralAfrica and in W Africa below the Sahara)West Atlantic                         Dyola, Fulani, Gola, Kissi, Temne,                                       WolofMande                                 Dyula, Malinke, MendeGur (or Voltaic)                      Dagomba, Mamprusi, MossiKwa                                   Akan, Ashanti, Bini, Ewe, Ibo, Ijo,                                       Nupe, YorubaBenue-Congo%@AI@%Bantu%@AE@%                                 Bemba, Ganda, Kikuyu, Kongo, Lingala,                                      Luba, Makua, Mbundu, Ruanda, Rundi,                                       Shona, Sotho, Swahili, Thonga, Xhosa,                                      Zulu%@AI@%Non-Bantu%@AE@%                             Efik, Jukun, TivAdamawa-Eastern                       Banda, Sango, ZandeKORDOFANIAN (spoken in Sudan)Katla                                 KatlaKoalib                                KoalibTalodi                                TalodiTegali                                TegaliTumtum                                Tumtum%@AB@%Nilo-Saharan Languages%@AE@%SONGHAI (spoken in Mali)              SonghaiSAHARAN (spoken near Lake Chad and    Daza, Kanuri, Teda, Zaghawain the central Sahara)                MABAN (spoken east of Lake Chad)      MabaFURIAN (spoken in Sudan)              FurKOMAN (spoken in Ethiopia and Sudan)  Ganza, Gule, Gumuz, Koma, Mao, UdukCHARI-NILE (spoken in Sudan, Zaire, Uganda, Cameroon, Chad, Central African Republic, mainland Tanzania,and Ethiopia)Eastern SudanicNubian                                Birked, MidobiNilotic                               Dinka, Masai, Nandi, Nuer, Shilluk,                                       Suk, TurkanaCentral Sudanic                       Bongo-Bagirmi, Efe, Mangbetu                                      Berta, Kunama%@TE: 141  4843 03 38 38 @%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African Methodist Episcopal Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African Methodist Episcopal Church%@AE@%,%@CR:AFRICANOPAL.CH  @%%@QR:African Methodist Episcopal Church@% a leading black American denomination%@EH@%
of %@AU@%METHODISM%@BO:          5f74f8@%%@AE@%, founded (1816) by Richard Allen. In 1988 the church
reported a membership of 2,210,000.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church%@AE@%,%@CR:AFRICANOPAL.ZI  @%%@QR:African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church@% one of the largest African%@EH@%
Methodist bodies, founded (1796) by black American Methodists. The church
reported a U.S. membership of 1,195,173 in 1988.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African music%@AE@%.%@CR:AFRICAN.MUSIC   @%%@QR:African music@% Sub-Saharan African music, ranging from highly functional%@EH@%
tribal music to stylized entertainment, is distinguished by striking
polyrhythmic counterpoint, realized by handclaps, xylophones, and drums,
and by pitch polyphony, performed by voice and on wind and string
instruments. Diatonic scales are generally used. To what extent this
music influenced %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% and the black American %@AU@%SPIRITUAL%@BO:          8da8cc@%%@AE@% is debated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African National Congress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African National Congress%@AE@%,%@CR:AFRICANSS       @%%@QR:African National Congress@% the oldest non-White political organization in%@EH@%
South Africa. It was founded in 1912 and was dedicated to reform through
political action. After the violence at Sharpeville in 1960, the party
was banned. In 1964, its leader, Nelson %@AU@%MANDELA%@BO:          5ab998@%%@AE@%, was sentenced to life in
prison and the active leadership has lived in exile. During the late
1970s, with the South African government's continued exclusion of black
Africans from political participation, and with the renewal of youth-led
militant protest, the party, though outlawed, became the popularly
acknowledged vehicle of mass resistance. See also %@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African Negro literature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African Negro literature%@AE@%.%@CR:AFRICANE        @%%@QR:African Negro literature@% Although ancient African Muslim books in%@EH@%
Swahili and Arabic exist, African literature before the 19th cent. is
almost entirely an oral tradition. The continent's seemingly
inexhaustible supply of myths, tales, legends, riddles, and proverbs
continues to enrich African writing, which appears in native, especially
Bantu, languages, and in French, English, and Portuguese. The African
writer best known before the 1930s was the South African Thomas Mofolo,
whose novels (in Sesotho) included %@AI@%Chaka%@AE@% (tr. 1931). French-African
writers in Paris in the 1930s, led by the poet-statesman Leopold Sedar
%@AU@%SENGHOR%@BO:          86f0b6@%%@AE@%, espoused %@AI@%negritude,%@AE@% a rejection of French assimilationist
policy. After World War II, writers focused on decaying colonialism and
on the "new" Africa. National literatures began to appear, notably in
Nigeria with the work of Chinua %@AU@%ACHEBE%@BO:            b32d@%%@AE@%, Wole %@AU@%SOYINKA%@BO:          8c57c0@%%@AE@%, Amos %@AU@%TUTUOLA%@BO:          990aeb@%%@AE@%, and
others, and in Senegal and Cameroon. Major African writers in English
include Ezekiel Mphahlele and Oswald Mtshali (South Africa), Bessie Head
(Botswana), Ayi Kwei Armah (Ghana), and Ngugiwa Thiong'o and Okot p'Bitek
(Kenya). Among leading writers in French are Mongo Beti (Cameroon);
Camara Laye (Guinea); Birago Diop, Sembene Ousmane, and Mariama Ba
(Senegal); David Diop (born in France), and Tchicaya U Tamsi (Congo). One
of the best-known writers in Portuguese was Agostinho Neto (1922-79),
president of Angola (1975-79).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%African violet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%African violet%@AE@%,%@CR:AFRICAN.VIOLET  @%%@QR:African violet@% common name for plants (mostly hybrids of %@AI@%Saintpaulia%@EH@%
%@AI@%ionantha%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%GESNERIA%@BO:          39bcf5@%%@AE@% family, grown chiefly as houseplants for their
colorful flowers and fuzzy foliage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Afrikaans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Afrikaans%@AE@%%@CR:AFRIKAANS       @%%@QR:Afrikaans@%, one of the official languages of South Africa. It is a%@EH@%
Germanic language of the Indo-European family. See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Afro-Americans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Afro-Americans%@AE@%:%@CR:AFROAMERICANS   @%%@QR:Afro-Americans@% see %@AU@%BLACK AMERICANS%@BO:          105bd2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ag%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ag%@AE@%,%@CR:AG              @%%@QR:Ag@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%SILVER%@BO:          894306@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aga Khan III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aga Khan III%@AE@%,%@CR:AGA.KHAN.III    @%%@QR:Aga Khan III@% 1877-1957, Muslim leader. As hereditary ruler of the Muslim%@EH@%
Ismaili sect he was born to great power and wealth. He supported the
British in India, founded (1906) the All-India Muslim League, and
represented India in various international bodies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agamemnon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agamemnon%@AE@%,%@CR:AGAMEMNON       @%%@QR:Agamemnon@% in Greek mythology, leader of the Greeks in the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
brother of %@AU@%MENELAUS%@BO:          5eaca6@%%@AE@%; son of %@AU@%ATREUS%@BO:           99e55@%%@AE@%. His children by %@AU@%CLYTEMNESTRA%@BO:          1fa977@%%@AE@% were
%@AU@%IPHIGENIA%@BO:          4948d8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ELECTRA%@BO:          2d53f9@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ORESTES%@BO:          6ea70f@%%@AE@%. To obtain favorable winds for the fleet
against Troy, he sacrificed Iphigenia to %@AU@%ARTEMIS%@BO:           838b4@%%@AE@%, incurring
Clytemnestra's hatred. At Troy he quarreled with %@AU@%ACHILLES%@BO:            b6d3@%%@AE@%; that dispute
forms a main theme of %@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Iliad.%@AE@% He withdrew from the war and
returned to Mycenae, where he was murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover,
%@AU@%AEGISTHUS%@BO:           1717f@%%@AE@%. To avenge his death, Orestes and Electra killed Aegisthus and
their mother.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aga Muhammad Khan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aga Muhammad Khan%@AE@%%@CR:AGA.MUHAN       @%%@QR:Aga Muhammad Khan@% or %@AB@%Agha Muhammad Khan,%@AE@%1742-97, shah of %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1796-97), founder of the Kajar, or Qajar, dynasty. In 1794 he killed the
last ruler of the Zand dynasty and climaxed his campaign for the throne
with a wholesale massacre. Hated by his subjects for his brutality, he
was assassinated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agar%@AE@%,%@CR:AGAR            @%%@QR:agar@% product consisting of the sugar galactose, obtained from some red%@EH@%
%@AU@%ALGAE%@BO:           3985a@%%@AE@% species (see %@AU@%SEAWEED%@BO:          866be9@%%@AE@%). Dissolved in boiling water and cooled, agar
becomes gelatinous; it is used as a culture medium (especially for
%@AU@%BACTERIA%@BO:           adab7@%%@AE@%), a laxative, and a food thickener.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agassiz, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agassiz, Louis%@AE@%%@CR:AGASSIZ         @%%@QR:Agassiz, Louis@%(Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz) , 1807-73, Swiss-American%@EH@%
zoologist and geologist. In 1832 he became professor of natural history
at the Univ. of Neuchatel, which he made a center for scientific study.
He also examined glacial movements and deposits before coming to the U.S.
in 1846, where he taught at Harvard (from 1848) and strongly influenced a
generation of scientists. His writings include %@AI@%Research on Fossil Fish%@AE@% (5
vol., 1833-44) and %@AI@%Contributions to the Natural History of the United
%@AI@%States%@AE@% (4 vol., 1857-62).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agate%@AE@%,%@CR:AGATE           @%%@QR:agate@% extremely fine-grained variety of %@AU@%CHALCEDONY%@BO:          1b3e0e@%%@AE@%, banded in two or%@EH@%
more colors. The banding occurs because agates are formed by the slow
deposition of silica from solution into cavities of older rocks. Agates
are found primarily in Brazil, Uruguay, India, Mexico, and the U.S. They
are valued as semiprecious %@AU@%GEMS%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@% and are used in the manufacture of
grinding equipment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agave%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agave%@AE@%:%@CR:AGAVE           @%%@QR:agave@% see %@AU@%AMARYLLIS%@BO:           454b3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agee, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agee, James%@AE@%,%@CR:AGEE            @%%@QR:Agee, James@% 1909-55, American writer; b. Knoxville, Tenn. His works%@EH@%
include %@AI@%Let Us Now Praise Famous Men%@AE@% (1941), a telling commentary on
Depression-era tenant farmers, and %@AI@%A Death in the Family%@AE@% (1957;
Pulitzer), a poetic novel. His movie criticism and scripts are collected
in %@AI@%Agee on Film%@AE@% (2 vol., 1958-60).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agency for International Development%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agency for International Development%@AE@%%@CR:AGENCY.L.DEVEL  @%%@QR:Agency for International Development@% (AID), federal agency in the Dept.%@EH@%
of State, created by Congress (1961) to consolidate U.S. nonmilitary
foreign-aid programs to developing countries. AID offers technical,
capital, and commodity assistance, giving priority to programs in
agriculture, health, population planning, and education. Among its
specific concerns are a long-term development plan for the Sahelian
region of W Africa and the coordination of international disaster
assistance. All of AID's programs stress maximum involvement by the
people of developing nations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agent Orange%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agent Orange%@AE@%:%@CR:AGENT.ORANGE    @%%@QR:Agent Orange@% see %@AU@%HERBICIDE%@BO:          422b54@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aggeus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aggeus%@AE@%%@CR:AGGEUS          @%%@QR:Aggeus@%, Vulgate form of %@AU@%HAGGAI%@BO:          3ef979@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agglutination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agglutination%@AE@%,%@CR:AGGLUTINATION   @%%@QR:agglutination@% in linguistics: see %@AU@%INFLECTION%@BO:          481801@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aggression%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aggression%@AE@%,%@CR:AGGRESSION      @%%@QR:aggression@% a form of behavior characterized by verbal or physical%@EH@%
attack. It may be either appropriate and self-protective or destructive.
When aggression in adults is not a response to a clear threat, it is
often considered a symptom of mental disorder. It may be directed
outward, against others, as in explosive personality disorders, or
inward, against oneself, leading to self-damaging acts. Some
investigators of human behavior, such as Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@% and Konrad %@AU@%LORENZ%@BO:          56bc47@%%@AE@%,
have argued that aggressive behavior is innate, while others have
proposed that it is learned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agincourt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agincourt%@AE@%%@CR:AGINCOURT       @%%@QR:Agincourt@%, village, N France, where in 1415 Henry V of England defeated%@EH@%
an army of French knights in the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%. The victory of
Henry's longbow men made obsolete the warfare methods of the age of
chivalry and enabled England to conquer much of France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aging%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aging%@AE@%:%@CR:AGING           @%%@QR:aging@% see %@AU@%GERONTOLOGY%@BO:          39ae34@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agnew, Spiro Theodore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agnew, Spiro Theodore%@AE@%,%@CR:AGNEW           @%%@QR:Agnew, Spiro Theodore@% 1918-, 39th vice president of the U.S.; b.%@EH@%
Baltimore, Md. Governor of Maryland (1967-69), he was vice president
(1969-73) in the administration of Pres. Richard M. %@AU@%NIXON%@BO:          6a5b4d@%%@AE@%. A critic of
liberals and %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% protestors, he resigned (Oct. 10, 1973) after
evidence revealed political corruption during his years in Maryland
politics. He pleaded no contest to the charge of evading income tax, was
sentenced to probation, and fined. In 1981 a state court ordered Agnew to
repay Maryland over $248,000, for bribes he took while in state office.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef)%@AE@%%@CR:AGNON           @%%@QR:Agnon, S(hmuel) Y(osef)@%, 1888-1970, Israeli writer; b. Poland as Samuel%@EH@%
Josef Czaczkes. Regarded as the greatest modern writer of fiction in
Hebrew, he shared the 1966 Nobel Prize in literature. His novels and
stories explore Jewish life; they include the novels %@AI@%The Bridal Canopy%@AE@%
(1919) and %@AI@%The Day Before Yesterday%@AE@% (1945).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agnosticism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agnosticism%@AE@%,%@CR:AGNOSTICISM     @%%@QR:agnosticism@% form of skepticism that holds that the existence of God%@EH@%
cannot be logically proved or disproved. Agnosticism is not to be
confused with %@AU@%ATHEISM%@BO:           948c3@%%@AE@%, which denies the existence of God. %@AU@%KANT%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@% and
Herbert %@AU@%SPENCER%@BO:          8d69f9@%%@AE@% considered themselves agnostics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agra%@AE@%,%@CR:AGRA            @%%@QR:Agra@% former province, N central India. The presidency, or province, of%@EH@%
Agra was created in 1833 by the British. In 1902 it became part of the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The city of %@AB@%Agra%@AE@% (1981 pop. 723,676),
Uttar Pradesh state, is on the Jumna R. A district administrative
headquarters, it produces shoes, glassware, carpets, and other goods.
%@AU@%AKBAR%@BO:           276c6@%%@AE@% founded Agra, and it was a %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% capital until 1658. The British
annexed it in 1836. It is noted for its architecture, especially the %@AU@%TAJ
%@AU@%MAHAL%@BO:          926365@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agrarian laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agrarian laws%@AE@%,%@CR:AGRARIAN.LAWS   @%%@QR:agrarian laws@% in ancient Rome, the laws regulating the disposition of%@EH@%
public lands. Wealthy patricians tended to gain and hold large areas of
public land, nominally as state tenants. The poorer classes' desire to
gain public land gave rise to laws, beginning in the 5th cent. BC, that
included the Licinian Rogations (367 BC; see %@AU@%LICINIUS%@BO:          54da56@%%@AE@%, fl. 375 BC), and
the Sempronian Law (133 BC; revived 123 BC). They were often violated or
ignored. The reform movement ended with %@AU@%DOMITIAN'S%@BO:          2a0c81@%%@AE@% edict (AD c.82)
assigning title to public land in Italy to those who held it. This
confirmed the long trend toward the dependency of the poor upon the
powerful.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agriculture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agriculture%@AE@%,%@CR:AGRICULTURE1    @%%@QR:agriculture@% science of producing crops and livestock; it aims to%@EH@%
increase production and protect the land from deterioration. Branches
include %@AU@%AGRONOMY%@BO:           224f5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HORTICULTURE%@BO:          4493da@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ENTOMOLOGY%@BO:          2f36b8@%%@AE@%, animal husbandry, and
%@AU@%DAIRYING%@BO:          25ff56@%%@AE@%. Historically, agriculture has been linked with social,
economic, and political organization. Its development among early peoples
encouraged stable settlements, and it later became associated with
landholding, %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@%. During the agricultural revolution
(16th and 17th cent.), horticultural knowledge expanded, and crops and
farming methods were exchanged internationally. The invention of machines
such as McCormick's reaper (1831) and the general-purpose tractor
(c.1924) led to mechanized, large-scale farming. Modern Western
agriculture also depends on breeding programs; %@AU@%FERTILIZERS%@BO:          32c4ec@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%PESTICIDES%@BO:          73f244@%%@AE@%; food processing techniques, e.g., %@AU@%REFRIGERATION%@BO:          7d9ab6@%%@AE@%; efficient
marketing; agricultural colleges and research centers; and, in many
nations, government subsidies. See also %@AU@%GREEN REVOLUTION%@BO:          3d681f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ORGANIC
%@AU@%FARMING%@BO:          6eb60f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Agriculture, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Agriculture, United States Department of%@AE@%,%@CR:AGRICULTURE2    @%%@QR:Agriculture, United States Department of@% federal executive department%@EH@%
established (1862) to administer all federal programs related to food
production and rural life. It assists farmers through its research,
planning, and service agencies, and aids consumers by inspecting and
grading many products; it also administers the Food Stamp Program and
issues a wide range of publications on farming and horticulture. The
Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service are part of the
department.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%agronomy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%agronomy%@AE@%,%@CR:AGRONOMY        @%%@QR:agronomy@% branch of %@AU@%AGRICULTURE%@BO:           21c43@%%@AE@% concerned with soil management and with%@EH@%
the breeding, physiology, and production of major field crops. It deals
mainly with large-scale crops (e.g., cotton, soybeans, and wheat), while
%@AU@%HORTICULTURE%@BO:          4493da@%%@AE@% concerns fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aguinaldo, Emilio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aguinaldo, Emilio%@AE@%%@CR:AGUINALDO       @%%@QR:Aguinaldo, Emilio@%, 1869-1964, Philippine leader. After leading (1896) a%@EH@%
rebellion against Spanish rule, he cooperated with U.S. forces in the
%@AU@%SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR%@BO:          8d0a1a@%%@AE@%. He later rebelled (1899-1901) against U.S. rule.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ahab%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ahab%@AE@%%@CR:AHAB            @%%@QR:Ahab@%, d. c.853 BC, king of Israel (c.874-c.853 BC), son and successor of%@EH@%
Omri. One of the greatest kings of the northern kingdom, he was killed in
a war against Damascus. The biblical account of Ahab's reign (1 Kings
16.28-22.40) is mostly concerned with its religious aspects, especially
his marriage to Jezebel, a willful woman of Tyre who was attached to
foreign cults and behavior. To the devout she represented evil, and she
met her match in %@AU@%ELIJAH%@BO:          2e0a6b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ahad Ha-Am%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ahad Ha-Am%@AE@%%@CR:AHAD.HAAM       @%%@QR:Ahad Ha-Am@% [Heb.,=one of the people], 1856-1927, pseud. of Asher%@EH@%
Ginsberg, Jewish thinker and Zionist leader; b. Russia. A critic of those
who sought immediate settlement in Palestine, he saw Palestine as a
"spiritual center" giving strength and direction to Jews in the Diaspora.
Some of his essays appear in %@AI@%Selected Essays of Ahad Ha-Am%@AE@% (tr. 1912).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ahasuerus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ahasuerus%@AE@%:%@CR:AHASUERUS       @%%@QR:Ahasuerus@% see %@AU@%ESTHER%@BO:          302b9e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ahaz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ahaz%@AE@%%@CR:AHAZ            @%%@QR:Ahaz@%, d. c.727 BC, king of Judah (c.731-727 BC). His reign marked the end%@EH@%
of the real independence of Judah. In the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@% he is opposed by %@AU@%ISAIAH%@BO:          49eea6@%%@AE@%
for his alliance with Assyria against Israel and Syria, and denounced for
having heathen abominations and for using the Temple gold to pay tribute
to Assyria. 2 Kings 16; 2 Chron. 28; Isa. 7.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ahmed%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ahmed%@AE@%,%@CR:AHMED           @%%@QR:Ahmed@% sultans of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% (Turkey). %@AB@%Ahmed I,%@AE@% 1589-1617%@EH@%
(r.1603-17), made peace (1606) with Austria, agreeing to Transylvania's
independence and recognizing other European rulers as his equals for the
first time. %@AB@%Ahmed II,%@AE@% 1642-95 (r.1691-95), saw the beginning of the
Turks' forced retreat from Hungary. %@AB@%Ahmed III,%@AE@% 1673-1736 (r.1703-30),
seized (1715) the Peloponnesus and the Ionian Isles (except Corfu) from
Venice, but he lost important Balkan territories to Austria. He was
overthrown by the %@AU@%JANISSARIES%@BO:          4b2876@%%@AE@% and died in prison.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ahmedabad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ahmedabad%@AE@%%@CR:AHMEDABAD       @%%@QR:Ahmedabad@% or %@AB@%Ahmadabad,%@AE@%city (1981 pop. 2,515,000), capital of Gujarat%@EH@%
state, NW India, on the Sabarmati R. It is an industrial center noted for
its cotton mills. Founded in 1412 by the Sultan Ahmad Shah, it fell to
%@AU@%AKBAR%@BO:           276c6@%%@AE@% in 1573 and prospered under the %@AU@%MOGULS%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@%, who controlled the city
until 1758 when it came under the %@AU@%MAHRATTAS%@BO:          59c78e@%%@AE@%. It has many mosques, tombs,
and temples. It came under British control in 1818.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ahvenanmaa Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ahvenanmaa Islands%@AE@%%@CR:AHVENANNDS      @%%@QR:Ahvenanmaa Islands@% or %@AB@%Aland Islands,%@AE@%Finland, strategically important%@EH@%
group of c.7,000 islands (less than 100 inhabited) at the entrance to the
Gulf of Bothnia in the Baltic Sea. Originally colonized as part of
Sweden, the islands were ceded (1809) to Russia, demilitarized (1856) by
international agreement, and confirmed (1921) as part of Finland by the
League of Nations. Finland renounced the League's guarantee of autonomy
in 1951, but accorded rights of self-government to the islanders, who are
largely Swedish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AIDS%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AIDS%@AE@%,%@CR:AIDS            @%%@QR:AIDS@% or %@AB@%acquired immune deficiency syndrome,%@AE@%a fatal disease caused by a%@EH@%
virus, known as HIV or human immunodeficiency virus that attacks blood
cells. The disease suppresses the body's immune system, allowing other
diseases, including cancer and pneumonia, to infect the patient. Spread
through the exchange of body fluids, it has primarily affected male
homosexuals, drug users, prostitutes, and hemophiliacs. See also %@AU@%AZT%@BO:           a82dd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aiken, Conrad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aiken, Conrad%@AE@%,%@CR:AIKEN           @%%@QR:Aiken, Conrad@% 1889-1973, American writer; b. Savannah, Ga. Often%@EH@%
concerned with the quest for self-knowledge, he is best known for his
richly musical verse, e.g., %@AI@%Selected Poems%@AE@% (1929, Pulitzer), %@AI@%A Letter
%@AI@%from Li Po%@AE@% (1955). His other works include the novels %@AI@%Blue Voyage%@AE@% (1927)
and %@AI@%Great Circle%@AE@% (1933), short stories, critical essays, and an
autobiography (1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ailanthus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ailanthus%@AE@%,%@CR:AILANTHUS       @%%@QR:ailanthus@% tree (genus %@AI@%Ailanthus%@AE@%) of the family Simarubaceae. Ailanthus%@EH@%
is native to warm regions of Asia and Australia. Its wood is used in
cabinetmaking and for charcoal manufacture. The bark and leaves are used
medicinally, and the leaves provide food for silkworms. Females of a
species called tree of heaven are cultivated for their attractive foliage
and their resistance to smoke and soot; the flowers of the male plant,
however, have a disagreeable odor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ailey, Alvin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ailey, Alvin%@AE@%,%@CR:AILEY           @%%@QR:Ailey, Alvin@% 1931-, American modern dancer and choreographer; b. Rogers,%@EH@%
Tex. He studied with Lester Horton. In the late 1950s, he formed his own
company, Alvin Ailey's American Dance Theater, which is noted for its use
of African motifs. His best-known works include %@AI@%Creation of the World%@AE@%
(1954) and %@AI@%Revelations%@AE@% (1960).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ainu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ainu%@AE@%,%@CR:AINU            @%%@QR:Ainu@% aborigines of Japan, possibly of Caucasoid descent, having both%@EH@%
European and Asian physical traits. Oriental invaders forced the Ainu to
the N Japanese island of %@AU@%HOKKAIDO%@BO:          437c21@%%@AE@% and to Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands,
in the USSR. Their animistic religion centers on a bear cult. They live
by hunting, fishing, farming, and selling crafts to tourists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%air, law of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%air, law of the%@AE@%,%@CR:AIR             @%%@QR:air, law of the@% law connected with the use of the air (including radio%@EH@%
and telegraph communication); more commonly, body of laws governing civil
aviation. Spurred by the growth of air transport, the victorious nations
of World War I, meeting in Paris in 1919, drew up the International
Convention for Air Navigation, commonly called the Paris Convention; this
agreement recognized national claims to air space and established rules
for aircraft registration and operating safety. U.S. air laws are modeled
on the Convention, and are administered by the %@AU@%FEDERAL AVIATION
%@AU@%ADMINISTRATION%@BO:          322b10@%%@AE@%. There are also many general conventions and bilateral
agreements between nations. In 1944 a conference of 52 nations (not
including the USSR) established the International Civil Aviation
Organization (see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%), to ensure the orderly growth of
international aviation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%air conditioning%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%air conditioning%@AE@%,%@CR:AIR.CONG        @%%@QR:air conditioning@% mechanical process for controlling the temperature,%@EH@%
humidity, cleanliness, and circulation of air in buildings and rooms.
Most air conditioners operate by ducting air across the colder,
heat-absorbing side of a %@AU@%REFRIGERATION%@BO:          7d9ab6@%%@AE@% apparatus, and directing the
cooled air back into the air-conditioned space. Small window conditioners
vent heat outdoors. Larger systems use circulating water to remove heat.
Air conditioning provides the heat, humidity, and contamination controls
essential in the manufacture of such products as chemicals and
pharmaceuticals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aircraft carrier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aircraft carrier%@AE@%,%@CR:AIRCRAFR        @%%@QR:aircraft carrier@% ship designed to carry aircraft and to permit takeoff%@EH@%
and landing of planes. Its distinctive features are a flat upper deck
(flight deck) that functions as a takeoff and landing field, and a main
deck (hangar deck) beneath the flight deck for storing and servicing the
aircraft. The aircraft carrier remained an experimental and untested war
vessel until %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, when the Japanese wreaked havoc on the
British, Dutch, and U.S. navies with carrier-borne aircraft. By 1942 the
aircraft carrier had replaced the battleship as the major unit in a
modern fleet, and during the war it was indispensable in naval operations
against a sea- or shore-based enemy, with two major battles (Coral Sea
and Midway, 1942) being fought entirely by aircraft, and the opposing
fleets never coming within gunshot range of each other. U.S. carriers of
the %@AI@%Essex%@AE@% class spearheaded the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific. A
new era in carrier design opened when the U.S. launched (1960) the
nuclear-powered %@AI@%Enterprise,%@AE@% a vessel capable of lengthy voyages without
refueling. A nuclear-powered successor, the %@AI@%Nimitz%@AE@%, was the largest ship
afloat when launched in 1975.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%air-cushion vehicle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%air-cushion vehicle%@AE@%%@CR:AIRCUSHCLE      @%%@QR:air-cushion vehicle@% (ACV), %@AB@%ground-effect machine,%@AE@%or %@AB@% Hovercraft,%@AE@% vehicle%@EH@%
designed to travel at a short distance above ground or water, moving on a
cushion of air that is held in a chamber beneath the vehicle. ACVs offer
the potential for very high speeds. The maximum size of ACVs is now over
100 tons; some of them travel at over 100 mph (160 km/hr).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%airedale terrier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%airedale terrier%@AE@%,%@CR:AIREDALR        @%%@QR:airedale terrier@% largest of the %@AU@%TERRIER%@BO:          942cc2@%%@AE@% group; shoulder height, c.23 in.%@EH@%
(58.4 cm); weight, 40-50 lb (18.1-22.7 kg). Its dense, wiry, close-lying
coat is a mixture of tan, black, and grizzle. The breed was probably
produced from crosses of the extinct black-and-tan terrier and the
otterhound.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%airfoil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%airfoil%@AE@%,%@CR:AIRFOIL         @%%@QR:airfoil@% surface designed to develop a desired force by reaction with a%@EH@%
fluid, especially air, that is flowing across the surface. Examples of
airfoils are the fixed wings of %@AU@%AIRPLANES%@BO:           261f2@%%@AE@%, which produce lift (see
%@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%), and control surfaces, such as ailerons, elevators,
rudders, and flaps, that are manipulated to produce variable forces.
Other airfoils include spoilers, propeller blades, and the blades
utilized in turbojet engines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%air force%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%air force%@AE@%,%@CR:AIR.FORCE       @%%@QR:air force@% national military organization for air warfare. Although%@EH@%
balloons were used by French forces in Italy in 1859 and by the Union in
the U.S. Civil War, air forces in the modern sense date from %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%,
when the offensive capabilities of the %@AU@%AIRPLANE%@BO:           261f2@%%@AE@% were first demonstrated.
Airplanes were first controlled by national armies and used for
reconnaissance and support of ground forces, but as their effectiveness
as tactical weapons increased, independent air forces were called for.
Arguing that future wars would be won by strategic bombing of an enemy's
industrial centers, military leaders, including Italian Gen. Giulio
Douhet, U.S. Gen. William %@AU@%MITCHELL%@BO:          61c41d@%%@AE@%, and British Air Chief Marshal Sir
Hugh Trenchard urged intensive development of air power. By %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%,
control of the air over both land and sea proved crucial in most major
engagements, and the air force became a separate branch of the armed
services in many countries. The first great air battle in history was the
Battle of Britain (1940), in which the British Royal Air Force stood off
the German Luftwaffe over England. The effect of air power in
revolutionizing naval warfare was demonstrated in the 1941 surprise
attack by Japanese aircraft, launched from %@AU@%AIRCRAFT CARRIERS%@BO:           24924@%%@AE@%, on %@AU@%PEARL
%@AU@%HARBOR%@BO:          727da8@%%@AE@%. Air forces on both sides engaged in strategic and tactical
bombing, attacks on naval and merchant ships, transportation of personnel
and cargo, mining of harbors and shipping lanes, antisubmarine patrols,
and photo reconnaissance, as well as support of ground, naval, and
amphibious operations. After World War II, the airplane was superseded by
the missile as a strategic weapon, but with helicopters joining the
traditional fighter planes, bombers, and cargo planes of the modern air
force, air power continued to be of primary importance in tactical
operations, particularly in "limited" wars such as those in Southeast
Asia and the Middle East. It is also argued that air forces function as
deterrents to a major war by maintaining ready second-strike retaliatory
capabilities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%air navigation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%air navigation%@AE@%,%@CR:AIR.NAVIGATION  @%%@QR:air navigation@% science and technology of determining the position of an%@EH@%
aircraft with respect to the surface of the earth and accurately
maintaining a desired course (see navigation). The two most common
methods are governed by visual flight regulations (VFR) and instrument
flight regulations (IFR). Small airborne computer systems can now give
the pilot the plane's position and can carry out dead reckoning by
monitoring all course and speed changes. The automatic pilot also
interprets data on direction, speed, and altitude to maintain an aircraft
in straight, level flight. For landing, the pilot is often guided by
radio communication from a controller observing the plane via
ground-based radar. Some systems actually land the plane automatically,
although the pilot always has the option of overriding manually.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%airplane, aeroplane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%airplane, aeroplane%@AE@%,%@CR:AIRPLANE        @%%@QR:airplane, aeroplane@% or %@AB@%aircraft,%@AE@%heavier-than-air vehicle, mechanically%@EH@%
driven and fitted with fixed wings that support it in flight through the
dynamic action of the air. On Dec. 17, 1903, Americans Orville and Wilbur
%@AU@%WRIGHT%@BO:          a37a2c@%%@AE@% flew the first airplane near Kitty Hawk, N.C. The machine was a
biplane with two propellers chain-driven by a gasoline motor. Modern
airplanes are monoplanes (airplanes with one set of wings). Airplanes may
further be classified as driven by propeller, %@AU@%JET PROPULSION%@BO:          4c0a6a@%%@AE@%, or %@AU@%ROCKET%@BO:          7ff309@%%@AE@%.
The airplane has six main parts: fuselage, wings, stabilizer (or tail
plane), rudder, one or more engines, and landing gear. The fuselage is
the main body, usually streamlined in form. The wings are the main
supporting surfaces. The airplane's lift, or force supporting it in
flight, is basically the result of the direct action of air against the
surfaces of the wings (see %@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%). With the use of jet engines and
the resulting higher speeds, airplanes have become less dependent on
large values of lift from the wings. Consequently wings have been
shortened and swept back so as to produce less drag, especially at
supersonic speeds. At the trailing edge of the wings are attached movable
surfaces, called ailerons (see %@AU@%AIRFOIL%@BO:           25258@%%@AE@%) that are used to gain lateral
control and to turn the plane. Directional stability is provided by the
tail fin, a fixed vertical airfoil at the rear of the airplane. The
stabilizer is a fixed horizontal airfoil at the rear of the airplane used
to suppress undesired pitching motion. The elevators, which are movable
auxiliary surfaces attached to the stabilizers, are used to produce
controlled pitching. The rudder, generally at the rear of the tail fin,
is a movable auxiliary airfoil that gives the craft a yawing movement in
normal flight. The landing gear is the understructure that supports the
weight of the craft when on the ground or on the water and that reduces
the shock on landing. See %@AU@%AVIATION%@BO:           a4f19@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SEAPLANE%@BO:          8658d6@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
%@AU@%AIRCRAFT%@BO:          8899c2@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT%@BO:          9ceb1e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%air plant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%air plant%@AE@%:%@CR:AIR.PLANT       @%%@QR:air plant@% see %@AU@%EPIPHYTE%@BO:          2f7725@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%air pollution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%air pollution%@AE@%:%@CR:AIR.POLLUTION   @%%@QR:air pollution@% see %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%airship%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%airship%@AE@%%@CR:AIRSHIP         @%%@QR:airship@% or %@AB@%dirigible,%@AE@%aircraft consisting of a cigar-shaped balloon that%@EH@%
carries a propulsion system (propellers), a steering mechanism, and
accomodations for passengers, crew, and cargo. The balloon section is
filled with a lighter-than-air gas-either helium, which is nonflammable,
or hydrogen-to give the airship its lift. The balloon maintains its form
by the internal gas pressure in the nonrigid (blimp) and semirigid types
of airships; the latter in addition has a rigid keel. The rigid type
maintains its form by having a metal framework that holds its shape
regardless of the internal gas pressure; inside the hull are a number of
small gas-filled balloons. The first successful power-driven airship was
built by the French inventor Henri Giffard in 1852. Count Ferdinand von
%@AU@%ZEPPELIN%@BO:          a51867@%%@AE@% of Germany invented the first rigid airship, which was completed
in 1900. The German airship %@AI@%Hindenburg%@AE@% burned at its mooring mast at
Lakehurst, N.J., in 1937. No rigid airship survived World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aix-la-Chapelle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aix-la-Chapelle%@AE@%:%@CR:AIXLACHAPELLE1  @%%@QR:Aix-la-Chapelle@% see %@AU@%AACHEN%@BO:              86@%%@AE@%, West Germany.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of%@AE@%:%@CR:AIXLACHAPELLE2  @%%@QR:Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of@% see %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ajax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ajax%@AE@%,%@CR:AJAX            @%%@QR:Ajax@% in Greek mythology.%@AB@%1%@AE@%The Telamonian Ajax, hero of the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%. In%@EH@%
the %@AI@%Iliad%@AE@% he is a huge man, slow of thought and speech, but very
courageous. He and %@AU@%ODYSSEUS%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@% rescued the corpse of %@AU@%ACHILLES%@BO:            b6d3@%%@AE@%. When Odysseus
was awarded Achilles' armor the disappointed Ajax went mad and committed
suicide.%@AB@%2%@AE@%The Locrian Ajax, who violated %@AU@%CASSANDRA%@BO:          19bb2d@%%@AE@% in the sack of Troy.
Shipwrecked by %@AU@%ATHENA%@BO:           94c26@%%@AE@%, he was saved by %@AU@%POSEIDON%@BO:          78820f@%%@AE@%, but struck dead by
lightning for his defiance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akbar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akbar%@AE@%,%@CR:AKBAR           @%%@QR:Akbar@% 1542-1605, Mogul emperor of %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% (1556-1605). An outstanding%@EH@%
general, Akbar added %@AU@%AFGHANISTAN%@BO:           1a8dd@%%@AE@%, Baluchistan, and N India to his
domains. This reign was marked by administrative reform, religious
toleration, and the flowering of art and literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akhenaton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akhenaton%@AE@%:%@CR:AKHENATON       @%%@QR:Akhenaton@% see %@AU@%IKHNATON%@BO:          46a319@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akhmatova, Anna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akhmatova, Anna%@AE@%%@CR:AKHMATOVA       @%%@QR:Akhmatova, Anna@%, pseud. of %@AB@%Anna Andreyevna Gorenko,%@AE@% 1889-1966, Russian%@EH@%
poet of the %@AU@%ACMEIST%@BO:            ca51@%%@AE@% school. Her brief, highly emotional lyrics are simply
and musically written. Among her most important volumes are %@AI@%The Rosary%@AE@%
(1914) and %@AI@%The Course of Time%@AE@% (1966).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akiba ben Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akiba ben Joseph%@AE@%%@CR:AKIBA.BH        @%%@QR:Akiba ben Joseph@%, AD c.50-c.135, Palestinian rabbi. He compiled a%@EH@%
collection of Hebrew Oral Law, %@AI@%Mishna of Rabbi Akiba%@AE@% (see %@AU@%MISHNA%@BO:          617113@%%@AE@%). After
siding with %@AU@%BAR KOKBA%@BO:           c4324@%%@AE@% in his revolt against Rome, Akiba was imprisoned
and, it is said, tortured to death by the Romans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akihito%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akihito%@AE@%%@CR:AKIHITO         @%%@QR:Akihito@%, 1933-, Japanese emperor designate, son of %@AU@%HIROHITO%@BO:          430bb4@%%@AE@%. Following%@EH@%
Hirohito's death (1989), he assumed the duties of emperor. He will
officially assume his father's title in Nov., 1990. He was the first
member of the royal family to marry (1959) a commoner, Michiko Shodar.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akkad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akkad%@AE@%%@CR:AKKAD           @%%@QR:Akkad@%, northern part of later %@AU@%BABYLONIA%@BO:           aad2b@%%@AE@%, in Mesopotamia; the southern%@EH@%
part was %@AU@%SUMER%@BO:          909297@%%@AE@%. In the 4th millennium BC a Semitic city-state appeared,
and under Sargon (c.2340 BC) Akkad became an imperial power. Akkad and
Sumer were united as Babylonia by %@AU@%HAMMURABI%@BO:          3f931e@%%@AE@%. The name Akkad also appears
as Accad.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akkadian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akkadian%@AE@%%@CR:AKKADIAN        @%%@QR:Akkadian@%, language belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the%@EH@%
Hamito-Semitic family of languages. Also called Assyro-Babylonian,
Akkadian was current in ancient %@AU@%MESOPOTAMIA%@BO:          5f1485@%%@AE@% (now %@AU@%IRAQ%@BO:          496a70@%%@AE@%) from about 3000 BC
until the time of Christ. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akron%@AE@%,%@CR:AKRON           @%%@QR:Akron@% city (1986 est. pop. 222,060), seat of Summit co., NE Ohio, on the%@EH@%
Little Cuyahoga R. and the Ohio and Erie Canal; settled 1825; inc. as a
city 1865. It is a port of entry and an important industrial and
transportation center. From the opening of the first plant in 1870, Akron
became the rubber capital of the U.S.; corporate and research
headquarters of the major producers are located there. Metalworking,
aerospace industries, and polymer research are important. Akron's Art
Institute is well known.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akte%@AE@%:%@CR:AKTE            @%%@QR:Akte@% see %@AU@%ATHOS%@BO:           95a2a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Akutagawa Ryunosuke%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Akutagawa Ryunosuke%@AE@%,%@CR:AKUTAGASUKE     @%%@QR:Akutagawa Ryunosuke@% 1892-1927, Japanese author. One of Japan's finest%@EH@%
short-story writers, he derived many of his tales from historical
Japanese sources, but told them with psychological insights in an
individualistic style. "Rashomon" (1915) and "In a Grove" (1921) were
made into the classic 1950 film %@AI@%Rashomon%@AE@%, directed by %@AU@%KUROSAWA AKIRA%@BO:          512295@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%al-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%al-%@AE@%.%@CR:AL1             @%%@QR:al-@% For Arabic names beginning thus, see the second part of the name,%@EH@%
e.g., %@AU@%SADAT, ANWAR AL-%@BO:          82ced6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Al%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Al%@AE@%,%@CR:AL2             @%%@QR:Al@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%ALUMINUM%@BO:           436c3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alabama%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alabama%@AE@%,%@CR:ALABAMA         @%%@QR:Alabama@% state in the SE U.S.; bordered by Tennessee (N), Georgia (E),%@EH@%
Florida and the Gulf of Mexico (S), and Mississippi (W).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 51,609 sq mi (133,677 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 4,052,000, a 4.1%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Montgomery. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Dec. 14, 1819
(22d state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Cheaha Mt., 2,407 ft (734 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@% sea
level. %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Heart of Dixie. %@AI@%Motto,%@AE@% We Dare Defend Our Rights. %@AI@%State
%@AI@%bird,%@AE@% yellowhammer. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% camellia. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% Southern
(longleaf) pine. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Ala.; AL.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Except for the southern edge of the %@AU@%APPALACHIAN
%@AU@%MOUNTAINS%@BO:           6bff1@%%@AE@%, in the northeast, Alabama consists mostly of rolling plains
drained by the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. The fertile Black Belt is
located in central Alabama. The climate is subtropical and humid. More
than 60% of the population lives in metropolitan areas, principally in
%@AU@%BIRMINGHAM%@BO:          101a57@%%@AE@%, a steel center; %@AU@%MOBILE%@BO:          61df98@%%@AE@%, a major U.S. port; %@AU@%MONTGOMERY%@BO:          635f70@%%@AE@%, the
capital; and %@AU@%HUNTSVILLE%@BO:          458b7e@%%@AE@%, an aerospace center.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Although cotton is still grown, it has been supplanted in revenue
earned by cattle and poultry, soybeans, and peanuts. Dams on the
%@AU@%TENNESSEE%@BO:          93eea9@%%@AE@% R., in the north, provide power for the state's industries,
whose leading products are iron and steel, paper and wood products,
chemicals, and processed foods. Oil is produced in the south, and fishing
is important along the coast. Lumbering is a major industry throughout
Alabama. The population (1984) was 73% white and 27% black and other
groups.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% According to the constitution of 1901, the government is
headed by a governor elected to a four-year term. The legislature is
composed of a 35-member senate and 105-member house of representatives
elected to four-year terms. Alabama sends seven representatives and two
senators to the U.S. Congress and has nine electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% When Spanish explorers, including Hernando %@AU@%DE SOTO%@BO:          28496d@%%@AE@%, visited the
region during the 16th cent., they found the %@AU@%CREEK%@BO:          247e6b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHEROKEE%@BO:          1c9148@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHOCTAW%@BO:          1db915@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%CHICKASAW%@BO:          1cd668@%%@AE@% tribes. In 1702 the French established the first white
settlement. Andrew %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% defeated (1814) the Creek Confederacy at
Horseshoe Bend, ushering in a period of rapid settlement. Subsequently,
huge plantations utilizing slave labor were established to cultivate
cotton. Alabama seceded from the Union in 1861. Following the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%
the defeated state was placed under military rule; it was readmitted to
the Union in 1868. Alabama slowly recovered from the war and the
corruption of %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@%, a process made easier by the beginning of
industrialization. Agricultural diversification began after the boll
weevil infested the cotton fields during the early 20th cent. The 1954
Supreme Court decision outlawing school segregation ushered in a painful
period of %@AU@%INTEGRATION%@BO:          48a964@%%@AE@% and the growth of the %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% movement.
Despite opposition by Gov. George %@AU@%WALLACE%@BO:          9ec323@%%@AE@% and a few acts of racial
violence in the state, most public schools in Alabama had been
successfully desegregated by the early 1970s. In the late 1970s and early
1980s public attention shifted to assuring the state's economic growth by
encouraging further diversification of manufacturing industries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alabama claims%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alabama claims%@AE@%,%@CR:ALABAMA.CLAIMS  @%%@QR:Alabama claims@% claims by the U.S. against Great Britain after the U.S.%@EH@%
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% for damage to merchant ships caused by British-built
Confederate cruisers. A tribunal (1871-72) at Geneva awarded the U.S.
$15.5 million for damage caused by the Confederate ships %@AI@%Alabama,
%@AI@%Florida,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Shenandoah%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alabaster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alabaster%@AE@%,%@CR:ALABASTER       @%%@QR:alabaster@% fine-grained, translucent variety of the mineral %@AU@%GYPSUM%@BO:          3ecec7@%%@AE@%, pure%@EH@%
white or streaked with reddish brown. Its softness makes it easily carved
but also easily broken, soiled, and weathered. Quarried in England and
Italy, it is used to make statuary and other decorative objects. The
Oriental alabaster of ancient Egyptian and Roman tombs is actually
%@AU@%MARBLE%@BO:          5b652f@%%@AE@%, a calcium carbonate, whereas gypsum is a calcium sulfate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alain-Fournier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alain-Fournier%@AE@%%@CR:ALAINFOURNIER   @%%@QR:Alain-Fournier@%, 1886-1914, French novelist; b. Henri Alban Fournier. His%@EH@%
single full-length work, %@AI@%The Wanderer%@AE@% (1913), about a youthful search for
the ideal, is a delicate blend of symbolism and realism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alamein, El%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alamein, El%@AE@%%@CR:ALAMEIN         @%%@QR:Alamein, El@%,or %@AB@%Al Alamayn%@AE@%, town, N Egypt, on the Mediterranean Sea.%@EH@%
During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% it was the site of a decisive British victory (1942)
against the Germans. The victory saved Egypt for the Allies and led to
the defeat (1943) of the Axis powers in North Africa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alamo, the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alamo, the%@AE@%%@CR:ALAMO           @%%@QR:Alamo, the@% [Span.,=cottonwood], chapel-fort in San Antonio, Tex., built%@EH@%
c.1744. It was held by Davy %@AU@%CROCKETT%@BO:          24c6a8@%%@AE@%, Jim Bowie, W. %@AU@%TRAVIS%@BO:          978b65@%%@AE@%, and about 180
other Texans against a siege by an army of several thousand Mexicans
under Gen. %@AU@%SANTA ANNA%@BO:          84360c@%%@AE@% (Feb. 24-Mar. 6, 1836) during the Texas Revolution.
While the defenders died, their resistance rallied others who defeated
the Mexicans six weeks later, crying "Remember the Alamo!"%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aland Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aland Islands%@AE@%:%@CR:ALAND.ISLANDS   @%%@QR:Aland Islands@% see %@AU@%AHVENANMAA ISLANDS%@BO:           234d9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de%@AE@%%@CR:ALARCON         @%%@QR:Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de@%, 1833-91, Spanish writer and diplomat. His%@EH@%
novels, witty and often realistic, include %@AI@%The Three-Cornered Hat%@AE@% (1874),
on which %@AU@%FALLA%@BO:          31a1b1@%%@AE@% based a ballet, and %@AI@%Captain Venom%@AE@% (1881).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de%@AE@%%@CR:ALARCONZA       @%%@QR:Alarcon y Mendoza, Juan Ruiz de@%, 1581?-1639, Spanish dramatic poet; b.%@EH@%
Mexico. His brilliant and lively comedies (2 vol., 1628-34) make him a
major literary figure of Spain's %@AU@%GOLDEN AGE%@BO:          3b20f6@%%@AE@%. The most famous, %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Suspicious Truth,%@AE@% was the model for %@AI@%The Liar%@AE@% by %@AU@%CORNEILLE%@BO:          236a4e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alaric I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alaric I%@AE@%,%@CR:ALARIC.I        @%%@QR:Alaric I@% c.370-410, Visigothic king. After the death of Roman Emperor%@EH@%
%@AU@%THEODOSIUS I%@BO:          94be16@%%@AE@% he ravaged the Balkans until stopped by %@AU@%STILICHO%@BO:          8f176f@%%@AE@%, invaded
Italy, and sacked Rome (410).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alas, Leopoldo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alas, Leopoldo%@AE@%%@CR:ALAS            @%%@QR:Alas, Leopoldo@%, pseud. %@AB@%Clarin,%@AE@% 1852-1901, Spanish writer. He was a%@EH@%
professor of law at the Univ. of Oviedo. His masterpiece is the
naturalistic novel %@AI@%The Regent's Wife%@AE@% (1885), a detailed analysis of
provincial life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alaska%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alaska%@AE@%,%@CR:ALASKA          @%%@QR:Alaska@% least populous but largest state in area of the U.S., occupying%@EH@%
the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from
the coterminous U.S. by NW Canada. It is bordered by British Columbia and
Yukon Territory (E), the Pacific Ocean (S), the Bering Sea (W), and the
Arctic Ocean (N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 586,412 sq mi (1,518,800 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 534,000, a 32.8%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Juneau. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Jan. 3, 1959 (49th
state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Mt. McKinley, 20,320 ft (6,198 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@% sea
level. %@AI@%Motto,%@AE@% North to the Future. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% willow ptarmigan. %@AI@%State
%@AI@%flower,%@AE@% forget-me-not. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@%  Sitka spruce. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% AK.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Along the heavily indented coast are two peninsulas, the
Seward Peninsula to the west, and, farther south, the Alaska Peninsula,
from which the %@AU@%ALEUTIAN ISLANDS%@BO:           33e77@%%@AE@% extend. The interior is dominated by
rugged mountains, including the Alaska Range, where Denali, or Mount
%@AU@%MCKINLEY%@BO:          58f9c1@%%@AE@% (20,320 ft/6,198 m), the highest point in North America, is
located. Many tourists are attracted by the state's dramatic scenery,
some of the most spectacular located in its eight %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%. Winters
in the interiors are very cold; summers are brief but hot. The %@AU@%COAST
%@AU@%RANGES%@BO:          1fbd3b@%%@AE@% dominate the more temperate panhandle region, in the southeast,
where the Inside Passage traverses the Alexander Archipelago, located
just offshore. Principal lowlands are in the central region-drained by
the %@AU@%YUKON%@BO:          a4afa2@%%@AE@% R.-and, in the far north, the North Slope, along the Arctic
coast. The largest city is %@AU@%ANCHORAGE%@BO:           526d6@%%@AE@%, followed by %@AU@%FAIRBANKS%@BO:          318695@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JUNEAU%@BO:          4db11a@%%@AE@%;
about 45% of the population lives in metropolitan areas. In 1984 the
population, the fastest growing in the U.S., was 79% white, 21% other
races, mostly %@AU@%ESKIMO%@BO:          2ffda3@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ALEUTS%@BO:           3414e@%%@AE@% and some blacks.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% The economy has been transformed since the discovery (1968) of
North Slope oil and natural gas deposits, and their exploitation
dominates the economy. The Alaska pipeline (built 1974-77) carries oil
from %@AU@%PRUDHOE BAY%@BO:          7a5f53@%%@AE@% to the port of Valdez, in the south. Coal, platinum,
copper, gold, and uranium are among other minerals mined. Alaska has the
largest fishing industry in the U.S.; the small manufacturing sector is
dominated by the processing of fish and lumber. Fur export is important.
Because of the harsh climate and terrain there is little agriculture.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution (adopted 1956) provides for a governor
elected to a four-year term. The state legislature is composed of a
senate whose 20 members serve four-year terms and a house whose 40
members serve two-year terms. Alaska sends two senators and one
representative to the U.S. Congress and has three electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The first white settlers were Russians who crossed the %@AU@%BERING
%@AU@%STRAIT%@BO:           ec491@%%@AE@% in search of furs and established (1784) the first permanent
settlement on Kodiak Island. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. for
$7.2 million. The first influx of Americans came in the gold rush of the
1890s and the 1900s. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% the Japanese occupied (1942)
Attu and Kiska, in the Aleutian Islands, but were driven out (1943) by
U.S. forces. The war contributed to Alaska's economic development through
construction of the Alaska highway and of defense installations. The
state's greatest economic boom occurred after the extensive oil
discoveries of 1968, and huge off-shore deposits found in 1980 promised
future development. Against strong opposition by state residents favoring
private control of resources, the U.S. Congress approved (1980) the
Alaska lands bill, which designated more than 104 million acres (42
million hectares) of national parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness
areas. In 1989 an oil tanker bringing oil from %@AU@%PRUDHOE BAY%@BO:          7a5f53@%%@AE@% spilled
10-million gallons of oil near the port of Valdez causing severe economic
and environmental damage. %@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alaskan malamute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alaskan malamute%@AE@%,%@CR:ALASKANE        @%%@QR:Alaskan malamute@% strong, compact %@AU@%WORKING DOG%@BO:          a324a5@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.23 in.%@EH@%
(58.2 cm); weight, 70-85 lb (31.75-38.5 kg). Its coarse coat, composed of
oily, woolly underhairs and a thick cover coat, may be any shade of gray
or black, with white markings. The malamute has been raised for centuries
as a sled dog.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alba%@AE@%%@CR:ALBA            @%%@QR:Alba@%or %@AB@%Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duque de%@AE@% , 1507?-82, Spanish%@EH@%
governor general and regent of the %@AU@%NETHERLANDS%@BO:          687111@%%@AE@% (1567-73). A ruthless
absolutist, he crushed the rebellious provinces, executing some 18,000
Netherlanders, and defeated (1572) the invading army of %@AU@%WILLIAM THE
%@AU@%SILENT%@BO:          a1efe5@%%@AE@%. Recalled to Spain, he completed the conquest (1580) of %@AU@%PORTUGAL%@BO:          786f48@%%@AE@%
by capturing Lisbon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%albacore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%albacore%@AE@%:%@CR:ALBACORE        @%%@QR:albacore@% see %@AU@%TUNA%@BO:          988e6d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albania%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albania%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBANIA         @%%@QR:Albania@% Albanian %@AI@%Shqipnija%@AE@% or %@AI@%Shqiperia,%@AE@% officially People's Socialist%@EH@%
Republic of Albania, republic (1982 pop. 2,786,000), 11,101 sq mi (28,752
sq km), SE Europe, on the Adriatic coast of the Balkan Peninsula;
bordered by Yugoslavia (N and E) and Greece (S). %@AU@%TIRANE%@BO:          96006c@%%@AE@% is the capital.
Except for the fertile %@AU@%ADRIATIC%@BO:           15799@%%@AE@% coast, Albania is mountainous, rising to
9,066 ft (2,763 m) at Mt. Korab. Albania is rich in mineral resources,
notably chromium, coal, copper, oil, and nickel, and mining is the
largest source of income. Only one tenth of the land is cultivated, and
half of that is in vineyards and olive groves; grains, cotton, tobacco,
and livestock are also important. The leading industries include food
processing, textiles, and the manufacture of petroleum products,
footwear, and building materials. Industry, mines, and agriculture are
nationalized. About 97% of the population is ethnic Albanian. Albania is
officially an atheist country, but the population is predominantly
Muslim, with Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox minorities.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Albania was settled in ancient times by Illyrians and Thracians;
the area then comprised parts of %@AU@%ILLYRIA%@BO:          46d229@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EPIRUS%@BO:          2f7952@%%@AE@%. The Greeks colonized
the coast, and the entire region came under Roman and Byzantine rule.
%@AU@%SCANDERBEG%@BO:          85384b@%%@AE@% (d. 1468), Albania's national hero, delayed but did not stop
the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE'S%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% conquest of the area, which was complete by 1478.
More than four centuries of Turkish Islamic rule followed, and national
aspirations were suppressed until, during the First %@AU@%BALKAN WAR%@BO:           b70f4@%%@AE@%, Albania
proclaimed independence (1912). In 1913 an international commission
assigned large areas claimed by Albania to %@AU@%MONTENEGRO%@BO:          633ba8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SERBIA%@BO:          871606@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%. The scene of political chaos and a battleground for contending
European and Balkan forces after %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, the country came (1925)
under the rule of Ahmed Zogu, who proclaimed himself (1928) King %@AU@%ZOG%@BO:          a567b8@%%@AE@%.
Italy invaded Albania in 1939, setting up a puppet government that fought
with the Axis powers in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. After 1944, power passed to
antifascist guerrilla leader Enver %@AU@%HOXHA%@BO:          44e35e@%%@AE@%, a Communist, who proclaimed a
republic in 1946. Opposed to de-Stalinization, Albania broke with the
USSR in 1961. It became a close ally of China, but that friendship ended
in 1978. Hoxhe died in 1985 and was succeeded by Ramiz Alia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albany, Alexander Stuart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albany, Alexander Stuart%@AE@%%@CR:ALBANY1         @%%@QR:Albany, Alexander Stuart@% or %@AB@%Stewart, duke of:%@AE@%see %@AU@%STUART, ALEXANDER, DUKE%@EH@%
%@AU@%OF ALBANY%@BO:          8fea0e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albany%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albany%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBANY2         @%%@QR:Albany@% city (1986 est. pop. 97,020), state capital and seat of Albany%@EH@%
co., E N.Y., on the Hudson R.; settled 1624, inc. 1686. A deepwater port
and trading center for a farm and resort area, it has diversified
manufactures, including textiles, paper, chemicals, and automotive parts.
The Dutch built (1613) a fur trading post there; the English took control
and named the city in 1664. State capital from 1797, it grew with the
opening of the Erie and Champlain canals (1820s). The state capitol
(1867-98) and many old houses and new state office buildings are
prominent in the city, which was redeveloped in the 1960s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albany Congress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albany Congress%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBANY.CONGRESS @%%@QR:Albany Congress@% 1754, a meeting of British colonial representatives in%@EH@%
Albany, N.Y. Because of the impending war with France, a treaty was made
between seven British colonies and the Iroquois Indians. Benjamin
%@AU@%FRANKLIN'S%@BO:          357a50@%%@AE@% Plan of Union for the colonies was also approved, but was
later rejected by the colonial legislatures and by the crown.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albany Regency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albany Regency%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBANY.REGENCY  @%%@QR:Albany Regency@% informal group of Democratic party leaders in New York%@EH@%
state after 1820. Developed by Martin %@AU@%VAN BUREN%@BO:          9ba53c@%%@AE@%, the Regency was among
the first effective political machines. It used the %@AU@%SPOILS SYSTEM%@BO:          8db66d@%%@AE@% and
maintained strict party discipline. After 1842 it split into factions
(%@AU@%BARNBURNERS%@BO:           c5c27@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HUNKERS%@BO:          45710f@%%@AE@%) over internal improvements and slavery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%albatross%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%albatross%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBATROSS       @%%@QR:albatross@% sea %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (family Diomedeidae) with tapered wings that enable%@EH@%
it to excel at gliding and flying. Most are found in the South Pacific,
although a few, e.g., the black-footed albatross (%@AI@%Diomedea nigripes%@AE@%),
frequent the north Pacific. The wandering albatross (%@AI@%D. exulans%@AE@%), with a
wingspan of 10 to 12 ft (305 to 366 cm), was made famous by %@AU@%COLERIDGE'S%@BO:          202f59@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Rime of the Ancient Mariner.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albee, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albee, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBEE           @%%@QR:Albee, Edward@% 1928-, American playwright; b. Washington, D.C. His%@EH@%
clever, often satiric plays include the one-act %@AI@%The Zoo Story%@AE@% (1959), and
the full-length %@AI@%Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?%@AE@% (1962), widely regarded
as his finest work; %@AI@%A Delicate Balance%@AE@% (1967; Pulitzer); and %@AI@%Seascape%@AE@%
(1975; Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albemarle, George Monck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albemarle, George Monck%@AE@%%@CR:ALBEMARLE       @%%@QR:Albemarle, George Monck@% or %@AB@%Monk,%@AE@%1st %@AB@%duke of:%@AE@%see %@AU@% MONCK%@BO:          628e6c@%%@AE@%, George.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albeniz, Isaac%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albeniz, Isaac%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBENIZ         @%%@QR:Albeniz, Isaac@% 1860-1909, Spanish pianist and composer. Influenced by%@EH@%
%@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%DEBUSSY%@BO:          2720ca@%%@AE@%, he is best remembered for his later piano works,
especially %@AI@%Iberia%@AE@% (1906-9), which combine Spanish folk material with
brilliant pianistic idiom.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alberdi, Juan Bautista%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alberdi, Juan Bautista%@AE@%%@CR:ALBERDI         @%%@QR:Alberdi, Juan Bautista@%, 1810-84, Argentine political philosopher and%@EH@%
diplomat. Suggestions in his %@AI@%Bases and Starting Points for the Political
%@AI@%Organization of the Argentine Republic%@AE@% (1852) were incorporated into the
constitution of 1853. He served on several diplomatic missions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albers, Josef%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albers, Josef%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBERS          @%%@QR:Albers, Josef@% 1888-1976, German-American artist, designer, and teacher;%@EH@%
b. Germany. After working at the %@AU@%BAUHAUS%@BO:           d21f4@%%@AE@% (1920-23), he came to the U.S.
As director of the Yale School of Art (1950-58), he was a major figure in
American art education. He is best-known for a series of paintings,
%@AI@%Homage to the Square,%@AE@% which portrays colors in quasi-concentric squares.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albert I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albert I%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBERT.I        @%%@QR:Albert I@% 1875-1934, king of the Belgians (1909-34), nephew and successor%@EH@%
of %@AU@%LEOPOLD II%@BO:          541c96@%%@AE@%. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% he led his country in resisting the
German invasion (1914). He also improved social conditions in Belgium and
the Belgian %@AU@%CONGO%@BO:          21f259@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AU@%LEOPOLD III%@BO:          541c96@%%@AE@%, succeeded him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albert%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBERT          @%%@QR:Albert@% 1819-61, prince consort of %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@% of Great Britain; son of%@EH@%
Ernest I, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. His initial unpopularity as an alien
prince was modified by his devotion to the queen and his concern with
public affairs, particularly diplomacy. His insistence on a moderate
approach to the %@AU@%TRENT AFFAIR%@BO:          97ab04@%%@AE@% may have avoided war with the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alberta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alberta%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBERTA         @%%@QR:Alberta@% province (1986 pop. 2,365,825), 255,284 sq mi (661,185 sq km), W%@EH@%
Canada, bordered by Saskatchewan (E), the Northwest Territories (N),
British Columbia (W), and Montana (S). Alberta is a high plateau, rising
in the west to the %@AU@%ROCKY MOUNTAINS%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL DIVIDE%@BO:          22e092@%%@AE@%. Although
it is one of the Prairie Provinces, only about 25% of Alberta's area,
chiefly in the south, is treeless. Central Alberta is partly wooded, and
the north is principally timberland. The province is drained by the
Athabasca, the Saskatchewan, the Red Deer, and other rivers. The
population is centered in S and central Alberta, and the principal cities
are %@AU@%EDMONTON%@BO:          2c6ebb@%%@AE@%, the capital, and %@AU@%CALGARY%@BO:          171913@%%@AE@%. Until recently, agriculture was
Alberta's basic industry. Grain, especially wheat, is the dominant crop,
and livestock raising, dairying, lumbering, and manufacturing are also
important. Since the early 1960s, however, mineral exploitation has been
the major industry. Alberta is believed to have some of the richest oil
deposits in the world-notably the tar beds of the Athabasca River-and has
abundant natural gas. Its coal beds contain about one half of Canada's
known reserves. Tourists are attracted to the province's outstanding
national parks-Jasper, Banff, Waterton Lakes, and Wood Buffalo.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Alberta was part of the territory granted (1670) to the %@AU@%HUDSON'S
%@AU@%BAY COMPANY%@BO:          45078d@%%@AE@% and was dominated by the fur trade. In 1870 the company sold
the area to the newly created confederation of Canada and in 1872 the
mounted police established Fort Macleod in S Alberta. In 1882 the region
became an administrative division, and the Canadian Pacific Railway
opened the area to settlement. Alberta became a province in 1905. Oil was
discovered in 1914, but only when a find was made near Edmonton in 1947
did Alberta's economy begin to change. Politically, Albertans turned to
William %@AU@%ABERHART%@BO:            3c61@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%SOCIAL CREDIT%@BO:          8abaed@%%@AE@% party in 1935. In 1971 the
Progressive Conservatives gained control of the Provincial Assembly.
Alberta sends 6 senators (appointed) and 21 representatives (elected) to
the national parliament.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alberti, Leone Battista%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alberti, Leone Battista%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBERTI         @%%@QR:Alberti, Leone Battista@% 1404-72, Italian architect, musician, painter,%@EH@%
and humanist. His treatise %@AI@%De re aedificatoria%@AE@% (c.1450), though dependent
on the Roman architect Vitruvius, was the first modern work on
architecture, and influenced the development of %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% architectural
style. Among the notable buildings erected from his designs is the
Palazzo Rucellai, Florence. Alberti's treatises on painting (1436) and
sculpture (c.1464) were also influential.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albertus Magnus, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albertus Magnus, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBERTUS.MAGNUS @%%@QR:Albertus Magnus, Saint@% or %@AB@%Saint Albert the Great,%@AE@%b. 1193 or 1206, d.%@EH@%
1280, scholastic philosopher, Doctor of the Church, called the Universal
Doctor. A %@AU@%DOMINICAN%@BO:          2a066d@%%@AE@%, he attempted in his %@AI@%Summa theologiae%@AE@% to reconcile
Aristotelianism with Christian thought. St. %@AU@%THOMAS AQUINAS%@BO:          952e01@%%@AE@% was his pupil.
Albertus was also deeply interested in natural science and was the first
to produce arsenic in a free form. Feast: Nov. 15. See also %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albigenses%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albigenses%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBIGENSES      @%%@QR:Albigenses@% religious sect of S France (12th-13th cent.), whose beliefs%@EH@%
were similar in many ways to %@AU@%MANICHAEISM%@BO:          5ae0b2@%%@AE@%. They were Christian heretics
who believed in the coexistence of good and evil. They held that matter
was evil and that Jesus only seemed to have a body. Ascetic and
enthusiastic, they persisted despite papal opposition. The murder of a
papal legate led %@AU@%INNOCENT III%@BO:          4854b3@%%@AE@% to declare (1208) the Albigensian Crusade,
which was soon redirected toward political ends. In 1233 the %@AU@%INQUISITION%@BO:          486fa4@%%@AE@%
was formed to halt Albigensianism, and slowly over 100 years the movement
died.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%albino%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%albino%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBINO          @%%@QR:albino@% animal or plant lacking normal pigmentation. The albino body%@EH@%
covering (skin, hair, and feathers) and eyes lack pigment. In humans and
other animals albinism is inherited as a recessive trait. Breeding has
established albino races in some domestic animals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albinus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albinus%@AE@%:%@CR:ALBINUS         @%%@QR:Albinus@% see %@AU@%ALCUIN%@BO:           321a5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%albumin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%albumin%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBUMIN         @%%@QR:albumin@% member of a class of water-soluble, heat-coagulating %@AU@%PROTEINS%@BO:          7a2e5b@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Albumins are widely distributed in plant and animal tissues, e.g.,
ovalbumin of egg, lactalbumin of milk, and leucosin of wheat. Some
contain carbohydrates. Normally constituting about 55% of the plasma
proteins, albumins adhere chemically to various substances in the blood,
e.g., %@AU@%AMINO ACIDS%@BO:           4b486@%%@AE@%, and thus play a role in their transport. Albumins and
other blood proteins aid in regulating the distribution of water in the
body. Albumins are also used in textile printing, the fixation of dyes,
sugar refining, and other important processes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albuquerque, Afonso de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albuquerque, Afonso de%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBUQUERQUE1    @%%@QR:Albuquerque, Afonso de@% 1453-1515, Portuguese admiral, founder of the%@EH@%
Portuguese empire in the East. He captured Goa (1510), Malacca (1511),
and Hormuz (1513), built a series of forts in %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@%, and established
shipbuilding and other industries. Control of the spice trade and of
trade routes were nearly accomplished during his tenure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Albuquerque%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Albuquerque%@AE@%,%@CR:ALBUQUERQUE2    @%%@QR:Albuquerque@% city (1986 est. pop. 366,750), seat of Bernalillo co., W%@EH@%
central N. Mex., on the upper Rio Grande; inc. 1890. It is the largest
city in the state, and the industrial and commercial center of a timber
and farm area. Its diverse industries include electronics, and nuclear
research and weapons development conducted by federal agencies. The
city's downtown was the site of a 1980s urban renewal project.
Albuquerque is also noted as a health resort and medical center. The city
was founded by the Spanish in 1706 and grew with the arrival (1880) of
the railroad.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcaeus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcaeus%@AE@%%@CR:ALCAEUS         @%%@QR:Alcaeus@%, d. c.580 BC, Greek poet, early personal lyric writer.%@EH@%
Traditionally an associate of %@AU@%SAPPHO%@BO:          846fcf@%%@AE@%, he wrote both light and political
verse. The Alcaic strophe was admired and adapted by %@AU@%HORACE%@BO:          44652e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcala Zamora, Niceto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcala Zamora, Niceto%@AE@%%@CR:ALCALA.ZAMORA   @%%@QR:Alcala Zamora, Niceto@%, 1877-1949, president of Spain (1931-36). He helped%@EH@%
to lead the republican revolution of 1931 and became the first president
of the second Spanish republic. He was deposed (1936) by the %@AU@%CORTES%@BO:          23988d@%%@AE@% on a
Socialist motion and went into exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alcalde%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alcalde%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCALDE         @%%@QR:alcalde@% Spanish title designating a town mayor who also acts as justice%@EH@%
of the peace. It originated in the 11th cent. to designate a judge with
administrative functions. In the Spanish colonies it was used for a
provincial administrator who presided over the Cabildo or municipal
council.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcatraz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcatraz%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCATRAZ        @%%@QR:Alcatraz@% island in San Francisco Bay, W Calif. Discovered (1769) and%@EH@%
fortified by the Spanish, it was (1859-1933) the site of a U.S. military
prison and then (1933-63) federal maximum security prison, called "The
Rock." It became part of the Golden Gate National Recreational Area in
1972.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcestis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcestis%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCESTIS        @%%@QR:Alcestis@% in Greek mythology, the devoted wife of a Thessalian king,%@EH@%
Admetus. She willingly died in his place, to ensure his immortality. In
some myths %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@% rescued her from the dead; in others %@AU@%PERSEPHONE%@BO:          739443@%%@AE@%
reunited husband and wife. %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@% dramatized the legend in his
%@AI@%Alcestis%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alchemy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alchemy%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCHEMY         @%%@QR:alchemy@% ancient art or pseudoscience that sought to turn base metals%@EH@%
into gold or silver through the agency of a secret substance known by
various names (philosopher's stone, elixir, grand magistry). Emerging in
China and Egypt by the 3d cent. BC, alchemy was cloaked in mysticism and
allegory, and in time degenerated into superstition. Revived (8th cent.)
in Alexandria by the Arabs, it reached W Europe by the Middle Ages. In
the 15th-17th cent. experimentation again fell into disrepute, but the
base had been laid for modern %@AU@%CHEMISTRY%@BO:          1c7a15@%%@AE@%, which has in fact accomplished
the transmutation of elements.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcibiades%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcibiades%@AE@%%@CR:ALCIBIADES      @%%@QR:Alcibiades@%, c.450-404 BC, Athenian statesman and general. A leader%@EH@%
against %@AU@%SPARTA%@BO:          8d347b@%%@AE@% in the %@AU@%PELOPONNESIAN WAR%@BO:          72ae2e@%%@AE@%, he was defeated at Mantinea (418
BC). He promoted the Sicilian campaign (415) but was accused (probably
falsely) of sacrilege. Called home for trial, he fled to Sparta, where he
aided Agis I, and then to Persia (413). Recalled to %@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@%, he won a
brilliant naval victory (410) and recovered Byzantium (408). Blamed
unjustly for the defeat of the Athenian fleet at Notium (c.406), he was
sent into exile, and %@AU@%LYSANDER%@BO:          5858f2@%%@AE@% had him murdered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcindor, Lew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcindor, Lew%@AE@%:%@CR:ALCINDOR        @%%@QR:Alcindor, Lew@% see %@AU@%ABDUL-JABBAR, KAREEM%@BO:            2849@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alcohol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alcohol%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCOHOL         @%%@QR:alcohol@% any of a class of organic compounds with the general formula%@EH@%
R-OH, where R is an alkyl group made up of carbon and hydrogen and -OH is
one or more hydroxyl groups, each made up of one atom of oxygen and one
of hydrogen. Although the term %@AI@%alcohol%@AE@% ordinarily refers to %@AU@%ETHANOL%@BO:          304246@%%@AE@%, the
alcohol in alcoholic beverages, the class of alcohols also includes
%@AU@%METHANOL%@BO:          5f721e@%%@AE@% and the amyl, butyl, and propyl alcohols, all with one hydroxyl
group; the glycols, with two hydroxyl groups; and glycerol, with three.
Many of the characteristic properties and reactions of alcohols are due
to the polarity, or unequal distribution, of electric charges in the
C-O-H portion of the molecule.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcoholics Anonymous%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcoholics Anonymous%@AE@%%@CR:ALCOHOLYMOUS    @%%@QR:Alcoholics Anonymous@% (AA), worldwide organization dedicated to the curing%@EH@%
of alcoholics; est. 1935 by two former alcoholics. The organization,
which functions through local groups, is based on a philosophy of life
that has enabled countless numbers of people to recover from alcoholism.
In 1988 there were 1 million members worldwide. %@AB@%Al-Anon,%@AE@% for spouses,
relatives, and friends of alcoholics, and %@AB@%Al-Ateen,%@AE@% for their adolescent
children, function similarly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alcoholism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alcoholism%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCOHOLISM      @%%@QR:alcoholism@% chronic illness characterized by the habitual consumption of%@EH@%
alcohol to a degree that interferes with physical or mental health, or
with normal social or occupational behavior. A widespread health problem,
it produces both physical and psychological addiction (see %@AU@%DRUG ADDICTION
%@AU@%AND DRUG ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%). Alcohol is a central nervous system %@AU@%DEPRESSANT%@BO:          2816c3@%%@AE@% that
reduces anxiety, inhibition, and feelings of guilt; lowers alertness;
impairs perception, judgment, and muscular coordination; and, in high
doses, can cause unconsciousness and even death. Long-term alcoholism
damages the brain, liver (see %@AU@%CIRRHOSIS%@BO:          1e9978@%%@AE@%), heart, and other organs.
Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal can range from a simple hangover to severe
delirium tremens (a condition characterized by deliriousness, violent
trembling, hallucinations, and seizures). Treatment includes use of
disulfiram (Antabuse), a drug that produces discomfort if alcohol is
consumed; anti-anxiety drugs to suppress withdrawal symptoms;
psychological counseling; and support from groups such as %@AU@%ALCOHOLICS
%@AU@%ANONYMOUS%@BO:           31421@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcott, (Amos) Bronson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcott, (Amos) Bronson%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCOTT1         @%%@QR:Alcott, (Amos) Bronson@% 1799-1888, American educational and social%@EH@%
reformer; b. near Wolcott, Conn. Despite his meager formal education, he
became a teacher and founded Temple School in Boston. A leading exponent
of %@AU@%TRANSCENDENTALISM%@BO:          973e73@%%@AE@%, he was (1843) one of the founders of a cooperative
vegetarian community, "Fruitlands," and then, as superintendent, reformed
the Concord public schools. The poverty that plagued his life was
eventually alleviated by the writings of his daughter Louisa May %@AU@%ALCOTT%@BO:           31e9c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcott, Louisa May%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcott, Louisa May%@AE@%,%@CR:ALCOTT2         @%%@QR:Alcott, Louisa May@% 1832-88, American writer; b. Germantown, Pa.;%@EH@%
daughter of Bronson %@AU@%ALCOTT%@BO:           31bd2@%%@AE@%. Educated by her father, she was also
influenced by her friends %@AU@%EMERSON%@BO:          2e7cc0@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%THOREAU%@BO:          954415@%%@AE@%. Alcott received notice for
%@AI@%Hospital Sketches%@AE@% (1863), a collection of letters written while she was a
Civil War nurse. She achieved fame with %@AI@%Little Women%@AE@% (1868-69), a largely
autobiographical novel for young people that portrays Victorian American
family life. Its sequels are %@AI@%Little Men%@AE@% (1871) and %@AI@%Jo's Boys%@AE@% (1886).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alcuin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alcuin%@AE@%%@CR:ALCUIN          @%%@QR:Alcuin@% or %@AB@%Albinus,%@AE@%735?-804, English churchman and educator. Invited%@EH@%
(781?) to %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE'S%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% court at Aachen, he was the moving spirit of the
%@AU@%CAROLINGIAN%@BO:          192c68@%%@AE@% renaissance. Alcuin established the study of the seven
liberal arts, which became the curriculum for medieval Europe, and
encouraged the preservation of ancient texts. His letters are extant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aldanov, Mark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aldanov, Mark%@AE@%%@CR:ALDANOV         @%%@QR:Aldanov, Mark@%, pseud. of %@AB@%Mark Aleksandrovich Landau,%@AE@% 1886-1957, Russian%@EH@%
novelist. Aldanov emigrated to France in 1919 and to the U.S. in 1941.
His works include %@AI@%The Thinker%@AE@% (1923-27), about the era from 1793 to 1821
in France; %@AI@%The Tenth Symphony%@AE@% (1931), set in the Vienna of %@AU@%BEETHOVEN'S%@BO:           db753@%%@AE@%
time; and %@AI@%The Fifth Seal%@AE@% (1939), which portrays the decay of
revolutionary idealism during the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alder%@AE@%,%@CR:ALDER           @%%@QR:alder@% deciduous tree or shrub (genus %@AI@%Alnus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%BIRCH%@BO:          100720@%%@AE@% family, widely%@EH@%
distributed, especially in mountainous, moist areas of the north
temperate zone and in the Andes. The bark of the black alder (%@AI@%A.
%@AI@%glutinosa%@AE@%), once used medicinally, is still used for dyes and tanning.
Red alder (%@AI@%A. rubra%@AE@%) is the most important hardwood on the Pacific coast
of North America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aldington, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aldington, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:ALDINGTON       @%%@QR:Aldington, Richard@% 1892-1962, English poet and novelist. A leading%@EH@%
%@AU@%IMAGIST%@BO:          46d50a@%%@AE@%, he was married to Hilda %@AU@%DOOLITTLE%@BO:          2a2b40@%%@AE@%. His poetry, e.g., %@AI@%Images%@AE@%
(1915), is remarkable for verbal precision; his novels, e.g., %@AI@%Death of a
%@AI@%Hero%@AE@% (1929) are bitter satires.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aldrich, Thomas Bailey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aldrich, Thomas Bailey%@AE@%,%@CR:ALDRICH         @%%@QR:Aldrich, Thomas Bailey@% 1836-1907, American author; b. Portsmouth, N.H.%@EH@%
He is most widely known for his autobiographical %@AI@%The Story of a Bad Boy%@AE@%
(1870). A skillful writer of light verse, he also served (1881-90) as
editor of the %@AI@%Atlantic Monthly.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aldrin, Buzz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aldrin, Buzz%@AE@%%@CR:ALDRIN          @%%@QR:Aldrin, Buzz@% (Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr.), 1930-, American astronaut; b.%@EH@%
Montclair, N.J. During the %@AI@%Apollo 11%@AE@% lunar-landing mission (July 16-24,
1969), Neil %@AU@%ARMSTRONG%@BO:           80a84@%%@AE@% (the commander) and Aldrin (the lunar-module pilot)
became the first and second persons, respectively, to walk on the moon
(see %@AU@%SPACE EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@%,). Aldrin was pilot of %@AI@%Gemini 12%@AE@% (Nov. 11-15,
1966) and, after retiring from NASA, served (1971-72) as commandant of
the Aerospace Research Pilots' School at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aldus Manutius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aldus Manutius%@AE@%%@CR:ALDUS.MANUTIUS  @%%@QR:Aldus Manutius@% or %@AB@%Aldo Manuzio,%@AE@%1450-1515, Venetian printer. A humanist%@EH@%
scholar, he printed Greek and Roman classics in editions noted for
accuracy, e.g., a five-volume set of the works of %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@% (completed
1498). To produce small, low-cost books for scholars, he designed the
first complete font of the Greek alphabet and the first italic %@AU@%TYPE%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@%
(1501). Books produced by him are called Aldine and bear his mark, a
dolphin and an anchor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ale%@AE@%:%@CR:ALE             @%%@QR:ale@% see %@AU@%BEER%@BO:           dac73@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aleichem, Sholom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aleichem, Sholom%@AE@%:%@CR:ALEICHEM        @%%@QR:Aleichem, Sholom@% see %@AU@%SHOLOM ALEICHEM%@BO:          888a19@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aleixandre, Vicente%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aleixandre, Vicente%@AE@%%@CR:ALEIXANDRE      @%%@QR:Aleixandre, Vicente@%, 1898-1984, Spanish poet. His verse includes the%@EH@%
surrealist %@AI@%Destruction of Love%@AE@% (1935) and %@AI@%A Longing for the Light%@AE@% (tr.
1979). He was awarded the 1977 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aleman, Mateo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aleman, Mateo%@AE@%%@CR:ALEMAN          @%%@QR:Aleman, Mateo@%, 1547-1614?, Spanish novelist. He led a turbulent life and%@EH@%
was twice jailed for debt; at 60 he settled in Mexico. His fame rests on
the picaresque novel %@AI@%Guzman de Alfarache%@AE@% (1599-1604).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aleman Valdes, Miguel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aleman Valdes, Miguel%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEMAN.VALDES   @%%@QR:Aleman Valdes, Miguel@%  1902-, president of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@% (1946-52). The first%@EH@%
civilian president after %@AU@%MADERO%@BO:          5934e1@%%@AE@%, he initiated a vigorous program of
modernization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alembert, Jean le Rond d'%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alembert, Jean le Rond d'%@AE@%%@CR:ALEMBERT        @%%@QR:Alembert, Jean le Rond d'@%, 1717-83, French mathematician and philosopher,%@EH@%
a leading figure of the %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@%. His treatise on %@AU@%DYNAMICS%@BO:          2b8cb4@%%@AE@% (1743)
enunciated d'Alembert's principle, which permitted the reduction of a
problem in dynamics to one in %@AU@%STATICS%@BO:          8e7088@%%@AE@%. He did important work on the
mechanics of rigid bodies, the motions of fluids and vibrating strings,
and the three-body problem in %@AU@%CELESTIAL MECHANICS%@BO:          1a9fb7@%%@AE@%. Diderot made him
coeditor of the %@AU@%ENCYCLOPEDIE%@BO:          2eb459@%%@AE@%, for which he wrote the "preliminary
discourse" (1751) and mathematical, philosophical, and literary articles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alepoudelis, Odysseus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alepoudelis, Odysseus%@AE@%:%@CR:ALEPOUDELIS     @%%@QR:Alepoudelis, Odysseus@% see %@AU@%ELYTIS, ODYSSEUS%@BO:          2e5ee0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aleppo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aleppo%@AE@%%@CR:ALEPPO          @%%@QR:Aleppo@% or %@AB@%Alep,%@AE@%city (1981 pop. 976,727), NW Syria. Located in a%@EH@%
semidesert region where grains, cotton, and fruit are grown, the city
produces silk, dried fruits, and other goods. It was settled perhaps as
early as the 6th millennium BC and passed to the Assyrians, Persians, and
Seleucids. By the 4th cent. AD it was a center of Christianity in the
Byzantine Empire. The Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and others later held it.
Aleppo prospered under the Ottoman Turks (from 1517) and the French (from
1918), and as part of independent Syria (from 1941). Historic structures
include the Great Mosque (715) and the Byzantine citadel (12th cent.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aleutian Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aleutian Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEUTIAS        @%%@QR:Aleutian Islands@% strategically important chain of rugged, volcanic%@EH@%
islands, W Alaska, curving westward c.1,200 mi (1,900 km) between the
Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Unalaska, the most populous island, is
part of the easternmost group, the Fox Islands. Extending west to a point
near the USSR are the Andreanof, Rat, Near, and Semichi island groups.
The Aleutians were discovered in 1741 by Vitus %@AU@%BERING%@BO:           ec03f@%%@AE@% and bought by the
U.S. from Russia in 1867 as part of the Alaska purchase. Three western
islands-Attu, Agattu, and Kiska-were occupied (1942-43) by Japan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aleuts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aleuts%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEUTS          @%%@QR:Aleuts@% native inhabitants of the %@AU@%ALEUTIAN ISLANDS%@BO:           33e77@%%@AE@% and W Alaska. They%@EH@%
speak an Eskimo-Aleut language (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%) and, like
the %@AU@%ESKIMO%@BO:          2ffda3@%%@AE@%, resemble Siberian peoples. Their skill in hunting sea mammals
was exploited by Russian fur traders, and wars with mainland tribes
helped to reduce their numbers from the 20,000-25,000 estimated by Vitus
%@AU@%BERING%@BO:           ec03f@%%@AE@% to around 1,800 today.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander III%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER.6     @%%@QR:Alexander III@% d. 1181, pope (1159-81), a Sienese born Orlando%@EH@%
Bandinelli. His rule was contested by antipopes until 1178. He backed the
%@AU@%LOMBARD LEAGUE%@BO:          5651f2@%%@AE@% in opposing Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FREDERICK I%@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%, who exiled him
to France until 1176. A learned canon lawyer, he issued many rules for
governing the church. In 1179 he convened the Third Lateran Council.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander VI%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander VI%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER.VI    @%%@QR:Alexander VI@% 1431?-1503, pope (1492-1503), a Spaniard named Rodrigo de%@EH@%
Borja (Ital., Borgia). Notorious in later centuries as a corrupt and
worldly pope, he showered his illegitimate children, Cesare and Lucretia
%@AU@%BORGIA%@BO:          123a5e@%%@AE@%, with money and favors. Girolamo %@AU@%SAVONAROLA%@BO:          850622@%%@AE@% was his outspoken
critic. Alexander opposed %@AU@%CHARLES VIII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of France and proclaimed (1494)
the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese colonial
possessions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER1      @%%@QR:Alexander@% czars of Russia. %@AB@%Alexander I,%@AE@% 1777-1825 (r.1801-25), was the%@EH@%
son of %@AU@%PAUL I%@BO:          722e73@%%@AE@%. He began his reign by relaxing political repression to a
degree. In 1805 he joined the coalition against %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%, but after
Russian defeats he made a tenuous alliance with France by signing the
Treaty of Tilsit (1807). After the French invasion of Russia (1812) was
repulsed he created the %@AU@%HOLY ALLIANCE%@BO:          43ba59@%%@AE@%, joining with %@AU@%METTERNICH%@BO:          5f95d3@%%@AE@% to
suppress national and liberal movements. His reactionary domestic
policies led to opposition, and when his brother %@AU@%NICHOLAS I%@BO:          69d0d5@%%@AE@% succeeded him
in 1825 a revolt took place (see %@AU@%DECEMBRISTS%@BO:          273035@%%@AE@%). %@AB@%Alexander II,%@AE@% 1818-81
(r.1855-81), son of Nicholas I, negotiated an end to the %@AU@%CRIMEAN WAR%@BO:          24a5c9@%%@AE@%
(1853-56; see %@AU@%PARIS, TREATY OF%@BO:          714f41@%%@AE@%) and adopted important reforms,
principally the emancipation of the serfs (1861; see %@AU@%EMANCIPATION, EDICT
%@AU@%OF%@BO:          2e6374@%%@AE@%) and the introduction of limited local self-government. His foreign
policy included the suppression of the Polish uprising of 1863; the
annexation of Central Asia (1865-76); and the %@AU@%RUSSO-TURKISH WARS%@BO:          8263a1@%%@AE@%
(1877-78). His domestic reforms were seen as insufficient by the
intelligentsia, some of whom formed populist groups. Increasing
repression led to terrorism, and in 1881 Alexander was assassinated.
%@AB@%Alexander III,%@AE@% 1845-94 (r.1881-94), was the son of Alexander II.
Surrounded by reactionary advisors, he increased police power and
censorship; weakened the %@AI@%zemstvos;%@AE@% imposed controls on the peasantry;
forced Russification on national minorities; and persecuted the Jews. His
foreign policy culminated in the %@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%. His
son %@AU@%NICHOLAS II%@BO:          69d0d5@%%@AE@% succeeded him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER2      @%%@QR:Alexander@% 1893-1920, king (1917-20) of the Hellenes (Greece). He became%@EH@%
Greek king when his father, %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227fe2@%%@AE@%, was forced by the Allies to
abdicate because of his pro-German sympathies. After Alexander's death,
his father was restored to the throne.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander III%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER7      @%%@QR:Alexander III@% king of Macedon: see %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER3      @%%@QR:Alexander@% kings of Scotland. %@AB@%Alexander I,%@AE@% 1078?-1124 (r. 1107-24), was%@EH@%
the son of %@AU@%MALCOLM III%@BO:          5a2fd7@%%@AE@%. He opposed English efforts to rule the church in
Scotland and established abbeys at Inchcolm and Scone. %@AB@%Alexander II,%@AE@%
1198-1249 (r.1214-49), joined the English barons in their revolt against
King %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@% but made a tenuous peace with %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Alexander III,%@AE@% 1241-86
(r.1249-86), acquired for Scotland the %@AU@%HEBRIDES%@BO:          411b82@%%@AE@% and also the Isle of %@AU@%MAN%@BO:          5a8c35@%%@AE@%,
already claimed from Norway by his father.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER4      @%%@QR:Alexander@% rulers of %@AU@%SERBIA%@BO:          871606@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%YUGOSLAVIA%@BO:          a49b0f@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Alexander%@AE@% (Alexander%@EH@%
Karadjordjevic), 1806-85, prince of Serbia (1842-58), was the son of
%@AU@%KARAGEORGE%@BO:          4e6842@%%@AE@%. An ineffectual ruler, he was deposed in favor of %@AU@%MILOs%@BO:          60dd82@%%@AE@%
Obrenovic. %@AB@%Alexander%@AE@% (Alexander Obrenovic), 1876-1903, king of Serbia
(1889-1903), instituted a conservative regime but, after accepting a
somewhat liberal constitution, was assassinated by a clique of army
officers. %@AB@%Alexander,%@AE@% 1888-1934, king of Yugoslavia (1921-34), the son and
successor of %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          741609@%%@AE@%, became (1918) regent of the kingdom of Serbs,
Croats, and Slovenes, which he renamed (1929) Yugoslavia. He was
assassinated by a Yugoslav terrorist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDER5      @%%@QR:Alexander, Harold Rupert Leofric George, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis@%%@EH@%
1891-1969, British field marshal. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he commanded the
retreats at Dunkirk (1940) and Burma (1942) and the triumphs in N Africa
and Sicily (1943). Later he was governor general of Canada (1946-52) and
minister of defense (1952-54) in Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL'S%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@% cabinet.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander Nevsky%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander Nevsky%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDY        @%%@QR:Alexander Nevsky@% 1220-63, Russian hero. As prince of Novgorod (1236-52)%@EH@%
he earned his surname by his victory (1240) over the Swedes on the Neva
R. He later defeated the Livonian Knights, invading from Germany (1242),
and the Lithuanians (1245). When the %@AU@%TATARS%@BO:          930c06@%%@AE@% occupied Russia he was made
grand duke of Vladimir-Suzdal (1252).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexander the Great%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexander the Great%@AE@%%@CR:ALEXANDREAT     @%%@QR:Alexander the Great@% or %@AB@%Alexander III,%@AE@%356-323 BC, king of %@AU@%MACEDON%@BO:          58a317@%%@AE@%. The son%@EH@%
of %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@%, he was tutored by %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%. Upon succeeding to the throne
in 336 BC he won ascendancy over all of %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@% by putting down uprisings
in %@AU@%THRACE%@BO:          955dae@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ILLYRIA%@BO:          46d229@%%@AE@%, and by sacking %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94ac71@%%@AE@%. As head of an allied Greek
army, viewing himself as the champion of pan-%@AU@%HELLENISM%@BO:          416d74@%%@AE@%, he started east
(334) on what was to be the greatest conquest of ancient times. He
defeated the Persians at the battles of Granicus (334) and Issus (333).
Tyre and Gaza fell after a year's struggle, and he entered Egypt (332),
where he founded %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@%. Moving to Mesopotamia, he overthrew the
Persian Empire of %@AU@%DARIUS III%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@% at the battle of Gaugamela (331). Pushing on
through eastern %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@% (330-327), he invaded northern %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% (326), but
there his men would go no further. The fleet was sent back to the head of
the Persian Gulf, and Alexander himself led his men through the desert,
reaching Susa in 324 BC He died of a fever a year later, at age 33. He
was incontestably one of the greatest generals of all time and one of the
most powerful personalities of antiquity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexandra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexandra%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDRA       @%%@QR:Alexandra@% 1844-1925, queen consort of %@AU@%EDWARD VII%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of Great Britain, whom%@EH@%
she married in 1863. She was the daughter of %@AU@%CHRISTIAN IX%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@% of Denmark.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexandra Feodorovna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexandra Feodorovna%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDROVNA    @%%@QR:Alexandra Feodorovna@% 1872-1918, czarina of Russia, consort of %@AU@%NICHOLAS%@EH@%
%@AU@%II%@BO:          69d0d5@%%@AE@%. A granddaughter of Queen %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@% and princess of Hesse, she
encouraged the czar's reactionary policies under the influence of
%@AU@%RASPUTIN%@BO:          7cd416@%%@AE@%. With her family she was shot by the Bolsheviks (see
%@AU@%BOLSHEVISM%@BO:          11afd5@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexandria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexandria%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDRIA1     @%%@QR:Alexandria@% city (1985 pop. 2,821,000), N Egypt, on the Mediterranean%@EH@%
Sea, W of the Nile R. delta. The city is Egypt's leading port, a
commercial and transportation center, and the heart of a major industrial
area with such manufactures as refined petroleum, textiles, and
automobiles. Founded in 332 BC by %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%, Alexandria was
(304 BC-30 BC) the capital of the %@AU@%PTOLEMIES%@BO:          7a9a83@%%@AE@%. The city was the greatest
center of Hellenistic and Jewish culture. It had a great university and
two celebrated royal libraries, but their valuable collections have not
survived. Alexandria became part of the empire of %@AU@%ROME%@BO:          80bece@%%@AE@% in 30 BC and later
of the %@AU@%BYZANTINE EMPIRE%@BO:          165ae5@%%@AE@%. The Muslim Arabs took the city in 642 AD After
Cairo became (969) Egypt's capital, Alexandria declined. It fell to
%@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% in 1798 and to the British in 1801. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% the
city was the chief Allied naval base in the E Mediterranean. At a 1944
meeting in Alexandria, plans for the %@AU@%ARAB LEAGUE%@BO:           713e4@%%@AE@% were drawn up. A few of
Alexandria's ancient monuments are still visible. The Greco-Roman Museum
houses a vast collection of Coptic, Roman, and Greek art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexandria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexandria%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDRIA2     @%%@QR:Alexandria@% city (1986 est. pop. 107,800), N Va., on the Potomac R.; inc.%@EH@%
1779. A residential suburb of %@AU@%WASHINGTON, D.C.%@BO:          9f65c5@%%@AE@%, it also has railroad
yards, varied industries, government buildings, and research firms. It
was part of the %@AU@%DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA%@BO:          296e9f@%%@AE@% from 1789 to 1847. Nearby is %@AU@%MOUNT
%@AU@%VERNON%@BO:          64a965@%%@AE@%; in the city are many sites associated with George Washington.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alexandrine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alexandrine%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXANDRINE     @%%@QR:alexandrine@% in %@AU@%VERSIFICATION%@BO:          9cdf29@%%@AE@%, a line of 12 syllables (or 13 if the last%@EH@%
is unstressed), probably named after medieval poems in this meter about
%@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%. In French, rhymed alexandrine couplets are the
classic poetic form. English iambic hexameter is often called
alexandrine. Alexander %@AU@%POPE'S%@BO:          78246d@%%@AE@% "Essay on Criticism" contains what is
probably the most quoted alexandrine in literature:A needless alexandrine
ends the song
That like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alexius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alexius%@AE@%,%@CR:ALEXIUS         @%%@QR:Alexius@% Byzantine emperors. %@AB@%Alexius I%@AE@% (Comnenus), 1048-1118%@EH@%
(r.1081-1118), nephew of %@AU@%ISAAC I%@BO:          49dfec@%%@AE@%, obtained the crown by overthrowing
Nicephorus III. He withstood the Normans under %@AU@%ROBERT GUISCARD%@BO:          7fa683@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%BOHEMOND I%@BO:          117760@%%@AE@%, and defeated the Pechenegs (1091) and %@AU@%CUMANS%@BO:          25482d@%%@AE@% (1095). During
the First %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@% he persuaded the leaders to pledge to him their
Byzantine conquests. In 1108 he forced Bohemond, who had seized Antioch,
to acknowledge his suzerainty. In his last years his daughter, Anna
Comnena, intrigued against his son, %@AU@%JOHN II%@BO:          4c70a4@%%@AE@%. Alexius restored Byzantine
power but drained the empire's resources. %@AB@%Alexius II%@AE@% (Comnenus), 1168-83
(r.1180-83), son of %@AU@%MANUEL I%@BO:          5b348c@%%@AE@%, ruled under the regency of his mother, Mary
of Antioch. His cousin procured the deaths of Mary and Alexius and became
Andronicus I. %@AB@%Alexius III%@AE@% (Angelus), d. after 1210 (r.1195-1203), deposed
his brother %@AU@%ISAAC II%@BO:          49dfec@%%@AE@%, but the act served as pretext for the leaders of
the Fourth Crusade to attack (1203) Constantinople and to restore Isaac,
with his son %@AB@%Alexius IV,%@AE@% d. 1204, as co-emperor. %@AB@%Alexius V%@AE@% (Ducas
Mourtzouphlos), d. 1204, son-in-law of Alexius III, overthrew Isaac and
Alexius IV but was killed soon afterward by the Crusaders, who set up the
Latin empire of Constantinople.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alfalfa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alfalfa%@AE@%%@CR:ALFALFA         @%%@QR:alfalfa@% or %@AB@%lucern,%@AE@%perennial plant (%@AI@%Medicago sativa%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
probably native to Persia and now widely cultivated. It is an important
pasture and hay plant. Alfalfa is valued for its high yield of protein,
its effectiveness in weed control, its role in crop rotation and nitrogen
fixation, and as a source of chlorophyll and carotene.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Al Fatah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Al Fatah%@AE@%:%@CR:AL.FATAH        @%%@QR:Al Fatah@% see %@AU@%ARAFAT, YASIR%@BO:           720ac@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte%@AE@%%@CR:ALFIERI         @%%@QR:Alfieri, Vittorio, Conte@%, 1749-1803, Italian tragic poet. A Piedmontese,%@EH@%
he traveled widely and returned to Italy with a desire to revive national
spirit. He wrote 19 tragedies, among them %@AI@%Philip the Second, Saul,%@AE@% and
%@AI@%Antigone,%@AE@% all in the French classical tradition; comedies; satire; and an
autobiography. His collected works, published (1805-15) by his friend the
countess of Albany, contributed greatly to the rise of Italian
nationalism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alfonso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alfonso%@AE@%,%@CR:ALFONSO1        @%%@QR:Alfonso@%  kings of %@AU@%ARAGON%@BO:           72576@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Alfonso I,%@AE@% d. 1134, king of Aragon and Navarre%@EH@%
(1104-34), captured many towns from the Moors. %@AB@%Alfonso II,%@AE@% 1152-96, king
of Aragon (1162-96), inherited Provence and conquered (1171) Teruel.
%@AB@%Alfonso V%@AE@% (the Magnanimous), 1396-1458, king of Aragon and Sicily
(1416-58), conquered %@AU@%NAPLES%@BO:          664789@%%@AE@% and was recognized by the pope as its king
(1443-58). He maintained a splendid court there and tried to introduce
Spanish institutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alfonso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alfonso%@AE@%,%@CR:ALFONSO2        @%%@QR:Alfonso@% kings of Portugal. %@AB@%Alfonso I,%@AE@% 1109?-85, the first king%@EH@%
(r.1139-85), extended his territories by defeating (1139) the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% and,
with the help of allies, captured (1147) Lisbon. His grandson, %@AB@%Alfonso II%@AE@%
(the Fat), 1185-1223 (r.1211-23), tried to confiscate Roman Catholic
Church holdings and was excommunicated (1219). His army won major
victories (1212, 1217) over the Moors. His son, %@AB@%Alfonso III,%@AE@% 1210-79
(r.1248-79), completed (1249) the reconquest of Portugal from the Moors,
instituted many reforms, and encouraged commerce and the development of
towns. %@AB@%Alfonso IV,%@AE@% 1291-1357 (r.1325-57), warred fruitlessly against
%@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@% before both kingdoms combined forces to defeat (1340) the Moors.
He countenanced the murder of Ines de %@AU@%CASTRO%@BO:          19f964@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Alfonso V,%@AE@% 1432-81
(r.1438-81), put down a civil war (1449), invaded Morocco to capture
Tangier (1471), and lost a war (1476-79) with Castile. %@AB@%Alfonso VI,%@AE@%
1643-83 (r.1656-83), ousted (1662) his mother as regent and appointed as
her successor the count of Castelho Melhor, who won the war (1663-65)
that secured Spain's recognition (1668) of Portugal's independence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alfonso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alfonso%@AE@%,%@CR:ALFONSO3        @%%@QR:Alfonso@% Spanish kings. %@AB@%Alfonso I%@AE@% (the Catholic), 693?-757, Spanish king%@EH@%
of %@AU@%ASTURIAS%@BO:           93136@%%@AE@% (739-57), extended its territory with the help of the
%@AU@%BERBERS%@BO:           ea52f@%%@AE@%' revolt (740-41) against the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%. His grandson, %@AB@%Alfonso II%@AE@% (the
Chaste), 759-842, king of Asturias (791-842), established his capital at
Oviedo and continued the struggle against the Moors. %@AB@%Alfonso III%@AE@% (the
Great), 838?-911?, king of Asturias (866-911?) recovered %@AU@%LEON%@BO:          53fc90@%%@AE@% from the
Moors, but after his forced abdication it was divided among his sons.
%@AB@%Alfonso V%@AE@% (the Noble), 994?-1027, king of Leon (999-1027), chartered
(1020) the city of Leon, but he was killed in the siege of Viseu. %@AB@%Alfonso
%@AB@%VI,%@AE@% 1030-1109, king of Leon (1065-1109) and %@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@% (1072-1109), took
Galicia (1073) and became the most powerful Christian ruler in Spain. He
conquered (1085) Toledo and other cities, but was defeated twice (1086,
1108) by Muslim armies. %@AB@%Alfonso VII%@AE@% (the Emperor), 1104-57, king of
Castile and Leon (1126-57), gained supremacy over other Christian states
and had himself crowned emperor (1135). But his conquests of %@AU@%CORDOBA%@BO:          23484a@%%@AE@%
(1146) and Almeria (1147) from the Moors were soon lost. %@AB@%Alfonso VIII%@AE@%
(the Noble), 1155-1214, king of Castile (1158-1214), restored order in
his kingdom and won a great victory (1212) over the Moors. %@AB@%Alfonso X%@AE@% (the
Wise), 1221-84, king of Castile and Leon (1252-84), took %@AU@%CADIZ%@BO:          16ad55@%%@AE@% from the
Moors (1262). His subjection of the nobles led to a revolt, and a civil
war broke out over the succession during his last years. He was a great
patron of science and the arts. The Alfonsine Tables of astronomical data
were published under his aegis. %@AB@%Alfonso XI,%@AE@% 1311-50, king of Castile and
Leon (1312-50), lost Gibraltar to the Moors (1333) but won the great
victory of Tarifa (1340) and conquered Algeciras (1344). %@AB@%Alfonso XII,%@AE@%
1857-85, king of Spain (1874-85), was a popular monarch who consolidated
the monarchy, suppressed republican agitation, and restored order.
%@AB@%Alfonso XIII,%@AE@% 1886-1941, king of Spain (1886-1931), supported the
military dictatorship (1923-30) of Miguel %@AU@%PRIMO DE RIVERA%@BO:          798c38@%%@AE@%, but social
unrest and a republican election victory led to his deposition and exile
(1931).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alfred%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alfred%@AE@%,%@CR:ALFRED          @%%@QR:Alfred@% 849-99, king of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@% (871-99), sometimes called Alfred the%@EH@%
Great. The son of %@AU@%AETHELWULF%@BO:           19993@%%@AE@%, he shared his father's piety. When his
brother %@AU@%AETHELRED%@BO:           19421@%%@AE@% took the Wessex throne (865), Alfred aided him in
battles against the Danes, who threatened to overrun England. Unable to
establish a clear victory, Alfred rid Wessex of the Danes by paying the
%@AU@%DANEGELD%@BO:          264d51@%%@AE@% when he became king in 871. In 878, however, the Danes returned,
and Alfred's flight to Somerset at that time is the basis for the legend
about the king and a peasant woman's burned cakes. In May 878, Alfred
triumphed over the Danes at Edington. This victory produced relative
security, and Alfred began to institute reforms, including a code of laws
combining Christian doctrine with a strong, centralized monarchy. His
greatest achievements were the creation of a navy, the revival of
learning among the clergy, the education of youths and nobles at court,
the establishment of Old English literary prose, his own English
translation of Latin works, and his influence on the extant form of the
%@AU@%ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE%@BO:           58672@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%algae%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%algae%@AE@%,%@CR:ALGAE           @%%@QR:algae@% primitive plants that contain %@AU@%CHLOROPHYLL%@BO:          1db0e0@%%@AE@% and carry on%@EH@%
%@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@% but lack true roots, stems, and leaves. They are the chief
aquatic plant life both in the sea and freshwater; nearly all %@AU@%SEAWEEDS%@BO:          866be9@%%@AE@%
are marine algae. Algae occur as microscopic single cells (e.g., %@AU@%DIATOMS%@BO:          28b4ec@%%@AE@%)
and more complex forms of many cells grouped in spherical colonies (e.g.,
%@AI@%Volvox%@AE@%), in ribbonlike filaments (e.g., %@AI@%Spirogyra%@AE@%), and in giant forms
(e.g., the marine kelps). The cells of colonies are generally similar,
but some are specialized for reproduction and other functions. The
blue-green and green algae include most of the freshwater forms, such as
pond scum, a green slime found in stagnant water. Brown and red algae are
more complex-chiefly marine forms whose green chlorophyll is masked by
the presence of other pigments. Algae are primary food producers in the
food chain and also provide oxygen for aquatic life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%algebra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%algebra%@AE@%,%@CR:ALGEBRA         @%%@QR:algebra@% branch of %@AU@%MATHEMATICS%@BO:          5d1200@%%@AE@% concerned with operations on sets of%@EH@%
numbers or other elements that are often represented by symbols. In
elementary algebra, letters are used to stand for numbers, e.g., in the
%@AU@%POLYNOMIAL%@BO:          77d0f4@%%@AE@% equation %@AI@%ax%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%+%@AI@%bx%@AE@%+%@AI@%c%@AE@%=0, the letters %@AI@%a, b,%@AE@% and %@AI@%c%@AE@% are called the
coefficients of the %@AU@%EQUATION%@BO:          2f944e@%%@AE@% and stand for fixed numbers, or constants.
The letter %@AI@%x%@AE@% stands for an unknown number, or variable, whose value
depends on the values of %@AI@%a, b,%@AE@% and %@AI@%c%@AE@% and may be determined by solving the
equation. Much of classical algebra is concerned with finding solutions
to equations or systems of equations, i.e., finding the %@AU@%ROOTS%@BO:          810f61@%%@AE@%, or values
of the unknowns, that upon substitution into the original equation will
make it a numerical identity. Algebra is a generalization of %@AU@%ARITHMETIC%@BO:           7b93c@%%@AE@%
and gains much of its power from dealing symbolically with elements and
operations (chiefly addition and multiplication) and relationships (such
as equality) connecting the elements. Thus %@AI@%a%@AE@%+%@AI@%a%@AE@%=2%@AI@%a%@AE@% and %@AI@%a%@AE@%+%@AI@%b%@AE@%=%@AI@%b%@AE@%+%@AI@%a%@AE@% no matter
what numbers %@AI@%a%@AE@% and %@AI@%b%@AE@% represent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alger, Horatio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alger, Horatio%@AE@%,%@CR:ALGER           @%%@QR:Alger, Horatio@% 1834-99, American writer of boys' stories; b. Revere,%@EH@%
Mass. The heroes of his over 100 books, e.g., %@AI@%Ragged Dick%@AE@% (1867), gain
success by leading exemplary lives and struggling valiantly against
poverty and adversity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Algeria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Algeria%@AE@%,%@CR:ALGERIA         @%%@QR:Algeria@% Arab. %@AI@%Al Djazair,%@AE@% Fr. %@AI@%Algerie,%@AE@% officially Democratic and Popular%@EH@%
Republic of Algeria, republic (1986 est. pop. 22,600,000), 919,590 sq mi
(2,381,741 sq km), NW Africa, bordered by Mauritania, Morocco, and
Western Sahara (W), the Mediterranean Sea (N), Tunisia and Libya (E), and
Niger and Mali (S). The principal cities are %@AU@%ALGIERS%@BO:           3b229@%%@AE@% (the capital) and
%@AU@%ORAN%@BO:          6e35a6@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%ATLAS MTS.%@BO:           96f9e@%%@AE@% divide northern Algeria into a coastal lowland strip
(the Tell) and a semiarid plateau. In the south is the much larger, but
arid and sparsely populated, Saharan region; Algeria's highest point, Mt.
Tahat (9,541 ft/2,908 m), in the Ahaggar Mts., is located here. About
half of Algeria's work force are farmers, producing cereals, wine, and
citrus fruits, but mining and manufacturing, developed since the 1960s,
contribute the bulk of the national income. Petroleum is the leading
export, and much natural gas is produced, with proven reserves that are
among the world's largest. The state plays a leading role in planning the
economy and owns many important industrial concerns. The great majority
of the population are Sunni Muslim Berbers and Arabs; Europeans, who
before independence accounted for 10% of the total, now are only 1% of
the population. Arabic is the official language, but French is widely
spoken, and a sizable minority (15%) speaks a Berber language.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The earliest known inhabitants of the region that is now Algeria
were Berber-speaking nomads who were settled there by the 2d millennium
BC As %@AU@%NUMIDIA%@BO:          6c4fa7@%%@AE@%, it became (9th cent. BC) a province of Carthage and then
(106 BC) of Rome; during the Christian era, St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@% (354-430) was
bishop at Hippo (now Annaba). With Rome's decline in the 5th cent. AD,
Algeria was conquered by the Vandals (430-31), the Byzantine Empire (6th
cent.), and finally, in the late 7th and early 8th cent., by the Arabs,
whose introduction of Islam profoundly altered the character of the area.
Spain captured the coastal cities in the 15th cent. but was expelled
(mid-16th cent.) with the help of the Ottoman Turks, who assumed control.
During this period the Algerian coast was a stronghold of pirates and a
center of the slave trade. France invaded Algeria in 1830 and declared it
a colony in 1848. Europeans began to arrive in large numbers, dominating
the government and the economy, and leaving the native Muslim population
with scant political or economic power. A nationalist movement began to
develop after World War I, and a war for independence, led by the
National Liberation Front (FLN), broke out in 1954. After more than seven
years of bitter fighting, in which at least 100,000 Muslim and 10,000
French soldiers were killed, Algeria became independent on July 3, 1962.
Since independence, Algeria has been a prominent nonaligned state and a
champion of the movements against white minority rule in Africa. It
supported the protracted struggle of the Polisario Front for the
independence of %@AU@%WESTERN SAHARA%@BO:          a0a74d@%%@AE@% (formerly Spanish Sahara) from Morocco,
and in 1981 it acted as intermediary between the U.S. and Iran in
negotiations for the release of American hostages seized in 1979.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Algiers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Algiers%@AE@%,%@CR:ALGIERS         @%%@QR:Algiers@% city (1983 pop. 1,721,607), capital of Algeria, N Algeria, on%@EH@%
the Bay of Algiers of the Mediterranean Sea. It is a major North African
port, a winter resort, and a commercial center. Industries include
metallurgy, oil refining, and automotive construction. Founded by the
Phoenicians, the city disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire and
was reestablished in the late 10th cent. by the Muslims. The French
captured the port in 1830. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Algiers was Allied
headquarters in North Africa. The city played an important role in the
Algerian independence struggle (1954-62). Algiers is divided into the
newer, French-built sector and the original Muslim quarter, with its
16th-cent. casbah fortress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ALGOL%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ALGOL%@AE@%:%@CR:ALGOL           @%%@QR:ALGOL@% see %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Algonquian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Algonquian%@AE@%%@CR:ALGONQUIAN      @%%@QR:Algonquian@%, branch of the Algonquian-Wakashan linguistic family of North%@EH@%
America. See %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alhazen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alhazen%@AE@%:%@CR:ALHAZEN         @%%@QR:Alhazen@% see %@AU@%IBN AL-HAYTHAM%@BO:          464331@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ali, Muhammad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ali, Muhammad%@AE@%,%@CR:ALI             @%%@QR:Ali, Muhammad@% 1942-, American boxer; b. Louisville, Ky., as Cassius%@EH@%
Marcellus Clay, Jr. He changed (1964) his name when he became a %@AU@%BLACK
%@AU@%MUSLIM%@BO:          109be5@%%@AE@%. After winning (1960) an Olympic gold medal, he defeated (1964)
Sonny Liston for the heavyweight crown, but was stripped of the title in
1967 when he refused induction into the U.S. armed forces on religious
grounds. In 1971 the U.S. Supreme Court upheld his draft appeal. Ali
regained the title in 1974 by defeating George Foreman, lost it to Leon
Spinks in 1978, but won it a third time (from Spinks) later that year.
Ali lost to Larry Holmes in 1980.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alice Springs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alice Springs%@AE@%,%@CR:ALICE.SPRINGS   @%%@QR:Alice Springs@% town (1986 pop. 22,759), Northern Territory, central%@EH@%
Australia. It is the center of an area with cattle ranches and aborigine
reservations. Gold, copper, wolfram, and mica are mined nearby. The town
was called Stuart until 1933.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alien%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alien%@AE@%,%@CR:ALIEN           @%%@QR:alien@% in law, a resident of a state who is not a national or citizen of%@EH@%
that state. A country may exclude individuals or groups it deems
undesirable; most, for example, bar criminals, paupers, and the diseased.
With some exceptions, e.g., diplomats, aliens are subject to the laws of
the country in which they reside. Permanent residents may be liable to
taxation and military conscription. In the U.S., aliens are required to
register each year; an alien may acquire citizenship by a legal procedure
known as %@AU@%NATURALIZATION%@BO:          678bc5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alien and Sedition Acts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alien and Sedition Acts%@AE@%,%@CR:ALIEN.AION.ACTS @%%@QR:Alien and Sedition Acts@% 1798, four laws passed by the%@EH@%
Federalist-controlled U.S. Congress in response to the threat of war with
France (see %@AU@%XYZ AFFAIR%@BO:          a3d73f@%%@AE@%). Designed to destroy the Jeffersonian Republicans
who expressed sympathy for France, the laws lengthened the residency
requirement for citizenship, empowered the president to expel "dangerous"
aliens, and proscribed spoken or written criticism of the government. The
Acts provoked the %@AU@%KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS%@BO:          4f1095@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aliens, illegal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aliens, illegal%@AE@%,%@CR:ALIENS          @%%@QR:aliens, illegal@% citizens of foreign countries who lack legal status in%@EH@%
the country in which they are living. In the U.S., most illegal %@AU@%ALIENS%@BO:           3c1f6@%%@AE@%
came from Latin America. A 1986 law to stop the flow and end the
underground lives of these aliens made it illegal for employers to hire
them and granted legal status to those who could prove continuous
residence in the U.S. since before Jan. 1, 1982. Special allowances were
made for seasonal farm workers. Although an estimated 3.9 million aliens
were eligible, only about half applied before the May 1988 deadline.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ali ibn Abu Talib%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ali ibn Abu Talib%@AE@%,%@CR:ALI.IBNIB       @%%@QR:Ali ibn Abu Talib@% d. 661, cousin and son-in-law of %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@%, fourth%@EH@%
caliph of the Islamic community, and martyred hero and first imam of the
%@AU@%SHIITE%@BO:          8856eb@%%@AE@% movement in Islam. As a child, he became one of Muhammad's first
converts. He married Muhammad's youngest daughter, Fatima, and twice
commanded the Prophet's armies. During the civil war that broke out (656)
between various factions of the early Muslim community, he was elevated
to the caliphate. His murder at Kufa, Iraq, inspired the Shiite movement
(shi'ah="party," i.e., of Ali), which regards Ali as Muhammad's chosen
successor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alimony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alimony%@AE@%:%@CR:ALIMONY         @%%@QR:alimony@% see %@AU@%DIVORCE%@BO:          298b7d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ali Pasha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ali Pasha%@AE@%,%@CR:ALI.PASHA       @%%@QR:Ali Pasha@% 1744?-1822, Turkish governor of Yannina (1787-1820), a Greek%@EH@%
province of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%. He ruled as a quasi-independent despot
over most of Albania and Epirus. He resisted (1820) Turkish military
efforts to depose him, tying up troops needed against the rebels in the
Greek War of Independence. He was assassinated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alkali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alkali%@AE@%,%@CR:ALKALI          @%%@QR:alkali@% %@AU@%HYDROXIDE%@BO:          460ace@%%@AE@% of an %@AU@%ALKALI METAL%@BO:           3cccb@%%@AE@%. Alkalies are soluble in water and%@EH@%
form strongly basic solutions. They neutralize acids, forming salts and
water. Strong alkalies (e.g., those of sodium or potassium) are called
caustic alkalies. The term %@AI@%alkali%@AE@% is sometimes applied to sodium or
potassium carbonate or to the hydroxide of an %@AU@%ALKALINE-EARTH METAL%@BO:           3cfda@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alkali metals%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alkali metals%@AE@%,%@CR:ALKALI.METALS   @%%@QR:alkali metals@% elements in group Ia of the %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%. In order of%@EH@%
increasing atomic number, they are %@AU@%LITHIUM%@BO:          55a57b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SODIUM%@BO:          8af9be@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%POTASSIUM%@BO:          7897c3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RUBIDIUM%@BO:          81ba7a@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%CESIUM%@BO:          1b1df2@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%FRANCIUM%@BO:          355703@%%@AE@%. They are softer than other metals, and have lower
melting points and densities. All react violently with water, releasing
hydrogen and forming hydroxides. They tarnish rapidly, even in dry air.
They never occur uncombined in nature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alkaline-earth metals%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alkaline-earth metals%@AE@%,%@CR:ALKALINETALS    @%%@QR:alkaline-earth metals@% elements in group IIa of the %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%. In%@EH@%
order of increasing atomic number, they are %@AU@%BERYLLIUM%@BO:           f1b28@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MAGNESIUM%@BO:          597c14@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%CALCIUM%@BO:          16e8ab@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%STRONTIUM%@BO:          8fd159@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BARIUM%@BO:           c3c73@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%RADIUM%@BO:          7c4d4f@%%@AE@%. They are softer than most other
metals and react readily with water. Their properties are exceeded by the
corresponding %@AU@%ALKALI METAL%@BO:           3cccb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alkaline earths%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alkaline earths%@AE@%,%@CR:ALKALINE.EARTHS @%%@QR:alkaline earths@% oxides of the %@AU@%ALKALINE-EARTH METALS%@BO:           3cfda@%%@AE@%. They are not%@EH@%
readily soluble in water and form solutions less basic than those of
%@AU@%ALKALIES%@BO:           3ca7b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alkaloid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alkaloid%@AE@%,%@CR:ALKALOID        @%%@QR:alkaloid@% any of a class of organic compounds composed of carbon,%@EH@%
hydrogen, nitrogen, and usually oxygen, that are often derived from
plants. The name means alkalilike, but some alkaloids do not exhibit
alkaline properties. Many alkaloids, though poisons, have physiological
effects that render them valuable as medicines. For example, curarine,
found in the deadly extract %@AU@%CURARE%@BO:          255d70@%%@AE@%, is a powerful muscle relaxant;
atropine is used to dilate the pupils of the eye; and physostigmine is a
specific for certain muscular diseases. Narcotic alkaloids used in
medicine include %@AU@%MORPHINE%@BO:          63fcb1@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CODEINE%@BO:          1ff464@%%@AE@% for pain relief and %@AU@%COCAINE%@BO:          1fd1f3@%%@AE@% as a
local anesthetic. Other common alkaloids include %@AU@%CAFFEINE%@BO:          16cdee@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LSD%@BO:          579995@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%QUININE%@BO:          7bd799@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%SEROTONIN%@BO:          872b49@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%STRYCHNINE%@BO:          8fe0e4@%%@AE@%, and nicotine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alkane, alkene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alkane, alkene%@AE@%,%@CR:ALKANE          @%%@QR:alkane, alkene@% and %@AB@%alkyne:%@AE@%see %@AU@%HYDROCARBON%@BO:          45e32c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Allah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Allah%@AE@%:%@CR:ALLAH           @%%@QR:Allah@% see %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%allegory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%allegory%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLEGORY        @%%@QR:allegory@% in literature, symbolic story that serves as a disguised%@EH@%
representation for meanings other than those indicated on the surface.
Its characters are often mere embodiments of moral qualities. Allegory is
closely related to %@AU@%PARABLE%@BO:          70fb0e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%FABLE%@BO:          317402@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%EVERYMAN%@BO:          30f4fc@%%@AE@%, John %@AU@%BUNYAN'S%@BO:          158b51@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Pilgrim's
%@AI@%Progress,%@AE@% and Edmund %@AU@%SPENSER'S%@BO:          8d716d@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Faerie Queen%@AE@% are notable allegories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Allen, Ethan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Allen, Ethan%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLEN1          @%%@QR:Allen, Ethan@% 1738-89, American Revolutionary hero; b. Litchfield (?),%@EH@%
Conn. In 1775 he led the %@AU@%GREEN MOUNTAIN BOYS%@BO:          3d6458@%%@AE@% at the capture of Fort
%@AU@%TICONDEROGA%@BO:          95b53f@%%@AE@% and was captured by the British in an expedition against
Canada. Exchanged in 1778, he promoted independence and statehood for
Vermont. His brother, %@AB@%Ira Allen,%@AE@% 1751-1814, was a political leader in
Vermont.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Allen, Gracie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Allen, Gracie%@AE@%:%@CR:ALLEN2          @%%@QR:Allen, Gracie@% see %@AU@%BURNS, GEORGE%@BO:          15df0a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Allen, Woody%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Allen, Woody%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLEN3          @%%@QR:Allen, Woody@% 1935-, American film director, writer, and actor; b.%@EH@%
Brooklyn, N.Y., as Allen Stewart Konigsberg. His film comedies, which
often depict neurotic urban characters preoccupied with sex, death, and
psychiatry, include %@AI@%Sleeper%@AE@% (1973), %@AI@%Annie Hall%@AE@% (1977; Academy Award),
%@AI@%Broadway Danny Rose%@AE@% (1984), and %@AI@%Hannah and Her Sisters%@AE@% (1987).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Allende Gossens, Salvador%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Allende Gossens, Salvador%@AE@%%@CR:ALLENDE.GOSSENS @%%@QR:Allende Gossens, Salvador@%, 1908-73, president of %@AU@%CHILE%@BO:          1cfa8c@%%@AE@% (1970-73). A%@EH@%
founder of the Chilean Socialist party (1933), he was elected president
of Chile by a narrow plurality (1970)-the first freely elected Marxist
leader in the Americas. His socialist program disrupted the economy and
led to inflation and widespread strikes. During the army coup that
overthrew (1973) his regime, he either was murdered or committed suicide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Allentown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Allentown%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLENTOWN       @%%@QR:Allentown@% city (1986 est. pop. 104,360), seat of Lehigh co., E Pa., on%@EH@%
the Lehigh R.; founded 1762, inc. as a city 1867. It is a commercial and
industrial center in the agricultural Lehigh Valley. Trucks, chemicals,
and machinery are manufactured; food products include potatoes, feed
grains, and beer. The city was settled by members of various German
religious groups. Muhlenberg is one of several colleges located there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%allergy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%allergy%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLERGY         @%%@QR:allergy@% adverse physical reaction of some people to substances that are%@EH@%
not toxic per se and are innocuous to other people. Allergens, or
allergy-producing substances, cause the release of histamine, an organic
compound responsible for allergic symptoms. There are various types of
allergens: airborne (e.g., pollen), which may cause sneezing, as with
hayfever, or asthma; contactants (e.g., poison ivy and dyes), which often
cause rashes; food (e.g., chocolate or fish), which may cause a rash,
such as eczema or hives, or a respiratory reaction; or drugs (e.g., sulfa
drugs), which in the allergic person can cause a violent reaction.
Treatment includes desensitization (injections), antihistamine drugs, and
avoidance of allergens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alleyn, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alleyn, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLEYN          @%%@QR:Alleyn, Edward@% 1566-1626, English actor. The only rival of Richard%@EH@%
%@AU@%BURBAGE%@BO:          159375@%%@AE@%, he played the title roles in Christopher %@AU@%MARLOWE'S%@BO:          5beee6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Tamburlaine,
%@AI@%Jew of Malta,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Faustus%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alliance for Progress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alliance for Progress%@AE@%:%@CR:ALLIANCOGRESS   @%%@QR:Alliance for Progress@% see %@AU@%ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES%@BO:          6ebd0e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alligator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alligator%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLIGATOR       @%%@QR:alligator@% aquatic %@AU@%REPTILE%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Alligator%@AE@%) in the same order as the%@EH@%
%@AU@%CROCODILE%@BO:          24c89f@%%@AE@%. The American alligator (%@AI@%A. mississipiensis%@AE@%) is found in swamps
and streams from North Carolina to Florida and along the Gulf Coast. The
young are brown or black with yellow bands; adults are solid black. Males
commonly reach a length of 9 ft (2.7 m) and a weight of 250 lb (110 kg).
The alligator is protected by law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alliluyeva, Svetlana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alliluyeva, Svetlana%@AE@%%@CR:ALLILUYEVA      @%%@QR:Alliluyeva, Svetlana@%, 1926-, only daughter of Soviet leader Joseph%@EH@%
%@AU@%STALIN%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@%. In 1966 she defected to the West, becoming a U.S. citizen. She
has written %@AI@%Twenty Letters to a Friend%@AE@% (1967) and %@AI@%Only One Year%@AE@% (1969).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%allotropy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%allotropy%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLOTROPY       @%%@QR:allotropy@% the occurrence of certain chemical elements in two or more%@EH@%
forms; the forms are called allotropes. Allotropes generally differ in
physical properties, such as color and hardness; they may also differ in
molecular structure or in chemical activity but are usually alike in most
chemical properties. %@AU@%DIAMOND%@BO:          28a6e2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GRAPHITE%@BO:          3c605c@%%@AE@% are two allotropes of the
element %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alloy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alloy%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLOY           @%%@QR:alloy@% substance with metallic properties consisting of a %@AU@%METAL%@BO:          5f2d7a@%%@AE@% fused%@EH@%
with one or more metals or nonmetals. An alloy may be a homogeneous solid
solution, a heterogeneous mixture of tiny crystals, a true chemical
compound, or a mixture of these. Alloys generally have properties
different from those of their constituent elements and are used more
extensively than pure metals. Alloys of %@AU@%IRON%@BO:          49b3ab@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@% are among the
most widely used and include %@AU@%CAST IRON%@BO:          19dd33@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%STEEL%@BO:          8e883b@%%@AE@%. Brass and %@AU@%BRONZE%@BO:          143e1d@%%@AE@% are
important alloys of %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%. Because pure %@AU@%GOLD%@BO:          3b1a02@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SILVER%@BO:          894306@%%@AE@% are too soft for
many uses, they are often alloyed, either with each other or with other
metals, e.g., copper or %@AU@%PLATINUM%@BO:          76b3da@%%@AE@%. Amalgams are alloys that contain
%@AU@%MERCURY%@BO:          5edfd0@%%@AE@%. Other alloys include %@AU@%BRITANNIA METAL%@BO:          13eb86@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DURALUMIN%@BO:          2b4a88@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SOLDER%@BO:          8b2f6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%All Saints' Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%All Saints' Day%@AE@%,%@CR:ALL.SAINTS.DAY  @%%@QR:All Saints' Day@% Nov. 1, feast of the Roman Catholic and Anglican%@EH@%
churches, the day God is glorified for all his saints, known and unknown.
Roman Catholics are obliged to hear Mass on this day. In medieval England
it was called All Hallows; hence the name Halloween (Hallows' eve) for
the preceding day (Oct. 31).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%allspice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%allspice%@AE@%:%@CR:ALLSPICE        @%%@QR:allspice@% see %@AU@%PIMENTO%@BO:          75c44a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Allston, Washington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Allston, Washington%@AE@%,%@CR:ALLSTON         @%%@QR:Allston, Washington@% 1779-1843, American painter; b. Georgetown co., S.C.%@EH@%
Allston traveled to London, where he studied with Benjamin %@AU@%WEST%@BO:          a09434@%%@AE@%. Many of
his greatest works, marked by a controlled romanticism, were done in
England (1810-18). Allston's finest paintings are lyrical landscapes,
e.g., %@AI@%Moonlit Landscape%@AE@% (1819; Mus. Fine Arts, Boston).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Almagest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Almagest%@AE@%:%@CR:ALMAGEST        @%%@QR:Almagest@% see %@AU@%PTOLEMY%@BO:          7aa5c6@%%@AE@% (Claudius Ptolemaeus).%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Almagro, Diego de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Almagro, Diego de%@AE@%%@CR:ALMAGRO         @%%@QR:Almagro, Diego de@%, c.1475-1538, Spanish %@AU@%CONQUISTADOR%@BO:          22387e@%%@AE@%, partner of%@EH@%
Francisco %@AU@%PIZARRO%@BO:          7659a2@%%@AE@% in the exploration and conquest (after 1532) of the
%@AU@%INCA%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@% civilization in Peru. He was later executed for rebellion by order
of Hernando Pizarro.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Al Manamah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Al Manamah%@AE@%,%@CR:AL.MANAMAH      @%%@QR:Al Manamah@% city (1987 est. pop. 121,986), capital of Bahrain, on the%@EH@%
%@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@%. It has oil refineries and light industries and is a free
port.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Almeida, Francisco de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Almeida, Francisco de%@AE@%%@CR:ALMEIDA         @%%@QR:Almeida, Francisco de@%, c.1450-1510, Portuguese admiral, first viceroy of%@EH@%
Portuguese India (1505-9). He developed Portugal's trade with India by
making alliances with Indian rulers and other tactics. He thwarted
Egypt's commercial challenge by winning a great sea battle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Almohads%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Almohads%@AE@%%@CR:ALMOHADS        @%%@QR:Almohads@%, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Spain in the 12th%@EH@%
and 13th cent. It had its origins in the puritanical sect founded c.1120
by ibn Tumart. By 1174 the Almohads had completely displaced the ruling
%@AU@%ALMORAVIDS%@BO:           4060d@%%@AE@%. The Almohads, in turn, were defeated in Spain by the Spanish
and Portuguese in 1212, and in Morocco by the Merenid dynasty in 1269.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%almond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%almond%@AE@%,%@CR:ALMOND          @%%@QR:almond@% name for a small tree (%@AI@%Prunus amygdalus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%ROSE%@BO:          811e84@%%@AE@% family and%@EH@%
for the nutlike edible seed of its drupe fruit. Almonds are now
cultivated mainly in the Orient, Italy, Spain, and California. Almond
fruit is fleshless; otherwise, the tree closely resembles the peach tree.
Almond oil, pressed from the nut, is used for flavoring and in soaps and
cosmetics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Almoravids%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Almoravids%@AE@%%@CR:ALMORAVIDS      @%%@QR:Almoravids@%, Berber Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and Muslim Spain in%@EH@%
the 11th and 12th cent. They founded %@AU@%MARRAKESH%@BO:          5bfa23@%%@AE@% as the capital of their
powerful empire. Called on for help by the Moors in Spain, they defeated
(1086) %@AU@%ALFONSO VI%@BO:           3888e@%%@AE@% of Castile and displaced the local Moorish rulers.
Never entirely stable, the dynasty was overthrown by the %@AU@%ALMOHADS%@BO:           401f5@%%@AE@% in
1174.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Almquist, Carl Jonas Love%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Almquist, Carl Jonas Love%@AE@%%@CR:ALMQUIST        @%%@QR:Almquist, Carl Jonas Love@%, 1793-1866, Swedish author. %@AI@%The Book of the%@EH@%
%@AI@%Thorn Rose%@AE@% (14 vol., 1832-51) contains most of his novels, stories,
plays, and poems, which range from a bizarre romanticism to realism. A
clergyman, teacher, and socialist, he was accused of forgery and
suspected of murder. He fled to the U.S. and after 1865 lived in Germany
under an assumed name.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aloe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aloe%@AE@%,%@CR:ALOE            @%%@QR:aloe@% succulent perennials (genus %@AI@%Aloe%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% family, native%@EH@%
chiefly to Africa, but cultivated elsewhere. The leaves contain aloin, a
purgative. Various drug-yielding species are used medicinally, as well as
for X-ray-burn treatment, insect repellent, and transparent pigment.
Biblical aloes is unrelated. American and false aloe are agaves of the
%@AU@%AMARYLLIS%@BO:           454b3@%%@AE@% family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alonso, Alicia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alonso, Alicia%@AE@%%@CR:ALONSO          @%%@QR:Alonso, Alicia@% (ale'sya alon'so), 1921-, Cuban ballerina and%@EH@%
choreographer. She danced on Broadway before soloing with several
companies. She had a huge repertoire that ranged from classical to %@AU@%MODERN
%@AU@%DANCE%@BO:          620430@%%@AE@%. Her own works, e.g., %@AI@%La Tinaja%@AE@% (1942), were created for her Cuban
company, founded in 1948, which is now the National Ballet.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alorese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alorese%@AE@%,%@CR:ALORESE         @%%@QR:Alorese@%  inhabitants of the mountainous forest interiors of Alor and%@EH@%
Panta, two Indonesian-controlled islands in the Lesser Sunda chain. They
cultivate maize, rice, and root crops and maintain their traditional
ways, which include polygamy and an animalistic religion. Their
population is about 100,000.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alpaca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alpaca%@AE@%,%@CR:ALPACA          @%%@QR:alpaca@% partially domesticated South American hoofed %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@%. The highland%@EH@%
tribes of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru breed the alpaca for its wool, which
is shaded from black through brown to white and has been exported since
1836. Alpacas feed on grasses and require a pure water supply. Like the
%@AU@%LLAMA%@BO:          55e6b5@%%@AE@%, the alpaca belongs to the %@AU@%CAMEL%@BO:          179da1@%%@AE@% family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alp Arslan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alp Arslan%@AE@%,%@CR:ALP.ARSLAN      @%%@QR:Alp Arslan@% 1029-72, Seljuk sultan of %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@% (1063-72). He won great%@EH@%
victories over the Byzantine Christians, especially at Manzikert (1071),
and conquered Syria. He was murdered by one of his prisoners of war.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alphabet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alphabet%@AE@%,%@CR:ALPHABET        @%%@QR:alphabet@% system of %@AU@%WRITING%@BO:          a380cf@%%@AE@%, theoretically having a one-for-one relation%@EH@%
between character (or letter) and phoneme (see %@AU@%PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS%@BO:          75008d@%%@AE@%).
Few alphabets have achieved an ideal exactness. A system of writing is
called a syllabary when one character represents a syllable rather than a
phoneme, e.g., the kana used in Japanese. The precursors of the alphabet
were the iconographic and ideographic writing of ancient man, such as
%@AU@%CUNEIFORM%@BO:          255082@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%HIEROGLYPHIC%@BO:          42bd93@%%@AE@% writing of the Egyptians. The alphabet of
modern Western Europe is the Roman alphabet. Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian,
and many languages of the USSR are written in the Cyrillic alphabet, an
augmented Greek alphabet. Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic all have their own
alphabets. The most important writing of India is the Devanagari, an
alphabet with syllabic features. The Roman alphabet is derived from the
Greeks, who had imitated the Phoenician alphabet. The exact steps are
unknown, but the Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic, and Devanagari systems are
based ultimately on signs of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. Two European
alphabets of the late Roman era were the %@AU@%RUNES%@BO:          81f9d4@%%@AE@% and the ogham. An exotic
modern system is the Cherokee syllabary of %@AU@%SEQUOYAH%@BO:          87139b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alphanumeric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alphanumeric%@AE@%%@CR:ALPHANUMERIC    @%%@QR:alphanumeric@% or %@AB@%alphameric,%@AE@%the alphabetic, numeric, and special%@EH@%
characters-such as mathematical symbols and punctuation marks-used in
%@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% input and output.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alpha particle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alpha particle%@AE@%,%@CR:ALPHA.PARTICLE  @%%@QR:alpha particle@% a particle emitted in one of the three forms of natural%@EH@%
%@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alps%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alps%@AE@%,%@CR:ALPS            @%%@QR:Alps@% great mountain system of S central Europe, c.500 mi (800 km) long%@EH@%
and c.100 mi (160 km) wide, curving in a great arc through parts of
France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. The mountains are known
for their towering, snowcapped peaks, deep U-shaped glacial valleys,
modern glaciers, and many fine lakes such as Geneva, Lucerne, Como,
Garda, and Maggiore. Famous winter sports centers in the Alps include
Chamonix, %@AU@%SAINT MORITZ%@BO:          834a38@%%@AE@%, Kitzbuhel, Cortina d'Ampezzo, and %@AU@%INNSBRUCK%@BO:          4865c9@%%@AE@%. The
principal peaks include %@AU@%MONT BLANC%@BO:          6335f3@%%@AE@% (15,771 ft/4,807 m), the highest; Gran
Paradiso; %@AU@%MATTERHORN%@BO:          5d3fa2@%%@AE@%; Jungfrau; and Grossglockner. The Alps are crossed
by three of the world's longest tunnels-the Simplon, St. Gotthard, and
Mont Cenis-and by many routes such as the %@AU@%BRENNER PASS%@BO:          13ac39@%%@AE@% and the Great and
Little St. Bernard passes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alsace-Lorraine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alsace-Lorraine%@AE@%,%@CR:ALSACELORRAINE  @%%@QR:Alsace-Lorraine@% region of NE France, bounded by Belgium, Luxembourg, and%@EH@%
West Germany (N and E). Alsace lies to the east of Lorraine. Hops are
grown, and vineyards are numerous. Potassium, iron, and coal deposits are
exploited, and Lorraine leads France in steel output. %@AU@%STRASBOURG%@BO:          8f81c0@%%@AE@% is
Alsace's leading industrial center. Most of the population speaks French,
but German is also spoken, especially around Metz. Both Alsace and
Lorraine were included in the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. Lorraine emerged as a
duchy, and Alsace was divided into many fiefs and free cities by the 13th
cent. France gradually acquired both regions in the 17th and 18th cent.
As a result of the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@% (1870-71) much of the area was
annexed to Germany and formed the "imperial land" of Alsace-Lorraine.
After %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, but it was
again annexed (1940-45) to Germany during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Altaic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Altaic%@AE@%,%@CR:ALTAIC          @%%@QR:Altaic@% subfamily of the %@AU@%URALIC AND ALTAIC%@BO:          9af4c9@%%@AE@% family of languages. See%@EH@%
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Altamira%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Altamira%@AE@%:%@CR:ALTAMIRA        @%%@QR:Altamira@% see %@AU@%PALEOLITHIC ART%@BO:          70383c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Altdorfer, Albrecht%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Altdorfer, Albrecht%@AE@%%@CR:ALTDORFER       @%%@QR:Altdorfer, Albrecht@%, 1480-1538, German painter and engraver. His romantic%@EH@%
allegorical and biblical works, e.g., %@AI@%Susannah at the Bath%@AE@% (1526; Alte
Pinakothek, Munich), vibrate with intense movement. He was perhaps the
first German to paint pure landscape.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alternating current%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alternating current%@AE@%:%@CR:ALTERNARENT     @%%@QR:alternating current@% see %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOTOR, ELECTRIC%@BO:          647ad2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alternator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alternator%@AE@%:%@CR:ALTERNATOR      @%%@QR:alternator@% see %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Altgeld, John Peter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Altgeld, John Peter%@AE@%,%@CR:ALTGELD         @%%@QR:Altgeld, John Peter@% 1847-1902, American politician, governor (1892-96)%@EH@%
of Illinois; b. Germany. A Democrat and a staunch defender of human
rights, he pardoned three men convicted for the %@AU@%HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT%@BO:          40bdc5@%%@AE@% of
1886, and protested the sending of federal troops to end the Pullman
strike (1894). His liberal actions lost him reelection (1896).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Althing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Althing%@AE@%,%@CR:ALTHING         @%%@QR:Althing@% parliament of %@AU@%ICELAND%@BO:          465e17@%%@AE@%. The oldest assembly in Europe, first%@EH@%
convened in 930, it voted Iceland's independence from Denmark in 1944. It
comprises a lower house (two thirds of members) and an upper house (one
third). Members are elected by a system of proportional representation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%altimeter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%altimeter%@AE@%,%@CR:ALTIMETER       @%%@QR:altimeter@% device for measuring altitude. The most common type, used in%@EH@%
airplanes and balloons and by mountain climbers, consists of an aneroid
%@AU@%BAROMETER%@BO:           c673a@%%@AE@%, calibrated so that the drop in atmospheric pressure indicates
the linear elevation. The radio altimeter indicates the actual altitude
over the earth's surface by measuring the time it takes for a radio
signal to travel to earth and back.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%altiplano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%altiplano%@AE@%,%@CR:ALTIPLANO       @%%@QR:altiplano@% densely populated upland plateau (alt. c.12,000 ft/3,660 m) in%@EH@%
the %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@% of Bolivia and Peru. It has a cool climate and bleak aspect.
Potatoes and hardy grains are the chief crops; mining is the principal
industry. %@AU@%LA PAZ%@BO:          5254e8@%%@AE@% and Oruro, in Bolivia, are the largest cities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%altitude, in astronomy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%altitude, in astronomy%@AE@%:%@CR:ALTITUDE        @%%@QR:altitude, in astronomy@% see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alto%@AE@%:%@CR:ALTO            @%%@QR:alto@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alumina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alumina%@AE@%%@CR:ALUMINA         @%%@QR:alumina@% or %@AB@%aluminum oxide,%@AE@% chemical compound (Al%@AH@%2%@AE@%O%@AH@%3%@AE@%) that is widely%@EH@%
distributed in nature and occurs combined with silica and other minerals
in clays, feldspars, and micas, and in almost pure form in %@AU@%CORUNDUM%@BO:          23a472@%%@AE@%. It
is the major component of %@AU@%BAUXITE%@BO:           d28a0@%%@AE@% and is used in the production of
%@AU@%ALUMINUM%@BO:           436c3@%%@AE@% metal. Alumina is also used as an %@AU@%ABRASIVE%@BO:            6185@%%@AE@%, in ceramics, in
pigments, and in the manufacture of chemicals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aluminum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aluminum%@AE@%%@CR:ALUMINUM        @%%@QR:aluminum@% (Al), metallic element, used in antiquity but first isolated by%@EH@%
Friedrich %@AU@%WOHLER%@BO:          a2b74d@%%@AE@% in 1827; also called aluminium. The silver-white metal
is ductile and malleable, and conducts heat and electricity. Although
very reactive chemically, aluminum resists corrosion by forming a
protective oxide (alumina) coating. The most abundant metal in the
earth's crust (about 8% by weight), it occurs combined with other
elements in such minerals as alum, %@AU@%BAUXITE%@BO:           d28a0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CORUNDUM%@BO:          23a472@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRYOLITE%@BO:          251120@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FELDSPAR%@BO:          3256f7@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%MICA%@BO:          5fe904@%%@AE@%. Aluminum and its compounds are used in paints, foil, jewelry,
and welding. Aluminum wire, cheaper and lighter than copper wire, is used
in high-tension power transmission. The strong, hard alloy %@AU@%DURALUMIN%@BO:          2b4a88@%%@AE@% is
used in aircraft. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aluminum oxide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aluminum oxide%@AE@%:%@CR:ALUMINUM.OXIDE  @%%@QR:aluminum oxide@% see %@AU@%ALUMINA%@BO:           4340f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alvarado, Pedro de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alvarado, Pedro de%@AE@%%@CR:ALVARADO        @%%@QR:Alvarado, Pedro de@%, 1486-1541, Spanish %@AU@%CONQUISTADOR%@BO:          22387e@%%@AE@%. A chief lieutenant%@EH@%
of Hernan %@AU@%CORTES%@BO:          2392aa@%%@AE@% during the conquest of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@%, Alvarado conquered
%@AU@%GUATEMALA%@BO:          3e2308@%%@AE@% in 1523 and served as governor until his death. Exercising
absolute control, he founded many cities and developed the colony while
searching for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. He was killed quelling
an Indian rebellion in W Mexico.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alvarez, Luis Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alvarez, Luis Walter%@AE@%,%@CR:ALVAREZ         @%%@QR:Alvarez, Luis Walter@% 1911-88, American physicist; b. San Francisco. He%@EH@%
was awarded the 1968 Nobel Prize in physics for the development of the
liquid-hydrogen bubble chamber (see %@AU@%PARTICLE DETECTOR%@BO:          71bcdd@%%@AE@%). He also helped
develop the ground-control approach system for aircraft in the 1940s and
played an important part in the %@AU@%MANHATTAN PROJECT%@BO:          5ada65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%alyssum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%alyssum%@AE@%,%@CR:ALYSSUM         @%%@QR:alyssum@% chiefly annual and perennial herb (genus %@AI@%Alyssum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MUSTARD%@BO:          65af93@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, native to the Mediterranean. Some species, with masses of yellow
or white flowers, are cultivated as rock-garden and border ornamentals.
The annual sweet alyssum has fragrant white or lilac blossoms. Once
called madwort or healbite, alyssum was thought to cure rabies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Alzheimer's disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Alzheimer's disease%@AE@%,%@CR:ALZHEIMASE      @%%@QR:Alzheimer's disease@% degenerative disease of the brain cells producing%@EH@%
loss of memory and general intellectual impairment. It usually affects
people in their forties, fifties, and sixties. As the disease progresses,
a variety of symptoms may become apparent, including confusion,
irritability, and restlessness, as well as disorientation and impaired
judgment and concentration. The cause is unknown, and there is no known
treatment, although tranquilizers are sometimes used to reduce agitation
and unpredictable behavior.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Am%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Am%@AE@%,%@CR:AM1             @%%@QR:Am@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%AMERICIUM%@BO:           4a92b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AM%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AM%@AE@%:%@CR:AM2             @%%@QR:AM@% see %@AU@%MODULATION%@BO:          621997@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amadeus VIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amadeus VIII%@AE@%,%@CR:AMADEUS.VIII    @%%@QR:Amadeus VIII@% 1383-1451, duke (from 1416) of Savoy and antipope (1439-49)%@EH@%
with the name Felix V. The last of the antipopes, he was elected at the
Council of %@AU@%BASEL%@BO:           cc423@%%@AE@%, but had few supporters. He yielded his claim when
Nicholas V became pope.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amado, Jorge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amado, Jorge%@AE@%%@CR:AMADO           @%%@QR:Amado, Jorge@%, 1912-, Brazilian novelist. His vibrant novels of the lives%@EH@%
of ordinary Brazilians include %@AI@%The Violent Land%@AE@% (1942), %@AI@%Gabriela, Clove
%@AI@%and Cinnamon%@AE@% (1958), the ebullient %@AI@%Dona Flor and Her Two Husbands%@AE@% (1966),
and %@AI@%Pen, Sword, Camisole%@AE@% (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amalekites%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amalekites%@AE@%%@CR:AMALEKITES      @%%@QR:Amalekites@%, aboriginal people of %@AU@%CANAAN%@BO:          17dfc7@%%@AE@% and the Sinai peninsula. They%@EH@%
waged war against the Hebrews, until dispersed by %@AU@%SAUL%@BO:          84f091@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@%. Ex.
17.8-16; 1 Sam. 30.1-20.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amalgam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amalgam%@AE@%:%@CR:AMALGAM         @%%@QR:amalgam@% see %@AU@%ALLOY%@BO:           3f294@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amalric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amalric%@AE@%%@CR:AMALRIC         @%%@QR:Amalric@% or %@AB@%Amaury,%@AE@%Latin kings of Jerusalem. %@AB@%Amalric I,%@AE@% c.1137-1174%@EH@%
(r.1162-74), lost the suzerainty of Egypt to the Turkish sultan Nur
ad-Din and eventually to %@AU@%SALADIN%@BO:          8376ff@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Amalric II,%@AE@% c.1155-1205 (r.1197-1205),
married the daughter of Amalric I. He was also king of Cyprus
(1194-1205).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amalthea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amalthea%@AE@%,%@CR:AMALTHEA        @%%@QR:Amalthea@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dc4a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amaranth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amaranth%@AE@%,%@CR:AMARANTH        @%%@QR:amaranth@% common name for the family Amaranthaceae (also called the%@EH@%
pigweed family), herbs, trees, and vines found mainly in warm regions of
the Americas and Africa. The genus %@AI@%Amaranthus%@AE@% includes several species
called amaranth, characterized by a lasting red pigment in the stems and
leaves; common weeds, e.g., the green amaranth (%@AI@%A. retroflexus%@AE@%); and
various plants known as %@AU@%TUMBLEWEED%@BO:          988714@%%@AE@% and pigweed. Some species have long
been used as potherbs and cereals in the Old and New World. The globe
amaranth, or %@AU@%BACHELOR'S BUTTON%@BO:           aca74@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Gomphrenia%@AE@%), and the cockscomb
(genus %@AI@%Celosia%@AE@%) are tropical annuals that are dried and used in
everlasting bouquets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amarillo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amarillo%@AE@%,%@CR:AMARILLO        @%%@QR:Amarillo@% city (1986 est. pop. 165,850), seat of Potter co., N Tex.; inc.%@EH@%
1899. A plains city, it is the commercial and industrial center of the
Texas Panhandle. Oil, gas, helium, and zinc are produced, along with
various manufactures. The city handles grains and livestock raised in the
area. It grew with the coming (1887) of the railroad and became an
industrial city after the discovery of gas (1918) and oil (1921).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amaryllis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amaryllis%@AE@%,%@CR:AMARYLLIS       @%%@QR:amaryllis@% common name for some members of the Amaryllidaceae, a family%@EH@%
of mostly perennial plants with flat, narrow leaves and lilylike flowers
borne on separate, leafless stalks. Widely distributed, they are found
especially in tropical and subtropical lowlands. Ornamentals of the
family are mistaken for plants of the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% family, which differ in the
position of the ovary (see %@AU@%FLOWER%@BO:          33e928@%%@AE@%). The family includes the
showy-blossomed true amaryllis, or belladonna lily (%@AI@%Amaryllis
%@AI@%belladonna%@AE@%); %@AU@%NARCISSUS%@BO:          667ddb@%%@AE@%; and the snowdrops (genus %@AI@%Galanthus%@AE@%), whose small,
early-blooming flowers are symbolic of consolation and promise. The genus
%@AI@%Agave,%@AE@% the tropical American counterpart of the African genus %@AU@%ALOE%@BO:           40a75@%%@AE@%,
contains the most economically important plants in the family. Different
agaves provide soap, food, beverages, and fiber (see %@AU@%SISAL HEMP%@BO:          89a9d6@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amaury%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amaury%@AE@%.%@CR:AMAURY          @%%@QR:Amaury@% For persons thus named, see %@AU@%AMALRIC%@BO:           44c6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amazon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amazon%@AE@%,%@CR:AMAZON1         @%%@QR:Amazon@% world's second longest river, flowing c.3,900 mi (6,280 km) west%@EH@%
across N South America to enter the Atlantic Ocean through a wide delta
in N Brazil. It is formed by the junction in N Peru of the Ucayili and
Maranon rivers. It has more than 500 tributaries, drains c.40% of the
continent, and carries more water than any other river in the world. The
Amazon traverses a sparsely populated and largely undeveloped region that
contains the world's largest rain forest (selva). There are no waterfalls
or other obstructions along its course, and ships of 14-ft (4-m) draft
can travel very nearly its full length (to Iquitos, Peru). Belem and
Manaus in Brazil are other ports.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amazon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amazon%@AE@%,%@CR:AMAZON2         @%%@QR:Amazon@% in Greek mythology, one of a tribe of warlike women from Asia%@EH@%
Minor. The Amazons had a matriarchal society, in which women governed and
fought while men performed the household tasks. Several Greek heroes
proved their mettle against Amazons, e.g., %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%THESEUS%@BO:          94ed74@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amber%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amber%@AE@%,%@CR:AMBER           @%%@QR:amber@% yellow to brown fossil %@AU@%RESIN%@BO:          7e6390@%%@AE@% exuded by coniferous trees now%@EH@%
extinct; the best amber is transparent. Highly polished amber is used to
make small decorative objects, e.g., beads and amulets. When rubbed with
a cloth, amber becomes charged with static electricity. Bubbles of air,
leaves, bits of wood, or insects, sometimes of extinct species, are often
found trapped in amber. The chief source of the world's amber is the
Baltic coast of Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ambergris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ambergris%@AE@%,%@CR:AMBERGRIS       @%%@QR:ambergris@% a waxlike substance that is formed in the intestine of the%@EH@%
sperm whale. It is found floating on tropical seas or cast up on the
shore in yellow, gray, black, or variegated masses. Greatly valued from
earliest times, ambergris is now used as a fixative in perfumes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ambler, Eric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ambler, Eric%@AE@%,%@CR:AMBLER          @%%@QR:Ambler, Eric@% 1909-, English novelist. He is the author of popular%@EH@%
suspense stories, usually involving international intrigue, e.g., %@AI@%A
%@AI@%Coffin for Dimitrios%@AE@% (1939), %@AI@%To Catch a Spy%@AE@% (1964), and %@AI@%The Care of Time%@AE@%
(1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amboise, Jacques d'%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amboise, Jacques d'%@AE@%:%@CR:AMBOISE         @%%@QR:Amboise, Jacques d'@% see %@AU@%D'AMBOISE, JACQUES%@BO:          262fe5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ambrose, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ambrose, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:AMBROSE         @%%@QR:Ambrose, Saint@% 340?-397, bishop of %@AU@%MILAN%@BO:          608bfa@%%@AE@%, Doctor of the Church. A%@EH@%
popular governor in Milan, Ambrose was made (374) bishop by popular
demand. He opposed %@AU@%ARIANISM%@BO:           7a0af@%%@AE@% and was an adviser to Emperor Gratian, whom
he persuaded to outlaw (379) heresy in the West. His preaching helped to
convert St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@%. Ambrose wrote many theological works and is
associated with the type of %@AU@%PLAINSONG%@BO:          766c01@%%@AE@% called Ambrosian chant. Feast: Dec.
7.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ambrosian Library%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ambrosian Library%@AE@%:%@CR:AMBROSIRY       @%%@QR:Ambrosian Library@% see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ameba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ameba%@AE@%:%@CR:AMEBA           @%%@QR:ameba@% see %@AU@%AMOEBA%@BO:           4cebd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ameling, Elly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ameling, Elly%@AE@%,%@CR:AMELING         @%%@QR:Ameling, Elly@% 1938-, Dutch soprano. Although she has sung opera, she is%@EH@%
noted for her sensitive interpretations of French and German art songs,
particularly the %@AU@%LIEDER%@BO:          54ed89@%%@AE@% of Schubert. She made her U.S. debut in New York
City in 1968.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amen%@AE@%:%@CR:AMEN            @%%@QR:Amen@% see %@AU@%AMON%@BO:           4d29f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amenemhet I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amenemhet I%@AE@%%@CR:AMENEMHET.I     @%%@QR:Amenemhet I@%, d. 1970 BC, king of %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@% founder of the XII dynasty that%@EH@%
initiated the Middle Kingdom. He centralized the government in a
virtually feudal form. The dynasty enabled the arts and science to
flourish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amenhotep I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amenhotep I%@AE@%%@CR:AMENHOTEP.I     @%%@QR:Amenhotep I@% or %@AB@%Amenophis I,%@AE@% fl. 1570 BC, king of %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@% of the XVIII%@EH@%
dynasty. A great military leader, he extended Egypt's power E to the
Euphrates and S to the second cataract of the %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%THUTMOSE I%@BO:          958949@%%@AE@% succeeded
him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Americana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Americana%@AE@%,%@CR:AMERICANA       @%%@QR:Americana@% term for material printed in or about the Americas, or written%@EH@%
by Americans; usually restricted to the formative period in the history
of the two continents. Thus the %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% letter (1493) announcing the
discovery of the Indies is the earliest item. Early American books are
also important Americana. The New York Public Library (see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%,) has
one of several major collections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Association for the Advancement of Science%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Association for the Advancement of Science%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICAR.THE.A  @%%@QR:American Association for the Advancement of Science@% (AAAS), est. 1848 to%@EH@%
foster scientific freedom, improve the effective application of science
for human needs, and increase public understanding of science.
Headquartered in Washington, D.C., it has over 133,000 members in all
fields and 300 affiliated groups. Among its publications is the weekly
newsmagazine and journal %@AI@%Science.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Ballet Theatre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Ballet Theatre%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICA.THEATRE @%%@QR:American Ballet Theatre@% (ABT), a foremost international dance company of%@EH@%
the 20th cent. It was founded as the Mordkin Ballet (1937-40) and was
known (1940-56) as the Ballet Theater. It presents newly staged classics
and dances with American themes. Choreographers have included George
%@AU@%BALANCHINE%@BO:           b4033@%%@AE@%, Agnes %@AU@%DE MILLE%@BO:          27ccfb@%%@AE@%, Jerome %@AU@%ROBBINS%@BO:          7f9802@%%@AE@%, and Antony %@AU@%TUDOR%@BO:          987479@%%@AE@%; dancers
have included Alicia %@AU@%ALONSO%@BO:           40cb6@%%@AE@%, Erik %@AU@%BRUHN%@BO:          14a833@%%@AE@%, Maria Tallchief, and Igor
%@AU@%YOUSKEVITCH%@BO:          a48536@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Bar Association%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Bar Association%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICAN        @%%@QR:American Bar Association@% (ABA), organization of lawyers admitted to any%@EH@%
state bar; est. 1878. It promotes professional activities as well as
uniformity of U.S. laws, high professional standards, and improved
judicial administration. ABA committees address such topics as legal
education, professional ethics, and legal aid for the poor. In 1981 the
organization had more than 270,000 members.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Civil Liberties Union%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Civil Liberties Union%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICAS.UNION  @%%@QR:American Civil Liberties Union@% (ACLU), nonpartisan organization devoted%@EH@%
to protecting basic rights set forth in the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@%; est. 1920
by Jane %@AU@%ADDAMS%@BO:           118a5@%%@AE@%, Roger %@AU@%BALDWIN%@BO:           b5b15@%%@AE@%, Norman %@AU@%THOMAS%@BO:          9524bc@%%@AE@%, and others. Its special
concerns are expression of opinion, equality before the law, and due
process. The ACLU has argued or supported nearly every major U.S. civil
liberties case since its founding. In 1982 the ACLU had 200,000 members.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Colonization Society%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Colonization Society%@AE@%,%@CR:AMERICAOCIETY   @%%@QR:American Colonization Society@% organized (Dec. 1816-Jan. 1817) to%@EH@%
transport free blacks from the U.S. and settle them in Africa. Land
purchases (1821) in Africa by the society led to the foundation of
%@AU@%LIBERIA%@BO:          549e28@%%@AE@%, and more than 11,000 blacks were sent there before 1860. The
colonization movement was attacked by %@AU@%ABOLITIONISTS%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@% and was unpopular
with many blacks; it declined after 1840.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICALABOR.A  @%%@QR:American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations@%%@EH@%
(AFL-CIO), a federation of autonomous trade unions in the U.S., Canada,
Mexico, Panama, and U.S. territories. It was formed in 1955 by the merger
of the AFL and the CIO. Although it does not participate directly in
%@AU@%COLLECTIVE BARGAINING%@BO:          2040be@%%@AE@%, the AFL-CIO serves as the leading voice of
American trade unionism, actively lobbying on the national and state
levels and supporting political candidates. From its founding in 1886,
the AFL emphasized organization of skilled workers on a craft rather than
an industrial basis. Under the successive leadership of Samuel %@AU@%GOMPERS%@BO:          3b5eff@%%@AE@%,
William %@AU@%GREEN%@BO:          3d4429@%%@AE@%, and George %@AU@%MEANY%@BO:          5de219@%%@AE@%, the AFL secured higher wages, shorter
hours, workmen's compensation, child labor laws, and exemption of labor
from antitrust legislation. In the early 1930s a strong minority faction
within the AFL advocated the organization of workers in basic industries
(such as steel, autos, and rubber) on an industry-wide basis. John L.
%@AU@%LEWIS%@BO:          546dc6@%%@AE@% led this militant group in forming a Committee for Industrial
Organization, which, after expulsion from the parent body in 1938,
changed its name to the Congress of Industrial Organizations. The CIO,
under the presidency of Lewis and later of Philip %@AU@%MURRAY%@BO:          654b65@%%@AE@%, enjoyed
considerable success. In 1955, however, at a time of growing labor
concern over the perceived anti-union policies of the Eisenhower
administration, the two organizations merged, with Meany as president,
and adopted the present name. Ultimate authority in the AFL-CIO is vested
in a biennial convention; the executive council governs between
conventions. In 1988 the federation had 105 national affiliates, 51
state-level federations (including Puerto Rico), and 741 city central
bodies and direct affiliates. Membership totaled about 14,100,000. See
also %@AU@%UNION, LABOR%@BO:          99c254@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American foxhound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American foxhound%@AE@%:%@CR:AMERICAND       @%%@QR:American foxhound@% see %@AU@%FOXHOUND%@BO:          34edbe@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Fur Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Fur Company%@AE@%,%@CR:AMERICAMPANY    @%%@QR:American Fur Company@% chartered (1808) by John Jacob %@AU@%ASTOR%@BO:           8f9bb@%%@AE@% to rival%@EH@%
Canadian fur companies. The company gained a virtual monopoly of the
Great Lakes trade and expanded W into the Missouri valley and Rocky
Mountain areas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Indian languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Indian languages%@AE@%,%@CR:AMERICAES       @%%@QR:American Indian languages@% languages of the native peoples of the Western%@EH@%
Hemisphere and their descendants. The classification "American Indian
languages" is geographical rather than linguistic, since these languages
do not belong to a single linguistic family, or stock, such as the
Indo-European language family. The American Indian languages cannot be
differentiated as a linguistic unit from other languages of the world,
but are grouped into a number of separate linguistic stocks having
significantly different phonetics, vocabulary, and grammars. There is no
part of the world with as many distinctly different native languages as
the Western Hemisphere. %@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Indian Movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Indian Movement%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICAT        @%%@QR:American Indian Movement@% (AIM), activist organization of the American%@EH@%
Indian civil rights movement, est. 1968. After briefly occupying (Nov.
1972) the Bureau of %@AU@%INDIAN AFFAIRS%@BO:          476d94@%%@AE@% to protest programs controlling Indian
development, in 1973 AIM members led 200 %@AU@%SIOUX%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@% in a 71-day takeover of
%@AU@%WOUNDED KNEE%@BO:          a36473@%%@AE@%, S.Dak., to demand a review of 300 treaties with the U.S.
government. AIM also sponsored talks resulting in the 1977 International
Treaty Conference with the UN in Geneva, Switzerland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:AMERICAS1       @%%@QR:American Indians@% see %@AU@%MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          605406@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
%@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%; and individual tribes. See also %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIANS, PREHISTORY OF%@BO:           491d3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Indians, prehistory of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Indians, prehistory of%@AE@%.%@CR:AMERICAS2       @%%@QR:American Indians, prehistory of@% It is generally agreed that the first%@EH@%
humans to inhabit the Americas crossed the %@AU@%BERING STRAIT%@BO:           ec491@%%@AE@% from NE Asia in
migration waves beginning before 30,000 BC By 8000 BC, Indians had spread
throughout the Americas. Major Paleolithic cultures were created c.20,000
BC by seminomadic big-game hunters of the Great Plains of North America.
Earliest evidence of human occupation in Middle and South America dates
from 30,000 BC Between 5000 BC and 1000 BC, agriculture, pottery, and
complex social systems throughout the Americas marked the end of the
%@AU@%STONE AGE%@BO:          8f4c47@%%@AE@% and the rise of the high Indian civilizations. See %@AU@%MIDDLE
%@AU@%AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          605406@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%; and
articles on individual tribes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Museum of Natural History%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Museum of Natural History%@AE@%,%@CR:AMERICARAL.HIS  @%%@QR:American Museum of Natural History@% New York City, inc. 1869; est. to%@EH@%
promote the study of natural science and related subjects. Buildings on
its present site were opened in 1877. The Hayden Planetarium was added in
1935 and the Roosevelt Memorial building in 1936. The museum's
explorations and research programs have provided it with specimens and
data of great value; it maintains exhibitions in all branches of natural
history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Negro spiritual%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Negro spiritual%@AE@%:%@CR:AMERICAL        @%%@QR:American Negro spiritual@% see %@AU@%SPIRITUAL%@BO:          8da8cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American party%@AE@%:%@CR:AMERICAN.PARTY  @%%@QR:American party@% see %@AU@%KNOW-NOTHING MOVEMENT%@BO:          504f22@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:AMERICATION     @%%@QR:American Revolution@% 1775-83, struggle by which the %@AU@%THIRTEEN COLONIES%@BO:          95067d@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
that were to become the United States won independence from Britain. By
the middle of the 18th cent., differences in life, thought, and economic
interests had formed between the colonies and the mother country. The
British government, favoring a policy of %@AU@%MERCANTILISM%@BO:          5ed231@%%@AE@%, tried to regulate
colonial commerce in the British interest, and provoked colonial
opposition. The %@AU@%STAMP ACT%@BO:          8e2098@%%@AE@% passed by Parliament in 1765 roused a violent
colonial outcry as an act of taxation without representation. The
%@AU@%TOWNSHEND ACTS%@BO:          970451@%%@AE@% (1767) led to such acts of violence as the %@AU@%BOSTON MASSACRE%@BO:          1270f2@%%@AE@%
(1770), the burning of the H.M.S. %@AI@%Gaspee%@AE@% (1772), and the %@AU@%BOSTON TEA PARTY%@BO:          127366@%%@AE@%
(1773). In 1774 Britain responded with the coercive %@AU@%INTOLERABLE ACTS%@BO:          4912e0@%%@AE@%. The
colonists convened the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% and petitioned the king for
redress of their grievances. Fighting erupted on Apr. 19, 1775, at
%@AU@%LEXINGTON AND CONCORD%@BO:          548491@%%@AE@%, and was followed by the capture of Fort
Ticonderoga from the British, the battle of %@AU@%BUNKER HILL%@BO:          1582b2@%%@AE@%, and the
unsuccessful colonial assault on Quebec (1775-76). The Continental
Congress appointed (1775) George %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% to command the Continental
army and, on July 4, 1776, adopted the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%. Many
colonists, however, remained pro-British Loyalists. The colonial victory
in the %@AU@%SARATOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          847e59@%%@AE@% (1777) helped forge a French-American alliance
(1778), bringing vital aid to the colonists. Following the terrible
ordeal of Washingon's army at %@AU@%VALLEY FORGE%@BO:          9b8f0f@%%@AE@% and the indecisive battle of
%@AU@%MONMOUTH%@BO:          62e300@%%@AE@% (1778), the war shifted to the South during the Carolina
campaign (1780-81). The surrender (Oct. 1781) of Gen. %@AU@%CORNWALLIS%@BO:          23795a@%%@AE@% at the
close of the %@AU@%YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN%@BO:          a45544@%%@AE@% ended the fighting, and the Treaty of
Paris (1783) recognized the U.S. as a nation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Samoa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Samoa%@AE@%,%@CR:AMERICAN.SAMOA  @%%@QR:American Samoa@% unincorporated territory of the U.S. (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
38,400), 76 sq mi (197 sq km), comprising the eastern half of the Samoa
island chain in the South Pacific. The major islands are Tutuila, the
Manu'a group, Rose and Sand, and Swains. Pago Pago, the capital, is on
Tutuila. The islands are mountainous and wooded; agriculture, fish
canning, and some light industry are conducted. The Polynesian natives,
considered U.S. nationals, elect a governor and legislature, and send a
nonvoting delegate to Congress. American Samoa, defined by treaty in
1899, was administered by the U.S. Dept. of the Navy until 1951, when it
passed to Dept. of the Interior jurisdiction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICAE.PREVE  @%%@QR:American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals@% (ASPCA),%@EH@%
founded (1866) in the U.S. to shelter homeless animals, assist in
livestock care, and help to enforce game laws. It is modeled on England's
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded 1824).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%americium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%americium%@AE@%%@CR:AMERICIUM       @%%@QR:americium@% (Am), synthetic radioactive element, discovered by Glenn%@EH@%
%@AU@%SEABORG%@BO:          8642d4@%%@AE@% and colleagues in 1944 by neutron bombardment of plutonium. The
silver-white metal is in the %@AU@%ACTINIDE SERIES%@BO:            ddd8@%%@AE@%. Half-lives of the many
isotopes range from 1.3 hr to over 7,000 years. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amethyst%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amethyst%@AE@%,%@CR:AMETHYST        @%%@QR:amethyst@% most highly valued variety of %@AU@%QUARTZ%@BO:          7b9548@%%@AE@%, violet to purple in%@EH@%
color, used as a %@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%. Amethyst is found in Brazil, Uruguay, Sri Lanka,
Siberia, and North America. It has superstitious associations, being
regarded as a love charm, a sleeping aid, and a guard against thieves and
drunkenness.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amharic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amharic%@AE@%%@CR:AMHARIC         @%%@QR:Amharic@%, language of %@AU@%ETHIOPIA%@BO:          3053a6@%%@AE@%. It belongs to the Ethiopic group of%@EH@%
Hamito-Semitic languages. See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:AMHERST         @%%@QR:Amherst, Jeffrey Amherst, Baron@% 1717-97, British army officer. During%@EH@%
the last of the %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%, he commanded British forces at
the capture of Louisbourg, N.S. (1758), %@AU@%TICONDEROGA%@BO:          95b53f@%%@AE@% (1759), and Montreal
(1760). Amherst, Mass., and Amherst College are named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amiens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amiens%@AE@%%@CR:AMIENS1         @%%@QR:Amiens@%, city (1982 pop. 136,358), capital of Somme dept., N France. A%@EH@%
textile and farm-market center, it has been occupied by many invaders;
after being devastated in both world wars the city was rebuilt. Its
Cathedral of Notre Dame (begun c.1220) is France's largest Gothic
cathedral.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amiens, Treaty of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amiens, Treaty of%@AE@%:%@CR:AMIENS2         @%%@QR:Amiens, Treaty of@% see %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amin, Idi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amin, Idi%@AE@%,%@CR:AMIN            @%%@QR:Amin, Idi@% c.1925-, president of %@AU@%UGANDA%@BO:          9961c2@%%@AE@% (1971-79). Seizing control of the%@EH@%
government from Milton %@AU@%OBOTE%@BO:          6c91cd@%%@AE@% in 1971, he instituted a harsh and brutal
regime and expelled Uganda's Asian population. He was driven into exile
in 1979.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amino acid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amino acid%@AE@%,%@CR:AMINO.ACID      @%%@QR:amino acid@% any of a class of organic compounds having a carboxyl group%@EH@%
(COOH) and an amino group (NH%@AH@%2%@AE@%). Some 22 amino acids are commonly found
in animals and more than 100 less common forms are found in nature,
chiefly in plants. When the carboxyl carbon atom of one amino acid binds
to the nitrogen of another with the release of a water molecule, a
linkage called a peptide bond is formed. Chains of amino acids, joined
head-to-tail in this manner, are synthesized by living systems and are
called polypeptides (up to about 50 amino acids) and %@AU@%PROTEINS%@BO:          7a2e5b@%%@AE@% (over 50
aminoacids). The process of digestion (see %@AU@%DIGESTIVE SYSTEM%@BO:          28fa20@%%@AE@%) releases
individual amino acids from food protein by cleaving the peptide bonds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amis, Kingsley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amis, Kingsley%@AE@%,%@CR:AMIS            @%%@QR:Amis, Kingsley@% 1922-, English novelist. He is best known for %@AI@%Lucky Jim%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1953), a brilliant satire on academic life. Later novels include %@AI@%That
%@AI@%Certain Feeling%@AE@% (1955), %@AI@%Jake's Thing%@AE@% (1979), and %@AI@%Stanley and the Women%@AE@%
(1985). Amis also writes espionage novels, poetry, and nonfiction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amman%@AE@%,%@CR:AMMAN           @%%@QR:Amman@% city (1984 est. pop. 777,500), capital of Jordan, N central%@EH@%
Jordan, on the Jabbok R. Jordan's largest city and industrial and
commercial heart, Amman is a transportation hub, especially for pilgrims
en route to %@AU@%MECCA%@BO:          5de8a1@%%@AE@%. It is noted for its colored marble; textiles, cement,
and other manufactures are produced. Amman is the biblical Rabbah, the
Ammonite capital. It fell to King David, Assyria, Rome, and other
conquerors. After the Arab conquest (635) it declined, reviving as the
capital of Trans-Jordan after 1921. Palestinian refugees swelled the
population after the Arab-Israel Wars of 1948 and 1967. The city's
historic structures include a Roman amphitheater.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ammeter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ammeter%@AE@%,%@CR:AMMETER         @%%@QR:ammeter@% instrument used to measure, in %@AU@%AMPERES%@BO:           4d9c8@%%@AE@%, the magnitude of an%@EH@%
electric current. An ammeter is usually combined with a %@AU@%VOLTMETER%@BO:          9e4ad3@%%@AE@% and an
%@AU@%OHMMETER%@BO:          6d2dc5@%%@AE@% in a multipurpose instrument. Although most ammeters are based
on the d'Arsonval %@AU@%GALVANOMETER%@BO:          37a18d@%%@AE@% and are of the analog type, digital
ammeters are becoming increasingly common.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ammon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ammon%@AE@%:%@CR:AMMON           @%%@QR:Ammon@% see %@AU@%AMON%@BO:           4d29f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ammonia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ammonia%@AE@%,%@CR:AMMONIA         @%%@QR:ammonia@% chemical compound (NH%@AH@%3%@AE@%), colorless gas with a characteristic%@EH@%
pungent, penetrating odor. It is extremely soluble in water. Ammonia
solutions are used to clean, bleach, and deodorize; to etch aluminum; to
saponify oils and fats; and in chemical manufacture. Ammonia and ammonia
vapors are irritating-prolonged exposure and inhalation cause serious
injury and may be fatal. Water-free ammonia is used in %@AU@%REFRIGERATION%@BO:          7d9ab6@%%@AE@%. The
major use of ammonia and its compounds is as %@AU@%FERTILIZERS%@BO:          32c4ec@%%@AE@%. Ammonia is
usually produced by direct combination of nitrogen with hydrogen at high
temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amnesia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amnesia%@AE@%,%@CR:AMNESIA         @%%@QR:amnesia@% condition characterized by loss of memory for long or short%@EH@%
intervals. It may be caused by physical injury, %@AU@%SHOCK%@BO:          8879e3@%%@AE@%, senility, or
severe illness. In other cases, a painful experience and everything
remindful of it, including the individual's identity, is unconsciously
repressed (see %@AU@%DEFENSE MECHANISM%@BO:          276218@%%@AE@%). Attempts to cure this type of amnesia
include efforts to establish associations with the past through
suggestion and %@AU@%HYPNOSIS%@BO:          46243d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amnesty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amnesty%@AE@%,%@CR:AMNESTY         @%%@QR:amnesty@% in law, exemption from prosecution for some criminal action. It%@EH@%
is distinguished from a pardon (see %@AU@%SENTENCE%@BO:          86f98e@%%@AE@%), which is an act of
forgiveness following conviction. Amnesties are usually extended to
groups of persons involved in disorders or insurrections; after the Civil
War the U.S. granted a qualified amnesty to the Confederate forces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amnesty International%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amnesty International%@AE@%%@CR:AMNESTYTIONAL   @%%@QR:Amnesty International@% (AI), organization (est. 1961) that campaigns%@EH@%
against the detention of political prisoners and against other human
rights violations throughout the world. It was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1977 after effecting the release of more than 10,000 prisoners.
In 1988 the organization had 300,000 members.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amniocentesis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amniocentesis%@AE@%,%@CR:AMNIOCENTESIS   @%%@QR:amniocentesis@% diagnostic procedure in which a sample of the amniotic%@EH@%
fluid surrounding the fetus is removed from the uterus with a fine needle
inserted through the abdomen of the pregnant woman (see %@AU@%PREGNANCY%@BO:          7934db@%%@AE@%). Fetal
cells in the fluid can be grown in the laboratory and studied to detect
the presence of certain genetic disorders (e.g., %@AU@%DOWN'S SYNDROME%@BO:          2a722c@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%TAY-SACHS DISEASE%@BO:          933be9@%%@AE@%) or physical abnormalities. Generally recommended when
there is a family history of genetic disorders or when the woman is over
age 35, the procedure is usually carried out around the 14th or 15th week
of pregnancy, when there is sufficient amniotic fluid and %@AU@%ABORTION%@BO:            5630@%%@AE@% is
still an option. See also %@AU@%BIRTH DEFECTS%@BO:          1026a9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amnon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amnon%@AE@%,%@CR:AMNON           @%%@QR:Amnon@% %@AU@%DAVID'S%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% eldest son. He raped his half sister Tamar and was killed%@EH@%
for it by her brother %@AU@%ABSALOM%@BO:            66e9@%%@AE@%. 2 Sam. 13.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amoeba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amoeba%@AE@%%@CR:AMOEBA          @%%@QR:amoeba@% or %@AB@%ameba,%@AE@%one-celled organism (class Sarcodina) in the phylum%@EH@%
%@AU@%PROTOZOA%@BO:          7a439f@%%@AE@%. Amoebas constantly change their body shape as they form
temporary extensions called pseudopods, or false feet, used for feeding
and locomotion. Most amoebas range from 5 to 20 microns in diameter. They
engulf their prey (diatoms, algae, bacteria) with their pseudopods,
forming vacuoles in which food is digested by %@AU@%ENZYMES%@BO:          2f4a84@%%@AE@%. Reproduction is
usually by binary fission (splitting) to produce two daughter amoebas,
the nucleus dividing by %@AU@%MITOSIS%@BO:          61d049@%%@AE@%; some also reproduce sexually. Amoebas
live in fresh and marine waters and the upper layers of soil. Many are
%@AU@%PARASITES%@BO:          712f90@%%@AE@% of aquatic and terrestrial animals, and some cause disease,
e.g., amoebic dysentery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amon%@AE@%%@CR:AMON            @%%@QR:Amon@%, %@AB@%Ammon%@AE@% , or %@AB@%Amen%@AE@% , ancient Egyptian deity. Originally the chief god%@EH@%
of Thebes, Amon grew increasingly important in Egypt, and eventually, as
Amon Ra, he was identified with %@AU@%RA%@BO:          7be2c1@%%@AE@% as the supreme deity. He was also
identified with the Greek %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% (the Roman %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dce8c@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amos%@AE@%,%@CR:AMOS            @%%@QR:Amos@% book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 30th in order in the Authorized Version,%@EH@%
third of the Minor %@AU@%PROPHETS%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@%. The shepherd-prophet preached in the
northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (r. c.793-753 BC). The book
falls into three parts: God's judgment on Gentile nations, finally on
Israel; three sermons on the doom of Israel; five visions of destruction,
the last promising redemption.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amoy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amoy%@AE@%:%@CR:AMOY            @%%@QR:Amoy@% see %@AU@%XIAMEN%@BO:          a3c9a8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ampere, Andre Marie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ampere, Andre Marie%@AE@%,%@CR:AMPERE1         @%%@QR:Ampere, Andre Marie@% 1775-1836, French physicist, mathematician, and%@EH@%
natural philosopher. He extended the work of Hans %@AU@%OERSTED%@BO:          6cf7b8@%%@AE@% on the
relationship of electricity and magnetism, formulated Ampere's law
describing the contribution of a current element to magnetic induction,
and invented the astatic needle. The basic unit of electric current, the
%@AU@%AMPERE%@BO:           4d9c8@%%@AE@%, is named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ampere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ampere%@AE@%%@CR:AMPERE2         @%%@QR:ampere@% (amp or A), basic unit of electric current and the fundamental%@EH@%
electrical unit used with the mks system of units of the %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%.
The ampere is officially defined as the current in a pair of equally
long, parallel, straight wires 1 meter apart that produces a force of
0.0000002 newton between the wires for each meter of their length.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amphetamine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amphetamine%@AE@%,%@CR:AMPHETAMINE     @%%@QR:amphetamine@% any of a class of powerful drugs that act as stimulants (see%@EH@%
%@AU@%DRUGS%@BO:          2abe28@%%@AE@%) on the central nervous system. Popularly known as "bennies,"
"speed," or "uppers," amphetamines enhance mental alertness and the
ability to concentrate; cause wakefulness, talkativeness, and euphoria;
and temporarily reverse the effects of fatigue. They have been used to
treat obesity, narcolepsy and minimal brain dysfunction. Amphetamines can
produce insomnia, hyperactivity, and irritability, as well as such severe
systemic disorders as cardiac irregularities, elevated blood pressure,
and gastric disturbances. The drugs are addictive and easily abused;
addiction can result in psychosis or death from overexhaustion or cardiac
arrest (see %@AU@%DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amphibian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amphibian%@AE@%,%@CR:AMPHIBIAN       @%%@QR:amphibian@% cold-blooded animal of the class Amphibia, the most primitive%@EH@%
of terrestrial %@AU@%VERTEBRATES%@BO:          9ce5a4@%%@AE@%. Unlike %@AU@%REPTILES%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@%, the amphibians, which
include %@AU@%FROGS%@BO:          367d5e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TOADS%@BO:          963bdf@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SALAMANDERS%@BO:          837d13@%%@AE@% and newts, and the limbless
%@AU@%CAECILIANS%@BO:          16b5d7@%%@AE@%, have moist skins without scales or with small, hidden scales.
Most amphibians deposit their eggs in water or a moist, protected place.
The young undergo %@AU@%METAMORPHOSIS%@BO:          5f404f@%%@AE@% from aquatic, water-breathing, limbless
%@AU@%TADPOLES%@BO:          923854@%%@AE@% to terrestrial or partly terrestrial, air-breathing, four-legged
adults.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amphibious warfare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amphibious warfare%@AE@%,%@CR:AMPHIBIARE      @%%@QR:amphibious warfare@% use of combined land and sea forces to take a%@EH@%
military objective, typically through an air-supported assault on an
enemy coastline. Although the strategy is ancient, e.g., the Athenian
attack on Sicily in 415 BC, the term came into widespread use during
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. Early in the war, coordinated land, sea, and air attacks by
the Japanese in the SW Pacific met little opposition. By contrast, Allied
attacks on Europe and the Pacific islands were mounted against heavily
defended coasts, requiring construction of special vessels (called
landing craft) that were seaworthy and yet capable of allowing %@AU@%TANKS%@BO:          92a0ce@%%@AE@% and
fully equipped %@AU@%INFANTRY%@BO:          48046e@%%@AE@% to disembark in shallow water. Such landings were
preceded and accompanied by continuous air and naval bombardment of
coastal defenses. By this method the Allies were able to invade such
Pacific strongholds as Saipan (1944), Iwo Jima (1945), and Okinawa
(1945), and to launch the most spectacular amphibious invasion in
history, on the coast of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944. Amphibious
landings later occurred in the %@AU@%KOREAN WAR %@BO:          50a0f9@%%@AE@%and %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% and in the
British attack (1982) on the %@AU@%FALKLAND ISLANDS%@BO:          319e75@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amphitheater%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amphitheater%@AE@%,%@CR:AMPHITHEATER    @%%@QR:amphitheater@% open structure for the exhibition of gladiatorial contests%@EH@%
and spectacles, built in cities throughout the Roman Empire, e.g., at
Rome (see %@AU@%COLOSSEUM%@BO:          20a482@%%@AE@%), Arles (France), and Cirencester (England). The
typical amphitheater was elliptical, with seats rising around a central
arena; quarters for the gladiators and animals were under the arena. The
word is now used for various quite unrelated structures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amphoterism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amphoterism%@AE@%,%@CR:AMPHOTERISM     @%%@QR:amphoterism@% in chemistry, the property of certain compounds of acting%@EH@%
either as acids or as bases (see %@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%), depending on the
reaction in which they are involved. Many hydroxide compounds and organic
molecules that contain both acidic (e.g., carboxyl) and basic (e.g.,
amino) %@AU@%FUNCTIONAL GROUPS%@BO:          36dcd8@%%@AE@% are usually amphoteric.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amplifier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amplifier%@AE@%,%@CR:AMPLIFIER       @%%@QR:amplifier@% device in which a varying input signal controls a flow of%@EH@%
energy to produce an output signal that varies in the same way but has a
larger amplitude; the input signal may be a current, a voltage, a
mechanical motion, or any other signal, and the output signal is usually
of the same nature. The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage
is called the voltage gain. The most common types of amplifiers are
electronic and have %@AU@%TRANSISTORS%@BO:          97552b@%%@AE@% as their principal components. In most
cases today, transistors are incorporated into %@AU@%INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT%@BO:          48a52c@%%@AE@% chips.
Most amplifiers include more than one transistor. Transistor amplifiers
are used in %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TELEVISION%@BO:          93a2aa@%%@AE@% transmitters and receivers, stereophonic
%@AU@%RECORD PLAYERS%@BO:          7d4098@%%@AE@%, and intercoms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%amplitude modulation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%amplitude modulation%@AE@%:%@CR:AMPLITUATION    @%%@QR:amplitude modulation@% see %@AU@%MODULATION%@BO:          621997@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amru al-Kais%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amru al-Kais%@AE@%,%@CR:AMRU.ALKAIS     @%%@QR:Amru al-Kais@% fl. 6th cent., Arabic poet, long esteemed by Arabs as the%@EH@%
model for erotic poetry. Like much pre-Islamic poetry, his verse is
subjective and stylistically perfect.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amsterdam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amsterdam%@AE@%,%@CR:AMSTERDAM       @%%@QR:Amsterdam@% constitutional capital and largest city (1987 pop. 682,702) of%@EH@%
the Netherlands, on the Ij and Amstel rivers. It is a major port joined
with the North Sea and the Rhine by canals. One of Europe's great
commercial, intellectual, and artistic capitals, it has a major stock
exchange and is a diamond-cutting center. It is built on piles and is cut
by some 40 canals crossed by about 400 bridges. Chartered c.1300, it
joined the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% in 1369 and the anti-Spanish Netherland
provinces in 1578. An influx of refugees contributed to its growth, and
the city reached its apex in the 17th cent. After French rule (1795-1814)
it became the Dutch capital. Amsterdam suffered greatly under German
occupation (1940-45) during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. Points of interest include the
city hall (16th cent.); the university (est. 1632); the Rijks Museum,
with its Rembrandts and other Dutch master paintings; and the municipal
museum, with its Van Gogh collection.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amu Darya%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amu Darya%@AE@%,%@CR:AMU.DARYA       @%%@QR:Amu Darya@% river, central Asian USSR, known to the ancient Greeks and%@EH@%
Persians as the Oxus. It is c.1,600 mi (2,580 km) long and flows
generally northwest from sources in the snow-capped Pamirs through the
Kara-Kum desert to a large delta on the %@AU@%ARAL SEA%@BO:           72f84@%%@AE@%. In the early 1980s the
Soviet government announced a plan to increase the flow of the river,
which irrigates parts of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, by diverting to it
some of the waters of the %@AU@%IRTYSH%@BO:          49d1e8@%%@AE@% R.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amundsen, Roald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amundsen, Roald%@AE@%%@CR:AMUNDSEN        @%%@QR:Amundsen, Roald@%, 1872-1928, Norwegian explorer. He commanded the first%@EH@%
single ship to sail through the %@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@% (1903-6) and was the
first man to reach the South Pole (1911). In 1926, with the aviator
Umberto Nobile and the financier Lincoln %@AU@%ELLSWORTH%@BO:          2e464d@%%@AE@%, Amundsen took part in
the first airplane flight over the North Pole. When Nobile crashed in the
Arctic in 1928, Amundsen was killed in the rescue attempt. His works,
which include %@AI@%The South Pole%@AE@% (1913), have added much to knowledge of the
polar regions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amur%@AE@%,%@CR:AMUR            @%%@QR:Amur@% river, c.1,800 mi (2,900 km) long, NE Asia. It flows generally%@EH@%
southeast, forming for more than 1,000 mi (1,610 km) the border between
the Soviet Union and China, then northeast through the Far Eastern USSR,
entering the Tartar Strait opposite %@AU@%SAKHALIN%@BO:          8370f9@%%@AE@% Island. Its chief
tributaries are the %@AU@%USSURI%@BO:          9b2954@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SUNGARI%@BO:          90c182@%%@AE@%. The river is navigable by small
craft for its entire length during the ice-free season (May-Nov.)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Amurath%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Amurath%@AE@%.%@CR:AMURATH         @%%@QR:Amurath@% For Ottoman sultans thus named, see %@AU@%MURAD%@BO:          652eda@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anabaptists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anabaptists%@AE@%,%@CR:ANABAPTISTS     @%%@QR:Anabaptists@% name applied, originally in scorn, to certain Christian%@EH@%
sects holding that infant baptism is not authorized in Scripture, but
that baptism should be administered only to believers. Prominent in
Europe during the 16th cent., they were persecuted everywhere. Their
chief leaders were Thomas %@AU@%MUNZER%@BO:          652bad@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JOHN OF LEIDEN%@BO:          4cb163@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%MENNONITES%@BO:          5eb7bc@%%@AE@% and
Hutterites are descended from them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anabasis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anabasis%@AE@%:%@CR:ANABASIS        @%%@QR:Anabasis@% see %@AU@%XENOPHON%@BO:          a3c145@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anaconda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anaconda%@AE@%:%@CR:ANACONDA        @%%@QR:anaconda@% see %@AU@%BOA%@BO:          113064@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anacreon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anacreon%@AE@%,%@CR:ANACREON        @%%@QR:Anacreon@% fl. c.521 BC, Greek %@AU@%LYRIC%@BO:          585494@%%@AE@% poet, celebrator of love and wine.%@EH@%
The Anacreontics, in his style, were written from Hellenistic to late
Byzantine times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anae-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anae-%@AE@%.%@CR:ANAE            @%%@QR:anae-@% For words beginning thus, see ane-.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anaheim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anaheim%@AE@%,%@CR:ANAHEIM         @%%@QR:Anaheim@% city (1986 est. pop. 240,730), Orange co., S Calif., SE of %@AU@%LOS%@EH@%
%@AU@%ANGELES%@BO:          56c905@%%@AE@%; founded 1857, inc. 1876. A major tourist center, Anaheim
contains the amusement complex Disneyland (opened 1955); Anaheim Stadium,
home of the California Angels baseball team; and the Anaheim Convention
Center. It is also the site of a large electronic equipment industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%analgesic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%analgesic%@AE@%,%@CR:ANALGESIC       @%%@QR:analgesic@% a drug used to relieve pain. Analgesics include nonnarcotics,%@EH@%
such as %@AU@%ASPIRIN%@BO:           8c836@%%@AE@% and other salicylates, which also reduce fever and
inflammation; %@AU@%NARCOTICS%@BO:          6680db@%%@AE@%, such as %@AU@%MORPHINE%@BO:          63fcb1@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CODEINE%@BO:          1ff464@%%@AE@%; and synthetic
narcotics with morphinelike action, such as propoxyphene (Darvon) and
meperidine (Demerol). Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often given to
individuals sensitive or allergic to salicylates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%analog circuit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%analog circuit%@AE@%,%@CR:ANALOG.CIRCUIT  @%%@QR:analog circuit@% %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% in which the output voltage and current%@EH@%
values are considered significant over a continuum. Analog circuits may
be used for such purposes as amplifying signals corresponding to sound
waves. See also %@AU@%DIGITAL CIRCUITS%@BO:          290290@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%analog computer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%analog computer%@AE@%:%@CR:ANALOG.COMPUTER @%%@QR:analog computer@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%analog-to-digital conversion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%analog-to-digital conversion%@AE@%,%@CR:ANALOGTION      @%%@QR:analog-to-digital conversion@% the process of changing continuously%@EH@%
varying data into digital quantities that represent the magnitude of the
data at the moment the conversion is made. The most common use is to
change analog signals into a form that can be manipulated by digital
%@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%, as in data communications. See also %@AU@%DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG
%@AU@%CONVERSION%@BO:          29076e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%analysis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%analysis%@AE@%,%@CR:ANALYSIS        @%%@QR:analysis@% branch of %@AU@%MATHEMATICS%@BO:          5d1200@%%@AE@% that uses the concepts and methods of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%CALCULUS%@BO:          16f391@%%@AE@%. It includes basic calculus; advanced calculus, in which such
underlying concepts as that of a %@AU@%LIMIT%@BO:          55320b@%%@AE@% are subjected to rigorous
examination; differential and integral equations, in which the unknowns
are %@AU@%FUNCTIONS%@BO:          36d8ee@%%@AE@% rather than numbers; %@AU@%VECTOR%@BO:          9c2eac@%%@AE@% and tensor analysis;
differential geometry; and many other fields.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%analytical chemistry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%analytical chemistry%@AE@%:%@CR:ANALYTIISTRY    @%%@QR:analytical chemistry@% see %@AU@%CHEMISTRY%@BO:          1c7a15@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%analytic geometry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%analytic geometry%@AE@%,%@CR:ANALYTIRY       @%%@QR:analytic geometry@% branch of %@AU@%GEOMETRY%@BO:          3921d2@%%@AE@% in which points are represented%@EH@%
with respect to a coordinate system, such as %@AU@%CARTESIAN COORDINATES%@BO:          196b6e@%%@AE@%.
Analytic geometry was introduced by Rene %@AU@%DESCARTES%@BO:          28372d@%%@AE@% in 1637 and was of
fundamental importance in the development of the %@AU@%CALCULUS%@BO:          16f391@%%@AE@% by Sir Isaac
%@AU@%NEWTON%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@% and G.W. %@AU@%LEIBNIZ%@BO:          539448@%%@AE@% in the late 17th cent. Its most common
application-the representation of %@AU@%EQUATIONS%@BO:          2f944e@%%@AE@% involving two or three
variables as curves in two or three %@AU@%DIMENSIONS%@BO:          29115c@%%@AE@% or surfaces in three
dimensions-allows problems in %@AU@%ALGEBRA %@BO:           39cfe@%%@AE@%to be treated geometrically and
geometric problems to be treated algebraically. The methods of analytic
geometry have been generalized to four or more dimensions and have been
combined with other branches of geometry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anarchism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anarchism%@AE@%,%@CR:ANARCHISM       @%%@QR:anarchism@% political philosophy and movement that seeks the abolition of%@EH@%
government, arguing that people, although naturally good, are corrupted
by artificial institutions. Anarchism dates from the ancient Greeks, but
its modern form was outlined (18th and 19th cent.) by William %@AU@%GODWIN%@BO:          3af6e3@%%@AE@%,
P.J. %@AU@%PROUDHON%@BO:          7a467d@%%@AE@%, and others. In Russia, given a violent and collectivist
tone by Mikhail %@AU@%BAKUNIN%@BO:           b2e71@%%@AE@%, it was outlawed by the Bolsheviks after the
%@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@%. Only in the Latin countries of Europe, where it was
linked to %@AU@%SYNDICALISM%@BO:          91e548@%%@AE@%, did it gain a mass following by the end of the
19th cent. After the %@AU@%HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT%@BO:          40bdc5@%%@AE@% (1886) and the assassination
of Pres. %@AU@%MCKINLEY%@BO:          58f4bb@%%@AE@%, fear of anarchism caused the U.S. in 1901 to forbid
anarchists from entering the country. Today anarchism remains important
as a philosophical and political theory, not as an active political
movement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anatolia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anatolia%@AE@%,%@CR:ANATOLIA        @%%@QR:Anatolia@% Asian part of Turkey, usually synonymous with %@AU@%ASIA MINOR%@BO:           8b216@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anatolian languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anatolian languages%@AE@%,%@CR:ANATOLIAGES     @%%@QR:Anatolian languages@% subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages.%@EH@%
See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anatomy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anatomy%@AE@%,%@CR:ANATOMY         @%%@QR:anatomy@% branch of biology concerned with the study of the body structure%@EH@%
of plants and animals. Comparative anatomy considers structural
similarities and differences of various organisms, forming the basis of
%@AU@%CLASSIFICATION%@BO:          1f0606@%%@AE@%. Human anatomy emphasizes individual systems composed of
groups of %@AU@%TISSUES%@BO:          9605a9@%%@AE@% and organs. See also %@AU@%PHYSIOLOGY%@BO:          755de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anaxagoras%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anaxagoras%@AE@%%@CR:ANAXAGORAS      @%%@QR:Anaxagoras@%, c.500-428 BC, Greek philosopher, thought to have been the%@EH@%
teacher of %@AU@%SOCRATES%@BO:          8aed83@%%@AE@%. He held that an all-pervading %@AI@%nous%@AE@% (world-mind)
ordered the physical world by combining particles from the
undifferentiated mass of the universe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anaximander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anaximander%@AE@%%@CR:ANAXIMANDER     @%%@QR:Anaximander@%, c.611-c.547 BC, pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. His notions%@EH@%
of the infinite or indefinite (%@AI@%apeiron%@AE@%) and its processes prefigured the
later concept of the indestructibility of matter, while other views
anticipated the theory of evolution and certain laws of astronomy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ancestor worship%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ancestor worship%@AE@%,%@CR:ANCESTOP        @%%@QR:ancestor worship@% ritualized propitiation and invocation of dead kin,%@EH@%
based on the belief that spirits influence the fate of the living. A
widespread ancient practice, it reached its most elaborate forms in W
Africa and China. It also exists in the Japanese %@AU@%SHINTO%@BO:          8864b8@%%@AE@% cult and among
peoples of Melanesia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anchises%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anchises%@AE@%%@CR:ANCHISES        @%%@QR:Anchises@%, in Greek mythology, Trojan shepherd; father of %@AU@%AENEAS%@BO:           174f4@%%@AE@% by%@EH@%
%@AU@%APHRODITE%@BO:           6a3b4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anchorage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anchorage%@AE@%,%@CR:ANCHORAGE       @%%@QR:Anchorage@% city (1986 est. pop. 235,000), Anchorage Borough, S central%@EH@%
Alaska, at the head of Cook Inlet; inc. 1920. Founded (1915) as a
railroad town, it has grown into the state's largest city as well as the
administrative and commercial heart of S central and W Alaska. It is one
of the nation's major defense centers and a transportation hub. Tourism
is important, and there is a busy international airport. The city's rapid
growth is due largely to its position as the focus of Alaska's expanding
coal, oil, and gas industries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anchovy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anchovy%@AE@%:%@CR:ANCHOVY         @%%@QR:anchovy@% see %@AU@%HERRING%@BO:          42723b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ancren Riwle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ancren Riwle%@AE@%%@CR:ANCREN.RIWLE    @%%@QR:Ancren Riwle@% or %@AB@%Ancrene Wisse%@AE@%  [Mid. Eng.,=anchoresses' rule], anonymous%@EH@%
English tract, c.1200, instructing young ladies about to become religious
recluses. Realistic and humorous, it reveals much about the manners of
the time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andalusia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andalusia%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDALUSIA       @%%@QR:Andalusia@% region (33,675 sq mi/87,218 sq km), on the Mediterranean Sea,%@EH@%
the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's largest and most
populous region, it occupies all of S Spain. Grapes, olives, citrus, and
other crops are grown in its subtropical climate. Mineral resources
include copper, iron, and zinc. It was settled (11th cent. BC) by the
Phoenicians and later ruled by Carthage (6th cent. BC), Rome (3d cent.
BC), and the Visigoths (5th cent. AD). In 711 the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% conquered
Andalusia. Christian Spain ended the long reconquest of the region when
%@AU@%GRANADA%@BO:          3c2554@%%@AE@% fell in 1492. In 1713 Spain ceded %@AU@%GIBRALTAR%@BO:          3a0f2d@%%@AE@% to Britain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andersen, Hans Christian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andersen, Hans Christian%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDERSEN        @%%@QR:Andersen, Hans Christian@% 1805-75, Danish writer of fairy tales.%@EH@%
Poverty-ridden and a failure as an actor, Andersen won the generous
patronage of King Frederick VI with his poetry. Though noted for a time
as a novelist, e.g., %@AI@%The Improvisatore%@AE@% (1835), it was his later fairy
tales that established him as Denmark's greatest author and a storyteller
without peer. His sense of fantasy, power of description, and acute
sensitivity contributed to his mastery of the genre. Among his many
widely beloved tales are "The Little Match Girl," "The Ugly Duckling,"
"The Snow Queen," and "The Red Shoes."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andersen Nexoo, Martin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andersen Nexoo, Martin%@AE@%%@CR:ANDERSEN.NEXO   @%%@QR:Andersen Nexoo, Martin@%, 1869-1954, Danish novelist. His famous%@EH@%
proletarian novels %@AI@%Pelle the Conqueror%@AE@% (1906-10) and %@AI@%Ditte, Daughter of
%@AI@%Mankind%@AE@% (1917-21) focus attention on conditions of poverty in Denmark.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anderson, Carl David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anderson, Carl David%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDERSON1       @%%@QR:Anderson, Carl David@% 1905-, American physicist; b. N.Y.C. For his%@EH@%
discovery of the positron in 1932, he shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in
Physics with V.F. Hess. He is also credited as one of the discoverers of
the muon (see %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLES%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@%) in 1936.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDERSON2       @%%@QR:Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett@% 1836-1917, English physician. After%@EH@%
obtaining a private medical education under accredited physicians and in
London hospitals and becoming licensed (1865) in Scotland, she opened
(1866) a dispensary, later a small hospital, for women and children in
London, the first in England to be staffed by women physicians. Largely
through her efforts, British examining boards opened their examinations
to women.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anderson, Marian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anderson, Marian%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDERSON3       @%%@QR:Anderson, Marian@% 1902-, black American contralto; b. Philadelphia. She%@EH@%
was the first black to be named (1955) a permanent member of the
%@AU@%METROPOLITAN OPERA COMPANY%@BO:          5f8daf@%%@AE@%, and was also the first black to perform in
the White House. In 1958 she was an alternate delegate to the UN.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anderson, Maxwell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anderson, Maxwell%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDERSON4       @%%@QR:Anderson, Maxwell@% 1888-1959, American dramatist; b. Atlantic, Pa. His%@EH@%
plays, many written in verse, usually concern social and moral problems.
His dramas include %@AI@%What Price Glory?%@AE@% (1924), %@AI@%Elizabeth the Queen%@AE@% (1930),
%@AI@%Winterset%@AE@% (1935), %@AI@%Anne of the Thousand Days%@AE@% (1948), and %@AI@%The Bad Seed%@AE@%
(1954).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anderson, Sherwood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anderson, Sherwood%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDERSON5       @%%@QR:Anderson, Sherwood@% 1876-1941, American writer; b. Camden, Ohio. He was a%@EH@%
strongly American writer, experimental and poetic, whose greatest novel,
%@AI@%Winesburg, Ohio%@AE@% (1919), explores the loneliness and frustration of
small-town lives. His other novels include %@AI@%Poor White%@AE@% (1920) and %@AI@%Dark
%@AI@%Laughter%@AE@% (1925). Some of his finest work is in his compassionate and
penetrating short stories, e.g., the collections %@AI@%The Triumph of the Egg%@AE@%
(1921) and %@AI@%Death in the Woods%@AE@% (1933).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andersonville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andersonville%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDERSONVILLE   @%%@QR:Andersonville@% village (1980 pop. 267), SW Georgia, inc. 1881. It was the%@EH@%
site of a notorious Confederate prison, now a national historic site,
where dreadful conditions led to the death of over 12,000 Union soldiers.
Andersonville National Cemetery, with over 13,000 soldiers' graves, is
nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andersson, Dan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andersson, Dan%@AE@%%@CR:ANDERSSON       @%%@QR:Andersson, Dan@%, 1888-1920, Swedish poet and novelist, one of the%@EH@%
country's foremost writers. His works, treating religious and
metaphysical themes, include the tales in %@AI@%The Charcoal-Burner's Tales%@AE@%
(1914) and the novel %@AI@%Three Homeless Ones%@AE@% (1918).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andes%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDES           @%%@QR:Andes@% great mountain system, extending c.4,500 mi (7,200 km) north to%@EH@%
south in South America, generally parallel to the Pacific coast. The
mountains reach a high point of 22,835 ft (6,960 m) in %@AU@%ACONCAGUA%@BO:            d0b1@%%@AE@% (highest
point in the Western Hemisphere) and include many other snow-capped peaks
over 22,000 ft (6,700 m). The system widens in Bolivia and Peru to form
multiple ranges and a high, densely populated plateau (%@AU@%ALTIPLANO%@BO:           4309e@%%@AE@%), where
the great civilization of the %@AU@%INCAS%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@% had its home. Copper, silver, and tin
are mined, and oil has been found in the northern foothills. The Andes
are geologically young and still rising. Volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes are common.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ando Hiroshige%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ando Hiroshige%@AE@%:%@CR:ANDO.HIROSHIGE  @%%@QR:Ando Hiroshige@% see %@AU@%HIROSHIGE%@BO:          430e12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andorra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andorra%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDORRA         @%%@QR:Andorra@% Fr. %@AI@%Andorre,%@AE@% autonomous principality (1984 pop. 42,712), 191 sq%@EH@%
mi (495 sq km), SW Europe, between France and Spain, comprising several
high valleys in the E Pyrenees. The capital is Andorra la Vella.
Sheep-raising, minerals (iron, lead, marble), timber, and a growing
tourist trade are the principal sources of income for the
Catalan-speaking, Roman Catholic population. In 1278 Andorra was put
under the joint suzerainty of a French count, whose rights passed to the
president of France, and the bishop of Urgel (Spain). In fact it is
independent, governed by an elected council and syndic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andrassy, Julius, Count%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andrassy, Julius, Count%@AE@%%@CR:ANDRASSY        @%%@QR:Andrassy, Julius, Count@%, 1823-90, Hungarian politician. A leading figure%@EH@%
in the unsuccessful Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, he lived in exile
until 1858. He later took part (1867) in the creation of the
%@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%. As premier of Hungary (1867-71) Andrassy
established Magyar supremacy over the Slavs in Hungary. He was foreign
minister of the Dual Monarchy (1871-79) and signed (1879) the Dual
Alliance with Germany. His son %@AB@%Julius, Count Andrassy%@AE@%, 1860-1929, also
foreign minister, tried (1918) to obtain a separate peace for
Austria-Hungary in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andre, Carl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andre, Carl%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDRE1          @%%@QR:Andre, Carl@% 1935-, American sculptor; b. Quincy, Mass. His classic,%@EH@%
elemental sculptures reflect the philosophy of %@AU@%MINIMAL ART%@BO:          610ded@%%@AE@%. Andre is well
known for his floor pieces, e.g., %@AI@%144 Pieces of Lead%@AE@% (Mus. of Modern Art,
N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andre, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andre, John%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDRE2          @%%@QR:Andre, John@% 1751-80, British spy in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. He was%@EH@%
captured and hanged after negotiating with Benedict %@AU@%ARNOLD%@BO:           81cac@%%@AE@% for the
surrender of %@AU@%WEST POINT%@BO:          a0cde8@%%@AE@% to the British.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andrea del Sarto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andrea del Sarto%@AE@%:%@CR:ANDREA.O        @%%@QR:Andrea del Sarto@% see %@AU@%SARTO, ANDREA DEL%@BO:          84a920@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andrew, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andrew, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDREW          @%%@QR:Andrew, Saint@% one of the Twelve Disciples, brother of Simon %@AU@%PETER%@BO:          73f868@%%@AE@%. He is%@EH@%
patron saint of Russia and Scotland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andrew II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andrew II%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDREW.II       @%%@QR:Andrew II@% d. 1235, king of %@AU@%HUNGARY%@BO:          455f06@%%@AE@% (1205-35). He was forced to issue%@EH@%
(1222) the Golden Bull, the "Magna Carta" of Hungary, which extended
privileges to the lesser nobles. He took part (1217) in the Fifth
%@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich%@AE@%%@CR:ANDREYEV        @%%@QR:Andreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich@%, 1871-1919, Russian writer. His early%@EH@%
stories, realistic studies of everyday life, were praised by %@AU@%GORKY%@BO:          3b9c13@%%@AE@%, but
when the Bolsheviks took power in 1917 he broke with Gorky politically
and emigrated to Finland. His popularity declined when he turned to
mysticism and allegory. His fiction includes %@AI@%The Red Laugh%@AE@% (1905) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Seven That Were Hanged%@AE@% (1908). His best-known play is the expressionistic
%@AI@%He Who Gets Slapped%@AE@% (1916).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andric, Ivo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andric, Ivo%@AE@%%@CR:ANDRIC          @%%@QR:Andric, Ivo@%, 1892-1975, Yugoslav writer. His work includes poetry,%@EH@%
essays, short stories, and novels, the best known being his Bosnian
historical trilogy (1945) %@AI@%The Bridge on the Drina, Bosnian Story,%@AE@% and
%@AI@%Young Miss.%@AE@% In 1961 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andromache%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andromache%@AE@%%@CR:ANDROMACHE      @%%@QR:Andromache@%, in Greek myth, wife of %@AU@%HECTOR%@BO:          41262a@%%@AE@% of Troy; mother of Astyanax.%@EH@%
After the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ACHILLES%@BO:            b6d3@%%@AE@%' son Neoptolemus abducted her; %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%RACINE%@BO:          7c04ae@%%@AE@% dramatized her captivity. Later she married Hector's brother
Helenus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andromeda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andromeda%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDROMEDA       @%%@QR:Andromeda@% in Greek myth, princess of Ethiopia; daughter of Cepheus and%@EH@%
Cassiopeia. %@AU@%POSEIDON%@BO:          78820f@%%@AE@%, angered by her mother's claim that her beauty
outshone that of the nereids, sent a sea monster that could be appeased
only by her sacrifice. She was rescued by %@AU@%PERSEUS%@BO:          739a4c@%%@AE@%, who slew the monster
and married her. Andromeda and her parents became constellations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andromeda Galaxy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andromeda Galaxy%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDROMEY        @%%@QR:Andromeda Galaxy@% closest spiral %@AU@%GALAXY%@BO:          375000@%%@AE@% (2 million %@AU@%LIGHT-YEARS%@BO:          550a76@%%@AE@% distant)%@EH@%
to our %@AU@%MILKY WAY%@BO:          60b7f9@%%@AE@% galaxy. They are similar in shape and composition. The
Andromeda galaxy, visible to the naked eye as a faint patch in the
constellation Andromeda, is about 120,000 light-years in diameter and
contains at least 200 billion stars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDROPOV        @%%@QR:Andropov, Yuri Vladimirovich@% 1914-84, Soviet public official, general%@EH@%
secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1982-). He was head
of the K.G.B. (1967-82), became (1973) a member of the Politburo, and
succeeded to the USSR's most powerful office on the death of Leonid
%@AU@%BREZHNEV%@BO:          13c2c2@%%@AE@%. He was an ideological conservative and potential bureaucratic
reformer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Andros, Sir Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Andros, Sir Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:ANDROS          @%%@QR:Andros, Sir Edmund@% 1637-1714, British colonial governor in America. He%@EH@%
was bitterly criticized for his high-handedness as governor (1674-81) of
New York. Named (1686) governor of the Dominion of New England, Andros
was deposed (1689) by Boston colonists. He was later governor (1692-97)
of %@AU@%VIRGINIA%@BO:          9dc140@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anemia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anemia%@AE@%,%@CR:ANEMIA          @%%@QR:anemia@% condition resulting from a reduction in %@AU@%HEMOGLOBIN%@BO:          4191aa@%%@AE@% content or in%@EH@%
number of red blood cells (erythrocytes). Although the causes of anemia
vary, because of the blood's reduced capacity to carry oxygen all types
exhibit similar symptoms-pallor, weakness, dizziness, fatigue, and, in
severe cases, breathing difficulties and heart abnormalities. Therapy
includes identifying and treating the underlying cause. See %@AU@%SICKLE-CELL
%@AU@%ANEMIA%@BO:          88c9c9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anemone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anemone%@AE@%%@CR:ANEMONE         @%%@QR:anemone@% or %@AB@%windflower,%@AE@%wild or cultivated perennial herb (genus %@AI@%Anemone%@AE@%)%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%BUTTERCUP%@BO:          16271b@%%@AE@% family. Anemones, which contain a poisonous compound
(anemonin), were once used to treat fevers, bruises, and freckles; they
are often associated with evil and death. The purple- or white-blossomed
wood anemone %@AI@%A. quinquefolia%@AE@% is also called windflower.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anesthesia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anesthesia%@AE@%,%@CR:ANESTHESIA      @%%@QR:anesthesia@% loss of sensation, especially that of pain, induced by drugs.%@EH@%
General anesthesia, first used in surgical procedures in the 1840s,
induces unconsciousness; halothane and sodium pentothal are two widely
used general anesthetics. Localized or regional anesthesia is used to
desensitize the area around the site of application without loss of
consciousness. Regional anesthetics include spinal anesthetics, primarily
for lower body surgery; epidural anesthetics for childbirth; and local
anesthetics (e.g., novocaine and lidocaine) for dental procedures.
Various anesthetics are often used in combination. See also %@AU@%ACUPUNCTURE%@BO:            e9a5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%angel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%angel%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGEL           @%%@QR:angel@% bodiless, immortal spirit, limited in knowledge and power,%@EH@%
accepted in the traditional belief of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
The three choirs of angels appear early in the Christian era; the classes
are, from the highest: seraphim, cherubim, thrones; dominations, virtues,
powers; principalities, archangels, angels. Angels appear in the Bible,
often in critical roles, e.g., visiting Abraham and Lot (Gen. 18; 19) and
announcing the Incarnation to Mary (Luke 1). The cult of guardian angels
who protect individuals or nations is especially strong in the West. The
angels of %@AU@%HELL%@BO:          41686d@%%@AE@%, or devils, led by %@AU@%SATAN%@BO:          84bfa4@%%@AE@%, are viewed as initiators of evil
temptations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angel Falls%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angel Falls%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGEL.FALLS     @%%@QR:Angel Falls@% waterfall, 3,212 ft (979 m) high, on the Churun R., in the%@EH@%
Guiana Highlands, SE Venezuela. It has the world's highest uninterrupted
fall (2,648 ft/807 m).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angelico, Fra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angelico, Fra%@AE@%%@CR:ANGELICO        @%%@QR:Angelico, Fra@%, c.1400-1455, Florentine painter; b. Guido, or Guidolino,%@EH@%
di Pietro; also known as Giovanni da Fiesole. First influenced by %@AU@%GENTILE
%@AU@%DA FABRIANO%@BO:          38d49b@%%@AE@% and then %@AU@%MASACCIO%@BO:          5c9a69@%%@AE@%, Fra Angelico developed a style remarkable
for its purity of line and color. He treated none but religious subjects.
His works, including the frescoes %@AI@%Annunciation%@AE@% and %@AI@%Noli mi Tangere%@AE@% (both:
St. Mark's Convent, Florence), show spatial depth and sculptural clarity
of form-the artistic innovations of his time. Among his paintings in the
U.S. are the %@AI@%Crucifixion%@AE@% and %@AI@%Nativity%@AE@% (both: Metropolitan Mus.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angel Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angel Island%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGEL.ISLAND    @%%@QR:Angel Island@% largest island in San Francisco Bay, Calif. It was%@EH@%
(1863-1946) a U.S. army base and became a missile and radar site in 1952.
From 1910 to 1940 it was the entry point for Asian immigrants to the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angell, Sir Norman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angell, Sir Norman%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGELL          @%%@QR:Angell, Sir Norman@% 1872?-1967, British internationalist and economist,%@EH@%
b. Ralph Norman Angell Lane. He gained fame with %@AI@%The Great Illusion%@AE@%
(1910), in which he proposed that the common economic interests of
nations make war futile. After World War I he worked for a international
cooperation and peace. Knighted in 1931, he was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1933.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angelou, Maya%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angelou, Maya%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGELOU         @%%@QR:Angelou, Maya@% 1928-, black American author; b. St. Louis as Marguerite%@EH@%
Johnson. Although a playwright, poet, and short-story writer, she is best
known for her four-part autobiography (1970-81).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angelus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angelus%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGELUS         @%%@QR:Angelus@% family name and dynasty of Byzantine emperors (1185-1204) Isaac%@EH@%
II, %@AU@%ALEXIUS III%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ALEXIUS IV%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%angina pectoris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%angina pectoris%@AE@%:%@CR:ANGINA.PECTORIS @%%@QR:angina pectoris@% see under %@AU@%CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE%@BO:          237d8d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%angiosperm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%angiosperm%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGIOSPERM      @%%@QR:angiosperm@% plant in which the ovules, or young seeds, are enclosed%@EH@%
within an ovary (that part of a %@AU@%FLOWER%@BO:          33e928@%%@AE@% specialized for seed production),
in contrast to the %@AU@%GYMNOSPERMS%@BO:          3ec417@%%@AE@%. Also known as the flowering plants,
angiosperms have %@AU@%LEAVES%@BO:          53195d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROOTS%@BO:          810b7d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%STEMS%@BO:          8ebe4e@%%@AE@%, and vascular, or conducting
tissue. Constituting the plant division Magnoliophyta, they are divided
into dicotyledons (class Magnoliopsida), which have two seed leaves
(cotyledons) and %@AU@%CAMBIUM%@BO:          1782c7@%%@AE@% tissue in the stems, and monocotyledons (class
Liliatae), which have one seed leaf and generally lack cambium tissue.
The most important plant group economically, angiosperms include all
agricultural crops and cereal %@AU@%GRAINS%@BO:          3c0fe9@%%@AE@%, all garden flowers, and almost all
broad-leaved trees and shrubs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angkor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angkor%@AE@%%@CR:ANGKOR          @%%@QR:Angkor@%, site of several capitals of the %@AU@%KHMER EMPIRE%@BO:          4f5960@%%@AE@%, N of Tonle Sap, NW%@EH@%
%@AU@%CAMBODIA%@BO:          178587@%%@AE@%. The ruins extend over 40 sq mi (104 sq km). The first capital
was established by Yasovarman I (889-900). A new temple complex, %@AB@%Angkor
%@AB@%Wat,%@AE@% was built under Suryavarman II (1113-50). This impressive temple,
surrounded by a vast moat, is approached by a causeway. Its extensive
sculptural ornament exhibits impeccable craftsmanship. In 1177 Angkor was
sacked by the Chams and fell into ruins. Jayavarman VII (1181-c.1218)
established a new capital, %@AB@%Angkor Thom,%@AE@% which was abandoned in 1434. The
ruins, overgrown by jungle, were discovered by the French in 1861.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%angle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%angle%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGLE           @%%@QR:angle@% in mathematics, figure formed by two straight lines meeting at a%@EH@%
point; the point is known as the vertex of the angle, and the lines are
its sides. Angles are commonly measured in degrees ( deg) or in radians.
If the two sides form a single straight line but do not coincide, the
angle is a %@AI@%straight angle,%@AE@% measuring 180 deg or c radians (see %@AU@%PI%@BO:          755ff1@%%@AE@%). If
the sides are perpendicular, i.e., if they form half of a straight angle,
the angle is a %@AI@%right angle,%@AE@% measuring 90 deg or c/2 radians. An %@AI@%acute
%@AI@%angle%@AE@% is greater than 0 deg but less than 90 deg; an %@AI@%obtuse angle%@AE@% is
greater than 90 deg but less than 180 deg; and a %@AI@%reflex angle%@AE@% is greater
than 180 deg. See also %@AU@%TRIGONOMETRY%@BO:          97c6ce@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angles%@AE@%:%@CR:ANGLES          @%%@QR:Angles@% see %@AU@%ANGLO-SAXONS%@BO:           58e42@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anglican Communion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anglican Communion%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGLICAION      @%%@QR:Anglican Communion@% the worldwide body of churches that are in communion%@EH@%
with the Church of England (see %@AU@%ENGLAND, CHURCH OF%@BO:          2ef54b@%%@AE@%). Composed of regional
churches, provinces, and separate dioceses, the Communion is bound
together by mutual loyalty as expressed in the Lambeth Conference of
1930. Member churches include the Protestant Episcopal Church in America
(see %@AU@%EPISCOPAL CHURCH, PROTESTANT%@BO:          2f7bee@%%@AE@%), the Scottish Episcopal Church, the
Church in Wales, and the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania.
Doctrinally all member churches are similar, having a ministry of three
orders: deacons, priests, and bishops. Worship, though varied in form, is
liturgical and sacramental, and regulated by the %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anglo-Saxon Chronicle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anglo-Saxon Chronicle%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGLOSANICLE    @%%@QR:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle@% collective name for English monastic chronicles in%@EH@%
Anglo-Saxon, stemming from a compilation (c.891) of earlier sources
inspired by King %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@%. The account, from the beginning of the Christian
era through 1154, draws on %@AU@%BEDE%@BO:           d9426@%%@AE@% and adds much original material. Mostly
prose, it includes such poems as %@AI@%The Battle of Brunanburh.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anglo-Saxon literature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anglo-Saxon literature%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGLOSARATURE   @%%@QR:Anglo-Saxon literature@% writings in Old English, c.650-1150. Old English%@EH@%
poetry is heroic, drawing on Germanic myth and custom, or Christian.
Nearly all of it survives in only four manuscripts, and it is the
literature closest to Germanic oral sources. %@AI@%Widsith%@AE@% (7th cent.) is an
early example. The epic %@AI@%Beowulf,%@AE@% based on oral sagas, survives in an
8th-cent. Christian version. The elegiac undercurrent in %@AI@%Beowulf%@AE@% is
central to such poems as %@AI@%Deor, The Wanderer,%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Seafarer,%@AE@% which
contrast a happy past with a desolate present. Heroic battles are the
theme of %@AI@%The Battle of Maldon%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Battle of Brunanburh.%@AE@% Of the
Christian poets, %@AU@%CAEDMON%@BO:          16b7fe@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CYNEWULF%@BO:          25aeef@%%@AE@% are known by reputation. %@AI@%The Dream
%@AI@%of the Rood%@AE@% is the earliest dream vision poem in English. Old English
verse is alliterative and unrhymed. Prose was written in Latin before
King %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@%, who had many works translated. The %@AU@%ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE%@BO:           58672@%%@AE@%,
begun in his time, continued for three centuries. Two preeminent prose
writers were AElfric and Wulfstan, authors of homiletic sermons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anglo-Saxons%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anglo-Saxons%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGLOSAXONS     @%%@QR:Anglo-Saxons@% name given to the Germanic-speaking peoples who settled in%@EH@%
England at the decline of Roman rule there. The Angles probably came from
Schleswig late in the 5th cent. and formed foundations for the later
kingdoms of %@AU@%EAST ANGLIA%@BO:          2bd119@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MERCIA%@BO:          5edd6a@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%NORTHUMBRIA%@BO:          6bb06e@%%@AE@%. The Saxons, a Germanic
tribe, settled in England at the same time; the kingdoms of %@AU@%SUSSEX%@BO:          91376f@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ESSEX%@BO:          301c45@%%@AE@% were outgrowths of their settlements. The Jutes, a
tribe probably from the area at the mouth of the Rhine, settled in Kent
and on the Isle of Wight. The term "Anglo-Saxons," denoting non-Celtic
settlers of England, dates from the 16th cent. It is now used more
loosely to denote any people (or their descendants) of the British Isles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angola%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angola%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGOLA          @%%@QR:Angola@% officially People's Republic of Angola, republic (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
8,960,000), 481,351 sq mi (1,246,700 sq km), SW Africa, formerly also
Portuguese West Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (W), Zaire (N),
Zambia (E), and Namibia, South West Africa (S). It includes the province
of %@AU@%CABINDA%@BO:          1688e2@%%@AE@%, on the Atlantic coast, from which it is separated by a strip
of land belonging to Zaire. Major cities include %@AU@%LUANDA%@BO:          579ca0@%%@AE@% (the capital) and
%@AU@%LOBITO%@BO:          55ff26@%%@AE@%. Nearly all of the land is desert or savanna, except for the
densely forested valleys of the northeast and a narrow coastal strip in
the west. The most prominent physical feature is the Bie Plateau (average
altitude, 6,000 ft/1,830 m), which rises abruptly from the coastal
lowland and slopes eastward to the %@AU@%CONGO%@BO:          21fd86@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ZAMBEZI%@BO:          a4d9be@%%@AE@% river basins.
Formerly dependent on agriculture, Angola today receives over two thirds
of its export earnings from oil production, chiefly from reserves
offshore of Cabinda. Diamonds and iron ore are also important. Principal
crops include coffee (the second largest export), sugarcane, corn, and
wheat. Among the leading industries are food processing (notably cereals,
fish, palm oil, and meat) and the manufacture of jute, cotton textiles,
and paper. The population is overwhelmingly black African, and most of
the people speak a Bantu language; the Mbundu are the largest ethnic
group. (The great majority of the estimated 500,000 European residents
left Angola after independence was achieved.) Traditional religious
beliefs prevail, but there is a large minority of Roman Catholics and
other Christians.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The first Portuguese colony in Angola was established in Luanda
in 1575, and, except for a short Dutch occupation (1641-48), Angola
remained under Portuguese control until its independence in 1975. (The
Mbundu kingdom in central Angola was not subjugated by the Portuguese
until 1902). For the Portuguese, Angola was a source of slaves for their
colony in Brazil. Modern industrial development began after World War II,
and Angola was upgraded from its colonial status to an overseas province
in 1951. Repression of the African population continued, and in 1961 a
revolt began. When this failed, guerrilla warfare was undertaken from
neighboring countries, intensifying in the early 1970s, when more than
50,000 Portuguese troops were engaged against the rebels. In 1972 Angola
was made an "autonomous state," and in 1973 elections were held for a
legislative assembly. Independence was proclaimed in Nov. 1975, touching
off a power struggle among rival nationalist groups. Civil war ensued,
and by early 1976 the Popular Liberation Movement of Angola (MPLA),
supported by the USSR and aided by Cuban troops, defeated the
U.S.-supported factions and proclaimed a people's republic. Openly
sympathetic to black nationalist movements, since 1979 Angola has been
the object of military raids by South African troops in %@AU@%NAMIBIA%@BO:          661ef0@%%@AE@% (South
West Africa), ostensibly striking at bases of a guerrilla organization
seeking Namibian independence. In 1988 Cuba, S. Africa, and Angola agreed
in principle to the removal of Cuban troops from Angola and S. African
troops from Namibia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Angstrom, Anders Jons%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Angstrom, Anders Jons%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGSTROM1       @%%@QR:Angstrom, Anders Jons@% 1814-74, Swedish physicist. Noted for his study of%@EH@%
light, especially %@AU@%SPECTRUM%@BO:          8d57ee@%%@AE@% analysis, he mapped the sun's spectrum,
discovered hydrogen in the solar atmosphere, and was the first to examine
the spectrum of the %@AU@%AURORA%@BO:           9e068@%%@AE@% borealis. The length unit %@AU@%ANGSTROM%@BO:           5a226@%%@AE@% is named
for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%angstrom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%angstrom%@AE@%%@CR:ANGSTROM2       @%%@QR:angstrom@%, unit of length equal to 10%@AH@%-10%@AE@% m. It is used to measure the%@EH@%
wavelengths of light and of other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Scientists now prefer to use the nanometer (nm); 1 nm=10 A.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anguilla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anguilla%@AE@%,%@CR:ANGUILLA        @%%@QR:Anguilla@% island (1984 est. pop. 7,000), 35 sq mi (91 sq km), West%@EH@%
Indies, one of the Leeward Islands. Fishing, stock-raising, and salt
production are the principal activities. Formerly part of the associated
state of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, the island seceded in 1967 and
returned to British rule in 1971.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%animal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%animal%@AE@%,%@CR:ANIMAL          @%%@QR:animal@% any member of the animal kingdom (Animalia) as distinguished from%@EH@%
the plant kingdom (Plantae). The major difference between animals and
plants is their method of obtaining nourishment-animals must secure food
as already organized organic substances, while plants manufacture their
own food from inorganic sources (usually by %@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@%). Most animals
have nervous systems, sense organs, and specialized modes of locomotion,
and are adapted for securing, ingesting, and digesting food. Animals and
plants are interdependent: green plants use carbon dioxide and provide
oxygen (a by-product of photosynthesis) and food; animals (and plants)
provide carbon dioxide (through respiration and the decomposition of
their dead bodies). The scientific study of animals is called %@AU@%ZOOLOGY%@BO:          a57189@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%animism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%animism%@AE@%,%@CR:ANIMISM         @%%@QR:animism@% belief that a spirit or force residing in every animate and%@EH@%
inanimate object, every dream and idea, gives individuality to each. The
related Polynesian concept of %@AI@%mana%@AE@% holds that the spirit in all things is
responsible for the good and evil in the universe. See %@AU@%FETISH%@BO:          32c9c6@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SHAMAN%@BO:          87e595@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%TOTEM%@BO:          96d632@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anion%@AE@%:%@CR:ANION           @%%@QR:anion@% see %@AU@%ION%@BO:          492c3f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anise%@AE@%,%@CR:ANISE           @%%@QR:anise@% annual plant (%@AI@%Pimpinella anisum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family, native to%@EH@%
the Mediterranean but widely cultivated for its aromatic and medicinal
qualities. The seedlike fruits (aniseed) are used as flavoring and
provide anise oil, which is used in medicinals, perfumes, beverages, and
dentifrices. Biblical anise is %@AU@%DILL%@BO:          290993@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anjou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anjou%@AE@%%@CR:ANJOU           @%%@QR:Anjou@%, region and former province, W France. Angers, the historic%@EH@%
capital, and Saumur are the chief towns in this fertile lowland traversed
by several rivers. Its vineyards produce renowned wines. Occupied by the
Andecavi, a Gallic people, Anjou was conquered by the Romans and later
(5th cent.) by the %@AU@%FRANKS%@BO:          3588b6@%%@AE@%. By the 10th cent. it was held by the counts of
the first Angevin dynasty; it came under English rule when its ruler
became (1154) king of England as %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% of France seized
(1204) Anjou from the English, and in 1246 %@AU@%LOUIS IX%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France gave it to
his brother, later %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@% of Naples. In 1360 Anjou became a duchy and
in 1487 it was definitively annexed to France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ankara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ankara%@AE@%,%@CR:ANKARA          @%%@QR:Ankara@% city (1985 pop. 2,251,533), capital of Turkey, W central Turkey.%@EH@%
The second largest city in Turkey, it is an administrative, commercial,
and cultural center. Manufactures include processed food and farm
equipment. Grains, vegetables, and fruits are grown nearby. A Hittite
trade center (18th cent. BC), it became (1st cent. AD) the capital of a
Roman province; in the ruins of a temple in Ankara have been found
tablets valuable as a record of %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%' reign. The city fell to the
Ottoman Turks in the 14th cent. It declined in the 19th and 20th cent.,
until Kemal %@AU@%ATATURK%@BO:           93e66@%%@AE@% made it the capital of Turkey in 1923. Ataturk's
massive limestone tomb can be seen from most of the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anna%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNA            @%%@QR:Anna@% 1693-1740, czarina of Russia (1730-40); daughter of Ivan V and%@EH@%
niece of %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@%. She succeeded her cousin Peter II. Allied with Holy
Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES VI%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, she intervened in the War of the %@AU@%POLISH
%@AU@%SUCCESSION%@BO:          7779cc@%%@AE@% (1733-35) and attacked Turkey (1736). Her grandnephew, Ivan
VI, succeeded her.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Annam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Annam%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNAM           @%%@QR:Annam@% historic region (c.58,000 sq mi/150,200 sq km) and former state,%@EH@%
central Vietnam. The region extended nearly 800 mi (1,290 km) along the
South China Sea between Tonkin (N) and Cochin China (S). The capital was
%@AU@%HUE%@BO:          450ccc@%%@AE@%. After more than 2,000 years of contact with the Chinese the peoples
of the Red R. valley came under Chinese rule in 111 BC The Annamese drove
out the Chinese in AD 939 and maintained their independence until the
French conquest in the 19th cent. Conflict between ruling dynasties
dominated this long period, ending with the establishment (1802) of the
empire of %@AU@%VIETNAM%@BO:          9d6182@%%@AE@% by Nguyen-Anh, who had procured French military aid by
ceding the port of %@AU@%DA NANG%@BO:          263c1a@%%@AE@% and the Con Son islands. His authority as
emperor was recognized by the Chinese in 1803. Mistreatment of French
nationals and Vietnamese Christians by his successor provided an excuse
for French military operations, which began in 1858 and resulted in the
establishment of the French colony of %@AU@%COCHIN CHINA%@BO:          1fd5be@%%@AE@% and the protectorates
of %@AU@%TONKIN%@BO:          96971c@%%@AE@% and Annam. The three territories were occupied by the Japanese
during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. After an independence struggle against the French,
most of Annam became part of South Vietnam in 1954; the rest went to
North Vietnam. Annam was incorporated into united Vietnam after the
%@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Annapolis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Annapolis%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNAPOLIS       @%%@QR:Annapolis@% city (1986 est. pop. 33,360), state capital and seat of Anne%@EH@%
Arundel co., central Md., on the Severn R. It is a port of entry and a
farm-produce shipping center with seafood and boat-building industries.
Settled in 1649, it has a rich history, including a period (1783-84) as
the capital of the U.S.; it has been Maryland's capital since 1694. The
city has many 18th-cent. buildings and is the site of the U.S. Naval
Academy and St. John's College.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Annapolis Convention%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Annapolis Convention%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNAPOLNTION    @%%@QR:Annapolis Convention@% 1786, interstate convention to discuss U.S.%@EH@%
commerce, held at Annapolis, Md. Its call for a meeting to discuss
changes in the Articles of %@AU@%CONFEDERATION%@BO:          21dd53@%%@AE@% brought about the %@AU@%FEDERAL
%@AU@%CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Annapolis Royal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Annapolis Royal%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNAPOLIS.ROYAL @%%@QR:Annapolis Royal@% town (1986 pop. 631), W Nova Scotia, E Canada, on the%@EH@%
Annapolis R. One of Canada's oldest settlements, it was founded as Port
Royal by the French in 1605, destroyed (1613) by the British, and rebuilt
to become the chief town of French %@AU@%ACADIA%@BO:            913e@%%@AE@%. Often fought over in the 1600s
by the English and the French, it was finally taken (1710) by colonists
from New England and renamed in honor of Queen Anne. The ruins of its
fort are in Fort Anne Historic National Park.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ann Arbor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ann Arbor%@AE@%,%@CR:ANN.ARBOR       @%%@QR:Ann Arbor@% city (1986 est. pop. 107,810), seat of Washtenaw co., S Mich.,%@EH@%
on the Huron R.; settled 1824, inc. 1851. It is a research and
educational center, with government and industrial research firms and the
huge Univ. of Michigan. Products include lasers, computers, and precision
machinery. The city is also a medical center with several hospitals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anne%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNE1           @%%@QR:Anne@% 1665-1714, queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1702-7), later%@EH@%
queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1707-14); daughter of %@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%;
successor to %@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%. The last %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8fe31b@%%@AE@% ruler and a devout Protestant,
in 1683 she married Prince George of Denmark. Her reign was one of
transition to parliamentary government, but intrigue and the queen's
favor could still make and unmake cabinets. The dominant event was the
War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@% (1702-13). Despite victories won by the
duke of %@AU@%MARLBOROUGH%@BO:          5be6d7@%%@AE@% (whose wife was long a favorite of the queen), the
war's high cost caused political friction. None of Anne's children
survived her, and by the Act of %@AU@%SETTLEMENT%@BO:          8747df@%%@AE@% (1701) %@AU@%GEORGE I%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@% succeeded her.
Despite her personal mediocrity, Anne's reign was marked by intellectual
awakening, the popularization of Palladian architecture, and the growth
of parliamentary government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anne%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNE2           @%%@QR:Anne@% 1950-, British princess; daughter of %@AU@%ELIZABETH II%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%. In 1973 she%@EH@%
married a British army officer, Mark Phillips. They have two children.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%annealing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%annealing%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNEALING       @%%@QR:annealing@% process in which glass, metals, and other materials are%@EH@%
treated to render them less brittle and more workable. The material is
heated and then cooled very slowly and uniformly, with the time and
temperature set according to the properties desired. Annealing increases
ductility and relieves internal strains that lead to failures in service.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anne Boleyn, queen of England%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anne Boleyn, queen of England%@AE@%:%@CR:ANNE.BOLEYN     @%%@QR:Anne Boleyn, queen of England@% see %@AU@% BOLEYN, ANNE%@BO:          119162@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%annelid worm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%annelid worm%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNELID.WORM    @%%@QR:annelid worm@% member of the phylum Annelida, which includes the%@EH@%
%@AU@%EARTHWORMS%@BO:          2bcf41@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LEECHES%@BO:          536fd7@%%@AE@%, and marine worms. Also called segmented worms; they
are soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical, and segmented. Distributed
worldwide, they live in protected habitats, often in tubes manufactured
by their own secretions. Reproduction is sexual or asexual; some species
are %@AU@%HERMAPHRODITES%@BO:          424160@%%@AE@%. They range from 1/32 in. (0.5 mm) to 10 ft (3 m) in
length.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anne of Austria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anne of Austria%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNE.OF.AUSTRIA @%%@QR:Anne of Austria@% 1601-66, queen consort of France. The daughter of %@AU@%PHILIP%@EH@%
%@AU@%III%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of Spain, she married (1615) the French king %@AU@%LOUIS XIII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% and gained
the enmity of Cardinal %@AU@%RICHELIEU%@BO:          7f190c@%%@AE@%, Louis's chief minister. As regent
(1643-51) for her son %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%, she entrusted the government to Cardinal
%@AU@%MAZARIN%@BO:          5dbe85@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anne of Brittany%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anne of Brittany%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNE.OFY        @%%@QR:Anne of Brittany@% 1477-1514, queen of France, consort of %@AU@%CHARLES VIII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1491-98) and %@AU@%LOUIS XII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% (1499-1514). As duchess of Brittany from 1488,
she tried to preserve independence from France by marrying by proxy
(1490) Maximilian of Austria (later Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%MAXIMILIAN I%@BO:          5d9116@%%@AE@%).
Besieged (1491) by the French, she was forced to annul her marriage and
to wed Charles VIII. Widowed in 1498, she then married Louis XII, and
Brittany was eventually incorporated (1532) by France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anne of Cleves%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anne of Cleves%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNE.OF.CLEVES  @%%@QR:Anne of Cleves@% 1515-57, fourth queen consort of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England.%@EH@%
She was the daughter of a powerful German Protestant prince, and Henry
married her in 1540 for political reasons. Finding her dull and
unattractive, he divorced her that same year.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anne of Denmark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anne of Denmark%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNE.OF.DENMARK @%%@QR:Anne of Denmark@% 1574-1619, queen consort of %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% of England.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%annexation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%annexation%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNEXATION      @%%@QR:annexation@% in international law, formal act by which a state asserts its%@EH@%
sovereignty over a territory previously outside its jurisdiction. It also
describes the process by which municipalities in the U.S. extend their
legal control over surrounding areas. Under the UN charter,
self-determination by inhabitants of a territory is the only basis for
transfer of sovereignty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%annual%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%annual%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNUAL          @%%@QR:annual@% plant that propagates itself by seed and undergoes its entire%@EH@%
life cycle within one growing season, as distinguished from a %@AU@%BIENNIAL%@BO:           f93c9@%%@AE@% or
%@AU@%PERENNIAL%@BO:          733dc1@%%@AE@%. Some cultivated annuals will blossom during a season only if
started under glass and set out as young plants; others bloom where sown.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%annual rings%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%annual rings%@AE@%,%@CR:ANNUAL.RINGS    @%%@QR:annual rings@% growth layers of %@AU@%WOOD%@BO:          a2e197@%%@AE@% produced yearly in the stems and%@EH@%
roots of trees and shrubs. When well-marked alteration of seasons occurs
(e.g., either cold and warm or wet and dry), a sharp contrast exists
between the early- and late-season growth-the wood cells are larger
earlier when growing conditions are better. In uniform climates, there is
little visible difference between annual rings. The number of annual
rings reflects the age of a tree; the thickness of each ring reflects
environmental and climatic conditions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Annunzio, Gabriele D'%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Annunzio, Gabriele D'%@AE@%:%@CR:ANNUNZIO        @%%@QR:Annunzio, Gabriele D'@% see %@AU@%D'ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE%@BO:          265b45@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anode%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anode%@AE@%:%@CR:ANODE           @%%@QR:anode@% see %@AU@%ELECTRODE%@BO:          2d7836@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anointing of the sick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anointing of the sick%@AE@%,%@CR:ANOINTIE.SICK   @%%@QR:anointing of the sick@% %@AU@%SACRAMENT%@BO:          82c65b@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH%@BO:          6f08b3@%%@AE@% and the%@EH@%
%@AU@%ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH%@BO:          806faa@%%@AE@%; formerly known as %@AB@%extreme unction.%@AE@% In it a person
who is in danger of death is anointed on the eyes, ears, nostrils, lips,
hands, and feet by a priest while he recites absolutions for sins. In the
Eastern churches it is normally given by three priests and maybe
administered to the healthy to prevent sickness.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anomie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anomie%@AE@%,%@CR:ANOMIE          @%%@QR:anomie@% a social condition characterized by instability, the breakdown of%@EH@%
social norms, institutional disorganization, and a divorce between
socially valid goals and available means for achieving them. Introduced
into sociology by Emile %@AU@%DURKHEIM%@BO:          2b5e31@%%@AE@% in his study %@AI@%Suicide%@AE@% (1897), anomie also
refers to the psychological condition-of rootlessness, futility, anxiety,
and amorality-afflicting individuals who live under such conditions. The
importance of anomie as a cause of deviant behavior received further
elaboration by Robert K. %@AU@%MERTON%@BO:          5f0731@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anorexia nervosa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anorexia nervosa%@AE@%:%@CR:ANOREXIA        @%%@QR:anorexia nervosa@% see %@AU@%EATING DISORDERS%@BO:          2bf6e6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anouilh, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anouilh, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:ANOUILH         @%%@QR:Anouilh, Jean@%, 1910-87, French dramatist. His works contrast romantic%@EH@%
dreams with harsh reality. Among his dramas are %@AI@%Antigone%@AE@% (1944), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Waltz of the Toreadors%@AE@% (1952), and %@AI@%Becket%@AE@% (1959).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anselm, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anselm, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:ANSELM          @%%@QR:Anselm, Saint@% 1033?-1109, Italian prelate, archbishop of Canterbury,%@EH@%
Doctor of the Church. He succeeded (1093) his friend %@AU@%LANFRANC%@BO:          51f970@%%@AE@% as
archbishop of Canterbury. In England, he quarreled with %@AU@%WILLIAM II%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%HENRY I%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% over lay %@AU@%INVESTITURE%@BO:          491c94@%%@AE@% and was exiled twice. An influential
theologian, he was a founder of %@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@%. His famous ontological
proof deduces God's existence from man's notion of a perfect being in
whom nothing is lacking. Feast: Apr. 21.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anshan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anshan%@AE@%,%@CR:ANSHAN          @%%@QR:Anshan@% city (1986 est. pop. 1,280,000) central Liaoning prov., NE China,%@EH@%
on the South Manchurian RR. Its huge integrated iron and steel complex is
one of the largest in China. Other manufactures include machinery,
chemicals, and construction materials.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ansky, Shloime%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ansky, Shloime%@AE@%,%@CR:ANSKY           @%%@QR:Ansky, Shloime@% pseud. of %@AB@%Solomon Seinwil Rapoport,%@AE@% 1863-1920, Russian%@EH@%
Yiddish author. He incorporated folk elements into his stories of
peasants and %@AU@%HASIDIM%@BO:          405eae@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%The Dybbuk%@AE@% (1916), a tale of demonic
possession.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ant%@AE@%,%@CR:ANT             @%%@QR:ant@% %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% (family Formicidae) belonging to the same order as the %@AU@%BEE%@BO:           d9bc8@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and %@AU@%WASP%@BO:          9f7269@%%@AE@%. Ants have a narrow stalk joining the abdomen and thorax, and
biting mouthparts (sometimes used for defense). Some ants have stings,
and some can spray poison from the end of the abdomen. All ants show some
degree of social organization; many nest in a system of tunnels in the
soil, in constructed mounds, or in wood. Ant colonies usually include
three castes: winged, fertile females; wingless, infertile females, or
workers; and winged males. In some species workers may become soldiers or
other specialized types. Army ants travel in columns, overrunning and
devouring any animals in their path; fire ants are stinging ants that are
serious pests in parts of the S U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antakya%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antakya%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTAKYA         @%%@QR:Antakya@% see %@AU@%ANTIOCH%@BO:           65485@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antananarivo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antananarivo%@AE@%%@CR:ANTANANARIVO    @%%@QR:Antananarivo@% or %@AB@%Tananarive,%@AE@%city (1985 est. pop. 662,585), capital of%@EH@%
Madagascar. The country's largest city and economic and communications
center, it is a productive agricultural region whose main crop is rice. A
railroad connects the city with Tamatave, the chief port. Manufactures
include meat products and cigarettes. Founded c.1625, it became (1797)
the residence of the Merina rulers. It was taken by the French in 1895.
Today it is a modern city, built on a ridge; at its top stands the old
royal residence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antarctica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antarctica%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTARCTICA      @%%@QR:Antarctica@% 5th largest continent, c.5,500,000 sq mi (14,245,000 sq km),%@EH@%
asymmetrically centered on the %@AU@%SOUTH POLE%@BO:          8c3735@%%@AE@% and located almost entirely S
of the %@AU@%ANTARCTIC CIRCLE%@BO:           5fe40@%%@AE@% (66 deg 30'S). It consists of two major regions:
W Antarctica, including the mountainous Antarctic Peninsula, which is
structurally related to the %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@% of South America and connected to them
by way of the Scotia Arc (South Georgia, South Orkney, and South Sandwich
islands); and E Antarctica, a continental shield area (see %@AU@%PLATE
%@AU@%TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%) with a rock surface near sea level. These two regions are
joined into a single continental mass by an ice cap up to 13,000 ft
(4,000 m) thick that covers more than 95% of Antarctica. Vinson Massif
(16,066 ft/4,897 m) is the continent's highest peak. Great ice shelves up
to 4,000 ft (1,220 m) thick block the %@AU@%ROSS%@BO:          815604@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WEDDELL%@BO:          a022a9@%%@AE@% seas, and a belt
of nearly continuous pack ice surrounds the rest of the continent. Summer
temperatures (Jan.) are unlikely to be warmer than 0 degF (-18 degC);
winter mean temperatures are -70 degF (-57 degC). Roald %@AU@%AMUNDSEN%@BO:           4fa76@%%@AE@% was the
first explorer to reach the South Pole on Dec. 14, 1911, followed by R.F.
%@AU@%SCOTT%@BO:          8612e3@%%@AE@% on Jan. 18, 1912. The first to fly over the pole was Richard E.
%@AU@%BYRD%@BO:          163b49@%%@AE@%, on Nov. 29, 1929. The success of international scientific
cooperation in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY)
of 1957-58 led to the signing (1959) of the Antarctic Treaty, which
prohibits military operations, nuclear explosions, and the disposal of
radioactive wastes south of latitude 60 degS, exclusive of the high seas.
See map in separate section. In 1985, 32 nations signed an agreement
limiting human access to research zones in Antarctica.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antarctic Circle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antarctic Circle%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTARCTE        @%%@QR:Antarctic Circle@% imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg 30'S%@EH@%
lat., marking the southernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the
summer %@AU@%SOLSTICE%@BO:          8b4d8a@%%@AE@% (about June 22) and the northernmost point of the
southern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antarctic peninsula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antarctic peninsula%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTARCTSULA     @%%@QR:Antarctic peninsula@% glaciated mountain region of W %@AU@%ANTARCTICA%@BO:           5f5e2@%%@AE@%, extending%@EH@%
c.1,200 mi (1,930 km) north toward South America. It was originally named
Palmer Land for Nathaniel Palmer, a U.S. captain who explored the region
in 1820. The British claimed the peninsula in 1832 and it was later
claimed by Argentina (1940) and by Chile (1942). In 1964, by
international agreement it was named the Antarctic Peninsula.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anteater%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anteater%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTEATER        @%%@QR:anteater@% toothless %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of three genera of the order Edentata found in%@EH@%
tropical Central and South America. It feeds on ants, termites, and other
insects. The great anteater, or ant bear (%@AI@%Myrmecophaga%@AE@%), has an elongated
snout, a coarse-haired body about 4 ft (1.2 m) long, and a long, broad
tail; the arboreal collared, or lesser, anteater (%@AI@%Tamandua%@AE@%) is less than
half the size of the great anteater; and the arboreal two-toed anteater
(%@AI@%Cyclopes%@AE@%) is about the size of a squirrel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antelope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antelope%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTELOPE        @%%@QR:antelope@% any of various hoofed ruminant %@AU@%MAMMALS%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%CATTLE%@BO:          1a63a4@%%@AE@% family.%@EH@%
True antelopes are found only in Africa and Asia. Antelopes usually stand
3-4 ft (90-120 cm) at the shoulder, but range from the 12-in. (30-cm)
pygmy antelope to the 6-ft (180-cm) giant eland. Antelope horns, unlike
%@AU@%DEER%@BO:          275a2e@%%@AE@% horns, are unbranched and are not shed. Species of antelope include
the bushbuck, with its spiral horns and oxlike body; the addax, a large
desert antelope of N Africa; the horselike oryx, found in Africa and
Arabia; the %@AU@%GNU%@BO:          3ad030@%%@AE@% and its close relative the hartebeest, a swift, horselike
animal with U-shaped horns; and the %@AU@%GAZELLE%@BO:          386d10@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antenna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antenna%@AE@%%@CR:ANTENNA         @%%@QR:antenna@% or %@AB@%aerial,%@AE@%system of wires or other conductors used to transmit or%@EH@%
receive radio or other electromagnetic waves (see %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TELEVISION%@BO:          93a2aa@%%@AE@%). In
a transmitting antenna, the signal from an %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% causes
electrons in the antenna to oscillate; these moving electric charges
generate %@AU@%ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION%@BO:          2d8706@%%@AE@%, which is then transmitted through
space. The distribution pattern of the transmitted wave depends on the
design of the antenna; radio broadcast-station antennas are frequently
designed to emit waves in all directions, whereas those used for %@AU@%RADAR%@BO:          7c0fb6@%%@AE@%
and for certain communication systems focus the waves in a single
direction. In a receiving antenna, electromagnetic waves cause the
electrons in the antenna to oscillate, inducing a signal that can be
detected by an electric circuit. In general, a longer antenna is used to
transmit or receive signals of longer wavelengths. Theoretically, the
same antenna can be used both for sending and for receiving signals, but
in practice, transmitting antennas are constructed to handle higher power
loads than receiving antennas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antheil, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antheil, George%@AE@%%@CR:ANTHEIL         @%%@QR:Antheil, George@%, 1900-1959, American composer; b. Trenton, N.J. His early%@EH@%
work reveals the influence of %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%. In 1927 a performance of his %@AI@%Ballet
%@AI@%mecanique,%@AE@% scored for player piano, car horns, airplane propellers, etc.,
caused a furor in New York City. Other works include the opera
%@AI@%Transatlantic%@AE@% (1930), symphonies, and film scores.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anthem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anthem%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTHEM          @%%@QR:anthem@% short nonliturgical choral composition used in Protestant%@EH@%
services, usually accompanied and with an English text. Early anthems,
which arose in the Anglican Church, included those by Thomas Tallis and
William %@AU@%BYRD%@BO:          1640e3@%%@AE@%. In the 17th cent. Henry %@AU@%PURCELL%@BO:          7b1360@%%@AE@% and John Blow wrote anthems
including solo parts (%@AI@%verse anthems%@AE@%); G.F. %@AU@%HANDEL%@BO:          3faaa8@%%@AE@% composed %@AI@%full anthems,%@AE@%
for voice only. The term %@AI@%anthem%@AE@% also means "national anthem," e.g., The
%@AU@%STAR-SPANGLED BANNER%@BO:          8e5498@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anthony, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anthony, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTHONY1        @%%@QR:Anthony, Saint@% 251?-c.350, Egyptian hermit. Living in seclusion, he%@EH@%
resisted the many temptations of the devil. A colony of hermits grew up
about him, and he ruled them as a community before going away to the
desert. He was the father of Christian %@AU@%MONASTICISM%@BO:          62854c@%%@AE@%. Feast: Jan. 17.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anthony, Marc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anthony, Marc%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTHONY2        @%%@QR:Anthony, Marc@% see %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anthony, Susan B(rownell)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anthony, Susan B(rownell)%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTHONY3        @%%@QR:Anthony, Susan B(rownell)@% 1820-1906, American leader of the %@AU@%WOMAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%SUFFRAGE%@BO:          a2d595@%%@AE@% movement; b. Adams, Mass. She organized the first women's
temperance association, the Daughters of Temperance, and with Elizabeth
Cady %@AU@%STANTON%@BO:          8e3606@%%@AE@% secured the first laws in New York guaranteeing women rights
over their children and control of property and wages. In 1863 she was
coorganizer of the Women's Loyal League to support Lincoln's government,
but after the Civil War she opposed granting suffrage to freedmen without
also giving it to women. She was president (1892-1900) of the National
American Woman Suffrage Association and helped compile vols. 1-3 of %@AI@%The
%@AI@%History of Woman Suffrage%@AE@% (1881-86).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anthrax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anthrax%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTHRAX         @%%@QR:anthrax@% infectious disease of animals that can be transmitted from%@EH@%
animals to humans through contact or the inhalation of spores. Primarily
affecting sheep, horses, hogs, cattle, and goats, anthrax is usually
restricted to people who handle hides of animals (e.g., farmers,
butchers, and veterinarians) or sort wool. The disease, usually fatal to
animals but not humans, is caused by %@AI@%Bacillus anthracis,%@AE@% discovered by
Robert %@AU@%KOCH%@BO:          50670c@%%@AE@% in 1876. Louis %@AU@%PASTEUR%@BO:          71ec94@%%@AE@% developed a method of vaccinating
sheep and cattle against anthrax, and the disease is now relatively rare
in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anthropological linguistics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anthropological linguistics%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTHROPTICS     @%%@QR:anthropological linguistics@% study of the relationship between language%@EH@%
and %@AU@%CULTURE%@BO:          254507@%%@AE@%, often focusing on cultures with no written language, e.g.,
American Indians. The precise relationship of language to culture is,
however, a subject of controversy. See also %@AU@%ANTHROPOLOGY%@BO:           61e36@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%LINGUISTICS%@BO:          556886@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anthropology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anthropology%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTHROPOLOGY    @%%@QR:anthropology@% study of the origin, development, and varieties of human%@EH@%
beings and their societies. Emerging as an independent science in the
late 18th cent., it developed two divisions: physical anthropology, which
focuses on human %@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@% and variation (see %@AU@%RACE%@BO:          7bfaee@%%@AE@%), using methods of
%@AU@%PHYSIOLOGY%@BO:          755de9@%%@AE@%, anthropometry, %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%; and cultural
anthropology (see %@AU@%CULTURE%@BO:          254507@%%@AE@%), which includes %@AU@%ARCHAEOLOGY%@BO:           75236@%%@AE@%, ethnology, social
anthropology, and %@AU@%LINGUISTICS%@BO:          556886@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antianxiety drug%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antianxiety drug%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIANXG        @%%@QR:antianxiety drug@% drug administered for the relief of %@AU@%ANXIETY%@BO:           68750@%%@AE@%; in larger%@EH@%
doses, antianxiety drugs produce sleep, sedation, and anesthesia. Those
frequently prescribed in the U.S. include diazepam (Valium),
chlordiazepoxide (Librium), and meprobamate (Miltown). Side effects
include drowsiness and, with prolonged use, possible dependence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antibiotic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antibiotic%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIBIOTIC      @%%@QR:antibiotic@% any of a variety of substances, usually obtained from%@EH@%
microorganisms, that inhibit the growth of or destroy certain other
microorganisms. The foundation for the development and understanding of
antibiotics was laid during the 19th cent. when Louis %@AU@%PASTEUR%@BO:          71ec94@%%@AE@% proved that
one species of microorganism can kill another and Paul %@AU@%EHRLICH%@BO:          2d09f6@%%@AE@% developed
the idea of selective toxicity: that a specific substance can be toxic to
some organisms, e.g., infectious bacteria, but harmless to others, e.g.,
human hosts. Further pioneering work in the 20th cent. by Alexander
%@AU@%FLEMING%@BO:          33acf1@%%@AE@%, Rene %@AU@%DUBOS%@BO:          2aff31@%%@AE@%, and Selman %@AU@%WAKSMAN%@BO:          9e9a64@%%@AE@% led to the discovery of
%@AU@%PENICILLIN%@BO:          72cacf@%%@AE@% (1939) and streptomycin (1944). Mass production of antibiotic
drugs began during World War II with streptomycin and penicillin. Today
antibiotics are produced by various methods, including staged
fermentation in huge tanks of nutrient media, synthesis in the
laboratory, and chemical modification of natural substances. Antibiotics
can be classified according to chemical structure, microbial origin, mode
of action, or effective range. The tetracyclines are broad-spectrum
drugs, effective against a wide range of bacteria (both gram-positive and
gram-negative; see %@AU@%GRAM'S STAIN%@BO:          3c2383@%%@AE@%), rickettsias, and the psittacosis %@AU@%VIRUS%@BO:          9de468@%%@AE@%.
The antibiotics bacitracin, penicillin, the erythromycins, and the
cephalosporins work primarily against Gram-positive organisms. Polymyxins
and other narrow-range antibiotics are effective against only a few
species. Antibiotic drugs may be injected, given orally, or applied to
the skin. Some, like penicillin, are allergenic and can cause rashes or
shock. Others, like the tetracylines, can alter the intestinal
environment, encouraging superinfection by fungi or other microorganisms.
Many antibiotics are less effective than formerly because resistant
strains of microorganisms have evolved. Antibiotics have been used to
enhance the growth of animals used as food, but some authorities question
the practice because it encourages the development of resistant strains
of bacteria infecting animals, and because continuous low exposure to
antibiotics can sensitize human beings, making them unable to take such
drugs later to treat infection.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antibody%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antibody%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTIBODY        @%%@QR:antibody@% see %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antichrist%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antichrist%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTICHRIST      @%%@QR:Antichrist@% in Christian belief, a person who will lead the forces of%@EH@%
evil on earth against the forces of Christ. He will be destroyed by
Christ at the Second Coming (1 John 2.18-22; 4.3; 2 John 7; and Rev. 13).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anticline%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anticline%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTICLINE       @%%@QR:anticline@% see %@AU@%FOLD%@BO:          341329@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anticoagulant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anticoagulant%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTICOAGULANT   @%%@QR:anticoagulant@% substance, such as heparin or derivatives of coumarin,%@EH@%
that inhibits blood clotting. Anticoagulants are used to treat blood
clots in leg and pelvic veins, in order to reduce the risk of the clots
traveling and obstructing blood flow to vital organs (e.g., the heart and
lungs) and causing %@AU@%THROMBOSIS%@BO:          9569ff@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%STROKE%@BO:          8fcd44@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anti-Corn-Law League%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anti-Corn-Law League%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTICORGUE      @%%@QR:Anti-Corn-Law League@% organization formed in 1839 to work for repeal of%@EH@%
the English %@AU@%CORN LAWS%@BO:          23759f@%%@AE@%. Its leading figures were Richard %@AU@%COBDEN%@BO:          1fc931@%%@AE@% and John
%@AU@%BRIGHT%@BO:          13e193@%%@AE@%. The laws were repealed in 1846.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antidepressant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antidepressant%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIDEPRESSANT  @%%@QR:antidepressant@% drug used to treat psychic depression. Antidepressants,%@EH@%
such as imipramine, are given to elevate mood, counter suicidal thoughts,
and increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, although the exact
mechanisms of their action are unknown. Side effects include dry mouth,
dizziness, and fatigue. See also %@AU@%LITHIUM%@BO:          55a57b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antietam campaign%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antietam campaign%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIETAGN       @%%@QR:Antietam campaign@% Sept. 1862, in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. Attempting to%@EH@%
invade Maryland and Pennsylvania, R.E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% sent Stonewall %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4ab6a8@%%@AE@% to
capture Harpers Ferry, which fell on Sept. 15. Lee's own advance was
halted by %@AU@%MCCLELLAN%@BO:          58811c@%%@AE@%, who attacked him at Antietam Creek, Md., on Sept.
17, the bloodiest day of the war. It was a Union victory only in that
Lee's advance was stopped.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anti-Federalists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anti-Federalists%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIFEDERALISTS @%%@QR:Anti-Federalists@% in U.S. history, the opponents to the adoption of the%@EH@%
Federal %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@%. Leading Anti-Federalists included George Mason,
Elbridge Gerry, Patrick Henry, and George Clinton, and later, supporters
of states' rights. Under Pres. Washington, many opposed the policies of
the %@AU@%FEDERALIST PARTY%@BO:          32412f@%%@AE@% and Alexander Hamilton. Under Thomas Jefferson's
leadership, they formed the core of the opposition party, known as the
Democratic-Republican Party, subsequently the %@AU@%DEMOCRATIC PARTY%@BO:          27d8af@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antifreeze%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antifreeze%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIFREEZE      @%%@QR:antifreeze@% substance added to a solvent to lower its freezing point.%@EH@%
Antifreeze is typically added to water in the cooling system of internal
combustion engines so that it may be cooled below the freezing point of
pure water (32 deg F or 0 deg C) without freezing. Automotive antifreezes
include ethylene glycol (the most widely used), methanol, ethanol,
isopropyl alcohol, and propylene glycol.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antigen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antigen%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTIGEN         @%%@QR:antigen@% see %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antigone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antigone%@AE@%%@CR:ANTIGONE        @%%@QR:Antigone@%, in Greek legend, daughter of %@AU@%OEDIPUS%@BO:          6cf262@%%@AE@%. When her brothers%@EH@%
Eteocles and Polynices killed each other, Creon, king of %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94ac71@%%@AE@%, forbade
the rebel Polynices' burial. Antigone disobeyed him, performed the rites,
and was condemned to death. %@AU@%SOPHOCLES%@BO:          8ba3a2@%%@AE@% tells her story in %@AI@%Antigone%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antigua%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antigua%@AE@%%@CR:ANTIGUA         @%%@QR:Antigua@% or %@AB@%Antigua Guatemala,%@AE@%town (1983 est. pop. 26,631), S central%@EH@%
Guatemala. Now a trading center in a coffee-growing area, it was once the
capital of Spanish Guatemala and, in the 16th cent., one of the richest
cities in the New World. Antigua was founded in 1542, after a flood and
earthquake destroyed the earlier capital, Ciudad Vieja, but was itself
leveled by earthquakes in 1773. The capital was then moved to %@AU@%GUATEMALA%@BO:          3e29f1@%%@AE@%
City. Today Antigua is a major tourist center with fine Spanish
buildings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antigua and Barbuda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antigua and Barbuda%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIGUABUDA     @%%@QR:Antigua and Barbuda@% island nation (1986 est. pop. 81,500), 171 sq mi%@EH@%
(442 sq km), West Indies, in the Leeward Islands. It consists of Antigua
(108 sq mi/280 sq km) and two smaller islands, sparsely populated Barbuda
and uninhabited Redonda. The capital is St. John's. Antigua is a hilly
island with farms that grow mainly sugarcane and cotton. The population
is predominantly of black African origin. The island was discovered by
Christopher %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% in 1493. Following brief periods under the Spanish
and French, it was successfully settled in 1632 by the British, who
introduced sugar planting; the industry declined with the abolition of
slavery in 1834. Antigua, with Barbuda and Redonda as dependencies,
became an associated state of the Commonwealth in 1967 and achieved full
independence in 1981. The U.S. maintains two military bases there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antihistamine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antihistamine%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTIHISTAMINE   @%%@QR:antihistamine@% see %@AU@%ALLERGY%@BO:           3e65e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HISTAMINE%@BO:          4321b7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antilles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antilles%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTILLES        @%%@QR:Antilles@% see %@AU@%WEST INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anti-Masonic party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anti-Masonic party%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIMASTY       @%%@QR:Anti-Masonic party@% American political party founded to counter the%@EH@%
supposed political influence of %@AU@%FREEMASONRY%@BO:          35d8dc@%%@AE@%. It arose in W New York state
after the disappearance (1826) of William Morgan, a former Mason who had
written a book purporting to reveal Masonic secrets. Freemasons were
said, without proof, to have murdered him. At Baltimore, in 1831,
Anti-Masons held the first national nominating convention of any party,
and issued the first written party platform. In 1834 they helped form the
%@AU@%WHIG PARTY%@BO:          a109c5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antimatter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antimatter%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIMATTER      @%%@QR:antimatter@% material composed of antiparticles, which correspond to%@EH@%
ordinary protons, electrons, and neutrons but have the opposite
electrical charge and magnetic moment. When matter and antimatter
collide, both may be annihilated, and other %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLES%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@%, such as
photons and pions, are produced. In 1932 Carl D. Anderson, while studying
cosmic rays, discovered the positron, or antielectron, the first known
antiparticle. Any antimatter in our part of the universe is necessarily
very short-lived because of the overwhelming preponderance of ordinary
matter, by which the antimatter is quickly annihilated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antimony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antimony%@AE@%%@CR:ANTIMONY        @%%@QR:antimony@% (Sb), semimetallic element, first described by Nicolas Lemery in%@EH@%
1707. Silvery blue-white, brittle, and easily powdered, it conducts heat
and electricity poorly. Chief uses are as alloys and compounds in storage
batteries, cable sheathing, and paint pigments. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antinuclear movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antinuclear movement%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTINUCEMENT    @%%@QR:antinuclear movement@% coalition of those opposed to the production of%@EH@%
nuclear weapons and, to a lesser extent, nuclear power plants. With
origins in the Ban the Bomb campaign of the late 1950s and the
environmental movement of the late 1960s, the current movement emerged
after the %@AU@%THREE MILE ISLAND%@BO:          9565cc@%%@AE@% Nuclear Station accident (1979) and U.S.
planned deployment of new medium-range missiles in Western Europe (1981).
Major demonstrations occurred in Europe and the U.S. An antinuclear peace
rally (N.Y.C.; 1982) drew nearly 1 million people. In 1985, the
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War was awarded
the Nobel Peace Prize. Related organizations include SANE: A Citizens'
Organization for a Sane World, Physicians for Social Responsibility, and
the Union of Concerned Scientists. See also %@AU@%DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR%@BO:          29478e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antioch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antioch%@AE@%%@CR:ANTIOCH         @%%@QR:Antioch@% or %@AB@%Antakya,%@AE@%city (1980 pop. 94,942), S Turkey, on the Orontes R.,%@EH@%
near the Mediterranean Sea. It is a trade center for a farm area where
grains, cotton, and vegetables are grown. Founded (c.300 BC) by %@AU@%SELEUCUS
%@AU@%I%@BO:          86a3bc@%%@AE@%, king of ancient Syria, it was a military, commercial, and cultural
center under Rome and an early center of Christianity. It fell (AD 637)
to the Arabs but was retaken (1098) by the Crusaders and became a
powerful principality under %@AU@%BOHEMOND I%@BO:          117760@%%@AE@%. It later became (1516) part of
the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%, was incorporated into the French mandate of Syria
after World War I, and was restored to Turkey in 1939. Many important
archaeological finds have been made in or near the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antiochus I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antiochus I%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIOCHUS.I     @%%@QR:Antiochus I@% 324-261 BC, Seleucid emperor. The son of %@AU@%ALEXANDER'S%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% general%@EH@%
%@AU@%SELEUCUS%@BO:          86a3bc@%%@AE@%, he acceded to the throne in 281. He made peace with Macedonia,
but lost territories in Asia Minor to Egypt in wars (274-71; 263-61). He
led (273) a successful campaign against Gallic invaders in Asia Minor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antiochus III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antiochus III%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIOCHUS.III   @%%@QR:Antiochus III@% c.242-187 BC, Seleucid emperor, known as Antiochus the%@EH@%
Great. Succeeding (223) his father, Seleucus II, he conquered Parthia,
Bactria, Syria, and Palestine, entered into an alliance with %@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@% of
Macedonia, and invaded Thrace. He also gave refuge to %@AU@%HANNIBAL%@BO:          3fbbe1@%%@AE@% and
aroused the enmity of Rome, which checked his western expansion in
battles at Thermopylae and Magnesia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antiochus IV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antiochus IV%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIOCHUS.IV    @%%@QR:Antiochus IV@% c.215-163 BC, known as Antiochus Epiphanes. Son of%@EH@%
Antiochus II, he became king in 175. He is remembered for his infamous
attempt to impose Hellenic culture on Judea, which instigated the
Maccabean (see %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%) Revolt (167). His preemptive war against
Ptolemaic Egypt in 169-68 was lost by the intervention of Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antiparticle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antiparticle%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTIPARTICLE    @%%@QR:antiparticle@% see %@AU@%ANTIMATTER%@BO:           64b78@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antipas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antipas%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIPAS         @%%@QR:Antipas@% in the Bible: see %@AU@%HEROD%@BO:          4255a2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antipater%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antipater%@AE@%%@CR:ANTIPATER1      @%%@QR:Antipater@%, d. 319 BC, Macedonian general under %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
regent of %@AU@%MACEDON%@BO:          58a317@%%@AE@% (334-323 BC). After Alexander's death he defeated
Perdiccas in a struggle for the regency (321). He held the kingdom
together; his death was followed by the wars of the %@AU@%DIADOCHI%@BO:          28955b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antipater%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antipater%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIPATER2      @%%@QR:Antipater@% in the Bible: see %@AU@%HEROD%@BO:          4255a2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antipope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antipope%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIPOPE        @%%@QR:antipope@% person elected pope whose election was later declared%@EH@%
uncanonical and in opposition to a canonically chosen legitimate pontiff
(see %@AU@%PAPACY%@BO:          70a3f2@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antique%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antique%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTIQUE         @%%@QR:antique@% term formerly applied only to objects of preclassical and%@EH@%
classical cultures of the ancient world, but now applied in common usage
to artifacts of historic, aesthetic, and monetary value that are more
than 100 years old. Antique collecting began with the preservation of
religious objects in antiquity, but today includes a vast range of
decorative objects and memorabilia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anti-Saloon League%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anti-Saloon League%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTISALUE       @%%@QR:Anti-Saloon League@% U.S. organization working for the prohibition of the%@EH@%
sale of alcoholic beverages. Founded in 1893, it helped to secure the
18th amendment to the %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@%, establishing %@AU@%PROHIBITION%@BO:          79f220@%%@AE@% (1919-33).
In 1950 it merged with the National Temperance League.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anti-Semitism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anti-Semitism%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTISEMITISM    @%%@QR:anti-Semitism@% prejudice against %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%. Before the 19th cent.%@EH@%
anti-Semitism was largely religious, based on the belief that Jews were
responsible for Christ's crucifixion. It was expressed in the later
Middle Ages by sporadic persecutions and expulsions (e.g., the expulsion
of Jews from Spain in 1492), economic restrictions (e.g., the restriction
of Jews to unpopular or taboo occupations), and personal restrictions
(see %@AU@%GHETTO%@BO:          39ef02@%%@AE@%). After the Jews' emancipation during the %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@%,
religious and economic anti-Semitism was slowly replaced in the 19th
cent. by racial prejudice, stemming from the idea of Jews as a distinct
race. The cultural isolation of Orthodox Jews, rising %@AU@%NATIONALISM%@BO:          66d6e4@%%@AE@%,
pseudoscientific theories of Aryan racial superiority, and spurious
charges of Jewish domination encouraged anti-Semitism (see %@AU@%POGROM%@BO:          77285c@%%@AE@%). These
beliefs, incorporated into Adolf Hitler's %@AU@%NATIONAL SOCIALISM%@BO:          6770ca@%%@AE@%, contributed
to the extermination of 6 million Jews in the %@AU@%HOLOCAUST%@BO:          43adfc@%%@AE@% of World War II.
Anti-Semitism still exists in the USSR, the Middle East, and elsewhere.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antislavery movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antislavery movement%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTISLAEMENT    @%%@QR:antislavery movement@% see %@AU@%ABOLITIONISTS%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antitoxin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antitoxin%@AE@%:%@CR:ANTITOXIN       @%%@QR:antitoxin@% see %@AU@%TOXIN%@BO:          970bcd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%antitrust laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%antitrust laws%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTITRUST.LAWS  @%%@QR:antitrust laws@% legislation under which the U.S. government has acted to%@EH@%
break up any large business combination alleged to be acting
monopolistically to suppress competition (see %@AU@%TRUST%@BO:          983f69@%%@AE@%, corporate;
%@AU@%MONOPOLY%@BO:          62f2e0@%%@AE@%). The first of these laws, which were based on the
constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, was the
%@AB@%Sherman Antitrust Act%@AE@% (1890). It declared illegal every contract,
combination, or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade.
It was supplemented (1914) by the %@AB@%Clayton Antitrust Act,%@AE@% which prohibited
exclusive sales contracts, intercorporate stock holdings, and unfair
price cutting to freeze out competitors. The last provision was
strengthened under the terms of the %@AB@%Robinson-Patman Act%@AE@% of 1936.
Corporate trusts grew rapidly in the U.S. from 1880 to 1905, by which
time Pres. Theodore %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80ff43@%%@AE@% had launched his famous "trust-busting"
campaigns. An early federal success came with the Supreme Court decision
of 1911 that forced the giant Standard Oil Co. to split up into
independent entities. Antitrust action declined in the 1920s, but was
vigorously resumed in the 1930s under Pres. F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%. In recent
years enforcement of antitrust legislation has been complicated by the
growth of huge %@AU@%CONGLOMERATES%@BO:          21f041@%%@AE@% that control many companies in various,
sometimes interrelated, industries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antoine, Andre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antoine, Andre%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTOINE         @%%@QR:Antoine, Andre@% 1858-1943, French theater director, manager, and critic.%@EH@%
In 1887 he founded the Theatre Libre (see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@%,) to present works of
%@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@%. His work became a model for experimental theaters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antonello da Messina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antonello da Messina%@AE@%%@CR:ANTONELSSINA    @%%@QR:Antonello da Messina@%, c.1430 1479, Italian painter. His handling of oils%@EH@%
shows strong Flemish influence. Messina's works include %@AI@%Ecce Homo%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.) and %@AI@%Pieta%@AE@% (Venice). He was also an excellent
portraitist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antonescu, Ion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antonescu, Ion%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTONESCU       @%%@QR:Antonescu, Ion@% 1882-1946, Rumanian marshal and dictator. King %@AU@%CAROL II%@BO:          191b58@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
named him premier in 1940, and he promptly forced the king's abdication
in favor of Carol's son, %@AU@%MICHAEL%@BO:          5ff762@%%@AE@%. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Antonescu led the
nation into the %@AU@%AXIS%@BO:           a6909@%%@AE@% camp and gave %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% virtual control of the country.
He was executed at the end of the war.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antonioni, Michelangelo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antonioni, Michelangelo%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTONIONI       @%%@QR:Antonioni, Michelangelo@% 1912-, Italian film director. In such films as%@EH@%
%@AI@%L'Avventura%@AE@% (1959), %@AI@%Red Desert%@AE@% (1964), %@AI@%Blow-Up%@AE@% (1966), and %@AI@%The Passenger%@AE@%
(1975) he depicted modern alienation, subordinating dialogue to visual
images.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antony%@AE@%%@CR:ANTONY          @%%@QR:Antony@% or %@AB@%Marc Antony,%@AE@%Lat. %@AI@%Marcus Antonius%@AE@%, c.83 BC-30 BC, Roman%@EH@%
politician and soldier. He was of a distinguished family related to
Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%, who made him a protege. In 49 BC Antony became tribune. He
and Quintus Cassius Longinus (see %@AU@%CASSIUS%@BO:          19c74d@%%@AE@%, family), another tribune,
vetoed the bill to deprive Caesar of his army. Caesar then crossed the
Rubicon, and the civil war began. After Caesar's assassination (44 BC),
Antony, then consul, aroused the mob against the conspirators. Octavian
(later %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%) joined forces with him, but they soon fell out. However,
Octavian arranged the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Marcus Aemilius
Lepidus (see %@AU@%LEPIDUS%@BO:          542657@%%@AE@%, family). At Philippi, in 42 BC, Antony and Octavian
crushed the republicans, and the triumvirate ruled the empire for five
years. Antony met %@AU@%CLEOPATRA%@BO:          1f4a5a@%%@AE@% in 42 BC, and their love affair began. When
Antony's wife, Fulvia, died (40 BC), he married Octavian's sister,
%@AU@%OCTAVIA%@BO:          6cd487@%%@AE@%. In 37 BC, Antony settled in Alexandria as the acknowledged lover
of Cleopatra. In 32 BC the senate deprived Antony of his powers, thus
making civil war inevitable. In the following year Octavian's forces
defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle at Actium, and Antony
returned to Egypt. When Octavian came there (30 BC), Antony committed
suicide, and Cleopatra killed herself soon afterward. Of the many dramas
on the tragedy, the best known by far is %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE'S%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Antony and
%@AI@%Cleopatra%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Antwerp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Antwerp%@AE@%,%@CR:ANTWERP         @%%@QR:Antwerp@% city (1987 pop. 479,748, including Berchem, Borgerhout, Deurne,%@EH@%
Hoboken, Merksem, and Wilrijk), Flemish N Belgium, on the Scheldt R. It
is one of the busiest European ports and a major center of finance,
industry, and the diamond trade. Europe's chief commercial city by the
mid-16th cent., it declined after its sacking (1576) by the Spanish and
the closing (1648) of the Scheldt to navigation. Its modern expansion
dates from 1863. In the 20th cent. it was twice occupied and heavily
damaged by the Germans. Antwerp has many notable buildings, e.g., its
Gothic cathedral (14th-16th cent.), and houses many important paintings,
e.g., by %@AU@%RUBENS%@BO:          81af8d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MASSYS%@BO:          5cf77a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VAN DYCK%@BO:          9bc84f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%anxiety%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%anxiety%@AE@%,%@CR:ANXIETY         @%%@QR:anxiety@% anticipatory tension or vague dread persisting in the absence of%@EH@%
a specific threat. It is characterized by increased pulse rate and blood
pressure, quickened breathing, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. It
has been defined as the tension resulting from a sense of failure in
interpersonal relations or as a reaction to unresolved conflicts that
threaten the personality.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Anza, Juan Bautista de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Anza, Juan Bautista de%@AE@%%@CR:ANZA            @%%@QR:Anza, Juan Bautista de@%, 1735-88, Spanish explorer; b. Mexico. Accompanied%@EH@%
by a small expedition, he blazed (1774) a route from Sonora to
California. In 1776 he founded %@AU@%SAN FRANCISCO%@BO:          8406e7@%%@AE@%. He later served (1777-88)
as governor of New Mexico.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apache Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apache Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:APACHE.INDIANS  @%%@QR:Apache Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Southwest, six culturally%@EH@%
related groups; most spoke dialects of the %@AU@%ATHABASCAN%@BO:           944b6@%%@AE@% branch of the
Nadene linguistic stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Their ancestors
entered the area c.1100. The %@AU@%NAVAHO INDIANS%@BO:          679fa7@%%@AE@% were once joined to the
Apaches. Historically the Apaches subsisted on wild game, seed and fruit
gathering, livestock, and some horticulture. Men lived with and worked
for their wives' families. The Apaches, known as fierce fighters,
resisted the Spanish advance but increasingly fought the %@AU@%COMANCHES%@BO:          20d183@%%@AE@% and
other tribes with captured Spanish horses and arms. After the mid-19th
cent. %@AU@%COCHISE%@BO:          1fda09@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GERONIMO%@BO:          39abe7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MANGAS COLORADAS%@BO:          5ad106@%%@AE@%, and others led them in strong
but futile efforts to stop white expansion westward. Today they live on
reservations totaling over 3 million acres in Arizona and New Mexico and
retain many tribal customs. Cattle, timber, tourism, and the development
of mineral resources provide income. In 1982 the Apaches won a major
Supreme Court test of their right to tax resources extracted from their
lands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apartheid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apartheid%@AE@%%@CR:APARTHEID       @%%@QR:apartheid@% [Afrik.,=apartness], system of racial segregation and white%@EH@%
supremacy peculiar to the Republic of %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICA%@BO:          8bccf8@%%@AE@%. First formalized in
the 1948 Afrikaner Nationalist party platform, apartheid separates whites
from nonwhites, non whites-Coloureds (mulattoes), Asiatics (mainly of
Indian ancestry), and Africans (called Bantu)-from each other, and one
group of Bantu from another. Under Prime Min. Hendrik %@AU@%VERWOERD%@BO:          9cf195@%%@AE@% a policy
of "separate development" established nine %@AU@%BANTUSTANS%@BO:           bf566@%%@AE@%, or homelands,
totaling about 14% of the country's land, most of it too poor in quality
to support the designated population (roughly 70% of all South Africans).
On the reservations Bantu can exercise certain rights; elsewhere their
activities are strictly curtailed. They cannot vote, own land, travel, or
work without permits, and spouses are often forbidden to accompany
workers to urban areas. The policy, which is destructive of African
family life, has generated international and domestic protest. In 1961
South Africa withdrew from the British Commonwealth in dispute over
apartheid. Economic and political pressure has since led to some
improvements for Africans, but many feel that apartheid will end only by
force-from within or without.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apatite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apatite%@AE@%,%@CR:APATITE         @%%@QR:apatite@% phosphate mineral (Ca,Pb)%@AH@%5%@AE@%(PO%@AH@%4%@AE@%)%@AH@%3%@AE@%(F,Cl,OH), transparent to opaque%@EH@%
in shades of green, brown, yellow, white, red, and purple. Apatite, a
minor constituent of many types of rock, is mined in Florida, Tennessee,
Montana, N Africa, Europe, and the USSR. Large deposits are mined for use
in making phosphatic fertilizers, and two varieties are used to a limited
extent in jewelry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ape%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ape%@AE@%,%@CR:APE             @%%@QR:ape@% %@AU@%PRIMATE%@BO:          797deb@%%@AE@% of the family Pongidae, or Simiidae, closely related to%@EH@%
human beings. The small apes, the %@AU@%GIBBON%@BO:          3a0658@%%@AE@% and siamang, and the smallest of
the great apes, the %@AU@%ORANGUTAN%@BO:          6e4181@%%@AE@%, are found in SE Asia; the other great
apes, the %@AU@%GORILLA%@BO:          3b96b7@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%CHIMPANZEE%@BO:          1d0a7d@%%@AE@%, are found in Africa. They vary in
size from the 3-ft (1.8-m), 15-lb (6.8-kg) gibbon to the 6-ft (1.8-m),
500-lb (227-kg) gorilla. All are forest dwellers and spend at least some
time in trees; unlike %@AU@%MONKEYS%@BO:          62d891@%%@AE@%, they can swing hand-over-hand. Their
brains, similar in structure to the human brain, are capable of fairly
advanced reasoning.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apelles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apelles%@AE@%,%@CR:APELLES         @%%@QR:Apelles@% fl. 330 BC, Greek painter, the most famous in antiquity, now%@EH@%
known only through descriptions. Perhaps his most famous work was a
painting of Aphrodite rising from the sea. %@AU@%BOTTICELLI%@BO:          129636@%%@AE@% painted Apelles'
%@AI@%Calumny%@AE@% (Uffizi) from %@AU@%ALBERTI'S%@BO:           2ee8e@%%@AE@% description.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apennines%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apennines%@AE@%,%@CR:APENNINES       @%%@QR:Apennines@% mountain system c.840 mi (1,350 km) long and up to c.80 mi%@EH@%
(130 km) wide, extending the entire length of the Italian Peninsula and
continuing into Sicily. The earth-quake-prone mountains, long since
denuded of their original forest cover, reach a high point of 9,560 ft
(2,914 m) in Mt. Corno.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aphasia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aphasia%@AE@%,%@CR:APHASIA         @%%@QR:aphasia@% language disturbance caused by a lesion of the brain, causing%@EH@%
partial or total impairment in the individual's ability to speak, write,
or comprehend the meaning of spoken or written words. Treatment consists
of reeducation; the methods used include those employed in education of
the deaf.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aphelion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aphelion%@AE@%:%@CR:APHELION        @%%@QR:aphelion@% see %@AU@%APSIS%@BO:           6d9db@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aphid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aphid%@AE@%%@CR:APHID           @%%@QR:aphid@% or %@AB@%plant louse,%@AE@%tiny, usually green, pear-shaped %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% injurious to%@EH@%
vegetation. Aphids feed by sucking plant juices through their beaks. Most
species live in large colonies; some species live symbiotically with
ants. Many inhabit swellings of plant tissues (galls) that they form with
their secretions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aphrodite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aphrodite%@AE@%%@CR:APHRODITE       @%%@QR:Aphrodite@%, in Greek mythology, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility.%@EH@%
She was either the daughter of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and Dione, or she emerged from the
sea foam. Married to %@AU@%HEPHAESTUS%@BO:          420b52@%%@AE@%, she loved and had children by other gods
and mortals, e.g., Harmonia was fathered by %@AU@%ARES%@BO:           780db@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%AENEAS%@BO:           174f4@%%@AE@% was the son
of Anchises. Aphrodite was awarded the apple of discord by %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          7146d2@%%@AE@%, leading
to the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%. Probably of Eastern origin, she was similar in
attributes to the goddesses %@AU@%ASTARTE%@BO:           8ea4a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ISHTAR%@BO:          49fbe8@%%@AE@%. The Romans identified her
with %@AU@%VENUS%@BO:          9c8ea6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apia%@AE@%,%@CR:APIA            @%%@QR:Apia@% city (1981 est. pop. 33,170), capital and chief port of %@AU@%WESTERN%@EH@%
%@AU@%SAMOA%@BO:          a0ad83@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%APL%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%APL%@AE@%:%@CR:APL             @%%@QR:APL@% see %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apocrypha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apocrypha%@AE@%,%@CR:APOCRYPHA       @%%@QR:Apocrypha@% appendix to the Authorized (King James) Version of the Old%@EH@%
Testament, containing the following books or parts of books: First and
Second %@AU@%ESDRAS%@BO:          2ff39a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TOBIT%@BO:          964727@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%JUDITH%@BO:          4d9916@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ESTHER%@BO:          302b9e@%%@AE@% 10.4-16.24; %@AU@%WISDOM%@BO:          a285e9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ECCLESIASTICUS
%@AU@%%@BO:          2c030c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BARUCH%@BO:           cad92@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DANIEL%@BO:          265357@%%@AE@%3.24-90, 13, 14; Prayer of Manasses (see under %@AU@%MANASSEH%@BO:          5a9752@%%@AE@%);
and First and Second %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587ab5@%%@AE@%. All except the Prayer of Manasses and
First and Second Esdras are included in the Western canon. Protestants
follow the Jewish tradition in treating these books as uncanonical.
Jewish and Christian works resembling biblical books but not in the
Western or Hebrew canon are called pseudepigrapha.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apogee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apogee%@AE@%:%@CR:APOGEE          @%%@QR:apogee@% see %@AU@%APSIS%@BO:           6d9db@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apollinaire, Guillaume%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apollinaire, Guillaume%@AE@%%@CR:APOLLINAIRE     @%%@QR:Apollinaire, Guillaume@%, 1880-1918, French poet and critic; b. Wilhelm%@EH@%
Apollinaris de Kostrowitzky. He was an influential innovator, whose lyric
poems, e.g., %@AI@%Alcools%@AE@% (1913) and %@AI@%Calligrammes%@AE@% (1918), blend modern and
traditional verse techniques. He is credited with introducing %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@% to
literature. %@AI@%The Breasts of Tiresias%@AE@% (1918), a play, is an early example
of %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apollo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apollo%@AE@%,%@CR:APOLLO1         @%%@QR:Apollo@% in Greek mythology, one of the most important %@AU@%OLYMPIAN%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@% gods; son%@EH@%
of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and Leto, twin brother of %@AU@%ARTEMIS%@BO:           838b4@%%@AE@%. He was concerned with
prophecy, medicine (he was the father of %@AU@%ASCLEPIUS%@BO:           89623@%%@AE@%), music and poetry (he
was also the father of %@AU@%ORPHEUS%@BO:          6efb00@%%@AE@% and the patron of the %@AU@%MUSES%@BO:          655f08@%%@AE@%), and the
pastoral arts. A moral god of high civilization, he was associated with
law, philosophy, and the arts. He was widely known as a god of light,
Phoebus Apollo; after the 5th cent. BC he was often identified with the
sun god %@AU@%HELIOS%@BO:          415fe3@%%@AE@%. Apollo's oracles had great authority; his chief shrine
was at %@AU@%DELPHI%@BO:          27bda4@%%@AE@%, where he was primarily a god of purification. In art he
was portrayed as the perfection of youth and beauty. The most celebrated
statue of him is the %@AB@%Apollo Belvedere%@AE@%, a marble copy of the original
Greek bronze, now in the Vatican in Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apollo, Project%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apollo, Project%@AE@%:%@CR:APOLLO2         @%%@QR:Apollo, Project@% see %@AU@%SPACE EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apollo asteroid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apollo asteroid%@AE@%:%@CR:APOLLO.ASTEROID @%%@QR:Apollo asteroid@% see %@AU@%ASTEROID%@BO:           8f049@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apollonius Rhodius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apollonius Rhodius%@AE@%,%@CR:APOLLONIUS      @%%@QR:Apollonius Rhodius@% fl. 3d cent. BC, epic poet of %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RHODES%@BO:          7edb32@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
librarian at Alexandria. His %@AI@%Argonautica%@AE@% is a four-book Homeric imitation
on the Argonaut theme (see %@AU@%GOLDEN FLEECE%@BO:          3b29e7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%JASON%@BO:          4b7a26@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apollo-Soyuz Test Project%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apollo-Soyuz Test Project%@AE@%:%@CR:APOLLOST        @%%@QR:Apollo-Soyuz Test Project@% see %@AU@%SPACE EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apostle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apostle%@AE@%%@CR:APOSTLE         @%%@QR:apostle@% [Gr.,=envoy], one of the prime missionaries of Christianity. The%@EH@%
disciples of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% who were chosen to be his Twelve Apostles were %@AU@%PETER%@BO:          73f868@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%ANDREW%@BO:           54f29@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4aeff2@%%@AE@% (the Greater), %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c9311@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%THOMAS%@BO:          951b84@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4af152@%%@AE@% (the Less), %@AU@%JUDE
%@AU@%%@BO:          4d92c6@%%@AE@% (or Thaddaeus), %@AU@%PHILIP%@BO:          748421@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BARTHOLOMEW%@BO:           ca32e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MATTHEW%@BO:          5d40cd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SIMON%@BO:          895638@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JUDAS ISCARIOT
%@AU@%%@BO:          4d8e2a@%%@AE@%, who was later replaced by %@AU@%MATTHIAS%@BO:          5d4658@%%@AE@%. St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@% and sometimes a few others,
e.g., St. %@AU@%BARNABAS%@BO:           c4d3e@%%@AE@%, are also classed as apostles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apostrophe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apostrophe%@AE@%:%@CR:APOSTROPHE      @%%@QR:apostrophe@% see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apothecaries' weights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apothecaries' weights%@AE@%:%@CR:APOTHECIGHTS    @%%@QR:apothecaries' weights@% see %@AU@%ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT%@BO:          2f136f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WEIGHTS AND%@EH@%
%@AU@%MEASURES%@BO:          a0404d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Appalachian Mountains%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Appalachian Mountains%@AE@%,%@CR:APPALACNTAINS   @%%@QR:Appalachian Mountains@% major North American mountain system extending%@EH@%
c.1,600 mi (2,570 km) SW from Canada's Quebec prov. to Alabama, with Mt.
Mitchell (6,684 ft/2,037 m), in North Carolina, the highest point. Their
rugged hills and valleys, the much-eroded remnants of a very old mountain
mass, posed a major barrier to westward expansion in the early years of
the U.S. Industries include coal mining (in the west) and tourism (see
%@AU@%APPALACHIAN TRAIL%@BO:           6c2f5@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BLUE RIDGE%@BO:          112615@%%@AE@%; Shenandoah and Great Smoky mountains under
%@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Appalachian Trail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Appalachian Trail%@AE@%,%@CR:APPALACIL       @%%@QR:Appalachian Trail@% world's longest continuous hiking trail, in the%@EH@%
Appalachian Mts., extending 2,050 mi (3,299 km) from Mt. Katahdin (Me.)
to Springer Mt. (Ga.) and passing through 14 states. It was completed in
1937.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%appeal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%appeal%@AE@%,%@CR:APPEAL          @%%@QR:appeal@% legal procedure by which a superior court reviews and, if it%@EH@%
thinks fit, alters, a lower court decision. Ordinarily, only errors in
applying legal rules, not factual findings, maybe reviewed. The reviewing
court may affirm, modify, or reverse the lower court's decision, or may
dismiss the case. If an error is found, a retrial may ensue.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%appendix%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%appendix%@AE@%,%@CR:APPENDIX        @%%@QR:appendix@% small, worm-shaped blind tube projecting from the large%@EH@%
intestine into the lower right abdominal cavity. It has no function and
is considered a remnant of a previous digestive organ. Appendicitis can
occur if accumulated and hardened waste matter becomes infected; rupture
of such an appendix can spread infection to the peritoneum (abdominal
membrane), causing peritonitis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Appia, Adolphe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Appia, Adolphe%@AE@%,%@CR:APPIA           @%%@QR:Appia, Adolphe@% 1862-1928, Swiss theorist of stage lighting and decor.%@EH@%
His employment of light and shade when staging %@AU@%WAGNER'S%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@% operas
revolutionized modern scene design and stage lighting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Appian Way%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Appian Way%@AE@%,%@CR:APPIAN.WAY      @%%@QR:Appian Way@% most famous of the %@AU@%ROMAN ROADS%@BO:          80a181@%%@AE@%, built (312 BC) under Appius%@EH@%
Claudius Caecus (see %@AU@%CLAUDIUS%@BO:          1f1346@%%@AE@%, Roman gens). It connected Rome with Capua
and was later extended to Brundisium (Brindisi). It was the chief highway
to Greece and the East.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Appius Claudius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Appius Claudius%@AE@%:%@CR:APPIUS.CLAUDIUS @%%@QR:Appius Claudius@% see %@AU@%CLAUDIUS%@BO:          1f1346@%%@AE@%, Roman gens.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apple%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apple%@AE@%,%@CR:APPLE           @%%@QR:apple@% any tree (and its fruit) of the genus %@AI@%Malus%@AE@% of the %@AU@%ROSE%@BO:          811e84@%%@AE@% family.%@EH@%
The common apple (%@AI@%M. sylvestris%@AE@%) is the best-known and commercially most
important temperate fruit. It is native to W Asia, but has been widely
cultivated from prehistoric times. Thousands of varieties exist, e.g.,
Golden Delicious, Winesap, Jonathan, and McIntosh. The fruit is consumed
fresh or cooked, or is used for juice. Partial fermentation of apple
juice (sweet cider) produces hard cider (from which applejack liquor is
made); fully fermented juice yields vinegar. The hardwood is used in
cabinetmaking and as fuel. The fruit of crab apple trees (which are
cultivated as ornamentals) is used for preserves and jellies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Appleseed, Johnny%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Appleseed, Johnny%@AE@%:%@CR:APPLESEED       @%%@QR:Appleseed, Johnny@% see %@AU@%CHAPMAN, JOHN%@BO:          1ba151@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Appomattox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Appomattox%@AE@%,%@CR:APPOMATTOX      @%%@QR:Appomattox@% town (1980 pop. 1,345), seat of Appomattox co., central Va.;%@EH@%
inc. 1925. Confederate Gen. Robert E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% surrendered to Union Gen. U.S.
%@AU@%GRANT%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@% at nearby Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865, virtually ending
the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. The surrender site has been made a national historical
park.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apprenticeship%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apprenticeship%@AE@%,%@CR:APPRENTICESHIP  @%%@QR:apprenticeship@% system of learning a craft or trade from a practitioner%@EH@%
and paying for the instruction by working a given number of years. The
practice was known in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, modern
Europe and, to some extent, the U.S. In medieval Europe, the %@AU@%GUILDS%@BO:          3e5db5@%%@AE@%
supervised the relation of master and apprentice. Although the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@% put an end to most guilds, apprenticeship continues in highly
skilled trades, at times competing with technical schools. The terms of
apprenticeship are regulated by trade unions and by law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apricot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apricot%@AE@%,%@CR:APRICOT         @%%@QR:apricot@% tree (%@AI@%Prunus armeniaca%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%ROSE%@BO:          811e84@%%@AE@% family and its fruit, native%@EH@%
to Asia. In the U.S., it is cultivated chiefly in California. The fruit
is used raw, canned, preserved, and dried, and in making a cordial and a
brandy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%April%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%April%@AE@%:%@CR:APRIL           @%%@QR:April@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apse%@AE@%,%@CR:APSE            @%%@QR:apse@% the termination at the sanctuary end of a church, generally%@EH@%
semicircular, sometimes square or polygonal. In Roman %@AU@%TEMPLES%@BO:          93cab9@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%BASILICAS%@BO:           cd380@%%@AE@%, it was a recess holding the statue of the deity. Early
Christian churches placed the altar in the apse, at the eastern end.
Because of its function, the apse became the architectural climax of the
interior, and was often highly decorated. Chapels sometimes radiated from
it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%apsis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%apsis%@AE@%,%@CR:APSIS           @%%@QR:apsis@% point in the %@AU@%ORBIT%@BO:          6e4e7f@%%@AE@% of a smaller body where it is at its greatest%@EH@%
or least distance from a larger body to which it is attracted. In an
elliptical orbit these points are called the apocenter and pericenter;
corresponding terms for elliptical orbits around the sun, the earth, and
a star are, respectively, aphelion and perihelion, apogee and perigee,
and apastron and periastron. The line of apsides, an imaginary
straightline connecting the two apsides of an elliptical orbit, may shift
because of gravitational influences of other bodies or relativistic
effects (see %@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Apuleius, Lucius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Apuleius, Lucius%@AE@%,%@CR:APULEIUS        @%%@QR:Apuleius, Lucius@% fl. 2d cent., Latin writer. His romance %@AI@%The Golden Ass%@AE@%%@EH@%
or %@AI@%Metamorphoses%@AE@% is the only entire Latin novel surviving. The story of a
man transformed into an ass, it influenced the development of the %@AU@%NOVEL%@BO:          6bed67@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aqaba, Gulf of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aqaba, Gulf of%@AE@%,%@CR:AQABA           @%%@QR:Aqaba, Gulf of@% northern arm of the %@AU@%RED SEA%@BO:          7d62c7@%%@AE@%, 118 mi (190 km) long and%@EH@%
c.10 mi (16 km) wide, between %@AU@%ARABIA%@BO:           6f4bc@%%@AE@% and Egypt's %@AU@%SINAI%@BO:          897022@%%@AE@% peninsula. The
gulf, which gives Israel direct access to the %@AU@%INDIAN OCEAN%@BO:          47934f@%%@AE@%, is entered
through the Straits of Tiran. It was declared an international waterway
by the UN in 1958 after Arab states opposed to Israel blockaded it
(1949-56). It was blockaded again in the %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WAR%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@% of 1967.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aquamarine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aquamarine%@AE@%,%@CR:AQUAMARINE      @%%@QR:aquamarine@% transparent blue to bluish-green variety of the mineral%@EH@%
%@AU@%BERYL%@BO:           f1867@%%@AE@%, used as a %@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%. Sources include Brazil, the USSR, Madagascar, and
parts of the U.S. Oriental aquamarine is a transparent bluish variety of
%@AU@%CORUNDUM%@BO:          23a472@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aqua regia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aqua regia%@AE@%%@CR:AQUA.REGIA      @%%@QR:aqua regia@% [Lat.,=royal water], corrosive, fuming yellow liquid prepared%@EH@%
by mixing one volume of concentrated %@AU@%NITRIC ACID%@BO:          6a4938@%%@AE@% with three to four
volumes of concentrated %@AU@%HYDROCHLORIC ACID%@BO:          45e909@%%@AE@%. It was so named by the
alchemists because it dissolves gold and platinum, the "royal" metals,
which do not dissolve in nitric and hydrochloric acid alone.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aquarium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aquarium%@AE@%,%@CR:AQUARIUM        @%%@QR:aquarium@% name for any supervised exhibit of living aquatic animals and%@EH@%
plants. Aquariums are known to have been built in ancient Rome, Egypt,
and the Orient. Large, modern public aquariums were made possible by the
development of glass exhibit tanks capable of holding over 100,000 gal
(378,500 liters) of water. Aquarium maintenance requires careful
regulation of temperature, light, food, oxygen, and water flow; removal
of injurious waste and debris; and attention to the special requirements
of the individual species. Freshwater and saltwater aquariums are often
maintained for research and breeding purposes by universities, marine
stations, and wildlife commissions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aquatint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aquatint%@AE@%,%@CR:AQUATINT        @%%@QR:aquatint@% %@AU@%ETCHING%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@% technique. A metal plate is coated with resin through%@EH@%
which acid bites an evenly pocked surface. When printed, it produces
tonal effects that resemble wash drawings. Said to have been invented in
the 1760s by J.B. Le Prince, aquatint is often combined with other types
of etchings, as in %@AU@%GOYA'S%@BO:          3beccc@%%@AE@% series of mixed aquatint etchings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aqueduct%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aqueduct%@AE@%,%@CR:AQUEDUCT        @%%@QR:aqueduct@% conduit for conveying water, built chiefly to bring fresh%@EH@%
drinking water into cities. Aqueduct types include tunnels cut through
rock, pipelines, and the conduits that top the arched, bridgelike
structures that stand in many parts of Europe and are legacies of the
ancient Roman water supply system. Modern aqueducts utilize gravity,
pumps, and the propulsive force of very high pressures in underground
tunnels to move water over great distances.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aquifer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aquifer%@AE@%:%@CR:AQUIFER         @%%@QR:aquifer@% see %@AU@%ARTESIAN WELL%@BO:           83e72@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aquino, Corazon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aquino, Corazon%@AE@%,%@CR:AQUINO          @%%@QR:Aquino, Corazon@% 1933-, Philippine politician. Her husband, Benigno%@EH@%
Aquino, was an outspoken opponent of Pres. Ferdinand %@AU@%MARCOS%@BO:          5b7c7d@%%@AE@%, whose agents
assassinated (1983) Aquino. When the accused agents were acquitted,
Corazon Aquino declared her candidacy for the presidency. After the
election (1986), both sides claimed victory. When Marcos refused to step
down, Aquino organized strikes and boycotts. With the nation on the brink
of civil war, Marcos accepted asylum in the U.S. and Aquino assumed the
presidency.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aquitaine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aquitaine%@AE@%%@CR:AQUITAINE       @%%@QR:Aquitaine@%, former duchy and kingdom in SW France. Conquered (56 BC) by%@EH@%
the Romans, it fell to the %@AU@%VISIGOTHS%@BO:          9dfd40@%%@AE@% in the 5th cent. In 507 Aquitaine
was added to the Frankish kingdom by %@AU@%CLOVIS I%@BO:          1f9c07@%%@AE@%, but later regained some
independence. %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% made (781) Aquitaine into a kingdom that was
ruled by his son Louis (later Emperor %@AU@%LOUIS I%@BO:          56ed3b@%%@AE@%). Late in the 9th cent. it
became a duchy enfeoffed to the French crown. %@AU@%ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE'S%@BO:          2d478c@%%@AE@%
marriage (1152) to the future %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England gave Henry and his
heirs control of the duchy as vassals of the French crown. France
completed the recapture of Aquitaine from the English during the %@AU@%HUNDRED
%@AU@%YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ar%@AE@%,%@CR:AR              @%%@QR:Ar@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%ARGON%@BO:           794fa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabia%@AE@%,%@CR:ARABIA          @%%@QR:Arabia@% peninsula, c.1,000,000 sq mi (2,590,000 sq km), SW Asia,%@EH@%
containing the world's largest known reserves of oil and natural gas. It
is politically divided between %@AU@%SAUDI ARABIA%@BO:          84e24a@%%@AE@% (the largest and most
populous nation), %@AU@%YEMEN%@BO:          a417b6@%%@AE@%, Southern Yemen (see %@AU@%YEMEN, SOUTHERN%@BO:          a420ab@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%OMAN%@BO:          6db475@%%@AE@%, the
%@AU@%UNITED ARAB EMIRATES%@BO:          99fd48@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%QATAR%@BO:          7b6c9f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BAHRAIN%@BO:           b15be@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KUWAIT%@BO:          512569@%%@AE@%, and several neutral zones.
%@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d2f7b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%IRAQ%@BO:          496a70@%%@AE@% are to the north, the %@AU@%RED SEA%@BO:          7d62c7@%%@AE@% to the west, and the
%@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@% to the east. Rugged mountains rising to c.12,000 ft (3,700
m) in the southwest catch what little moisture is available, making the
basin-shaped interior of the peninsula one of the world's driest deserts,
with less than 4 in. (10 cm) of precipitation annually.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabian art and architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabian art and architecture%@AE@%:%@CR:ARABIANCTURE    @%%@QR:Arabian art and architecture@% see %@AU@%ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          4a10d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabian music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabian music%@AE@%,%@CR:ARABIAN.MUSIC   @%%@QR:Arabian music@% the music of the Islamic peoples in Arabia, N Africa, and%@EH@%
Persia. The chief characteristics are modal homophony, florid
ornamentation, and modal %@AU@%RHYTHM%@BO:          7eedb5@%%@AE@%, based primarily on the vocal meters of
poetry. The principal form is the %@AI@%nauba,%@AE@% a "suite" of vocal pieces with
instrumental preludes. The principal instrument was the lute. A
specifically Arabian musical culture, first influenced by Persian and
Syrian elements, developed from the 7th cent. but declined from the 11th
cent. under Turkistan influence. With the destruction of Baghdad in 1258
it came to an end.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabian Nights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabian Nights%@AE@%:%@CR:ARABIAN.NIGHTS  @%%@QR:Arabian Nights@% see %@AU@%THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS%@BO:          955914@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabian Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabian Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:ARABIAN.SEA     @%%@QR:Arabian Sea@% ancient %@AI@%Mare Erythraeum,%@AE@% northwestern marginal sea of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%INDIAN OCEAN%@BO:          47934f@%%@AE@%, between Arabia and India. Its principal arms include the
Gulf of %@AU@%ADEN%@BO:           12cdf@%%@AE@%, extended by the %@AU@%RED SEA%@BO:          7d62c7@%%@AE@%, and the Gulf of Oman, extended by
the %@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%ADEN%@BO:           128ee@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KARACHI%@BO:          4e6358@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BOMBAY%@BO:          11be9f@%%@AE@% are the chief ports.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:ARABIC.S        @%%@QR:Arabic languages@% members of the Semitic subdivision of the%@EH@%
Hamito-Semitic family of languages. See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabic literature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabic literature%@AE@%,%@CR:ARABIC.RE       @%%@QR:Arabic literature@% literature written in Arabic by Egyptians, Turks,%@EH@%
Persians, Syrians, Africans, and Jews, as well as Arabs. The first
significant Arabic literature was the lyric poetry of the 4th to 7th
cent., strongly personal qasida (odes) that treat tribal life and the
themes of love, combat, and the chase. The Prophet %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@% was not
interested in poetry, so with the rise of %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%, Arabic poetry declined,
replaced by the study of the %@AU@%KORAN%@BO:          508524@%%@AE@%. Literature again flourished in the
Arabic-Persian culture of %@AU@%BAGHDAD%@BO:           b01b6@%%@AE@% in the 8th and 9th cent. A group of
young poets, including %@AU@%ABU NUWAS%@BO:            8373@%%@AE@%, established a new, sophisticated court
poetry; typical is the precise, formal, yet exaggerated work of Mutanabbi
(d. 965). In the work of later poets, such as %@AU@%HARIRI%@BO:          3ffb3f@%%@AE@% (11th cent.), the
style approached preciosity, and eventually the prose romance became the
principal literary form. The %@AU@%THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS%@BO:          955914@%%@AE@% is the greatest
example of this genre. During the Middle Ages Masudi and %@AU@%IBN KHALDUN%@BO:          464a6e@%%@AE@%
produced great works on history and geography, Al Ghazali on theology and
philosophy, and %@AU@%AVICENNA%@BO:           a5763@%%@AE@% on medicine. The Arabic culture of Spain also
produced fine poets and scholars, but they were dwarfed by the great
philosophers %@AU@%AVERROES%@BO:           a49c4@%%@AE@% and Ibn Tufayl. After 1300 Arabic literature again
declined. In the late 1800s growing Western influences stimulated a
nationalistic vernacular literature in Syria and Egypt. Since then, the
novel and drama have been adopted and developed, in spite of a reaction
against Western models in modern Arabic literature. Notable 20th-cent.
writers include the novelist Nagib %@AU@%MAHFUZ%@BO:          59ba87@%%@AE@%, the playwrights Ahmad Shawqi
and Tawfiq al-Hakim, and the poets Hafiz Ibrahim and Nazik al-Malaikah.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabic numeral%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabic numeral%@AE@%:%@CR:ARABIC.NUMERAL  @%%@QR:Arabic numeral@% see %@AU@%NUMERAL%@BO:          6c4855@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arab-Israeli Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arab-Israeli Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:ARABISRS        @%%@QR:Arab-Israeli Wars@% conflicts in 1948-49, 1956, 1967, 1973-74, and 1982%@EH@%
between Israel and the Arabs.%@AB@%1%@AE@%The 1948-49 war reflected the opposition of
the Arab states to the formation of a Jewish state in what they
considered Arab territories. Newly created Israel was invaded by forces
from Egypt, Syria, Transjordan (later Jordan), Lebanon, and Iraq. A
UN-sponsored truce was arranged, but fighting has broken out periodically
since then over the basic issue of the existence of Israel.%@AB@%2%@AE@%In 1956
Israel, joined by France and Great Britain, attacked Egypt after that
country had nationalized the Suez Canal. Intervention by the UN,
supported by the United States and the Soviet Union, forced a
cease-fire.%@AB@%3%@AE@%In 1967, in the Six-Day War, Israel responded to Egyptian
provocation with air attacks and ground victories. The result was a
humiliating defeat for Egypt. %@AB@%4%@AE@% In the Yom Kippur War of 1973-74, Egypt,
Syria, and Iraq attacked Israel on the Jewish holy Day of Atonement,
catching the Israelis off guard. Israel recouped quickly and forced the
Arab troops back from their initial gains, but at great cost to both
sides. Again, a cease-fire stopped the fighting. %@AB@%5%@AE@% In 1978 Palestinian
guerrillas, from their base in %@AU@%LEBANON%@BO:          533da4@%%@AE@%, launched an air raid on Israel;
in retaliation, Israel sent troops into S Lebanon to occupy a 16-mi
(10-km) strip and thus protect Israel's border. Eventually a UN
peace-keeping force was set up there, but occasional fighting continued.
In 1982 Israel launched a massive attack to destroy all military bases of
the %@AU@%PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@% in S Lebanon and, after a 10-week
siege of the Muslim sector of West %@AU@%BEIRUT%@BO:           dd83a@%%@AE@%, a PLO stronghold, forced the
Palestinians to accept a U.S.-sponsored plan whereby the PLO guerrillas
would evacuate Beirut and go to several Arab countries that had agreed to
accept them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arab League%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arab League%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAB.LEAGUE     @%%@QR:Arab League@% association of states formed (1945) to give common%@EH@%
expression to the political interests of Arab nations. Its members
include nearly all of the Arab states, and the %@AU@%PALESTINE LIBERATION
%@AU@%ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@%. Opposed to the formation of a Jewish state in Palestine,
league members jointly attacked Israel in 1948 (see %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%).
In 1979 Egypt was suspended after its peace agreement with Israel.
Attempts to coordinate Arab economic life are among the league's chief
activities; the Arab Common Market was set up in 1965.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arabs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arabs%@AE@%,%@CR:ARABS           @%%@QR:Arabs@% name originally applied to the Semitic peoples of the Arabian%@EH@%
peninsula (see %@AU@%SEMITE%@BO:          86d03c@%%@AE@%); now used also for populations of countries whose
primary language is Arabic, e.g., Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,
Libya, Morocco, Syria, and Yemen. Socially, Arabs are divided into the
settled %@AI@%fellahin%@AE@% (villagers) and the nomadic %@AU@%BEDOUIN%@BO:           d999c@%%@AE@%. The invasions of
Muslims from Arabia in the 6th and 7th cent. diffused the Arabic language
and %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%, the Arabic religion. At its peak the Arab empire extended from
the Atlantic Ocean across North Africa and the Middle East to central
Asia. A great Arab civilization emerged in which education, literature,
philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and science were highly developed. In
Europe the Arab conquests were particularly important in Sicily, from the
9th to late 11th cent., and in Spain, in the civilization of the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%.
In the 20th cent., Arab leaders have attempted to unite the Arab-speaking
world into an Arab nation. Since 1945 most Arab countries have joined the
%@AU@%ARAB LEAGUE%@BO:           713e4@%%@AE@%. In 1982 member nations had a total population estimated at
43 million. Several of these countries control two thirds of the world's
oil reserves and are members of OPEC (see %@AU@%ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM
%@AU@%EXPORTING COUNTRIES%@BO:          6ec01c@%%@AE@%). Since 1948 disputes with the state of %@AU@%ISRAEL%@BO:          4a34c1@%%@AE@% have
resulted in %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arachnid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arachnid%@AE@%,%@CR:ARACHNID        @%%@QR:arachnid@% mainly terrestrial %@AU@%ARTHROPOD%@BO:           84a10@%%@AE@% of the class Arachnida, including%@EH@%
the %@AU@%SPIDER%@BO:          8d8568@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCORPION%@BO:          85f95f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MITE%@BO:          61c5ca@%%@AE@%, tick, and %@AU@%DADDY LONGLEGS%@BO:          25f1a1@%%@AE@%. The arachnid's body
is divided into a cephalothorax with six pairs of appendages and an
abdomen. Most are carnivorous, and some use the first two pairs of
appendages to crush and kill prey; the others are for walking. Arachnids
have simple eyes and sensory bristles; they have no antennae. Respiration
is through air tubes or primitive structures called book lungs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arafat, Yasir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arafat, Yasir%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAFAT          @%%@QR:Arafat, Yasir@% 1929-, Palestine commando leader; b. Jerusalem. Head of%@EH@%
the guerrilla group Al Fatah, he became (1969) leader of the %@AU@%PALESTINE
%@AU@%LIBERATION ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@%. (PLO). The PLO was weakened when Arafat and his
guerrillas were forced to leave their stronghold in West %@AU@%BEIRUT%@BO:           dd83a@%%@AE@%, Lebanon,
after the 1982 Israeli siege (see %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%). In recent years,
Arafat has been more conciliatory toward the West and has made tentative
peace overtures to the Israelis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aragon, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aragon, Louis%@AE@%%@CR:ARAGON1         @%%@QR:Aragon, Louis@%, 1897-1982, French writer. A founder of %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, he%@EH@%
later turned to realistic social and political fiction after becoming a
Communist. His works include the surrealist novel %@AI@%Nightwalker%@AE@% (1926), the
war poems in %@AI@%Heartbreak%@AE@% (1941), and the series of love poems (1953, 1959,
1963) to his wife, the novelist Elsa Triolet.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aragon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aragon%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAGON2         @%%@QR:Aragon@% region (18,382 sq mi/47,609 sq km) and former kingdom, NE Spain,%@EH@%
bordered in the north by France. Much of Aragon is sparsely populated and
desertlike. Grains, sugar beets, and other crops are grown in oases and
irrigated areas. Sugar refining is the only important industry. The
kingdom was founded (1035) on land won from the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%, and in the 12th
cent. %@AU@%ZARAGOZA%@BO:          a4f936@%%@AE@% became its capital. Aragon annexed %@AU@%NAVARRE%@BO:          67ae3b@%%@AE@% in 1076 and was
united with %@AU@%CATALONIA%@BO:          1a0fd6@%%@AE@% in 1137. Its rulers (see %@AU@%ARAGON, HOUSE OF%@BO:           729af@%%@AE@%) pursued
(13th-15th cent.) an expansionist policy in the Mediterranean. The
marriage (1479) of Ferdinand of Aragon (later Spanish King %@AU@%FERDINAND V%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@%)
to %@AU@%ISABELLA I%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@% of Castile led to the union of Aragon and Castile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aragon, house of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aragon, house of%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAGON3         @%%@QR:Aragon, house of@% ruling family of %@AU@%ARAGON%@BO:           72576@%%@AE@% and other territories in the%@EH@%
Middle Ages. Founded (1035) by Ramiro I, the house during the 12th cent.
conquered much territory from the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% in Spain and also in S France. In
the 13th to 15th cent. it acquired %@AU@%SICILY%@BO:          88c324@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SARDINIA%@BO:          8488c9@%%@AE@%, and the kingdom of
%@AU@%NAPLES%@BO:          664789@%%@AE@%. These possessions were usually held by various branches of the
house and were seldom united under one ruler as they were under %@AU@%ALFONSO V%@BO:           3806d@%%@AE@%
in 1443-58. The union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile took place in
1479, after the Spanish king %@AU@%FERDINAND V%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@% married %@AU@%ISABELLA I%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@% of Castile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAKCHEEV       @%%@QR:Arakcheev, Aleksey Andreiyvich@% 1769-1834, Russian soldier and statesman.%@EH@%
He reorganized the army in the 1790s, and as minister of war (1808-10)
under %@AU@%ALEXANDER I%@BO:           34897@%%@AE@% was responsible for the attack that led to the
annexation of Finland from Sweden (1809). He later came to dominate
Russia's internal affairs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aral Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aral Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAL.SEA        @%%@QR:Aral Sea@% inland sea, the world's fourth largest lake, c.26,000 sq mi%@EH@%
(67,300 sq km), in the central Asian USSR. The sea, which is fed by the
%@AU@%AMU DARYA%@BO:           4f7e5@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SYR DARYA%@BO:          9201ef@%%@AE@% rivers, is generally less than 220 ft (70 m) deep
and is only slightly saline. It was known to medieval Arab geographers as
the Khorezm or Khwarazm Sea and to early Russian explorers, who reached
it in the 17th cent., as the Sine (Blue) Sea.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aramaic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aramaic%@AE@%%@CR:ARAMAIC         @%%@QR:Aramaic@%, Hamito-Semitic language that flourished in %@AU@%SYRIA%@BO:          9204d1@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%FERTILE%@EH@%
%@AU@%CRESCENT%@BO:          32bc14@%%@AE@% around the time of Christ. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio%@AE@%%@CR:ARAMBURU        @%%@QR:Aramburu, Pedro Eugenio@%, 1903-70, president of Argentina (1955-58). An%@EH@%
army general, he participated in the overthrow of Juan %@AU@%PERON%@BO:          737b4c@%%@AE@%. As
president, he ruled by decree, removed Peronists from important posts,
and returned the country to constitutional democracy. He was kidnapped
and murdered by Peronist guerrillas in 1970.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arapaho Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arapaho Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAPAHO.INDIANS @%%@QR:Arapaho Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Plains, who speak an%@EH@%
Algonquian-Wakashan language (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Sometimes
called "dog eaters" by other tribes, they are divided into the Northern
Arapaho (considered the parent group), the Southern Arapaho, and the %@AU@%GROS
%@AU@%VENTRE INDIANS%@BO:          3de620@%%@AE@%. They stressed age-graded societies, the %@AU@%SUN DANCE%@BO:          90b3de@%%@AE@%, and
later the %@AU@%GHOST DANCE%@BO:          39fbe1@%%@AE@%. Today the Arapaho lead an agricultural life, and
obtain income from leasing land for oil and gas development.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ararat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ararat%@AE@%,%@CR:ARARAT          @%%@QR:Ararat@% mountain, E Turkey, with two peaks, Little Ararat (12,877%@EH@%
ft/3,925 m) and Great Ararat (16,945 ft/5,165 m). According to tradition,
it was the landing place of Noah's ark. The %@AB@%kingdom of Ararat%@AE@% (fl.
c.9th-7th cent. BC), called in Assyrian Urartu, was located near Lake Van
in present-day E Turkey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Araucanian Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Araucanian Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:ARAUCANANS      @%%@QR:Araucanian Indians@% many tribes of South American agricultural people%@EH@%
(see %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%) occupying most of S central Chile before the
Spanish conquest (1540) and speaking languages of the Araucanian group
(see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). The %@AU@%INCA%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@% invaded them (c.1448-82) but
were never a strong influence. The Araucanians stoutly resisted the
Spanish, rebelling periodically until 1881. Some Araucanians, especially
in the 18th cent., had fled to Argentina, where with captured wild horses
they became plains wanderers. The Araucanians in Chile today number over
200,000; they are divided between assimilated urban dwellers and those
who retain many of their traditional ways.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arbitration, industrial%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arbitration, industrial%@AE@%:%@CR:ARBITRATION     @%%@QR:arbitration, industrial@% see under %@AU@%COLLECTIVE BARGAINING%@BO:          2040be@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arblay, Madame d'%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arblay, Madame d'%@AE@%:%@CR:ARBLAY          @%%@QR:Arblay, Madame d'@% see %@AU@%BURNEY, FANNY%@BO:          15d6c8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arboretum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arboretum%@AE@%:%@CR:ARBORETUM       @%%@QR:arboretum@% see %@AU@%BOTANICAL GARDEN%@BO:          127b1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arborvitae%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arborvitae%@AE@%,%@CR:ARBORVITAE      @%%@QR:arborvitae@% aromatic evergreen tree (genus %@AI@%Thuja%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CYPRESS%@BO:          25b026@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to Asia and North America. Arborvitaes have tiny cones and
flattened branchlets with scalelike leaves. The white cedar (%@AI@%T.
%@AI@%occidentalis%@AE@%), popular for hedges, and the red cedar (%@AI@%T. plicata%@AE@%),
important for lumber, both have decay-resistant wood.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arbuthnot, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arbuthnot, John%@AE@%,%@CR:ARBUTHNOT       @%%@QR:Arbuthnot, John@% 1667-1735, Scottish author, scientist, and physician. He%@EH@%
is best remembered for his five "John Bull" pamphlets (1712), satires on
Whig policy that introduced the character John Bull, the typical
Englishman. A member of the %@AU@%SCRIBLERUS CLUB%@BO:          862d69@%%@AE@%, he also wrote medical works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arbutus, trailing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arbutus, trailing%@AE@%:%@CR:ARBUTUS         @%%@QR:arbutus, trailing@% see %@AU@%TRAILING ARBUTUS%@BO:          973641@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arc%@AE@%,%@CR:ARC             @%%@QR:arc@% in mathematics, any part of a %@AU@%CURVE%@BO:          257966@%%@AE@% that does not intersect itself;%@EH@%
in particular, a portion of the circumference of a %@AU@%CIRCLE%@BO:          1e7d32@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arcadia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arcadia%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCADIA         @%%@QR:Arcadia@% region of ancient %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, in the central %@AU@%PELOPONNESUS%@BO:          72b660@%%@AE@%. Its%@EH@%
inhabitants, the Arcadians, lived a pastoral life. The largest city was
Megalopolis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arcadius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arcadius%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCADIUS        @%%@QR:Arcadius@% c.377-408, Roman emperor of the East (395-408); son of%@EH@%
%@AU@%THEODOSIUS I%@BO:          94be16@%%@AE@%. His brother %@AU@%HONORIUS%@BO:          4424a7@%%@AE@% inherited the West, which began the
division of the empire. During Arcadius's weak reign %@AU@%ALARIC I%@BO:           2a7b6@%%@AE@% invaded
Greece (395-97).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arcagnolo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arcagnolo%@AE@%:%@CR:ARCAGNOLO       @%%@QR:Arcagnolo@% see %@AU@%ORCAGNA%@BO:          6e5536@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arcaro, Eddie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arcaro, Eddie%@AE@%%@CR:ARCARO          @%%@QR:Arcaro, Eddie@%, 1916-, American jockey; b. Cincinnati. During his career%@EH@%
(1931-62) he won 4,779 races (third-best record in the U.S.), and his
mounts won $30,039,543 in purses. He rode five Kentucky Derby winners
between 1938 and 1952.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile%@AE@%%@CR:ARC.DE.ILE      @%%@QR:Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile@%, triumphal arch in Paris, in the center of%@EH@%
the Place de l'Etoile, which is formed by the intersection of 12 avenues,
one of them the Champs Elysees. It was built (1806-36) to commemorate
%@AU@%NAPOLEON I'S%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% victories, from designs of J.F. Chalgrin. In 1920 the body
of an unknown French soldier was buried there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arch%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCH            @%%@QR:arch@% the spanning of a wall opening by means of separate units (e.g.,%@EH@%
bricks or blocks) assembled into an upward curve that maintains stability
through the mutual pressure of a load and the separate pieces. The weight
of the load is converted into downward pressures (thrusts) received by
the piers (abutments) flanking the opening. The blocks forming the arch
are usually wedge-shaped. The arch was used by the Egyptians,
Babylonians, and Greeks, chiefly for drains, and by the Assyrians in
vaulted and domed chambers. The oldest known arch in Europe is a Roman
drain, the Cloaca Maxima (c.578 BC). The Roman semicircular arch, drawn
from Etruscan structures, was continued in early Christian, Byzantine,
and Romanesque architecture. The pointed arch (used by the Assyrians)
came into general use in the 13th cent. Possibly rediscovered
independently in Europe, it became essential to the Gothic system of
design. The round arch regained dominance in the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%. The
19th-cent. invention of steel beams for wide spans relegated the arch to
a decorative function.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%archaeology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%archaeology%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCHAEOLOGY     @%%@QR:archaeology@% scientific study of material remains of human cultures to%@EH@%
derive knowledge about prehistoric times and to supplement documentary
evidence of historic times. Research into the life and culture of the
past began in 15th-cent. Italy with the excavation of ancient Greek
sculpture. It was advanced in the 18th cent. by excavations at
%@AU@%HERCULANEUM%@BO:          4231ba@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%POMPEII%@BO:          77fbbc@%%@AE@%. In the 19th cent. public interest was stimulated
by the acquisition of the %@AU@%ELGIN MARBLES%@BO:          2e0509@%%@AE@% and by the excavations of
Heinrich %@AU@%SCHLIEMANN%@BO:          858337@%%@AE@% at Troy and in Greece and those of Arthur %@AU@%EVANS%@BO:          30d70e@%%@AE@% at
Crete; Egyptology was born with the recovery of the %@AU@%ROSETTA%@BO:          813cdb@%%@AE@% stone.
Stratigraphic excavation of such sites as %@AU@%BARROWS%@BO:           c8f07@%%@AE@%, mounds, and kitchen
middens unearthed levels of material culture of the past. Scientific
analysis of these material remains led Danish archaeologist Christian
Thomsen to classify cultures according to the principal materials used
for weapons and tools: %@AU@%STONE AGE%@BO:          8f4c47@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BRONZE AGE%@BO:          144216@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%IRON AGE%@BO:          49ba8f@%%@AE@%. Realizing that an
exact equation of technical tradition with cultural development was too
rigid, later interpreters emphasized %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@% and food production.
Improved field techniques, new %@AU@%DATING%@BO:          26a228@%%@AE@% methods, and the study of existing
aboriginal groups have enhanced the knowledge of prehistory. Important
archaeological work is currently being done in Africa (see %@AU@%LEAKEY%@BO:          532716@%%@AE@%
family), China, and the Americas. See also %@AU@%MAN, PREHISTORIC%@BO:          5a8e87@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BIBLICAL
%@AU@%ARCHAEOLOGY%@BO:           f7b99@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%archery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%archery%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCHERY         @%%@QR:archery@% sport of shooting with bow and arrow. The four main types are%@EH@%
target, field, flight, and crossbow shooting. In target shooting, the
object is to score the most points with arrows aimed at the
"bull's-eye"-the innermost of five to ten concentric circles. Once an
important military and hunting skill, archery was revived as a sport in
Europe in the 17th cent. and became popular in the U.S. in the late
1800s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arches National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arches National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:ARCHES..PARK    @%%@QR:Arches National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Archimedes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Archimedes%@AE@%%@CR:ARCHIMEDES      @%%@QR:Archimedes@%, c.287 BC-212 BC, Greek mathematician, physicist, and%@EH@%
inventor. His reputation in antiquity was based on several mechanical
contrivances, e.g., %@AU@%ARCHIMEDES' SCREW%@BO:           767b3@%%@AE@%; which he is alleged to have
invented. One legend states that during the Second %@AU@%PUNIC WAR%@BO:          7b0708@%%@AE@% he protected
his native Syracuse from the besieging armies of Marcus Claudius
%@AU@%MARCELLUS%@BO:          5b6fac@%%@AE@% for three years by inventing machines of war, e.g., various
ballistic instruments and mirrors that set Roman ships on fire by
focusing the sun's rays on them. In modern times, however, he is best
known for his work in mathematics, mechanics, and hydrostatics. In
mathematics, he calculated that the value of c (see %@AU@%PI%@BO:          755ff1@%%@AE@%) is between 310/71
and 31/7; devised a mathematical exponential system to express extremely
large numbers; proved that the volume of a sphere is two thirds the
volume of a circumscribed cylinder; and, in calculating the areas and
volumes of various geometrical figures, carried the method of exhaustion
invented by %@AU@%EUDOXUS OF CNIDUS%@BO:          308556@%%@AE@% far enough in some cases to anticipate the
invention (17th cent.) of the %@AU@%CALCULUS%@BO:          16f391@%%@AE@%. One of the first to apply
geometry to mechanics and hydrostatics, he proved the law of the lever
entirely by geometry and established %@AU@%ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE%@BO:           765b4@%%@AE@%. In another
legendary story, the ruler Hiero II requested him to find a method for
determining whether a crown was pure gold or alloyed with silver.
Archimedes realized, as he stepped into a bath, that a given weight of
gold would displace less water than an equal weight of silver (which is
less dense than gold); and he is said, in his excitement at his
discovery, to have run home naked, shouting %@AI@%"Eureka! Eureka!"%@AE@% ("I have
found it! I have found it!"). He was killed by a Roman soldier,
supposedly while absorbed in mathematics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Archimedes' principle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Archimedes' principle%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCHIMECIPLE    @%%@QR:Archimedes' principle@% principle that states that a body immersed in a%@EH@%
fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
The principle applies to both floating and submerged bodies, and to all
fluids. It explains not only the buoyancy of ships but also the rise of a
helium-filled balloon and the apparent loss of weight of objects
underwater.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Archimedes' screw%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Archimedes' screw%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCHIMEW        @%%@QR:Archimedes' screw@% a simple mechanical device used to lift water and such%@EH@%
light materials as grain or sand, and believed to have been invented by
%@AU@%ARCHIMEDES%@BO:           75d3d@%%@AE@% in the 3d cent. BC It consists of a large continuous screw
inside a cylindrical chamber. To lift water-for example, from a river to
its bank-the lower end is placed in the river, and water rises up the
spiral threads of the screw as it is revolved.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Archipenko, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Archipenko, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCHIPENKO      @%%@QR:Archipenko, Alexander@% 1887-1964, Ukrainian-American sculptor. He%@EH@%
recognized the aesthetic value of negative form (the void), as in the
hollowed-out masses of his marble %@AI@%Madonna%@AE@% (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.). He
taught cubist sculpture (see %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%) in Paris, Berlin, and New York City.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arctic, the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arctic, the%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCTIC          @%%@QR:Arctic, the@% northernmost area of the earth, centered on the %@AU@%NORTH POLE%@BO:          6bad4f@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
It can be defined as embracing all lands located N of the %@AU@%ARCTIC CIRCLE%@BO:           771ce@%%@AE@%
(lat. 66 deg31'N) or all lands located N of the 50 degF (10 degC) July
isotherm, which is roughly equivalent to the tree line. It therefore
generally includes the %@AU@%ARCTIC OCEAN%@BO:           77380@%%@AE@%; the northern reaches of Canada,
Alaska, the USSR, and Norway; and most of Greenland, Iceland, and
Svalbard. Ice sheets and permanent snow cover regions where average
monthly temperatures remain below 32 degF (0 degC) all year; %@AU@%TUNDRA%@BO:          989090@%%@AE@%,
which flourishes during the short summer season, covers areas where
temperatures are between 32 degF and 50 degF (0 deg-10 degC) for at least
one month. The Arctic is of great strategic value as the shortest route
between the U.S. and USSR. Its rich oil and natural gas deposits have
been discovered since the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) on
Alaska's North Slope (see %@AU@%PRUDHOE BAY%@BO:          7a5f53@%%@AE@%), Canada's Ellesmere Island (1972),
and the northern areas of Siberia, in the USSR. Traditionally, Robert E.
%@AU@%PEARY%@BO:          728231@%%@AE@% was credited with being the first explorer to reach (1909) the
North Pole, but recent evidence suggests he may have missed by 20 miles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arctic Circle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arctic Circle%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCTIC.CIRCLE   @%%@QR:Arctic Circle@% imaginary circle on the earth's surface at 66 deg33'N%@EH@%
lat., marking the northernmost point at which the sun can be seen at the
winter %@AU@%SOLSTICE%@BO:          8b4d8a@%%@AE@% (about Dec. 22) and the southernmost point of the
northern polar regions at which the midnight sun is visible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arctic Ocean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arctic Ocean%@AE@%,%@CR:ARCTIC.OCEAN    @%%@QR:Arctic Ocean@% the world's smallest ocean, c.5,400,000 sq mi (13,986,000%@EH@%
sq km), centering on the %@AU@%NORTH POLE%@BO:          6bad4f@%%@AE@% and connecting with the Pacific
through the Bering Strait and with the Atlantic through the Greenland
Sea. It is covered with ice up to 14 ft (4 m) thick all year, except in
fringe areas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ardashir I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ardashir I%@AE@%,%@CR:ARDASHIR.I      @%%@QR:Ardashir I@% d. 240, king of %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@% (226?-240), founder of the Sassanid%@EH@%
dynasty. He reunited Persia and established %@AU@%ZOROASTRIANISM%@BO:          a577b2@%%@AE@% as the state
religion. His costly victory (232) over Roman Emperor Alexander Severus
consolidated Persian power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ardennes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ardennes%@AE@%,%@CR:ARDENNES        @%%@QR:Ardennes@% wooded plateau, from 1,600 to 2,300 ft (488 to 701 m) high, in%@EH@%
SE Belgium, N Luxembourg, and N France. A traditional battleground, the
Ardennes saw heavy fighting in both world wars, especially in the Battle
of the Bulge (1944-45).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory%@AE@%,%@CR:ARECIBOERVATOR  @%%@QR:Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory@% radio-astronomy facility (completed%@EH@%
1963) located at Arecibo, Puerto Rico; it is operated by Cornell Univ.
under contract with the U.S. National Science Foundation. Its fixed
antenna of spherical section, 1,000 ft (305 m) in diameter, is the
largest radio-telescope antenna in the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arendt, Hannah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arendt, Hannah%@AE@%,%@CR:ARENDT          @%%@QR:Arendt, Hannah@% 1906-75, German-American political theorist; b. Germany.%@EH@%
Fleeing the Nazis in 1941, she came to the U.S. and taught at leading
universities. In %@AI@%The Origins of Totalitarianism%@AE@% (1951), which established
her as a major political thinker, Arendt traced Nazism and Communism to
19th cent. %@AU@%IMPERIALISM%@BO:          46fc47@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@%. Other works include %@AI@%The Human
%@AI@%Condition%@AE@% (1958), %@AI@%Eichmann in Jerusalem%@AE@% (1963), and %@AI@%The Life of the Mind%@AE@%
(1977).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arensky, Anton Stepanovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arensky, Anton Stepanovich%@AE@%,%@CR:ARENSKY         @%%@QR:Arensky, Anton Stepanovich@% 1861-1906, Russian composer. A pupil of%@EH@%
%@AU@%RIMSKY-KORSAKOV%@BO:          7f5af7@%%@AE@%, he taught at the Moscow Conservatory and became (1895)
conductor of the Imperial Chapel Choir. He wrote operas, symphonic music,
songs, and piano works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arequipa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arequipa%@AE@%,%@CR:AREQUIPA        @%%@QR:Arequipa@% city (1981 pop. 447,431), capital of Arequipa dept., S Peru.%@EH@%
The commercial center of S Peru and N Bolivia, it produces leather goods,
alpaca wool, textiles, and foodstuffs. Founded in 1540 on an %@AU@%INCA%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@% site,
it was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1868 but has been restored.
It is called "the white city" because of the light-colored stone, sillar,
used as a building material.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ares%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ares%@AE@%%@CR:ARES            @%%@QR:Ares@%, in Greek mythology, %@AU@%OLYMPIAN%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@% god of war; son of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HERA%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@%. The%@EH@%
Romans identified him with %@AU@%MARS%@BO:          5c0ba9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Argentina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Argentina%@AE@%%@CR:ARGENTINA       @%%@QR:Argentina@%, officially Argentine Republic, republic (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
31,060,000), 1,072,157 sq mi (2,776,889 sq km), S South America, bordered
by Chile (W); Bolivia (N); Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay (NE); and the
Atlantic Ocean (SE). The second largest nation of South America, it
stretches c.2,300 mi (3,700 km) from the subtropics south to %@AU@%TIERRA DEL
%@AU@%FUEGO%@BO:          95c490@%%@AE@%. Major cities include %@AU@%BUENOS AIRES%@BO:          152669@%%@AE@% (the capital), %@AU@%CORDOBA%@BO:          234649@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%ROSARIO%@BO:          8116fc@%%@AE@%. Argentina consists of six geographical regions: (1) the Parana
Plateau in the northeast, a wet, forested area; (2) the %@AU@%GRAN CHACO%@BO:          3c299f@%%@AE@%, a
flat alluvial plain; (3) the Pampa (see under %@AU@%PAMPAS%@BO:          706b0f@%%@AE@%), a vast grassland
between the Atlantic and the Andean foothills; (4) the Monte, an arid
region dotted with oases; (5) %@AU@%PATAGONIA%@BO:          71f7c9@%%@AE@%, in the south, a bleak plateau
that is the chief oil-producing region; and (6) the %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@% Mts., extending
the length of the western border and including %@AU@%ACONCAGUA%@BO:            d0b1@%%@AE@% (22,835 ft/6,960
m), the highest point of South America. Most important of these is the
Pampa, the chief agricultural and industrial area and site of most of the
main cities. Argentina's economy is a mix of agriculture and industry.
Grains and livestock are the basis of the nation's wealth; wheat corn,
flax, oats, beef, mutton, hides, and wool are the major exports. Domestic
oil and gas production makes the nation self-sufficient in energy. The
industrial base is highly developed, providing nearly all of its consumer
goods. Food processing (meat packing, flour milling, canning) is the
principal industry; leather goods and textiles are also important. The
population is overwhelmingly of European descent (especially Spanish and
Italian), and about 90% are Roman Catholic. Spanish is the official
language.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The first European explorers, notably Juan Diaz de Solis,
Ferdinand %@AU@%MAGELLAN%@BO:          595e8a@%%@AE@%, and Sebastian Cabot (see under %@AU@%CABOT, JOHN%@BO:          169bc9@%%@AE@%), arrived
in the early 16th cent. Buenos Aires was founded in 1536, abandoned after
Indian attacks, and refounded in 1580. The city was made the capital of a
Spanish viceroyalty in 1776. The successful struggle for independence
(1810-16) was led by generals Manuel %@AU@%BELGRANO%@BO:           e04b2@%%@AE@%, J.M. de Pueyrredon, and
Jose de %@AU@%SAN MARTIN%@BO:          842164@%%@AE@%. A protracted period of civil war ensued, lasting
until the dictatorship of J.M. de %@AU@%ROSAS%@BO:          8118c8@%%@AE@% (1829-52). A new constitution was
adopted in 1853 and, with major amendments, remained in effect until
1949, but Argentina continued to suffer political instability and
military coups. It belatedly entered (1945) %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% on the Allied
side after four years of pro-Axis "neutrality." Juan %@AU@%PERON%@BO:          737b4c@%%@AE@%, an army
colonel who, with a group of colonels, seized power in 1944, won the
elections of 1946 and established a popular dictatorship with the support
of the army, nationalists, and the Roman Catholic Church. His second
wife, the popular Eva Duarte de Peron (see under %@AU@%PERON, JUAN%@BO:          737b4c@%%@AE@%) won the
backing of trade unions; her popularity among the industrial working
class was the major pillar of support for the Peron regime. Her death in
1952, followed by an economic downturn, led to Peron's ouster (1955) by
the military. Government during the next 18 years had to contend with the
continuing popularity of the Peronist movement. In 1973, Peron returned
from exile and won election as president. His third wife, Isabel Martinez
de Peron, was elected vice president; she succeeded him upon his death in
1974. During her presidency terrorism by the left and right grew, and
inflation worsened; in 1976 she was overthrown in a military coup that
established a repressive military junta. In 1982, with Gen. Leopoldo
%@AU@%GALTIERI%@BO:          3798bf@%%@AE@% as president, Argentina occupied the %@AU@%FALKLAND ISLANDS%@BO:          319e75@%%@AE@%, which it
had long disputed with Britain. The Argentine defeat in the ensuing war
with Britain led to Galtieri's resignation and to strong public criticism
of the military government. In the late 1980s, the government was unable
to curb an annual inflation rate of more than 1000%, and in 1989, a
Peronist, Carlos Raul Menem, was elected president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%argon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%argon%@AE@%%@CR:ARGON           @%%@QR:argon@% (Ar), gaseous element, discovered in 1894 by Sir William %@AU@%RAMSAY%@BO:          7c9885@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
Lord %@AU@%RAYLEIGH%@BO:          7d0320@%%@AE@%. An odorless, tasteless, and colorless %@AU@%INERT GAS%@BO:          47f9ba@%%@AE@%, it makes
up 0.93% of the atmosphere by volume. Argon is used in light bulbs and
neon signs, in refining reactive elements, and for protection in arc
welding. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Argonauts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Argonauts%@AE@%:%@CR:ARGONAUTS       @%%@QR:Argonauts@% see %@AU@%GOLDEN FLEECE%@BO:          3b29e7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%JASON%@BO:          4b7a26@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Argus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Argus%@AE@%%@CR:ARGUS           @%%@QR:Argus@% or %@AB@%Argos,%@AE@%in Greek mythology.%@AB@%1%@AE@%Many-eyed monster who guarded %@AU@%IO%@BO:          492663@%%@AE@% after%@EH@%
she was changed into a heifer.%@AB@%2%@AE@%Builder of the ship on which %@AU@%JASON%@BO:          4b7a26@%%@AE@% and the
Argonauts sailed in quest of the %@AU@%GOLDEN FLEECE%@BO:          3b29e7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arhus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arhus%@AE@%,%@CR:ARHUS           @%%@QR:Arhus@% city (1987 pop. 255,932), central Denmark, on Arhus Bay. Founded%@EH@%
by the 10th cent., it is a prosperous cultural center and a commercial
and shipping center, manufacturing beer, textiles, and machinery. Among
its landmarks are its theater and the 12th-cent. Cathedral of St.
Clemens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aria%@AE@%,%@CR:ARIA            @%%@QR:aria@% elaborate and often lengthy solo %@AU@%SONG%@BO:          8b7f8c@%%@AE@% with instrumental%@EH@%
accompaniment, especially in an %@AU@%OPERA%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ORATORIO%@BO:          6e4380@%%@AE@%, or %@AU@%CANTATA%@BO:          184e95@%%@AE@%. The
three-part %@AI@%aria da capo%@AE@% was developed in the 17th and 18th cent. by A.
%@AU@%SCARLATTI%@BO:          85418c@%%@AE@%, J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@%, and others. The arias of W.A. %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@% often combined
dramatic and lyrical elements. Later composers fused aria and %@AU@%RECITATIVE%@BO:          7d2b68@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ariadne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ariadne%@AE@%,%@CR:ARIADNE         @%%@QR:Ariadne@% in Greek mythology, Cretan princess; daughter of %@AU@%MINOS%@BO:          613c5a@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
Pasiphae. With her help %@AU@%THESEUS%@BO:          94ed74@%%@AE@% killed the %@AU@%MINOTAUR%@BO:          613eb2@%%@AE@% and escaped from the
Labyrinth. He left with her but deserted her at Naxos. There she married
%@AU@%DIONYSUS%@BO:          293219@%%@AE@%, who is said to have set her bridal crown among the stars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arianism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arianism%@AE@%,%@CR:ARIANISM        @%%@QR:Arianism@% Christian heresy arising from the teaching of the Alexandrian%@EH@%
priest Arius, c.256-336. To Arius, Jesus was a supernatural being, not
quite human, not quite divine, who was created by God. Arianism spread
and was condemned by the First Council of %@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@% (325). The conflict went
on, however, and several bishops and emperors sided with Arius. The
Catholic tenets of Rome and %@AU@%ATHANASIUS%@BO:           945fb@%%@AE@% finally triumphed, and the First
Council of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          22895d@%%@AE@% (381) upheld the decrees of Nicaea.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arias de Avila, Pedro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arias de Avila, Pedro%@AE@%%@CR:ARIAS.DE.AVILA  @%%@QR:Arias de Avila, Pedro@%, known as %@AB@%Pedrarias%@AE@% c.1440-1531, Spanish colonial%@EH@%
administrator. He succeeded (1514) %@AU@%BALBOA%@BO:           b430c@%%@AE@% as governor of Darien (now in
%@AU@%PANAMA%@BO:          706f6b@%%@AE@%), quarreled with him, and ordered (1517) his execution. He founded
(1519) Panama City and extended Spanish dominions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arias Sanchez, Oscar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arias Sanchez, Oscar%@AE@%,%@CR:ARIAS.SANCHEZ   @%%@QR:Arias Sanchez, Oscar@% 1941-, Costa Rican politician. He was financial%@EH@%
adviser to the president (1970-72), minister of national planning
(1972-77), a congressman (1978-82), and president (1986-). Because of his
concern for regional peace, he refused to allow U.S.-backed Nicaraguan
contras to operate from Costa Rica and negotiated an accord (1987) with
other Latin American leaders calling for a cease-fire and government
talks with opposition groups. In 1987 he was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ariel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ariel%@AE@%,%@CR:ARIEL           @%%@QR:Ariel@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%URANUS%@BO:          9b0086@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arion%@AE@%,%@CR:ARION           @%%@QR:Arion@% Greek poet, fl. 7th cent.? BC, inventor of the %@AU@%DITHYRAMB%@BO:          2972cd@%%@AE@%. His%@EH@%
rescue from drowning by a dolphin charmed by his music is told by
%@AU@%HERODOTUS%@BO:          425c9f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ariosto, Ludovico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ariosto, Ludovico%@AE@%,%@CR:ARIOSTO         @%%@QR:Ariosto, Ludovico@% 1474-1533, Italian epic and lyric poet, in the service%@EH@%
of the Duke of Ferrara. His %@AI@%Orlando Furioso%@AE@% (1532), an epic treatment of
the %@AU@%ROLAND%@BO:          804e5e@%%@AE@% story intended to glorify the %@AU@%ESTE%@BO:          302085@%%@AE@% family, greatly influenced
%@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MILTON%@BO:          60e6b0@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BYRON%@BO:          16477d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aristarchus of Samos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aristarchus of Samos%@AE@%,%@CR:ARISTARSAMOS    @%%@QR:Aristarchus of Samos@% fl.c.310-c.230 BC, Greek astronomer. He is said to%@EH@%
have been the first to propose a heliocentric theory of the universe,
anticipating Copernicus by 18 centuries (see %@AU@%COPERNICAN SYSTEM%@BO:          2315e8@%%@AE@%). His only
surviving work, %@AI@%On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon,%@AE@% is
celebrated for its geometric argument, even though crude observation data
led to faulty estimates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aristogiton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aristogiton%@AE@%:%@CR:ARISTOGITON     @%%@QR:Aristogiton@% see %@AU@%HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON%@BO:          4004a9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aristophanes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aristophanes%@AE@%%@CR:ARISTOPHANES    @%%@QR:Aristophanes@% , b. c.448 BC, d. after 388 BC, Athenian comic poet, the%@EH@%
greatest ancient writer of %@AU@%COMEDY%@BO:          20dac0@%%@AE@%. His plays mix political, social, and
literary %@AU@%SATIRE%@BO:          84ce7e@%%@AE@%. Invective, burlesque, and direct attack on persons made
them suitable for the festival of %@AU@%DIONYSUS%@BO:          293219@%%@AE@%. Typically, his characters act
naturally in preposterous circumstances; his language is economical and
beautiful. Eleven surviving plays include %@AI@%The Clouds, The Wasps,
%@AI@%Lysistrata,%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Frogs%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aristotle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aristotle%@AE@%,%@CR:ARISTOTLE       @%%@QR:Aristotle@% 384-322 BC, Greek philosopher. He studied (367-347 BC) under%@EH@%
%@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@% and later (342-339 BC) tutored %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% at the
Macedonian court. In 335 BC he opened a school in the Athenian Lyceum.
During the anti-Macedonian agitation after Alexander's death Aristotle
fled (323 BC) to Chalcis, where he died. His extant writings, largely in
the form of lecture notes made by his students, include the %@AI@%Organum%@AE@%
(treatises on logic); %@AI@%Physics; Metaphysics; De Anima%@AE@% [on the soul];
%@AI@%Nicomachean Ethics%@AE@% and %@AI@%Eudemian Ethics; Politics; De Poetica; Rhetoric;%@AE@%
and works on biology and physics. Aristotle held philosophy to be the
discerning, through the use of systematic %@AU@%LOGIC%@BO:          5634cd@%%@AE@% as expressed in
%@AU@%SYLLOGISMS%@BO:          91c168@%%@AE@%, of the self-evident, changeless first principles that form
the basis of all knowledge. He taught that knowledge of a thing requires
an inquiry into causality and that the "final cause"-the purpose or
function of the thing-is primary. The highest good for the individual is
the complete exercise of the specifically human function of rationality.
In contrast to the Platonic belief that a concrete reality partakes of a
form but does not embody it, the Aristotelian system holds that, with the
exception of the Prime Mover (God), form has no separate existence but is
immanent in matter. Aristotle's work was lost following the decline of
Rome but was reintroduced to the West through the work of Arab and Jewish
scholars, becoming the basis of medieval %@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arithmetic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arithmetic%@AE@%,%@CR:ARITHMETIC      @%%@QR:arithmetic@% branch of mathematics (and the part of %@AU@%ALGEBRA%@BO:           39cfe@%%@AE@%) concerned%@EH@%
with the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division of numbers. Conventionally, the term %@AI@%arithmetic%@AE@% covers
simple numerical skills used for practical purposes, e.g., computation of
areas or costs. The study of arithmetic also deals abstractly with the
laws and properties (e.g., the %@AU@%ASSOCIATIVE LAW%@BO:           8d7e3@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%COMMUTATIVE LAW%@BO:          213818@%%@AE@%, and
the %@AU@%DISTRIBUTIVE LAW%@BO:          296ccd@%%@AE@%) governing the various operations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arithmetic progression%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arithmetic progression%@AE@%:%@CR:ARITHMERESSION  @%%@QR:arithmetic progression@% see %@AU@%PROGRESSION%@BO:          79e1a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arizona%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arizona%@AE@%,%@CR:ARIZONA         @%%@QR:Arizona@% state in the SW U.S.; bordered by Utah (N), New Mexico (E),%@EH@%
Mexico (S), and, across the Colorado R., Nevada and California (W).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 113,909 sq mi (295,024 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 3,317,000, a 22.1%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Phoenix. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Feb. 14, 1912 (48th
state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Humphreys Peak, 12,633 ft (3,853 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@%
Colorado R., 70 ft (21 m). %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Grand Canyon State. %@AI@%Motto, Ditat
%@AI@%Deus%@AE@% God Enriches. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% cactus wren. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% blossom of the
saguaro cactus. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% paloverde. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Ariz.; AZ.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@%  Most of northern and eastern Arizona lies within the
arid %@AU@%COLORADO PLATEAU%@BO:          209947@%%@AE@% region, and most of the south and west in the flat
desert basins (many now irrigated) and jagged mountain ranges of the
Basin and Range region. Major rivers are the %@AU@%COLORADO%@BO:          2096c3@%%@AE@%, Gila, and Salt. A
total of 20,036,000 acres (8,108,000 hectares), or 38% of all U.S. Indian
tribal lands, are in Arizona; the largest are the %@AU@%NAVAHO%@BO:          679fa7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HOPI%@BO:          445702@%%@AE@%, Fort
%@AU@%APACHE%@BO:           68af4@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PAPAGO%@BO:          70d671@%%@AE@% Indian reservations. %@AU@%PHOENIX%@BO:          74fced@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TUCSON%@BO:          986b87@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TEMPE%@BO:          93bb8c@%%@AE@% are
the principal cities. In 1984 Arizona was 91% white, 9% native American
and others.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Manufacturing is the leading economic activity, with machinery,
electronic and aeronautical products, and electrical and transportation
equipment the major manufactures. Cotton is the chief irrigated crop, and
some lettuce, hay, oranges, and grapefruit are also grown in the
subtropical south. Large cattle and sheep ranges produce livestock and
dairy products. Arizona is a leading U.S. producer of copper (at Morenci
and Bisbee), and there is a small lumber industry near Flagstaff. The
state is also known for its Indian handicrafts. The hot, dry climate,
spectacular scenic attractions such as the %@AU@%GRAND CANYON%@BO:          3c35c2@%%@AE@% and the Petrified
Forest (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,), and many Indian reservations attract large
numbers of tourists.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution provides for a governor and for a state
legislature of 30 senators and 60 representatives elected for two-year
terms. Arizona elects two senators and five representatives to the U.S.
Congress and has seven electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Early Spanish explorers included %@AU@%CABEZA DE VACA%@BO:          168644@%%@AE@% (1536), Marcos de
Niza (1539), and Francisco Vasquez de %@AU@%CORONADO%@BO:          237b71@%%@AE@% (1540), and several
Spanish missions were founded in the late 17th cent. The region came
under Mexican control after 1821, and lands north of the Gila R. passed
to the U.S. territory of New Mexico at the end of the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%
(1846-48). Lands between the Gila R. and today's southern boundary were
added through the %@AU@%GADSDEN PURCHASE%@BO:          3734d8@%%@AE@% (1853). Arizona became a separate
territory in 1863, and settlement accelerated after the surrender (1866)
of %@AU@%GERONIMO%@BO:          39abe7@%%@AE@% ended 25 years of Apache Indian wars. Rapid development of
irrigated agriculture, spurred by construction of the Roosevelt dam
(1911), and industrial and urban expansion beginning during World War II
strained limited water resources. A 1963 U.S. Supreme Court decision to
increase Arizona's allocation of water from the Colorado R. was followed
in 1968 by congressional authorization of the huge Central Arizona
project, to divert water from the Colorado at Parker Dam and carry it
across Arizona for use in the Phoenix-Tucson area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ark%@AE@%,%@CR:ARK             @%%@QR:ark@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%1%@AE@% Boat built by %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@% at God's command to save his%@EH@%
family and certain animals from the Flood. Gen. 6-9. %@AB@%2%@AE@% Ark of the
Covenant, the sacred, gold-covered, wooden chest, identified by the
Hebrews with God. Touching it meant death. It was carried into battle, as
its presence implied victory, and was once captured by the Philistines.
Restored many years later, it was placed in %@AU@%SOLOMON'S%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@% temple. Ex.
25.10-21; 1 Sam. 4-7; 1 Chron. 13; 15; 16; 2 Chron. 5.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arkansas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arkansas%@AE@%,%@CR:ARKANSAS1       @%%@QR:Arkansas@% state in the S central U.S.; bordered by Tennessee and%@EH@%
Mississippi, across the Mississippi R. (E), Louisiana (S), Texas and
Oklahoma (W), and Missouri (N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 53,104 sq mi (137,539 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 2,372,000, an 3.8%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Little Rock. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% June 15, 1836
(25th state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Magazine Mt., 2,753 ft (840 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@%
Ouachita R., 55 ft (17 m). %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Land of Opportunity. %@AI@%Motto, Regnat
%@AI@%Populus%@AE@% The People Rule. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% mockingbird. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% apple
blossom. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% pine. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Ark.; AR.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% The higher terrain of the Ozark Plateau (see %@AU@%OZARKS%@BO:          6fd7e4@%%@AE@%) and
Ouachita Mts., in the west, give way to lowlands in the east, drained
mostly by the %@AU@%ARKANSAS%@BO:           7dfe8@%%@AE@% and Ouachita rivers. There are many lakes, and the
mineral waters of Hot Springs are preserved in the %@AU@%NATIONAL PARK%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% there,
contributing to the state's well-developed tourist industry. Arkansas has
long, hot summers and mild winters. About 38% of the population lives in
metropolitan areas. %@AU@%LITTLE ROCK%@BO:          55bf1d@%%@AE@% is the leading city; other important
cities are %@AU@%FORT SMITH%@BO:          34a37c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PINE BLUFF%@BO:          75dd49@%%@AE@%. In 1984 the population was 82%
white, 18% black and other.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Manufacturing, the leading contributor to the state's income,
includes processed foods (especially beef and poultry), electronic
equipment, and paper and wood products utilizing state-grown lumber.
Leading agricultural commodities are soybeans, rice, cotton, poultry, and
cattle. Although it boasts the country's only active diamond mine,
Arkansas's most valuable mineral resources are oil, bromine, natural gas,
and bauxite.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% According to the constitution of 1874, the government is
headed by a governor elected to a two-year term. The legislature consists
of 35 senators serving four-year terms and 100 representatives elected to
two-year terms. Arkansas sends two senators and four representatives to
the U.S. Congress and has six electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The Quapaw, %@AU@%OSAGE%@BO:          6f191b@%%@AE@%, and Caddo Indians inhabited the region when it
was visited by Spanish explorers, including Hernando %@AU@%DE SOTO%@BO:          28496d@%%@AE@% (1541-42).
The French explorer Robert Cavelier, sieur de %@AU@%LA SALLE%@BO:          52762b@%%@AE@%, founded (1682)
the first permanent white settlement, Arkansas Post. In 1803 the area
passed from France to the U.S. through the %@AU@%LOUISIANA PURCHASE%@BO:          574f09@%%@AE@%, and many
new settlers established cotton plantations. Arkansas soon became a
separate territory (1819) and a state (1836). The state seceded from the
Union in 1861 and joined the %@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@%. It was readmitted to the Union
in 1868 and experienced a turbulent %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% era. Around the turn
of the century its population grew substantially. The discovery of oil in
1921 resulted in new prosperity for Arkansas, but farmers were severely
affected by the %@AU@%GREAT DEPRESSION%@BO:          3cd5ed@%%@AE@% of the 1930s. In 1957 Gov. Orval Faubus
became the focus of world attention when he resisted the federal
desegregation of Little Rock's public schools. The enrollment of black
students was subsequently enforced by the federal government. In 1981
Arkansas passed a controversial law mandating the equal teaching of
%@AU@%CREATIONISM%@BO:          2468ea@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@% in the public schools. The law was overturned
in federal court the following year.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arkansas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arkansas%@AE@%,%@CR:ARKANSAS2       @%%@QR:Arkansas@% river, flowing SE c.1,450 mi (2,330 km) from the Rocky Mts. of%@EH@%
Colorado to the Mississippi R. in SE Arkansas. Controlled by more than 25
dams, it is navigable to Tulsa, Okla.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arkhangelsk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arkhangelsk%@AE@%%@CR:ARKHANGELSK     @%%@QR:Arkhangelsk@% or %@AB@%Archangel,%@AE@% city (1987 est. pop. 416,000), NW European%@EH@%
USSR, on the Northern Dvina near its mouth on the White Sea. It is a
leading port; though icebound much of the year, it can be made usable by
icebreakers. Major exports are timber and wood products; other industries
are fishing and shipbuilding. Founded as Novo-Kholmogory (1584), it was
renamed (1613) for the monastery of the Archangel Michael. An Allied
supply port in World Wars I and II, it was occupied (1918-20) by Allied
and anti-Bolshevik forces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arkwright, Sir Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arkwright, Sir Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:ARKWRIGHT       @%%@QR:Arkwright, Sir Richard@% 1732-92, English inventor. His construction%@EH@%
(1769) of a %@AU@%SPINNING%@BO:          8d93cc@%%@AE@% machine, the water frame, was an early step in the
%@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%. Arkwright's spinning machine led to the
establishment of huge cotton mills and to the beginnings of the factory
system.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arles, kingdom of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arles, kingdom of%@AE@%,%@CR:ARLES           @%%@QR:Arles, kingdom of@% was formed in 933, when Rudolf II united his kingdom%@EH@%
of Transjurane %@AU@%BURGUNDY%@BO:          15a228@%%@AE@% with Provence or Cisjurane Burgundy. Holy Roman
Emperor %@AU@%CONRAD II%@BO:          223a10@%%@AE@% annexed the kingdom to the empire in 1034, but its
component parts gradually broke away. In 1378 Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES
%@AU@%IV%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% ceded the realm to the French dauphin (later %@AU@%CHARLES VI%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%), and the
kingdom for all practical purposes ceased to exist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arlington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arlington%@AE@%,%@CR:ARLINGTON1      @%%@QR:Arlington@% county (1986 est. pop. 158,700), N Va., across the %@AU@%POTOMAC%@BO:          78ae1a@%%@AE@% R.%@EH@%
from %@AU@%WASHINGTON, D.C.%@BO:          9f65c5@%%@AE@% A residential suburb of Washington, the county is
governed as a single unit without subdivisions. Within its boundaries are
Arlington National Cemetery, the %@AU@%PENTAGON%@BO:          72f503@%%@AE@%, Marymount Univ., and
Washington National Airport. Arlington was part of the %@AU@%DISTRICT OF
%@AU@%COLUMBIA%@BO:          296e9f@%%@AE@% from 1790 to 1847.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arlington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arlington%@AE@%,%@CR:ARLINGTON2      @%%@QR:Arlington@% city (1986 est. pop. 249,770), Tarrant co., N Tex., midway%@EH@%
between %@AU@%DALLAS%@BO:          261ae5@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%FORT WORTH%@BO:          34a9c4@%%@AE@%; inc. 1884. Located in a rapidly growing
industrial area, it produces automobile parts, containers, rubber
products, and other manufactures. Arlington is the home of Six Flags over
Texas, a huge historical amusement park, and the Texas Rangers baseball
team. The city has a branch of the Univ. of Texas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armada, Spanish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armada, Spanish%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMADA          @%%@QR:Armada, Spanish@% 1588, fleet launched by %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of Spain for the%@EH@%
invasion of England. Commanded by the duque de Medina Sidonia and
consisting of 130 ships and about 30,000 men, the Armada was delayed by
storms and finally set sail from Lisbon in May. The English fleet, under
Charles Howard, sailed from Plymouth and inflicted long-range damage on
the Armada but did not break its formation. Anchoring off Calais, Medina
Sidonia intended to pick up Alessandro %@AU@%FARNESE'S%@BO:          31c796@%%@AE@% army in Flanders and
convey it to England. But on Aug. 7 the English sent fire ships into the
anchorage to scatter the Armada and then attacked the fleeing ships at
close range off Gravelines. The battered Armada escaped northward, sailed
around Scotland and Ireland while buffeted by storms, and returned to
Spain after losing about half its ships.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%armadillo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%armadillo%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMADILLO       @%%@QR:armadillo@% armored %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (order Edentata) found in the S U.S. and Latin%@EH@%
America. The head and body are almost entirely covered by an armor of
bony, horny plates. Armadillos are usually nocturnal and, although
omnivorous, eat mostly insects. The largest species, the giant armadillo
(%@AI@%Priodontes giganteus%@AE@%), is about 4 ft (120 cm) long; the smallest, the
fairy armadillo (%@AI@%Chlamyphorus truncatus%@AE@%), about 6 in. (15 cm) long. The
only U.S. species is the nine-banded armadillo (%@AI@%Dasypus novemcinctus%@AE@%),
about 30 in. (76 cm) long and weighing about 15 lb (6.4 kg).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%armature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%armature%@AE@%:%@CR:ARMATURE        @%%@QR:armature@% see %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOTOR, ELECTRIC%@BO:          647ad2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armenia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armenia%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMENIA         @%%@QR:Armenia@% region and former kingdom of Asia Minor. It includes NE %@AU@%TURKEY%@BO:          98c2ce@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
the %@AU@%ARMENIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC%@BO:           7fe51@%%@AE@%, and parts of Iranian Azerbaijan.
Under Persian rule from the 6th to the 4th cent. BC, it was conquered in
330 by %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% but after his death fell to Syria. Armenia was
independent from 189 BC to 67 BC, when it became tributary to Rome.
Christianity was adopted in the 3d cent. AD; under Persian rule later in
that century many Christians were martyred. Persia and Rome partitioned
the kingdom in 387; it achieved autonomy in 886 but was invaded in the
mid-11th cent. by the Byzantines, Seljuk Turks, and Mongols. Pushed
westward, one group founded Little Armenia, in %@AU@%CILICIA%@BO:          1e6017@%%@AE@%. In 1386-94 the
Mongols, under %@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@%, seized Greater Armenia and massacred much of
the population. The Ottoman Turks invaded in 1405 and by the 16th cent.
held all of Armenia. Though most Armenians experienced religious
persecution, Armenian merchants played an important role in the economy
of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%. Eastern Armenia was long disputed by Turkey and
Persia; in 1828 Persia ceded to Russia the present Armenian SSR. From
1894 on, a plan for Armenian extermination was pursued under Sultan %@AU@%ABD
%@AU@%AL-HAMID II%@BO:            1f13@%%@AE@%, culminating in the massacre of 1915. In 1918 Russian Armenia
became independent under German auspices (see %@AU@%BREST-LITOVSK, TREATY OF%@BO:          13b5e3@%%@AE@%),
but in 1920 an autonomous Greater Armenia was created from the Turkish
and Soviet Russian areas. In that year, however, Russian Armenia fell to
the Communists and was made a Soviet republic; the 1921 Russo-Turkish
Treaty established the present boundaries, ending Armenian independence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armenian language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armenian language%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMENIAGE       @%%@QR:Armenian language@% member of the Thraco-Phrygian sub-family of the%@EH@%
Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMENIAST.REPU  @%%@QR:Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic@% constituent republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
3,400,000), 11,500 sq mi (29,785 sq km), SE European USSR, in the S
Caucasus. The smallest Soviet republic, it is a mountainous region
bounded by Turkey (W); the Azerbaijan Republic (E); Iran (S); and the
Georgian Republic (N). %@AU@%YEREVAN%@BO:          a4304d@%%@AE@% is the capital. Major bodies of water are
Lake %@AU@%SEVAN%@BO:          874f66@%%@AE@% and the Araks and Razdan rivers. Industries include fishing,
mining, and wine-making. Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are important
agricultural products. In addition to the Armenian majority there are
Azerbaijani, Russian, and Kurdish minorities. For history, see %@AU@%ARMENIA%@BO:           7f514@%%@AE@%.
In 1988 Armenian discontent with the Azerbaijan Republic's policies with
respect to the Armenian minority in the Nagorno-Karabakh region
intensified. Later that year a devastating earthquake killed almost
35,000 people.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%armor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%armor%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMOR           @%%@QR:armor@% protective covering for persons, steeds, or vehicles. Early body%@EH@%
armor of leather, shells, wood, or basketwork was replaced by metal in
the ancient Middle East; by the Middle Ages the metal helmet, cuirass,
and greaves of the Greeks and Romans had evolved into full body armor of
chain mail or plate. Heavy and cumbersome, it disappeared after warfare
became more mobile and firearms more effective. Steel helmets and
protective clothing (e.g., bullet-proof vests) were reintroduced in the
20th cent., and armor is still used extensively on ships, %@AU@%TANKS%@BO:          92a0ce@%%@AE@%, and
aircraft.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armory Show%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armory Show%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMORY.SHOW     @%%@QR:Armory Show@% art exhibition held in 1913 at the 69th-regiment armory in%@EH@%
New York City. Including works of the European avant-garde, e.g.,
%@AU@%DUCHAMP'S%@BO:          2b05b7@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Nude Descending a Staircase,%@AE@% it was a sensational introduction
of modern art into the U.S. One of the most important art shows ever held
in the country, it helped to change the direction of American painting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arms, coats of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arms, coats of%@AE@%:%@CR:ARMS            @%%@QR:arms, coats of@% see %@AU@%BLAZONRY%@BO:          10d94b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HERALDRY%@BO:          4219e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo"%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo"%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMSTRONG1      @%%@QR:Armstrong, (Daniel) Louis "Satchmo"@% 1900-1971, black American %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
trumpeter, singer, and bandleader; b. New Orleans. He became known for
improvisational genius and strongly influenced the melodic development of
jazz. Armstrong was in large part responsible for the rise of the soloist
in jazz.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armstrong, Neil Alden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armstrong, Neil Alden%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMSTRONG2      @%%@QR:Armstrong, Neil Alden@% 1930-, American astronaut; b. Wapakoneta, Ohio. He%@EH@%
was the command pilot for %@AI@%Gemini 8%@AE@% (Mar. 16, 1966) and deputy associate
administrator for aeronautics (1970-71) at NASA. During the %@AI@%Apollo 11%@AE@%
mission (July 16-24, 1969), which he commanded, he and Buzz %@AU@%ALDRIN%@BO:           32c08@%%@AE@% (the
lunar-module pilot) became the first and second persons, respectively, to
walk on the moon (see %@AU@%SPACE EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@%,). He taught aeronautical
engineering (1971-79) at the Univ. of Cincinnati and was appointed (1985)
to the National Commission on Space by Pres. Reagan (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Armstrong, Samuel Chapman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Armstrong, Samuel Chapman%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMSTRONG3      @%%@QR:Armstrong, Samuel Chapman@% 1839-93, American educator and philanthropist;%@EH@%
b. Hawaiian Islands. Appointed an agent of the Freedmen's Bureau after
the Civil War, he realized the need for vocational training of
emancipated slaves and helped found (1868) the Hampton Inst., which he
headed until 1893, to advance that purpose.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%army%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%army%@AE@%,%@CR:ARMY            @%%@QR:army@% armed land force under regular military organization, as%@EH@%
distinguished from the horde, or armed mass of all ablebodied men in a
tribe. The earliest known professional army was that of Egypt, followed
by those of Assyria and Persia. Military service became obligatory for
citizens of Greece. The Roman army evolved from a citizen soldiery into a
professional standing army increasingly composed of barbarian
mercenaries. In the Middle Ages, the armed %@AU@%KNIGHT%@BO:          5035fe@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%YEOMAN%@BO:          a42d61@%%@AE@% owed a set
number of days of military service each year to a great lord; but with
the decline of %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@% and the advent of firearms, this system also
gave way to the service of mercenaries. In the 17th cent. Louis XIV of
France organized a national standing army that set the pattern for all of
Europe: a highly disciplined, professional body set apart from civilian
life. The concept reached a harsh perfection under Frederick II of
Prussia. It was the introduction of %@AU@%CONSCRIPTION%@BO:          224de2@%%@AE@% during the French
Revolutionary Wars that set in motion the development of modern mass
armies built around a professional nucleus and organized into specialized
units for combat and support. Although conscription was used in the U.S.
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, the U.S., until 1940, traditionally relied in
emergencies on its citizen militia, the %@AU@%NATIONAL GUARD%@BO:          66d11d@%%@AE@%, and on voluntary
enlistment in the armed forces; the peacetime draft was again lifted in
1973. The term %@AI@%army%@AE@% generally applies to all armed land forces of a
nation (e.g., the French army); it can also designate a self-contained
fighting force in a given area (e.g., the Army of the Potomac in the U.S.
Civil War) or a unit of c.100,000 men composed of two or more corps. A
corps in turn is composed of two or more divisions (usually about 15,000
men). Traditionally, an army was made up of major %@AU@%INFANTRY%@BO:          48046e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CAVALRY%@BO:          1a75b2@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%ARTILLERY%@BO:           8773d@%%@AE@% commands, but these gave way to more complex forms of
organization. Today, each division typically includes infantry, airborne,
mechanized, and other specialized battalions or brigades. See also
%@AU@%MILITARY SCIENCE%@BO:          609911@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arnim, Achim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arnim, Achim%@AE@%%@CR:ARNIM           @%%@QR:Arnim, Achim@%or %@AB@%Joachim von%@AE@%, 1781-1831, German writer of the romantic%@EH@%
school. He is best remembered for his work with his brother-in-law,
Clemens %@AU@%BRENTANO%@BO:          13adcb@%%@AE@%, on the folk-song collection %@AI@%The Boy's Magic Horn%@AE@%
(1806-8) and for his historical novels, notably %@AI@%Isabella of Egypt%@AE@% (1812).
His wife, %@AB@%Bettina von Arnim,%@AE@% 1785-1859, b. Elisabeth Brentano, was also a
writer. She corresponded with %@AU@%BEETHOVEN%@BO:           db753@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GOETHE%@BO:          3b0629@%%@AE@%; her publication of
%@AI@%Goethe's Correspondence with a Child%@AE@% (1835) reflects her own poetic
imagination.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arnold, Benedict%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arnold, Benedict%@AE@%,%@CR:ARNOLD1         @%%@QR:Arnold, Benedict@% 1741-1801, American Revolutionary general and traitor;%@EH@%
b. Norwich, Conn. After excellent service in the colonial assault on
Quebec (1775-76) and the %@AU@%SARATOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          847e59@%%@AE@%, he felt slighted regarding
promotion. His plot with John %@AU@%ANDRE%@BO:           54cba@%%@AE@% to betray (1780) the American post at
%@AU@%WEST POINT%@BO:          a0cde8@%%@AE@% was discovered, but Arnold escaped and later fought for the
British.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arnold, Matthew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arnold, Matthew%@AE@%,%@CR:ARNOLD2         @%%@QR:Arnold, Matthew@% 1822-88, English poet and critic; son of Thomas Arnold.%@EH@%
He was an inspector of schools (1851-86) and professor of poetry at
Oxford (1857-67). Arnold wrote superb poetry, usually dealing with the
themes of loneliness and pessimism. Among his best-known verses are
"Isolation: To Marguerite" (1852), "The Scholar Gypsy" (1853), and "Dover
Beach" (1867). His books of literary criticism include %@AI@%On Translating
%@AI@%Homer%@AE@% (1861) and %@AI@%Essays in Criticism%@AE@% (1865; Ser. 2, 1888). %@AI@%Culture and
%@AI@%Anarchy%@AE@% (1869) is a volume of social criticism. Arnold stressed the
necessity for objectivity and advocated a culture based on the best that
has been thought and said in the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aromatic compound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aromatic compound%@AE@%,%@CR:AROMATIND       @%%@QR:aromatic compound@% any of a large class of organic compounds including%@EH@%
%@AU@%BENZENE%@BO:           e9ead@%%@AE@% and compounds that resemble benzene in chemical properties.
Aromatic compounds contain unusually stable ring structures, often made
up of six carbon atoms arranged hexagonally. Some of the compounds,
however, have rings with more or fewer atoms, not necessarily all carbon.
Furan, for example, has a ring with four atoms of carbon and one of
oxygen. Also, two or more rings can be fused, as in naphthalene. The
characteristic properties of the class, notably the stability of the
compounds, derive from the fact that aromatic rings permit the sharing of
some electrons by all the atoms of the ring, which increases the strength
of the bonds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aroostook War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aroostook War%@AE@%,%@CR:AROOSTOOK.WAR   @%%@QR:Aroostook War@% brief conflict, 1838-39, between the U.S. and Canada%@EH@%
concerning the Maine-New Brunswick border. An agreement (March 1839)
averted full-scale war. The boundary was settled (1842) by the
%@AU@%WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY%@BO:          a0200c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arp, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arp, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:ARP             @%%@QR:Arp, Jean@% or %@AB@%Hans,%@AE@%1887-1966, French sculptor and painter. A member of%@EH@%
avant-garde groups in Europe, Arp created abstract, organic, witty works
in various media. A monumental wood relief (1950) is at Harvard Univ.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arrhenius, Svante August%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arrhenius, Svante August%@AE@%%@CR:ARRHENIUS       @%%@QR:Arrhenius, Svante August@%, 1859-1927, Swedish chemist. For his theory of%@EH@%
electrolytic dissociation, or ionization (see %@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%), he won
the 1903 Nobel Prize in chemistry. He also investigated osmosis and
toxins and antitoxins. He became (1905) director of the Nobel Institute
for Physical Chemistry, Stockholm.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arrowroot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arrowroot%@AE@%,%@CR:ARROWROOT       @%%@QR:arrowroot@% plant (genus %@AI@%Maranta%@AE@%) of the family Marantaceae, found mainly%@EH@%
in warm, swampy forests of the Americas. The term %@AI@%arrowroot%@AE@% also applies
to the easily digested starch obtained from the true, or West Indian,
arrowroot (%@AI@%M. arundinacea%@AE@%). Plants from other families produce similar
starches, e.g., East Indian arrowroot (%@AU@%GINGER%@BO:          3a3f62@%%@AE@% family); Queensland
arrowroot (Canna family); Brazilian arrowroot, or tapioca (%@AU@%SPURGE%@BO:          8ddbaf@%%@AE@%
family); and Florida arrowroot, or sago.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arrowworm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arrowworm%@AE@%,%@CR:ARROWWORM       @%%@QR:arrowworm@% common name for Chaetognatha, a phylum of slender-bodied,%@EH@%
transparent marine invertebrate animals widely distributed, but
preferring warm, shallow seas. Most are less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) long.
The head is well-developed, with eyes and other sensory organs, grasping
spines, teeth, and a protective hood. Arrowworms reproduce sexually.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arsaces%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arsaces%@AE@%%@CR:ARSACES         @%%@QR:Arsaces@%, fl. 250 BC, founder of the Parthian dynasty of the %@AB@%Arsacids,%@AE@%%@EH@%
which ruled Persia from c.250 BC to AD 226.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arsenic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arsenic%@AE@%%@CR:ARSENIC         @%%@QR:arsenic@% (As), semimetallic element, first described by %@AU@%ALBERTUS MAGNUS%@BO:           2f122@%%@AE@% in%@EH@%
the 13th cent. Arsenic has several allotropic forms (see %@AU@%ALLOTROPY%@BO:           3f040@%%@AE@%); the
most stable is a silver-gray, brittle, crystalline solid that tarnishes
in air. Arsenic ores include realgar and arsenopyrite. Combined with
other elements, arsenic forms strong poisons; organic compounds of
arsenic were widely used medically to treat syphilis and yaws. The metal
is used in the manufacture of lead shot and transistorized circuits. See
%@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Artaxerxes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Artaxerxes%@AE@%%@CR:ARTAXERXES      @%%@QR:Artaxerxes@%, name of several ancient Persian kings. %@AB@%Artaxerxes I,%@AE@% d. 425%@EH@%
BC (r.464-425 BC), was a member of the %@AU@%ACHAEMENID%@BO:            b142@%%@AE@% dynasty. Artaxerxes is
the Greek form of the name Ardashir the Persian. He succeeded his father,
Xerxes I, in whose assassination he had no part. The later weakness of
the Persian empire is commonly traced to his reign. %@AB@%Artaxerxes II,%@AE@% d. 358
BC (r.404-358 BC), was the son and successor of %@AU@%DARIUS II%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%CYRUS THE
%@AU@%YOUNGER%@BO:          25c818@%%@AE@% attempted to assassinate him but was crushed (401 BC). During his
reign the provinces of the empire became restless. His son, %@AB@%Artaxerxes
%@AB@%III,%@AE@% d. 338 BC (r.358-338 BC), gained the throne by a general massacre of
his brother's family. Throughout his reign he continued a policy of
terror, and he was finally poisoned by one of his ministers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%art deco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%art deco%@AE@%,%@CR:ART.DECO        @%%@QR:art deco@% design style popular during the 1920s and 30s, characterized by%@EH@%
slender forms, straight lines, and a sleekness expressive of "modern"
technology. The style regained popularity in the 1970s and 80s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Artemis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Artemis%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTEMIS         @%%@QR:Artemis@% in Greek mythology, goddess of the hunt. She was the daughter of%@EH@%
%@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and Leto and the twin sister of %@AU@%APOLLO%@BO:           6b067@%%@AE@%. Artemis is associated with
chastity, marriage, children, wildlife, and, as a complement to the sun
god Apollo, with the moon. The Romans identified her with %@AU@%DIANA%@BO:          28ace3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arteriosclerosis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arteriosclerosis%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTERIOS        @%%@QR:arteriosclerosis@% general term for a condition characterized by%@EH@%
thickening, hardening, and loss of elasticity of the walls of the
arteries. In its most common form, atherosclerosis, fatty deposits, e.g.,
%@AU@%CHOLESTEROL%@BO:          1dbe42@%%@AE@%, build up on the inner artery walls; in some cases calcium
deposits also form. The blood vessels narrow, and blood flow decreases;
%@AU@%THROMBOSIS%@BO:          9569ff@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HEART DISEASE%@BO:          40f6eb@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%STROKE%@BO:          8fcd44@%%@AE@% may result. Surgical treatment is
sometimes effective, but there is no specific cure. A low-cholesterol
diet and control of predisposing factors, such as %@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@%, smoking,
%@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%, and obesity, are usually recommended.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artesian well%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artesian well%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTESIAN.WELL   @%%@QR:artesian well@% deep well drilled into an inclined aquifer (layer of%@EH@%
water-bearing porous rock or sediment), where water is trapped under
pressure between impervious rock layers. When a well is drilled into the
aquifer through the overlying impervious rock, pressure forces water to
rise in the well. Artesian water is usually desirable for drinking. In
North America, artesian systems supply water to the Great Plains and many
East Coast cities. The largest artesian system is in Australia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Artevelde, Jacob van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Artevelde, Jacob van%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTEVELDE       @%%@QR:Artevelde, Jacob van@% c.1290-1345, Flemish statesman. A conflict between%@EH@%
the count of Flanders and %@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of England cut off English wool
imports, ruining the Flemish weavers and merchants. Ghent rebelled, and
Artevelde, as head of its government, signed a commercial treaty with
England (1338). In 1340 he had the Flemish towns recognize Edward as king
of France and thus suzerain of Flanders. He was killed in a riot. His
son, %@AB@%Philip van Artevelde,%@AE@% 1340-82, led a weavers' revolt against the
count of Flanders (1381), taking Bruges and most of Flanders before being
killed by the French.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%art history%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%art history%@AE@%,%@CR:ART.HISTORY     @%%@QR:art history@% the study of works of art and architecture. It was raised to%@EH@%
an academic discipline in the mid-19th cent. by Jacob %@AU@%BURCKHARDT%@BO:          159a6a@%%@AE@%, who
related art to its cultural environment, and by idealists such as
Heinrich Wolfflin, who explored art in terms of formal analysis. Both
approaches remain important in contemporary art history. Major 20th-cent.
art historians include Bernard %@AU@%BERENSON%@BO:           eaa70@%%@AE@%, Henri Focillon, Ernst Gombrich,
Emile Male, and Erwin %@AU@%PANOFSKY%@BO:          7094d3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arthritis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arthritis%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTHRITIS       @%%@QR:arthritis@% inflammation of one or more joints of the body, usually%@EH@%
producing pain, redness, and stiffness. It disables more people than any
other chronic disorder. A common form is osteoarthritis, a degenerative
disease of the joints that commonly occurs with aging. Rheumatoid
arthritis, an %@AU@%AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE%@BO:           a39e9@%%@AE@% of unknown cause, is a progressive,
crippling joint disorder most common in women between 25 and 50. Initial
treatment for arthritis includes use of heat, physical therapy, and
%@AU@%ASPIRIN%@BO:           8c836@%%@AE@%; in more severe cases, gold salts and %@AU@%CORTISONE%@BO:          239fe5@%%@AE@% are given, but
they often have undesirable side effects. See also %@AU@%GOUT%@BO:          3be670@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arthropod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arthropod%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTHROPOD       @%%@QR:arthropod@% invertebrate animal, having a segmented body covered by a%@EH@%
jointed exoskeleton with paired jointed appendages; member of the phylum
Arthropoda, the largest and most diverse invertebrate phylum. The
exoskeleton is periodically shed (molted) to permit growth and
%@AU@%METAMORPHOSIS%@BO:          5f404f@%%@AE@%. Arthropods make up more than 80% (800,000) of all known
animal species; they include %@AU@%TRILOBITES%@BO:          97d3ef@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HORSESHOE CRABS%@BO:          448ac1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ARACHNIDS%@BO:           71d92@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SEA
%@AU@%SPIDERS%@BO:          8662e8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRUSTACEANS%@BO:          250aa5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%INSECTS%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CENTIPEDES%@BO:          1ae28d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MILLIPEDES%@BO:          60d4ea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arthur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arthur%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTHUR1         @%%@QR:Arthur@% king of Britain: see %@AU@%ARTHURIAN LEGEND%@BO:           855f0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arthur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arthur%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTHUR2         @%%@QR:Arthur@% dukes of Brittany. %@AB@%Arthur I,%@AE@% 1187-1203?, duke 1196-1203?, was the%@EH@%
son of Geoffrey, fourth son of %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England. After the death of
%@AU@%RICHARD I%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% of England, Arthur's claim to the English crown was passed over
in favor of his uncle %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%. Arthur allied himself with %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% of
France, who invested Arthur with Richard's fiefs in France. Fighting
ensued, and Arthur was captured (1202) by John, who is suspected of
murdering him. Arthur's story is told in Shakespeare's %@AI@%King John%@AE@%. %@AB@%Arthur
%@AB@%III,%@AE@% 1394-1458, duke 1457-58, was known as comte de Richemont before his
accession. As constable of France in the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%, he captured
(1436) Paris from the English and helped to regain Normandy for France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arthur, Chester Alan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arthur, Chester Alan%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTHUR3         @%%@QR:Arthur, Chester Alan@% 1830?-86, 21st president of the U.S. (1881-85); b.%@EH@%
Fairfield, Vt. A lawyer, he was appointed (1871) collector of the port of
New York. His removal (1878) by Pres. %@AU@%HAYES%@BO:          40b585@%%@AE@% angered Sen. Roscoe %@AU@%CONKLING%@BO:          222015@%%@AE@%
and other New York Republicans, but they were placated in 1880 by
Arthur's nomination as vice president on the Republican ticket with James
A. %@AU@%GARFIELD%@BO:          37fb9b@%%@AE@%. Succeeding to the presidency after Garfield's assassination,
Arthur had an honest, efficient, and dignified administration. He
supported the civil service reform act of 1883 and vetoed a Chinese
exclusion bill that violated a treaty with China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Arthurian legend%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Arthurian legend%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTHURID        @%%@QR:Arthurian legend@% mass of stories, popular in medieval lore, concerning%@EH@%
King Arthur of Britain and his knights. The earliest reference to Arthur
is in the Welsh poem %@AI@%Gododdin%@AE@% (c.600), although later sources place him
at the Battle of Mt. Badon, mentioned by Gildas c.540. In Nennius (c.800)
he appears as a Celtic victor over Saxon invaders. The legend was greatly
elaborated by %@AU@%GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH%@BO:          38e653@%%@AE@% in his %@AI@%Historia%@AE@% (c.1135), which
represents Arthur as the conqueror of Western Europe. Wace's %@AI@%Roman de
%@AI@%Brut%@AE@% (c.1155) infuses the story with the spirit of chivalric romance, and
the %@AI@%Brut%@AE@% of %@AU@%LAYAMON%@BO:          5304ab@%%@AE@% (c.1200) pictures Arthur as national hero. The
12th-cent. French poet %@AU@%CHRETIEN DE TROYES%@BO:          1de12e@%%@AE@% introduced in %@AI@%Perceval%@AE@% the
theme of the quest for the Holy Grail. %@AU@%GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG%@BO:          3bcc78@%%@AE@%, a
medieval German poet, wrote the first great treatment of the %@AU@%TRISTRAM AND
%@AU@%ISOLDE%@BO:          97f02e@%%@AE@% story. The Middle English %@AI@%Sir Gawain and the Green Knight%@AE@% (c.1370)
embodied the ideal of chivalric knighthood. Sir Thomas %@AU@%MALORY'S%@BO:          5a6142@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Morte
%@AI@%d'Arthur%@AE@% (1485) was the last important medieval treatment. Since Malory,
the legend has appeared in the work of %@AU@%TENNYSON%@BO:          93fba6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SWINBURNE%@BO:          9194e9@%%@AE@%, William
%@AU@%MORRIS%@BO:          6405bb@%%@AE@%, T.H. %@AU@%WHITE%@BO:          a13918@%%@AE@%, and others. It is generally accepted that the
Arthurian legend developed out of Celtic mythology, as collected in the
Welsh %@AU@%MABINOGION%@BO:          586541@%%@AE@%. The stories may have coalesced around Irish hero tales
and were probably carried to the Continent by Breton minstrels before
1000. Despite innumerable variations, the basic story has remained the
same. Arthur, the illegitimate son of Uther Pendragon, king of Britain,
wins recognition after his father's death by removing a sword from a
stone. Merlin, the court magician, then reveals his parentage. Reigning
at %@AU@%CAMELOT%@BO:          17a29e@%%@AE@%, Arthur proves a mighty and noble king. He possesses the great
sword Excalibur, given him by the mysterious Lady of the Lake. His
enemies include his sorceress sister, Morgan le Fay, and Sir Mordred,
usually his nephew, who fatally wounds him. The dying king is borne away
to Avalon, whence he will someday return. Among the knights in Arthur's
court are Sir Launcelot and Sir Tristram, both involved in illicit and
tragic unions, Launcelot with Arthur's wife, Guinevere, and Tristram with
Isolde, the wife of his uncle, King Mark. Other figures include Sir
Pelleas and Sir Gawain; Sir Galahad, Launcelot's son; Sir Percivale (or
Parsifal); and other knights of the Round Table.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artichoke%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artichoke%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTICHOKE       @%%@QR:artichoke@% name for two plants of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family, both having%@EH@%
edible parts. The French, or globe, artichoke (%@AI@%Cynara scolymus%@AE@%), of S
Europe, is a thistlelike plant whose immature, globular flower heads are
used as vegetables; only the lower parts of the fleshy bracts ("leaves")
and the center ("heart") are eaten. The other artichoke plant is the
%@AU@%JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE%@BO:          4bf58e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artificial insemination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artificial insemination%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTIFICMINATION @%%@QR:artificial insemination@% technique of artificially injecting%@EH@%
sperm-containing semen from a male into a female to cause pregnancy. The
technique is widely used in the propagation of cattle, especially to
produce many offspring from one prize bull. Artificial insemination is
also used in humans when normal fertilization cannot be achieved, as with
%@AU@%STERILITY%@BO:          8ee6fb@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%IMPOTENCE%@BO:          470708@%%@AE@% in the male or anatomical disorders in the female
(see %@AU@%IN VITRO FERTILIZATION%@BO:          49219a@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artificial intelligence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artificial intelligence%@AE@%%@CR:ARTIFICLLIGENCE @%%@QR:artificial intelligence@% (AI), the use of %@AU@%COMPUTERS%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% to model the%@EH@%
behavioral aspects of human reasoning and learning. Research in AI is
concentrated in some half-dozen areas. In %@AI@%problem solving,%@AE@% one must
proceed from a beginning (the initial state) to the end (the goal state)
via a limited number of steps; AI here involves an attempt to model the
reasoning process in solving a problem, such as the proof of a theorem in
%@AU@%EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          30812d@%%@AE@%. In %@AI@%game theory%@AE@% (see %@AU@%GAMES, THEORY OF%@BO:          37b9f9@%%@AE@%), the computer
must choose among a number of possible "next" moves to select the one
that optimizes its probability of winning; this type of choice is
analogous to that of a chess player selecting the next move in response
to an opponent's move. In %@AI@%pattern recognition,%@AE@% shapes, forms, or
configurations of data must be identified and isolated from a larger
group; the process here is similar to that used by a doctor in
classifying medical problems on the basis of symptoms. %@AI@%Natural language
%@AI@%processing%@AE@% is an analysis of current or colloquial language usage without
the sometimes misleading effect of formal grammars; it is an attempt to
model the learning process of a translator faced with the phrase "throw
mama from the train a kiss." %@AU@%CYBERNETICS%@BO:          2597fa@%%@AE@% is the analysis of the
communication and control processes of biological organisms and their
relationship to mechanical and electrical systems; this study could
ultimately lead to the development of "thinking" robots (see %@AU@%ROBOTICS%@BO:          7fca3c@%%@AE@%).
%@AI@%Machine learning%@AE@% occurs when a computer improves its performance of a
task on the basis of its programmed application of AI principles to its
past performance of that task.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artificial kidney%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artificial kidney%@AE@%:%@CR:ARTIFICEY       @%%@QR:artificial kidney@% see %@AU@%DIALYSIS%@BO:          28a2fc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artificial life support%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artificial life support%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTIFIC.SUPPORT @%%@QR:artificial life support@% systems that use medical technology to aid,%@EH@%
support, or replace a vital function of the body that has been seriously
damaged. Such techniques include artificial pacemakers, dialysis
machines, and oxygenators. The use of these systems to prolong the life
of a patient who has suffered apparently irreversible damage to a vital
organ system may raise such ethical issues as the quality of life,
%@AU@%EUTHANASIA%@BO:          30c546@%%@AE@%, and the right to die.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artificial respiration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artificial respiration%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTIFICIRATION  @%%@QR:artificial respiration@% any measure that causes air to flow in and out of%@EH@%
a person's lungs when natural breathing is inadequate or ceases.
Respiration can be taken over by mechanical devices, e.g., the artificial
lung; in emergency situations, mouth-to-mouth (or, for a small child,
mouth-to-nose) procedures are often used. The victim's mouth is cleared
of foreign material, and the head is tilted back. Holding the nostrils
tightly shut, the person administering artificial respiration places his
(or her) mouth over that of the victim and blows air into the lungs,
allowing for exhalation after each breath. Twelve vigorous breaths are
administered per minute for an adult, twenty shallow breaths per minute
for a child.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Artigas, Jose Gervasio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Artigas, Jose Gervasio%@AE@%%@CR:ARTIGAS         @%%@QR:Artigas, Jose Gervasio@%, 1764-1850, Uruguayan independence leader. He%@EH@%
joined (1811) the revolution against Spanish rule and became leader in
the Banda Orientale (now %@AU@%URUGUAY%@BO:          9b1d45@%%@AE@%). Artigas agitated against the
territory's annexation (1820) by Brazil and went into exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%artillery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%artillery%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTILLERY       @%%@QR:artillery@% a term now applied to heavy firearms, as distinguished from%@EH@%
%@AU@%SMALL ARMS%@BO:          8a3da7@%%@AE@%. It came into use in the mid-14th cent. with the introduction
in Europe of %@AU@%GUNPOWDER%@BO:          3e9c83@%%@AE@%, which had been discovered many centuries earlier
in China. First employed mainly against fortifications, artillery was
increasingly used in the field from the early 17th cent. It was
characteristically smooth-bore and muzzle-loaded, firing solid, round
shot, until the late 19th cent., when breech-loaded, rifled, and
shell-firing artillery became standard. Modern artillery includes a
variety of long-range guns that fire their shells with rapid
muzzle-velocity in a low arc; %@AI@%howitzers,%@AE@% which fire on a high trajectory
at relatively nearby targets; %@AI@%antiaircraft guns,%@AE@% which fire rapidly and
at high angles; armor-piercing %@AI@%antitank guns;%@AE@% and many field-artillery
pieces used in support of infantry and other ground operations. Mobility
has become a key factor in the usefulness of heavy firearms, most of
which now either are self-propelled or can be towed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%art nouveau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%art nouveau%@AE@%,%@CR:ART.NOUVEAU     @%%@QR:art nouveau@% decorative art movement begun in Western Europe that lasted%@EH@%
from the 1880s to World War I. It was characterized by a richly
ornamental, asymmetrical style of whiplash linearity, reminiscent of
twining plant tendrils, and was most successful in furniture, jewelry,
and book design and illustration. Its themes were symbolic and often
erotic. Chief exponents included the illustrators Aubrey %@AU@%BEARDSLEY%@BO:           d558d@%%@AE@% and
Walter Crane in England; the architects Henry van de Velde and Victor
%@AU@%HORTA%@BO:          44902c@%%@AE@% in Belgium; the architect Hector Guimard and the jewelry designer
Rene Lalique in France; the painter Gustav %@AU@%KLIMT%@BO:          502b5f@%%@AE@% in Austria; the
architect Antonio %@AU@%GAUDI%@BO:          384a92@%%@AE@% in Spain; the illustrator Otto Eckmann and the
architect Peter %@AU@%BEHRENS%@BO:           dd25c@%%@AE@% in Germany; and the glassware designer Louis C.
%@AU@%TIFFANY%@BO:          95c68d@%%@AE@% and the architect Louis %@AU@%SULLIVAN%@BO:          907ff0@%%@AE@% in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arts and crafts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arts and crafts%@AE@%,%@CR:ARTS.AND.CRAFTS @%%@QR:arts and crafts@% term for the field of the designing and hand fabrication%@EH@%
of functional and decorative objects. The term was invented in
late-19th-cent. England to refer to a movement, begun by William %@AU@%MORRIS%@BO:          6405bb@%%@AE@%
and others, to revive the hand techniques almost obliterated by
industrialization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aruba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aruba%@AE@%,%@CR:ARUBA           @%%@QR:Aruba@% island (1985 est. pop. 61,000) 69 sq mi (179 sq km) in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%NETHERLANDS ANTILLES%@BO:          687424@%%@AE@%. Tourism and the refining of oil from nearby
Venezuela are the major sources of revenue. Oranjestad is the capital.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%arum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%arum%@AE@%,%@CR:ARUM            @%%@QR:arum@% common name for the Araceae, a family of chiefly tropical and%@EH@%
subtropical herbaceous herbs. The characteristic inflorescence consists
of a single fleshy spike (spadix), which bears small flowers, and a
typically showy flowerlike bract or modified leaf (spathe) surrounding
the spadix. The largest plant inflorescence known belongs to the Sumatran
krubi (%@AI@%Amorphophallus titanum%@AE@%) of this family; its spadix reaches a
height of 15 ft (4.6 m). Among other members of the family are the
decorative arum lily, or calla (genus %@AI@%Zantedeschia%@AE@%); the smaller, showy
water arum, or wild calla (%@AI@%Calla palustris%@AE@%); the climbing shrub
philodendron (genus %@AI@%Philodendron%@AE@%), a popular houseplant; and the
decorative %@AI@%Anthurium%@AE@% and %@AI@%Caladium.%@AE@% Some species in this family have
large, starchy edible rootstocks (corms). A major food source in the
Pacific and Far East, the corms of elephant's ear (%@AI@%Colocasia esculenta%@AE@%),
or taro, are the main ingredient of poi. Corms of the arum Indian bread
were eaten by natives of E North America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aryans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aryans%@AE@%,%@CR:ARYANS          @%%@QR:Aryans@% speakers of Indo-European or Indo-Iranian languages. In the 2d%@EH@%
millennium BC, waves of warlike nomadic Aryan tribes spread from S Russia
and Turkistan through Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. They invaded India
c.1500 BC, colonizing the %@AU@%PUNJAB%@BO:          7b0de4@%%@AE@%. The subsequent Indo-European period was
characterized by a pastoral-agricultural economy and the use of bronze
objects and horse-drawn chariots. In the 20th cent., %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% racist
propaganda idealized the Aryan conquest and claimed German descent from
the Aryans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%As%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%As%@AE@%,%@CR:AS              @%%@QR:As@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%ARSENIC%@BO:           83037@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asbestos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asbestos%@AE@%,%@CR:ASBESTOS        @%%@QR:asbestos@% common name for any of a group of fibrous silicate minerals%@EH@%
resistant to acid and fire. Asbestos usually occurs as veins in rocks and
seems to be a product of %@AU@%METAMORPHISM%@BO:          5f3c5b@%%@AE@%. Chrysotile asbestos (H%@AH@%4%@AE@%Mg%@AH@%3%@AE@%Si%@AH@%2%@AE@%O%@AH@%9%@AE@%),
a form of %@AU@%SERPENTINE%@BO:          872d47@%%@AE@%, is the main commercial asbestos. Asbestos is
produced chiefly in Canada; asbestos products include yarn and rope, pipe
covering, brake linings, fire-fighting equipment, and insulating
materials. Studies have shown that asbestos particles in the air can
cause lung cancer and the lung disease asbestosis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ascension%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ascension%@AE@%,%@CR:ASCENSION1      @%%@QR:Ascension@% volcanic, largely barren island (1980 est. pop. 1,013), 34 sq%@EH@%
mi (88 sq km), in the S Atlantic, part of the British colony of %@AU@%SAINT
%@AU@%HELENA%@BO:          83204d@%%@AE@%. It is the site of a U.S. air base, and a missile- and
satellite-tracking station.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ascension%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ascension%@AE@%,%@CR:ASCENSION2      @%%@QR:Ascension@% name given to the departure of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% from earth. %@AB@%Ascension%@EH@%
%@AB@%Thursday,%@AE@% a major feast for most Christians, commemorates the event and
occurs on the 40th day after Easter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asch, Sholem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asch, Sholem%@AE@%,%@CR:ASCH            @%%@QR:Asch, Sholem@% 1880-1957, American Yiddish novelist and playwright; b.%@EH@%
Poland. His writings often depict Jewish life in Europe and the U.S., as
in %@AI@%Three Cities%@AE@% (1933) and %@AI@%East River%@AE@% (1946). Later works, e.g., %@AI@%Mary%@AE@%
(1949), reflect the common spiritual heritage of Jews and Christians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ascham, Roger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ascham, Roger%@AE@%%@CR:ASCHAM          @%%@QR:Ascham, Roger@%, 1515-68, English humanist. A leading intellectual figure%@EH@%
of the Tudor period, he tutored Princess Elizabeth (%@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%) in the
classics and later served as her secretary; he was also Latin secretary
to %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%. He wrote %@AI@%Toxophilus%@AE@% (1557), an essay on archery, and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Scholemaster%@AE@% (1570), a treatise on the teaching of Latin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asclepius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asclepius%@AE@%%@CR:ASCLEPIUS       @%%@QR:Asclepius@%, legendary Greek physician and god of medicine; son of %@AU@%APOLLO%@BO:           6b067@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and Coronis. The sick were treated in his temples; the serpent and cock
were sacred to him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ascorbic acid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ascorbic acid%@AE@%:%@CR:ASCORBIC.ACID   @%%@QR:ascorbic acid@% see %@AU@%VITAMIN%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ASEAN%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ASEAN%@AE@%:%@CR:ASEAN           @%%@QR:ASEAN@% see %@AU@%ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS.%@BO:           8d5cc@%%@AE@%%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asgard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asgard%@AE@%,%@CR:ASGARD          @%%@QR:Asgard@% in Norse mythology, home of the gods. Also called Aesir, it%@EH@%
consisted of luxurious palaces and halls. One of the most beautiful was
Valhalla, the hall of dead heroes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asgeirsson, Asgeir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asgeirsson, Asgeir%@AE@%%@CR:ASGEIRSSON      @%%@QR:Asgeirsson, Asgeir@%, 1894-1972, president of %@AU@%ICELAND%@BO:          465e17@%%@AE@% (1952-68). He was a%@EH@%
member of parliament (1923-52), held various cabinet posts, and served
(1946-52) as governor of the International Monetary Fund.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ash%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ash%@AE@%,%@CR:ASH             @%%@QR:ash@% tree or shrub (genus %@AI@%Fraxinus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%OLIVE%@BO:          6d7fe2@%%@AE@% family, mainly of north%@EH@%
temperate regions. The ashes have small clusters of greenish flowers and
long-winged, wind-dispersed fruits. The white ash (%@AI@%F. americana%@AE@%) is a
source of durable hardwood timber used for sporting goods, furniture, and
tool handles; the blue ash (%@AI@%F. quadrangulata%@AE@%) provides a blue dye. The
mountain ash and prickly ash are not true ashes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ashanti%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ashanti%@AE@%,%@CR:ASHANTI         @%%@QR:Ashanti@% or %@AB@%Asante,%@AE@%historic and present-day region in central %@AU@%GHANA%@BO:          39d57b@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
inhabited by the Ashanti, one of Ghana's major ethnic groups. In the 17th
cent. the Ashanti confederation was forged, with its capital at %@AU@%KUMASI%@BO:          51049d@%%@AE@%
and with the chieftain of the Oyoko clan as king. Ashanti came into
conflict with the British colonies along the coast, and the Anglo-Ashanti
wars (19th cent.) resulted in the dissolution of the confederation in
1896. In 1901 Ashanti became part of the British colony of the Gold
Coast. The people are noted for their goldwork and colorful Kente cloth.
(See also %@AU@%GHANA%@BO:          39d57b@%%@AE@%, ancient empire.)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ashbery, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ashbery, John%@AE@%,%@CR:ASHBERY         @%%@QR:Ashbery, John@% 1927-, American poet and art critic; b. Rochester, N.Y.%@EH@%
His poems are experimental, narrative, and strongly visual. His
collections include %@AI@%Some Trees%@AE@% (1956), %@AI@%Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror%@AE@%
(1975; Pulitzer), %@AI@%Shadow Train%@AE@% (1981), and %@AI@%A Wave%@AE@% (1984).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ashcan school%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ashcan school%@AE@%:%@CR:ASHCAN.SCHOOL   @%%@QR:ashcan school@% see %@AU@%EIGHT, THE%@BO:          2d0fec@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ashe, Arthur (Robert)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ashe, Arthur (Robert)%@AE@%,%@CR:ASHE            @%%@QR:Ashe, Arthur (Robert)@% 1943-, American tennis player; b. Richmond. He was%@EH@%
(1968) the first black to win the U.S. Open. He also took the Australian
(1970) and Wimbledon (1975) titles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asher%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asher%@AE@%:%@CR:ASHER           @%%@QR:Asher@% see %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ashton, Sir Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ashton, Sir Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:ASHTON          @%%@QR:Ashton, Sir Frederick@% 1906-1988, British choreographer and dancer; b.%@EH@%
Ecuador. He studied in England with Leonid %@AU@%MASSINE%@BO:          5ceced@%%@AE@% and Maria Rambert. He
joined (1935) the Sadler's Wells Ballet (now the Royal Ballet) as
choreographer and later became director (1963-70). His precise, lyrical
works include %@AI@%Cinderella,%@AE@% %@AI@%Ondine,%@AE@% and %@AI@%A Month in the Country%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ashurbanipal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ashurbanipal%@AE@%:%@CR:ASHURBANIPAL    @%%@QR:Ashurbanipal@% see %@AU@%ASSURBANIPAL%@BO:           8daf9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ashurnasirpal II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ashurnasirpal II%@AE@%%@CR:ASHURNAI        @%%@QR:Ashurnasirpal II@%, d. 860? BC, king of ancient %@AU@%ASSYRIA%@BO:           8dd4e@%%@AE@% (884-860? BC). He%@EH@%
conquered considerable territory and helped to create a centralized
state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ash Wednesday%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ash Wednesday%@AE@%:%@CR:ASH.WEDNESDAY   @%%@QR:Ash Wednesday@% see %@AU@%LENT%@BO:          53e193@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asia%@AE@%,%@CR:ASIA            @%%@QR:Asia@% the world's largest continent, c.17,139,000 sq mi (44,390,000 sq%@EH@%
km), joined in the west with Europe (which may be considered a peninsula
of Asia) to form the great Eurasian land mass. It ranges in elevation
from 29,028 ft (8,848 m) at Mt. %@AU@%EVEREST%@BO:          30eb13@%%@AE@%, the world's highest mountain, to
1,292 ft (394 m) below sea level at the %@AU@%DEAD SEA%@BO:          26f723@%%@AE@%, the world's lowest
point. It is traversed from east to west by a massive central highland
region containing the Tibetan Plateau, the %@AU@%HIMALAYAS%@BO:          42dcce@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%HINDU KUSH%@BO:          42fb9e@%%@AE@%, and
other great mountain systems. The continent has every type of climate,
from tropical to polar and from desert to rainy. The countries of Asia
are Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia
(Kampuchea), China, Cyprus, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan,
Jordan, North Korea, South Korea, Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia, the
Maldives, the Mongolian People's Republic, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, the
Republic of the Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
Syria, Taiwan (the Republic of China), Thailand, Asian Turkey, the Asian
USSR, the United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, Yemen, and Southern Yemen; other
political units are Brunei, Hong Kong, and Macao (see separate articles).
Asia was the site of some of the world's earliest civilizations and today
contains nearly 60% of the world's population. Some of the world's
greatest population densities are found in S and E Asia, particularly in
the great alluvial river valleys of the %@AU@%GANGES%@BO:          37d39d@%%@AE@%, in India, and the %@AU@%YANGTZE%@BO:          a3f3de@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%HUANG HE%@BO:          44eba4@%%@AE@%, in China. See map of Asia in separate section.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asia Minor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asia Minor%@AE@%,%@CR:ASIA.MINOR      @%%@QR:Asia Minor@% peninsula, W Asia, forming the Asian part of Turkey. Most of%@EH@%
the peninsula is occupied by the Anatolian plateau, which is crossed by
numerous mountains interspersed with lakes. The first civilization
established there (c.1800 BC) was that of the %@AU@%HITTITES%@BO:          43399d@%%@AE@%. The site of %@AU@%TROY%@BO:          981d40@%%@AE@%
and other ancient cities, Asia Minor was subjugated by many invaders,
including the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Crusaders. Conquered by
the Turks between the 13th and 15th cent. AD, it was part of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN
%@AU@%EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% until the establishment of modern Turkey after %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asimov, Isaac%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asimov, Isaac%@AE@%,%@CR:ASIMOV          @%%@QR:Asimov, Isaac@% 1920-, American biochemist and author; b. USSR. He taught%@EH@%
biochemistry at Boston Univ., but he is best known as a prolific author
of science fiction, e.g., %@AI@%The Foundation Trilogy%@AE@% (1951-83).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asmara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asmara%@AE@%,%@CR:ASMARA          @%%@QR:Asmara@% city (1984 est. pop. 275,385), capital of Eritrea prov., N%@EH@%
Ethiopia. A commercial and industrial center, it is connected by rail
with the Red Sea port of Massawa. Manufactures include textiles and beer.
The city was occupied (1889) by the Italians, became (1900) the capital
of their colony of Eritrea, and was a base for the Italian invasion of
Ethiopia (1935-36). It was taken by the British in 1941. In the late
1970s Asmara was briefly besieged by Eritrean guerrillas fighting to
secede from Ethiopia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asmoneans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asmoneans%@AE@%:%@CR:ASMONEANS       @%%@QR:Asmoneans@% see %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asoka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asoka%@AE@%,%@CR:ASOKA           @%%@QR:Asoka@% d. c.232 BC, Indian emperor (c.273-c.232 BC) of the %@AU@%MAURYA%@BO:          5d82ea@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
dynasty. One of the greatest of the ancient rulers, he brought nearly all
of %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% together. However, he sickened of war, turned (c.257 BC) to
%@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%, and thereafter professed nonviolence. He sent Buddhist
missionaries as far afield as Greece and Egypt, and was largely
responsible for transforming Buddhism into a world religion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asp%@AE@%,%@CR:ASP             @%%@QR:asp@% popular name for several species of %@AU@%VIPER%@BO:          9dbbad@%%@AE@%, one of which, the%@EH@%
European asp (%@AI@%Vipera aspis%@AE@%), is native to S Europe. It is also a name for
the Egyptian %@AU@%COBRA%@BO:          1fccbc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asparagus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asparagus%@AE@%,%@CR:ASPARAGUS       @%%@QR:asparagus@% perennial garden vegetable (%@AI@%Asparagus officinalis%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, native to the E Mediterranean area, cultivated from antiquity and
now grown in much of the world. Its green stems function as leaves, and
the true leaves are reduced to scales. Its edible shoots are cut in the
spring. Related species, the asparagus fern (%@AI@%A. plumosus%@AE@%) and smilax (%@AI@%A.
%@AI@%asparagoides%@AE@%), are used for decoration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aspen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aspen%@AE@%,%@CR:ASPEN1          @%%@QR:Aspen@% city (1986 est. pop. 3,320), alt. 7,850 ft (2,390 m), seat of%@EH@%
Pitkin co., S central Colo., on the Roaring Fork R.; inc. 1881. Once a
booming silver-mining town, it has been transformed into a modern,
cosmopolitan ski resort. The Aspen Inst. for Humanistic Studies and Aspen
Music School (which has held an annual music festival since 1949) are
located there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aspen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aspen%@AE@%:%@CR:ASPEN2          @%%@QR:aspen@% see %@AU@%WILLOW%@BO:          a1f6b2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aspen Music Festival%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aspen Music Festival%@AE@%:%@CR:ASPEN.MTIVAL    @%%@QR:Aspen Music Festival@% see %@AU@%MUSIC FESTIVAL%@BO:          657e38@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asphalt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asphalt%@AE@%,%@CR:ASPHALT         @%%@QR:asphalt@% brownish-black substance used in road making, roofing, and%@EH@%
waterproofing. A naturally occurring mixture of %@AU@%HYDROCARBONS%@BO:          45e32c@%%@AE@%, it is
commercially obtained as a residue in the %@AU@%DISTILLATION%@BO:          2967f3@%%@AE@% or refining of
%@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@%. Asphalt varies in consistency from a solid to a semisolid,
melts when heated, and has great tenacity. Used in paints and varnishes,
it imparts an intense black color. Crushed asphalt rock, a natural
mixture of asphalt, sand, and limestone, is used as road-building
material.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asphodel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asphodel%@AE@%,%@CR:ASPHODEL        @%%@QR:asphodel@% hardy, stemless herbs (genera %@AI@%Asphodelus%@AE@% and %@AI@%Asphodeline%@AE@%) of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% family, native to India and the Mediterranean. Both have showy
flower spikes. Other asphodels include the false asphodel (genus
%@AI@%Tofieldia%@AE@%) and the mountain asphodel, or turkeybeard (%@AI@%Xerophyllum
%@AI@%asphodeliodes%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aspirin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aspirin%@AE@%,%@CR:ASPIRIN         @%%@QR:aspirin@% acetyl derivative of salicylic acid, commonly used to lower%@EH@%
fever; relieve headache, muscle, and joint pain; and reduce inflammation,
particularly that caused by rheumatic fever and arthritis. Known side
effects are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal bleeding.
Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often substituted for aspirin. See also
%@AU@%ANALGESIC%@BO:           50835@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asquith, Herbert Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asquith, Herbert Henry%@AE@%:%@CR:ASQUITH         @%%@QR:Asquith, Herbert Henry@% see %@AU@%OXFORD AND ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH,%@EH@%
%@AU@%1ST EARL OF%@BO:          6fb558@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ass%@AE@%,%@CR:ASS             @%%@QR:ass@% hoofed, herbivorous %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Equus%@AE@%), related to, but smaller%@EH@%
than, the %@AU@%HORSE%@BO:          447d17@%%@AE@%. Unlike the horse, the ass has a large head, long ears,
and small hooves. The two living species are the sandy-colored wild Asian
ass (%@AI@%E. hemonius%@AE@%), now endangered, and the larger, gray African ass (%@AI@%E.
%@AI@%asinus%@AE@%), from which domestic donkeys are descended.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assad, Hafez al-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assad, Hafez al-%@AE@%,%@CR:ASSAD           @%%@QR:Assad, Hafez al-@% 1928-, president of %@AU@%SYRIA%@BO:          9204d1@%%@AE@%. He was defense minister%@EH@%
before leading the 1965 military coup that made him president. A strong
anti-Zionist, he is a major supporter of the %@AU@%PALESTINE LIBERATION
%@AU@%ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@%. In 1976 he committed Syrian troops as part of a
peace-keeping force in %@AU@%LEBANON%@BO:          533da4@%%@AE@%, but they were soon supporting the PLO
guerrillas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assamese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assamese%@AE@%%@CR:ASSAMESE        @%%@QR:Assamese@%, language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%assault%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%assault%@AE@%,%@CR:ASSAULT         @%%@QR:assault@% in law, intentional attempt to use violence to do bodily harm to%@EH@%
another. The victim must reasonably believe the perpetrator capable of
such violence. See %@AU@%BATTERY%@BO:           d19ae@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%assemblage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%assemblage%@AE@%:%@CR:ASSEMBLAGE      @%%@QR:assemblage@% see %@AU@%COLLAGE%@BO:          203c7f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assemblies of God%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assemblies of God%@AE@%:%@CR:ASSEMBLOD       @%%@QR:Assemblies of God@% see %@AU@%PENTECOSTALISM%@BO:          73054b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de%@AE@%:%@CR:ASSIS           @%%@QR:Assis, Joaquim Maria Machado de@% see %@AU@%MACHADO DE ASSIS, JOAQUIM MARIA%@BO:          58bf8e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Associated Press%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Associated Press%@AE@%:%@CR:ASSOCIAS        @%%@QR:Associated Press@% see %@AU@%NEWS AGENCY%@BO:          693048@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Association of Southeast Asian Nations%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Association of Southeast Asian Nations%@AE@%%@CR:ASSOCIAT.ASIAN  @%%@QR:Association of Southeast Asian Nations@% (ASEAN), organization established%@EH@%
by the Bangkok Declaration (1967), linking the nations of Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. It seeks to promote
socioeconomic progress and regional stability through cooperation in
banking, trade, technology, agriculture, industry, and tourism. Its
headquarters are in Djakarta.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%associative law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%associative law%@AE@%,%@CR:ASSOCIATIVE.LAW @%%@QR:associative law@% in mathematics, law holding that for a given operation%@EH@%
combining three quantities, two at a time, the initial pairing is
arbitrary. Addition and multiplication are associative; thus
%@AI@%(a%@AE@%+%@AI@%b)%@AE@%+%@AI@%c%@AE@%=%@AI@%a%@AE@%+%@AI@%(b%@AE@%+%@AI@%c)%@AE@% and %@AI@%(a%@AE@%*%@AI@%b)%@AE@%*%@AI@%c%@AE@%=%@AI@%a%@AE@%*%@AI@%(b%@AE@%*%@AI@%c)%@AE@% for any three members %@AI@%a, b, c.%@AE@%
Subtraction and division, however, are not associative.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%assonance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%assonance%@AE@%:%@CR:ASSONANCE       @%%@QR:assonance@% see %@AU@%RHYME%@BO:          7ee904@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assurbanipal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assurbanipal%@AE@%%@CR:ASSURBANIPAL    @%%@QR:Assurbanipal@%or %@AB@%Ashurbanipal%@AE@%, d. 626? BC, king of ancient %@AU@%ASSYRIA%@BO:           8dd4e@%%@AE@% (669-633%@EH@%
BC), son and successor of Esar-Haddon. He was the last of the great kings
of Assyria. Under him Assyria reached the height of sumptuous living, and
art and learning flourished. A few years after his reign ended, Assyria
succumbed to the Medes and the Persians. His great expenditures in wars
to preserve the state contributed somewhat to its collapse.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assyria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assyria%@AE@%,%@CR:ASSYRIA         @%%@QR:Assyria@% ancient empire of W Asia, originating around the city of Ashur,%@EH@%
on the upper Tigris R., S of its later capital, %@AU@%NINEVEH%@BO:          6a4294@%%@AE@%. At first a small
Semitic city-state, Assyria flourished briefly under Tiglathpileser I (d.
c.1074 BC). Its real importance, however, began in the 9th cent. with the
conquests of %@AU@%ASHURNASIRPAL II%@BO:           8a89e@%%@AE@%, who set up an imperial administration.
Later kings such as Shalmaneser III, Tiglathpileser III, and Sargon
gained hegemony in the Middle East. %@AU@%SENNACHERIB%@BO:          86f32a@%%@AE@% consolidated their
holdings, and Esar-Haddon (r.681-668 BC) defeated the Chaldaeans and
conquered Egypt. Under his successor, %@AU@%ASSURBANIPAL%@BO:           8daf9@%%@AE@% (r.669-633 BC),
Assyria reached its height of learning, art, and splendor. But Egypt
broke away, and Assyria's decline was rapid. Soon after Assurbanipal's
death Nineveh was sacked (612 BC) and Assyria was absorbed, first by
Babylonia and then by the Persian empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assyrian art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assyrian art%@AE@%.%@CR:ASSYRIAN.ART    @%%@QR:Assyrian art@%  An Assyrian artistic style, distinct from that of%@EH@%
%@AU@%BABYLONIA%@BO:           aad2b@%%@AE@%, began to emerge c.1500 BC and lasted until the fall of %@AU@%NINEVEH%@BO:          6a4294@%%@AE@%
in 612 BC It took the form of precisely delineated, polychrome carved
stone reliefs. These concerned royal affairs, chiefly hunting and war
making. Predominance was given to animal forms, particularly horses and
lions, which are represented in great detail. Human figures are
comparatively rigid and static, but also minutely detailed. Among the
best-known Assyrian reliefs are the lion-hunt alabaster carvings showing
%@AU@%ASHURNASIRPAL II%@BO:           8a89e@%%@AE@% (9th cent. BC) and %@AU@%ASSURBANIPAL%@BO:           8daf9@%%@AE@% (7th cent. BC), both of
which are in the British Museum. Guardian animals, usually lions and
winged beasts with bearded human heads, were sculpted partially in the
round for fortified royal gateways. Exquisite examples of Assyrian relief
carving may be seen at the British and Metropolitan museums.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Assyrian language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Assyrian language%@AE@%,%@CR:ASSYRIAGE       @%%@QR:Assyrian language@% Hamito-Semitic language of ancient times, in the%@EH@%
Akkadian group. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Astaire, Fred%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Astaire, Fred%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTAIRE         @%%@QR:Astaire, Fred@% 1899-1987, American dancer; b. Omaha, Nebr., as Frederick%@EH@%
Austerlitz. After dancing in %@AU@%VAUDEVILLE%@BO:          9c165a@%%@AE@% with his sister, Adele, he made
many films, often with Ginger Rogers, in which he displayed an elegant
style of ballroom dance and tap. He also danced in movies with Eleanor
Powell, Rita Hayworth, and Cyd Charisse, and on television with Barrie
Chase. His influence on dancing is incalculable. Many classical dancers,
notably %@AU@%NUREYEV%@BO:          6c57cd@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BARYSHNIKOV%@BO:           cb0d1@%%@AE@%, acknowledge their debt to him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Astarte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Astarte%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTARTE         @%%@QR:Astarte@% Semitic goddess of fertility and love. Dominant in ancient%@EH@%
Eastern religions, she was the most important goddess of the Phoenicians,
corresponding to the Babylonian %@AU@%ISHTAR%@BO:          49fbe8@%%@AE@% and the Greek Aphrodite. See also
%@AU@%GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS%@BO:          3ce313@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astatine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astatine%@AE@%%@CR:ASTATINE        @%%@QR:astatine@% (At), semimetallic radioactive element, discovered in 1931 by%@EH@%
Fred Allison and E.J. Murphy. The heaviest known %@AU@%HALOGEN%@BO:          3f5f77@%%@AE@%, it is believed
to be similar to iodine in its chemical properties. Astatine-211
(half-life: 7.21 hr) is used as a radioactive tracer because it collects
in the thyroid gland. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aster%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTER           @%%@QR:aster@% widely distributed, wild and cultivated perennial flowering plants%@EH@%
(genus %@AI@%Aster%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family. Most species have white, pink,
blue, or purple flowers that bloom in the fall. The China aster
(%@AI@%Callistephus chinensis%@AE@%), the common aster of florists and flower
gardens, and the golden asters (genus %@AI@%Chrysopsis%@AE@%) are in the same family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asteroid, planetoid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asteroid, planetoid%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTEROID        @%%@QR:asteroid, planetoid@% or %@AB@%minor planet,%@AE@%small, usually irregularly shaped%@EH@%
body orbiting the sun, most often at least partially between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter. Ceres is the largest asteroid (diameter: 470 mi/750
km) and was the first discovered (1801). Of the more than 2,000 asteroids
known, most have been discovered photographically; their paths appear as
short lines in a time exposure. Asteroids may be fragments of a planet
shattered in the remote past; material that failed to condense into a
single planet; or material from the nuclei of old comets. The Trojan
asteroids revolve in the same orbit as Jupiter, kept by perturbation
effects in two groups 60 deg ahead of and 60 deg behind Jupiter. The
Apollo asteroids cross the earth's orbit; they may be the cause of the
earth's several meteorite craters and are a possible location for future
mining.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asthma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asthma%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTHMA          @%%@QR:asthma@% chronic respiratory disorder characterized by labored breathing%@EH@%
and wheezing resulting from obstructed and constricted air passages.
Although asthma usually results from an allergic reaction (see %@AU@%ALLERGY%@BO:           3e65e@%%@AE@%),
specific allergens are not always identifiable. Illness and stress may
precipitate an attack. For acute attacks %@AU@%EPINEPHRINE%@BO:          2f7384@%%@AE@% injections and
oxygen therapy bring immediate relief. Long-term control includes use of
bronchodilators, %@AU@%STEROIDS%@BO:          8ef0b9@%%@AE@%, breathing exercises, and, if possible, the
identification and avoidance of allergens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astigmatism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astigmatism%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTIGMATISM     @%%@QR:astigmatism@% visual defect resulting from irregular curvature of the%@EH@%
cornea or lens, preventing light rays from converging on the retina (see
%@AU@%EYE%@BO:          315c49@%%@AE@%). With astigmatism, some light rays focus on the retina, while others
focus in front of or behind it. Congenital or caused by disease or
injury, astigmatism can occur in addition to %@AU@%FARSIGHTEDNESS%@BO:          31d5bf@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%NEARSIGHTEDNESS%@BO:          67e172@%%@AE@%. It may be alleviated with corrective lenses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Astor, John Jacob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Astor, John Jacob%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTOR           @%%@QR:Astor, John Jacob@% 1763-1848, American merchant; b. Germany. At 21 he%@EH@%
arrived in Baltimore, penniless; later he opened a small fur shop in New
York City. Shrewd and ambitious, he became a leader of the China trade.
His %@AU@%AMERICAN FUR COMPANY%@BO:           48826@%%@AE@% (1808) exercised a virtual monopoly on the fur
trade in U.S. territories, and at his death Astor was the wealthiest man
in the country. His great-grandson %@AB@%William Waldorf Astor%@AE@%, 1st %@AB@%Viscount
%@AB@%Astor%@AE@%, 1848-1919, b. N.Y.C., was an American-British financier. In 1890
he moved to England, where he contributed huge sums to public causes. He
was made baron in 1916 and viscount in 1917. His elder son, %@AB@%Waldorf
%@AB@%Astor,%@AE@% married %@AB@%Nancy Witcher%@AE@% (%@AB@%Langhorne%@AE@%)%@AB@% Astor, Viscountess Astor,%@AE@%
1879-1964, a British political leader who became the first woman to sit
in %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%. As a Conservative member (1919-45) she espoused temperance
and reforms in women's and children's welfare, and in the 1920s she and
her husband were leaders in the "Tory democracy" reform program.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astrolabe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astrolabe%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTROLABE       @%%@QR:astrolabe@% instrument of ancient origin that measured altitudes of%@EH@%
celestial bodies and determined their positions and motions. It typically
consisted of a wooden or metal disk with the circumference marked off in
degrees, suspended from an attached ring. Angular distances were
determined by sighting with the alidade-a movable pointer pivoted at the
disk's center-and taking readings of its position on the graduated
circle. Skilled mariners used astrolabes up to the 18th cent. to
determine latitude, longitude, and time of day.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astrology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astrology%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTROLOGY       @%%@QR:astrology@% form of %@AU@%DIVINATION%@BO:          297b9b@%%@AE@% based on the theory that movements of the%@EH@%
celestial bodies (stars, planets, sun, and moon) influence human affairs
and determine events. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, believing all events
to be predetermined, developed a nondeistic system of divination. The
spread of astrological practice was arrested by the rise of %@AU@%CHRISTIANITY%@BO:          1df35f@%%@AE@%,
with its emphasis on divine intervention and free will; but in the
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% astrology regained popularity, in part due to rekindled
interest in science and %@AU@%ASTRONOMY%@BO:           91863@%%@AE@%. Christian theologists warred against
astrology, and in 1585 %@AU@%SIXTUS V%@BO:          89c283@%%@AE@% condemned it. At the same time the work
of %@AU@%KEPLER%@BO:          4f24d5@%%@AE@% and others undermined astrology's tenets, although the practice
has continued. One's horoscope is a map of the heavens at the time of
one's birth, showing the positions of the heavenly bodies in the %@AU@%ZODIAC%@BO:          a55fa2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astronaut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astronaut%@AE@%%@CR:ASTRONAUT       @%%@QR:astronaut@% or %@AB@%cosmonaut,%@AE@%crew member on a U.S. or Soviet manned spaceflight%@EH@%
mission. The early astronauts and cosmonauts were generally trained
aircraft test pilots; later astronauts and cosmonauts, however, have
included scientists and physicians. As far as is possible, all conditions
to be encountered in space, e.g., the physiological disorientation
arising from weightlessness (see %@AU@%SPACE MEDICINE%@BO:          8c9e0c@%%@AE@%), are simulated in ground
training. Using trainers and mock-ups of actual spacecraft, astronauts
and cosmonauts rehearse every maneuver from liftoff to recovery; every
conceivable malfunction and difficulty is anticipated and prepared for.
Prominent Soviet cosmonauts include Yuri %@AU@%GAGARIN%@BO:          373bd1@%%@AE@%, Valentina %@AU@%TERESHKOVA%@BO:          941fe0@%%@AE@%,
and Aleksei %@AU@%LEONOV%@BO:          5410de@%%@AE@%. Prominent U.S. astronauts include Alan %@AU@%SHEPARD%@BO:          882f16@%%@AE@%, John
%@AU@%GLENN%@BO:          3aa552@%%@AE@%, Edward %@AU@%WHITE%@BO:          a12c9f@%%@AE@%, Neil %@AU@%ARMSTRONG%@BO:           80a84@%%@AE@%, Buzz %@AU@%ALDRIN%@BO:           32c08@%%@AE@%, and John %@AU@%YOUNG%@BO:          a46980@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astronomical coordinate systems%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astronomical coordinate systems%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTRONO.SYSTEM  @%%@QR:astronomical coordinate systems@% four basic systems used to indicate the%@EH@%
positions of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere. The latter is an
imaginary sphere that has the observer at its center and all other
celestial bodies imagined as located on its inside surface.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Equatorial%@AE@% The celestial equator is the projection of the earth's %@AU@%EQUATOR%@BO:          2f987c@%%@AE@%
onto the celestial sphere, and the celestial poles are the points where
the earth's axis, if extended, intersects the celestial sphere. %@AI@%Right
%@AI@%ascension%@AE@% (R.A.) is the angle (in hours, minutes, and seconds, with 1
h=15 deg) measured eastward from the vernal %@AU@%EQUINOX%@BO:          2fa379@%%@AE@% to the point where
the hour circle (the great circle passing through the celestial poles and
the body) intersects the celestial equator. %@AI@%Declination%@AE@% is the angle (in
degrees, minutes, and seconds, as are all other angles defined hereafter)
measured north (+) or south (-) along the body's hour circle between the
celestial equator and the body.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Horizon or Altazimuth%@AE@% %@AI@%Altitude%@AE@% is the angle measured above (+) or below
(-) the observer's celestial horizon (the great circle on the celestial
sphere midway between the points-zenith and nadir-directly above and
below the observer) to the body along the vertical circle passing through
the body and the zenith. %@AI@%Azimuth%@AE@% is the angle measured along the
celestial horizon from the observer's celestial meridian (the vertical
circle passing through the nearest celestial pole and the zenith) to the
point where the body's vertical circle intersects the horizon. The
earth's rotation constantly changes a body's altitude and azimuth for an
observer.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Ecliptic or Celestial%@AE@% The ecliptic poles are the two points at which a
line perpendicular to the plane of the %@AU@%ECLIPTIC%@BO:          2c1f99@%%@AE@% and passing through the
earth's center intersects the celestial sphere. %@AI@%Celestial latitude%@AE@% is the
angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the ecliptic to the body along
the latitude circle through the body and the ecliptic poles. %@AI@%Celestial
%@AI@%longitude%@AE@% is the angle measured along the ecliptic from the vernal
equinox to the latitude circle, in the same sense as R.A.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Galactic%@AE@% The galactic equator is the intersection of the mean plane of
our galaxy with the celestial sphere, and the galactic poles are the two
points at which a line perpendicular to the mean galactic plane and
passing through the earth's center intersects the celestial sphere.
%@AI@%Galactic latitude%@AE@% is the angle measured north (+) or south (-) from the
galactic equator to the body along the great circle passing through the
body and the galactic poles. %@AI@%Galactic longitude%@AE@% is the angle measured
eastward along the galactic equator from the galactic center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astronomical unit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astronomical unit%@AE@%%@CR:ASTRONOIT       @%%@QR:astronomical unit@% (AU), mean distance between the earth and the sun. One%@EH@%
AU is c.92,960,000 mi (149,604,970 km).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astronomy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astronomy%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTRONOMY       @%%@QR:astronomy@% branch of science that studies the motions and natures of%@EH@%
celestial bodies, such as %@AU@%PLANETS%@BO:          76779a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%STARS%@BO:          8e38c5@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GALAXIES%@BO:          375000@%%@AE@%; more generally,
the study of matter and energy in the universe at large. Astronomy is
perhaps the oldest of the pure sciences. In many primitive civilizations
the regularity of celestial motions was recognized, and attempts were
made to keep records and predict events. Astronomical observations
provided a basis for the %@AU@%CALENDAR%@BO:          170f32@%%@AE@% by determining the units of %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%YEAR%@BO:          a3ff13@%%@AE@%. Later, astronomy served in navigation and timekeeping. The earliest
astronomers were priests, and no attempt was made to separate astronomy
from the pseudoscience of %@AU@%ASTROLOGY%@BO:           90149@%%@AE@%. Astronomy reached its highest
development in the ancient world with the Greeks of the Alexandrian
school in the Hellenistic period. %@AU@%ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOS%@BO:           7ac51@%%@AE@% determined the
sizes and distances of the %@AU@%MOON%@BO:          638a0e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SUN%@BO:          90aa28@%%@AE@% and advocated a heliocentric
(sun-centered) cosmology. %@AU@%ERATOSTHENES%@BO:          2fb706@%%@AE@% made the first accurate
measurement of the actual size of the earth. The greatest astronomer of
antiquity, %@AU@%HIPPARCHUS%@BO:          4301fd@%%@AE@%, devised a geocentric system of cycles and
epicycles (a compounding of circular motions) to account for the
movements of the sun and moon. Using such a system, %@AU@%PTOLEMY%@BO:          7aa5c6@%%@AE@% predicted the
motions of the planets with considerable accuracy (see %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@%).
One of the landmarks of the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th
cent. was Nicholas %@AU@%COPERNICUS%@BO:          231879@%%@AE@%' revival (1543) of the heliocentric theory
(see %@AU@%COPERNICAN SYSTEM%@BO:          2315e8@%%@AE@%). The next great astronomer, Tycho %@AU@%BRAHE%@BO:          1323dd@%%@AE@%, compiled
(1576-97) the most accurate and complete astronomical observations yet
produced. Johannes %@AU@%KEPLER'S%@BO:          4f24d5@%%@AE@% study of Brahe's observations led him to the
three laws of planetary motion that bear his name (see %@AU@%KEPLER'S LAWS%@BO:          4f2804@%%@AE@%).
%@AU@%GALILEO%@BO:          376852@%%@AE@% Galilei, the first to make astronomical use of the %@AU@%TELESCOPE%@BO:          938e7b@%%@AE@%,
provided persuasive evidence (e.g., his discovery of the four largest
moons of %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dc4a6@%%@AE@% and the phases of %@AU@%VENUS%@BO:          9c8a71@%%@AE@%) for the Copernican cosmology.
Sir Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@%, possibly the greatest scientific genius of all time,
succeeded in uniting the sciences of astronomy and %@AU@%PHYSICS%@BO:          7550c7@%%@AE@%. His laws of
motion and theory of universal %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%, published in 1687, provided a
physical, dynamic basis for the merely descriptive laws of Kepler. By the
early 19th cent. the science of %@AU@%CELESTIAL MECHANICS%@BO:          1a9fb7@%%@AE@% had reached a highly
developed state through the work of Alexis Clairaut, Jean d'%@AU@%ALEMBERT%@BO:           33722@%%@AE@%,
Leonhard %@AU@%EULER%@BO:          3096d3@%%@AE@%, Joseph %@AU@%LAGRANGE%@BO:          5198a0@%%@AE@%, Pierre %@AU@%LAPLACE%@BO:          5259bf@%%@AE@%, and others. In 1838,
Friedrich %@AU@%BESSEL%@BO:           f2358@%%@AE@% made the first measurement of the distance to a star
(see %@AU@%PARALLAX%@BO:          711cbd@%%@AE@%). Astronomy was revolutionized in the second half of the
19th cent. by techniques based on photography and the %@AU@%SPECTROSCOPE%@BO:          8d551a@%%@AE@%.
Interest shifted from determining the positions and distances of stars to
studying their physical composition (see %@AU@%STELLAR EVOLUTION%@BO:          8eb6b0@%%@AE@%). With the
construction of ever more powerful telescopes (see %@AU@%OBSERVATORY%@BO:          6c97e7@%%@AE@%), the
boundaries of the known universe constantly increased. Harlow %@AU@%SHAPLEY%@BO:          87f6cd@%%@AE@%
determined the size and shape of our galaxy, the %@AU@%MILKY WAY%@BO:          60b7f9@%%@AE@%. Edwin
%@AU@%HUBBLE'S%@BO:          44f0dc@%%@AE@% study of the distant galaxies led him to conclude that the
universe is expanding (see %@AU@%HUBBLE'S LAW%@BO:          44f34a@%%@AE@%). Various rival theories of the
origin and overall structure of the universe, e.g., the big bang and
steady state theories, were formulated (see %@AU@%COSMOLOGY%@BO:          23b30e@%%@AE@%). Most recently,
the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by %@AU@%SPACE EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@% and
observations in new parts of the spectrum, e.g., gamma-ray astronomy,
%@AU@%RADIO ASTRONOMY%@BO:          7c353b@%%@AE@%, ultraviolet astronomy, and X-ray astronomy. The new
observational techniques have led to the discovery of strange new
astronomical objects, e.g., %@AU@%PULSARS%@BO:          7ae837@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%QUASARS%@BO:          7b99d3@%%@AE@%, and black holes (see
%@AU@%GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE%@BO:          3c7d9e@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%astrophysics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%astrophysics%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTROPHYSICS    @%%@QR:astrophysics@% application of the theories and methods of physics to the%@EH@%
study of stellar structure, %@AU@%STELLAR EVOLUTION%@BO:          8eb6b0@%%@AE@%, the origin of the %@AU@%SOLAR
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          8b1fa4@%%@AE@%, and related problems of %@AU@%COSMOLOGY%@BO:          23b30e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asturias, Miguel Angel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asturias, Miguel Angel%@AE@%%@CR:ASTURIAS1       @%%@QR:Asturias, Miguel Angel@%, 1899-1974, Guatemalan writer. His major works are%@EH@%
his novels, including %@AI@%The President%@AE@% (1946), a study of a dictatorship;
%@AI@%The Green Pope%@AE@% (1954); and %@AI@%The Eyes of the Interred%@AE@% (1960), about banana
exploitation in the Caribbean. He also wrote stories and poetry. He
received the 1967 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asturias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asturias%@AE@%,%@CR:ASTURIAS2       @%%@QR:Asturias@% region and former kingdom, NW Spain, S of the Bay of Biscay.%@EH@%
The major occupations are the mining of coal, iron, and other resources;
steel-making; cattle-raising; fishing; and the growing of apples for
cider. When the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% conquered 8th-cent. Spain, Christian nobles fled to
the Asturian mountains, formed a kingdom, and began the long reconquest
of Spain. In the 10th cent. Leon became the capital of the kingdom, then
known as Asturias and Leon. The kingdom was united (1230) with %@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Asuncion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Asuncion%@AE@%,%@CR:ASUNCION        @%%@QR:Asuncion@% city (1982 est. pop. 455,517), S Paraguay, capital of Paraguay,%@EH@%
on the Paraguay R. It is the nation's principal port and chief industrial
and cultural center. Meat-packing is the largest industry. One of the
oldest cities in South America, founded in 1537, it retains a colonial
aspect. It became a center of early Jesuit missionary activity and was
the most important town in the Rio de la %@AU@%PLATA%@BO:          76a105@%%@AE@% region until it was
partially eclipsed by %@AU@%BUENOS AIRES%@BO:          152669@%%@AE@% during the 18th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aswan High Dam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aswan High Dam%@AE@%,%@CR:ASWAN.HIGH.DAM  @%%@QR:Aswan High Dam@% one of the world's largest dams, on the Nile R., in%@EH@%
Egypt, built (1960-70) c.4 mi (6.4 km) south of the smaller Aswan Dam
(completed, 1902; enlarged, 1934). It is 375 ft (114 m) high and 11,811
ft (3,600 m) long. The dam has a hydroelectricity capacity of 10 billion
kwh and stores sufficient water in impounded Lake Nasser to irrigate more
than 7 million acres (2,809,400 hectares) of farmland. The USSR provided
funding and engineers for the project.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%asylum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%asylum%@AE@%,%@CR:ASYLUM          @%%@QR:asylum@% refuge, most often granted by a nation to a fugitive from another%@EH@%
nation. It is usually reserved for victims of political, religious, or
other discrimination. See also %@AU@%EXTRADITION%@BO:          3148c4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%At%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%At%@AE@%,%@CR:AT              @%%@QR:At@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%ASTATINE%@BO:           8ebf9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atacama, Desert of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atacama, Desert of%@AE@%,%@CR:ATACAMA         @%%@QR:Atacama, Desert of@% extremely arid plateau, c.2,000 ft (610 m) high, in N%@EH@%
Chile. It is c.600 mi (970 km) long and has great nitrate and copper
wealth. Chile gained sole control of the area from Bolivia in the 1880s
(see %@AU@%PACIFIC, WAR OF THE%@BO:          6fe597@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atalanta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atalanta%@AE@%,%@CR:ATALANTA        @%%@QR:Atalanta@% in Greek mythology, fleet huntress who joined the Calydonian%@EH@%
boar hunt (see %@AU@%MELEAGER%@BO:          5e7244@%%@AE@%). She demanded that each of her suitors race her,
the winner to be rewarded with marriage, the losers to die. Hippomenes
finally won her by dropping three golden apples that she stopped to
retrieve.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ataturk, Kemal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ataturk, Kemal%@AE@%,%@CR:ATATURK         @%%@QR:Ataturk, Kemal@% 1881-1938, Turkish leader, founder of modern Turkey,%@EH@%
first president of %@AU@%TURKEY%@BO:          98c2ce@%%@AE@% (1923-38). Originally known as Mustafa Kemal,
he was an army officer who took part (1908) in the Young Turk movement,
distinguished himself in World War I, and, after the collapse of Ottoman
power, founded the Turkish Nationalist Party. With the Allies controlling
the government at Constantinople (Istanbul), he set up a rival government
at Ankara. He expelled the Greeks who were occupying Anatolia (1921-22),
abolished the sultanate (1922), and forced the European powers to
recognize the Turkish republic. He ruled for 15 years as a virtual
dictator. He instituted widespread internal reforms in his efforts to
Westernize his nation; those changes included abolishing the %@AU@%CALIPHATE%@BO:          174259@%%@AE@%
(1924), which in effect disestablished Islam. In foreign affairs he
pursued a moderate policy, maintaining friendly relations with Turkey's
neighbors, especially Russia, with whom he established the Balkan
Entente.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atget, Eugene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atget, Eugene%@AE@%%@CR:ATGET           @%%@QR:Atget, Eugene@%, 1857-1927, French photographer. At 47 he began to produce%@EH@%
his evocative record of Paris and its environs. He sold his work to
printers and to the Paris historical monuments society. His images of the
parks, vendors, bridges, and prostitutes of Paris go beyond
documentation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Athabascan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Athabascan%@AE@%,%@CR:ATHABASCAN      @%%@QR:Athabascan@% group of related North American Indian languages forming a%@EH@%
branch of the Nadene linguistic family, or stock. See %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Athanasius, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Athanasius, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:ATHANASIUS      @%%@QR:Athanasius, Saint@% c.297-373, patriarch of %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@% (328-73), Doctor of%@EH@%
the Church. At the first Council of %@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@% (325) he took part in the
debate against the heresy of %@AU@%ARIANISM%@BO:           7a0af@%%@AE@%. He continued to defend the Nicene
orthodoxy, especially in %@AI@%Discourses Against the Arians,%@AE@% and was exiled
from his see five times between 335 and 365. The Athanasian %@AU@%CREED%@BO:          247882@%%@AE@% is no
longer ascribed to him but to a 4th-cent. Western writer. Feast: May 2.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atheism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atheism%@AE@%,%@CR:ATHEISM         @%%@QR:atheism@% denial of the existence of God or gods and of any supernatural%@EH@%
existence, to be distinguished from %@AU@%AGNOSTICISM%@BO:           21431@%%@AE@%, which holds that the
existence cannot be proved. Since the 19th cent. atheism has been
professed by many individuals and groups.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Athelstan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Athelstan%@AE@%%@CR:ATHELSTAN2      @%%@QR:Athelstan@%or %@AB@%AEthelstan%@AE@%, d. 939, king of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@% (924-39). He built his%@EH@%
kingdom on foundations laid by his grandfather %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@% and by 937 he was
overlord of all England. Popular and able, he issued laws that attempted
to impose royal authority on customary law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Athena%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Athena%@AE@%%@CR:ATHENA          @%%@QR:Athena@% or %@AB@%Pallas Athena,%@AE@%in Greek mythology, one of the most important%@EH@%
%@AU@%OLYMPIAN%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@% deities, sprung from the forehead of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%. She was the goddess
of war and peace, a patron of arts and crafts, a guardian of cities
(notably Athens), and the goddess of wisdom. Her most important temple
was the %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@% and her primary festival the Panathenaea. A virgin
goddess, Athena is represented in art as a stately figure, armored, and
wielding her breastplate, the aegis. The Romans identified her with
%@AU@%MINERVA%@BO:          610aa4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Athens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Athens%@AE@%,%@CR:ATHENS1         @%%@QR:Athens@% city (1981 pop. 885,737), capital of Greece, E central Greece.%@EH@%
Greater Athens, a transportation hub including the Aegean port of
%@AU@%PIRAIEVS%@BO:          75fedc@%%@AE@%, accounts for most of the country's industry, including
textiles, machine tools, and ships. Tourism is also important. Early
Athens, the center of ancient Greek civilization, was rigidly governed by
aristocratic archons until the reforms of %@AU@%SOLON%@BO:          8b4bac@%%@AE@% (594 BC) and %@AU@%CLEISTHENES%@BO:          1f2a8d@%%@AE@%
(506 BC) established a democracy of its freemen. It emerged from the
%@AU@%PERSIAN WARS%@BO:          73c21f@%%@AE@% (500-449 BC) as the strongest Greek city-state, and reached
its cultural and imperial zenith in the time of %@AU@%PERICLES%@BO:          7355f8@%%@AE@% (443-429 BC).
Its citizens included %@AU@%SOCRATES%@BO:          8aed83@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AESCHYLUS%@BO:           18617@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SOPHOCLES%@BO:          8ba3a2@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@%.
After defeat by its arch-rival Sparta in the %@AU@%PELOPONNESIAN WAR%@BO:          72ae2e@%%@AE@% (431-404
BC) it began a long decline that continued under the Macedonians and
Romans; yet it could still boast such citizens as %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%ARISTOPHANES%@BO:           7af56@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@%. Captured (395 AD) by Visigoths, it became the
capital of the %@AU@%BYZANTINE EMPIRE%@BO:          165ae5@%%@AE@%, then came in turn under French, Spanish,
and Ottoman Turkish rule before becoming (1834) the capital of newly
independent Greece. The city escaped damage in World War II. The first
modern %@AU@%OLYMPIC GAMES%@BO:          6d9e8f@%%@AE@% were held there in 1896. Overlooking the city is its
foremost landmark, the %@AU@%ACROPOLIS%@BO:            d98a@%%@AE@%, where the ruins of the %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@%, the
Propylaea, and the %@AU@%ERECHTHEUM%@BO:          2fbc7a@%%@AE@% are located.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Athens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Athens%@AE@%,%@CR:ATHENS2         @%%@QR:Athens@% city (1986 est. pop. 43,100), seat of Clarke co., NE Ga., on the%@EH@%
Oconee R., in a piedmont area; inc. 1806. It was founded as the site of
the Univ. of Georgia. Industries include poultry processing and the
manufacture of clocks, electronic equipment, and textiles. The %@AU@%CLASSIC
%@AU@%REVIVAL%@BO:          1f0097@%%@AE@% houses of numerous Georgia statesmen are notable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%athlete's foot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%athlete's foot%@AE@%:%@CR:ATHLETES.FOOT   @%%@QR:athlete's foot@% see %@AU@%RINGWORM%@BO:          7f5eb6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Athos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Athos%@AE@%%@CR:ATHOS           @%%@QR:Athos@% or %@AB@%Akte,%@AE@%peninsula, NE Greece, in the Aegean Sea. At its southern%@EH@%
tip is %@AB@%Mount Athos,%@AE@% also called Hagion Oros, a religious community (c.30
sq mi/80 sq km) of about 20 Eastern Orthodox monasteries of the Order of
St. Basil. Founded c.963, it enjoyed administrative independence under
the Byzantine and Ottoman empires and was made (1927) a theocratic
republic under Greek suzerainty. Women and female animals are barred.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlanta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlanta%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLANTA         @%%@QR:Atlanta@% capital and largest city (1986 est. pop. 421,910; met. area%@EH@%
2,560,300) of Georgia, seat of Fulton co.; settled 1837, inc. as a city
1847. Located in one of America's fastest-growing urban areas, it is the
largest commercial, industrial, and financial center in the SE U.S. and
the largest city in Georgia, as well as a transportation hub and a
convention center. Many facilities of the federal government are located
in the area, which also produces textiles, chemicals, automobiles,
aircraft, clothing, and a wide variety of other goods. The city is also a
center of international trade and commerce. Atlanta was captured and
burned (1864) by Gen. William T. %@AU@%SHERMAN%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@%; rebuilt, it prospered and
became the state capital in 1868. Among its educational institutions are
Emory Univ., the Georgia Inst. of Technology, and Atlanta Univ. Points of
interest include the Atlanta Memorial Arts Center, Grant Park, and the
grave of Martin Luther %@AU@%KING%@BO:          4fb6d8@%%@AE@%, Jr. Atlanta has a symphony orchestra and
teams in all major sports.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlanta campaign%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlanta campaign%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLANTAN        @%%@QR:Atlanta campaign@% May-Sept. 1864, of the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. W.T. %@AU@%SHERMAN%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
concentrated Union forces around Chattanooga, Tenn., and on May 6 moved
south with two objectives: to destroy J.E. %@AU@%JOHNSTON'S%@BO:          4ce94c@%%@AE@% Confederate army
and to capture %@AU@%ATLANTA%@BO:           95c60@%%@AE@%. Sherman repeatedly outflanked the Confederates,
forcing them back to the Chattahoochee R. by July. J.B. %@AU@%HOOD%@BO:          442c86@%%@AE@%, who had
replaced Johnston, counterattacked but failed to halt the Union advance.
Atlanta's communications were cut on Sept. 1, and Hood withdrew that
night. Sherman took the city on Sept. 2.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlantic Charter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlantic Charter%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLANTIR        @%%@QR:Atlantic Charter@% program of peace aims enunciated on Aug. 14, 1941, by%@EH@%
U.S. Pres. F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% and British Prime Min. Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@%.
Included among the aims was the list of human rights known as the %@AU@%FOUR
%@AU@%FREEDOMS%@BO:          34ce6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlantic City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlantic City%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLANTIC.CITY   @%%@QR:Atlantic City@% city (1986 est. pop. 35,980), SE N.J., an Atlantic resort%@EH@%
and convention center; inc. 1854. On Absecon Island, a sandbar 10 mi (16
km) long, it was a fishing village until 1854, when the railroad began to
transform it into a fashionable resort. It is known for its 6-mi (9.7-km)
boardwalk, its convention hall, and its Steel Pier (built 1898; burned
1982). After the state legalized casino gambling there (1976), the city
entered a new era of prosperity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlantic Ocean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlantic Ocean%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLANTIC.OCEAN  @%%@QR:Atlantic Ocean@% world's second largest ocean, c.31,800,000 sq mi%@EH@%
(82,362,000 sq km), separating North and South America from Europe and
Africa. It is narrowest (c.1,600 mi/2,575 km) off NE Brazil and deepest
(c.28,000 ft/8,530 m) in the Milwaukee Deep, N of Puerto Rico. The
generally narrow continental shelf reaches its greatest widths off NE
North America, SE South America, and NW Europe. The ocean is divided
lengthwise by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a submarine mountain range
c.300-600 mi (480-970 km) wide that extends c.10,000 mi (16,100 km) from
Iceland to near the Antarctic Circle. This ridge, which has a few peaks
that emerge as islands, is constantly widening, filling with molten rock,
and pushing the bordering continents farther apart (see %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlantis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlantis%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLANTIS        @%%@QR:Atlantis@% in Greek mythology, large island in the western sea. %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
describes it as a %@AU@%UTOPIA%@BO:          9b4e80@%%@AE@% destroyed by an earthquake. Questions as to its
existence have provoked speculation over the centuries. One theory holds
that it was a part of the Aegean island of %@AU@%THERA%@BO:          94d556@%%@AE@% that sank c.1500 BC%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlas%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLAS           @%%@QR:Atlas@% in Greek mythology, a %@AU@%TITAN%@BO:          960a77@%%@AE@%. After the defeat of the Titans by the%@EH@%
%@AU@%OLYMPIANS%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@%, he was condemned to hold the sky upon his shoulders for all
eternity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atlas Mountains%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atlas Mountains%@AE@%,%@CR:ATLAS.MOUNTAINS @%%@QR:Atlas Mountains@% mountain system, NW Africa, c.1,500 mi (2,410 km) long.%@EH@%
It is widest and most rugged in Morocco, where Jebel Toubkal reaches a
high point of 13,671 ft (4,167 m). The mountains are rich in phosphates,
coal, iron, and oil.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atmosphere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atmosphere%@AE@%,%@CR:ATMOSPHERE      @%%@QR:atmosphere@% the mixture of gases and other substances surrounding a%@EH@%
celestial body with sufficient gravity to maintain it. Although some
details about the atmospheres of the other planets and some satellites
are known (see articles on individual planets), a complete description is
available only for the earth's atmosphere, the study of which is called
%@AU@%METEOROLOGY%@BO:          5f6466@%%@AE@%. The gaseous constituents of the earth's atmosphere are not
chemically combined, and thus each retains its own physical and chemical
properties. Within the first 40 to 50 mi (64 to 80 km) above the earth,
the mixture is of uniform composition (except for a high concentration of
%@AU@%OZONE%@BO:          6fdb76@%%@AE@% at 30 mi/50 km). This whole region contains more than 99% of the
total mass of the earth's atmosphere. Based on their relative volumes,
the gaseous constituents are nitrogen (78.09%), oxygen (20.95%), argon
(0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), and minute traces of neon, helium,
methane, krypton, hydrogen, xenon, and ozone. Additional atmospheric
constituents include water vapor and particulate matter, such as various
forms of dust and industrial pollutants. The earth's atmosphere is
separated into certain distinct regions, each having a different
temperature range. The troposphere, where air is in constant motion (see
%@AU@%WIND%@BO:          a22812@%%@AE@%), extends from the earth's surface to an altitude of 5 mi (8 km) at
the poles and 10 mi (16 km) at the equator. Clouds and other %@AU@%WEATHER%@BO:          9fed32@%%@AE@%
phenomena occur here (see also %@AU@%CLIMATE%@BO:          1f66a1@%%@AE@%). All forms of the earth's animal
and plant life exist in the troposphere or in the waters beneath it.
Above the troposphere, the stratosphere extends to about 30 mi (50 km),
followed by the mesosphere, up to about 50 mi (80 km), the thermosphere,
up to about 400 mi (640 km), and finally the exosphere. The ionosphere is
in the range (50 to 400 mi/80 to 640 km) that contains a high
concentration of electrically charged particles (ions), which are
responsible for reflecting radio signals. Above it, out to about 40,000
mi (64,400 km) in a region called the magnetosphere, electrically charged
particles are trapped by the earth's magnetic field (see %@AU@%AURORA%@BO:           9e068@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VAN
%@AU@%ALLEN RADIATION BELTS%@BO:          9b9eee@%%@AE@%). The atmosphere protects the earth by absorbing
and scattering harmful radiation and causing extraterrestrial solid
matter (see %@AU@%METEOR%@BO:          5f5997@%%@AE@%) to burn from the heat generated by air friction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atoll%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atoll%@AE@%:%@CR:ATOLL           @%%@QR:atoll@% see %@AU@%CORAL REEFS%@BO:          233778@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ISLAND%@BO:          4a1eb1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atom%@AE@%,%@CR:ATOM            @%%@QR:atom@% the smallest unit of a chemical %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% having the properties of%@EH@%
that element. An atom contains several kinds of particles. Its central
core, the nucleus, consists of positively charged particles, called
%@AU@%PROTONS%@BO:          7a3d8e@%%@AE@%, and uncharged particles, called %@AU@%NEUTRONS%@BO:          688b68@%%@AE@%. Surrounding the
nucleus and orbiting it are negatively charged particles, called
%@AU@%ELECTRONS%@BO:          2d8f0a@%%@AE@%. Each atom has an equal number of protons and electrons. The
nucleus occupies only a tiny fraction of an atom's volume but contains
almost all of its mass. Electrons in the outermost orbits determine the
atom's chemical and electrical properties. The number of protons in an
atom's nucleus is called the %@AU@%ATOMIC NUMBER%@BO:           9932e@%%@AE@%. All atoms of an element have
the same atomic number and differ in atomic number from atoms of other
elements. The total number of protons and neutrons combined is the atom's
%@AU@%MASS NUMBER%@BO:          5cf2e9@%%@AE@%. Atoms containing the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons are different forms, or %@AU@%ISOTOPES%@BO:          4a2f0d@%%@AE@%, of the same
element. See also %@AU@%ATOMIC WEIGHT%@BO:           99540@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% In the 5th cent. BC the Greek philosophers %@AU@%DEMOCRITUS%@BO:          27e433@%%@AE@% and
Leucippus proposed that matter was made up of tiny, indivisible particles
in constant motion. Aristotle, however, did not accept the theory, and it
was ignored for centuries. Modern atomic theory began with John %@AU@%DALTON%@BO:          2623c5@%%@AE@%,
who proposed (1808) that all atoms of an element have exactly the same
size and weight, and that atoms of elements unite chemically in simple
numerical ratios to form compounds. In 1911 Ernest %@AU@%RUTHERFORD%@BO:          827ba1@%%@AE@% explained
an atom's structure in terms of a positively charged nucleus surrounded
by negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. In 1913 Niels %@AU@%BOHR%@BO:          117b72@%%@AE@%
used %@AU@%QUANTUM THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@% to explain why electrons could remain in certain
allowed orbits without radiating energy. The development of quantum
mechanics during the 1920s resulted in a satisfactory explanation of all
phenomena related to the role of electrons in atoms and of all aspects of
their associated spectra (see %@AU@%SPECTRUM%@BO:          8d57ee@%%@AE@%). The quantum theory has shown
that all particles have certain wave properties. As a result, electrons
in an atom cannot be pictured as localized in space but rather should be
viewed as a cloud of charge spread out over the entire orbit. The
electron clouds around the nucleus represent regions in which the
electrons are most likely to be found. Physicists are currently studying
the behavior of large groups of atoms (see %@AU@%SOLID-STATE PHYSICS%@BO:          8b3bda@%%@AE@%), and the
nature of and relations among the hundreds of %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLES%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@% that
have been discovered in addition to the proton, neutron, and electron.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atomic bomb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atomic bomb%@AE@%,%@CR:ATOMIC.BOMB     @%%@QR:atomic bomb@% weapon deriving its great explosive force from the sudden%@EH@%
release of %@AU@%NUCLEAR ENERGY%@BO:          6c0981@%%@AE@% through the fission, or splitting, of heavy
atomic nuclei. The first atomic bomb was successfully tested by the U.S.
near Alamogordo, N.Mex., on July 16, 1945 (see %@AU@%MANHATTAN PROJECT%@BO:          5ada65@%%@AE@%). In the
final stages of %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima
on Aug. 6, 1945, and on Nagasaki three days later to force Japan to
surrender. Atomic bombs were subsequently developed by the USSR (1949),
Great Britain (1952), France (1960), China (1964), and India (1974).
Practical fissionable nuclei for atomic bombs are the isotopes
%@AU@%URANIUM%@BO:          9afbf2@%%@AE@%-235 and %@AU@%PLUTONIUM%@BO:          76fa88@%%@AE@%-239, which are capable of undergoing chain
reaction. If the mass of the fissionable material exceeds the critical
mass, the chain reaction multiplies rapidly into an uncontrollable
release of energy. An atomic bomb is detonated by bringing together very
rapidly (e.g., by means of a chemical explosion) two subcritical masses
of fissionable material. The ensuing explosion produces great amounts of
heat, a shock wave, and intense neutron and gamma radiation. The region
of the explosion becomes radioactively contaminated, and wind-borne
radioactive products may be deposited elsewhere as fallout. See also
%@AU@%DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR%@BO:          29478e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HYDROGEN BOMB%@BO:          45f604@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atomic clock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atomic clock%@AE@%:%@CR:ATOMIC.CLOCK    @%%@QR:atomic clock@% see %@AU@%CLOCK%@BO:          1f7662@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atomic energy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atomic energy%@AE@%:%@CR:ATOMIC.ENERGY   @%%@QR:atomic energy@% see %@AU@%NUCLEAR ENERGY%@BO:          6c0981@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atomic Energy Commission%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atomic Energy Commission%@AE@%:%@CR:ATOMIC.N        @%%@QR:Atomic Energy Commission@% see %@AU@%NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION%@BO:          6c2201@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atomic mass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atomic mass%@AE@%:%@CR:ATOMIC.MASS     @%%@QR:atomic mass@% see %@AU@%ATOMIC WEIGHT%@BO:           99540@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atomic number%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atomic number%@AE@%,%@CR:ATOMIC.NUMBER   @%%@QR:atomic number@% often represented by the symbol %@AI@%Z,%@AE@% the number of %@AU@%PROTONS%@BO:          7a3d8e@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
in the nucleus of an %@AU@%ATOM%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@%. Atoms with the same atomic number make up a
chemical %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%. The elements are arranged in the %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@% in the
order of their atomic numbers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atomic weight%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atomic weight%@AE@%,%@CR:ATOMIC.WEIGHT   @%%@QR:atomic weight@% mean (weighted average) of the masses of all the naturally%@EH@%
occuring %@AU@%ISOTOPES%@BO:          4a2f0d@%%@AE@% of a chemical %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; the atomic mass is the mass of
any individual isotope. Atomic weight is usually expressed in atomic mass
units (amu); the atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of
a carbon-12 atom. Each proton or neutron weighs about 1 amu, and thus the
atomic mass is always very close to the %@AU@%MASS NUMBER%@BO:          5cf2e9@%%@AE@% (total number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus). Because most naturally occurring
elements have one principal isotope and only insignificant amounts of
other isotopes, most atomic weights are also very nearly whole numbers.
For the atomic weight of individual elements, see %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atonality%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atonality%@AE@%,%@CR:ATONALITY       @%%@QR:atonality@% systemic avoidance of harmonies and melodies that imply a%@EH@%
keynote (see %@AU@%KEY%@BO:          4f3c85@%%@AE@%). The term designates a method of composition in which
the composer deliberately rejects the principle of %@AU@%TONALITY%@BO:          9686b9@%%@AE@% in favor of
another principle of order, such as the 12-tone system (see %@AU@%SERIAL
%@AU@%MUSIC%@BO:          8723fc@%%@AE@%). The move toward atonality has been apparent since the 19th cent.,
when %@AU@%WAGNER%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@%, Richard %@AU@%STRAUSS%@BO:          8f9bf1@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%DEBUSSY%@BO:          2720ca@%%@AE@% obscured basic tonalities in
their music. Atonal composers of the 20th cent. include %@AU@%SCHOENBERG%@BO:          85937e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BERG%@BO:           eacd0@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%IVES%@BO:          4a89bb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atonement, Day of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atonement, Day of%@AE@%:%@CR:ATONEMENT       @%%@QR:Atonement, Day of@% see %@AU@%JEWISH HOLIDAYS%@BO:          4c1c13@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ATP%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ATP%@AE@%:%@CR:ATP             @%%@QR:ATP@% see %@AU@%ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE%@BO:           13245@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atreus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atreus%@AE@%%@CR:ATREUS          @%%@QR:Atreus@%, in Greek mythology, king of Mycenae; son of %@AU@%PELOPS%@BO:          72b844@%%@AE@%, father of%@EH@%
%@AU@%AGAMEMNON%@BO:           1f531@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MENELAUS%@BO:          5eaca6@%%@AE@%. In retaliation for his brother Thyestes'
seduction of his wife, Atreus murdered three of Thyestes' sons and served
them to him at a feast. Thyestes then laid a curse on the house of
Atreus. Thyestes' son %@AU@%AEGISTHUS%@BO:           1717f@%%@AE@% killed Atreus, and Thyestes became king.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%atrium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%atrium%@AE@%,%@CR:ATRIUM          @%%@QR:atrium@% term for an interior court in Roman domestic architecture; also a%@EH@%
type of entrance court in early Christian churches. The Roman atrium was
an unroofed or partially roofed area with rooms opening from it. In early
times it held a hearth in its center; later a tank collected rainwater.
In more luxurious Roman dwellings, individual chambers had courts of
their own, called peristyles. The ruins of %@AU@%POMPEII%@BO:          77fbbc@%%@AE@% display atria in
various forms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Attar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Attar%@AE@%:%@CR:ATTAR           @%%@QR:Attar@% see %@AU@%FARID AD-DIN ATTAR%@BO:          31bfcf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Attila%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Attila%@AE@%,%@CR:ATTILA          @%%@QR:Attila@% d. 453, king of the %@AU@%HUNS%@BO:          4572e9@%%@AE@% (434-53). From 434 he extorted tribute%@EH@%
from the Eastern and Western Roman emperors. In 450 %@AU@%MARCIAN%@BO:          5b72d8@%%@AE@% of the East
and %@AU@%VALENTINIAN III%@BO:          9b7a8d@%%@AE@% of the West refused to pay. Valentinian's sister
Honoria proposed an alliance with Attila, who took this as a marriage
offer and demanded half the Western empire as dowry. Refused, he attacked
Gaul but was defeated (451) by the Romans. He invaded (452) Italy but
spared Rome, apparently because of a shortage of supplies and an outbreak
of pestilence in his army. Although feared for his savagery, he was a
just ruler.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl%@AE@%,%@CR:ATTLEE          @%%@QR:Attlee, Clement Richard, 1st Earl@% 1883-1967, British statesman. A lawyer%@EH@%
and social worker, he became leader of the Labour party in 1935. During
World War II he served in Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL'S%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@% coalition cabinet
(1940-45), and in 1945 became prime minister. His government nationalized
the Bank of England and much of British industry; enacted social reforms,
including the National Health Service; and granted independence to Burma,
India, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Palestine. Attlee left office in 1951. He
led the opposition until 1955, when he received the title Earl Attlee.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Atwood, Margaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Atwood, Margaret%@AE@%,%@CR:ATWOOD          @%%@QR:Atwood, Margaret@% 1939-, Canadian poet and novelist. Her powerful novels%@EH@%
treat the destructiveness of human relations. They include %@AI@%The Edible
%@AI@%Woman%@AE@% (1969), %@AI@%Surfacing%@AE@% (1972), %@AI@%Bodily Harm%@AE@% (1981), and %@AI@%The Handmaid's
%@AI@%Tale%@AE@% (1986). Among her volumes of poetry is %@AI@%Selected Poems%@AE@% (1978).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Au%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Au%@AE@%,%@CR:AU              @%%@QR:Au@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%GOLD%@BO:          3b1a02@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aubrey, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aubrey, John%@AE@%,%@CR:AUBREY          @%%@QR:Aubrey, John@% 1626-97, English antiquarian and writer. Friendly with many%@EH@%
famous people, he left copious letters and memoranda. His most celebrated
work, %@AI@%Lives of Eminent Men,%@AE@% was published in 1813. Only his %@AI@%Miscellanies%@AE@%
(1696) appeared in his lifetime.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Auckland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Auckland%@AE@%,%@CR:AUCKLAND        @%%@QR:Auckland@% city (1987 pop. 889,200), NW North Island, New Zealand, on an%@EH@%
isthmus between the Pacific Ocean and the Tasman Sea. It is the country's
largest city and its chief port, industrial center, and naval base.
Frozen meats and dairy products are important exports. Industries include
shipbuilding, food processing, oil refining, and the manufacture of
automobiles and chemicals. Auckland was founded in 1840 and was the
capital of New Zealand until replaced (1865) by %@AU@%WELLINGTON%@BO:          a07003@%%@AE@%. The Univ. of
Auckland is among the city's educational institutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh)%@AE@%,%@CR:AUDEN           @%%@QR:Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh)@% 1907-73, Anglo-American poet, a major 20th-cent.%@EH@%
literary figure. In the 1930s he was associated with Spender, %@AU@%MACNEICE%@BO:          5911a7@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%ISHERWOOD%@BO:          49f6ae@%%@AE@%; with the last he wrote the verse plays %@AI@%The Dog Beneath the
%@AI@%Skin%@AE@% (1935), %@AI@%The Ascent of F6%@AE@% (1936), and %@AI@%On the Frontier%@AE@% (1938). Some of
Auden's most original poetry appeared in the early 1930s. Later volumes,
ranging in subject from politics to psychology to Christianity, include
%@AI@%The Double Man%@AE@% (1941), %@AI@%Collected Poetry%@AE@% (1945), %@AI@%The Age of Anxiety%@AE@% (1947;
Pulitzer), %@AI@%Nones%@AE@% (1951), and %@AI@%About the House%@AE@% (1965). He also wrote
critical essays and opera librettos. A U.S. resident from 1939 and
citizen from 1946, Auden divided his last years among England, Italy,
Austria, and New York.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%audiovisual instruction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%audiovisual instruction%@AE@%,%@CR:AUDIOVITRUCTION @%%@QR:audiovisual instruction@% the use of nonverbal as well as verbal%@EH@%
materials, particularly pictures and sounds, to promote learning.
Audiovisual devices, formerly limited to static materials such as maps,
graphs, and textbook illustrations, were used successfully as
instructional tools by the U.S. armed forces during World War II. As
technology developed, audiovisual instruction began to include films,
photographs, sound and video recordings, and television, as well as
%@AU@%PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION%@BO:          79cf38@%%@AE@% provided through computers and other types of
teaching machines. Instructional television is widely used in schools,
industry, and the military; with the use of cable television and
electronic audio and video equipment, it can be available in the home as
well.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%auditing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%auditing%@AE@%:%@CR:AUDITING        @%%@QR:auditing@% see under %@AU@%ACCOUNTING%@BO:            9bfa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Audubon, John James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Audubon, John James%@AE@%,%@CR:AUDUBON         @%%@QR:Audubon, John James@% 1785-1851, American ornithologist; b. Les Cayes,%@EH@%
Santo Domingo (now Haiti). After arriving in the U.S. in 1803, he began
the extensive ornithological observations that would lead to the
publication of his bird drawings and paintings as %@AI@%The Birds of America%@AE@%
(1827-38). The accompanying text, called the %@AI@%Ornithological Biography%@AE@% (5
vol., 1831-39), was written in collaboration with the Scottish naturalist
William MacGillivray. Audubon's drawings and paintings remain one of the
great achievements of American intellectual history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aue, Hartmann von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aue, Hartmann von%@AE@%:%@CR:AUE             @%%@QR:Aue, Hartmann von@% see %@AU@%HARTMANN VON AUE%@BO:          404f3e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%August%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%August%@AE@%:%@CR:AUGUST          @%%@QR:August@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Augusta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Augusta%@AE@%.%@CR:AUGUSTA         @%%@QR:Augusta@% %@AB@%1%@AE@% City (1986 est. pop. 45,440), seat of Richmond co., E Ga., on%@EH@%
the Savannah R.; inc. 1798. The trade center for a large area of Georgia
and South Carolina, it has diversified industries, including textiles and
paper. A river trading port as early as 1717, it grew with tobacco and
cotton trade. During the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% it housed the chief Confederate powder
works. The city, a popular resort, is known for its golf tournaments and
many fine old houses. %@AB@%2%@AE@% City (1986 est. pop. 20,640), state capital and
seat of Kennebec co., SW Me., on the Kennebec R.; inc. as a city 1849.
Shoes, fabrics, and paper products are among its manufactures. The
Plymouth Company established a trading post on the site in 1628; Fort
Western was built in 1754. In 1837 manufacturing began with the building
of a dam. The Capitol building (1829) was designed by Charles %@AU@%BULFINCH%@BO:          1545df@%%@AE@%
and later enlarged.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Augustine, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Augustine, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:AUGUSTINE       @%%@QR:Augustine, Saint@%, 354-430, Doctor of the Church, bishop of Hippo (near%@EH@%
present-day Annaba, Algeria); b. near Hippo. Brought up as a Christian by
his mother, St. Monica, Augustine gave up his religion while at school in
Carthage, then converted to %@AU@%MANICHAEISM%@BO:          5ae0b2@%%@AE@%. He taught rhetoric in Rome
(after 376) and Milan (after 384). In Milan he was drawn to the teachings
of St. %@AU@%AMBROSE%@BO:           4654c@%%@AE@% and to %@AU@%NEOPLATONISM%@BO:          682916@%%@AE@%, and finally embraced Christianity,
returning (387) to a monastic life in Tagaste. In 391 he was ordained a
priest in Hippo, where he remained for the rest of his life, serving as
bishop from 396. St. Augustine's influence on Christianity was immense,
and theologians, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, look upon him as the
founder of theology. His polemics against Manichaeism, Donatism, and
Pelagianism are well known, and his autobiographical %@AI@%Confessions%@AE@% is a
classic of Christian mysticism. %@AI@%On the Trinity%@AE@% systematized Christian
doctrine, and %@AI@%The City of God,%@AE@% his monumental defense of Christianity
against paganism, is famous for its Christian view of history. Feast:
Aug. 28.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Augustine of Canterbury, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Augustine of Canterbury, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:AUGUSTINTERBURY @%%@QR:Augustine of Canterbury, Saint@% d. c.605, Italian missionary, called the%@EH@%
Apostle of the English, first archbishop of Canterbury (from 601). A
%@AU@%BENEDICTINE%@BO:           e5404@%%@AE@%, he was sent by Pope %@AU@%GREGORY I%@BO:          3d76c4@%%@AE@% to England, where he converted
King %@AU@%AETHELBERT%@BO:           18eaa@%%@AE@% and introduced Roman monastic practices. Feast: May 27
(May 26 in England and Wales).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Augustus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Augustus%@AE@%,%@CR:AUGUSTUS1       @%%@QR:Augustus@% 63 BC-AD 14, first Roman emperor; a grandnephew of Julius%@EH@%
%@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%. Born Caius Octavius, he became on adoption by the Julian gens (44
BC) Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian); Augustus was a title of
honor granted (27 BC) by the senate. Caesar made the boy his heir without
his knowledge, and after Caesar was killed (44 BC), Octavian became
dominant at Rome. He made an alliance with %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@% and Lepidus (d. 13 BC;
see %@AU@%LEPIDUS%@BO:          542657@%%@AE@%, family) known as the Second Triumvirate and with Antony
defeated the army of Marcus Junius Brutus (see %@AU@%BRUTUS%@BO:          14c941@%%@AE@%, family) and Caius
Cassius Longinus (see %@AU@%CASSIUS%@BO:          19c74d@%%@AE@%, family) at Philippi (42 BC). Octavian's
forces next defeated %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@% at Mylae (36 BC). After the naval victory at
Actium (31 BC) over Antony and %@AU@%CLEOPATRA%@BO:          1f4a5a@%%@AE@%, Octavian controlled all of the
Roman territories. The senate in 29 BC made him imperator
[Lat.,=commander; from it is derived %@AI@%emperor%@AE@%] and in 27 BC augustus
[august, reverend]. The month Sextilis was renamed Augustus (August) in
his honor. He enacted many reforms in Rome and in the provinces and tried
to hold the Roman borders set by Caesar. His attempt to make a buffer
state in German territory led to the revolt of Arminius, in which a Roman
army was destroyed. Augustus built %@AU@%ROMAN ROADS%@BO:          80a181@%%@AE@%, beautified Rome, and was
munificent to arts and letters. He was a patron of %@AU@%VERGIL%@BO:          9ca1fb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OVID%@BO:          6f9514@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LIVY%@BO:          55e12e@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%HORACE%@BO:          44652e@%%@AE@%. He also established the concept of the Pax Romana [Roman
peace]. He was succeeded by his stepson %@AU@%TIBERIUS%@BO:          959cd5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Augustus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Augustus%@AE@%,%@CR:AUGUSTUS2       @%%@QR:Augustus@% Polish kings. %@AB@%Augustus II,%@AE@% 1670-1733, was king of %@AU@%POLAND%@BO:          774f3b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1697-1733) and, as Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony (1694-1733).
He succeeded John III as king by becoming a Catholic and by giving the
nobility unprecedented powers. In 1700 he involved Poland in the %@AU@%NORTHERN
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          6ba722@%%@AE@%. He was highly unpopular, and his death began the War of the %@AU@%POLISH
%@AU@%SUCCESSION%@BO:          7779cc@%%@AE@%. One of its results was that his son, %@AB@%Augustus III,%@AE@% 1696-1763,
succeeded him as king of Poland (1735-63). He was also, as Frederick
Augustus II, elector of Saxony (1733-63). One of the unsuccessful
claimants of the Hapsburg lands, he opposed Maria Theresa in the War of
the %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%auk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%auk%@AE@%,%@CR:AUK             @%%@QR:auk@% swimming and diving %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Alcidae, which includes the%@EH@%
%@AU@%PUFFIN%@BO:          7ad8ac@%%@AE@% and guillemot. Clumsy on land, auks seldom leave the water except
to nest; they return to the same nesting site every year. The largest
species, the flightless great auk (%@AI@%Pinguinus impennis%@AE@%), was hunted for
its flesh, feathers, and oil; it became extinct c.1844.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aurangzeb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aurangzeb%@AE@%%@CR:AURANGZEB       @%%@QR:Aurangzeb@%or %@AB@%Aurangzib%@AE@%, 1618-1707, Mogul emperor of %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% (1658-1707), son%@EH@%
and successor of %@AU@%SHAH JAHAN%@BO:          87a62a@%%@AE@%. He ascended the throne after defeating his
three brothers and imprisoning his father. The %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% Empire reached its
greatest extent under him, but he was fanatically devoted to Islam and
persecuted the Hindus (see %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%SIKHS%@BO:          89083b@%%@AE@%, thus fatally weakening
Mogul control over the Indian population.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aurelian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aurelian%@AE@%%@CR:AURELIAN        @%%@QR:Aurelian@% (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus), c.212-275, Roman emperor (270-75).%@EH@%
He succeeded Claudius II and defended the empire against the barbarians
and ambitious rulers (e.g., Zenobia of Palmyra). One of Rome's greatest
emperors, he regained Britain, Gaul, Spain, Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia
and revived the glory of Rome. He was murdered, and Marcus Claudius
Tacitus succeeded him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Auriol, Vincent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Auriol, Vincent%@AE@%%@CR:AURIOL          @%%@QR:Auriol, Vincent@%, 1884-1966, French statesman, first president (1947-54)%@EH@%
of the Fourth Republic. A Socialist until 1959, he was finance minister
(1936-37) under Leon %@AU@%BLUM%@BO:          112831@%%@AE@% and a member of the provisional government
(1945).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aurochs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aurochs%@AE@%:%@CR:AUROCHS         @%%@QR:aurochs@% see %@AU@%CATTLE%@BO:          1a63a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aurora%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aurora%@AE@%,%@CR:AURORA1         @%%@QR:Aurora@% city (1986 est. pop. 217,090), N central Colo., a residential%@EH@%
suburb of %@AU@%DENVER%@BO:          280da5@%%@AE@%; inc. 1903. It is the fast-growing trade center for a
large livestock and farming area. Electrical products, aircraft parts,
and oil-field equipment are manufactured. Tourism, construction, and
nearby military bases are important to the local economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aurora%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aurora%@AE@%,%@CR:AURORA2         @%%@QR:aurora@% luminous display of various forms and colors in the night sky.%@EH@%
The aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern
lights) are usually visible at latitudes within, respectively, the Arctic
Circle and Antarctic Circle, but they are sometimes seen in middle
latitudes. Both are seen most frequently at the time of the equinoxes and
at times of great sunspot activity. Auroras occur at altitudes of 35 to
600 mi (56 to 970 km) and are thought to be caused by high-speed
particles from the sun excited to luminosity after colliding with air
molecules.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Auschwitz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Auschwitz%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSCHWITZ       @%%@QR:Auschwitz@% now %@AB@%Oswiecim,%@AE@% Poland: see %@AU@%CONCENTRATION CAMPS%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ausgleich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ausgleich%@AE@%:%@CR:AUSGLEICH       @%%@QR:Ausgleich@% see %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ausonius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ausonius%@AE@%%@CR:AUSONIUS        @%%@QR:Ausonius@% (Decimus Magnus Ausonius), c.310-c.395, Latin poet; b. Bordeaux.%@EH@%
His travel verses (%@AI@%Mosella%@AE@%), family sketches (%@AI@%Parentalia%@AE@%), and %@AI@%Order of
%@AI@%Noble Cities,%@AE@% on 20 Roman cities, give portraits of people and places.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austen, Jane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austen, Jane%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTEN          @%%@QR:Austen, Jane@% 1775-1817, English novelist. She spent her first 25 years%@EH@%
at her father's Hampshire vicarage, writing novels published much later.
%@AI@%Northanger Abbey,%@AE@% written early, appeared posthumously (with %@AI@%Persuasion%@AE@%)
in 1818. Published in her lifetime were %@AI@%Sense and Sensibility%@AE@% (1811),
%@AI@%Pride and Prejudice%@AE@% (1813), %@AI@%Mansfield Park%@AE@% (1814), and %@AI@%Emma%@AE@% (1816),
comedies of manners, depicting the self-contained world of the English
counties. Providing husbands for marriageable daughters is a central
theme. Austen's work is noted for polished irony, moral firmness, and
vivid characterization. She received little notice during her life, but
today she is regarded as one of the masters of the English novel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austerlitz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austerlitz%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTERLITZ      @%%@QR:Austerlitz@% Czech %@AI@%Slavkov u Brna,%@AE@% town, S Czechoslovakia, in Moravia. An%@EH@%
agricultural center with sugar refineries and cotton mills, it was a seat
of the %@AU@%ANABAPTISTS%@BO:           50096@%%@AE@% from 1528. At Austerlitz, %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% won (Dec. 2,
1805) his greatest victory by defeating the Russian and Austrian armies.
The town has an 18th-cent. castle and a 13th-cent. church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austin, Stephen Fuller%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austin, Stephen Fuller%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTIN1         @%%@QR:Austin, Stephen Fuller@% 1793-1836, Texas colonizer, known as the Father%@EH@%
of Texas; b. Wythe co., Va. He took up the colonizing plans of his
father, %@AB@%Moses Austin,%@AE@% 1761-1828, and began (1822) planting settlements in
Texas between the Brazos and Colorado rivers. He later forwarded the
Texas Revolution (1836) and was briefly secretary of state of the
Republic of Texas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austin%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTIN2         @%%@QR:Austin@% city (1986 est. pop. 466,550), state capital and seat of Travis%@EH@%
co., S central Tex., on the Colorado R.; inc. 1839. It is the commercial
heart of a ranching, poultry, dairy, cotton, and grain area.
Hydroelectric development (beginning in the 1930s) has spurred enormous
industrial growth; the city now manufactures a wide variety of products,
and is a center for electronic and scientific research. The Univ. of
Texas' main campus is in Austin. State capital since 1870, it was capital
(1839-42) of the Texas Republic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Australasia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Australasia%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTRALASIA     @%%@QR:Australasia@% islands of the South Pacific, including %@AU@%AUSTRALIA%@BO:           9f239@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEW%@EH@%
%@AU@%ZEALAND%@BO:          699524@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEW GUINEA%@BO:          68dcdf@%%@AE@%, and adjacent islands. The term sometimes includes
all of %@AU@%OCEANIA%@BO:          6cb69b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Australia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Australia%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTRALIA       @%%@QR:Australia@% smallest continent, c.2,400 mi (3,860 km) east to west and%@EH@%
c.2,000 mi (3,220 km) north to south, only continent occupied by a single
nation, the Commonwealth of Australia (1987 est. pop. 16,249,000),
2,967,877 sq mi (7,686,810 sq km). Subdivisions of the nation include the
offshore island state of %@AU@%TASMANIA%@BO:          92ffef@%%@AE@%; the five mainland states of
%@AU@%QUEENSLAND%@BO:          7bb8b3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEW SOUTH WALES%@BO:          6936b0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d297c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SOUTH AUSTRALIA%@BO:          8bfd75@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%WESTERN
%@AU@%AUSTRALIA%@BO:          a0a183@%%@AE@%; the %@AU@%NORTHERN TERRITORY%@BO:          6ba35b@%%@AE@%; and the %@AU@%AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY%@BO:           a0bf8@%%@AE@%,
containing %@AU@%CANBERRA%@BO:          182142@%%@AE@%, the federal capital. External territories include
%@AU@%CHRISTMAS ISLAND%@BO:          1e0f13@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS%@BO:          1fea0a@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%CORAL SEA ISLANDS%@BO:          233bf9@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%NORFOLK ISLAND%@BO:          6b15d0@%%@AE@%, Heard and McDonald islands, and the Australian Antarctic
Territory. See map in separate section.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Geography%@AE@% Australia is the flattest and driest of the continents, as well
as the oldest and most isolated. Elevations range from 39 ft (12 m) below
sea level at Lake %@AU@%EYRE%@BO:          3162d9@%%@AE@%, the lowest point, to a high point of 7,316 ft
(2,230 m) at Mt. %@AU@%KOSCIUSKO%@BO:          50ac0b@%%@AE@%, in the %@AU@%AUSTRALIAN ALPS%@BO:           a0837@%%@AE@% near the New South
Wales-Victoria border; much of the ancient western plateau is under 2,000
ft (610 m). Two thirds of the continent is either desert or semiarid.
Humid climates are restricted to eastern coastal areas and to Tasmania.
Alternating wet winters (June-August) and dry summers (November-March)
occur in small areas of South Australia and Western Australia, and dry
winters and wet summers alternate along the tropical northeastern coast.
The %@AU@%MURRAY%@BO:          654ee3@%%@AE@% R. and its major tributaries, the %@AU@%DARLING%@BO:          268607@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MURRUMBIDGEE%@BO:          6552f7@%%@AE@%,
form the principal river system. Plant and animal life is distinctive,
including many species, such as the giant %@AU@%EUCALYPTUS%@BO:          307ba8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KOALA%@BO:          505db8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KANGAROO%@BO:          4e280c@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%PLATYPUS%@BO:          76c2a9@%%@AE@%, found only in Australia.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy and People%@AE@% Australia is the world's leading producer of wool and
bauxite, and a significant supplier of iron ore, wheat, meat, dairy
products, sugar, and fruit. Manufacturing is highly developed and
concentrated mainly in the coastal regions of Victoria and New South
Wales. Iron, steel, automobiles, aircraft, electrical equipment and
appliances, chemicals, and textiles are leading manufactures. %@AU@%SYDNEY%@BO:          91bc52@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%MELBOURNE%@BO:          5e6cb2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BRISBANE%@BO:          13e6ba@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ADELAIDE%@BO:           126bf@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%NEWCASTLE%@BO:          68bc29@%%@AE@%, all located along the
southeastern coast, are the largest commercial and industrial centers.
New South Wales and Victoria are the most populous states. Most
Australians are of British ancestry. The indigenous population, the
Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, totaled 159,897 in
1981. Immigration contributes significantly to population growth; in 1984
slightly more than 20% of the population had been born in Australia.
Racially discriminatory immigration policies were officially ended in
1973, and recent years have seen increased Asian immigration.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History and Government%@AE@% The aborigines are thought to have come from
Southeast Asia c.20,000 years ago. The area was first visited by
Europeans in the 17th cent. but attracted little interest until Capt.
James %@AU@%COOK%@BO:          22f2d1@%%@AE@% sailed (1770) into %@AU@%BOTANY BAY%@BO:          128197@%%@AE@% and claimed the entire eastern
coast for Great Britain. The first settlement, a penal colony for
"transported" British convicts, was established in 1788 where Sydney now
stands. By the middle of the 19th cent. free colonization had replaced
the old penal settlements, and the colonies of Tasmania (1825), Western
Australia (1829), South Australia (1834), Victoria (1851), and Queensland
(1859) had been established. Wool and wheat were early exports, and gold
rushes in 1851 and 1892 attracted new settlers. In 1901 the colonies were
federated as states of the Commonwealth of Australia, and in 1927 the
seat of government was transferred from Melbourne to Canberra. Australia
fought on the side of Britain in both world wars. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% the
Japanese bombed or shelled %@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          269597@%%@AE@%, Port Jackson, and Newcastle, and the
Allied victory in the battle of the %@AU@%CORAL SEA%@BO:          233a62@%%@AE@% (1942) probably averted an
invasion of Australia. Australia joined regional defense pacts after the
war and sent troops to aid the U.S. in the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%. The nation has a
popularly elected bicameral parliament. Executive power rests with the
governor general (representing the crown) and a cabinet and prime
minister. British intervention in Australian affairs was formally
abolished in 1986.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Australian Alps%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Australian Alps%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTRALIAN.ALPS @%%@QR:Australian Alps@% mountain chain, SE Australia, forming the southern part%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%EASTERN HIGHLANDS%@BO:          2bdaf3@%%@AE@%. It reaches a high point of 7,316 ft (2,230 m)
at Mt. %@AU@%KOSCIUSKO%@BO:          50ac0b@%%@AE@%, the highest peak in Australia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Australian Ballet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Australian Ballet%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTRALET       @%%@QR:Australian Ballet@% founded in Melbourne (1962). It drew on the tradition%@EH@%
established (1940) by Edouard Borovansky of the Ballets Russes (see
%@AU@%DIAGHILEV%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@%) and is linked to the %@AU@%ROYAL BALLET%@BO:          819066@%%@AE@% in style and repertoire.
Performances include a film version (1973) of Rudolf %@AU@%NUREYEV'S%@BO:          6c57cd@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Don
%@AI@%Quixote%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Australian Capital Territory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Australian Capital Territory%@AE@%%@CR:AUSTRALITORY    @%%@QR:Australian Capital Territory@% (1983 pop. 240,100), 939 sq mi (2,432 sq%@EH@%
km), SE Australia, an enclave within %@AU@%NEW SOUTH WALES%@BO:          6936b0@%%@AE@% containing %@AU@%CANBERRA%@BO:          182142@%%@AE@%,
the capital of Australia. Most of it was ceded to the federal government
by New South Wales in 1911 for use as the future capital; a small section
on the east coast, at Jervis Bay, was ceded for use as a port in 1915.
The territory is administered by the federal government and has an
18-member elected House of Assembly with advisory responsibilities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Australian languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Australian languages%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTRALUAGES    @%%@QR:Australian languages@% aboriginal languages spoken by perhaps 130,000%@EH@%
persons on the continent of Australia. These languages, estimated at 100
to 600 in number, do not seem to be related to any other linguistic
family and have no writing of their own. Many are already or nearly
extinct.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Australopithecus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Australopithecus%@AE@%:%@CR:AUSTRALS        @%%@QR:Australopithecus@% see %@AU@%MAN, PREHISTORIC%@BO:          5a8e87@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austria%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTRIA         @%%@QR:Austria@% Ger. %@AI@%Osterreich,%@AE@% officially Republic of Austria, federal%@EH@%
republic (1987 est. pop. 7,573,000), 32,374 sq mi (83,849 sq km), central
Europe; bordered by Yugoslavia and Italy (S), Switzerland and
Liechtenstein (W), West Germany and Czechoslovakia (N), and Hungary (E).
%@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d4be1@%%@AE@% is the capital; principal cities include %@AU@%SALZBURG%@BO:          83bd77@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%INNSBRUCK%@BO:          4865c9@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%GRAZ%@BO:          3c905b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LINZ%@BO:          557a46@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%ALPS%@BO:           41c4e@%%@AE@% traverse Austria from west to east and occupy
three fourths of the country; the highest peak is the Grossglockner
(12,460 ft/3,798 m). Austria is drained by the %@AU@%DANUBE%@BO:          266955@%%@AE@% R. and its
tributaries. Forestry, cattle-raising, and dairying are the main sources
of livelihood in the alpine provinces. In the rest of the country tillage
agriculture predominates; the chief crops are potatoes, sugar beets,
barley, wheat, rye, and oats. Manufacturing (steel, chemicals,
foodstuffs, textiles, and machinery) and mining (graphite, iron,
magnesium, and lignite) employ nearly half of the labor force. Tourism is
very important. Divided into nine provinces, Austria has a mixed
presidential-parliamentary form of government. The population is
predominantly German-speaking and Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Located at the crossroads of Europe, Austria has been from
earliest times a thoroughfare and a battleground. Settled by Celts, the
area was conquered (15 BC-AD 10) by Rome; overrun (from the 5th cent.) by
Huns, Goths, Lombards, and Bavarians; conquered (788) by %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%;
taken (after 814) by the Moravians (see %@AU@%MORAVIA%@BO:          63b27a@%%@AE@%) and then the %@AU@%MAGYARS%@BO:          59affb@%%@AE@%;
and reconquered (955) by Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%OTTO I%@BO:          6f746a@%%@AE@%, who bestowed it (976)
on the house of Babenberg. Acquired in 1251 by Ottocar II of %@AU@%BOHEMIA%@BO:          117097@%%@AE@%, it
was claimed (1282) by %@AU@%RUDOLF I%@BO:          81c25a@%%@AE@% of Hapsburg, king of the Germans, and from
that time until its fall in 1918, Austrian history is that of the house
of %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%. (See %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN
%@AU@%MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:           a319f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CONGRESS OF VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GERMAN CONFEDERATION%@BO:          3971e2@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HOLY ALLIANCE%@BO:          43ba59@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%METTERNICH%@BO:          5f95d3@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@%.) Following the collapse of the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy at the end of %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, German Austria was
proclaimed (1918) a republic. The Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), which
fixed its boundaries, reduced it to a small country of 7 million
inhabitants, and deprived it of its raw materials, food, and markets.
Unemployment, bankruptcy, and political unrest followed, and in 1934 a
corporative totalitarian regime was established under Engelbert %@AU@%DOLLFUSS%@BO:          29dca5@%%@AE@%
(who was assassinated) and his successor, Kurt von %@AU@%SCHUSCHNIGG%@BO:          85c953@%%@AE@%. The
nation became part of the German Third Reich in 1938, when it was
occupied by German troops. After its capture (1945) by U.S. and Soviet
troops, Austria was restored as a republic. Divided into zones, it was
occupied by the Allies until 1955, when a peace treaty declared it a
sovereign and neutral power. By the 1960s the country enjoyed
unprecedented prosperity. Politically, a nearly equal balance of power
between conservatives and socialists resulted in a succession of
coalition governments until 1966, when the conservative People's party
won a clear majority. The party was ousted in the 1970 elections by the
Socialists, who, under Chancellor Bruno %@AU@%KREISKY%@BO:          50cd64@%%@AE@%, held power into the
1980s. In 1986 former UN Secretary General Kurt %@AU@%WALDHEIM%@BO:          9ea8a6@%%@AE@% was elected
president despite evidence that seemed to link him with Nazi atrocities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austrian Succession, War of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austrian Succession, War of the%@AE@%,%@CR:AUSTRIASION     @%%@QR:Austrian Succession, War of the@% 1740-48, European war precipitated by%@EH@%
the succession of %@AU@%MARIA THERESA%@BO:          5bae64@%%@AE@% to the Hapsburg lands by virtue of the
%@AU@%PRAGMATIC SANCTION%@BO:          78f6f5@%%@AE@%. She was challenged by the elector of Bavaria (who
became Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES VII%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% in 1742), %@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of Spain, and %@AU@%AUGUSTUS III%@BO:           9d1b2@%%@AE@%
of Poland. %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% of Prussia, claiming part of Silesia, opened
hostilities by invading that region. Prussia was joined by France, Spain,
Bavaria, and Saxony. After being promised its Silesian claim, Prussia
made a separate peace in 1742. Saxony went over to Austria in 1743, and
England (at war with Spain), Holland, and Sardinia became Austrian
allies. Fearing Maria Theresa's growing power, Prussia reentered the war
in 1744. Maria Theresa's husband was elected emperor, as %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@%, in
1745, on the death of Charles VII. France defeated the English at
Fontenoy, and %@AU@%GEORGE II%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@% sued for peace. The war dragged on in other
areas, including North America (see %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%). In 1748 the
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war. Maria Theresa's throne was safe,
but Prussia had emerged as a major European power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austro-Hungarian Monarchy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austro-Hungarian Monarchy%@AE@%%@CR:AUSTROHY        @%%@QR:Austro-Hungarian Monarchy@% or %@AB@%Dual Monarchy,%@AE@%the %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% empire from the%@EH@%
constitutional compromise (%@AI@%Ausgleich%@AE@%) of 1867 until its fall in 1918. The
empire was divided into two states. Cisleithania (lands W of the Leitha
River) comprised Austria proper, Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia,
Slovenia, and Austrian Poland. Transleithania included Hungary,
Transylvania, Croatia, and part of Dalmatia. The Hapsburg monarch ruled
Cisleithania as emperor of Austria and ruled Transleithania as king of
Hungary. Both states elected separate parliaments for internal affairs
and had independent ministries. A common cabinet dealt with foreign
affairs, common defense, and common finances. The monarchy was weakened
by this ethnic diversity. Czech, Italian, Slavic, and Rumanian minorities
desired autonomy and later sought to break free of the empire. Archduke
%@AU@%FRANCIS FERDINAND%@BO:          354ea2@%%@AE@% apparently had a plan for a South Slavic partner in the
monarchy, but his assassination (1914) cut short this hope and
precipitated %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. In foreign affairs Austria-Hungary allied
(1879) with Germany (see %@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%) and in 1908
angered %@AU@%SERBIA%@BO:          871606@%%@AE@% by annexing %@AU@%BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA%@BO:          1262ad@%%@AE@%. The empire was
dissolved at the end of World War I, and Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@% abdicated
(1918). The Treaty of %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd7bc@%%@AE@% and other treaties established the
boundaries of the successor states.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austronesian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austronesian%@AE@%%@CR:AUSTRONESIAN    @%%@QR:Austronesian@%, name sometimes used for the Malayo-Polynesian languages.%@EH@%
See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Austro-Prussian War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Austro-Prussian War%@AE@%%@CR:AUSTROPWAR      @%%@QR:Austro-Prussian War@% or %@AB@%Seven Weeks War,%@AE@%June 15-Aug. 23, 1866, between%@EH@%
Austria (seconded by the various German states) and Prussia (allied with
Italy). It was provoked by %@AU@%BISMARCK%@BO:          103a0a@%%@AE@% as a way of expelling Austria from
the %@AU@%GERMAN CONFEDERATION%@BO:          3971e2@%%@AE@%, thereby assuring Prussian hegemony there. The
pretext was a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration
of %@AU@%SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN%@BO:          857e77@%%@AE@%. Prussia quickly overran Holstein and the German
states allied with Austria, and was victorious in Bohemia and Italy. The
Treaty of Prague ended the war. Austria was excluded from German affairs
and forced to cede Venetia to Italy. Prussia demanded no territory from
Austria but annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt, laying the
groundwork for the establishment (1871) of the German empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%auteur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%auteur%@AE@%,%@CR:AUTEUR          @%%@QR:auteur@%  a term in film criticism. It is applied to a director who so%@EH@%
dominates the film-making process that it is appropriate to call the
director the auteur, or author, of the movie.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%authentic modes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%authentic modes%@AE@%:%@CR:AUTHENTIC.MODES @%%@QR:authentic modes@% see %@AU@%MODE%@BO:          61e82c@%%@AE@%, in music.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%autism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%autism%@AE@%,%@CR:AUTISM          @%%@QR:autism@% in psychology, a condition-characterized by withdrawal,%@EH@%
fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations-stemming from an inability to
relate to and perceive the environment realistically. The symptoms of
infantile autism include delay in the acquisition of speech, resistance
to change of any kind, and obsessive and stereotyped body movements.
Treatment is still experimental, and relatively few autistic children
show significant remission of symptoms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%autoimmune disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%autoimmune disease%@AE@%,%@CR:AUTOIMMASE      @%%@QR:autoimmune disease@% general term for several disorders in which the body%@EH@%
produces antibodies (see %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%) against its own substances, resulting
in tissue injury. For example, in systemic lupus erythematosus,
individuals develop antibodies to their own nucleic acids and cell
structures, causing dysfunction of many organs, including the heart,
kidneys, and joints. Autoimmune diseases are treated by a variety of
nonspecific %@AU@%IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS%@BO:          46eaab@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%STEROIDS%@BO:          8ef0b9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%automation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%automation%@AE@%,%@CR:AUTOMATION      @%%@QR:automation@% automatic operation and control of machinery or processes by%@EH@%
devices that make and execute decisions without human intervention. Such
devices use self-correcting control systems that employ feedback; i.e.,
they use part of their output to control their input. Because of their
ability to store, select, record, and present data, %@AU@%COMPUTERS%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% are widely
used to direct automated systems. See also %@AU@%DATA PROCESSING%@BO:          269d21@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ROBOTICS%@BO:          7fca3c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%automobile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%automobile%@AE@%,%@CR:AUTOMOBILE      @%%@QR:automobile@% self-propelled vehicle used for travel on land. The%@EH@%
fundamental structure of the automobile consists of seven basic systems:
the engine, usually mounted in front and driving either the two front or
the two back wheels; the fuel system, using a %@AU@%CARBURETOR%@BO:          18ca33@%%@AE@% to produce the
optimal combustible mixture of fuel and air; the electrical system,
including a battery that provides a power source to the ignition; the
cooling, steering and suspension, and %@AU@%BRAKE%@BO:          133faa@%%@AE@% systems; and the
%@AU@%TRANSMISSION%@BO:          9767ee@%%@AE@%, which transmits power from the engine crankshaft to the
wheels by means of a series of gears. Evolving from earlier experiments
with steam-powered vehicles, models using the gasoline-fueled
%@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@% were first developed by the German engineers
Karl %@AU@%BENZ%@BO:           e9c84@%%@AE@% (1885) and Gottlieb %@AU@%DAIMLER%@BO:          25fdb2@%%@AE@% (1886). U.S. leadership in
automobile production began with Henry %@AU@%FORD'S%@BO:          3461fa@%%@AE@% founding (1903) of the Ford
Motor Co., its production (1908) of the inexpensive Model T, and its
development of assembly-line techniques. General Motors, Ford's principal
competitor, became the world's largest automobile manufacturer in the
1920s, and U.S. dominance of the field continued until the 1970s, when it
was challenged by growing sales of Japanese and German cars. See also
%@AU@%AUTOMOBILE RACING%@BO:           a465b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DIESEL ENGINE%@BO:          28f0ff@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SMOG%@BO:          8a78ba@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%automobile racing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%automobile racing%@AE@%,%@CR:AUTOMOBNG       @%%@QR:automobile racing@% sport in which high-speed, specially constructed%@EH@%
automobiles are raced on outdoor or indoor courses. The five basic types
of competition are the grand prix, a series of races in several countries
that leads to the designation of a world-champion driver; stock car,
using standard cars with special equipment; midget car; sports car; and
drag racing, involving acceleration tests over 1/4-mi. (.4025-km) tracks.
The sport originated in France in 1894. The best-known U.S. race is the
Indianapolis 500, first held in 1911.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%autumnal equinox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%autumnal equinox%@AE@%:%@CR:AUTUMNAX        @%%@QR:autumnal equinox@% see %@AU@%EQUINOX%@BO:          2fa379@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Averroes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Averroes%@AE@%%@CR:AVERROES        @%%@QR:Averroes@%, Arabic %@AI@%Ibn Rushd,%@AE@% 1126-98, Spanish-Arabian philosopher. His%@EH@%
greatest work, his commentaries on %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%, remained influential in the
West well into the Renaissance. Averroes held that the domains of faith
and reason did not conflict, and that philosophic truth derives from
reason rather than faith (see %@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@%). In this he was opposed by
St. %@AU@%THOMAS AQUINAS%@BO:          952e01@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Avery, Milton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Avery, Milton%@AE@%,%@CR:AVERY           @%%@QR:Avery, Milton@% 1893-1965, American painter; b. Altmar, N.Y. A master%@EH@%
colorist in the tradition of %@AU@%MATISSE%@BO:          5d33c7@%%@AE@%, he is known for figurative works
that display bold massing of forms and for landscapes that verge on
complete abstraction, e.g., %@AI@%Dunes and Sea II%@AE@% (1960; Whitney Mus.,
N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Avestan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Avestan%@AE@%%@CR:AVESTAN         @%%@QR:Avestan@%, language belonging to the Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%aviation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%aviation%@AE@%,%@CR:AVIATION        @%%@QR:aviation@% operation of heavier-than-air aircraft and related activities.%@EH@%
Aviation can be divided into military aviation (see %@AU@%AIRCRAFT CARRIER%@BO:           24924@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AIR
%@AU@%FORCE%@BO:           254d0@%%@AE@%), air transport (commercial airline operations), and general
aviation (agricultural, business, charter, instructional, and pleasure
flying). The first successful flights of a motor-powered airplane
carrying a human were made by Orville and Wilbur %@AU@%WRIGHT%@BO:          a37a2c@%%@AE@% near Kitty Hawk,
N.C. on Dec. 17, 1903. The first successful %@AU@%SEAPLANE%@BO:          8658d6@%%@AE@% was constructed in
1911-12. During the early 1900s, aviators demonstrated the feasibility of
air travel to various parts of the world. World War I provided additional
motivation for aviation research and development. The availability of
cheap, surplus aircraft in the U.S. after the war encouraged barnstorming
and stunt-flying; the result was a more airplane-conscious public.
Private companies in America contracted the carrying of airmail after
1925. Technological improvements in %@AU@%WIND TUNNEL%@BO:          a24f0e@%%@AE@% testing, engine and
airframe design, and maintenance equipment combined in the 1930s to
provide faster, larger, and more durable airplanes. The transportation of
passengers became profitable, and routes were extended to include several
foreign countries. Transpacific airmail service began in 1934, and was
soon followed by a similar service for passengers. In 1939 the first
transatlantic service for mail and passengers was inaugurated. The
application of %@AU@%JET PROPULSION%@BO:          4c0a6a@%%@AE@% to commercial air transportation began in
1952. The first supersonic transports (SST) for passenger service were
put into service during the mid-1970s. See also %@AU@%AIRSHIP%@BO:           26d33@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BALLOON%@BO:           b8ced@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GLIDER%@BO:          3aa7cb@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%HELICOPTER%@BO:          415940@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Avicenna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Avicenna%@AE@%%@CR:AVICENNA        @%%@QR:Avicenna@%, Arabic %@AI@%Ibn Sina,%@AE@% 980-1037, Persian philosopher and physician,%@EH@%
the most renowned philosopher of medieval Islam. His interpretation of
%@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@% followed that of the %@AU@%NEOPLATONISTS%@BO:          682916@%%@AE@%. Avicenna's %@AI@%Canon of
%@AI@%Medicine,%@AE@% a classic text, was particularly influential from 1100 to 1500.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Avignon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Avignon%@AE@%%@CR:AVIGNON         @%%@QR:Avignon@%, city (1982 pop. 91,474), capital of Vaucluse dept., SE France,%@EH@%
on the Rhone R. It has a wine trade and many manufactures. The papal see
during the Babylonian Captivity (1309-78), it was later (1378-1408) the
residence of several antipopes (see %@AU@%PAPACY%@BO:          70a3f2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SCHISM, GREAT%@BO:          85642a@%%@AE@%). Avignon
was joined to France after a plebiscite (1791). Medieval ramparts and the
papal palace are highlights of the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%avionics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%avionics%@AE@%,%@CR:AVIONICS        @%%@QR:avionics@% the electronics used for the navigation and running of an%@EH@%
airplane, missile, or space ship. Avionics are only those systems carried
aboard the craft. They may include %@AU@%RADAR%@BO:          7c0fb6@%%@AE@%, guidance systems, and
stabilization systems. The term also refers to the industry of producing
avionic components, as well as the research and development of such
systems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%avocado%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%avocado%@AE@%,%@CR:AVOCADO         @%%@QR:avocado@% tropical American broad-leaved evergreen tree (genus %@AI@%Persea%@AE@%) of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%LAUREL%@BO:          52c23c@%%@AE@% family, and its pear-shaped fruit. The fruit has a tough,
inedible, usually dark green skin and an oily flesh surrounding a large,
hard seed. The flesh is eaten fresh, chiefly in salads.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna%@AE@%,%@CR:AVOGADRO        @%%@QR:Avogadro, Amadeo, conte di Quaregna@% 1776-1856, Italian physicist. In%@EH@%
1811 he advanced the hypothesis (since known as Avogadro's law) that
equal volumes of gases under identical conditions of pressure and
temperature contain the same number of molecules. This hypothesis led to
the determination by other physicists of the value of Avogadro's number,
i.e., the number of molecules in one %@AU@%MOLE%@BO:          624d34@%%@AE@%, or gram-molecular weight, of
any gas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Avogadro's number%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Avogadro's number%@AE@%:%@CR:AVOGADRR        @%%@QR:Avogadro's number@% see %@AU@%MOLE%@BO:          624d34@%%@AE@%, in chemistry.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%avoirdupois weights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%avoirdupois weights%@AE@%:%@CR:AVOIRDUGHTS     @%%@QR:avoirdupois weights@% see %@AU@%ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT%@BO:          2f136f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WEIGHTS AND%@EH@%
%@AU@%MEASURES%@BO:          a0404d@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Awami League%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Awami League%@AE@%,%@CR:AWAMI.LEAGUE    @%%@QR:Awami League@% political party in %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BANGLADESH%@BO:           bc3f7@%%@AE@%. Founded in%@EH@%
1949, it became the vehicle for the political interests of East Pakistan.
When East Pakistan won independence (1971) as Bangladesh, the league
became the new nation's dominant political party. However, in 1981 the
National party defeated the league in national elections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%axiom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%axiom%@AE@%,%@CR:AXIOM           @%%@QR:axiom@% in %@AU@%MATHEMATICS%@BO:          5d1200@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LOGIC%@BO:          5634cd@%%@AE@%, general statement accepted without proof%@EH@%
as the basis for logically deducing other statements (%@AU@%THEOREMS%@BO:          94cc3e@%%@AE@%). Examples
of axioms used widely in mathematics are those related to equality (e.g.,
"If equals are added to equals, the sums are equal") and those related to
operations (e.g., the %@AU@%ASSOCIATIVE LAW%@BO:           8d7e3@%%@AE@%). A postulate, like an axiom, is a
statement that is accepted without proof; it deals, however, with
specific subject matter (e.g., properties of geometrical figures), not
general statements.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Axis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Axis%@AE@%,%@CR:AXIS            @%%@QR:Axis@% 1936-45, coalition of countries in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% headed by Germany,%@EH@%
Italy, and Japan. They were opposed, and defeated, by the Allies, headed
by the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ayacucho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ayacucho%@AE@%,%@CR:AYACUCHO        @%%@QR:Ayacucho@% city (1981 pop. 69,533), capital of Ayacucho dept., S central%@EH@%
Peru. It is a commercial and tourist center in a region of rich gold,
silver, and nickel mines. On the nearby plains of Ayacucho, Antonio Jose
de %@AU@%SUCRE%@BO:          9025ac@%%@AE@% won (1824) a military victory that secured Peru's independence
from Spain and assured the liberation of South America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ayala, Ramon Perez de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ayala, Ramon Perez de%@AE@%:%@CR:AYALA           @%%@QR:Ayala, Ramon Perez de@% see %@AU@%PEREZ DE AYALA, RAMON%@BO:          734888@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini%@AE@%:%@CR:AYATOLLEINI     @%%@QR:Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini@% see %@AU@%KHOMEINI, AYATOLLAH RUHOLLAH%@BO:          4f61dd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ayckbourn, Alan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ayckbourn, Alan%@AE@%,%@CR:AYCKBOURN       @%%@QR:Ayckbourn, Alan@% 1939-, English playwright. He is known for such%@EH@%
ingenious antibourgeois %@AU@%FARCES%@BO:          31b828@%%@AE@% as %@AI@%How the Other Half Loves%@AE@% (1970); %@AI@%Absurd
%@AI@%Person Singular%@AE@% (1973); %@AI@%The Norman Conquests%@AE@% (1974), a trilogy; and
%@AI@%Bedroom Farce%@AE@% (1975).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aymara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aymara%@AE@%,%@CR:AYMARA          @%%@QR:Aymara@% %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@% of the Lake %@AU@%TITICACA%@BO:          961dbb@%%@AE@% basin in Peru and%@EH@%
Bolivia. Their language is classified as a separate unit (see %@AU@%AMERICAN
%@AU@%INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Believed to be the originators of the great culture
seen in the ruins of %@AU@%TIAHUANACO%@BO:          959749@%%@AE@%, they were subjugated by the %@AU@%INCA%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@% (15th
cent.) and by the Spanish (16th cent.) but retained their pastoral
civilization and patrilineal society. Still dominant in the region today,
the Aymara have adopted some aspects of Spanish culture and Christian
belief.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ayub Khan, Muhammad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ayub Khan, Muhammad%@AE@%,%@CR:AYUB.KHAN       @%%@QR:Ayub Khan, Muhammad@% 1907-74, president (1958-69) of %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%. After 1951%@EH@%
he was commander of the Pakistani armed forces, and in 1958 he led a
military coup and became president. Although he inaugurated far-reaching
reforms and a new constitution, unrest grew; despite his reelection in
1965, he bowed to pressure and resigned in 1969.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%azalea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%azalea%@AE@%,%@CR:AZALEA          @%%@QR:azalea@% shrubs (genus %@AI@%Rhododendron%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%HEATH%@BO:          410664@%%@AE@% family, distinguished by%@EH@%
typically deciduous leaves and large clusters of pink, red, orange,
yellow, purple, or white flowers. Most grow in damp acid soils of hills
and mountains, and are native to North America and Asia. Native American
azaleas include the flame azalea (%@AI@%R. calendulacea%@AE@%) and the fragrant white
azalea (%@AI@%R. viscosa%@AE@%), also called swamp honeysuckle. Most of the
brilliantly flowered garden varieties are from China and Japan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Azana, Manuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Azana, Manuel%@AE@%%@CR:AZANA           @%%@QR:Azana, Manuel@%, 1880-1940, president of Spain (1936-39). A leader of the%@EH@%
republican revolution of 1930, he served as premier (1931-33) in the
first republic. He headed the Loyalist government in the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@% but held little real power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%%@CR:AZERBAILIST.RE  @%%@QR:Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic@%or %@AB@%Azerbaidzhan%@AE@%, constituent republic%@EH@%
(1987 est. pop. 6,811,000), 33,428 sq mi (86,579 sq km), SE European
USSR, in Transcaucasia; capital: %@AU@%BAKU%@BO:           b2bf3@%%@AE@%. It is bounded by the Dagestan
Republic (N); Iran (S), where the Araks R. divides it from Iranian
Azerbaijan; the Caspian Sea (E); and the Armenian Republic (W). The area
is rich in oil and other minerals. Manufactures include cement and steel.
Grapes, cotton, and tobacco are major crops. In addition to the
Turkic-speaking Shiite Muslim Azerbaijani majority, there are Russian,
Armenian, and other minorities. Under Persian and Mongol rule from
ancient times, the region was acquired by Russia from Persia between 1813
and 1828. It became a Soviet republic in 1920.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%azidothymide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%azidothymide%@AE@%:%@CR:AZIDOTHYMIDE    @%%@QR:azidothymide@% see %@AU@%AZT%@BO:           a82dd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%azimuth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%azimuth%@AE@%:%@CR:AZIMUTH         @%%@QR:azimuth@% see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Azoic time%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Azoic time%@AE@%:%@CR:AZOIC.TIME      @%%@QR:Azoic time@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Azores%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Azores%@AE@%,%@CR:AZORES          @%%@QR:Azores@% island group belonging to Portugal (1986 est. pop. 253,500), 905%@EH@%
sq mi (2,344 sq km), located in the Atlantic Ocean, c.900 mi (1,448 km)
west of mainland Portugal. The nine main islands are Sao Miguel (the
largest) and Santa Maria in the southeast; Terceira, Pico, Fayal, Sao
Jorge, and Graciosa in the center; and Flores and Corvo in the northwest.
Ponta Delgado, on Sao Miguel, is the largest city. The islands are
divided into three districts named after their capitals: Ponta Delgado,
Angra do Heroismo (on Terceira), and Horta (on Fayal).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Azorin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Azorin%@AE@%:%@CR:AZORIN          @%%@QR:Azorin@% see %@AU@%MARTINEZ RUIZ, JOSE%@BO:          5c4b30@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%AZT%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%AZT%@AE@%%@CR:AZT             @%%@QR:AZT@%  or %@AB@%azidothymide,%@AE@%a drug used to treat %@AU@%AIDS%@BO:           2376a@%%@AE@%. Although it does not cure%@EH@%
AIDS, it inhibits the virus's ability to reproduce, prolonging the lives
of most patients. Among its possible adverse effects are anemia,
dementia, and blindness.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Aztec%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Aztec%@AE@%,%@CR:AZTEC           @%%@QR:Aztec@% %@AU@%MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          605406@%%@AE@% dominating central Mexico at the time of%@EH@%
the Spanish conquest (16th cent.), with a Nahuatlan language of the
Uto-Aztecan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Until the founding of
their capital, Tenochtitlan (c.1325), the Aztec were a poor nomadic tribe
in the valley of Mexico. In the 15th cent. they became powerful,
subjugating the Huastec to the north and the %@AU@%MIXTEC%@BO:          61d5a7@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ZAPOTEC%@BO:          a4f49d@%%@AE@% to the
south, and achieving a composite civilization based on a %@AU@%TOLTEC%@BO:          967bd4@%%@AE@% and
Mixteca-Puebla heritage. Engineering, architecture, art, mathematics,
astronomy, sculpture, weaving, metalwork, music, and picture writing were
highly developed; agriculture and trade flourished. The nobility,
priesthood, military, and merchant castes predominated. War captives were
sacrificed to the many Aztec gods, including the god of war,
Huitzilopochti. In 1519, when %@AU@%CORTES%@BO:          2392aa@%%@AE@% arrived, many subject peoples
willingly joined the Spanish against the Aztecs. Cortes captured
%@AU@%MONTEZUMA%@BO:          635305@%%@AE@%, who was subsequently murdered, and razed Tenochtitlan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%B%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%B%@AE@%,%@CR:B               @%%@QR:B@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%BORON%@BO:          1253ca@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ba%@AE@%,%@CR:BA              @%%@QR:Ba@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%BARIUM%@BO:           c3c73@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baade, Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baade, Walter%@AE@%%@CR:BAADE           @%%@QR:Baade, Walter@%, 1893-1960, German-American astronomer. He presented%@EH@%
evidence for the existence of two different stellar populations of older
and newer stars. Baade knew that, at the then-accepted distance of the
Andromeda galaxy, cluster-type variable stars should have appeared on
photographs that he took with the 200-in. (5.08-m) telescope at Palomar
Observatory. Because they did not, he correctly reasoned (1952) that the
distances to this galaxy and other extragalactic systems must be doubled.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baal%@AE@%%@CR:BAAL            @%%@QR:Baal@%, plural %@AB@%Baalim%@AE@% [Semitic,=possessor], the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@% term for the%@EH@%
deity or deities of %@AU@%CANAAN%@BO:          17dfc7@%%@AE@%. First applied to local gods, it was later the
name of the chief deity. His cult practiced holy %@AU@%PROSTITUTION%@BO:          7a1ecc@%%@AE@% and child
sacrifice. In Israel it was denounced by Hebrew Prophets. The name is
synonymous with evil, hence Beelzebub (see %@AU@%SATAN%@BO:          84bfa4@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baal-Shem-Tov%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baal-Shem-Tov%@AE@%%@CR:BAALSHEMTOV     @%%@QR:Baal-Shem-Tov@% [Heb.,=master of the good name, i.e., the name of God,]%@EH@%
c.1698-1760, Jewish founder of modern %@AU@%HASIDISM%@BO:          4062bc@%%@AE@%; b. Poland as Israel ben
Eliezer. He was called Baal-Shem-Tov because of his reputation as a
miracle healer. Central to his teachings is the notion that one must
worship God in all activities-and with joy. From his large circle of
followers developed communities of modern %@AU@%HASIDIM%@BO:          405eae@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babbage, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babbage, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:BABBAGE         @%%@QR:Babbage, Charles@% 1792-1871, English mathematician and inventor, famous%@EH@%
for his attempts to develop a mechanical computational aid he called the
"analytical engine." Although it was never constructed and was decimal
rather than binary in conception, it clearly anticipated the modern
digital %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%. A scientist with extremely broad interests, Babbage
probed the roles of learned societies and government in advancing
science, and wrote on mass production and on what is now called
operational research.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babbitt, Irving%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babbitt, Irving%@AE@%,%@CR:BABBITT1        @%%@QR:Babbitt, Irving@% 1865-1933, American scholar; b. Dayton, Ohio. A%@EH@%
professor of French literature at Harvard (1912-33), he helped initiate
New Humanism, a movement based on classical moderation. His works include
%@AI@%The New Laokoon%@AE@% (1910) and %@AI@%On Being Creative%@AE@% (1932).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babbitt, Milton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babbitt, Milton%@AE@%,%@CR:BABBITT2        @%%@QR:Babbitt, Milton@% 1916-, American composer; b. Philadelphia. His "total%@EH@%
serialization" attempts to apply 12-tone principles to all the elements
of composition: dynamics, timbre, and rhythm, as well as melody and
harmony (see %@AU@%SERIAL MUSIC%@BO:          8723fc@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TWELVE-TONE MUSIC%@BO:          992037@%%@AE@%). In 1959 he became director
of the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich%@AE@%%@CR:BABEL1          @%%@QR:Babel, Isaac Emmanuelovich@%, 1894-1941, Russian writer. A brilliant%@EH@%
stylist, he won fame with %@AI@%Odessa Tales%@AE@% (1923-24), depicting Jewish ghetto
life, and %@AI@%Red Cavalry%@AE@% (1926), which drew on his Civil War experiences.
His also wrote the novel %@AI@%Benia Krik%@AE@% (1927) and the play %@AI@%Sunset%@AE@% (1928). He
was arrested in 1939 and died in a labor camp.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babel%@AE@%%@CR:BABEL2          @%%@QR:Babel@%, in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, Babylonian city where %@AU@%NOAH'S%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@% descendants (who spoke%@EH@%
one language) tried to build a tower reaching to heaven. For this
presumption they lost the ability to speak intelligibly to each other.
Gen. 11.1-9.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bab el Mandeb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bab el Mandeb%@AE@%,%@CR:BAB.EL.MANDEB   @%%@QR:Bab el Mandeb@% strategic strait between Arabia and NE Africa, 17 mi (27%@EH@%
km) wide, connecting the %@AU@%RED SEA%@BO:          7d62c7@%%@AE@% with the Gulf of %@AU@%ADEN%@BO:           12cdf@%%@AE@%. It is a vital
link in the %@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN SEA%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@%-%@AU@%SUEZ CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@%-%@AU@%INDIAN OCEAN%@BO:          47934f@%%@AE@% sea lane.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babeuf, Francois Noel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babeuf, Francois Noel%@AE@%%@CR:BABEUF          @%%@QR:Babeuf, Francois Noel@%, 1760-97, French revolutionary activist. In 1794 he%@EH@%
founded a political journal that argued for economic and political
equality. Imprisoned in 1795, he grew surer of his communist views. He
formed a secret society called the Conspiracy of Equals and plotted to
overthrow the government of the %@AU@%DIRECTORY%@BO:          29442d@%%@AE@%. The plot was discovered, and
Babeuf was executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babington, Anthony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babington, Anthony%@AE@%,%@CR:BABINGTON       @%%@QR:Babington, Anthony@% 1561-86, English conspirator. He was executed for%@EH@%
plotting the murder of %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% and the freeing of %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF
%@AU@%SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@%. The proof against him convinced Elizabeth that it was necessary to
behead Mary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babism%@AE@%,%@CR:BABISM          @%%@QR:Babism@% a 19th-cent. Persian sect, an outgrowth of %@AU@%SHIITE%@BO:          8856eb@%%@AE@% Islam that was%@EH@%
founded by Mirza Ali Muhammad of Shiraz, who proclaimed himself the Bab
gate in 1844. Babism, incorporating elements of %@AU@%SUFISM%@BO:          9049cf@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GNOSTICISM%@BO:          3acbaf@%%@AE@%, and
Shiite Islam, centered on a belief in the coming of the Promised One.
Oppressed from 1845, the movement declared its complete secession from
%@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@% in 1848, and in 1863 the Babists were expelled from Persia. After
1868 a division had its center in Acre, under the leadership of %@AU@%BAHA
%@AU@%ULLAH%@BO:           b1370@%%@AE@%, the founder of %@AU@%BAHA'ISM%@BO:           b0885@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baboon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baboon%@AE@%,%@CR:BABOON          @%%@QR:baboon@% large, powerful, ground-living %@AU@%MONKEY%@BO:          62d891@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Papio%@AE@%), also called%@EH@%
dog-faced monkey, related to the %@AU@%MANDRILL%@BO:          5ac400@%%@AE@%. Found in the open country of
Africa and Asia, baboons have close-set eyes under heavy brow ridges,
long, heavy muzzles, powerful jaws, cheek pouches for storing food, and
sharp, tusklike upper canine teeth. Baboons have a highly developed
social structure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babur%@AE@%,%@CR:BABUR           @%%@QR:Babur@% 1483-1530, founder of the %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% empire in %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@%. A descendant of%@EH@%
%@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@%, he invaded India from Afghanistan. He defeated (1526) the
sultan of Delhi, captured Agra and Delhi, and later conquered most of N
India. Babur was a poet; his autobiography is his major work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babylon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babylon%@AE@%,%@CR:BABYLON         @%%@QR:Babylon@% ancient city of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates R. It became one%@EH@%
of the most important cities of the ancient Near East when %@AU@%HAMMURABI%@BO:          3f931e@%%@AE@% made
it the capital of his kingdom of %@AU@%BABYLONIA%@BO:           aad2b@%%@AE@%. The city was destroyed (c.689
BC) by the Assyrians under %@AU@%SENNACHERIB%@BO:          86f32a@%%@AE@%, but it was rebuilt. The brilliant
color and luxury of Babylon became legendary from the days of
%@AU@%NEBUCHADNEZZAR%@BO:          67f311@%%@AE@% (d. 562 BC). The Hanging Gardens were one of the %@AU@%SEVEN
%@AU@%WONDERS OF THE WORLD%@BO:          87605b@%%@AE@%. The Persians captured the city in 538 BC%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babylonia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babylonia%@AE@%,%@CR:BABYLONIA       @%%@QR:Babylonia@% ancient empire of Mesopotamia. Historically the name refers to%@EH@%
the first dynasty of Babylon established by %@AU@%HAMMURABI%@BO:          3f931e@%%@AE@% (c.1750 BC) and to
the Neo-Babylonian period after the fall of the Assyrian empire.
Hammurabi, who had his capital at %@AU@%BABYLON%@BO:           aaa14@%%@AE@%, issued a famous code of laws
for the management of the empire. Babylonian religion and cuneiform
writing were derived from the older culture of %@AU@%SUMER%@BO:          909297@%%@AE@% and the quasi-feudal
society was divided into classes. These Babylonian institutions
influenced %@AU@%ASSYRIA%@BO:           8dd4e@%%@AE@% and so contributed to the later history of the Middle
East and of Western Europe. Babylonia degenerated into anarchy (c.1180
BC), but flourished once again as a subsidiary state of the Assyrian
empire after the 9th cent. BC Later, Nabopo lassar established (625 BC)
what is generally known as the Chaldean or New Babylonian empire, which
reached its height under his son %@AU@%NEBUCHADNEZZAR%@BO:          67f311@%%@AE@%. In 538 BC the last of
the Babylonian rulers surrendered to %@AU@%CYRUS THE GREAT%@BO:          25c4e2@%%@AE@% of Persia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babylonian art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babylonian art%@AE@%:%@CR:BABYLONIAN.ART  @%%@QR:Babylonian art@% see %@AU@%SUMERIAN AND BABYLONIAN ART%@BO:          909664@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Babylonian captivity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Babylonian captivity%@AE@%,%@CR:BABYLONIVITY    @%%@QR:Babylonian captivity@% in the history of Israel, the period from the fall%@EH@%
of Jerusalem (586 BC) to the reconstruction in Palestine of a new Jewish
state (after 538 BC). Following the capture of the city by the
Babylonians, thousands of %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@% were deported to Mesopotamia. In 538 BC
the Persian King %@AU@%CYRUS THE GREAT%@BO:          25c4e2@%%@AE@% decreed the restoration of worship at
Jerusalem. The century following this decree was the time of Jewish
reintegration into a national and religious unit.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baby's breath%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baby's breath%@AE@%,%@CR:BABYS.BREATH    @%%@QR:baby's breath@% name for a plant of the %@AU@%PINK%@BO:          75e2ac@%%@AE@% family, for the white%@EH@%
bedstraw of the %@AU@%MADDER%@BO:          592e82@%%@AE@% family, and for grape hyacinth of the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bacchanalia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bacchanalia%@AE@%,%@CR:BACCHANALIA     @%%@QR:Bacchanalia@% in Roman religion, festival honoring %@AU@%BACCHUS%@BO:           ab896@%%@AE@%, god of wine.%@EH@%
Originally a religious ceremony, it led to drunken, licentious excesses
and was outlawed (186 BC).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bacchus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bacchus%@AE@%%@CR:BACCHUS         @%%@QR:Bacchus@%, in Greek and Roman religion, god of wine, vegetation, and%@EH@%
fertility. His worship was celebrated in orgiastic rites such as the
Bacchanalia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bacchylides%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bacchylides%@AE@%%@CR:BACCHYLIDES     @%%@QR:Bacchylides@%, fl. c.470 BC, Greek lyric poet. He was a competent writer of%@EH@%
dithyrambs, but he lacked the inspiration of his contemporary %@AU@%PINDAR%@BO:          75cd12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bach%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bach%@AE@%%@CR:BACH1           @%%@QR:Bach@%, German family of distinguished musicians who flourished from the%@EH@%
16th through the 18th cent., its most renowned member being %@AB@%Johann
%@AB@%Sebastian Bach%@AE@% (see separate article). %@AB@%Johannes, or Hans, Bach,%@AE@%
1580-1626, was a carpet weaver and musical performer at festivals. His
sons and descendants were noted organists and composers. One grandson,
%@AB@%Johann Ambrosia Bach,%@AE@% 1645-95, a musician, was the father of Johann
Sebastian Bach. %@AB@%Johann Christoph Bach,%@AE@% 1671-1721, Johann Sebastian's
eldest brother, was an organist; he took his younger brother in and
taught him after their parents' death. Of the 20 children of Johann
Sebastian, several were noted as musicians. The eldest son, %@AB@%Wilhelm
%@AB@%Friedemann Bach,%@AE@% 1710-84, was a brilliant organist and well-known
composer, but his life ended in poverty and dissolution. A younger son
was %@AB@%Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach,%@AE@% 1714-88, also a composer and for 28 years
(1740-68) the harpsichordist of Frederick the Great. He wrote an
important treatise, %@AI@%Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments%@AE@%
(1753). The youngest son, %@AB@%Johann Christian Bach,%@AE@% 1735-82, known as the
"English Bach," became (1762) music master to King %@AU@%GEORGE III%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%. A popular
composer in the rococo style, he influenced the young %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bach, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bach, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:BACH2           @%%@QR:Bach, Alexander@% 1813-93, Austrian politician. As minister of the%@EH@%
interior (1849-59) he instituted the %@AB@%Bach system%@AE@% for the centralization
and Germanization of Hapsburg lands. It also ended internal tariffs. The
system met opposition, especially in Hungary, and was replaced after
1859.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bach, Johann Sebastian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bach, Johann Sebastian%@AE@%,%@CR:BACH3           @%%@QR:Bach, Johann Sebastian@% 1685-1750, German composer and organist, one of%@EH@%
the greatest composers of the Western world. Born into a gifted family,
Bach was trained in music from childhood by his father, Johann Ambrosia,
and later by his brother Johann Christoph. He held a variety of posts,
serving as organist in Arnstadt (1703-7), Muhlhausen (1707-8), and Weimar
(1708-17) before becoming (1717) musical director for Prince Leopold at
Cothen. After the death (1720) of his first wife, Maria Barbara Bach, he
married (1721) Anna Magdalena Wulken. He had in all 20 children, several
of whom became noted as musicians (see separate article). In 1723, Bach
became cantor and music director of St. Thomas Church, Leipzig, a
distinguished post that he held until his death. In his instrumental and
choral works, Bach perfected the art of %@AU@%POLYPHONY%@BO:          77dbc0@%%@AE@% and brought the era of
%@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@% music to its culmination. During his lifetime he was better known
as a virtuoso organist than as a composer, but since the 19th cent. his
genius has been recognized, and his reputation has grown steadily. In his
early years as organist, he composed a series of works for organ that
culminated in the great preludes and %@AU@%FUGUES%@BO:          36bdbc@%%@AE@% written at Weimar. At Cothen
he focused on instrumental compositions, such as the Brandenburg
Concertos, and keyboard works, such as Book I of the celebrated
%@AI@%Well-Tempered Clavier.%@AE@% His superb religious compositions from the Leipzig
period include the %@AI@%St. John Passion%@AE@% and the %@AI@%Mass in B Minor,%@AE@% and some 300
sacred %@AU@%CANTATAS%@BO:          184e95@%%@AE@%, of which nearly 200 are extant. His last notable pieces
are the %@AI@%Musical Offering,%@AE@% composed (1747) for Frederick the Great, and
the %@AI@%Art of the Fugue%@AE@% (1749).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bachelor's button%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bachelor's button%@AE@%,%@CR:BACHELON        @%%@QR:bachelor's button@% popular name for several plants usually characterized%@EH@%
by rounded flowers, such as the %@AU@%CORNFLOWER%@BO:          237293@%%@AE@% and globe %@AU@%AMARANTH%@BO:           44f1b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bach system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bach system%@AE@%:%@CR:BACH.SYSTEM     @%%@QR:Bach system@% see under %@AU@%BACH, ALEXANDER%@BO:           ac0d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%backgammon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%backgammon%@AE@%,%@CR:BACKGAMMON      @%%@QR:backgammon@% game of chance and skill played by two persons on a specially%@EH@%
marked board divided by a space (bar) into two "tables," each of which
has 12 alternately colored points (elongated triangular spaces) on which
each player places 15 pieces (disks) in a prescribed formation. Two dice
are thrown to determine moves. The object is to be the first to move
one's pieces around and off the board. The game has very ancient roots in
the Middle East.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bacon, Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bacon, Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:BACON1          @%%@QR:Bacon, Francis@% 1561-1626, English philosopher, essayist, and statesman.%@EH@%
After his opposition (1584) to Queen Elizabeth I's tax program retarded
his political advancement, he was favored by the earl of Essex, whom
Bacon later helped to prosecute (1601). Under James I he advanced from
knight (1603) to attorney general (1613) to lord chancellor (1618). In
1621 he pleaded guilty to charges of accepting bribes and was fined and
banished from office; he spent the rest of his life writing in
retirement. Bacon's best-known writings are his aphoristic %@AI@%Essays%@AE@%
(1597-1625). He projected a major philosophical work, the %@AI@%Instauratio
%@AI@%Magna,%@AE@% but completed only two parts: the %@AI@%Advancement of Learning%@AE@% (1605),
later expanded in Latin as %@AI@%De Augmentis Scientarum%@AE@% (1623); and the %@AI@%Novum
%@AI@%Organum%@AE@% (1620). His major contribution to philosophy was his application
of %@AU@%INDUCTION%@BO:          47db24@%%@AE@%, the approach used by modern science, rather than the a
priori method of medieval %@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bacon, Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bacon, Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:BACON2          @%%@QR:Bacon, Francis@% 1909-, English painter; b. Ireland. Self-taught, he%@EH@%
expresses the satirical, horrifying, and hallucinatory in such works as
%@AI@%Three Studies%@AE@% for the base of %@AI@%Crucifixion%@AE@% (1944; Tate Gall., London).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bacon, Nathaniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bacon, Nathaniel%@AE@%,%@CR:BACON3          @%%@QR:Bacon, Nathaniel@% 1647-76, leader of Bacon's Rebellion in colonial%@EH@%
Virginia. Dissatisfied with the government of Sir William %@AU@%BERKELEY%@BO:           ecd0b@%%@AE@%, and
its neglect of frontier defense, Bacon led (1676) a popular uprising. He
drove Berkeley from %@AU@%JAMESTOWN%@BO:          4b1f2c@%%@AE@%, but his death from malaria ended the
revolt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bacon, Roger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bacon, Roger%@AE@%,%@CR:BACON4          @%%@QR:Bacon, Roger@% c.1214-94?, English scholastic philosopher and scientist, a%@EH@%
%@AU@%FRANCISCAN%@BO:          35493e@%%@AE@%. A celebrated teacher at Oxford, Bacon had an interest far in
advance of his times in natural science and accurate observation of
phenomena, without, however, abandoning his faith. Three of his most
important works, summarizing his studies, were written for Pope %@AU@%CLEMENT I%@BO:          1f31e2@%%@AE@%
in one year (1267-68): the %@AI@%Opus majus, Opus minor,%@AE@% and the %@AI@%Opus tertium.%@AE@%
Deeply interested in alchemy, Bacon was credited by contemporaries with
great learning in magic. Many discoveries have been attributed to him,
including the invention of gunpowder and the first examination of cells
through a microscope, but much doubt has been cast on the authenticity of
such claims.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bacteria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bacteria%@AE@%,%@CR:BACTERIA        @%%@QR:bacteria@% microscopic, unicellular organisms having three typical forms:%@EH@%
rod-shaped (bacillus), round (coccus), and spiral (spirillum). The
cytoplasm of most bacteria is surrounded by a cell wall; the nucleus
contains %@AU@%DNA%@BO:          29a6bd@%%@AE@% but lacks the nuclear membrane found in higher plants and
animals. Many forms are motile, propelled by movements of a filamentlike
appendage (flagellum). Reproduction is chiefly by transverse fission
(%@AU@%MITOSIS%@BO:          61d049@%%@AE@%), but conjugation (transfer of nucleic acid between two cells)
and other forms of genetic recombination also occur. Some bacteria
(aerobes) can grow only in the presence of free or atmospheric oxygen;
others (anaerobes) cannot grow in its presence; and a third group
(facultative anaerobes) can grow with or without it. In unfavorable
conditions, many species form resistant spores. Different types of
bacteria are capable of innumerable chemical metabolic transformations,
e.g., %@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@% and the conversion of free nitrogen and sulfur into
%@AU@%AMINO ACIDS%@BO:           4b486@%%@AE@%. Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans. Some are
used for soil enrichment with leguminous plants (see %@AU@%NITROGEN CYCLE%@BO:          6a501c@%%@AE@%), in
pickling, and alcohol and cheese fermentation, to decompose organic
wastes (in septic tanks and the soil), and in %@AU@%GENETIC ENGINEERING%@BO:          38b080@%%@AE@%.
Others, called pathogens, cause a number of plant and animal diseases,
including %@AU@%CHOLERA%@BO:          1dbbc7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SYPHILIS%@BO:          91f742@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TYPHOID FEVER%@BO:          99480d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TETANUS%@BO:          9444ab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bacteriological warfare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bacteriological warfare%@AE@%:%@CR:BACTERI.WARFARE @%%@QR:bacteriological warfare@% see %@AU@%BIOLOGICAL WARFARE%@BO:           fe8bf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bacteriophage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bacteriophage%@AE@%%@CR:BACTERIOPHAGE   @%%@QR:bacteriophage@% or %@AB@%phage,%@AE@%%@AU@%VIRUS%@BO:          9de468@%%@AE@% that infects %@AU@%BACTERIA%@BO:           adab7@%%@AE@%, sometimes destroying%@EH@%
them. A phage has a head composed of %@AU@%PROTEIN%@BO:          7a2e5b@%%@AE@% and an inner core of %@AU@%NUCLEIC
%@AU@%ACID%@BO:          6c2767@%%@AE@%. It infects a host by attaching itself by its tail to the bacterial
cell wall and injecting nucleic acid (%@AU@%DNA%@BO:          29a6bd@%%@AE@%) into its host, in which it
produces new phage particles. Eventually the bacterial cell is destroyed
by lysis, or dissolution, releasing the phage particles to infect other
cells. Phages are highly specific, with a particular phage infecting only
certain species of bacteria; they are important tools in studies of
bacterial genetics and cellular mechanisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bactria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bactria%@AE@%%@CR:BACTRIA         @%%@QR:Bactria@%, ancient Greek kingdom in central Asia. Its capital was Bactra%@EH@%
(now Balkh, in N Afghanistan). A satrapy of the Persian Empire, it fell
to %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% in 328 BC It declared its independence in 256 BC
and became a powerful state, carrying its conquests deep into N India.
Later Bactria fell (c.1301 BC) to the nomadic Sakas and did not rise
again as a state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st%@EH@%
%@AS@%  Baron%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:BADENPOGILWELL  @%%@QR:Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Robert Stephenson Smyth Baden-Powell, 1st Baron@%%@EH@%
1857-1941, British soldier, founder of the %@AU@%BOY SCOUTS%@BO:          12fbc5@%%@AE@%. For his work in
organizing (1908) the Boy Scout and Girl Guide movements, he received a
peerage in 1929.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%badger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%badger%@AE@%,%@CR:BADGER          @%%@QR:badger@% any of several related members of the %@AU@%WEASEL%@BO:          9fe9c4@%%@AE@% family. Most are%@EH@%
large, nocturnal burrowers with broad, heavy bodies, long snouts, sharp
claws, and long, grizzled fur. The Old World badger (%@AI@%Meles meles%@AE@%), found
in Europe and N Asia, weighs about 30 lb (13.6 kg) and feeds on rodents,
insects, and plants. The smaller American badger (%@AI@%Taxidea taxus%@AE@%) has
short legs and a white stripe over the forehead and around each eye; a
swift burrower, it will pursue prey into their holes and may construct
its own living quarters 30 ft (9.1 m) below ground level.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Badlands National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Badlands National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:BADLANDAL.PARK  @%%@QR:Badlands National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%badminton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%badminton%@AE@%,%@CR:BADMINTON       @%%@QR:badminton@% game played by two or four persons in which a shuttlecock%@EH@%
(small, cork hemisphere with feathers) is volleyed over a net with light,
gut-strung rackets. For singles play the court measures 17 ft (5.18 m) by
44 ft (13.40 m) ; the doubles court is 3 ft (.91 m) wider. The game,
which is generally similar to tennis, probably originated in India. It
was introduced into the U.S. in the 1890s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Badoglio, Pietro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Badoglio, Pietro%@AE@%%@CR:BADOGLIO        @%%@QR:Badoglio, Pietro@%, 1871-1956, Italian soldier and premier (1943-44). In%@EH@%
1936 he victoriously ended the conquest of Ethiopia. After %@AU@%MUSSOLINI'S%@BO:          65a8c6@%%@AE@%
fall he became premier and negotiated an armistice (1943) with the
Allies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baeda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baeda%@AE@%:%@CR:BAEDA           @%%@QR:Baeda@% see %@AU@%BEDE, SAINT%@BO:           d9426@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baedeker, Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baedeker, Karl%@AE@%,%@CR:BAEDEKER        @%%@QR:Baedeker, Karl@% 1801-59, German publisher of travel guides. Issued in%@EH@%
many editions, the "Baedekers" provided historical data. Auto touring
guides were issued after 1950.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baer, Karl Ernst von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baer, Karl Ernst von%@AE@%,%@CR:BAER            @%%@QR:Baer, Karl Ernst von@% 1792-1876, Estonian biologist. Considered a founder%@EH@%
of modern embryology, he discovered the notochord and the mammalian egg
in the ovary. His %@AI@%History of the Development of Animals%@AE@% (2 vol., 1828-37)
presented the theory of embryonic germ layers (consisting of cells from
which body tissues and organs develop) and showed that early embryonic
development is similar in all animals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baez, Joan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baez, Joan%@AE@%,%@CR:BAEZ            @%%@QR:Baez, Joan@% 1941-, American folk singer; b. N.Y.C. Singing ballads and%@EH@%
%@AU@%SPIRITUALS%@BO:          8da8cc@%%@AE@% in a clear, soprano voice, she greatly influenced the
popularity of %@AU@%FOLK SONG%@BO:          342065@%%@AE@% in the 1960s. She was also involved in nonviolent
social action.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baffin, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baffin, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BAFFIN          @%%@QR:Baffin, William@% c.1584-1622, British arctic explorer. Although he failed%@EH@%
to find the %@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@% on two expeditions (1615-16), he discovered
%@AU@%BAFFIN BAY%@BO:           af97c@%%@AE@%. His belief that the Northwest Passage did not exist delayed
arctic exploration for a time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baffin Bay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baffin Bay%@AE@%,%@CR:BAFFIN.BAY      @%%@QR:Baffin Bay@% ice-clogged body of water with hazardous icebergs, c.700 mi%@EH@%
(1,130 km) long, between Greenland and Baffin Island (NE Canada), linked
with the N Atlantic Ocean by the Davis Strait. Visited (1585) by John
Davis and explored (1616) by William %@AU@%BAFFIN%@BO:           af7b9@%%@AE@%, it was an important whaling
station in the 19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baffin Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baffin Island%@AE@%,%@CR:BAFFIN.ISLAND   @%%@QR:Baffin Island@% 183,810 sq mi (476,068 sq km), NE Canada, largest island%@EH@%
in the Arctic Archipelago and fifth largest in the world. Largely tundra
in the west and mountains in the east, it is inhabited mainly by %@AU@%ESKIMOS%@BO:          2ffda3@%%@AE@%.
Iqaluit, in the southeast, is the largest settlement. Early explorers
were Martin %@AU@%FROBISHER%@BO:          367763@%%@AE@% (1576-78) and William %@AU@%BAFFIN%@BO:           af7b9@%%@AE@% (1616).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baganda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baganda%@AE@%,%@CR:BAGANDA         @%%@QR:Baganda@% also called Ganda, the largest ethnic group in Uganda. Bagandas%@EH@%
comprise about 30% of the population and have the country's highest
standard of living and literacy rate. Their traditional homeland is
Buganda, an area of central and southern Uganda.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bagehot, Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bagehot, Walter%@AE@%%@CR:BAGEHOT         @%%@QR:Bagehot, Walter@%, 1826-77, English social scientist. Editor (1860-77) of%@EH@%
the highly regarded %@AI@%Economist,%@AE@% he studied the English banking system
(%@AI@%Lombard Street,%@AE@% 1873) and economy (%@AI@%Economic Studies,%@AE@% 1880). His classic
%@AI@%English Constitution%@AE@% (1867) distinguished effective government
institutions from those in decay, while %@AI@%Physics and Politics%@AE@% (1872) was
an early application of %@AU@%DARWINISM%@BO:          2697a7@%%@AE@% to the social sciences. He was also a
noted literary critic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baghdad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baghdad%@AE@%%@CR:BAGHDAD         @%%@QR:Baghdad@% or %@AB@%Bagdad,%@AE@%city (1981 est. pop. 3,500,000), capital and largest%@EH@%
city of Iraq, central Iraq, on both banks of the Tigris R. Most of Iraq's
industries are in Baghdad; they include the making of carpets, leather,
textiles, and cement. The present city was founded (AD 762) by the
%@AU@%ABBASIDS%@BO:            1519@%%@AE@% and became their capital. Under the caliph %@AU@%HARUN AR-RASHID%@BO:          405115@%%@AE@% it
developed into one of the great cities of Islam. The Mongols sacked
Baghdad in 1258; it became (1638) part of the Ottoman Empire, and during
World War I it was captured (1917) by the British. In 1921 the city was
made the capital of newly created Iraq. Baghdad is rich in archaeological
remains and has several museums.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bagot, Sir Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bagot, Sir Charles%@AE@%%@CR:BAGOT           @%%@QR:Bagot, Sir Charles@%, 1781-1843, British diplomat. As minister to the U.S.%@EH@%
(1815-20), he negotiated the %@AU@%RUSH-BAGOT CONVENTION%@BO:          820bda@%%@AE@%, which limited
armaments on the U.S.-Canadian border. He was later governor general of
Canada (1841-43).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bagpipe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bagpipe%@AE@%,%@CR:BAGPIPE         @%%@QR:bagpipe@% musical instrument, most widely used in Ireland and Scotland,%@EH@%
consisting of an inflated bag, usually leather; one or two chanters (or
chaunters), melody pipes with finger holes; and one or more drones, which
produce one tone each. The bagpipe is an ancient instrument, probably
carried E and W from Mesopotamia by Celtic migrations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baha'ism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baha'ism%@AE@%,%@CR:BAHAISM         @%%@QR:Baha'ism@% religion founded by %@AU@%BAHA ULLAH%@BO:           b1370@%%@AE@%, a doctrinal outgrowth of%@EH@%
%@AU@%BABISM%@BO:           aa288@%%@AE@%, with Baha Ullah as the Promised One of the earlier religion.
Emphasizing simplicity and charity, Baha'ists believe in the unity of all
religions, in universal education, in world peace, and in the equality of
men and women, and also advocate an international language and
government. In the 20th cent. Baha'i teachings have spread across the
world, particularly to Africa. The administrative center of the world
faith is in Haifa, Israel; its U.S. headquarters is in Wilmette, Ill.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bahamas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bahamas%@AE@%,%@CR:BAHAMAS         @%%@QR:Bahamas@% officially Commonwealth of the Bahamas, independent nation (1986%@EH@%
est. pop. 235,000), 4,403 sq mi (11,404 sq km), in the Atlantic Ocean,
consisting of some 700 islands and islets and about 2,400 cays, beginning
c.50 mi (80 km) off SE Florida and extending c.600 mi (970 km) SE, nearly
to Haiti. Most of the islands are low, flat, and river less, and many are
uninhabited. The capital is %@AU@%NASSAU%@BO:          66a05d@%%@AE@%, on New Providence island, which,
although smaller than many of the other islands, is the major population
center. Other islands, called "out islands," include Grand Bahama, Great
and Little Abaco, the Biminis, and Great and Little Inagua. The Bahamas'
fine beaches, lush vegetation, and colorful coral reefs have made it one
of the hemisphere's most popular winter resort areas. Tourism is the
major industry, although sugar and oil refining industries have been
added to diversify the economy. The population is about 85% black and
mulatto, and the language is English.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Christopher %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% set foot in the New World in the Bahamas
(1492), presumably on San Salvador. The British settled the Bahamas in
the 1600s and imported blacks to work cotton plantations, which
disappeared in the mid-19th cent., after the slaves were freed. Black
Bahamians won control of the government from the white minority in the
1960s, and independence was granted in 1973. In the early 1980s the
government sought to preserve the character of the islands by restricting
property sales to foreigners and stemming immigration from %@AU@%HAITI%@BO:          3f2c64@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bahasa Indonesia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bahasa Indonesia%@AE@%%@CR:BAHASA.A        @%%@QR:Bahasa Indonesia@%, another name for Indonesian, one of the%@EH@%
Malayo-Polynesian languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baha Ullah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baha Ullah%@AE@%%@CR:BAHA.ULLAH      @%%@QR:Baha Ullah@% or %@AB@%Baha Allah,%@AE@%1817-92, Persian religious leader, originally%@EH@%
named Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri. One of the first disciples of %@AU@%BABISM%@BO:           aa288@%%@AE@%, in
1863 (shortly before being exiled to Constantinople) he declared himself
to be the Promised One expected by Babists. He then founded %@AU@%BAHA'ISM%@BO:           b0885@%%@AE@% and
wrote its fundamental book, %@AI@%Kitabi Ikan%@AE@% (tr. %@AI@%The Book of Certitude,%@AE@%
1943).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bahrain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bahrain%@AE@%%@CR:BAHRAIN         @%%@QR:Bahrain@%or %@AB@%Bahrein%@AE@%, officially the State of Bahrain, independent sheikhdom%@EH@%
(1987 est. pop. 416,275), 231 sq mi (598 sq km), an archipelago in the
%@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@% between the Qatar Peninsula and Saudi Arabia. The two main
islands are Bahrain and Al Muharraq. The capital and chief port is %@AU@%AL
%@AU@%MANAMAH%@BO:           3ff22@%%@AE@%. Flat and sandy, with a few low hills, Bahrain has a hot, humid
climate. The economy is based on oil, and oil revenues have financed
modernization projects, particularly in health and education. However,
oil reserves are expected to be depleted during the 1990s, and steps are
being taken to diversify the nonagricultural sector of the economy. The
majority of the population are Muslim Arabs. Ruled successively by
Portugal (16th cent.) and Persia (intermittently from 1602), Bahrain
became a sheikhdom in 1783 and a British protected state in 1861.
Independence was declared in 1971. A constitution, adopted in 1973,
limited the sheikh's powers and gave women the vote, but in 1975 the
sheikh dissolved the National Assembly. In the early 1980s Bahrain
established closer ties with other Persian Gulf states, particularly
Saudi Arabia, with which it is connected by a causeway built in the
1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baikal, Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baikal, Lake%@AE@%:%@CR:BAIKAL          @%%@QR:Baikal, Lake@% see %@AU@%BAYKAL%@BO:           d39e1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baird, Spencer Fullerton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baird, Spencer Fullerton%@AE@%,%@CR:BAIRD           @%%@QR:Baird, Spencer Fullerton@% 1823-87, American zoologist; b. Reading, Pa.%@EH@%
While at the Smithsonian Institution (from 1850; as secretary from 1878)
he supervised the building of a museum that housed the great collection
of North American fauna amassed under his guidance. He set up the Marine
Biological Station at Woods Hole, Mass., organized expeditions of the
research ship %@AI@%Albatross,%@AE@% and initiated studies on wildlife preservation.
His most important scientific papers were taxonomic studies of birds and
mammals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bairiki%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bairiki%@AE@%,%@CR:BAIRIKI         @%%@QR:Bairiki@% town (1979 est. pop. 1,800) on %@AU@%TARAWA%@BO:          92e268@%%@AE@% atoll, capital of%@EH@%
%@AU@%KIRIBATI%@BO:          4ff42f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baja California%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baja California%@AE@%%@CR:BAJA.CALIFORNIA @%%@QR:Baja California@% or %@AB@%Lower California,%@AE@% peninsula, NW Mexico, separating the%@EH@%
Gulf of California from the Pacific Ocean. It is c.760 mi (1,220 km) long
and 30 to 150 mi (48 to 241 km) wide, and is divided between the states
of Baja California (N) and Baja California Sur (S). The peninsula is
generally mountainous and arid, with some irrigated agriculture in the
north, around Mexicali. Resort ranches, new roads, and deep-sea fishing
facilities along the scenic coasts support a growing tourist industry.
U.S. forces occupied (1847-48)) the peninsula during the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bakelite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bakelite%@AE@%%@CR:BAKELITE        @%%@QR:Bakelite@% for its inventor, Leo Baekeland, a synthetic thermosetting%@EH@%
phenol-formaldehyde %@AU@%RESIN%@BO:          7e6390@%%@AE@% with an unusually wide variety of industrial
applications ranging from billiard balls to electrical insulation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baker, Howard Henry, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baker, Howard Henry, Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:BAKER           @%%@QR:Baker, Howard Henry, Jr.@% 1925-, U.S. public official; b. Huntsville,%@EH@%
Tenn. As a conservative moderate Republican senator (1966-87) from
Tennessee, he gained (1973) national attention as a member of the Senate
committee investigating the %@AU@%WATERGATE AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@%. He became (1977) Senate
minority leader, Senate majority leader after the 1980 elections, and
White House Chief of Staff (1987-88) under Pres. Reagan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bakersfield%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bakersfield%@AE@%,%@CR:BAKERSFIELD     @%%@QR:Bakersfield@% city (1986 est. pop. 150,400), seat of Kern co., S central%@EH@%
Calif., at the S end of the %@AU@%SAN JOAQUIN%@BO:          841420@%%@AE@% valley; inc. 1898. Petroleum was
discovered in the area in 1899. The city is an oil drilling and refining,
mining, and agricultural center. Cotton, citrus fruits, grapes, and roses
are grown.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baking soda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baking soda%@AE@%:%@CR:BAKING.SODA     @%%@QR:baking soda@% see %@AU@%SODIUM BICARBONATE%@BO:          8afe8c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bakke Case%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bakke Case%@AE@%:%@CR:BAKKE.CASE      @%%@QR:Bakke Case@% see %@AU@%UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA REGENTS V. BAKKE%@BO:          9ad857@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich%@AE@%,%@CR:BAKST           @%%@QR:Bakst, Leon Nicolaevich@% 1866-1924, Russian painter, b. Lev Samuilovich%@EH@%
Rosenberg. A painter of the eclectic school, he sought closer ties with
the West before the Revolution through his involvement with the artists'
group known as %@AI@%Mir Iskusstva%@AE@% or "World of Art." He is noted for his
elaborate stage and costume designs for the Russian ballet, e.g.,
%@AI@%L'Apres-midi d'un Faune%@AE@% (1912).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baku%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baku%@AE@%,%@CR:BAKU            @%%@QR:Baku@% city (1987 est. pop. 1,741,000), capital of the %@AU@%AZERBAIJAN SOVIET%@EH@%
%@AU@%SOCIALIST REPUBLIC%@BO:           a799a@%%@AE@%, SE European USSR, on the Caspian Sea. Baku is a major
Soviet port and a center for oil drilling, refining, and shipbuilding.
Until World War II it was the leading source of Soviet oil. Under
independent Shirvan shahs the city was a medieval center of trade and
crafts. It was under Persian rule from 1509 to 1806 when it was annexed
by Russia. In 1920 it became part of the USSR.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bakunin, Mikhail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bakunin, Mikhail%@AE@%%@CR:BAKUNIN         @%%@QR:Bakunin, Mikhail@%, 1814-76, Russian revolutionary and leading exponent of%@EH@%
%@AU@%ANARCHISM%@BO:           517cd@%%@AE@%. After taking part (1848-49) in revolutions in France and
Saxony, he was exiled to Siberia. He escaped (1861) to London, where he
worked with Aleksandr %@AU@%HERZEN%@BO:          428b7e@%%@AE@%. In the first International Workingmen's
Association he clashed with Karl %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@% and was expelled (1872); their
philosophical split led the International to dissolve (1876). Bakunin
held that human beings are inherently good and deserve absolute freedom;
he advocated the violent overthrow of existing governments. His works
include %@AI@%God and the State%@AE@% (1882).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balaguer, Joaquin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balaguer, Joaquin%@AE@%%@CR:BALAGUER        @%%@QR:Balaguer, Joaquin@%, 1907-, president of the Dominican Republic (1960-62,%@EH@%
1966-78). He served in dictator %@AU@%TRUJILLO MOLINA'S%@BO:          982be4@%%@AE@% government as vice
president (1957-60) and president until ousted (1962) by the military.
During his second tenure, he restored financial stability, but political
chaos led him to resort to repression. He ran unsuccessfully for
president in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich%@AE@%%@CR:BALAKIREV       @%%@QR:Balakirev, Mili Alekseyevich@%, 1837-1910, Russian composer and conductor,%@EH@%
leader of the group called the %@AU@%FIVE%@BO:          337cb8@%%@AE@%. His music, combining %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%
with Russian folk songs, includes the symphonic poem %@AI@%Tamara%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%balalaika%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%balalaika%@AE@%:%@CR:BALALAIKA       @%%@QR:balalaika@% see %@AU@%STRINGED INSTRUMENT%@BO:          8fbf78@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%balance of payments%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%balance of payments%@AE@%,%@CR:BALANCEENTS     @%%@QR:balance of payments@% relation between all payments in and out of a%@EH@%
country over a given period. It is an outgrowth of the concept of %@AU@%BALANCE
%@AU@%OF TRADE%@BO:           b3d7c@%%@AE@%, which it includes; it also includes the movement of government
and private capital between countries (e.g., investments and debt
payments). The %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND%@BO:          48fa2c@%%@AE@% was created (1945) to deal
with problems relating to the balance of payments. The U.S., which has
generally experienced an unfavorable balance of payments since the late
1950s, sought to improve the balance in the early 1970s through
%@AU@%DEVALUATION%@BO:          286cf7@%%@AE@% of the dollar.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%balance of power%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%balance of power%@AE@%,%@CR:BALANCER        @%%@QR:balance of power@% system of international relations in which nations%@EH@%
shift alliances to maintain an equilibrium of power and prevent dominance
by any single state. Its modern development began in the 17th cent. with
efforts of European countries to contain the France of %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. The
balance of power was of primary concern to European nations from 1815 to
1914, particularly to contain the rising power of %@AU@%GERMANY%@BO:          398bcc@%%@AE@%, and was
attacked as a cause of %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. It declined with the rise of the U.S.
and the USSR as superpowers after 1945, but after the 1960s, with the
emergence of China, the %@AU@%THIRD WORLD%@BO:          9504ff@%%@AE@%, and a revived Europe, it seemed to
be reemerging as a component of international relations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%balance of trade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%balance of trade%@AE@%,%@CR:BALANCEE        @%%@QR:balance of trade@% relation between the value of a nation's exports and%@EH@%
imports. The concept first became important in the 16th and 17th cent.
with the growth of %@AU@%MERCANTILISM%@BO:          5ed231@%%@AE@%, whose theorists held that a nation
should have an excess of exports over imports (i.e., a favorable
balance); although challenged by Adam %@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a56a6@%%@AE@% and other economists, the
idea is still widely believed. The balance of trade is a major element in
a nation's %@AU@%BALANCE OF PAYMENTS%@BO:           b3669@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balanchine, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balanchine, George%@AE@%,%@CR:BALANCHINE      @%%@QR:Balanchine, George@% 1904-83, American choreographer and ballet dancer; b.%@EH@%
Russia. A member of Sergei Pavlovich %@AU@%DIAGHILEV'S%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@% %@AU@%BALLETS RUSSES%@BO:           b8885@%%@AE@%
(1924-28), he moved (1933) to the U.S. and helped to found (1934) the
School of American Ballet. In 1948 he became artistic director and
principal choreographer of the %@AU@%NEW YORK CITY BALLET%@BO:          698c62@%%@AE@%. His many works,
e.g., %@AI@%Serenade, Agon,%@AE@% emphasize form, often abstract. He was one of the
most important figures in ballet in the 20th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balboa, Vasco Nunez de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balboa, Vasco Nunez de%@AE@%,%@CR:BALBOA          @%%@QR:Balboa, Vasco Nunez de@% c.1475-1519, Spanish %@AU@%CONQUISTADOR%@BO:          22387e@%%@AE@%, discoverer of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%PACIFIC OCEAN%@BO:          6fee63@%%@AE@%. Fleeing %@AU@%HISPANIOLA%@BO:          431c41@%%@AE@% in 1510, he hid in a vessel that
took the explorer Enciso to Panama. After reaching Darien, he seized
command from Enciso and, with the aid of friendly Indians, marched across
the isthmus. He reached the Pacific in Sept. 1513, claiming it and its
shores for Spain. He was later accused of treason and beheaded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balch, Emily Green%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balch, Emily Green%@AE@%,%@CR:BALCH           @%%@QR:Balch, Emily Green@% 1867-1961, American economist and pacifist; b.%@EH@%
Jamaica Plain, Mass. She taught at Wellesley College until her dismissal
(1918) for opposing U.S. involvement in World War I. Co-founder (with
Jane %@AU@%ADDAMS%@BO:           118a5@%%@AE@%) of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom,
Balch shared the 1946 Nobel Peace Prize with J.R. Mott.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bald cypress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bald cypress%@AE@%,%@CR:BALD.CYPRESS    @%%@QR:bald cypress@% common name for the Taxodiaceae, a family of deciduous or%@EH@%
evergreen %@AU@%CONIFERS%@BO:          2218e9@%%@AE@% with needlelike or scalelike leaves and woody cones.
Most species are native to the Far East; some, e.g., the big trees and
redwoods (see %@AU@%SEQUOIA%@BO:          870eef@%%@AE@%) and bald cypresses, are native to North America.
Almost all are cultivated for ornament. The common bald cypress (%@AI@%Taxodium
%@AI@%distichum%@AE@%), valued for its softwood, forms dense forests in the SE U.S.
and is common in the %@AU@%EVERGLADES%@BO:          30efb8@%%@AE@%. Bald cypresses are called "bald" because
of their deciduous character, unusual in conifers. True %@AU@%CYPRESSES%@BO:          25b026@%%@AE@% belong
to a separate family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balder%@AE@%,%@CR:BALDER          @%%@QR:Balder@% beautiful and gracious Norse god of light; son of Odin (see%@EH@%
%@AU@%WODEN%@BO:          a2b58a@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%FRIGG%@BO:          366ea5@%%@AE@%. Invulnerable to everything but mistletoe, he was killed
by a mistletoe dart made by %@AU@%LOKI%@BO:          564b1c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baldung%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baldung%@AE@%%@CR:BALDUNG         @%%@QR:Baldung@%or %@AB@%Baldung-Grien, Hans%@AE@%, c.1484-1545, German religious and%@EH@%
mythological painter. His style reveals his interest in brilliant color,
light, and twisted forms. He is best known as a painter of disturbing
subjects, e.g., %@AI@%Death and the Maiden%@AE@% (Basel, Switzerland).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baldwin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baldwin%@AE@%,%@CR:BALDWIN1        @%%@QR:Baldwin@% Latin emperors of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          228d8b@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Baldwin I,%@AE@% 1171-1205 (r.%@EH@%
1204-05), was a leader in the Fourth %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@% as count of Flanders.
Elected emperor of Constantinople, he was taken in battle by the
Bulgarians (1205) and died in captivity. His brother, %@AU@%HENRY OF FLANDERS%@BO:          41f6f6@%%@AE@%,
succeeded him. %@AB@%Baldwin II,%@AE@% 1217-73 (r. 1228-61), was the last Latin
emperor of Constantinople. To obtain funds, he sold part of the True
Cross to %@AU@%LOUIS IX%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France and pawned his own son to the Venetians. When
%@AU@%MICHAEL VIII%@BO:          5fefb7@%%@AE@% of Nicaea stormed Constantinople, Baldwin fled to Italy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baldwin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baldwin%@AE@%,%@CR:BALDWIN2        @%%@QR:Baldwin@% Latin kings of Jerusalem. %@AB@%Baldwin I,%@AE@% 1058?-1118 (r.1100-18), was%@EH@%
a brother of %@AU@%GODFREY OF BOUILLON%@BO:          3aea19@%%@AE@%, whom he accompanied in the First
%@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%. He gained the chief ports of Palestine and aided other Latin
rulers against the Muslims. His cousin and successor, %@AB@%Baldwin II,%@AE@% d. 1131
(r.1118-31), was also in the First Crusade. As king he warred with the
Turks in N Syria. During his reign %@AU@%TYRE%@BO:          994d12@%%@AE@% and Antioch became Jerusalem's
dependents. %@AB@%Baldwin III,%@AE@% 1130-62 (r. 1143-62), the son of Fulk of Anjou,
ruled as Latin power in the East began to decay. Edessa fell (1144) to
the Muslims, the Second Crusade failed, and the Turkish sultan Nur ad-Din
took (1154) N Syria. His nephew %@AB@%Baldwin IV%@AE@% (the Leper), c.1161-85
(r.1174-85), defended his kingdom constantly against %@AU@%SALADIN%@BO:          8376ff@%%@AE@%. When his
leprosy became worse, he had his child-nephew crowned (1183) %@AB@%Baldwin V%@AE@%
(d. 1186).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baldwin, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baldwin, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BALDWIN3        @%%@QR:Baldwin, James@% 1924-87, black American author; b. N.Y.C. His works,%@EH@%
dealing with American blacks and relations between the races, include
novels, e.g., %@AI@%Go Tell It on the Mountain%@AE@% (1953) and %@AI@%Just Above My Head%@AE@%
(1979); essay collections, e.g., %@AI@%Notes of a Native Son%@AE@% (1955); plays; and
short stories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baldwin, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baldwin, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BALDWIN4        @%%@QR:Baldwin, Robert@% 1804-58, Canadian statesman. A reform leader in Upper%@EH@%
%@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@%, he proposed (1836) representative government for the entire
country. After the reunion (1841) of Upper and Lower Canada, Baldwin and
%@AU@%LA FONTAINE%@BO:          518f99@%%@AE@% formed a coalition government (1842), and won an overwhelming
victory in the 1847 election. Their second coalition (1847-51), called
the "great ministry," implemented responsible government. Among its
accomplishments was the Baldwin Act, which reformed local government in
%@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6ddb6d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baldwin, Roger Nash%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baldwin, Roger Nash%@AE@%,%@CR:BALDWIN5        @%%@QR:Baldwin, Roger Nash@% 1884-1981, American civil libertarian; b. Wellesley,%@EH@%
Mass. He helped to found (1920) the %@AU@%AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION%@BO:           47906@%%@AE@% and
was its director until 1950 and its adviser on international affairs
thereafter. He also taught at the New School for Social Research
(1938-42) and the Univ. of Puerto Rico (1966-74).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baldwin, Stanley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baldwin, Stanley%@AE@%,%@CR:BALDWIN6        @%%@QR:Baldwin, Stanley@% 1867-1947, British statesman. A Conservative, he was%@EH@%
three times prime minister (1923-24; 1924-29; 1935-37). He broke the 1926
general strike and secured the abdication of %@AU@%EDWARD VIII%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@%. An able
politician, Baldwin has been criticized for his apparent blindness to the
threat to peace indicated by the rise of fascism in Europe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balearic Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balearic Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:BALEARIS        @%%@QR:Balearic Islands@% archipelago (1986 pop. 754,777) in the W Mediterranean%@EH@%
Sea, forming Baleares prov. of Spain. The three principal islands are
Majorca, Minorca, and Ibiza. All have a mild climate and are popular
tourist centers. The Balearics were occupied by Moors in the 8th cent.
and captured (1229-35) by James I of Aragon. They were included
(1276-1343) in the independent kingdom of Majorca and reverted to the
Aragonese crown under Peter IV.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balenciaga, Cristobal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balenciaga, Cristobal%@AE@%:%@CR:BALENCIAGA      @%%@QR:Balenciaga, Cristobal@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of%@AE@%%@CR:BALFOUR         @%%@QR:Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, 1st earl of@%, 1848-1930, British statesman.%@EH@%
A Conservative, he held many cabinet positions and was prime minister
from 1902 to 1905. As foreign secretary under %@AU@%LLOYD GEORGE%@BO:          55f3eb@%%@AE@% (1916-19), he
issued the Balfour Declaration (1917), pledging British support for a
Jewish national home in Palestine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bali%@AE@%,%@CR:BALI            @%%@QR:Bali@% island and (with two offshore islets) province (1980 pop.%@EH@%
2,469,930), S Indonesia, c.2,200 sq mi (5,700 sq km), separated from %@AU@%JAVA%@BO:          4b8536@%%@AE@%
(W) by the narrow Bali Strait. The fertile, scenic, and densely populated
island is largely mountainous and volcanic, reaching a high point of
10,308 ft (3,142 m) at Mt. Agung. Rice, vegetables, fruits, and coffee
are grown, and livestock is important. Industries include food
processing, tourism, and handicrafts. The Balinese people retain their
Hindu religion in a predominantly Muslim nation and are known for their
uniquely ritualistic and beautiful music, folk drama, dancing, and
architecture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balinese music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balinese music%@AE@%,%@CR:BALINESE.MUSIC  @%%@QR:Balinese music@% a survival of the pre-Islamic music of Java, uses the%@EH@%
tonal systems of %@AU@%JAVANESE MUSIC%@BO:          4b890a@%%@AE@%. The orchestras of tuned percussion
instruments (gamelans) include xylophones, gongs, flutes, fiddles,
rattles, cymbals, and drums. Each of various forms of dance and drama has
a gamelan that specializes in its music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baliol, John de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baliol, John de%@AE@%%@CR:BALIOL          @%%@QR:Baliol, John de@%, d. 1269, English nobleman; founder of Balliol College,%@EH@%
Oxford. A regent for %@AU@%ALEXANDER III%@BO:           353b9@%%@AE@% of Scotland, he was removed from
office and later fought for %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England in the %@AU@%BARONS' WAR%@BO:           c6d4f@%%@AE@%. His
third son, %@AB@%John de Baliol,%@AE@% 1249-1315, king of Scotland (1292-96), claimed
the throne at the death of %@AU@%MARGARET MAID OF NORWAY%@BO:          5b8f14@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%EDWARD I%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of England
supported him over %@AU@%ROBERT I%@BO:          7f9d75@%%@AE@% in return for feudal overlordship, and he was
crowned. In 1296 he renounced his oath of fealty, was defeated, and
surrendered to Edward. He was imprisoned until 1299, when he retired to
France. His son, %@AB@%Edward de Baliol,%@AE@% d. 1363, king of Scotland, invaded
Scotland (1332) with the aid of %@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% and defeated supporters of
%@AU@%DAVID II%@BO:          26bb9b@%%@AE@%. After David's return from France (1341), he never held power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balkan Peninsula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balkan Peninsula%@AE@%,%@CR:BALKAN.A        @%%@QR:Balkan Peninsula@% generally mountainous land area, SE Europe, projecting%@EH@%
south from the line of the Sava and Danube rivers between the Black,
Aegean, Mediterranean, Ionian, and Adriatic seas. It comprises all or
parts of six nations-Albania, Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and
Romania-collectively referred to as the %@AB@%Balkan states.%@AE@% The peninsula,
which was at times part of ancient Greece and the Roman and Byzantine
empires, was ruled by Turks as part of the Ottoman Empire from the late
15th cent. until the end of the %@AU@%BALKAN WARS%@BO:           b70f4@%%@AE@% in 1913.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balkan Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balkan Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:BALKAN.WARS     @%%@QR:Balkan Wars@% two short wars (1912, 1913) fought for possession of the%@EH@%
European territories of the deteriorating %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% (Turkey). In the
first war, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro expelled Turkey from
all of its European possessions except Constantinople (now Istanbul). The
second war was brought on by Serbia (joined by Greece, Rumania, and
Turkey), which demanded that Bulgaria cede to it the larger part of
Macedonia. Bulgaria lost and was forced to cede territories to all four
victors. The nationalism heightened by the Balkan Wars was one of the
causes of %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ball, Lucille%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ball, Lucille%@AE@%,%@CR:BALL            @%%@QR:Ball, Lucille@% 1911-89, American actress and producer; b. Jamestown, N.Y.%@EH@%
An accomplished comedienne, she starred (1951-74) in three popular
television series, beginning with "I Love Lucy." She also headed Desilu
Productions (1962-67) and Lucille Ball Productions (1967-89). Her films
include %@AI@%Stage Door%@AE@% (1937) and %@AI@%Mame%@AE@% (1974).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ballad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ballad%@AE@%,%@CR:BALLAD          @%%@QR:ballad@% in literature, short narrative poem usually relating a dramatic%@EH@%
event. Folk ballads date from c. 12th cent., literary ballads from the
18th. The anonymous folk ballad was originally sung, passed along orally,
and changed in transmission. It was short, simple, and formulaic, often
with a stock refrain. From the late 18th cent. hundreds were
collected-historical, romantic, supernatural, nautical, or heroic.
American ballads deal with cowboys, outlaws, folk heroes, and blacks.
Mid-20th cent. %@AU@%FOLK MUSIC%@BO:          342065@%%@AE@% has drawn on the tradition. The literary ballad
is more elaborate, a prime example being S.T. %@AU@%COLERIDGE'S%@BO:          202f59@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Rime of the
%@AI@%Ancient Mariner%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ballade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ballade%@AE@%,%@CR:BALLADE         @%%@QR:ballade@% in literature, French 14th-15th cent. verse form, usually%@EH@%
consisting of three eight-line stanzas and a concluding four-line envoy
(a summary or address). Ballades by Francois %@AU@%VILLON%@BO:          9d9120@%%@AE@% and, in English, by
Geoffrey %@AU@%CHAUCER%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@% are famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ballet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ballet%@AE@%%@CR:BALLET          @%%@QR:ballet@% [Ital. %@AI@%ballare,%@AE@%=to dance], classic, formalized solo or ensemble%@EH@%
dancing of a disciplined, dramatic nature, performed to music.
Foreshadowed in mummeries and masquerades, it emerged as a distinct form
in Italy before the 16th cent. The first ballet combining dance, decor,
and special effects was presented in 1581 at the French court of
%@AU@%CATHERINE DE' MEDICI%@BO:          1a3aee@%%@AE@%. The 17th-cent. court ballets, danced until 1681 by
males only, incorporated %@AU@%OPERA%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@% and drama. In 1708 the first ballet for
public performance marked the appearance of a separate art form.
Choreographic notation came into being and mythological themes were
explored. Italian influence brought elevated and less horizontal
movement, and Pierre Beauchamps established the five basic foot positions
(see diagram). Marie Camargo introduced a shortened skirt, tights, and
the first ballet slippers, allowing great freedom of movement. Her rival,
Marie Salle (the first female choreographer), wore a liberating,
Grecian-style costume. The ballet d'action, developed c.1760 by Jean
Georges Noverre, told a story through movement and facial expression.
Modern ballet technique, stressing the turned-out leg and resulting
variety of movement, was set down in 1820 by Carlo Blasis. With %@AI@%La
%@AI@%Sylphide%@AE@% (1832) the romantic period began. Brilliant choreography
emphasized the beauty and virtuosity of the prima ballerina; the male
dancer functioned only as her partner until the 20th cent., when virtuoso
male dancing revived. Conflicts of reality and illusion, flesh and spirit
were revealed in romantic love stories and fairy tales. Under the
pressure of %@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@% in the theater, ballet declined through the
mid-19th cent., but after 1875 a renaissance in romantic ballet began in
Russia, where Marius Petipa and other European masters created many of
the great standard ballets, e.g., %@AI@%Sleeping Beauty%@AE@% and %@AI@%Swan Lake.%@AE@% In 1909
the Russian impresario Sergei %@AU@%DIAGHILEV%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@% brought his Ballets Russes to
Paris. In the following 20 years the Russian style, with the
revolutionary music of composers like %@AU@%STRAVINSKY%@BO:          8f9f0c@%%@AE@% and modified by the
%@AU@%MODERN DANCE%@BO:          620430@%%@AE@% influences of Isadora %@AU@%DUNCAN%@BO:          2b3699@%%@AE@% and others, brought a ballet
renaissance to Europe and America. Paris, London, and New York City
became major centers. Today Russian and English ballet continue to
exemplify one major trend, toward storytelling and lavish production.
American ballet, under the influence of George %@AU@%BALANCHINE%@BO:           b4033@%%@AE@%, displays an
opposing tendency toward abstraction in theme and simplicity in design.
See articles on major dance companies and individual dancers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ballet Folklorico de Mexico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ballet Folklorico de Mexico%@AE@%,%@CR:BALLET.XICO     @%%@QR:Ballet Folklorico de Mexico@% Mexico's national dance company. It was%@EH@%
founded (1952) by Amalia Hernandez at the National Institute of Fine
Arts, Mexico City, to produce dances based on Mexican folklore for
television. Artistic excellence led to its recognition as one of the
world's finest "ethnic" ballets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ballets Russes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ballets Russes%@AE@%:%@CR:BALLETS.RUSSES  @%%@QR:Ballets Russes@% see %@AU@%DIAGHILEV, SERGEI PAVLOVICH%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ballistics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ballistics%@AE@%,%@CR:BALLISTICS      @%%@QR:ballistics@% science of projectiles, such as bullets, bombs, rockets, and%@EH@%
missiles. Interior ballistics deals with the propulsion and motion of a
projectile within a gun or firing device. Exterior ballistics is
concerned with the motion of the projectile while in flight, and includes
the study of the trajectory, or curved flight path, of the projectile.
Terminal ballistics is concerned with the phenomena occurring at the
termination of the projectile's flight; such termination may result from
impact on a solid target or explosion of the projectile. In criminology,
the term %@AI@%ballistics%@AE@% is applied to the identification of the weapon from
which a bullet was fired. Microscopic imperfections in a gun barrel make
characteristic scratches and grooves on bullets fired through it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%balloon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%balloon%@AE@%,%@CR:BALLOON         @%%@QR:balloon@% lighter-than-air craft without a propulsion system, lifted by%@EH@%
inflation of one or more containers with a gas lighter than air or with
heated air. During flight, altitude is gained by discarding ballast,
e.g., bags of sand, and lost by releasing some of the lifting gas from
its container. In some late designs using air heated by a gas-fired
burner, the altitude is controlled by varying the temperature of the
heated air. The balloon was invented by the French brothers Joseph and
Jacques Etienne %@AU@%MONTGOLFIER%@BO:          635a2f@%%@AE@%, who in 1783 caused a linen bag about 100 ft
(30 m) in diameter to rise in the air. Using a Montgolfier balloon,
Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes made the first manned
balloon flight on Nov. 21, 1783. The Americans Ben Abruzzo, Maxie
Anderson, and Larry Newman made (1978) the first successful transatlantic
balloon crossing. Today %@AU@%WEATHER BALLOONS%@BO:          9fef44@%%@AE@% equipped with radio transmitters
(see %@AU@%RADIOSONDE%@BO:          7c4698@%%@AE@%) and other instruments transmit meteorological readings
to ground stations at regular intervals. High-altitude balloons are used
in astronomy, especially in the study of cosmic rays and the photography
of other planets. See also %@AU@%AIRSHIP%@BO:           26d33@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PICCARD, AUGUSTE%@BO:          757e5d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%balsa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%balsa%@AE@%:%@CR:BALSA           @%%@QR:balsa@% see %@AU@%BOMBAX%@BO:          11bcb2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balthazar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balthazar%@AE@%:%@CR:BALTHAZAR       @%%@QR:Balthazar@% see %@AU@%WISE MEN OF THE EAST%@BO:          a28a24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baltic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baltic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:BALTIC.S        @%%@QR:Baltic languages@% a subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages.%@EH@%
See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baltic Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baltic Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:BALTIC.SEA      @%%@QR:Baltic Sea@% N Europe, arm of the Atlantic Ocean, c.163,000 sq mi (422,170%@EH@%
sq km), bordered by Denmark, Finland, Germany, Poland, Sweden, and the
USSR. Shallow and partly frozen in winter, it is connected to the
Atlantic by several straits, including the %@AU@%KATTEGAT%@BO:          4e988b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SKAGGERAK%@BO:          89c558@%%@AE@%, and by
the Kiel Canal. Principal arms of the Baltic are the gulfs of Bothnia,
Finland, and Riga.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron%@AE@%:%@CR:BALTIMORE1      @%%@QR:Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron@% see %@AU@%CALVERT, GEORGE%@BO:          176bd2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baltimore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baltimore%@AE@%,%@CR:BALTIMORE2      @%%@QR:Baltimore@% city (1986 est. pop. 752,800), N Md., on the Patapsco R.%@EH@%
estuary, a branch of %@AU@%CHESAPEAKE BAY%@BO:          1ca1ee@%%@AE@%; settled early 17th cent., inc. 1745.
One of the ten largest U.S. cities, Baltimore is a major seaport,
industrial center, and railhead. Shipbuilding, food processing, metal and
oil refining, and the production of aircraft, missiles and chemicals are
among the leading industries. The city grew phenomenally with the opening
(1818) of the %@AU@%NATIONAL ROAD%@BO:          6768cf@%%@AE@% and the founding (1827) of the Baltimore &
Ohio Railroad. Largely rebuilt after a fire in 1904, it became famous for
its white-stepped, red-brick row houses. Johns Hopkins Univ., Goucher
College, and the Peabody Conservatory of Music are among the city's many
educational institutions. Cultural features include the Baltimore Museum
of Art and the Enoch Pratt Free Library. H.L. %@AU@%MENCKEN%@BO:          5e97c3@%%@AE@%, Babe %@AU@%RUTH%@BO:          82715e@%%@AE@%, and
Billie %@AU@%HOLIDAY%@BO:          438fa0@%%@AE@% were among Baltimore's best-known natives. The city's
sights include the U.S.S. %@AI@%Constellation;%@AE@% the first U.S. Roman Catholic
cathedral (1806-21), designed by B.H. %@AU@%LATROBE%@BO:          52b104@%%@AE@%; and the Inner Harbor, part
of a major urban redevelopment scheme for the downtown area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balts%@AE@%,%@CR:BALTS           @%%@QR:Balts@% peoples of the E coast of the Baltic Sea, namely the Latvians,%@EH@%
Lithuanians, and now-extinct Old Prussians. The Estonians are related to
the Finns rather than to the Balts. In the 13th cent. the %@AU@%TEUTONIC
%@AU@%KNIGHTS%@BO:          944c30@%%@AE@% and Livonian Brothers of the Sword conquered and Christianized
Estonia and Latvia, which remained under German economic dominance until
the 20th cent. The Lithuanians, who resisted annexation and adopted
Christianity in 1387, formed a powerful state that united (1569) with
Poland. Estonia passed in 1561 to Sweden and in 1721 to Russia, which by
1795 controlled all the Baltic lands. Independent after World War I,
%@AU@%LATVIA%@BO:          52b53e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LITHUANIA%@BO:          55b04c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ESTONIA%@BO:          3034a1@%%@AE@% were incorporated into the USSR in 1940.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baluchi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baluchi%@AE@%%@CR:BALUCHI         @%%@QR:Baluchi@%%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Balzac, Honore de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Balzac, Honore de%@AE@%%@CR:BALZAC          @%%@QR:Balzac, Honore de@%, 1799-1850, French writer, among the great masters of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%NOVEL%@BO:          6bed67@%%@AE@%. Half starving in a Paris garret, he began his career by
writing sensational novels to order under a pseudonym. His great work,
called "The Human Comedy," written over a 20-year period, is a collection
of novels and stories recreating French society of the time, picturing in
precise detail individuals of every class and profession. Chief among
them are %@AI@%Pere Goriot%@AE@% (1835) and %@AI@%Cousin Bette%@AE@% (1847). His short stories
include some of the best in the language.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bamako%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bamako%@AE@%,%@CR:BAMAKO          @%%@QR:Bamako@% city (1976 pop. 404,022), capital of Mali, a port on the Niger R.%@EH@%
It is a major regional trade center connected by rail to %@AU@%DAKAR%@BO:          260793@%%@AE@%, on the
Atlantic Ocean. Manufactures include processed meat, textiles, and metal
goods. Bamako was a center of Muslim learning under the %@AU@%MALI%@BO:          5a4070@%%@AE@% empire
(c.11th-15th cent.). It became (1908) the capital of the Sudan, a
province of French West Africa. It has a botanical and zoological park,
gardens, and several educational institutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bamboo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bamboo%@AE@%,%@CR:BAMBOO          @%%@QR:bamboo@% plant (genus %@AI@%Bambusa%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%GRASS%@BO:          3c64a1@%%@AE@% family, chiefly of warm or%@EH@%
tropical regions. The genus contains the largest grasses, sometimes
reaching 100 ft (30 m). Bamboo stalks are hollow, usually round, and
jointed, with deciduous leaves. Bamboo is used as wood, and for
construction work, furniture, utensils, fiber, paper, fuel, and
innumerable other articles. Bamboo sprouts and the grains of some species
are eaten. Native American bamboo is a %@AU@%CANE%@BO:          182ba2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%banana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%banana%@AE@%,%@CR:BANANA          @%%@QR:banana@% name for a family of tropical herbs (the Musacae), for a genus%@EH@%
(%@AI@%Musa%@AE@%) of herbaceous plants, and for the fruits they produce. Bananas are
probably native to tropical Asia, but are widely cultivated. They are
related to the economically valuable %@AU@%MANILA HEMP%@BO:          5ae939@%%@AE@% and to the
%@AU@%BIRD-OF-PARADISE FLOWER%@BO:          1011a2@%%@AE@%. Banana plants have a palmlike aspect and large
leaves, the overlapping bases of which form the so-called false trunk.
Only female flowers develop into the banana fruit (botanically, a berry),
each plant bearing fruit only once. The seeds are sterile; propagation is
through shoots from the rhizomes. Bananas are an important food staple in
the tropics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bancroft, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bancroft, George%@AE@%,%@CR:BANCROFT1       @%%@QR:Bancroft, George@% 1800-1891, American historian and public official; b.%@EH@%
Worcester, Mass. Bancroft was secretary of the navy (1845-46) under Pres.
%@AU@%POLK%@BO:          778644@%%@AE@% and established the U.S. Naval Academy. Later he was minister to
Britain (1846-49) and Prussia (1867-74). He supported Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% in
the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. His %@AI@%History of the United States%@AE@% (10 vol., 1834-74) is
anti-British and intensely patriotic but remains valuable because of its
extensive use of source materials.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bancroft, Hubert Howe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bancroft, Hubert Howe%@AE@%,%@CR:BANCROFT2       @%%@QR:Bancroft, Hubert Howe@% 1832-1918, American historian; b. Granville, Ohio.%@EH@%
A wealthy publisher, he produced, with a staff of researchers and
writers, a prodigious history of the U.S. West, Central America, and
Mexico (39 vol., 1874-90). In 1905 he presented his collection of 60,000
books, manuscripts, maps, and personal narratives to the Univ. of
California, and as the Bancroft Library it remains an outstanding
repository of the history of the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%band%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%band%@AE@%,%@CR:BAND            @%%@QR:band@% in music, a group of musicians playing mainly on %@AU@%WIND%@BO:          a22812@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@%, often outdoors. Such groupings in medieval and
Renaissance Europe were the town and military bands, integral to the
civic and social life of the community. The U.S. Marine Band, founded
1798, was the first important band in the U.S. In the mid-19th cent. the
concert band developed, with a repertory including marches, flourishes,
and music transcribed from other mediums. Leading bandmasters include
J.P. %@AU@%SOUSA%@BO:          8bc2ef@%%@AE@% and E.F. %@AU@%GOLDMAN%@BO:          3b3b27@%%@AE@%. Modern bands include marching bands, dance
bands, %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% bands, and rock bands (see %@AU@%ROCK MUSIC%@BO:          800289@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Banda, Hastings Kamuzu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Banda, Hastings Kamuzu%@AE@%,%@CR:BANDA           @%%@QR:Banda, Hastings Kamuzu@% 1902?-, president of %@AU@%MALAWI%@BO:          5a0f53@%%@AE@% (1966-). A physician,%@EH@%
he was a leading nationalist in Nyasaland. He became president for life
when it became independent as Malawi.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bandaranaike, Sirimavo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bandaranaike, Sirimavo%@AE@%%@CR:BANDARANAIKE    @%%@QR:Bandaranaike, Sirimavo@%, 1916-, prime minister (1960-65, 1970-77) of %@AU@%SRI%@EH@%
%@AU@%LANKA%@BO:          8df0a9@%%@AE@% (formerly Ceylon). She was largely responsible for the constitution
of 1972 that transformed Ceylon into the republic of Sri Lanka. In 1980
she was expelled from Parliament and stripped of her civil rights because
of abuses as prime minister.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bandung%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bandung%@AE@%%@CR:BANDUNG         @%%@QR:Bandung@% or %@AB@%Bandoeng,%@AE@%city (1980 pop. 1,462,637), capital of West Java%@EH@%
prov., Indonesia, 75 miles (120 km) SE of %@AU@%DJAKARTA%@BO:          2991d2@%%@AE@%. Founded by the Dutch
in 1810, it became the administrative and military headquarters of the
Netherlands East Indies. Third largest city in Indonesia, Bandung is an
industrial hub, a famous educational and cultural center, and a tourist
resort. It is a textile center and site of the country's quinine
industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bandung Conference%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bandung Conference%@AE@%,%@CR:BANDUNGNCE      @%%@QR:Bandung Conference@% 1955, meeting of diplomats from 29 African and Asian%@EH@%
countries held at %@AU@%BANDUNG%@BO:           bba3b@%%@AE@%, Indonesia. It promoted economic and cultural
cooperation and opposed colonialism. Communist China played a prominent
part.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bangalore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bangalore%@AE@%,%@CR:BANGALORE       @%%@QR:Bangalore@% city (1981 pop. 2,914,000), capital of Karnataka state, S%@EH@%
central India. It is an industrial center producing electronic equipment,
aircraft, textiles, and other manufactures. Founded in 1537, it became
the administrative seat of Mysore (now Karnataka) in 1831. The city has
many parks and several institutes of learning.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bangkok%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bangkok%@AE@%,%@CR:BANGKOK         @%%@QR:Bangkok@% city (1986 pop. 5,446,708), capital of Thailand, S central%@EH@%
Thailand, on the east bank of the Chao Phraya R., near the Gulf of Siam.
Thailand's largest city, its financial and industrial hub, and a leading
city of Southeast Asia, Bangkok lies in the rice-growing region. Rice,
tin, teak, and rubber are shipped from the city's port. Industrial plants
include rice mills, textile mills, sawmills, oil refineries, and
shipyards. The city is also a famous jewelry-trading center. Ethnic
Chinese dominate commerce and industry. A city that contrasts ancient and
modern structures, Bangkok contains the vast, walled Grand Palace and
over 400 Buddhist temples. It is the site of five universities, as well
as the National Museum. It became the nation's capital in 1782. %@AB@%Thon
%@AB@%Buri,%@AE@% part of metropolitan Bangkok, is an industrial city on the river's
west bank. It was the capital of Siam (1769-82).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bangladesh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bangladesh%@AE@%,%@CR:BANGLADESH      @%%@QR:Bangladesh@% officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, republic,%@EH@%
formerly East Pakistan (1986 est. pop. 102,563,000), 55,126 sq mi
(142,776 sq km), S Asia, bordered by India (W, N, and E), Burma (SE), and
the Bay of Bengal (S). Principal cities include %@AU@%DACCA%@BO:          25e3b0@%%@AE@% (the capital) and
%@AU@%CHITTAGONG%@BO:          1da2c0@%%@AE@%. A low-lying alluvial region, Bangladesh is composed mainly of
the combined delta of the %@AU@%GANGES%@BO:          37d39d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BRAHMAPUTRA%@BO:          132a38@%%@AE@%, and Meghna rivers. The
climate is tropical monsoonal, and there are frequent, devastating
floods. The economy is agricultural; jute (of which Bangladesh produces
over 50% of the world supply), rice, and tea are the principal crops.
Bangladesh has the highest population density in the world. The majority
of the people are Bengalis, and about 80% are Sunni Muslims.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Governed for centuries by Afghan, Mogul, and Muslim rulers, the
area that is now Bangladesh became part of British India in the late 18th
cent. When Pakistan achieved independence in 1947, Bangladesh, then
called East Bengal and, after 1955, East Pakistan, became an eastern
province of Pakistan, from which it is separated by more than 1,000
miles. A movement for greater autonomy was spearheaded by Sheikh Mujibar
Rahman, whose %@AU@%AWAMI LEAGUE%@BO:           a63e8@%%@AE@% won a majority in the federal Pakistani
assembly in 1970. The government postponed assembly sessions, and on Mar.
26, 1971, the Awami League declared the province independent as
Bangladesh. Civil war ensued, and an estimated 1 million Bengalis were
killed before India intervened on Bangladesh's behalf and Pakistan was
defeated in Dec. 1971. Widespread famine and political unrest have
plagued the new nation. Rahman was assassinated in a military coup in
1975. Two countercoups quickly followed, bringing to power Gen. Ziaur
Rahman, who was elected president in 1978. He brought some stability to
the country and reintroduced civilian rule, but was killed in an abortive
coup in 1981. Another coup, and the introduction of martial law, followed
in 1982. Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad became president in 1987.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bangor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bangor%@AE@%,%@CR:BANGOR          @%%@QR:Bangor@% city (1980 pop. 31,643), seat of Penobscot co., S Me., at the%@EH@%
confluence of the Penobscot and Kenduskeag rivers; inc. as a city 1834.
It is a port of entry, commercial center, and gateway to a large resort
and lumber area. Shoes, paper, lumber, and electronic equipment are
produced. Settled in 1769 (as Sunbury), it was an important 19th-cent.
shipbuilding center with a trade in ice, lumber, and stone.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bangui%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bangui%@AE@%%@CR:BANGUI          @%%@QR:Bangui@%, city (1984 pop. 473,817), capital of the Central African%@EH@%
Republic. A port and light industrial center on the Ubangi R., it handled
most of the country's international trade until 1978, when an overland
route was opened through Cameroon. The city is being developed as a
tourist center for the country's large wildlife reserves and national
parks. Bangui was founded (1889) by French explorers. It has a university
(est. 1970).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%banjo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%banjo%@AE@%:%@CR:BANJO           @%%@QR:banjo@% see %@AU@%STRINGED INSTRUMENT%@BO:          8fbf78@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Banjul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Banjul%@AE@%,%@CR:BANJUL          @%%@QR:Banjul@% formerly Bathurst, port city (1983 pop. 44,188), capital of%@EH@%
Gambia, on St. Mary's Island where the Gambia R. enters the Atlantic
Ocean. It is Gambia's only large city and its administrative and economic
center. Peanut processing, the chief industry, provides the leading
export. The city was founded (1816) by the British as a trading post and
a base for suppressing the slave trade.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bank for International Settlements%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bank for International Settlements%@AE@%%@CR:BANK.FOSETTLEM  @%%@QR:Bank for International Settlements@% (BIS), financial institution%@EH@%
established (1930) in Basel, Switzerland, by bankers and diplomats of
Europe and the U.S. As a meeting place for the governors of West European
central banks, the BIS serves to promote international financial
cooperation. It is the representative of several important West European
financial enterprises and holds the accounts of the European Coal and
Steel Community (see %@AU@%EUROPEAN COMMUNITY%@BO:          30b165@%%@AE@%). The BIS is run by a board
composed of eight West European central bank governors and five other
financiers. Officials of the U.S. %@AU@%FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM%@BO:          32461d@%%@AE@% attend BIS
meetings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%banking%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%banking%@AE@%,%@CR:BANKING         @%%@QR:banking@% primarily the business of dealing in money and instruments of%@EH@%
credit. Banks are usually differentiated from other financial
institutions by their principal functions of accepting deposits-subject
to withdrawal or transfer by check-and of making loans. In recent years,
however, this distinction has become blurred, as more and more nonbanking
companies have moved to take over the traditional business of banks.
Banking, in the form of making loans at interest, dates back to
antiquity. It developed rapidly in the 18th and 19th cent. to support the
expansion of industry and trade. The first bank in the U.S. was the Bank
of North America, established (1781) in Philadelphia. Congress chartered
the first %@AU@%BANK OF THE UNITED STATES%@BO:           be57f@%%@AE@% in 1791 to engage in commercial
banking and to act as fiscal agent of the government but failed to renew
its charter in 1811. A similar fate attended the second Bank of the
United States. In 1838 New York adopted the Free Banking Act, which
permitted anyone to engage in banking, upon compliance with certain
charter provisions. The idea spread rapidly, and from 1840 to 1863 all
banking business was done by state-chartered institutions (state banks).
The National Bank Act (1863) created a system of banks to be chartered by
the federal government (national banks). Both types of banks continue in
existence today. The %@AU@%FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM%@BO:          32461d@%%@AE@% was established in 1913 to
oversee the U.S. banking system. The Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation (FDIC; 1933) provides for insurance of bank deposits.
International banking grew in importance after World War II. The
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) makes
loans to governments and private investors, and the International
Monetary Fund provides members with technical assistance in international
banking. Many of the world's major banks operate branches in other
countries. Two major types of banks in the U.S. are commercial banks and
mutual savings banks. The 14,000 commercial banks are the mainstay of the
U.S. banking system. Known as full-service banks, they render a wide
range of services, in addition to their primary functions of making loans
and investments and handling demand (checking) as well as savings and
other time deposits. Savings banks, which are exclusively
state-chartered, until recently accepted only savings deposits and made
loans mainly for home mortgages. Today they have the right to offer
checking accounts, either as a result of legislation or indirectly
through NOW (negotiable order of withdrawal) accounts. A similar thrift
institution is the %@AU@%SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATION%@BO:          8500af@%%@AE@%. Types of financial
institutions that perform one or more banking functions include building
and loan associations, mortgage companies, finance companies, brokers or
dealers in securities, %@AU@%CREDIT UNIONS%@BO:          247645@%%@AE@%, and investment bankers. By the
early 1980s, sweeping changes brought about by improved communications
and computers enabled the nation's 29,000 nonbank financial institutions
to pose a serious challenge to the traditional banks. The sharp rise of
%@AU@%MONEY-MARKET FUNDS%@BO:          62ab97@%%@AE@%, the widespread use of %@AU@%COMMERCIAL PAPER%@BO:          20ff34@%%@AE@% for loans, and
the creation of financial conglomerates siphoned off billions of dollars
of banking business.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bank of the United States%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bank of the United States%@AE@%,%@CR:BANK.OFES       @%%@QR:Bank of the United States@% name of two national banks created by the U.S.%@EH@%
Congress. The first bank (1791-1811), proposed by Alexander %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f7530@%%@AE@% and
the Federalists, aroused opposition, especially from the West, for its
conservative policies. Its charter was allowed to expire. Difficulties in
financing the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@% caused the creation of a second bank (1816-36).
It prospered under the management of Nicholas %@AU@%BIDDLE%@BO:           f8f6c@%%@AE@%, but was viewed as a
tool of Eastern commercial interests by the Jacksonians. Pres. %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@%
vetoed its rechartering and in 1833 began depositing government funds in
state banks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bankruptcy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bankruptcy%@AE@%,%@CR:BANKRUPTCY      @%%@QR:bankruptcy@% legal proceeding to deal with the liabilities of an insolvent%@EH@%
debtor (individual or business). Its purpose is to distribute the
bankrupt's assets equitably among the creditors and, in most cases, to
free the bankrupt from further liability. Bankruptcy may be instituted by
the debtor (voluntary) or by the creditors (involuntary). In the U.S.,
bankruptcy is governed by federal laws.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Banks, Sir Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Banks, Sir Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:BANKS           @%%@QR:Banks, Sir Joseph@% 1743-1820, English naturalist and patron of the%@EH@%
sciences. He accompanied Capt. James %@AU@%COOK%@BO:          22f2d1@%%@AE@% on his voyage (1768-71) around
the world, collecting biological specimens, most previously unclassified.
He was chiefly responsible for making Kew Gardens an important botanical
center and was president (1778-1820) of the Royal Society.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert)%@AE@%,%@CR:BANNISTER       @%%@QR:Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert)@% 1929-, British athlete. He was the first%@EH@%
man to run the mile in under 4 min, clocking 3 min 59.4 sec at Oxford,
England, in 1954. He was knighted in 1975.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Banting, Sir Frederick Grant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Banting, Sir Frederick Grant%@AE@%,%@CR:BANTING         @%%@QR:Banting, Sir Frederick Grant@% 1891-1941, Canadian physician. He and John%@EH@%
%@AU@%MACLEOD%@BO:          590297@%%@AE@% won the 1923 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for isolating
(1921), together with Charles %@AU@%BEST%@BO:           f2967@%%@AE@%, the pancreatic hormone later called
%@AU@%INSULIN%@BO:          48925b@%%@AE@%. He made valuable studies of the cortex of the adrenal glands, of
cancer, and of silicosis. He was knighted in 1934.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bantu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bantu%@AE@%,%@CR:BANTU           @%%@QR:Bantu@% ethnic and linguistic group of Africa, numbering about 70 million.%@EH@%
They inhabit most of Africa S of the Congo R., except the extreme
southwest. The classification is primarily linguistic, and there are
almost 100 Bantu languages, including Luganda, Zulu, and Swahili. Few
cultural generalizations concerning the Bantu can be made. There were
some highly developed Bantu states, and several Bantu confederations were
formed in the 19th cent., e.g., the Zulu and the Basuto. Other Bantu
tribes include the Matabele and the Mashona. In South Africa the term
%@AI@%Bantu%@AE@% is commonly used to refer to the native African population, which
is subject to the policies of %@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bantu languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bantu languages%@AE@%,%@CR:BANTU.LANGUAGES @%%@QR:Bantu languages@% group of African languages forming a subdivision of the%@EH@%
Benue-Niger division of the Niger-Congo branch of the Niger-Kordofanian
language family. See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bantustan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bantustan%@AE@%,%@CR:BANTUSTAN       @%%@QR:bantustan@% territory set aside by the Union of South Africa for blacks%@EH@%
and given nominal independence in stages. The 10 bantustans, covering 14%
of the country's land, were created from the former "native reserves."
Four of them have been proclaimed independent: %@AU@%TRANSKEI%@BO:          976467@%%@AE@% (1976),
%@AU@%BOPHUTHATSWANA%@BO:          1221cf@%%@AE@% (1977), %@AU@%VENDA%@BO:          9c61d8@%%@AE@% (1979), and %@AU@%CISKEI%@BO:          1e9eea@%%@AE@% (1981). No foreign
government has recognized the new "states," and the policy has been
condemned as an extension of %@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@% because blacks in the independent
bantustans (8 million thus far) lose their limited rights as South
African citizens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baobab%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baobab%@AE@%,%@CR:BAOBAB          @%%@QR:baobab@% huge tree (%@AI@%Adansonia digitata%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%BOMBAX%@BO:          11bcb2@%%@AE@% family, native to%@EH@%
India and Africa. The trunk diameter of this relatively short tree is
exceeded only by that of the %@AU@%SEQUOIA%@BO:          870eef@%%@AE@%, and the trunks of living trees are
hollowed out for dwellings. The bark is used for rope and cloth, the
leaves yield condiments and medicines, and the gourdlike fruit
(monkeybread) is eaten.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bao Dai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bao Dai%@AE@%%@CR:BAO.DAI         @%%@QR:Bao Dai@%, 1913-, emperor (1926-45) of %@AU@%ANNAM%@BO:           5b6f3@%%@AE@%. He was emperor under French%@EH@%
colonial rule and cooperated with the Japanese in World War II. He
abdicated (1945) but returned (1949) as chief of state of %@AU@%VIETNAM%@BO:          9d6182@%%@AE@%. Bao
Dai was ousted (1955) by Ngo Dinh %@AU@%DIEM%@BO:          28ed75@%%@AE@%, who became president of South
Vietnam.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baptism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baptism%@AE@%%@CR:BAPTISM         @%%@QR:baptism@% [Gr.,=dipping], in most Christian churches a %@AU@%SACRAMENT%@BO:          82c65b@%%@AE@%. Usually%@EH@%
required for membership in a church, it is a rite of purification by
water, invoking the grace of God to regenerate a person and cleanse him
or her of sin. Formal baptism is performed by immersion (as among the
%@AU@%BAPTISTS%@BO:           c022d@%%@AE@%) or by pouring or sprinkling water on the person to be baptized.
Some churches baptize infants; others withhold baptism until a relatively
mature age.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baptistery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baptistery%@AE@%,%@CR:BAPTISTERY      @%%@QR:baptistery@% part of a church, or a separate connected building, used for%@EH@%
administering %@AU@%BAPTISM%@BO:           bfd05@%%@AE@%. At first it was simply a pool or basin set in the
floor. Later a separate structure was set aside for the ceremony; the
earliest extant is in the Lateran basilica at Rome. Most early
baptisteries, found in Italy and in Asia Minor, were circular or
octagonal. When immersion was no longer practiced, standing fonts took
their place. In Italy separate baptisteries continued to be built, e.g.,
at Florence, in the 12th to 15th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baptists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baptists%@AE@%,%@CR:BAPTISTS        @%%@QR:Baptists@% denomination of Protestant Christians holding that baptism is%@EH@%
only for believers and solely by immersion. Begun (c.1608) by English
%@AU@%SEPARATISTS%@BO:          870172@%%@AE@% in Amsterdam, it now has a membership of over 31 million
worldwide. The first American congregation was founded (1639) by Roger
%@AU@%WILLIAMS%@BO:          a1dd23@%%@AE@% in Providence, R.I. The churches are congregational, with
nongoverning general associations, e.g., the Southern Baptist Convention
and the National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bar, Confederation of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bar, Confederation of%@AE@%%@CR:BAR             @%%@QR:Bar, Confederation of@% (1768-72), union formed at Bar, Podolia (now W%@EH@%
Ukraine, USSR), by a faction of Polish nobles and the Roman Catholic
clergy for the purpose of defending Polish independence and Roman
Catholicism, and of opposing Russian interference in Polish affairs. It
also opposed the Russian-backed king, %@AU@%STANISLAUS II%@BO:          8e2b73@%%@AE@%. In 1772 the
confederation fought a bitter war against Russia; it ended with the
dissolution of the confederation and the First Partition of Poland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barabbas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barabbas%@AE@%%@CR:BARABBAS        @%%@QR:Barabbas@%, bandit whose release was granted to the mob by %@AU@%PONTIUS PILATE%@BO:          78149b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
instead of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%. Mat. 27.15-18; Mark 15.6-15; Luke 23.13-25; John 18.39,
40.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baraka, Imamu Amiri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baraka, Imamu Amiri%@AE@%,%@CR:BARAKA          @%%@QR:Baraka, Imamu Amiri@% 1934-, black American author and political activist;%@EH@%
b. Newark, N.J., as LeRoi Jones. His works often express the black man's
hatred for white society. Among his plays are %@AI@%Dutchman, The Toilet,%@AE@% and
%@AI@%The Slave%@AE@% (all: 1964). He has also published a volume of selected poetry,
another of plays and prose (both 1979), and an autobiography (1984)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich%@AE@%,%@CR:BARANOV         @%%@QR:Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich@% 1747-1819, Russian trader. He governed%@EH@%
(1800-1818) operations in Alaska for the Russian American Company. His
dogged determination kept Russian activity in Alaska prosperous despite
British and U.S. competition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbados%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbados%@AE@%,%@CR:BARBADOS        @%%@QR:Barbados@% island state (1985 pop. 253,055), 166 sq mi (430 sq km), %@AU@%WEST%@EH@%
%@AU@%INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%, E of St. Vincent in the Windward Islands. The capital is
Bridgetown. The easternmost of the major islands in the Windward chain,
Barbados is generally low-lying, rising to no more than 1,104 ft (336 m),
with no rivers, but ample rainfall from June to December. The porous soil
and moderate warmth are ideal for the growing of sugarcane, traditionally
the island's major occupation. Rum and molasses are exported, there is
commercial fishing, and some light industry was introduced in the 1970s
and early 1980s. However, the largest source of foreign exchange is
tourism, the island having long been a favorite resort area. The
population is mostly rural and about 95% of black African origin. The
Portuguese probably discovered and named Barbados, but it was settled in
the early 1600s by the British. The sugar economy that they introduced
survived the abolition of slavery in 1834, and for a time Barbados served
as the administrative capital of the Windward Islands. It became a
separate colony of Britain in 1885 and an independent associated state of
the Commonwealth in 1966.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbarossa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbarossa%@AE@%%@CR:BARBAROSSA1     @%%@QR:Barbarossa@%, c.1483-1546, Turkish corsair. He and his brother Aruj seized%@EH@%
Algiers from Spain in 1518, and placed it and the other %@AU@%BARBARY STATES%@BO:           c14cb@%%@AE@%
under Turkish suzerainty. As admiral of the Turkish fleet under %@AU@%SULAYMAN
%@AU@%I%@BO:          90638f@%%@AE@%, he twice defeated (1533, 1544) the Italian admiral %@AU@%DORIA%@BO:          2a339e@%%@AE@% and ravaged
the coasts of Greece, Italy, and Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbarossa, Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbarossa, Frederick%@AE@%:%@CR:BARBAROSSA2     @%%@QR:Barbarossa, Frederick@% see frederick i under %@AU@%FREDERICK, %@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%rulers of the%@EH@%
Holy Roman Empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbary States%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbary States%@AE@%,%@CR:BARBARY.STATES  @%%@QR:Barbary States@% term historically applied to the North African states of%@EH@%
Tripolitania, %@AU@%TUNISIA%@BO:          989bfb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ALGERIA%@BO:           3a47c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MOROCCO%@BO:          63eca0@%%@AE@%. In the 16th cent., led by the
corsair %@AU@%BARBAROSSA%@BO:           c1183@%%@AE@%, they came under Turkish suzerainty despite efforts by
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to defeat the Turks. As Turkish hold on them
weakened, they became the home base for pirates who demanded booty,
ransom, and slaves from raids on Mediterranean (and occasionally
Atlantic) shipping and ports. The major European naval powers in general
found it more convenient to pay tribute to the Barbary States than to try
to destroy them. By the 19th cent., however, opposition to them was
strong, and the %@AU@%TRIPOLITAN WAR%@BO:          97ea18@%%@AE@% reflected U.S. opposition. In 1830 France
captured Algiers, and c.1835 Morocco was forced to abandon plans to
rebuild its fleet-in effect ending Barbary Coast piracy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barber, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barber, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:BARBER          @%%@QR:Barber, Samuel@% 1910-81, American composer; b. West Chester, Pa. His%@EH@%
music is lyrical and generally tonal. Among his major compositions are
%@AI@%Adagio for Strings%@AE@% (1936); %@AI@%Knoxville: Summer of 1915%@AE@% (1947), for soprano
and orchestra; and the operas %@AI@%Vanessa%@AE@% (1956; Pulitzer) and %@AI@%Antony and
%@AI@%Cleopatra%@AE@% (1966), commissioned to open the new %@AU@%METROPOLITAN OPERA%@BO:          5f8daf@%%@AE@% House,
at %@AU@%LINCOLN CENTER%@BO:          554ed0@%%@AE@% (N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbie, Klaus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbie, Klaus%@AE@%,%@CR:BARBIE          @%%@QR:Barbie, Klaus@% 1913-87, Nazi war criminal known as the "Butcher of%@EH@%
Lyons." Gestapo chief in Lyons (1942-44), he was responsible for the
deaths of French Resistance members and thousands of Jews. After the war
he secretly served as a U.S. army agent in Germany. In 1951, he escaped
and settled in Bolivia. When a civilian government took power, he was
extradited to France (1983), found guilty of crimes against humanity, and
sentenced to life imprisonment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbirolli, Sir John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbirolli, Sir John%@AE@%%@CR:BARBIROLLI      @%%@QR:Barbirolli, Sir John@%, 1899-1970, English conductor and cellist. He%@EH@%
succeeded %@AU@%TOSCANINI%@BO:          96d352@%%@AE@% as conductor of the New York Philharmonic (1937-42)
and later conducted (1960-67) the Houston Symphony Orchestra (see
%@AU@%ORCHESTRA%@BO:          6e56f7@%%@AE@%, ).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barbiturate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barbiturate%@AE@%,%@CR:BARBITURATE     @%%@QR:barbiturate@% any depressant drug derived from barbituric acid. In low%@EH@%
doses, barbiturates have a tranquilizing effect. Increased doses are
hypnotic or sleep-inducing, and still larger doses act as anticonvulsants
and anesthetics. Barbiturates are commonly taken as sleeping pills; such
use may lead to psychological dependency, physiological tolerance, and
even death by overdose (see %@AU@%DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%). Barbiturates
do not relieve pain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbizon school%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbizon school%@AE@%,%@CR:BARBIZON.SCHOOL @%%@QR:Barbizon school@% an informal association of French landscape painters%@EH@%
that flourished c.1830-c.1870. Its name derives from the village of
Barbizon, a favorite residence of members of the group. Theodore %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          81831b@%%@AE@%
led the group, which also included Jules Dupre, Narciso Diaz de la Pena,
Constant Troyon, and Charles %@AU@%DAUBIGNY%@BO:          26ab0d@%%@AE@%. They rendered landscape from
direct observation of nature, in a straightforward, anticlassical manner
much influenced by 17th-cent. Dutch masters, including %@AU@%RUISDAEL%@BO:          81d510@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%HOBBEMA%@BO:          434191@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%COROT%@BO:          23805c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MILLET%@BO:          60ce25@%%@AE@%, although often linked with the group, stand
outside its main line of development. The Barbizon school influenced
late-19th- and early-20th-cent. American %@AU@%LANDSCAPE PAINTING%@BO:          51ea99@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barbuda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barbuda%@AE@%:%@CR:BARBUDA         @%%@QR:Barbuda@% see %@AU@%ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA%@BO:           64307@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barca%@AE@%,%@CR:BARCA           @%%@QR:Barca@% surname of members of a powerful Carthaginian family: see %@AU@%HAMILCAR%@EH@%
%@AU@%BARCA%@BO:          3f7317@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HANNIBAL%@BO:          3fbbe1@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HASDRUBAL%@BO:          405d11@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barcelona%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barcelona%@AE@%,%@CR:BARCELONA       @%%@QR:Barcelona@% city (1981 pop. 1,754,900), capital of Barcelona prov. and the%@EH@%
chief city of %@AU@%CATALONIA%@BO:          1a0fd6@%%@AE@%, NE Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea. It is
Spain's second largest city and largest port. Among its manufactures are
textiles and machinery. Founded by settlers from %@AU@%CARTHAGE%@BO:          197101@%%@AE@%, it was held by
the Romans and Visigoths; fell to the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% (8th cent.) and to
%@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% (801); and was ruled from the 9th cent. by the counts of
Barcelona. It reached its peak c.1400 as a center of trade, banking, and
cloth-making. The center of the Catalan revolt against Spain (1640-52),
it was the capital of the Catalan autonomous government (1932-39) and the
seat of the Spanish Loyalist government (1938-39). Barcelona is a modern
city with striking new buildings. Notable older structures include the
Cathedral of Santa Eulalia (14th-15th cent.) and the Church of the
Sagrada Familia (begun 1882), designed by Antonio %@AU@%GAUDI%@BO:          384a92@%%@AE@%. The 1992 summer
Olympic games are scheduled to be held in Barcelona.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bar code%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bar code%@AE@%,%@CR:BAR.CODE        @%%@QR:bar code@% an input/output device that identifies food and other products.%@EH@%
It is an identifying code (it does not provide pricing information). The
most common is the Universal Product Code (UPS), which provides for 12
numeric characters, each of which consists of two dark bars and two light
bars. Bar codes are decoded by scanning the symbol optically in an
X-shaped pattern.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bardeen, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bardeen, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BARDEEN         @%%@QR:Bardeen, John@% 1908-, American physicist; b. Madison, Wis. He is known%@EH@%
for his studies of semiconductivity and other aspects of %@AU@%SOLID-STATE
%@AU@%PHYSICS%@BO:          8b3bda@%%@AE@%. The first to win a Nobel Prize twice in the same field, Bardeen
shared the 1956 physics prize with Walter Brattain and William Shockley,
for work in developing the %@AU@%TRANSISTOR%@BO:          97552b@%%@AE@%, and the 1972 physics prize with
Leon Cooper and John Schreiffer, for their theory of %@AU@%SUPERCONDUCTIVITY%@BO:          90d1c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barenboim, Daniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barenboim, Daniel%@AE@%,%@CR:BARENBOIM       @%%@QR:Barenboim, Daniel@% 1942-, Israeli pianist and conductor; b. Argentina. He%@EH@%
made his debut in Buenos Aires at seven. In 1967 he married the English
cellist Jacqueline du Pre. He has played %@AU@%CHAMBER MUSIC%@BO:          1b4fd9@%%@AE@% and recorded
widely. He was music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1975 until
1989, when he disagreed with a public official about the orchestra.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barents Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barents Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:BARENTS.SEA     @%%@QR:Barents Sea@% arm of the Arctic Ocean, off N Norway and E USSR, partially%@EH@%
enclosed by Franz Josef Land (N), Novaya Zemlya (E), and Svalbard (W).
Remnants of the North Atlantic Drift, a continuation of the %@AU@%GULF STREAM%@BO:          3e8ddc@%%@AE@%,
keep its ports, including %@AU@%MURMANSK%@BO:          654386@%%@AE@% and Vardo, ice-free throughout the
year.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barentz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barentz%@AE@%%@CR:BARENTZ         @%%@QR:Barentz@% or %@AB@%Barents, Willem,%@AE@%d. 1597, Dutch navigator. He made three%@EH@%
expeditions to the arctic (1594, 1595, 1596-97) in search of the
%@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@%. His importance lies in the extent of his explorations
and the accuracy of his charts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bar Harbor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bar Harbor%@AE@%,%@CR:BAR.HARBOR      @%%@QR:Bar Harbor@% town (1986 est. pop. 4,120), SE Me., on Mount Desert Island%@EH@%
and Frenchman Bay; settled 1763, inc. 1796. One of the most famous
19th-cent. resorts, it is near Acadia National Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,
) and has summer ferry service to Nova Scotia. A 1947 fire destroyed much
of Bar Harbor. The renowned Jackson Laboratory for biological research
(est. 1929) is located there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barite, barytes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barite, barytes%@AE@%,%@CR:BARITE          @%%@QR:barite, barytes@% or %@AB@%heavy spar,%@AE@%white, yellow, blue, red, or colorless%@EH@%
barium sulfate mineral (BaSO%@AH@%4%@AE@%). Abundant worldwide in tabular crystals or
in granular or massive form, barite is used as a commercial source of the
element %@AU@%BARIUM%@BO:           c3c73@%%@AE@%, as a filler in the manufacture of linoleum, oilcloth,
rubber, and plastics, and as a mud for sealing oil wells during drilling.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baritone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baritone%@AE@%:%@CR:BARITONE        @%%@QR:baritone@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barium%@AE@%%@CR:BARIUM          @%%@QR:barium@% (Ba), metallic element, isolated by electrolysis in 1808 by Sir%@EH@%
Humphry %@AU@%DAVY%@BO:          26d9c9@%%@AE@%. It is a soft, silver-white %@AU@%ALKALINE-EARTH METAL%@BO:           3cfda@%%@AE@%. Its
principal ore is %@AU@%BARITE%@BO:           c399f@%%@AE@%. Various barium compounds are used as paint
pigments, rat poison, a drying agent, and a water softener, and in
pyrotechnics. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bark%@AE@%,%@CR:BARK            @%%@QR:bark@% outer covering of the %@AU@%STEM%@BO:          8ebe4e@%%@AE@% of woody plants, composed of waterproof%@EH@%
%@AU@%CORK%@BO:          2361dd@%%@AE@% cells (the outer bark) protecting a layer of food-conducting tissue
(the inner bark or phloem). As the stem grows in size (see %@AU@%CAMBIUM%@BO:          1782c7@%%@AE@%), the
outer bark gives way by splitting, shredding, or peeling in patterns
typical of the species. Various barks are sources of textile fibers
(e.g., %@AU@%HEMP%@BO:          4197ee@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FLAX%@BO:          33a32a@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JUTE%@BO:          4de24e@%%@AE@%), tannin, cork, dyes, flavorings (e.g.,
%@AU@%CINNAMON%@BO:          1e7831@%%@AE@%), and drugs (e.g., %@AU@%QUININE%@BO:          7bd799@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barker, Harley Granville-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barker, Harley Granville-%@AE@%:%@CR:BARKER          @%%@QR:Barker, Harley Granville-@% see %@AU@%GRANVILLE-BARKER%@BO:          3c5478@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bar Kokba, Simon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bar Kokba, Simon%@AE@%%@CR:BAR.KOKBA       @%%@QR:Bar Kokba, Simon@%, d. AD 135, Hebrew hero and leader of a major but%@EH@%
unsuccessful revolt against Rome (AD132-135). In recent excavations at
%@AU@%MASADA%@BO:          5c9f54@%%@AE@%, Israeli archaeologists have found letters in his handwriting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barlach, Ernst%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barlach, Ernst%@AE@%%@CR:BARLACH         @%%@QR:Barlach, Ernst@%, 1870-1938, pioneer German expressionist sculptor, graphic%@EH@%
artist, and writer. He produced compact, angular sculptures and %@AU@%WOODCUTS%@BO:          a2eb1f@%%@AE@%
that convey intense emotion and compassion. The %@AU@%NAZIS%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% destroyed much of
his work. He illustrated his own poems and plays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barley%@AE@%,%@CR:BARLEY          @%%@QR:barley@% annual cereal plant (%@AI@%Hordeum vulgare%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%GRASS%@BO:          3c64a1@%%@AE@% family, widely%@EH@%
cultivated except in hot and humid climates. Barley was known to the
ancients and was the chief bread grain in Europe as late as the 16th
cent. Today, each of the many varieties grown has a special purpose,
e.g., for stock feed, for malting, as a minor source of flour, and in
soups.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barlow, Joel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barlow, Joel%@AE@%,%@CR:BARLOW          @%%@QR:Barlow, Joel@% 1754-1812, American writer and diplomat; b. Redding, Conn.%@EH@%
A %@AU@%CONNECTICUT WIT%@BO:          222f83@%%@AE@%, he is known for his verse epic %@AI@%The Vision of Columbus%@AE@%
(1787; rev. ed., %@AI@%The Columbiad,%@AE@% 1807) and his mock heroic eulogy %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Hasty-Pudding%@AE@% (1793). His prose works include %@AI@%Advice to the Privileged
%@AI@%Orders%@AE@% (1792) and a critique of the French Constitution of 1791. Barlow
served as U.S. consul to Algiers, where he negotiated several treaties.
He was killed during Napoleon I's retreat from Moscow.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bar mitzvah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bar mitzvah%@AE@%,%@CR:BAR.MITZVAH     @%%@QR:bar mitzvah@% Jewish ceremony in which a young male (traditionally at age%@EH@%
13) is initiated into the religious community and performs his first act
as an adult, reading in the synagogue from the weekly portion of the
%@AU@%TORAH%@BO:          96ab91@%%@AE@%. The %@AB@%bat%@AE@% (or %@AB@%bas%@AE@%) %@AB@%mitzvah%@AE@% is a comparable 20th-cent. ceremony for
girls of 12 or 13.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnabas, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnabas, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNABAS        @%%@QR:Barnabas, Saint@% Cypriot Christian apostle, relative of St. %@AU@%MARK%@BO:          5bda4d@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
companion of St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@% on his first missionary journey. An epistle
attributed to him is in the pseudepigrapha.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barnacle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barnacle%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNACLE        @%%@QR:barnacle@% sedentary marine animal (subclass Cirripedia), a %@AU@%CRUSTACEAN%@BO:          250aa5@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Barnacles permanently attach themselves to a substrate by means of an
adhesive cement. They secrete a calcareous shell around themselves and
form conspicuous encrusting colonies on rocks, pilings, boats, and some
marine animals (e.g., whales, turtles). The attached end of the animal is
the head; jointed legs (cirri) sweep food particles through the shell
opening to the mouth. Some barnacles lack shells and are %@AU@%PARASITES%@BO:          712f90@%%@AE@% of
other invertebrates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnard, Christiaan Neethling%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnard, Christiaan Neethling%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNARD1        @%%@QR:Barnard, Christiaan Neethling@% 1923-, South African surgeon. In 1958 he%@EH@%
was appointed director of surgical research at Groote Schuur Hospital,
Cape Town, where on Dec. 3, 1967, he completed the first human heart
transplant. Barnard has designed artificial heart valves and developed
surgical procedures for organ transplants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnard, Edward Emerson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnard, Edward Emerson%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNARD2        @%%@QR:Barnard, Edward Emerson@% 1857-1923, American astronomer; b. Nashville. An%@EH@%
astronomer at Lick and Yerkes observatories, he discovered 16 comets,
Jupiter's satellite Amalthea (1892), and Barnard's star (1916), a star
having the largest observed proper motion. He took important photographs
of comets, planets, nebulae, and the Milky Way.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNARD3        @%%@QR:Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter@% 1809-89, American educator; b.%@EH@%
Sheffield, Mass. While president (1864-89) of Columbia College (now
Columbia Univ.) Barnard expanded the curriculum, added departments, and
increased the enrollment from 150 to 1,500 students, turning a small
undergraduate college into what would become (1896) a great university.
He advocated equal education for men and women, and wrote extensively on
education and other topics. He encouraged N.M. %@AU@%BUTLER%@BO:          1614aa@%%@AE@% in the founding of
Teachers College, Columbia. Barnard College, for undergraduate women, is
named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnard, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnard, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNARD4        @%%@QR:Barnard, Henry@% 1811-1900, American educator; b. Hartford, Conn. As a%@EH@%
member (1837-39) of the Connecticut legislature he secured passage in
1838 of an act providing better supervision of the common schools. He and
Horace %@AU@%MANN%@BO:          5b0091@%%@AE@% became leaders in the reform of the country's common schools,
and Barnard did pioneer work in school inspection, recommendation of
textbooks, and organization of teachers' institutes and parent-teacher
associations. The first U.S. commissioner of education (1867-70), he
edited and published the %@AI@%American Journal of Education%@AE@% (31 vol.,
1855-81).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnard College%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnard College%@AE@%:%@CR:BARNARD.COLLEGE @%%@QR:Barnard College@% see %@AU@%COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY%@BO:          20b802@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnburners%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnburners%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNBURNERS     @%%@QR:Barnburners@% radical element in the New York state Democratic party%@EH@%
(1842-48), opposed to the conservative %@AU@%HUNKERS%@BO:          45710f@%%@AE@%. The name derives from a
fabled Dutchman who burned his barn to kill the rats; by implication,
Barnburners favored destroying corporations and public works to rid them
of abuses. They opposed the extension of slavery. Among their number were
Martin %@AU@%VAN BUREN%@BO:          9ba53c@%%@AE@% and S.J. %@AU@%TILDEN%@BO:          95d12e@%%@AE@%. After 1848 some Barnburners joined the
%@AU@%FREE-SOIL PARTY%@BO:          35e4f2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnes, Djuna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnes, Djuna%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNES          @%%@QR:Barnes, Djuna@% 1892-1982, American author; b. Cornwall, N.Y. She is best%@EH@%
known for %@AI@%Nightwood%@AE@% (1936), a novel marked by horror and decay. Other
works include poetry, short stories, and a verse tragedy, %@AI@%Antiphon%@AE@%
(1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barneveldt, Johan van Olden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barneveldt, Johan van Olden%@AE@%:%@CR:BARNEVELDT      @%%@QR:Barneveldt, Johan van Olden@% see %@AU@%OLDENBARNEVELDT, JOHAN VAN%@BO:          6d649e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor)%@AE@%,%@CR:BARNUM          @%%@QR:Barnum, P(hineas) T(aylor)@% 1810-91, American showman; b. Bethel, Conn.%@EH@%
In 1842 he opened his American Museum in New York City and immediately
became famous for his extravagant advertising and his exhibits of freaks,
including "Gen. %@AU@%TOM THUMB%@BO:          96844e@%%@AE@%" and the original %@AU@%SIAMESE TWINS%@BO:          88b0e5@%%@AE@%. Barnum managed
the hugely successful U.S. tour of the Swedish singer Jenny %@AU@%LIND%@BO:          5553ab@%%@AE@% in 1850.
In 1871 (after a brief political career) he opened his famous circus,
"The Greatest Show on Earth." Merged with its chief competitor in 1881,
it continued as Barnum & Bailey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barocchio, Giacomo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barocchio, Giacomo%@AE@%:%@CR:BAROCCHIO       @%%@QR:Barocchio, Giacomo@% see %@AU@%VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA%@BO:          9d7910@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baroja y Nessi, Pio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baroja y Nessi, Pio%@AE@%%@CR:BAROJA.Y.NESSI  @%%@QR:Baroja y Nessi, Pio@%, 1879-1956, Spanish novelist from the %@AU@%BASQUE%@EH@%
%@AU@%PROVINCES%@BO:           ce228@%%@AE@%. His popular cyclical works include %@AI@%The Struggle for Existence%@AE@%
(3 vol., 1904), about the Madrid underworld, and %@AI@%Memoirs of a Man of
%@AI@%Action%@AE@% (22 vol., 1913-34), about 19th-cent. Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barometer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barometer%@AE@%,%@CR:BAROMETER       @%%@QR:barometer@% instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. The mercurial%@EH@%
barometer consists of a mercury-filled glass tube that is sealed at one
end and inverted in a cup of mercury. Pressure on the surface of the
mercury in the cup supports the mercury in the tube, which varies in
height depending on variations in atmospheric pressure. At 32 deg F (0
deg C), standard sea-level pressure (1 standard atmosphere) is 14.7
lb/in.%@AH@%2%@AE@% (1,030 g/cm%@AH@%2%@AE@%), which is equivalent to a column of mercury 29.92
in. (76 cm) in height. The aneroid barometer contains a sealed, partially
evacuated metallic box. As the air pressure on it varies, one of its
surfaces expands or contracts; this motion is transmitted by a train of
levers to a pointer, which shows the pressure on a graduated scale. In
%@AU@%WEATHER%@BO:          9fed32@%%@AE@% forecasting, a rising barometer usually indicates fair weather; a
rapidly falling barometer, stormy weather.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baron, Salo Wittmayer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baron, Salo Wittmayer%@AE@%,%@CR:BARON           @%%@QR:Baron, Salo Wittmayer@% 1895-, American Jewish historian and educator; b.%@EH@%
Galicia, Austria-Hungary. He taught at Columbia from 1930 to 1963,
holding the first professorship of Jewish history in a U.S. university.
His major work is the monumental %@AI@%Social and Religious History of the Jews%@AE@%
(vol. I-XVII, 2d ed., 1952-80).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barons' War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barons' War%@AE@%,%@CR:BARONS.WAR      @%%@QR:Barons' War@% in English history, war of 1263-67 between %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% and his%@EH@%
barons. In 1261 Henry reasserted his power and renounced the %@AU@%PROVISIONS
%@AU@%OF OXFORD%@BO:          7a5b27@%%@AE@%. Led by Simon de %@AU@%MONTFORT%@BO:          635618@%%@AE@%, the barons resorted to arms. They
failed to establish control over the crown but helped prepare for the
constitutional developments in the reign of %@AU@%EDWARD I%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baroque%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baroque%@AE@%,%@CR:BAROQUE1        @%%@QR:baroque@% in art and architecture, style developed in Europe, England, and%@EH@%
Latin America during the 17th and 18th cent. Its essential characteristic
is an emphasis on unity, a balance among diverse parts. Architecture took
on the plastic aspects of sculpture and, along with sculpture, was
enhanced by the chiaroscuro (high-contrast) effects of painting. Works in
all media were produced on a grand scale. Illusionism increased an
unequaled sense of drama, energy, and mobility of form. Baroque
buildings, e.g., %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd581@%%@AE@%, Christopher %@AU@%WREN'S%@BO:          a36a96@%%@AE@% churches, compelled order
upon overwhelming multiple forms. Throughout Europe undulating facades
and complex ground plans abounded. Fountains burst forth as joyous
geysers and cascades. Deep %@AU@%PERSPECTIVE%@BO:          73cee5@%%@AE@% was developed in painting, e.g.,
by %@AU@%RUISDAEL%@BO:          81d510@%%@AE@% and de %@AU@%HOOCH%@BO:          442aab@%%@AE@%. Chiaroscuro intensified the works of
%@AU@%CARAVAGGIO%@BO:          18acf4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ZURBARAN%@BO:          a58ed8@%%@AE@%, Georges de %@AU@%LA TOUR%@BO:          52ae07@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@%. Color was
superbly exploited to diverse effect by %@AU@%VERMEER%@BO:          9caf56@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RUBENS%@BO:          81af8d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CLAUDE LORRAIN%@BO:          1f0c07@%%@AE@%,
and Pietro da %@AU@%CORTONA%@BO:          23a2b0@%%@AE@%. Sculptors used multiple materials for a single
work, e.g., %@AU@%BERNINI'S%@BO:           f02bd@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Ecstasy of St. Theresa,%@AE@% which also exemplifies the
baroque fascination with intense emotional states. Landscape subjects
were ennobled by the %@AU@%CARRACCI%@BO:          193c9a@%%@AE@%, Ruisdael, %@AU@%HOBBEMA%@BO:          434191@%%@AE@%, Rembrandt, Salvator
%@AU@%ROSA%@BO:          811511@%%@AE@% and Claude Lorrain, and %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%STILL LIFE%@BO:          8f19c7@%%@AE@% by Vermeer, %@AU@%STEEN%@BO:          8e93cd@%%@AE@%, de
Hooch, and the %@AU@%LE NAINS%@BO:          53be6d@%%@AE@%. In the %@AI@%Early Baroque%@AE@% (c.1590-c.1625), the Roman
artists Caravaggio, the Carracci, %@AU@%DOMENICHINO%@BO:          29eefc@%%@AE@%, and Guido %@AU@%RENI%@BO:          7e24ed@%%@AE@% were
preeminent; their influence spread widely to %@AU@%RIBERA%@BO:          7ef2f3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TERBRUGGHEN%@BO:          9418f8@%%@AE@%, and
Rubens. The %@AI@%High Baroque%@AE@%  (c.1625-c.1660) was dominated by Bernini,
%@AU@%BORROMINI%@BO:          12563d@%%@AE@%, Pietro da Cortona, and Claude Lorrain, and outside Italy by
Rembrandt, Rubens, %@AU@%VELAZQUEZ%@BO:          9c57bc@%%@AE@%, Vermeer, %@AU@%HALS%@BO:          3f6361@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VAN DYCK%@BO:          9bc84f@%%@AE@%, Ruisdael, and
Zurbaran. In the %@AI@%Late Baroque%@AE@% (c.1660-c.1725) Italy lost her dominant
position to France. Painters such as %@AU@%MURILLO%@BO:          653fc2@%%@AE@% used lighter colors and
softer forms, and the baroque style gradually gave way to the %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baroque%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baroque%@AE@%,%@CR:BAROQUE2        @%%@QR:baroque@% in music, the period and style of composition and performance%@EH@%
prevailing from the last decades of the 16th cent. to the beginning of
the 18th cent. The 16th-cent. revolt against the %@AU@%POLYPHONY%@BO:          77dbc0@%%@AE@% of the
Renaissance gave rise to an emphasis on the character of individual
voices and instruments and also on the use of %@AU@%HARMONY%@BO:          4009d5@%%@AE@% in composition. Use
of the older church modes was replaced by major and minor %@AU@%TONALITY%@BO:          9686b9@%%@AE@% as the
basis of composition. Principal forms of vocal writing of the period
included the %@AU@%OPERA%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ORATORIO%@BO:          6e4380@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CANTATA%@BO:          184e95@%%@AE@%; instrumental writing included
the %@AU@%SONATA%@BO:          8b73bf@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CONCERTO%@BO:          21ae65@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%OVERTURE%@BO:          6f925e@%%@AE@%. Later baroque forms were the %@AU@%FUGUE%@BO:          36bdbc@%%@AE@%,
choral prelude, and the toccata, a free form for keyboard instruments.
Famous composers of the period include %@AU@%MONTEVERDI%@BO:          634c4e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCHUTZ%@BO:          85cc1d@%%@AE@%, A. %@AU@%SCARLATTI%@BO:          85418c@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%VIVALDI%@BO:          9e0992@%%@AE@%, A. %@AU@%CORELLI%@BO:          234ad0@%%@AE@%, J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PURCELL%@BO:          7b1360@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HANDEL%@BO:          3faaa8@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LULLY
%@AU@%%@BO:          57ce3a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barozzi, Giacomo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barozzi, Giacomo%@AE@%:%@CR:BAROZZI         @%%@QR:Barozzi, Giacomo@% see %@AU@%VIGNOLA, GIACOMO DA%@BO:          9d7910@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barracuda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barracuda%@AE@%,%@CR:BARRACUDA       @%%@QR:barracuda@% slender, elongated, ferocious %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% (family Sphyraenidae) with%@EH@%
a long snout and projecting lower jaw edged with large, sharp teeth.
Found in tropical seas, barracudas will strike at anything that gleams
and are excellent game fish. The great barracuda (%@AI@%Sphyraena barracuda%@AE@%),
up to 10 ft (3 m) in length, is dangerous to swimmers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barranquilla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barranquilla%@AE@%,%@CR:BARRANQUILLA    @%%@QR:Barranquilla@% city (1985 pop. 920,695), N Colombia, on the Magdalena R.,%@EH@%
8 mi (12.9 km) from the Caribbean Sea. Founded in 1629, it developed as a
port in the mid-19th cent., with the advent of steam navigation, and is
now Colombia's principal port. Manufactures include aluminum sheets,
chemicals, processed foods, ships, and automobiles. The city's carnivals
are renowned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barrie, Sir J(ames) M(atthew)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barrie, Sir J(ames) M(atthew)%@AE@%,%@CR:BARRIE          @%%@QR:Barrie, Sir J(ames) M(atthew)@% 1860-1937, Scottish playwright and%@EH@%
novelist. Best remembered for his play %@AI@%Peter Pan%@AE@% (1904), a fantasy about
a boy who refused to grow up, Barrie was a journalist and published
Scottish sketches before the success of his novel %@AI@%The Little Minister%@AE@%
(1891). Its dramatization (1897) established him as a playwright.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barron, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barron, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BARRON          @%%@QR:Barron, James@% 1769-1851, U.S. naval officer; b. Hampton, Va. He was%@EH@%
court-martialed for failing to clear his ship, the %@AI@%Chesapeake%@AE@%, for action
during an 1807 incident with the British ship %@AI@%Leopard%@AE@%. In 1820 he
mortally wounded Stephen %@AU@%DECATUR%@BO:          272946@%%@AE@% in a duel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barrow, Sir John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barrow, Sir John%@AE@%,%@CR:BARROW1         @%%@QR:Barrow, Sir John@% 1764-1848, British geographer. As second secretary of%@EH@%
the admiralty, he promoted scientific voyages and instigated arctic
expeditions by John %@AU@%ROSS%@BO:          8147f2@%%@AE@% and William Parry. He helped found (1830) the
Royal Geographical Society. Point Barrow, Cape Barrow, and Barrow Strait
bear his name.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barrow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barrow%@AE@%,%@CR:BARROW2         @%%@QR:Barrow@% city (1980 pop. 2,207), N Alaska, inc. 1958. The main trade%@EH@%
center of N Alaska, it has government and military facilities. The
population is predominantly %@AU@%ESKIMO%@BO:          2ffda3@%%@AE@%, and the area has been inhabited for
centuries. Hunting, fishing and whaling, and Eskimo crafts are important.
North Slope oil production is beginning to affect the local economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barrow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barrow%@AE@%,%@CR:BARROW3         @%%@QR:barrow@% in archaeology, burial mound, built usually of earth and stone or%@EH@%
timber, perhaps to simulate cave burial. In W Europe long barrows date
from the New %@AU@%STONE AGE%@BO:          8f4c47@%%@AE@% and round barrows from the %@AU@%BRONZE AGE%@BO:          144216@%%@AE@%. More recent
Asian round barrows (%@AU@%STUPAS%@BO:          8ffff9@%%@AE@%) usually house Buddhist relics. See also
%@AU@%MOUND BUILDERS%@BO:          648254@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barry, Philip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barry, Philip%@AE@%,%@CR:BARRY           @%%@QR:Barry, Philip@% 1896-1949, American playwright; b. Rochester, N.Y. He is%@EH@%
primarily known for his satirical comedies, e.g., %@AI@%Holiday%@AE@% (1928),
%@AI@%Tomorrow and Tomorrow%@AE@% (1931), %@AI@%The Animal Kingdom%@AE@% (1932), and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Philadelphia Story%@AE@% (1939).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barrymore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barrymore%@AE@%,%@CR:BARRYMORE       @%%@QR:Barrymore@% Anglo-American family of actors. The first of the name,%@EH@%
%@AB@%Maurice Barrymore,%@AE@% 1847-1905, was an Englishman; b. India as Herbert
Blythe. A handsome leading man, he came to the U.S. in 1875 to appear
with Augustin Daly's company. His wife, %@AB@%Georgiana Drew Barrymore,%@AE@%
1856-93, b. Philadelphia, was a great comedienne. She began her career
with the company of her parents, Louisa and John %@AU@%DREW%@BO:          2aa346@%%@AE@%, and acted with her
husband in Mme Modjeska's troupe. Their elder son, %@AB@%Lionel Barrymore,%@AE@%
1878-1954, b. Philadelphia, was a much admired character actor remembered
for his film roles in %@AI@%A Free Soul%@AE@% (1931; Academy Award) and %@AI@%Dinner at
%@AI@%Eight%@AE@% (1933), and for his annual radio portrayal of Scrooge in %@AI@%A
%@AI@%Christmas Carol.%@AE@% His sister, %@AB@%Ethel Barrymore,%@AE@% 1879-1959, an actress of
dignity and warmth, achieved success in %@AI@%Captain Jinks of the Horse
%@AI@%Marines%@AE@% (1901) and is remembered for %@AI@%The Corn Is Green%@AE@% (1940) and the
film %@AI@%None but the Lonely Heart%@AE@% (1944; Academy Award). Their brother, %@AB@%John
%@AB@%Barrymore,%@AE@% 1882-1942, a tempestuous matinee idol, was also a
distinguished actor, famous for his electrifying %@AI@%Hamlet%@AE@% (1922). His films
include %@AI@%Grand Hotel%@AE@% (1932) and %@AI@%Twentieth Century%@AE@% (1934).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barth, Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barth, Karl%@AE@%,%@CR:BARTH           @%%@QR:Barth, Karl@% 1886-1968, Swiss Protestant theologian, one of the leading%@EH@%
thinkers of 20th-cent. Protestantism. A Swiss minister, he became a
professor (1921-35) in Germany, and opposed the Nazi regime. Deported to
Switzerland, he later taught at Basel, where he continued to expound his
views, known as dialectical theology or theology of the word. Barth
sought to reassert the principles of the Reformation. He saw the central
concern of theology as the word of God and His revelation in Jesus
Christ, which he thought was the only means for God to reveal Himself to
humans, who must listen in awe, trust, and obedience. Among his many
works is his %@AI@%Church Dogmatics%@AE@% (vol. I-IV, 1932-62).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barthelme, Donald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barthelme, Donald%@AE@%,%@CR:BARTHELME       @%%@QR:Barthelme, Donald@% 1931-, American writer; b. Philadelphia. He uses%@EH@%
idiosyncratic language and symbol to fit his vision of an absurd reality.
His work includes the novels %@AI@%Snow White%@AE@% (1967) and %@AI@%The Dead Father%@AE@% (1975)
and the short-story collections %@AI@%City Life%@AE@% (1971) and %@AI@%Sixty Stories%@AE@%
(1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barthes, Roland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barthes, Roland%@AE@%,%@CR:BARTHES         @%%@QR:Barthes, Roland@% 1915-80, French literary critic, the major theorist of%@EH@%
semiology (see %@AU@%SEMIOTICS%@BO:          86c9e8@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%STRUCTURALISM%@BO:          8fd5d5@%%@AE@%). In %@AI@%Writing Degree Zero%@AE@% (1953)
he attempted to distinguish "scription," the act of writing, from
conventional categories of language and style. He followed that work with
controversial studies of aspects of French culture. In %@AI@%Elements of
%@AI@%Semiology%@AE@% (1964), Barthes systematized the study of signs proposed
earlier by Ferdinand de %@AU@%SAUSSURE%@BO:          84f5b4@%%@AE@%. In his other works he applied his
linguistic theories to cliches of national culture, the work of
individual writers, photography, and other topics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste%@AE@%%@CR:BARTHOLDI       @%%@QR:Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste@%, 1834-1904, French sculptor; b. Alsace. He%@EH@%
produced numerous monumental sculptures, including the %@AI@%Lion of Belfort%@AE@%
and his most famous work, %@AI@%Liberty Enlightening the World,%@AE@% on Liberty
Island, New York Bay (see %@AU@%LIBERTY, STATUE OF%@BO:          54a95d@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bartholomew, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bartholomew, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:BARTHOLOMEW     @%%@QR:Bartholomew, Saint@% one of the Twelve Disciples; identified with%@EH@%
%@AU@%NATHANAEL%@BO:          66b334@%%@AE@%. By tradition he was a missionary in India.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bartok, Bela%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bartok, Bela%@AE@%%@CR:BARTOK          @%%@QR:Bartok, Bela@%, 1881-1945, Hungarian composer and collector of folk music.%@EH@%
Utilizing folk elements, %@AU@%ATONALITY%@BO:           99916@%%@AE@%, and traditional techniques, he
achieved an original modern style that has had great influence on
20th-cent. music. Bartok became known for his compositions for piano,
e.g., %@AI@%Mikrokosmos%@AE@% (1926-27); for violin, e.g., %@AI@%Music for Strings,
%@AI@%Percussion, and Celesta%@AE@% (1936), and for orchestra, e.g., %@AI@%Concerto for
%@AI@%Orchestra%@AE@% (1943). In 1940 he emigrated to the U.S. and was commissioned
by Columbia Univ. to transcribe a large collection of Yugoslav folk
melodies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barton, Clara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barton, Clara%@AE@%,%@CR:BARTON          @%%@QR:Barton, Clara@% 1821-1912, American humanitarian; b. Oxford, Mass. Called%@EH@%
the Angel of the Battlefield, she set up a supply service during the
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, was nurse in army camps and on battlefields, and led searches
for the missing. After working behind German lines for the International
Red Cross in the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@%, she organized (1881) the American
%@AU@%RED CROSS%@BO:          7d4b19@%%@AE@%, which she headed until 1904.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bartram, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bartram, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BARTRAM         @%%@QR:Bartram, John@% 1699-1777, pioneer American botanist; b. near Darby, Pa.%@EH@%
He planted the first botanical garden in the U.S. His exchange of many
plants with the great European botanists introduced many American plants
into Europe and established some European species in the New World. In
search of new plants he made many journeys around the North American
continent, including trips to the Alleghenies, the Catskills, the
Carolinas, and Florida.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baruch, Bernard Mannes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baruch, Bernard Mannes%@AE@%,%@CR:BARUCH1         @%%@QR:Baruch, Bernard Mannes@% 1870-1965, U.S. financier and government adviser;%@EH@%
b. Camden, S.C. An industrial and economic adviser to the government
during both world wars, Baruch was U.S. representative (1946) to the UN
Atomic Energy Commission.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baruch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baruch%@AE@%,%@CR:BARUCH2         @%%@QR:Baruch@% book included in the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@% of the Western canon and the%@EH@%
Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible, and placed in the %@AU@%APOCRYPHA%@BO:           6a905@%%@AE@% in
the Authorized Version. Named for a Jewish prince, Baruch (fl. 600 BC), a
friend of the prophet %@AU@%JEREMIAH%@BO:          4bd772@%%@AE@% and the editor of his book, it includes a
message from exiled Jews to those still at home, a famous messianic
allusion, a consolation, and a letter of Jeremiah.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baryon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baryon%@AE@%:%@CR:BARYON          @%%@QR:baryon@% see %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLES%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baryshnikov, Mikhail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baryshnikov, Mikhail%@AE@%%@CR:BARYSHNIKOV     @%%@QR:Baryshnikov, Mikhail@% (mi'khail bariy'shnikak'v) 1948-, Russian-American%@EH@%
dancer and choreographer; b. Riga, Latvia. He studied in Riga and
performed with the %@AU@%KIROV BALLET%@BO:          500395@%%@AE@% (1966-74). He defected (1974) to the
West, danced with the %@AU@%AMERICAN BALLET THEATRE%@BO:           4739e@%%@AE@% (1974-78) and the %@AU@%NEW YORK
%@AU@%CITY BALLET%@BO:          698c62@%%@AE@% (1978-79), and became director of the ABT. He acted in the
movie %@AI@%The Turning Point%@AE@% (1977).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%barytes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%barytes%@AE@%:%@CR:BARYTES         @%%@QR:barytes@% see %@AU@%BARITE%@BO:           c399f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Barzun, Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Barzun, Jacques%@AE@%%@CR:BARZUN          @%%@QR:Barzun, Jacques@%, 1907-, American scholar; b. France. He began teaching%@EH@%
history at Columbia Univ. in 1928. Later he was dean of the graduate
faculties (1955-58) and dean of faculties and provost (1958-67). He has
written on a variety of subjects, e.g., %@AI@%Darwin, Marx, Wagner%@AE@% (1941).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basal metabolism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basal metabolism%@AE@%:%@CR:BASAL.MM        @%%@QR:basal metabolism@% see %@AU@%METABOLISM%@BO:          5f2b14@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basalt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basalt%@AE@%,%@CR:BASALT          @%%@QR:basalt@% fine-grained igneous %@AU@%ROCK%@BO:          7fd8d8@%%@AE@% of volcanic origin, with a high%@EH@%
percentage of iron and magnesium, in a range of dark colors. Its texture
varies depending on conditions of cooling. Most of the world's great %@AU@%LAVA%@BO:          52cf83@%%@AE@%
flows (e.g., the %@AU@%COLUMBIA PLATEAU%@BO:          20b5f5@%%@AE@% in the NW U.S.) are basalt. It
underlies the sediment cover in the world's oceans and is believed to
underlie the %@AU@%CONTINENTS%@BO:          22d76b@%%@AE@% as well. Many of the lunar rocks obtained by the
Apollo astronauts are basalt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%base%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%base%@AE@%,%@CR:BASE            @%%@QR:base@% in chemistry: see %@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baseball%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baseball%@AE@%,%@CR:BASEBALL        @%%@QR:baseball@% the "national game" of the U.S., popular also in Japan and in%@EH@%
Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, and other Latin American countries. It derives
its name from the four bases, spaced 90 ft (27.43 m) apart on the inner
playing field (the diamond). Cowhide-covered hard balls, wooden bats, and
padded gloves constitute the basic equipment. A game is played by two
opposing teams of nine players each-a pitcher, a catcher, four
infielders, and three outfielders. To win, a team must score more runs in
nine innings than its opponent, a run being a complete circuit of the
bases. Extra innings are played to resolve ties. A form of baseball,
doubtless derived from the English games of %@AU@%CRICKET%@BO:          2496f1@%%@AE@% and rounders, was
played in the early 19th cent. The belief that Abner Doubleday invented
the modern game in 1839 has been largely refuted. In the U.S., two main
professional associations form the major leagues. The National League
(organized in 1876) and the American League (1900) comprise a total of 26
teams representing U.S. and two Canadian cities. Champions of each league
meet annually in the World Series. Major-league baseball became truly
national in scope with the westward migration of several franchises,
beginning in 1953, when the Boston Braves moved to Milwaukee. During the
1960s the number of clubs expanded from 16 to 24, with two divisions in
each league. The game's greatest figures are elected to the National
Baseball Hall of Fame, at Cooperstown, N.Y. (opened 1939). Baseball is
also played by minor-league professional clubs and by semiprofessional,
amateur, college, and school teams.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basel%@AE@%%@CR:BASEL1          @%%@QR:Basel@%or %@AB@%Basle%@AE@%, city (1985 est. pop. 174,600), N Switzerland, divided by%@EH@%
the Rhine R. A river port and financial center, it is the seat of the
Swiss chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Founded by the Romans, it
became (7th cent.) an episcopal see and (11th cent.) a free imperial
city. It was the residence of prince-bishops, expelled after Basel
accepted (1523) the Reformation. Its university attracted %@AU@%ERASMUS%@BO:          2faf97@%%@AE@% (who is
buried in the 11th-cent. cathedral), %@AU@%HOLBEIN%@BO:          43825c@%%@AE@% the Younger, John %@AU@%CALVIN%@BO:          176dba@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%NIETZSCHE%@BO:          69fce1@%%@AE@%. The city houses a valuable collection of Holbein's work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basel, Council of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basel, Council of%@AE@%,%@CR:BASEL2          @%%@QR:Basel, Council of@% 1431-49, council of the Roman Catholic Church. Called%@EH@%
primarily to discuss the %@AU@%HUSSITE%@BO:          45ace1@%%@AE@% heresy it accepted the conciliar theory
that ultimate authority in the church rests in the council and not with
the pope. After being denounced (1437) by Pope %@AU@%EUGENE IV%@BO:          3089a5@%%@AE@%, the council
deposed him and elected (1439) %@AU@%AMADEUS VIII%@BO:           446f6@%%@AE@% (antipope Felix V). Lacking
support, Felix resigned (1449); the council then recognized Eugene's
successor and dissolved.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basenji%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basenji%@AE@%,%@CR:BASENJI         @%%@QR:basenji@% medium-sized %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.17 in. (43.2 cm); weight,%@EH@%
c.23 lb (10.4 kg). Its short, silky coat is chestnut, red, black, or
black and tan, with white markings. Bred in ancient Africa and at the
courts of Egypt's pharaohs, it whines rather than barks and cleans itself
like a cat.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basho%@AE@%%@CR:BASHO           @%%@QR:Basho@%, 1644-94, usually considered the foremost Japanese %@AU@%HAIKU%@BO:          3f19a2@%%@AE@% poet. He%@EH@%
did not in fact write haiku but composed stanzas of %@AI@%haikai no renga%@AE@% (a
sequence of linked verses, usually by a group of poets). The 17-syllable
opening, and most important, stanza (%@AI@%hokku%@AE@%) was later separated as the
verse form haiku. A master of both %@AI@%hokku%@AE@% and the integration of verses in
a sequence, Basho imbued what was formerly a social pastime with the
spirit of %@AU@%ZEN BUDDHISM%@BO:          a50967@%%@AE@%, attending to the often lowly details of everyday
life in the context of the eternal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%BASIC%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%BASIC%@AE@%:%@CR:BASIC           @%%@QR:BASIC@% see %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basie, Count%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basie, Count%@AE@%%@CR:BASIE           @%%@QR:Basie, Count@% (William Basie), 1904-84, black American %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% pianist and%@EH@%
bandleader; b. Red Bank, N.J. He worked in New York City and Kansas City,
where he formed (1935) a highly influential band that continues to
present a powerful yet relaxed style of music featuring his own laconic
piano.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basil%@AE@%,%@CR:BASIL1          @%%@QR:Basil@% Byzantine emperors. %@AB@%Basil I%@AE@% (the Macedonian), c.813-86 (r.867-86),%@EH@%
was the favorite of and co-ruler (866) with %@AU@%MICHAEL III%@BO:          5fefb7@%%@AE@%, whose murder
(867) he ordered. Basil reformed finance and law, protected the poor, and
restored the empire's military prestige. Art and architecture flourished
during his rule. He tried to prevent an open break between the Eastern
and Western churches. %@AB@%Basil II,%@AE@% c.958-1025 (r.976-1025), followed the
usurpers %@AU@%NICEPHORUS II%@BO:          69c97a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JOHN I%@BO:          4c70a4@%%@AE@% as co-ruler with his debauched brother,
Constantine VIII. Basil suppressed rebellious landowners and strengthened
the laws against them. He annexed (1018) Bulgaria and extended the empire
east to the Caucasus. The schism between the Eastern and Western churches
increased during his reign.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basil%@AE@%,%@CR:BASIL2          @%%@QR:basil@% tender herb or small shrub (genus %@AI@%Ocimum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MINT%@BO:          614b8f@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
cultivated for the aromatic leaves. Common, or sweet, basil (%@AI@%O.
%@AI@%basilicum%@AE@%) is used for seasoning. Holy basil and bush basil are related
plants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basilica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basilica%@AE@%,%@CR:BASILICA        @%%@QR:basilica@% large Roman building used to transact business and legal%@EH@%
matters. Often rectangular, with a roofed hall, it usually had an
interior colonnade, with an %@AU@%APSE%@BO:           6d781@%%@AE@% at one or both ends. The wide central
aisle was usually higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could
penetrate through the clerestory windows. Early examples are in Rome and
Pompeii. In the 4th cent. Christians began to build places of worship
related in form in Europe and the Middle East, e.g., the Church of the
Nativity at Bethlehem (6th cent.). The massive Romanesque churches still
retained the fundamental plan of the basilica.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baskerville, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baskerville, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BASKERVILLE     @%%@QR:Baskerville, John@% 1706-75, English printer and, with %@AU@%CASLON%@BO:          19af08@%%@AE@%, one of two%@EH@%
great 18th-cent. English %@AU@%TYPE%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@% designers. His type faces introduced the
modern pseudoclassical style, emphasizing the contrast of light and heavy
lines. His books are typically large, with wide margins, and made with
excellent paper and ink. Printer for Cambridge Univ. after 1758, he
produced a famous folio Bible (1763).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basketball%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basketball%@AE@%,%@CR:BASKETBALL      @%%@QR:basketball@% game played generally indoors by two opposing teams of five%@EH@%
players each. At each end of the court-usually about 92 ft (28 m) long
and 50 ft (15 m) wide-is a bottomless basket made of cord net and
suspended from a metal ring attached 10 ft (3.05 m) above the floor to a
backboard. The ball may be passed, batted, or dribbled (bounced), but the
players may not run with it. Players of one team attempt to shoot the
ball through one basket while seeking to keep the opposition from scoring
through the other basket. Each field goal, or basket, scores two points
(sometimes three points in professional basketball); foul shots, awarded
mostly for illegal body contact, count one point. Overtime periods are
played to break ties. Basketball was originated (1891) in Springfield,
Mass., by Dr. James Naismith of the YMCA. It quickly grew into a leading
U.S. school and college sport and spread throughout the world, becoming
(1936) a part of the %@AU@%OLYMPIC GAMES%@BO:          6d9e8f@%%@AE@%. Professional basketball gained great
popularity in the U.S. after the formation (1949) of the National
Basketball Association (NBA). U.S. women's basketball developed rapidly
in the 1970s on professional, collegiate, and high school levels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basketry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basketry%@AE@%,%@CR:BASKETRY        @%%@QR:basketry@% art of weaving or coiling flexible materials to form utensils%@EH@%
for the preparation, storage, or serving of food; boats; huts; traps;
apparel; and other objects. Twigs, roots, hide, bamboo, cane, raffia,
grass, or straw are used. In antiquity, Egyptians (4000-5000 BC) used
baskets for storing grain, and North American Indians of the Southwest
(c.1500 BC) covered baskets with clay and baked them to create fireproof
cooking vessels, anticipating pottery. In some parts of the world pottery
preceded basketry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baskin, Leonard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baskin, Leonard%@AE@%,%@CR:BASKIN          @%%@QR:Baskin, Leonard@% 1922-, American artist; b. New Brunswick, N.J. Known for%@EH@%
his powerful figurative graphics and sculpture, e.g., %@AI@%Man with a Dead
%@AI@%Bird%@AE@% (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.), Baskin is also an influential teacher.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basque Provinces%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basque Provinces%@AE@%,%@CR:BASQUE.S        @%%@QR:Basque Provinces@% comprising the provinces of Alava, Guipuzcoa, and%@EH@%
Vizcaya, N Spain, on the Bay of Biscay, bordering France in the
northeast. In Alava and Guipuzcoa the major occupations are the mining of
iron, lead, copper, and zinc; shipbuilding; metalworking; and fishing.
Alava is largely agricultural. Nationalism is strong among the %@AU@%BASQUES%@BO:           ce4a8@%%@AE@%,
and in 1980 the provinces were granted regional autonomy. Basque
terrorists, however, continue to press for total independence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basques%@AE@%,%@CR:BASQUES         @%%@QR:Basques@% people of N Spain and SW France, numbering 2 million. Probably%@EH@%
the oldest ethnic group in Europe, they preserve their ancient, unique
language, and their customs and traditions. Since Paleolithic times the
Basques have been genetically and culturally distinct. Mostly peasants,
shepherds, fishermen, navigators, miners, and metalworkers, they have
produced such famous figures as St. %@AU@%IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA%@BO:          4698a9@%%@AE@% and St. %@AU@%FRANCIS
%@AU@%XAVIER%@BO:          3554a0@%%@AE@%. The Basques accepted Christianity late (3d-5th cent.). In the 6th
cent. they expanded northward into Gascony, to which they gave their
name. The kingdom of %@AU@%NAVARRE%@BO:          67ae3b@%%@AE@%, founded in 824, united almost all Basques,
but after its conquest (1512) by %@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@% Basque prosperity declined. Of
the Basque provinces, only Navarre supported the Franco forces in the
%@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@% (1936-39). Basque nationalism in Spain, often involving
violent incidents, continued into the 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Basra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Basra%@AE@%,%@CR:BASRA           @%%@QR:Basra@% city (1970 est. pop. 333,684), SE Iraq, on the %@AU@%SHATT AL ARAB%@BO:          880417@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Iraq's only port, it has a commercially advantageous location near oil
fields and 75 mi (121 km) from the %@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@%. Since 1948 many oil
refineries have been built in the city. Basra was founded (AD 636) by the
caliph Umar I and was a cultural center under %@AU@%HARUN AR-RASHID%@BO:          405115@%%@AE@%. In 1982
the area around Basra was the scene of heavy fighting in the %@AU@%IRAN-IRAQ
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          4964b1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bass%@AE@%,%@CR:BASS1           @%%@QR:bass@% any of various %@AU@%FISHES%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% of the families Serranidae (sea basses) and%@EH@%
Centrarchidae (black basses and sunfishes). Sea basses, a large, diverse
family of fishes with oblong, rather compressed bodies, inhabit warm and
temperate seas worldwide and are highly valued as food and game fish. The
largest sea basses are %@AU@%GROUPERS%@BO:          3df2ba@%%@AE@%. Sunfishes, spiny-finned, freshwater
fishes with flattened bodies, are found in North America. Black basses,
averaging 2 to 3 lb (.9 to 1.4 kg), are the most valuable American
freshwater game fishes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bass%@AE@%:%@CR:BASS2           @%%@QR:bass@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bassano, Jacopo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bassano, Jacopo%@AE@%%@CR:BASSANO         @%%@QR:Bassano, Jacopo@%, c.1515-1592, Venetian mannerist painter (see %@AU@%MANNERISM%@BO:          5b052e@%%@AE@%);%@EH@%
b. Jacopo da Ponte. Primarily a painter of biblical themes, he introduced
vignettes of country life into his works, e.g., %@AI@%Annunciation to the
%@AI@%Shepherds%@AE@% (National Gall., Wash., D.C.). His sons %@AB@%Francesco Bassano,%@AE@%
1549-92, and %@AB@%Leandro Bassano,%@AE@% 1558-1623, were also painters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basset hound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basset hound%@AE@%,%@CR:BASSET.HOUND    @%%@QR:basset hound@% short-legged, long-bodied %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 12-15 in.%@EH@%
(30.1-38.1 cm); weight, 25-50 lb (11.3-22.7 kg). Its short, dense coat is
black, tan, or white, or a combination. The breed was developed centuries
ago in France to hunt game in heavy ground cover.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bassoon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bassoon%@AE@%:%@CR:BASSOON         @%%@QR:bassoon@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%basswood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%basswood%@AE@%:%@CR:BASSWOOD        @%%@QR:basswood@% see %@AU@%LINDEN%@BO:          555a5f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bastille%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bastille%@AE@%%@CR:BASTILLE        @%%@QR:Bastille@%, fortress and prison in Paris, begun c.1369, now demolished. The%@EH@%
Bastille became a hated symbol of absolutism because it was used for
arbitrary and secret imprisonment by the crown. On July 14, 1789, a
Parisian mob stormed the prison, hoping to seize its store of ammunition,
but found only seven prisoners. This marked the start of lower-class
participation in the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. July 14-Bastille Day-became a
national holiday in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bat%@AE@%,%@CR:BAT             @%%@QR:bat@% the only %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (order Chiroptera) capable of true flight. Numbering%@EH@%
between 1,000 and 2,000 species, bats range in size from less than 1 in.
(2.5 cm) to 15 in. (45 cm), with a wingspan of from less than 2 in. (5
cm) to 5 ft (150 cm). The body is furry and mouselike, with the forelimbs
and extensions of the skin of the back and belly modified to form wings.
Bats are most abundant in the tropics, and temperate species often
hibernate or migrate to warmer areas in the winter. Most species frequent
crevices, caves, or buildings, and are active at night or twilight; they
roost during the day, often in large numbers and usually hanging by their
feet. Most bats see well but depend on echolocation to navigate in the
dark. Bats are fruit-eaters (fruit, nectar, pollen) or insect-eaters
(fruit, insects, small animals, and fish); one species, the South
American vampire bat, feeds exclusively on the blood of living animals,
chiefly mammals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bataan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bataan%@AE@%,%@CR:BATAAN          @%%@QR:Bataan@% peninsula and province (1981 pop. 321,860), W Luzon, the%@EH@%
Philippines, between Manila Bay and the South China Sea. The capital is
Batanga. A mountainous jungle region with bamboo forests, Bataan has a
pulp and paper mill, fertilizer plant, and oil refinery. Subsistence
farming is also carried on. U.S. and Filipino troops captured on Bataan
(April 1942) by the Japanese in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% underwent a brutal "death
march" to a prison camp; thousands died.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Batavian Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Batavian Republic%@AE@%,%@CR:BATAVIAIC       @%%@QR:Batavian Republic@% name for the United Provinces of the Netherlands%@EH@%
(1795-1806) after their conquest by the French in the %@AU@%FRENCH
%@AU@%REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%. In 1806 %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% made Batavia into the kingdom of
Holland under his brother Louis Bonaparte (see %@AU@%BONAPARTE%@BO:          11c306@%%@AE@% family).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bates, Henry Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bates, Henry Walter%@AE@%,%@CR:BATES           @%%@QR:Bates, Henry Walter@% 1825-92, English naturalist and explorer. His%@EH@%
pioneering theory of mimicry, explaining similarity among species, was
used by Charles %@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@% as a proof of his theory of natural selection.
During travels (1848-59) along the upper Amazon R., he collected
specimens of nearly 15,000 animal species (mostly insects), more than
8,000 previously unclassified.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bath%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bath%@AE@%,%@CR:BATH1           @%%@QR:Bath@% city (1986 est. pop. 84,400), Avon, SW England. In the 1st cent. AD%@EH@%
the Romans built elaborate baths at the natural hot springs. Bath became
England's most fashionable spa in the 18th cent., and the Georgian
architecture and Roman baths remain tourist attractions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bath, Order of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bath, Order of the%@AE@%:%@CR:BATH2           @%%@QR:Bath, Order of the@% see %@AU@%DECORATIONS, CIVIL AND MILITARY%@BO:          2746d0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%batholith%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%batholith%@AE@%,%@CR:BATHOLITH       @%%@QR:batholith@% enormous mass of igneous %@AU@%ROCK%@BO:          7fd8d8@%%@AE@%, granitic in composition, with%@EH@%
steep walls and without visible floors. Batholiths commonly extend over
thousands of square miles. Their method of formation is controversial;
most appear to have moved up through the earth's crust in a molten state,
shattering and incorporating the overlying country rock.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bathory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bathory%@AE@%%@CR:BATHORY         @%%@QR:Bathory@%, Hungarian noble family. %@AB@%Stephen Bathory%@AE@%, 1477-1534, a supporter%@EH@%
of %@AU@%JOHN I%@BO:          4c812c@%%@AE@% of Hungary, was made (1529) voivode governor of Transylvania.
His younger son, %@AU@%STEPHEN BATHORY%@BO:          8ed27f@%%@AE@%, became (1575) king of Poland and was
succeeded as prince of Transylvania by his brother, %@AB@%Christopher Bathory%@AE@%,
1530-81. Christopher's son and successor, %@AB@%Sigismund Bathory%@AE@%, 1572-1613,
was mentally unbalanced. He abdicated (1597, 1599) for brief periods, and
finally in 1602. Other family members included %@AB@%Elizabeth Bathory%@AE@%, d.
1614, who was reputed to be a werewolf. To renew her youth, she is said
to have slaughtered virgins and bathed in their blood. %@AB@%Gabriel Bathory%@AE@%,
1589-1613, became (1608) prince of Transylvania and was killed in a
revolt by nobles against his rule.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bath-sheba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bath-sheba%@AE@%,%@CR:BATHSHEBA       @%%@QR:Bath-sheba@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, wife of Uriah the Hittite. %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% seduced her,%@EH@%
effected the death of her husband, and married her. She was the mother of
%@AU@%SOLOMON%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@%. 2 Sam. 11;12; I Kings 1-2.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%batik%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%batik%@AE@%,%@CR:BATIK           @%%@QR:batik@% method of decorating fabric used for centuries in Indonesia. With%@EH@%
melted wax, a design is applied to the cloth (cotton or, sometimes,
silk), which is then dipped in cool vegetable dye. Areas covered by wax
do not receive the dye and display a light pattern on the colored ground.
The process may be repeated several times. When the design is complete,
the wax is removed in hot water. A crackling effect occurs if dye has
seeped into cracks of hardened wax. The same or similar patterns have
been used for c.1,000 years. Batik was brought to Europe by Dutch
traders, was adopted in the 19th cent. by Western craftsmen, and is still
widely used.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio%@AE@%,%@CR:BATISTAVAR      @%%@QR:Batista y Zaldivar, Fulgencio@% 1901-73, Cuban dictator (1933-44,%@EH@%
1952-59). An army sergeant, he took part in the 1933 military coup and,
as army chief of staff, became de facto ruler of %@AU@%CUBA%@BO:          251e58@%%@AE@% and its elected
president (1940-44). He accepted his candidate's defeat in 1944, but in
1952 he seized power and had himself elected president (1954, 1958). His
corrupt rule caused popular discontent, and he fled (1959) the country
during the %@AU@%CASTRO%@BO:          19f33d@%%@AE@% revolution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bat mitzvah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bat mitzvah%@AE@%:%@CR:BAT.MITZVAH     @%%@QR:bat mitzvah@% see under %@AU@%BAR MITZVAH%@BO:           c4b42@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baton Rouge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baton Rouge%@AE@%%@CR:BATON.ROUGE     @%%@QR:Baton Rouge@% [Fr., = red stick], city (1986 est. pop. 369,250), state%@EH@%
capital and seat of East Baton Rouge parish, SE La., on the Mississippi
R.; inc. 1817. A deepwater port and trade hub, it is a major center of
petrochemical production with large refineries and machine shops. The
city was founded in 1719 and was alternately French, English, and
Spanish. Acquired by the U.S. in 1815, it became state capital in 1849.
The old (1882) and new (1932) capitols, many antebellum homes, and
Louisiana State Univ. are among the points of interest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Batory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Batory%@AE@%:%@CR:BATORY          @%%@QR:Batory@% see %@AU@%STEPHEN BATHORY%@BO:          8ed27f@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BATHORY%@BO:           d065d@%%@AE@%, family.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Battenberg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Battenberg%@AE@%%@CR:BATTENBERG      @%%@QR:Battenberg@%, German princely family, issued from the morganatic union of%@EH@%
Alexander, a younger son of Louis II, grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, and
countess Julia von Hauke, who was created princess of Battenberg in 1858.
Their oldest son, Louis (1854-1921), an admiral in the British navy, was
created marquess of Milford Haven and married a granddaughter of Queen
%@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@%. During World War I, he anglicized his name to Mountbatten. He
was the father of Louis %@AU@%MOUNTBATTEN%@BO:          649c1d@%%@AE@% and the grandfather of Philip, duke
of %@AU@%EDINBURGH%@BO:          2c635f@%%@AE@%. Alexander's second son was Prince Alexander of Bulgaria. A
third son, Henry, married Beatrice, daughter of Queen Victoria; their
daughter, Victoria, married %@AU@%ALFONSO XIII%@BO:           3888e@%%@AE@% of Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%battery, electric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%battery, electric%@AE@%:%@CR:BATTERY         @%%@QR:battery, electric@% see %@AU@%CELL%@BO:          1ab1a5@%%@AE@%, in electricity.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Battle above the Clouds%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Battle above the Clouds%@AE@%:%@CR:BATTLE.E.CLOUDS @%%@QR:Battle above the Clouds@% see %@AU@%CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          1c40ed@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Battle of Britain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Battle of Britain%@AE@%:%@CR:BATTLE.IN       @%%@QR:Battle of Britain@% see %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%baud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%baud%@AE@%,%@CR:BAUD            @%%@QR:baud@% a measure of the speed with which a signal travels over a%@EH@%
telecommunications link. It is expressed in terms of the number of events
that take place in one second, e.g., in %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% input/output, one baud
is equal to one bit per second.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baudelaire, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baudelaire, Charles%@AE@%%@CR:BAUDELAIRE      @%%@QR:Baudelaire, Charles@%, 1821-67, French poet whose work has been a major%@EH@%
influence on Western poetry. His poems, classical in form, introduced
symbolism (see %@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%). Baudelaire was moody and rebellious, imbued
with an intense religious mysticism, and his work reflects an unremitting
inner despair. His main theme is the inseparable nature of beauty and
corruption. His major work, %@AI@%The Flowers of Evil%@AE@% (1857), originally
condemned as obscene, is recognized as a masterpiece, especially
remarkable for the brilliant phrasing, rhythm, and expressiveness of its
lyrics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baudouin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baudouin%@AE@%,%@CR:BAUDOUIN        @%%@QR:Baudouin@% 1930-, king of the Belgians (1951-). He joined his father,%@EH@%
%@AU@%LEOPOLD III%@BO:          541c96@%%@AE@%, in exile (1945-50) in Switzerland and became king when
Leopold abdicated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bauhaus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bauhaus%@AE@%%@CR:BAUHAUS         @%%@QR:Bauhaus@%, school of art and architecture in Germany. It was founded at%@EH@%
Weimar in 1919 and headed by Walter %@AU@%GROPIUS%@BO:          3ddd69@%%@AE@%; its faculty included Paul
%@AU@%KLEE%@BO:          5020b4@%%@AE@%, Lyonel %@AU@%FEININGER%@BO:          3253b2@%%@AE@%, Wassily %@AU@%KANDINSKY%@BO:          4e21d5@%%@AE@%, Laszlo %@AU@%MOHOLY-NAGY%@BO:          62349f@%%@AE@%, and Marcel
%@AU@%BREUER%@BO:          13bde7@%%@AE@%. The teaching concentrated on functional craftsmanship applied to
industrial problems of mass production. Bauhaus style was characterized
by severely economic, geometric design and by respect for materials.
Enormously controversial and unpopular, the school moved in 1925 to
Dessau. Gropius resigned in 1928 and was succeeded by Johannes Meyer, who
was replaced in 1930 by %@AU@%MIES VAN DER ROHE%@BO:          6077bd@%%@AE@%. The Bauhaus moved again to
Berlin in 1932 and was closed by the %@AU@%NAZIS%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% in 1933. Its influence in
design of architecture, furniture, typography, and weaving found
international acclaim and continued to flourish in the U.S., especially
at the Chicago Institute of Design, founded by Moholy-Nagy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baum, L(yman) Frank%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baum, L(yman) Frank%@AE@%,%@CR:BAUM            @%%@QR:Baum, L(yman) Frank@% 1856-1919, American journalist, playwright, and%@EH@%
author of juvenile stories; b. Chittenango, N.Y. His most famous work is
%@AI@%The Wonderful Wizard of Oz%@AE@% (1900), which was made into a movie in 1938.
Baum published 13 more Oz books.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bauxite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bauxite%@AE@%,%@CR:BAUXITE         @%%@QR:bauxite@% mixture of hydrated aluminum oxides usually containing oxides of%@EH@%
iron and silicon. A noncrystalline substance formerly thought to be a
mineral, bauxite is claylike, ranging from white to brown or red in
color, and is the chief source of %@AU@%ALUMINUM%@BO:           436c3@%%@AE@% and its compounds. It is
widely distributed, with important deposits in Africa, South America,
France, the USSR, the West Indies, and the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bavaria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bavaria%@AE@%,%@CR:BAVARIA         @%%@QR:Bavaria@% Ger. %@AI@%Bayern,%@AE@% state (1986 pop. 10,993,400), 27,239 sq mi (70,549%@EH@%
sq km), S West Germany. It is the largest state of West Germany. Forestry
and agriculture are important occupations, and much of its industry is
centered in %@AU@%MUNICH%@BO:          651f07@%%@AE@%, the capital. The region, whose boundaries have often
varied, was conquered (15 BC) by the Romans and invaded (6th cent. AD) by
the Baiuoarii, who set up a duchy. In 788 %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% added Bavaria to
his empire. It was ruled (788-911) by the %@AU@%CAROLINGIANS%@BO:          192c68@%%@AE@% and in 1070 passed
to the %@AU@%GUELPH%@BO:          3e3505@%%@AE@% family. In 1180 the Holy Roman Emperor bestowed the duchy
on the %@AU@%WITTELSBACH%@BO:          a2a284@%%@AE@% family, who ruled it until 1918. In 1806 it became a
kingdom. Bavaria joined the German Empire in 1871 and became the chief
German state after Prussia. The monarchy was overthrown in 1918, and
Bavaria later joined the Weimar Republic. Following World War II, Bavaria
became (1949) part of West Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bavarian Succession, War of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bavarian Succession, War of the%@AE@%,%@CR:BAVARIASION     @%%@QR:Bavarian Succession, War of the@% between Austria and %@AU@%PRUSSIA%@BO:          7a630c@%%@AE@%, 1778-79. In%@EH@%
1777 Charles Theodore, the duke of Bavaria, in a secret treaty with
%@AU@%JOSEPH II%@BO:          4d42fc@%%@AE@%, the Holy Roman emperor, ceded Lower %@AU@%BAVARIA%@BO:           d2ac8@%%@AE@% to Austria. The
Bavarian heir apparent, advised by %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% of Prussia, protested the
transfer. The resulting war, with no significant engagements, ended with
Austria's renunciation of all but a small portion of Lower Bavaria.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor%@AE@%,%@CR:BAX             @%%@QR:Bax, Sir Arnold Edward Trevor@% 1883-1953, English composer. He studied%@EH@%
piano at the Royal Academy of Music. Known for his symphonic poems, %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Garden of Fand%@AE@% (1916) and %@AI@%Tintagel%@AE@% (1917), he also wrote seven
symphonies, each dedicated to a favorite composer. He became (1941)
Master of the King's Music. Influenced by Irish folklore, he wrote poetry
and prose in Ireland under the name Dermot O'Byrne.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bayamon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bayamon%@AE@%,%@CR:BAYAMON         @%%@QR:Bayamon@% city (1980 pop. 185,087), NE Puerto Rico, a residential and%@EH@%
industrial suburb of San Juan. Bayamon was established in 1772. Fruit is
a major product; manufactures include clothing, furniture, and metal
products.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bayberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bayberry%@AE@%,%@CR:BAYBERRY        @%%@QR:bayberry@% common name for the Myricaceae, a family of chiefly temperate%@EH@%
and subtropical aromatic trees and shrubs. The waxy gray berries of some
species (mainly %@AI@%Myrica cerifera%@AE@%) are used to make bayberry candles,
scented soap, and sealing wax. Sweet gale (%@AI@%M. gale%@AE@%) yields tannic acid;
sweet fern (%@AI@%Comptonia peregrina%@AE@%) is used for medicines and tea.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bayeux tapestry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bayeux tapestry%@AE@%%@CR:BAYEUX.TAPESTRY @%%@QR:Bayeux tapestry@%, an embroidery chronicling the Norman conquest of England%@EH@%
(see under %@AU@%WILLIAM%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%, kings of England). It is a strip of linen, 230 ft by
20 in. (70 m by 51 cm) in the Bayeux Museum, France. Attributed to
William's wife, Queen Matilda, it is a valuable document on the history
and costumes of the time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Baykal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Baykal%@AE@%%@CR:BAYKAL          @%%@QR:Baykal@%or %@AB@%Baikal%@AE@%, lake, SE Siberian USSR. Nearly 400 mi (650 km) long, it%@EH@%
is the largest (12,160 sq mi/31,494 sq km) freshwater lake in Eurasia. It
is also believed to be the deepest lake in the world, its maximum known
depth being 5,714 ft (1,742 m). The lake is in danger of pollution
because of recent industrial development near its shores.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bay of Pigs Invasion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bay of Pigs Invasion%@AE@%,%@CR:BAY.OF.ASION    @%%@QR:Bay of Pigs Invasion@% 1961, unsuccessful invasion of Cuba by U.S.-backed%@EH@%
Cuban exiles. On Apr. 17, 1961, about 1,500 Cuban exiles landed in the
Bahia de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) with the aim of ousting the Communist
regime of Fidel %@AU@%CASTRO%@BO:          19f33d@%%@AE@%. They had been trained in Guatemala by the CIA,
supplied with U.S. arms. Most were captured or killed by the Cuban army.
The U.S. government was severely criticized for the attack at home and
abroad. In December 1962, Cuba traded 1,113 captured rebels for $53
million in food and medicine raised by private donations in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bayreuth Festival%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bayreuth Festival%@AE@%:%@CR:BAYREUTAL       @%%@QR:Bayreuth Festival@% see %@AU@%MUSIC FESTIVAL%@BO:          657e38@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bazooka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bazooka%@AE@%,%@CR:BAZOOKA         @%%@QR:bazooka@% military weapon consisting of a portable, lightweight tube that%@EH@%
serves as a rocket launcher, usually operated by two men. Developed by
the U.S. as an %@AU@%INFANTRY%@BO:          48046e@%%@AE@% weapon for use against %@AU@%TANKS%@BO:          92a0ce@%%@AE@%, pillboxes, and
bunkers, it was widely employed during World War II and the Korean War
but was later superseded by more powerful, accurate weapons, notably
recoilless weapons and antitank missiles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Be%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Be%@AE@%,%@CR:BE              @%%@QR:Be@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%BERYLLIUM%@BO:           f1b28@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beach, Moses Yale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beach, Moses Yale%@AE@%,%@CR:BEACH           @%%@QR:Beach, Moses Yale@% 1800-1868, American journalist; b. Wallingford, Conn.%@EH@%
As owner of the New York %@AI@%Sun,%@AE@% Beach vied with his chief competitor, James
Gordon %@AU@%BENNETT%@BO:           e80aa@%%@AE@% of the %@AI@%Herald,%@AE@% in employing ingenious means of getting
news fast, e.g., carrier pigeons. Rising costs led to the formation of
the New York Associated Press, partly at Beach's instigation (see %@AU@%NEWS
%@AU@%AGENCY%@BO:          693048@%%@AE@%). His weekly %@AI@%American Sun%@AE@% was the first European edition of an
American paper.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of%@AE@%:%@CR:BEACONSFIELD    @%%@QR:Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of@% see %@AU@%DISRAELI, BENJAMIN%@BO:          295ef2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beadle, George Wells%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beadle, George Wells%@AE@%,%@CR:BEADLE          @%%@QR:Beadle, George Wells@% 1903-, American geneticist; b. Wahoo, Nebr. For%@EH@%
their work on the bread mold %@AI@%Neurospora crassa,%@AE@% which showed that genes
control cellular production of enzymes and thus the basic chemistry of
cells, Beadle and Edward %@AU@%TATUM%@BO:          93185b@%%@AE@% shared the 1958 Noble Prize in physiology
or medicine with Joshua %@AU@%LEDERBERG%@BO:          535967@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beagle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beagle%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAGLE          @%%@QR:beagle@% small, compact %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 10-15 in. (25.4-38.1 cm);%@EH@%
weight, 20-40 lb (9.1-18.1 kg). Its short, close-lying, harsh coat is
usually black, tan, and white. Developed in England to hunt hares, it was
introduced into the U.S. in the 1870s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bean%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAN            @%%@QR:bean@% name for seeds of trees and shrubs of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family, and for%@EH@%
various plants of the family having edible seeds or seed pods. True beans
are in the genus %@AI@%Phaseolus.%@AE@% The %@AU@%COWPEA, CAROB%@BO:          242698@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CHICK-PEA%@BO:          1cdde3@%%@AE@% are
sometimes considered beans. Cultivated worldwide, beans are an important
food staple. They are high in protein and often used as a meat
substitute.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bear%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bear%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAR            @%%@QR:bear@% large %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the family Ursidae, found almost exclusively in the%@EH@%
Northern Hemisphere. Bears have large heads, bulky bodies, short,
powerful, clawed limbs, and coarse, thick fur; almost all are omnivorous.
In cold climates, bears do not hibernate (see %@AU@%HIBERNATION%@BO:          42adca@%%@AE@%) but sleep most
of the winter; their metabolism remains normal, and they may wake and
emerge during warm spells. North American brown bears include the Kodiak
bear and the grizzly. The Kodiak, the largest bear, sometimes stands 9 ft
(2.7 m) high and weighs over 1,600 lb (730 kg). The grizzly,
characterized by silver-tipped (grizzled) fur, is more highly carnivorous
than most bears and preys on large mammals such as deer. The most
widespread North American bear is the black bear, smaller than the brown
bears and ranging in color from light brown to black. The large, white
polar bear is an arctic species. A solitary, fearless hunter, it is a
powerful swimmer and feeds mostly on marine animals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beard, Charles A(ustin)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beard, Charles A(ustin)%@AE@%,%@CR:BEARD           @%%@QR:Beard, Charles A(ustin)@% 1874-1948, American historian; b. near%@EH@%
Knightstown, Ind. As a professor at Columbia Univ. he taught that history
encompasses all aspects of civilization. He was particularly interested
in the relationship of economics and politics and in 1913 published %@AI@%An
%@AI@%Economic Interpretation of the Constitution.%@AE@% Beard helped to found the
New School for Social Research. With his wife, Mary Ritter Beard
(1876-1958), he wrote %@AI@%The Rise of American Civilization%@AE@% (2 vol., 1927)
and its sequels (vol. 3 and vol. 4),%@AI@%America in Midpassage%@AE@% (1939) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%American Spirit%@AE@% (1943).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bearden, Romare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bearden, Romare%@AE@%,%@CR:BEARDEN         @%%@QR:Bearden, Romare@% 1914-88, American painter; b. Charlotte, N.C., raised in%@EH@%
Harlem. Rendered in vibrant, flat planes, often with collage, his works
deal with the black experience in America. His work appears in many
museum collections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent%@AE@%,%@CR:BEARDSLEY       @%%@QR:Beardsley, Aubrey Vincent@% 1872-98, English illustrator and writer. His%@EH@%
unique, largely self-taught work was influenced by Greek vase painting,
Japanese woodcuts, and the French %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@%. He developed a superbly
artificial, flat, linear, black-and-white style, illustrating macabre,
often erotic themes for books, e.g., Oscar %@AU@%WILDE'S%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Salome%@AE@% (1894), and
periodicals, e.g., %@AI@%The Yellow Book%@AE@% (1894-96), for which he was art
editor. He died at 26 of tuberculosis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bearing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bearing%@AE@%,%@CR:BEARING         @%%@QR:bearing@% machine part used to reduce %@AU@%FRICTION%@BO:          3660b4@%%@AE@% between moving surfaces and%@EH@%
to support moving loads. There are two principal types. A %@AI@%plain,%@AE@% or
%@AI@%journal, bearing%@AE@% is a cylinder that supports a rotating shaft such as a
motor shaft; its inner lining, the bushing, is usually made of a metal
softer than that of the shaft, so that any slight misalignment of the
shaft can be adjusted by an equivalent wearing of the bushing. An
%@AI@%antifriction bearing%@AE@% is a cylinder containing a movable inner ring of
small steel balls (the ball bearings used primarily in light machinery)
or larger cylindrical rollers. The rotating machine part fits into a
center of the ring, which takes up the motion of the rotating part,
distributing and reducing friction through the movement of its bearings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beat frequency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beat frequency%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAT.FREQUENCY  @%%@QR:beat frequency@% half of the difference of the frequencies of two sets of%@EH@%
waves traveling in the same direction. Sets of waves combine to form a
beat, which has a varying amplitude and a fixed frequency. The number of
beats occurring in one second is equal to twice the beat frequency. Beats
are an example of interference, and, in sound waves, can be used for
practical purposes, such as piano tuning.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beat generation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beat generation%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAT.GENERATION @%%@QR:beat generation@% certain American artists and writers popular in the%@EH@%
1950s. Influenced by Eastern religions, e.g., %@AU@%ZEN%@BO:          a50967@%%@AE@% %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%, and the
rhythms of "progressive" %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%, they rejected traditional forms and sought
expression in intense experiences and beatific illumination. Novelists in
the movement included William Burroughs and Jack %@AU@%KEROUAC%@BO:          4f35d8@%%@AE@%. Among the
"beat" poets were Allen %@AU@%GINSBERG%@BO:          3a46c8@%%@AE@% and Lawrence %@AU@%FERLINGHETTI%@BO:          329d07@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beatitudes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beatitudes%@AE@%,%@CR:BEATITUDES      @%%@QR:Beatitudes@% eight blessings spoken by Jesus at the beginning of the%@EH@%
Sermon on the Mount (Mat. 5.3-12). Luke 6.20-26, a parallel passage,
names four blessings and four woes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beatles, The%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beatles, The%@AE@%,%@CR:BEATLES         @%%@QR:Beatles, The@% English rock music group (1959-69). Members were John%@EH@%
Lennon (1940-80), Paul McCartney (1942-), George Harrison (1943-), and
Ringo Starr (Richard Starkey) (1940-). Influenced by Americans like Elvis
%@AU@%PRESLEY%@BO:          79569d@%%@AE@%, the Beatles dominated %@AU@%ROCK MUSIC%@BO:          800289@%%@AE@% in the 1960s with their wit,
stage presence, and music that evolved from tight rhythm and blues to
allusive lyricism. The lyrics and music for their songs were written
mostly by Lennon and McCartney. The group recorded numerous albums, made
films, and toured widely.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaton, Sir Cecil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaton, Sir Cecil%@AE@%,%@CR:BEATON          @%%@QR:Beaton, Sir Cecil@% 1904-80, English stage and costume designer,%@EH@%
photographer, writer, and painter. His credits include the designs for
the Broadway shows %@AI@%My Fair Lady%@AE@% (1956) and %@AI@%Coco%@AE@% (1969), and photographic
portraits of many famous people.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beatrice Portinari%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beatrice Portinari%@AE@%,%@CR:BEATRICARI      @%%@QR:Beatrice Portinari@% 1266-90, Florentine woman thought to be the Beatrice%@EH@%
of %@AU@%DANTE'S%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Divine Comedy%@AE@% and %@AI@%Vita nuova%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beatrix%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beatrix%@AE@%,%@CR:BEATRIX         @%%@QR:Beatrix@% 1938-, queen of the Netherlands (1980-). She ascended the throne%@EH@%
upon the abdication of her mother, %@AU@%JULIANA%@BO:          4da25d@%%@AE@%. She is married to a German,
Claus von Amsberg, and has three sons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaubourg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaubourg%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAUBOURG       @%%@QR:Beaubourg@% popular name for the Centre National d'Art et de Culture%@EH@%
Georges Pompidou, derived from the district of Paris in which the
cultural center is located. Proposed by French Pres. %@AU@%POMPIDOU%@BO:          780481@%%@AE@% in 1969,
the center was designed by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers and completed
in 1977. Its industrial style, with architectural elements such as the
steel superstructure, escalator tunnels of clear plastic, and brightly
colored elevators and utility pipes exposed on the outside of the
building, has generated much controversy. The Beaubourg contains a modern
art museum, a public library, and music and industrial design centers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaufort scale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaufort scale%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAUFORT.SCALE  @%%@QR:Beaufort scale@% a scale of wind velocity. It was devised by Admiral Sir%@EH@%
Francis Beaufort of the British navy and an adaptation is used by the
U.S. National Weather Service. It employs numbers from 0 to 12,
representing calm, light air, light breeze, gentle breeze, moderate
breeze, fresh breeze, strong breeze, moderate gale, fresh gale, strong
gale, whole gale, storm, and hurricane. Zero (calm) is a wind velocity of
less than 1 mi (q.6 km) per hour and 12 (hurricane) represents a velocity
of over 75 mi (120 km) per hour.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaufort Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaufort Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAUFORT.SEA    @%%@QR:Beaufort Sea@% an arm of the Arctic ocean between Point Barrow, Alaska,%@EH@%
and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The %@AU@%MACKENZIE%@BO:          58e949@%%@AE@% R. flows into the sea,
which is always covered with pack ice.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beauharnais, Alexandre, vicomte de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beauharnais, Alexandre, vicomte de%@AE@%%@CR:BEAUHARNAIS     @%%@QR:Beauharnais, Alexandre, vicomte de@%, 1760-94, French general. He fought in%@EH@%
the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and in the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%. After he
was guillotined in the %@AU@%REIGN OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@%, his widow married %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% and
became the Empress %@AU@%JOSEPHINE%@BO:          4d4f0b@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AB@%Eugene de Beauharnais,%@AE@% 1781-1824,
was also a French general who served with distinction under his
stepfather, Napoleon. Made viceroy of Italy in 1805, he retired to Munich
after Napoleon's fall. Eugene's sister, %@AB@%Hortense de Beauharnais,%@AE@%
1783-1837, married Louis %@AU@%BONAPARTE%@BO:          11c306@%%@AE@% and was queen of Holland (1806-10).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de%@AE@%%@CR:BEAUMARCHAIS    @%%@QR:Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de@%, 1732-99, French dramatist. His%@EH@%
brilliant comedies, %@AI@%The Barber of Seville%@AE@% (1775) and %@AI@%The Marriage of
%@AI@%Figaro%@AE@% (1784), are the bases for celebrated operas by %@AU@%ROSSINI%@BO:          8152a3@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@%,
respectively. Distinguished by their clever dialogue and intricate plots,
they satirize the upper class. Beaumarchais was frequently in litigation,
and the pamphlets he wrote about his cases were witty and effective.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaumont, Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaumont, Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAUMONT1       @%%@QR:Beaumont, Francis@% 1584?-1616, English dramatist, best known for%@EH@%
collaborations with John %@AU@%FLETCHER%@BO:          33b0db@%%@AE@%. Beaumont is generally considered the
superior dramatist, and to him sole authorship of %@AI@%The Woman Hater%@AE@% (1607)
and the burlesque %@AI@%Knight of the Burning Pestle%@AE@% (c.1607) is usually
ascribed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaumont, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaumont, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAUMONT2       @%%@QR:Beaumont, William@% 1785-1853, American physician; b. Lebanon, Conn. He%@EH@%
was the author of %@AI@%Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and
%@AI@%the Physiology of Digestion%@AE@% (1833), an exhaustive account of a famous
medical case involving a youth whose abdomen, opened by a gunshot, would
not close. Realizing that this situation afforded a unique opportunity to
study the digestive process, Beaumont conducted about 238 experiments
over several years that revolutionized knowledge of this process.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaumont%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaumont%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAUMONT3       @%%@QR:Beaumont@% city (1986 est. pop. 119.900), seat of Jefferson co., E Tex.;%@EH@%
settled 1827, inc. 1838. A port of entry with deepwater facilities on a
ship channel, Beaumont is a major oil-refining center. The world's first
great oil gusher came in (1901) at nearby Spindletop, revolutionizing
what is still, to a degree, a farming and lumbering economy. Lamar Univ.
is located in the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAUREGARD      @%%@QR:Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant@% 1818-93, Confederate general in the%@EH@%
U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; b. St. Bernard parish, La. In 1861, after directing the
bombardment of %@AU@%FORT SUMTER%@BO:          34a5d9@%%@AE@%, he was second in command at the first battle
of %@AU@%BULL RUN%@BO:          156760@%%@AE@%. He became (1862) Confederate commander at the battle of
%@AU@%SHILOH%@BO:          885e93@%%@AE@% after the death of A.S. %@AU@%JOHNSTON%@BO:          4ce73d@%%@AE@%. He later (1863) defended
Charleston.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beauvoir, Simone de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beauvoir, Simone de%@AE@%%@CR:BEAUVOIR        @%%@QR:Beauvoir, Simone de@%, 1908-86, French author. An exponent of%@EH@%
%@AU@%EXISTENTIALISM%@BO:          311d9f@%%@AE@%, she was a close associate of %@AU@%SARTRE%@BO:          84ab54@%%@AE@%. Her novels include
%@AI@%The Mandarins%@AE@% (1955), which interprets the existential dilemma, %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Second Sex%@AE@% (1949-50), a profound analysis of the status of women, and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Coming of Age%@AE@% (1970), a study of society's treatment of the aged. She
also wrote a lively series of memoirs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beaver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beaver%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAVER          @%%@QR:beaver@% large, aquatic %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Castor fiber%@AE@%). Once widespread in the%@EH@%
Northern Hemisphere, beavers are from 3 to 4 ft (91 to 120 cm) long,
including the distinctive broad, flattened tail; they usually weigh about
60 lb (27 kg). Known for their engineering feats, beavers create ponds by
building dams of sticks, logs, and mud; they build habitations, or
lodges, in the same way.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:BEAVERBROOK     @%%@QR:Beaverbrook, William Maxwell Aitken, 1st Baron@% 1879-1964, British%@EH@%
statesman and newspaper owner; b. Canada. He amassed a fortune in
business before going to England in 1910. There he gained control of the
%@AI@%Daily Express%@AE@% (1916) and the %@AI@%Evening Standard%@AE@% (1923), and began the
%@AI@%Sunday Express%@AE@% (1918); these newspapers trumpeted his imperialist,
isolationist views. A Conservative, he held several posts in Winston
%@AU@%CHURCHILL'S%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@% wartime cabinet (1940-45).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marchese di%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marchese di%@AE@%,%@CR:BECCARIA        @%%@QR:Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marchese di@% 1738-94, Italian criminologist,%@EH@%
economist, and jurist. His famous %@AI@%Essay on Crimes and Punishments%@AE@% (1764),
arguing against %@AU@%CAPITAL PUNISHMENT%@BO:          189160@%%@AE@% and cruel treatment of criminals,
influenced Jeremy %@AU@%BENTHAM%@BO:           e8bd7@%%@AE@% and the utilitarians and stimulated penal
reform throughout Europe. As an economist, Beccaria anticipated the wage
and labor theories of Adam %@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a56a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Becket, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Becket, Thomas%@AE@%:%@CR:BECKET          @%%@QR:Becket, Thomas@% see %@AU@%THOMAS A BECKET, SAINT%@BO:          952656@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beckett, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beckett, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:BECKETT         @%%@QR:Beckett, Samuel@% 1906-, French novelist and playwright; b. Ireland. He%@EH@%
won the 1969 Nobel Prize in literature. His novels, e.g., %@AI@%Murphy%@AE@% (1938)
and %@AI@%Molloy%@AE@% (1951), portray an individual's entrapment by grotesque
situations in an apparently normal world. In his theater of the absurd,
typified by the popular but controversial %@AI@%Waiting for Godot%@AE@% (1952) and
%@AI@%Endgame%@AE@% (1957), Beckett combines poignant humor with an overwhelming
sense of anguish and loss.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo%@AE@%%@CR:BECQUER         @%%@QR:Becquer, Gustavo Adolfo@%, 1836-70, Spanish romantic poet and prose writer.%@EH@%
His %@AI@%Rhymes%@AE@% (1871), published after his death, are among the finest
19th-cent. %@AU@%LYRIC%@BO:          585494@%%@AE@% poetry. His prose includes %@AI@%Legends%@AE@% (1860-64).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Becquerel, Antoine Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Becquerel, Antoine Henri%@AE@%%@CR:BECQUEREL       @%%@QR:Becquerel, Antoine Henri@%, 1852-1908, French physicist. Professor at the%@EH@%
Ecole polytechnique, Paris, from 1895, he discovered %@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@% in
%@AU@%URANIUM%@BO:          9afbf2@%%@AE@% in 1896. Further investigations of the phenomenon were made by
Pierre and Marie %@AU@%CURIE%@BO:          25600e@%%@AE@%, and the three shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in
physics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bedbug%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bedbug%@AE@%,%@CR:BEDBUG          @%%@QR:bedbug@% small, flatbodied, blood-sucking %@AU@%BUG%@BO:          153657@%%@AE@% of the family Cimicidae.%@EH@%
Distributed worldwide, bedbugs are parasites of warm-blooded animals.
They are reddish-brown and about 1/4 in. (6 mm) long.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beddoes, Thomas Lovell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beddoes, Thomas Lovell%@AE@%,%@CR:BEDDOES         @%%@QR:Beddoes, Thomas Lovell@% 1803-49, English poet and dramatist. His%@EH@%
writings, inclined toward the macabre and grotesque, include the verse
work %@AI@%The Improvisatore%@AE@% (1821) and two plays, %@AI@%The Bride's Tragedy%@AE@% (1822)
and %@AI@%Death's Jest-Book%@AE@% (1850).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bede, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bede, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:BEDE            @%%@QR:Bede, Saint@% or %@AB@%Baeda,%@AE@%673?-735, English historian, a Benedictine monk,%@EH@%
also called the Venerable Bede. His %@AI@%Ecclesiastical History of the English
%@AI@%Nation,%@AE@% in Latin, is still an important primary source for English
history from 597 to 731.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bedford, John of Lancaster, duke of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bedford, John of Lancaster, duke of%@AE@%,%@CR:BEDFORD         @%%@QR:Bedford, John of Lancaster, duke of@% 1389-1435, English nobleman, son of%@EH@%
%@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England and brother of %@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. Made protector of %@AU@%HENRY VI%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% in
1422, he devoted himself to English affairs in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bedlington terrier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bedlington terrier%@AE@%,%@CR:BEDLINGIER      @%%@QR:Bedlington terrier@% long-legged %@AU@%TERRIER%@BO:          942cc2@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.16 in. (40.6%@EH@%
cm); weight, 22-24 lb (9.9-10.8 kg). When its thick, wiry outercoat is
trimmed to the fleecy undercoat for exhibition, it resembles a lamb. It
may be blue, liver, or sandy, solid or marked with tan. It was developed
(19th cent.) by cross-breeding in England's Border districts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bedouin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bedouin%@AE@%%@CR:BEDOUIN         @%%@QR:Bedouin@% [Arab.,=desert dwellers], primarily nomad Arab peoples of the%@EH@%
Middle East. Of Semitic stock, they are devout believers in %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%. Camel-
and sheep-breeding provide their main livelihood. Roving tribal groups,
headed by a sheikh, traditionally traveled a defined area of land.
However, the settlement policies of various governments in the 20th cent.
have forced many Bedouins into a sedentary life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bee%@AE@%,%@CR:BEE             @%%@QR:bee@% flying %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% of the superfamily Apoidae, having enlarged hind feet%@EH@%
for pollen gathering and a dense coat of feathery hairs on the head and
thorax. Bees feed on %@AU@%POLLEN%@BO:          7795b8@%%@AE@% and nectar; the latter is converted to %@AU@%HONEY%@BO:          440b55@%%@AE@%
in the digestive tract. Most have stings connected to a poison gland.
Bees may be social, solitary, or parasitic in the nests of other bees.
Social bees include bumblebees, stingless bees, and honeybees. A typical
colony of social bees has an egg-laying queen, sexually undeveloped
females (workers), and fertile males (drones). Workers gather nectar,
make and store honey, and protect the hive. They care for the queen and
larvae and perform complex patterned dances to communicate the location
of pollen sources to one another. After being fertilized by a drone, the
queen spends her life (usually several years) laying eggs. Honeybees are
raised commercially for honey and for the %@AU@%WAX%@BO:          9fde2c@%%@AE@% they produce for their
nests (combs). Bees are invaluable for cross-%@AU@%POLLINATION%@BO:          779863@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beech%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beech%@AE@%,%@CR:BEECH           @%%@QR:beech@% common name for the Fagaceae, a family of trees and shrubs mainly%@EH@%
of temperate and subtropical regions in the Northern Hemisphere. The
principal genera, %@AU@%CHESTNUT%@BO:          1cb0d2@%%@AE@%, chinquapin, beech, and %@AU@%OAK%@BO:          6c6fa3@%%@AE@%, are dominant
forest trees valued for their hardwood timber. Some species are also
grown for their fruits and as ornamentals. The beeches have smooth,
silvery gray bark and pale green leaves. The American beech (%@AI@%F.
%@AI@%grandifolia%@AE@%) grows over much of the NE U.S. and Canada. The European
beech (%@AI@%F. sylvatica%@AE@%) is an important forest tree, prized for its wood and
nut oil. Several of its varieties, e.g., purple and copper beeches, are
cultivated in America as ornamental trees.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beecham, Sir Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beecham, Sir Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BEECHAM         @%%@QR:Beecham, Sir Thomas@% 1879-1961, English conductor of international fame.%@EH@%
He organized (1932) the London Philharmonic Orchestra and (1946) the
Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, also of London, and appeared in the U.S.
with the New York Philharmonic and the %@AU@%METROPOLITAN OPERA%@BO:          5f8daf@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%ORCHESTRA%@BO:          6e56f7@%%@AE@%,
).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beecher, Lyman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beecher, Lyman%@AE@%,%@CR:BEECHER         @%%@QR:Beecher, Lyman@% 1775-1863, American Presbyterian minister; b. New Haven,%@EH@%
Conn. A preacher on temperance, he served congregations in New York,
Connecticut, and Massachusetts. He was a founder of the American Bible
Society (1816) and later president (1832-52) of Lane Theological
Seminary, Cincinnati. Among his 13 children were Harriet Beecher %@AU@%STOWE%@BO:          8f6e3b@%%@AE@%
and %@AB@%Henry Ward Beecher,%@AE@% 1813-87, American Congregational preacher,
orator, and lecturer, b. Litchfield, Conn. After serving congregations in
Indiana, he became pastor of the Congregational Plymouth Church in
Brooklyn, N.Y., in 1847. He championed reforms, especially the abolition
of slavery and woman suffrage, and advocated the theory of evolution. He
was accused of adultery by Theodore Tilton. The trial (1875) ended in
jury disagreement, and Beecher continued in his influential position for
the rest of his life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beefeaters%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beefeaters%@AE@%,%@CR:BEEFEATERS      @%%@QR:Beefeaters@% popular name for the %@AU@%YEOMAN%@BO:          a42d61@%%@AE@% of the Guard and the warders of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%TOWER OF LONDON%@BO:          96f87e@%%@AE@%. They wear colorful uniforms modeled after those of
the Elizabethan period.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beelzebub%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beelzebub%@AE@%,%@CR:BEELZEBUB       @%%@QR:Beelzebub@% in the Bible: see %@AU@%SATAN%@BO:          84bfa4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beer%@AE@%,%@CR:BEER            @%%@QR:beer@% one of the oldest known alcoholic beverages. At first brewed%@EH@%
chiefly in the household and monastery, it has been a commercial product
since late medieval times and is made today in most industrialized
countries. Color, flavor, and alcoholic content (usually 3%-6%) may vary,
but the process in brewing is similar: A mash of malt (usually barley),
cereal adjunct (e.g., rice and corn), and water is heated and agitated.
The liquid is boiled with hops and cooled. Yeast is then added, and
fermentation occurs. In England ale is any light-colored beer; in the
U.S. it is a pale, strongly hopped beverage. Porter is a strong, dark ale
brewed with roasted malt; stout is darker, stronger, and maltier than
porter. Bock beer is dark, heavy, and usually drunk in the spring. Light,
or low-calorie, beer is lower in alcohol content.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beerbohm, Sir Max%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beerbohm, Sir Max%@AE@%,%@CR:BEERBOHM        @%%@QR:Beerbohm, Sir Max@% 1872-1956, English essayist, caricaturist, and%@EH@%
parodist. Best known today for his witty caricatures of late Victorian
writers, e.g., D.G. %@AU@%ROSSETTI%@BO:          814e64@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WILDE%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@%, he also wrote brilliant parodies,
e.g., %@AI@%A Christmas Garland%@AE@% (1912), and a popular satire on Oxford, %@AI@%Zuleika
%@AI@%Dobson%@AE@% (1911).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beersheba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beersheba%@AE@%,%@CR:BEERSHEBA       @%%@QR:Beersheba@% city (1986 est. pop. 115,000), S Israel, principal city of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%NEGEV%@BO:          680a1d@%%@AE@% Desert. Beersheba is a trading center, and its manufactures include
chemicals and textiles. Once one of the southernmost towns of biblical
%@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@%, Beersheba contains a well believed to have been dug by
%@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@%. It is the seat of the Arid Zone Research Institute.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beeswax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beeswax%@AE@%:%@CR:BEESWAX         @%%@QR:beeswax@% see %@AU@%WAX%@BO:          9fde2c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beet%@AE@%,%@CR:BEET            @%%@QR:beet@% biennial or annual root vegetable (%@AI@%Beta vulgaris%@AE@%) of the goosefoot%@EH@%
family, cultivated since pre-Christian times. Numerous varieties exist,
e.g., red, or garden, beet; sugar beet; and Swiss chard. Both the roots
and foliage of the red beet are edible, as is the foliage of the Swiss
chard. The widely cultivated sugar beet, containing up to 20% sucrose,
provides about one third of the world's sugar supply.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beethoven, Ludwig van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beethoven, Ludwig van%@AE@%%@CR:BEETHOVEN       @%%@QR:Beethoven, Ludwig van@%, 1770-1827, German composer, universally recognized%@EH@%
as one of the greatest composers who ever lived. Young Beethoven's
musical gifts were acknowledged by %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HAYDN%@BO:          40ade8@%%@AE@%, and his piano
virtuosity and extraordinary compositions won him the generous support of
the Viennese aristocracy despite his notoriously boorish manners. Despite
the onset (1801) of deafness, which became progressively worse and was
total by 1817, his creative work was never restricted. Beethoven's work
may be divided into three distinct periods. The early works, influenced
by the tradition of Mozart and Haydn, include the First and Second
Symphonies, the first three piano concertos, and a number of piano
sonatas, including the Pathetique. From 1802, his work broke the formal
conventions of classical music. This most productive middle period
included the Third Symphony (Eroica); the Fourth through Eighth
Symphonies; his one Violin Concerto; and his sole opera, %@AI@%Fidelio.%@AE@%
Beethoven's final period, dating from about 1816, is characterized by
works of greater depth, including the Hammerklavier Sonata; the
monumental Ninth Symphony, with its choral finale based on %@AU@%SCHILLER'S%@BO:          855cf2@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Ode
%@AI@%to Joy;%@AE@% the %@AI@%Missa Solemnis;%@AE@% and the last five string quartets. A prolific
composer, Beethoven produced numerous smaller works besides his major
symphonies, concertos, sonatas, and quartets. His work crowned the
classical period and initiated the romantic era in music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beetle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beetle%@AE@%,%@CR:BEETLE          @%%@QR:beetle@% mainly terrestrial %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% (order Coleoptera). Beetles have%@EH@%
chewing mouthparts; well-developed antennae; and a pair of hard, opaque,
waterproof wings (elytra) which cover and protect the flight wings and
the body. Some species are brilliantly colored and patterned, but most
are dull. They range in size from less than 1/32 in. (1 mm) to more than
6 in. (15 cm) in length. Beetles are generally plant eaters, but some are
parasitic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beet sugar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beet sugar%@AE@%:%@CR:BEET.SUGAR      @%%@QR:beet sugar@% see %@AU@%BEET%@BO:           db528@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SUCROSE%@BO:          902b6d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Begin, Menachem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Begin, Menachem%@AE@%,%@CR:BEGIN           @%%@QR:Begin, Menachem@% 1913-, Israeli prime minister (1977-83); b. Poland.%@EH@%
Before Israeli independence, he commanded the Irgun, an anti-British
terrorist group. He sat in the Knesset after 1949. In 1977 he formed a
right-wing coalition government. Begin signed a peace treaty with Egypt
in 1979 (see %@AU@%CAMP DAVID ACCORDS%@BO:          17c878@%%@AE@%), and he and Egyptian President Anwar
al-%@AU@%SADAT%@BO:          82ced6@%%@AE@% shared the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. In 1982 he authorized a
massive Israeli invasion of %@AU@%LEBANON%@BO:          533da4@%%@AE@% in order to destroy military bases of
the %@AU@%PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@% located there (see %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%). Israeli soldiers then occupied West %@AU@%BEIRUT%@BO:           dd83a@%%@AE@%, and Begin's government
(particularly Defense Minister Ariel %@AU@%SHARON%@BO:          87ff96@%%@AE@%) was criticized for allowing
the massacre of hundreds of Palestinian civilians by Israel's Lebanese
Christian allies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%begonia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%begonia%@AE@%,%@CR:BEGONIA         @%%@QR:begonia@% common name for the Begoniaceae, a family of succulent,%@EH@%
perennial herbs of the American tropics, and for members of the genus
%@AI@%Begonia.%@AE@% Begonia species are common houseplants, some grown for their
showy, variously colored leaves and others for their white, pink, or
yellow flowers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Behan, Brendan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Behan, Brendan%@AE@%,%@CR:BEHAN           @%%@QR:Behan, Brendan@% 1923-64, Irish dramatist. An outspoken man jailed for%@EH@%
Irish Republican Army activities, he is noted for his prison drama %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Quare Fellow%@AE@% (1956); %@AI@%The Hostage%@AE@% (1958), a farce; and his autobiography,
%@AI@%Borstal Boy%@AE@% (1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%behaviorism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%behaviorism%@AE@%,%@CR:BEHAVIORISM     @%%@QR:behaviorism@% school of psychology seeking to explain behavior entirely in%@EH@%
terms of observable responses to environmental stimuli. Influenced by the
conditioned-reflex experiments of %@AU@%PAVLOV%@BO:          7242f6@%%@AE@%, behaviorism was introduced in
1913 by J.B. %@AU@%WATSON%@BO:          9fc143@%%@AE@%, who, denying both the value of introspection and the
concept of consciousness, emphasized laboratory techniques. B.F. %@AU@%SKINNER%@BO:          89e3da@%%@AE@%,
the major modern proponent, has concerned himself exclusively with the
relationship of observable responses to stimuli and rewards.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%behavior modification%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%behavior modification%@AE@%,%@CR:BEHAVIOCATION   @%%@QR:behavior modification@% treatment of human behavioral disorders through%@EH@%
the reinforcement of acceptable behavior and suppression (by
nonreinforcement) of undesirable behavior. Practiced by means of various
techniques of reward and/or punishment (e.g., aversion therapy,
desensitization), it has been used to treat such disorders as %@AU@%DRUG
%@AU@%ADDICTION%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ALCOHOLISM%@BO:           3168c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PHOBIAS%@BO:          74f0a3@%%@AE@%. A form of %@AU@%PSYCHOTHERAPY%@BO:          7a91c6@%%@AE@% developed
from the work of B.F. %@AU@%SKINNER%@BO:          89e3da@%%@AE@% and others, behavior modification is used
in private and institutional therapy in group and individual settings.
The method has been criticized for treating symptoms rather than causes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Behmen, Jakob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Behmen, Jakob%@AE@%:%@CR:BEHMEN          @%%@QR:Behmen, Jakob@% see %@AU@%BOEHME, JAKOB%@BO:          115b39@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Behn, Aphra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Behn, Aphra%@AE@%,%@CR:BEHN            @%%@QR:Behn, Aphra@% 1640-89, first professional English female author. She wrote%@EH@%
verse under the pseudonym Astrea, adopted during a career as a spy. %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Rover%@AE@% (1677), bawdy and humorous, brought her fame as a playwright.
%@AI@%Oroonoko%@AE@% (1688) was the first English philosophical novel. Behn led a
notoriously bohemian life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Behrens, Peter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Behrens, Peter%@AE@%%@CR:BEHRENS         @%%@QR:Behrens, Peter@%, 1868-1940, German architect. His utilitarian style was%@EH@%
both clear and impressive. He is known for his factory buildings, which
based a simple, effective design on the frank terms of modern
construction. %@AU@%LE CORBUSIER%@BO:          5352b3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GROPIUS%@BO:          3ddd69@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MIES VAN DER ROHE%@BO:          6077bd@%%@AE@% were his
students.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Behring, Emil Adolph von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Behring, Emil Adolph von%@AE@%,%@CR:BEHRING         @%%@QR:Behring, Emil Adolph von@% 1854-1917, German physician. A pioneer in serum%@EH@%
therapy, he received the 1901 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for
his work on immunization against diphtheria (1890) and tetanus (1892) by
injections of antitoxins (a word he introduced).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Behrman, S(amuel) N(athaniel)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Behrman, S(amuel) N(athaniel)%@AE@%,%@CR:BEHRMAN         @%%@QR:Behrman, S(amuel) N(athaniel)@% 1893-1973, American dramatist; b.%@EH@%
Worcester, Mass. His sophisticated comedies include %@AI@%The Second Man%@AE@% (1927)
and %@AI@%Lord Pengo%@AE@% (1962). He also wrote film scripts and biographies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beijing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beijing%@AE@%:%@CR:BEIJING         @%%@QR:Beijing@% see %@AU@%PEKING%@BO:          729d04@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beirut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beirut%@AE@%,%@CR:BEIRUT          @%%@QR:Beirut@% city (1980 pop. 702,000), W Lebanon, capital of Lebanon, on the%@EH@%
Mediterranean Sea. An important port, Beirut became a major financial
center with food-processing industries. It was a Phoenician city and was
called Berytus in ancient times. A prominent city under both the
Seleucids and Rome, Beirut was captured by the Arabs in AD 635. It was
part of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1110 to 1291. After 1517 the
%@AU@%DRUSES%@BO:          2ad78b@%%@AE@% controlled the city under the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%. It fell (1918) to
France in World War I and became the capital of Lebanon in 1920 under the
French mandate. Beirut suffered severe damage during the Lebanese civil
war (1975-76) between Muslims and Christians and ceased to be an
important financial center. In 1982 a siege by invading Israeli forces
led to the expulsion of thousands of PLO guerrillas from its western
sector and left much of Beirut in ruins. A multinational peacekeeping
force was established after some 1,000 Palestinian were massacred by
Lebanese Christian troops. France and the U.S. withdrew from Beirut
(1983) after losing nearly 300 troops in terrorist attacks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bejart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bejart%@AE@%%@CR:BEJART1         @%%@QR:Bejart@%or %@AB@%Bejard%@AE@%, French family of actors in a company associated (after%@EH@%
1643) with %@AU@%MOLIERE%@BO:          625664@%%@AE@%. The eldest was %@AB@%Joseph Bejart,%@AE@% c.1616-1659. His sister
%@AB@%Madeleine Bejart,%@AE@% 1618-72, a fine actress, was Moliere's mistress. Their
sister, %@AB@%Genevieve Bejart,%@AE@% 1624-75, and brother, %@AB@%Louis Bejart,%@AE@% 1630-78,
also acted in the company. %@AB@%Armande Gresinde B;aaejart,%@AE@% c.1640-1700,
Madeleine's sister or daughter, married Moliere in 1662 and played most
of his heroines. After merging with two other companies, the troupe
became the Comedie Francaise (see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@%, ).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bejart, Maurice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bejart, Maurice%@AE@%,%@CR:BEJART2         @%%@QR:Bejart, Maurice@% 1928-, French %@AU@%BALLET%@BO:           b7ae9@%%@AE@% and opera director; b. Maurice%@EH@%
Berger. His style incorporates %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% and avant-garde music, nontraditional
dance forms, e.g., acrobatics, and unusual settings. He headed the
Ballets de l'Etoile, Paris, from 1954; in 1959 he organized in Brussels,
Belgium, his highly influential Ballet of the 20th Century.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bekaa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bekaa%@AE@%,%@CR:BEKAA           @%%@QR:Bekaa@% valley: see %@AU@%BIQA, AL%@BO:          1004c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bela Kun%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bela Kun%@AE@%:%@CR:BELA.KUN        @%%@QR:Bela Kun@% see %@AU@%KUN, BELA%@BO:          5108e3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belau%@AE@%,%@CR:BELAU           @%%@QR:Belau@% formerly %@AB@%Palau,%@AE@% self-governing Micronesian island group (1987 est.%@EH@%
pop. 15,000), c.192 sq mi (497 sq km), in the W Pacific Ocean at the
extreme western end of the Caroline Islands, until 1987 administratively
part of the U.S. Trust Territory of the %@AU@%PACIFIC ISLANDS%@BO:          6fe995@%%@AE@%. It consists of
c.200 small islands (8 are inhabited), of which Babelthaup (the largest)
and Koror (the capital) are the most important. Most of the population is
Micronesian. The economy is based on subsistence farming, with some
commercial production of tuna fish and copra. Spain held the islands for
about 300 years and sold them to Germany in 1899. Japan seized them in
%@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, administered them as a mandate for the League of Nations,
and in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% used them as a major naval base. U.S. forces captured
the islands in 1944, and in 1947 they became part of the trust territory.
Voters approved (1979) a local constitution, and the islands became
(1981) self-governing as the Republic of Belau. A 1987 referendum ended
Belau's status as the last UN trust territory and gave the U.S. control
of the island group's defense.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belaunde Terry, Fernando%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belaunde Terry, Fernando%@AE@%%@CR:BELAUNDE.TERRY  @%%@QR:Belaunde Terry, Fernando@%, 1912-, president of Peru (1963-68, 1980-). An%@EH@%
architect, he effected social, educational, and land reforms in his first
term as president. In 1968 he was deposed by an army coup and went into
exile. Restored to the presidency in 1980, he attempted to combat
inflation by denationalizing industries and encouraging foreign
investment in the petroleum industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belem%@AE@%%@CR:BELEM           @%%@QR:Belem@% or %@AB@%Para,%@AE@%city (1980 pop. 758,117), N Brazil, capital of Para state,%@EH@%
on the Para R. It is the chief commercial center and port of the %@AU@%AMAZON%@BO:           45a09@%%@AE@%
R. basin. Founded by the Portuguese in 1616, it prospered during the
rubber boom of the late 19th cent. and again after World War II with the
development of rail and highway links. The Goeldi museum holds
ethnological and zoological collections of the region.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belfast%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belfast%@AE@%,%@CR:BELFAST         @%%@QR:Belfast@% capital city (1986 est. pop. 303,600) of Northern Ireland, on an%@EH@%
inlet of the Irish Sea, at the mouth of the Lagan R. A port and
industrial center, Belfast is known for its shipyards and linen industry.
Agricultural and livestock products are the chief exports. The city was
founded in 1177. French %@AU@%HUGUENOT%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@% settlers, who arrived in the late 17th
cent., stimulated the growth of the linen industry. Since the 19th cent.
the city has been scarred by violent strife between the majority
Protestants and the minority Catholics. In recent years there has been
frequent guerrilla fighting between the %@AU@%IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY%@BO:          49acb2@%%@AE@% and British
troops.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bel Geddes, Norman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bel Geddes, Norman%@AE@%:%@CR:BEL.GEDDES      @%%@QR:Bel Geddes, Norman@% see %@AU@%GEDDES, NORMAN BEL%@BO:          3877ba@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belgium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belgium%@AE@%,%@CR:BELGIUM         @%%@QR:Belgium@% Flemish %@AI@%Belgie,%@AE@% Fr. %@AI@%La Belgique,%@AE@% officially the Kingdom of%@EH@%
Belgium, constitutional kingdom (1986 est. pop. 9,860,000), 11,781 sq mi
(30,513 sq km), NW Europe; bordered by the Netherlands and the North Sea
(N), West Germany and Luxembourg (E), and France (W and SW). %@AU@%BRUSSELS%@BO:          14c0e0@%%@AE@% is
the capital and %@AU@%ANTWERP%@BO:           683cf@%%@AE@% the chief commercial center and port. Low-lying,
except for the forested Ardennes Mts. in the south, Belgium is crossed by
the %@AU@%MEUSE%@BO:          5f9dfe@%%@AE@% and Scheldt rivers and a network of canals. It is one of the
most densely populated, heavily industrialized nations in Europe, but
while the emphasis is on heavy industry, such as production of steel,
chemicals, and petrochemicals, the traditional industries of lace-making
and diamond-cutting continue to flourish. Coal, zinc, copper, and lead
are important minerals. Belgium is a leader in shipping, and its economy
depends on its exports. Agricultural activities include cattle-raising
and dairying; cereals are the chief crops, and food processing is a major
source of income. Tourism is important. The economy entered a recession
in 1974,but rebounded in the 1980s. Belgium is divided culturally and
ethnically into Flemish-speaking Flanders in the north and
French-speaking Wallonia, or Wallony, in the south. Virtually the entire
population is Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The Franks first appeared in the Roman province of Belgica in the
3d cent. AD, and the area became the cradle of the %@AU@%CAROLINGIAN%@BO:          192c68@%%@AE@% dynasty.
After the death (814) of %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%, most of the region was made part of
%@AU@%LOTHARINGIA%@BO:          56daf7@%%@AE@% and, later, of Lower Lorraine. By the 12th cent. this had
broken up into the duchies of Brabant and %@AU@%LUXEMBOURG%@BO:          580f52@%%@AE@%, and the histories
of these feudal states and of %@AU@%FLANDERS%@BO:          3393a4@%%@AE@% and Hainaut constitute the
medieval history of Belgium. In the 15th cent. the area of present-day
Belgium passed to the dukes of Burgundy and then to the %@AU@%HAPSBURGS%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% (see
%@AU@%NETHERLANDS, AUSTRIAN AND SPANISH%@BO:          687111@%%@AE@%). Annexed by France in 1797, the region
was given to the Netherlands by the Treaty of Paris (1815). Resentment of
Dutch rule led (1830) to rebellion, and an independent (1831),
"perpetually neutral" (1838) state was established. Under %@AU@%LEOPOLD I%@BO:          541c96@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%LEOPOLD II%@BO:          541c96@%%@AE@% there was rapid industrialization and also colonization,
notably in the Congo (see %@AU@%ZAIRE%@BO:          a4c756@%%@AE@%). Belgian neutrality was violated by the
Germans, who occupied the country in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.
Following World War II the unpopular %@AU@%LEOPOLD III%@BO:          541c96@%%@AE@%, who had surrendered the
country unconditionally to the Germans in 1940, abdicated (1951) in favor
of his son %@AU@%BAUDOUIN%@BO:           d20bd@%%@AE@%. Postwar recovery was rapid, but crises arising from
longstanding tensions between the Flemish- and French-speaking elements
toppled several governments in the 1960s. A constitutional reform (1971)
in effect federalized the country by creating three partially autonomous
regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels), but ethnic discord has
continued. Belgium is a member of the %@AU@%BENELUX ECONOMIC UNION%@BO:           e5742@%%@AE@%, and
Brussels is headquarters for the European %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@%, Supreme
Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), and %@AU@%NATO%@BO:          677dd8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belgrade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belgrade%@AE@%,%@CR:BELGRADE        @%%@QR:Belgrade@% Serbo-Croatian %@AI@%Beograd,%@AE@% city (1981 pop. 1,470,073), capital and%@EH@%
largest city of Yugoslavia and of its constituent republic %@AU@%SERBIA%@BO:          871606@%%@AE@%, at the
confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers. It is the industrial,
political, and cultural center of the country. Manufactures include
metals, chemicals, and textiles. A harbor for Rome's Danubian fleet, it
was later held by the Byzantines, Bulgars, and Serbs. After 1521 it was a
major fortress of the Ottoman Turks. Belgrade became the capital of the
kingdom of Serbia in 1882 and the capital of Yugoslavia after World War
I. In World War II it was severely damaged by the German occupation
(1941-44). Belgrade is noted for its fine parks, palaces, museums, and
churches. The Kalemegdan citadel is now a military museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belgrano, Manuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belgrano, Manuel%@AE@%,%@CR:BELGRANO        @%%@QR:Belgrano, Manuel@% 1770-1820, Argentine revolutionist. A political figure%@EH@%
and journalist, he was a leader of the May 1810 revolution and a member
of the first patriot governing junta. Later he commanded the Army of the
North (1812-14, 1816-19).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belinsky, Vissarion Grigoryevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belinsky, Vissarion Grigoryevich%@AE@%%@CR:BELINSKY        @%%@QR:Belinsky, Vissarion Grigoryevich@%, 1811-48, Russian literary critic.%@EH@%
Although he championed the works of %@AU@%GOGOL%@BO:          3b137f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LERMONTOV%@BO:          542fd8@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%DOSTOYEVSKY%@BO:          2a40f7@%%@AE@%,
his repudiation of art for art's sake and his emphasis on the social and
political uses of literature laid the foundation for later Soviet
critical theory and %@AU@%SOCIALIST REALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belisarius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belisarius%@AE@%,%@CR:BELISARIUS      @%%@QR:Belisarius@% c.505-565, Byzantine general under %@AU@%JUSTINIAN I%@BO:          4ddb31@%%@AE@%. He suppressed%@EH@%
(532) the Nika riot caused by internal political strife, and defeated
(533-34) the Vandals, a Germanic tribe. In command (535) of the war
against the %@AU@%OSTROGOTHS%@BO:          6f50a2@%%@AE@% in Italy, he took %@AU@%NAPLES%@BO:          66441e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ROME%@BO:          80bece@%%@AE@% (536), as well
as %@AU@%MILAN%@BO:          608bfa@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RAVENNA%@BO:          7cecf6@%%@AE@% (540). Justinian replaced him (548) with Narses, but
Belisarius returned (559) to drive the Bulgarians out of Constantinople.
After a brief political imprisonment (562) he returned to favor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belize%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belize%@AE@%%@CR:BELIZE          @%%@QR:Belize@%, formerly %@AB@%British Honduras,%@AE@% independent nation (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
171,000), 8,867 sq mi (22,965 sq km), Central America; bordered by Mexico
(N), Guatemala (S and W), and the Caribbean Sea (E). The land is
generally low-lying, forested, and undercultivated, with a swampy
coastline and some low mountains in the south. The capital is %@AU@%BELMOPAN%@BO:           e32a5@%%@AE@%,
and the chief port is Belize. The major products are sugarcane, chicle,
and citrus fruits. The traditional exports, mahogany and other woods, are
declining due to overharvesting. The population is mostly of black
African descent, with sizable Spanish-American and Mayan Indian
minorities. Once a part of the %@AU@%MAYA%@BO:          5da103@%%@AE@% civilization, the region was probably
traversed by %@AU@%CORTES%@BO:          2392aa@%%@AE@% on his way to %@AU@%HONDURAS%@BO:          44040e@%%@AE@%, but the Spanish made no
attempt at colonization. Buccaneers founded Belize city in the early
1600s and were followed by British Jamaicans who exploited its timber.
Spain long contested British possession. British Honduras was granted
internal self-government in 1964, but full independence was delayed by
%@AU@%GUATEMALA'S%@BO:          3e2308@%%@AE@% claim that it had inherited the territory from Spain. The
dispute was settled by negotiation with the British, and on Sept. 21,
1981, British Honduras, as Belize, became the last British crown colony
on the American mainland to achieve full independence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bell, Alexander Graham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bell, Alexander Graham%@AE@%,%@CR:BELL1           @%%@QR:Bell, Alexander Graham@% 1847-1922, Scottish-American scientist, inventor%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%TELEPHONE%@BO:          938749@%%@AE@%. For many years he studied and experimented in the area
of teaching the deaf to speak, conducting his own school of vocal
physiology in Boston. As early as 1865 he conceived the idea of
transmitting speech by electric waves, and in 1876 he perfected and
demonstrated the first telephone apparatus. Under Bell's influence the
magazine %@AI@%Science%@AE@% was founded (1880); his patronage of scientists
interested in aviation resulted in the development of the %@AU@%HYDROFOIL%@BO:          45ed44@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bell, Daniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bell, Daniel%@AE@%,%@CR:BELL2           @%%@QR:Bell, Daniel@% 1919-, U.S. sociologist. After 20 years as a journalist, he%@EH@%
took a degree in sociology and went on to teach at Columbia and Harvard.
He has written on contemporary capitalist society and the individual's
place within it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian%@AE@%,%@CR:BELL3           @%%@QR:Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian@% 1868-1926, English traveler and author,%@EH@%
one of the builders of the modern state of %@AU@%IRAQ%@BO:          496a70@%%@AE@%. As liaison officer of
the Arab Bureau in Iraq she was largely responsible for the selection of
%@AU@%FAISAL I%@BO:          319126@%%@AE@% as king.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bell%@AE@%,%@CR:BELL4           @%%@QR:bell@% in music, a %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@% consisting of a hollow metal%@EH@%
vessel set into vibration by a blow from a clapper within or a hammer
without. Apparently originating in Asia, bells have been used in
connection with all major religions except Islam. A portable set of bells
tuned to the intervals of the major scale is called a chime. A carillon
is a larger stationary set of up to 70 bells with chromatic intervals
played from a keyboard. It developed in the Low Countries and reached a
peak there in the 17th cent., while in England the art of %@AU@%CHANGE RINGING%@BO:          1b8062@%%@AE@%
evolved. Carillon playing declined at the end of the 18th cent., but was
revived in the 20th cent. following the rediscovery of older tuning
secrets and the development of improvements in construction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%belladonna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%belladonna%@AE@%%@CR:BELLADONNA      @%%@QR:belladonna@% or %@AB@%deadly nightshade,%@AE@%poisonous perennial plant (%@AI@%Atropa%@EH@%
%@AI@%belladona%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%NIGHTSHADE%@BO:          6a257f@%%@AE@% family. Native to Europe and now wild in the
U.S., the plant has reddish, bell-shaped flowers and shining black
berries. Extracts of the leaves and roots dilate the pupils of the eye
and were once so used by women-hence the name %@AI@%belladonna,%@AE@% meaning
"beautiful lady" in Italian. Belladonna has also been employed as a
poison, a sedative, and, in medieval times, a %@AU@%HALLUCINOGENIC DRUG%@BO:          3f570a@%%@AE@%. The
%@AU@%ALKALOID%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@% drug atropine, an extract of belladonna, is frequently used to
relax muscles and suppress glandular and mucous secretions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bellamy, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bellamy, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:BELLAMY         @%%@QR:Bellamy, Edward@% 1850-98, American author; b. Chicopee Falls, Mass. He%@EH@%
became famous with the influential %@AI@%Looking Backward, 2000-1887%@AE@% (1888), a
utopian romance of the future under state socialism. His other works
include short stories and the novels %@AI@%Miss Ludington's Sister%@AE@% (1884) and
%@AI@%Equality%@AE@% (1897), a sequel to %@AI@%Looking Backward.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bellay, Du%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bellay, Du%@AE@%:%@CR:BELLAY          @%%@QR:Bellay, Du@% see %@AU@%DU BELLAY%@BO:          2af28d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bellerophon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bellerophon%@AE@%%@CR:BELLEROPHON     @%%@QR:Bellerophon@%, hero in Greek mythology. Given a number of seemingly%@EH@%
impossible tasks by King Iobates, he performed them all. Most notable was
the killing of the monster Chimera, accomplished with the aid of the
winged horse %@AU@%PEGASUS%@BO:          7293f8@%%@AE@%. Grown proud, Bellerophon attempted to ride Pegasus
to Mt. %@AU@%OLYMPUS%@BO:          6dabd3@%%@AE@%, but was thrown, crippled, and blinded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bellini%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bellini%@AE@%%@CR:BELLINI1        @%%@QR:Bellini@%, illustrious family of Venetian painters of the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
%@AB@%Jacopo Bellini,%@AE@% c.1400-1470, was the father and teacher of Giovanni and
Gentile. Few of his works survive, but two of his notebooks dealing with
problems of perspective, landscapes, and antiquity are his most important
legacy. %@AB@%Gentile Bellini,%@AE@% 1429-1507, painted contemporary Venetian life.
After his visit to Constantinople in 1479, a distinct Oriental flavor
appeared in his paintings, including the portrait of Muhammad II
(National Gall., London). %@AB@%Giovanni Bellini,%@AE@% c.1430-1516, became the
teacher of %@AU@%TITIAN%@BO:          9614b9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GIORGIONE%@BO:          3a4da3@%%@AE@%. His works are characterized by serenity,
majesty, and luminous color. They include the altarpieces of the Frari
and San Zaccaria in Venice; %@AI@%St. Job%@AE@% (Acad., Venice); %@AI@%St. Francis in
%@AI@%Ecstasy%@AE@% (Frick Coll., N.Y.C.); and many mythological scenes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bellini, Vincenzo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bellini, Vincenzo%@AE@%,%@CR:BELLINI2        @%%@QR:Bellini, Vincenzo@% 1801-35, Italian opera composer. His most celebrated%@EH@%
works, %@AI@%La Sonnambula%@AE@% and %@AI@%Norma%@AE@% (both: 1831), exemplify the virtuosic bel
canto tradition of 18th-century vocal composition (see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%). His last
%@AU@%OPERA%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%I Puritani%@AE@% (1835), was influenced by the dramatic style of French
grand opera.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belloc, Hilaire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belloc, Hilaire%@AE@%,%@CR:BELLOC          @%%@QR:Belloc, Hilaire@% 1870-1953, English author; b. France. A Catholic%@EH@%
apologist, he wrote poetry, satire, and essays, including %@AI@%The Bad Child's
%@AI@%Book of Beasts%@AE@% (1896) and %@AI@%The Path to Rome%@AE@% (1902). With G.K. %@AU@%CHESTERTON%@BO:          1cae6c@%%@AE@%
he propounded distributionism, a medieval socialist philosophy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bellow, Saul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bellow, Saul%@AE@%,%@CR:BELLOW          @%%@QR:Bellow, Saul@% 1915-, American novelist; b. Canada. Moral in tone, his%@EH@%
novels are concerned with the individual in an indifferent society. They
include %@AI@%Herzog%@AE@% (1964), %@AI@%Mr. Sammler's Planet%@AE@% (1970), %@AI@%Humboldt's Gift%@AE@%
(1975; Pulitzer), and %@AI@%More Die of Heartbreak%@AE@% (1987). Bellow was awarded
the 1976 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bellows, George Wesley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bellows, George Wesley%@AE@%,%@CR:BELLOWS         @%%@QR:Bellows, George Wesley@% 1882-1925, American painter; b. Columbus, Ohio. A%@EH@%
student of Robert %@AU@%HENRI%@BO:          419f87@%%@AE@%, Bellows is known for his direct realism.
%@AI@%Forty-two Kids%@AE@% (Corcoran Gall., Wash., D.C.) and %@AI@%Stag at Sharkey's%@AE@% (Mus.
Art, Cleveland) are characteristic paintings. Bellows was also noted for
his lithographs (see %@AU@%LITHOGRAPHY%@BO:          55a7eb@%%@AE@%), e.g., %@AI@%Dempsey and Firpo.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belmonte, Juan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belmonte, Juan%@AE@%%@CR:BELMONTE        @%%@QR:Belmonte, Juan@%, 1892-1962, Spanish matador. Often called the greatest%@EH@%
matador of all time, he is said to have "invented" modern %@AU@%BULLFIGHTING%@BO:          1562e2@%%@AE@%
with his daring style. He retired in 1936 after a 24-year career.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belmopan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belmopan%@AE@%,%@CR:BELMOPAN        @%%@QR:Belmopan@% city (1986 est. pop. 3,500), E Belize, capital of Belize%@EH@%
(formerly British Honduras) since 1970. A new city, it was constructed on
the Belize R., 50 mi (80 km) inland from the former capital, the port
city of Belize, after that city's near destruction by a hurricane in
1961. The National Assembly Building's design is based on an ancient
Mayan motif.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belo Horizonte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belo Horizonte%@AE@%,%@CR:BELO.HORIZONTE  @%%@QR:Belo Horizonte@% city (1980 pop. 1,442,483), E Brazil, capital of Minas%@EH@%
Gerais state. It is a distribution and processing center for agricultural
goods and the gold, manganese, and precious stones mined in the state; a
banking center; and the hub of a burgeoning industrial complex, with
steel, automobile, and textile manufacturing. Brazil's first planned
metropolis (built 1895-97), laid out with spacious avenues and plazas, it
is a cultural center and a popular resort.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belorussia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belorussia%@AE@%%@CR:BELORUSSIA      @%%@QR:Belorussia@% or %@AB@%Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic,%@AE@% constituent republic%@EH@%
(1987 pop. 10,100,000), c.80,150 sq mi (207,600 sq km), W central
European USSR; capital: %@AU@%MINSK%@BO:          6142a9@%%@AE@%. It borders Poland (W); the Russian Soviet
Federated Socialist Republic (E); the Ukraine (S); and the Lithuanian and
Latvian republics (N). Peat and lumber are leading natural resources.
Crops include potatoes, flax, sugar beets, and grains. Industrial
products include machinery and chemicals. The majority of the people are
Belorussians; Russians and Ukrainians are among the minorities. Settled
by East Slavic tribes (5th-8th cent.), the region became part of %@AU@%KIEVAN
%@AU@%RUSSIA%@BO:          4f907b@%%@AE@% (12th cent.), of the grand duchy of Lithuania (14th cent.), and of
the Russian Empire (18th cent.). Belorussia was devastated by the
Russian-Polish wars (16th-18th cent.), the Napoleonic invasion (1812),
World War I (1914-18), and the Soviet-Polish war (1919-20), which ended
with W Belorussia ceded to Poland and the eastern part becoming the
Belorussian SSR. In 1939, W Belorussia was occupied by Soviet troops.
During the German occupation (1941-44), Belorussia's large Jewish
population (dating from the 14th cent.) was decimated. After 1945 most of
W Belorussia remained part of the Belorussian SSR. The republic has its
own UN seat. It is sometimes called White Russia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belshazzar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belshazzar%@AE@%%@CR:BELSHAZZAR      @%%@QR:Belshazzar@%, in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, the son of %@AU@%NEBUCHADNEZZAR%@BO:          67f311@%%@AE@% and the last king of%@EH@%
Babylon. At his feast, handwriting appeared on the wall that was
interpreted by %@AU@%DANIEL%@BO:          265357@%%@AE@% as a sign of doom. That night Babylon fell to
Cyrus. Dan. 5.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Belvedere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Belvedere%@AE@%,%@CR:BELVEDERE       @%%@QR:Belvedere@% court of the %@AU@%VATICAN%@BO:          9c0ccf@%%@AE@% connecting it to a villa built (1485-87)%@EH@%
for %@AU@%INNOCENT VIII%@BO:          48617f@%%@AE@%. It was designed (1503-4) by %@AU@%BRAMANTE%@BO:          134571@%%@AE@% for %@AU@%JULIUS II%@BO:          4da75a@%%@AE@%,
and was to include a number of buildings. It was only partially
completed. Now a museum, the Belvedere contains the %@AI@%Laocoon%@AE@% and the
%@AI@%Apollo Belvedere%@AE@% as well as other rare works of classical antiquity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bely, Andrei%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bely, Andrei%@AE@%%@CR:BELY            @%%@QR:Bely, Andrei@%, pseud. of %@AB@%Boris Nikolayevich Bugayev,%@AE@% 1880-1934, Russian%@EH@%
writer of the %@AU@%SYMBOLIST%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@% school. He attempted to fuse all the arts in the
poetic %@AI@%Symphonies%@AE@% (4 vol., 1901-8). His best prose is contained in the
novels %@AI@%The Silver Dove%@AE@% (1910), %@AI@%Petersburg%@AE@% (1912), and the experimental,
Joycean %@AI@%Kotik Letayev%@AE@% (1917).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bemis Heights, battle of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bemis Heights, battle of%@AE@%:%@CR:BEMIS.HEIGHTS   @%%@QR:Bemis Heights, battle of@% see %@AU@%SARATOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          847e59@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benares%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benares%@AE@%:%@CR:BENARES         @%%@QR:Benares@% see %@AU@%VARANASI%@BO:          9be7b4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benavente y Martinez, Jacinto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benavente y Martinez, Jacinto%@AE@%%@CR:BENAVENTINEZ    @%%@QR:Benavente y Martinez, Jacinto@%, 1866-1954, Spanish dramatist. Of his%@EH@%
sparkling social %@AU@%SATIRES%@BO:          84ce7e@%%@AE@%, the best known are %@AI@%Bonds of Interest%@AE@% (1907) and
%@AI@%The Passion Flower%@AE@% (1913). His plays introduced a more natural diction.
He received the 1922 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ben Bella, Ahmed%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ben Bella, Ahmed%@AE@%,%@CR:BEN.BELLA       @%%@QR:Ben Bella, Ahmed@% 1919-, Algerian prime minister (1962-65). A leader of%@EH@%
the Algerian nationalist movement, he headed Algeria's first government
after independence. In 1965 his government was toppled in a coup led by
%@AU@%BOUMEDIENNE%@BO:          12b227@%%@AE@%. He was imprisoned from 1965 until 1980.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benchley, Robert Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benchley, Robert Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:BENCHLEY        @%%@QR:Benchley, Robert Charles@% 1889-1945, American humorist; b. Worcester,%@EH@%
Mass. Drama critic for %@AI@%Life%@AE@% (1920-29) and the %@AI@%New Yorker%@AE@% (1929-40), he is
best remembered as the writer and star of short, satirical films, e.g.,
%@AI@%The Treasurer's Report%@AE@% (1928). His wry commentary appears in %@AI@%My Ten Years
%@AI@%in a Quandary%@AE@% (1936) and %@AI@%Benchley beside Himself%@AE@% (1943).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bends%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bends%@AE@%:%@CR:BENDS           @%%@QR:bends@% see %@AU@%DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS%@BO:          27432a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benedict, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benedict, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:BENEDICT1       @%%@QR:Benedict, Saint@% d. c.547, Italian monk, founder of the %@AU@%BENEDICTINES%@BO:           e5404@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
called Benedict of Nursia. He became a hermit and later founded the first
Benedictine monastery, at Monte Cassino. He devised the Rule of St.
Benedict, the chief rule of Western %@AU@%MONASTICISM%@BO:          62854c@%%@AE@%. Feast: July 11.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benedict XIII, antipope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benedict XIII, antipope%@AE@%:%@CR:BENEDICT.XIII   @%%@QR:Benedict XIII, antipope@% see %@AU@%LUNA, PEDRO DE%@BO:          57dad1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benedict XIV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benedict XIV%@AE@%,%@CR:BENEDICT.XIV    @%%@QR:Benedict XIV@% 1675-1758, pope (1740-58), an Italian named Prospero%@EH@%
Lambertini. Renowned for his learning, he protected Eastern Catholic
rites from Latinization. He denounced the cruelty in the disbanding of
the Indian settlements established by the %@AU@%JESUITS%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@% in Paraguay.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benedict XV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benedict XV%@AE@%,%@CR:BENEDICT.XV     @%%@QR:Benedict XV@% 1854-1922, pope (1914-22), an Italian named Giacomo della%@EH@%
Chiesa. In World War I he kept the Vatican neutral and worked strenuously
to restore peace. He founded the Vatican service for prisoners of war.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benedict, Ruth Fulton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benedict, Ruth Fulton%@AE@%,%@CR:BENEDICT2       @%%@QR:Benedict, Ruth Fulton@% 1887-1948, American anthropologist; b. N.Y.C. A%@EH@%
student and colleague of Franz %@AU@%BOAS%@BO:          1134a2@%%@AE@% at Columbia Univ., she did field work
among the American Indians, and studied contemporary European and Asian
cultures. Stressing the role of %@AU@%CULTURE%@BO:          254507@%%@AE@% in personality formation, her
books attacked racism and ethnocentrism. Among her writings are %@AI@%Patterns
%@AI@%of Culture%@AE@% (1934), %@AI@%Race%@AE@% (rev. ed. 1943), and %@AI@%The Chrysanthemum and the
%@AI@%Sword%@AE@% (1946).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benedictines%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benedictines%@AE@%,%@CR:BENEDICTINES    @%%@QR:Benedictines@% monks of the Roman Catholic Church following the rule of%@EH@%
St. %@AU@%BENEDICT%@BO:           e4b6f@%%@AE@% [Lat. abbr.,=O.S.B.]. Unlike earlier groups, they stress
moderation rather than austerity. Their waking hours are spent in worship
and work, chiefly manual labor. The first Benedictine abbey was at Monte
Cassino (founded c.529), Italy. Benedictines such as St. %@AU@%GREGORY I%@BO:          3d76c4@%%@AE@%, St.
%@AU@%AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY%@BO:           9c776@%%@AE@%, and St. %@AU@%BONIFACE%@BO:          11d586@%%@AE@% spread the order's influence
across Europe. The Cluniac and the Cistercian orders resulted from 10th-
and 11th-cent. reforms among the Benedictines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benelux Economic Union%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benelux Economic Union%@AE@%,%@CR:BENELUXC.UNION  @%%@QR:Benelux Economic Union@% economic treaty entered into (1958) by Belgium,%@EH@%
Luxembourg, and the Netherlands to promote economic integration among
themselves through free movement of workers, capital, goods, and
services.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benes, Eduard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benes, Eduard%@AE@%%@CR:BENES           @%%@QR:Benes, Eduard@%, 1884-1948, Czechoslovakian president (1935-38, 1946-48).%@EH@%
He was a follower of T.G. %@AU@%MASARYK%@BO:          5ca3d7@%%@AE@% and succeeded him as president in 1935.
A liberal and a nationalist, he resigned after the %@AU@%MUNICH PACT%@BO:          652305@%%@AE@%. After
World War II he again headed the nation, but the Communist coup of 1948
brought his presidency to an end.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benet, Stephen Vincent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benet, Stephen Vincent%@AE@%,%@CR:BENET           @%%@QR:Benet, Stephen Vincent@% 1898-70, American writer; b. Bethlehem, Pa. He is%@EH@%
known for his vivid literary treatments of American folklore and history.
Benet is famous for %@AI@%John Brown's Body%@AE@% (1928; Pulitzer), a long narrative
ballad of the Civil War, several volumes of verse, including %@AI@%Heaven and
%@AI@%Earth%@AE@% (1920) and %@AI@%The Burning City%@AE@% (1936), and masterful short stories,
particularly "The Devil and Daniel Webster."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ben Ezra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ben Ezra%@AE@%:%@CR:BEN.EZRA        @%%@QR:Ben Ezra@% see %@AU@%IBN EZRA, ABRAHAM BEN MEIR%@BO:          4646e7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bengal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bengal%@AE@%,%@CR:BENGAL1         @%%@QR:Bengal@% region, 77,442 sq mi (200,575 sq km), E India and Bangladesh, on%@EH@%
the Bay of Bengal. Its inland mountains slope to the fertile
%@AU@%GANGES%@BO:          37d39d@%%@AE@%-%@AU@%BRAHMAPUTRA%@BO:          132a38@%%@AE@% alluvial plains and delta. The heavy monsoon rains and
warm climate make possible two harvests a year. From the empire of %@AU@%ASOKA%@BO:           8b9e3@%%@AE@%
(3d cent. BC) Bengal passed to the Buddhist Pala kings, the Hindu Sena
dynasty, and Muslims of Turkic descent. It was in %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% hands when
Portuguese and British traders arrived (16th-17th cent.). The latter,
under Robert %@AU@%CLIVE%@BO:          1f72e8@%%@AE@%, defeated the Muslims in 1757 and formed the Bengal
presidency. When India became independent in 1947, %@AB@%West Bengal%@AE@% (1981 pop.
54,580,647), 33,928 sq mi (87,874 sq km), primarily Hindu, was created as
a state in India, with %@AU@%CALCUTTA%@BO:          17019c@%%@AE@% as its capital. It has jute mills, steel
plants, chemical industries, and mineral reserves. %@AB@%East Bengal,%@AE@%
overwhelmingly Muslim, became East Pakistan in 1947 and gained
independence as %@AU@%BANGLADESH%@BO:           bc3f7@%%@AE@% in 1971.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bengal, Bay of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bengal, Bay of%@AE@%,%@CR:BENGAL2         @%%@QR:Bengal, Bay of@% arm of the %@AU@%INDIAN OCEAN%@BO:          47934f@%%@AE@%, off E India and W Burma,%@EH@%
separated from the Andaman Sea by the Andaman and Nicobar islands. It is
some 1,300 mi (2,090 km) long and 1,000 mi (1,610 km) wide, and is
generally shallow. Coastal areas are subject to heavy monsoon rains and
destructive cyclones. %@AU@%MADRAS%@BO:          5942aa@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CALCUTTA%@BO:          17019c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CHITTAGONG%@BO:          1da2c0@%%@AE@% are the chief
ports.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bengali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bengali%@AE@%,%@CR:BENGALI         @%%@QR:Bengali@% language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bengasi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bengasi%@AE@%%@CR:BENGASI         @%%@QR:Bengasi@% or %@AB@%Benghazi,%@AE@%city (1984 pop. 485,386), a Mediterranean seaport, NE%@EH@%
Libya. It is an administrative and commercial center. Manufactures
include processed food, textiles, and cement. Bengasi was cocapital (with
%@AU@%TRIPOLI%@BO:          97e66d@%%@AE@%) of Libya (1951-72). The site of Hesperides, a Greek colony (7th
cent. BC), the city was conquered by the Romans (1st cent. BC), Vandals
(5th cent. AD), Arabs (7th cent.), and Ottoman Turks (mid-16th cent.).
Italy held Bengasi from 1911 until it fell (1942) to the British during
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ben-Gurion, David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ben-Gurion, David%@AE@%%@CR:BENGURION       @%%@QR:Ben-Gurion, David@%, 1886-1973, Israeli statesman and 1st prime minister%@EH@%
(1949-53, 1955-63); b. Poland as David Grun. He settled in Palestine in
1906, devoted his life to %@AU@%ZIONISM%@BO:          a5521a@%%@AE@%, and was a founder of the Mapai (later
Labor) party. During the struggle (1947-48) for independence he headed
Israel's defense efforts, and once independence was achieved he became
prime minister.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benin%@AE@%%@CR:BENIN1          @%%@QR:Benin@%, former kingdom, situated in present-day SW Nigeria. Ruled by the%@EH@%
%@AI@%oba%@AE@% (to whose family human sacrifices were made) and by a sophisticated
bureaucracy, the black African state flourished (14th-17th cent.). Benin
sold slaves as well as ivory, pepper, and cloth to Europeans. After a
period of decline, it revived (19th cent.) with a trade in palm products.
The modern Nigerian city of Benin (1983 est. pop. 165,900) served as the
capital and was conquered and burned by the British in 1898. Iron work,
carved ivory, and bronze busts made in Benin rank with the finest art of
Africa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benin%@AE@%,%@CR:BENIN2          @%%@QR:Benin@% officially People's Republic of Benin, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
4,150,000), 43,483 sq mi (112,622 sq km), W Africa, formerly Dahomey,
bordered by Togo (W), Burkina Faso and Niger (N), Nigeria (E), and the
Bight of Benin, an arm of the Gulf of Guinea (S). %@AU@%PORTO-NOVO%@BO:          7869e1@%%@AE@% is the
capital; %@AU@%COTONOU%@BO:          23cf1f@%%@AE@% is the largest city and chief port. There are four major
geographical zones: a narrow, lagoon-fringed coastal area in the south; a
flat, fertile area crossed by the wide Lama marsh further north; forested
mountains in the northwest; and savanna-covered highlands in the
northeast. Benin's economy is largely agricultural, with most workers
engaged in subsistence farming. Chief crops are cassava, yams, and corn;
palm oil is a major export. Although there are rich mineral deposits,
notably of offshore petroleum, chromite, and iron ore, only limestone is
extracted on a large scale. Manufacturing accounts for less than 10% of
total output. The population is made up of black Africans of four main
linguistic groups-the Ewe, the Yoruba, the Voltaic, and the Fulani.
French is the official language. Most of the people follow traditional
religions, but there are large Roman Catholic and Muslim minorities.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% According to oral tradition, southern Dahomey (now Benin) was
settled (12th or 13th cent.) by a group of Ewe-speaking people called the
Aja. The kingdom they founded, Great Ardra, reached its height in the
16th and early 17th cent. The Aja gradually mixed with the local people
to form the Fon, or Dahomey, ethnic group. By the late 17th cent. the
Dahomey were raiding their neighbors for slaves to be sold to European
traders, a practice that continued until the late 19th cent. Dahomey came
under French influence in 1851 and was made part of %@AU@%FRENCH WEST AFRICA%@BO:          363f73@%%@AE@% in
1899. Under the French, a port was constructed at Cotonou, railroads were
built, and the output of palm products increased. In 1958 Dahomey became
an autonomous state within the %@AU@%FRENCH COMMUNITY%@BO:          360495@%%@AE@%; it gained full
independence in 1960. Independent Dahomey has been plagued by government
instability caused by economic insufficiency, ethnic rivalries, and
social unrest. Beginning in 1963 a series of military coups produced
several short-lived regimes. A three-man presidential council was
established in 1970 but overthrown by the army, led by Maj. Mathieu
Kerekou, in 1972. The country was renamed the People's Republic of Benin
in 1975. A new constitution was promulgated, providing for a national
revolutionary assembly, but Benin remained essentially a one-party
military dictatorship under the leadership of Kerekou, who was elected
president in 1980.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benjamin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benjamin%@AE@%,%@CR:BENJAMIN        @%%@QR:Benjamin@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, youngest son of %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RACHEL%@BO:          7bffbe@%%@AE@%, ancestor of one%@EH@%
of the 12 tribes of Israel (See %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%). He was the favorite
of his family. The name survived in the High Gate of Benjamin of the
Temple at Jerusalem. %@AU@%SAUL%@BO:          84f091@%%@AE@% was the most noted son of the House of
Benjamin. Gen. 35.18;42-46.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benn, Anthony Wedgwood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benn, Anthony Wedgwood%@AE@%,%@CR:BENN1           @%%@QR:Benn, Anthony Wedgwood@% 1925-, British politician. The Peerage Act (1963)%@EH@%
enabled him to renounce his title, Viscount Stansgate, and retain his
Labour seat in the House of Commons. He held several cabinet posts under
Harold %@AU@%WILSON%@BO:          a210e5@%%@AE@%, including those of minister of technology (1966-70) and
secretary for energy (1975-79), a post he also held under James
%@AU@%CALLAGHAN%@BO:          174d70@%%@AE@%. He is the leader of the Labour party's radical left wing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bennett, Arnold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bennett, Arnold%@AE@%,%@CR:BENNETT1        @%%@QR:Bennett, Arnold@% 1867-1931, English novelist and dramatist, noted for%@EH@%
realistic novels about the industrial Midlands. Influenced by %@AU@%ZOLA'S%@BO:          a56907@%%@AE@%
%@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@%, Bennett depicted regional life in %@AI@%The Old Wives' Tale%@AE@% (1908)
and %@AI@%These Twain%@AE@% (1916). His plays include %@AI@%Mile stones%@AE@% (1912, with Edward
Knoblock).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bennett, James Gordon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bennett, James Gordon%@AE@%,%@CR:BENNETT2        @%%@QR:Bennett, James Gordon@% 1795-1872, American newspaper proprietor; b.%@EH@%
Scotland. His New York %@AI@%Herald,%@AE@% started in 1835 as a penny paper of four
four-column pages, made many innovations in American
journalism-editorials critical of all political parties; new fields of
news, notably Wall Street finance; use of European correspondents (1838);
extensive use of the %@AU@%TELEGRAPH%@BO:          937ac1@%%@AE@%; and illustrations for news articles. It
gained an excellent reputation for accurate reporting, especially in the
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AB@%James Gordon Bennett,%@AE@% 1841-1918, b. N.Y.C., took over
management of the %@AI@%Herald%@AE@% in 1867 and maintained its reputation. He
financed (1869-71) Henry M. %@AU@%STANLEY'S%@BO:          8e336f@%%@AE@% expedition to find David
%@AU@%LIVINGSTONE%@BO:          55dafe@%%@AE@% in Africa and also supported (1879-81) the ill-fated
expedition of the explorer George Washington De Long to the Arctic. In
addition he established London and Paris daily editions of the %@AI@%Herald%@AE@% and
helped organize (1883) the Commercial Cable Company to handle European
dispatches.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bennett, Richard Bedford%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bennett, Richard Bedford%@AE@%,%@CR:BENNETT3        @%%@QR:Bennett, Richard Bedford@% 1870-1947, Canadian prime minister (1930-35).%@EH@%
As Conservative leader during the %@AU@%GREAT DEPRESSION%@BO:          3cd5ed@%%@AE@%, he signed (1932)
preferential trade agreements with Britain and the dominions, and
proposed (1934) reform social legislation at home. In 1941 he was created
a viscount.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benny, Jack%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benny, Jack%@AE@%,%@CR:BENNY           @%%@QR:Benny, Jack@% 1894-1974, American comedian; b. Waukegan, Ill., as Benjamin%@EH@%
Kubelsky. His shows on radio (1932-55) and television (1950-65) made
famous his miserliness, reproachful silences, and violin. His films
include %@AI@%To Be or Not to Be%@AE@% (1942).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benozzo Gozzoli%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benozzo Gozzoli%@AE@%:%@CR:BENOZZO.GOZZOLI @%%@QR:Benozzo Gozzoli@% see %@AU@%GOZZOLI, BENOZZO%@BO:          3bf551@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bent, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bent, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:BENT            @%%@QR:Bent, Charles@% 1799-1847, American fur trader; b. Charleston, Va. He%@EH@%
helped build a prominent trading firm in the Southwest and was chosen
governor of New Mexico after the U.S. occupation in the Mexican War. His
brother %@AB@%William Bent,%@AE@% 1809-69, managed %@AU@%BENT'S FORT%@BO:           e9858@%%@AE@%, the company's famous
trading post.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bentham, Jeremy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bentham, Jeremy%@AE@%,%@CR:BENTHAM         @%%@QR:Bentham, Jeremy@% 1748-1832, English philosopher, jurist, political%@EH@%
theorist; founder of %@AU@%UTILITARIANISM%@BO:          9b46d8@%%@AE@%. Educated as a lawyer, Bentham
devoted himself to the scientific analysis of morals and law. His
%@AI@%Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation%@AE@% (1789) held that
the greatest happiness of the greatest number should govern our judgment
of every institution and action. The 19th-cent. reforms of criminal law,
of judicial organization, and of the parliamentary electorate owe much to
Bentham's active work in English legislative reform, and his thought
strongly influenced that of John Stuart %@AU@%MILL%@BO:          60bbdb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bentley, Eric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bentley, Eric%@AE@%,%@CR:BENTLEY1        @%%@QR:Bentley, Eric@% 1916-, American critic, editor, and translator; b.%@EH@%
England. Particularly noted for his drama criticism, he is the author of
such books as %@AI@%The Playwright as Thinker%@AE@% (1946) and %@AI@%What Is Theatre?%@AE@%
(1956). Bentley is also known for his translations of %@AU@%BRECHT%@BO:          139be0@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%PIRANDELLO%@BO:          760084@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bentley, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bentley, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:BENTLEY2        @%%@QR:Bentley, Richard@% 1662-1742, English critic and philologist, considered%@EH@%
the greatest of English classical scholars. His exposure of the 4th-cent.
forgery %@AI@%The Epistles of Phalaris%@AE@% is his most celebrated work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benton, Thomas Hart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benton, Thomas Hart%@AE@%,%@CR:BENTON1         @%%@QR:Benton, Thomas Hart@% 1782-1858, U.S. statesman; b. Hillsboro, N.C. As a%@EH@%
Democratic senator (1821-51) from Missouri, he supported currency
measures to benefit the common man, and drew up Pres. %@AU@%JACKSON'S%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% Specie
Circular (1836). Benton favored Western development and opposed the
extension of slavery. He served as U.S. representative (1853-55).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benton, Thomas Hart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benton, Thomas Hart%@AE@%,%@CR:BENTON2         @%%@QR:Benton, Thomas Hart@% 1889-1975, American painter; b. Neosho, Mo.;%@EH@%
grandnephew of Sen. Thomas Hart %@AU@%BENTON%@BO:           e9277@%%@AE@%. The best-known American muralist
of the 1930s and early 40s, he won fame for such murals as those at the
New School for Social Research (N.Y.C.). Benton is noted for his
dramatization of American themes, as in %@AI@%July Hay%@AE@% (1943; Metropolitan
Mus.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bentsen, Lloyd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bentsen, Lloyd%@AE@%,%@CR:BENTSEN         @%%@QR:Bentsen, Lloyd@% 1921-, U.S. politician, b. Mission, Tex. He was in the%@EH@%
Army Air Corps during World War II, served in the House of
Representatives (1949-55), started a successful insurance business, and
was elected (1970) to the U.S. Senate. In 1988, he ran unsuccessfully for
vice president on the Democratic ticket.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bent's Fort%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bent's Fort%@AE@%,%@CR:BENTS.FORT      @%%@QR:Bent's Fort@% noted American trading post on the Arkansas R., in%@EH@%
present-day Colorado. The trading company of Charles %@AU@%BENT%@BO:           e89f8@%%@AE@% and Ceran St.
Vrain completed the fort in 1833. On a branch of the %@AU@%SANTA FE TRAIL%@BO:          844358@%%@AE@%, it
was used by many famous %@AU@%MOUNTAIN MEN%@BO:          6498e5@%%@AE@% and by the U.S. Army during the
%@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%. By 1852 it was abandoned; its manager, William %@AU@%BENT%@BO:           e89f8@%%@AE@%, erected
Bent's New Fort downstream in 1853.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ben Yehudah, Eliezer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ben Yehudah, Eliezer%@AE@%,%@CR:BEN.YEHUDAH     @%%@QR:Ben Yehudah, Eliezer@% 1858-1922, Jewish scholar; b. Lithuania. He settled%@EH@%
in Palestine in 1881. A leader in the revival of Hebrew as the national
language, he compiled the %@AI@%Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew%@AE@% (16
vol.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Benz, Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Benz, Karl%@AE@%,%@CR:BENZ            @%%@QR:Benz, Karl@% 1844-1929, German engineer, credited with building (1885) the%@EH@%
first %@AU@%AUTOMOBILE%@BO:           a3f3e@%%@AE@% powered by an %@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@%. His car had
three wheels, an electric ignition, and differential gears. In 1926,
Benz's company merged with that of Gustave %@AU@%DAIMLER%@BO:          25fdb2@%%@AE@% and became the
manufacturer of the Mercedes-Benz automobile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%benzene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%benzene%@AE@%%@CR:BENZENE         @%%@QR:benzene@% (C%@AH@%6%@AE@%H%@AH@%6%@AE@%), colorless, flammable toxic liquid with a pleasant%@EH@%
aromatic odor. A %@AU@%HYDROCARBON%@BO:          45e32c@%%@AE@%, benzene is the parent substance of the
%@AU@%AROMATIC COMPOUNDS%@BO:           82269@%%@AE@%. It consists of an unusually stable hexagonal ring of
six carbon atoms, each of which is attached to a hydrogen atom.
Derivative compounds include toluene, phenol, and aniline. Obtained from
coal tar and petroleum, benzene and its derivatives are used in making
dyes, drugs, and plastics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ben-Zvi, Yizhak%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ben-Zvi, Yizhak%@AE@%%@CR:BENZVI          @%%@QR:Ben-Zvi, Yizhak@%, 1884-1963, president of %@AU@%ISRAEL%@BO:          4a34c1@%%@AE@% (1952-63); b. Russia as%@EH@%
Issac Shimshelevitz. He settled in Palestine in 1907 and was one of the
creators of the Jewish state. In 1952 he succeeded %@AU@%WEIZMANN%@BO:          a05818@%%@AE@% as president.
He was an historian and a scholar in the field of Jewish ethnology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beowulf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beowulf%@AE@%%@CR:BEOWULF         @%%@QR:Beowulf@%, oldest English epic, probably composed in the early 8th cent. by%@EH@%
a Northumbrian bard, and drawn from Scandinavian history and folk
sources. It recounts Beowulf's struggle with the water monster Grendel
and Grendel's mother; the hero's victory in old age over a dragon; and
his death and funeral. The poem, in alliterative verse, fuses Christian
elements with a picture of old Germanic life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berbers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berbers%@AE@%,%@CR:BERBERS         @%%@QR:Berbers@% aboriginal Caucasoid peoples of N Africa who form a large part%@EH@%
of the populations of Libya, Algeria, and Morocco. Except for the nomadic
Tuareg, they are small farmers living in loosely joined tribal villages.
Local industries are mining, pottery, weaving, and embroidery. They are
%@AU@%SUNNI%@BO:          90c3d3@%%@AE@% Muslims, speaking languages of the Hamitic group. Despite a history
of conquests, their culture dates back before 2400 BC In classical times
they formed such states as %@AU@%MAURETANIA%@BO:          5d5ef8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NUMIDIA%@BO:          6c4fa7@%%@AE@%. Most were Christians
until the 7th-cent. Arab conquest. In the 9th cent. they supported the
%@AU@%FATIMID%@BO:          31ffbf@%%@AE@% dynasty; when the Fatimids left N Africa, fighting among the
Berbers reduced the region to anarchy until the %@AU@%ALMORAVIDS%@BO:           4060d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ALMOHADS%@BO:           401f5@%%@AE@%
imposed order. The plains Berbers were eventually absorbed by the Arabs;
the mountain Berbers retained their warlike traditions, fiercely
resisting French and Spanish occupation of N Africa and in the 1960s
helping to drive the French from %@AU@%ALGERIA%@BO:           3a47c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berenson, Bernard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berenson, Bernard%@AE@%,%@CR:BERENSON        @%%@QR:Berenson, Bernard@% 1865-1959, American art critic and connoisseur; b.%@EH@%
Lithuania. A conversationalist, wit, and arbiter of taste, Berenson
selected work for many art collectors, much of it now in museums, e.g.,
the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. Many of his judgments in art
history, made in his early books, have been criticized by later scholars.
His works include %@AI@%Venetian Painters of the Renaissance%@AE@% (1894) and %@AI@%Rumor
%@AI@%and Reflection%@AE@% (1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berg, Alban%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berg, Alban%@AE@%%@CR:BERG            @%%@QR:Berg, Alban@%, 1885-1935, Austrian composer. A pupil and close friend of%@EH@%
Arnold %@AU@%SCHOENBERG%@BO:          85937e@%%@AE@%, he adopted %@AU@%ATONALITY%@BO:           99916@%%@AE@% and later combined the 12-tone
system (see %@AU@%TWELVE-TONE MUSIC%@BO:          992037@%%@AE@%) with the lyric and dramatic qualities of
the Viennese romantic tradition. His masterpiece, the opera %@AI@%Wozzeck%@AE@%
(based on the play by %@AU@%BUCHNER%@BO:          14f437@%%@AE@%, 1925) aroused protest, but has since been
acclaimed as a major 20th-century work. His unfinished opera %@AI@%Lulu%@AE@% (based
on two plays by %@AU@%WEDEKIND%@BO:          a02410@%%@AE@%) adhered more strictly to the 12-tone principle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bergen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bergen%@AE@%,%@CR:BERGEN          @%%@QR:Bergen@% city (1987 pop. 208,809), SW Norway. On North Sea inlets, it is a%@EH@%
major shipping and shipbuilding center. Founded c.1070 by %@AU@%OLAF III%@BO:          6d5b90@%%@AE@%, it
was medieval Norway's largest city and a royal residence. From c.1350 to
1560 the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% imposed unpopular rule on the city. Bergen was
Norway's foremost city until the rise of %@AU@%OSLO%@BO:          6f2e6d@%%@AE@% in the 19th cent.
Impressive monuments of its medieval past include Haakon's Hall (1261;
largely rebuilt after World War II) and several churches.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berger, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berger, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BERGER1         @%%@QR:Berger, Thomas@% 1924-, American novelist; b. Cincinnati. He writes comic%@EH@%
novels about the chasm between the American dream and middle-class
reality. They include %@AI@%Crazy in Berlin%@AE@% (1958), %@AI@%Reinhart in Love%@AE@% (1962),
and %@AI@%Reinhart's Women%@AE@% (1981), %@AI@%Little Big Man%@AE@% (1963); and %@AI@%Nowhere%@AE@% (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berger, Victor Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berger, Victor Louis%@AE@%,%@CR:BERGER2         @%%@QR:Berger, Victor Louis@% 1860-1929, U.S. socialist leader; b.%@EH@%
Austria-Hungary. A Milwaukee journalist, Berger was (1911-13) the first
socialist member of Congress. He was reelected (1918, 1919), but Congress
excluded him for sedition, for which he was sentenced to a 20-year prison
term. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed (1921) that decision, and he
returned (1923-29) to Congress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bergman, Ingmar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bergman, Ingmar%@AE@%,%@CR:BERGMAN1        @%%@QR:Bergman, Ingmar@% 1918-, Swedish film director. His films, often treating%@EH@%
man's search for God, are usually studies of human loneliness. They
include %@AI@%The Seventh Seal%@AE@% (1956), %@AI@%The Silence%@AE@% (1963), %@AI@%Cries and%@AE@% Whispers
(1972), %@AI@%Autumn Sonata%@AE@% (1978), and %@AI@%Fanny and Alexander%@AE@% (1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bergman, Ingrid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bergman, Ingrid%@AE@%,%@CR:BERGMAN2        @%%@QR:Bergman, Ingrid@% 1915-82, Swedish film actress. A radiant, gifted%@EH@%
actress, she made such films as %@AI@%Casablanca%@AE@% (1942), %@AI@%For Whom the Bell
%@AI@%Tolls%@AE@% (1943), %@AI@%Notorious%@AE@% (1946), %@AI@%Anastasia%@AE@% (1956; Academy Award), and
%@AI@%Autumn Sonata%@AE@% (1978).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bergson, Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bergson, Henri%@AE@%,%@CR:BERGSON         @%%@QR:Bergson, Henri@% 1859-1941, French philosopher. He became a professor at%@EH@%
the College de France in 1900. Bergson's dualistic philosophy holds that
the world contains two opposing tendencies, the life force and the
resistance of matter against that force. The individual knows matter
through intellect but through intuition perceives the life force and the
reality of time, which is not a unit of measurement but duration in terms
of life experience. Bergson was awarded the 1927 Nobel Prize in
literature. Among his works are %@AI@%Time and Free Will%@AE@% (1889) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Creative Mind%@AE@% (1934).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich%@AE@%,%@CR:BERIA           @%%@QR:Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich@% 1899-1953, Soviet leader. He became Communist%@EH@%
party secretary in Georgia and the Transcaucasus in 1931, head of the
Soviet secret police (NKVD) in 1938, and a member of the politburo in
1946. In the power struggle following the death of Joseph %@AU@%STALIN%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@% he was
executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beriberi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beriberi%@AE@%,%@CR:BERIBERI        @%%@QR:beriberi@% disease caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B%@AH@%1%@AE@%),%@EH@%
resulting in neurological and gastrointestinal disturbances.  %@AU@%VITAMIN%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bering, Vitus Jonassen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bering, Vitus Jonassen%@AE@%%@CR:BERING          @%%@QR:Bering, Vitus Jonassen@%, 1681-1741, Danish explorer in Russian employ. He%@EH@%
explored the far northeast of %@AU@%SIBERIA%@BO:          88b589@%%@AE@% for %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@%. In 1728 he sailed
through the %@AU@%BERING STRAIT%@BO:           ec491@%%@AE@%. In 1741 Bering landed a party on the Alaskan
coast. The expedition was later wrecked on Bering Island, where he died.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bering Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bering Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:BERING.SEA      @%%@QR:Bering Sea@% c.878,000 sq mi (2,274,000 sq km), northern arm of the%@EH@%
Pacific Ocean, screened from the Pacific proper by the %@AU@%ALEUTIAN ISLANDS%@BO:           33e77@%%@AE@%.
It is usually frozen from October to June. Its migratory seal herd,
threatened with extinction at the time of the %@AB@%Bering Sea Fur-Seal
%@AB@%Controversy%@AE@% (1886), has gradually been rebuilt following an international
agreement (1911) regulating open-ocean sealing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bering Strait%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bering Strait%@AE@%,%@CR:BERING.STRAIT   @%%@QR:Bering Strait@% c.55 mi (90 km) wide, connecting the Arctic Ocean and the%@EH@%
Bering Sea and separating Siberia and Alaska. The Diomede Islands are in
the strait, which is usually frozen from October to June.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berio, Luciano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berio, Luciano%@AE@%,%@CR:BERIO           @%%@QR:Berio, Luciano@% 1925-, Italian composer. He was introduced to %@AU@%SERIAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%MUSIC%@BO:          8723fc@%%@AE@% by Luigi %@AU@%DALLAPICCOLA%@BO:          2618ff@%%@AE@% in 1952 and composed %@AU@%ELECTRONIC MUSIC%@BO:          2d9a5c@%%@AE@% from
1954. His works include a series of %@AI@%Sequences%@AE@% (1957-1975), each for a
different instrument; %@AI@%Sinfonia%@AE@% (1968) and %@AI@%Choro%@AE@% (1976), for orchestra and
voices.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berkeley, Busby%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berkeley, Busby%@AE@%,%@CR:BERKELEY1       @%%@QR:Berkeley, Busby@% 1895-1975, American film director; b. Los Angeles as%@EH@%
William Busby Enos. In such musicals as %@AI@%42nd Street%@AE@% (1933), %@AI@%Footlight
%@AI@%Parade%@AE@% (1933), and %@AI@%The Gang's All Here%@AE@% (1942), directing either the dance
sequences or the entire production, he created a striking, often surreal
visual style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berkeley, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berkeley, George%@AE@%%@CR:BERKELEY2       @%%@QR:Berkeley, George@%, 1685-1753, Anglo-Irish philosopher and clergyman; b.%@EH@%
Ireland. Going beyond the teachings of John %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@%, Berkeley's subjective
%@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@% holds that there is no existence of matter independent of
perception; the observing mind of God makes possible the continued
apparent existence of material objects. Among his more important works
are his %@AI@%Essay towards a New Theory of Vision%@AE@% (1709), %@AI@%A Treatise
%@AI@%Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge%@AE@% (1710), and %@AI@%Three Dialogues
%@AI@%between Hylas and Philonous%@AE@% (1713).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berkeley, Sir William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berkeley, Sir William%@AE@%,%@CR:BERKELEY3       @%%@QR:Berkeley, Sir William@% 1606-77, British colonial governor of Virginia%@EH@%
(1642-52, 1660-77). Poor frontier defense and favoritism to his friends
in his second term led to the rebellion (1676) of Nathaniel %@AU@%BACON%@BO:           ad514@%%@AE@%, which
he ruthlessly suppressed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berkeley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berkeley%@AE@%,%@CR:BERKELEY4       @%%@QR:Berkeley@% city (1986 est. pop. 104,110), W Calif., on the eastern shore%@EH@%
of San Francisco Bay; inc. 1878. The city is the site of the main campus
of the Univ. of California. Manufactures include pharmaceuticals,
chemicals, and metal and other products.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%berkelium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%berkelium%@AE@%%@CR:BERKELIUM       @%%@QR:berkelium@% (Bk), synthetic radioactive element, discovered in 1949 by%@EH@%
Glenn %@AU@%SEABORG%@BO:          8642d4@%%@AE@%, S.G. Thompson, and Albert Ghiorso by alpha-particle
bombardment of americium-241. It is in the %@AU@%ACTINIDE SERIES%@BO:            ddd8@%%@AE@%; nine isotopes
exist. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berkman, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berkman, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:BERKMAN         @%%@QR:Berkman, Alexander@% 1870?-1936, U.S. anarchist; b. Russia. He emigrated%@EH@%
to the U.S. c.1887 and attempted (1892) to kill industrialist H.C. %@AU@%FRICK%@BO:          365d82@%%@AE@%.
He was imprisoned for 14 years. Deported (1919) to Russia with Emma
%@AU@%GOLDMAN%@BO:          3b3b27@%%@AE@% for obstructing the draft, he became disillusioned with the
Bolsheviks, left Russia, and later committed suicide in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berkshire Festival%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berkshire Festival%@AE@%:%@CR:BERKSHIVAL      @%%@QR:Berkshire Festival@% see %@AU@%MUSIC FESTIVAL%@BO:          657e38@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berle, Milton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berle, Milton%@AE@%,%@CR:BERLE           @%%@QR:Berle, Milton@% 1908-, American entertainer; b. N.Y.C. as Milton%@EH@%
Berlinger. His success came with television, where his comedy routines
had such broad appeal that his show is credited with contributing to the
growing popularity of the medium. His extremely successful "Texaco Star
Theater" (1948-54) earned him the nickname "Mr. Television."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berlin, Irving%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berlin, Irving%@AE@%,%@CR:BERLIN1         @%%@QR:Berlin, Irving@% 1888-, American songwriter; b. Russia as Irving Baline.%@EH@%
Of nearly 1,000 songs, "Alexander's Ragtime Band" (1911) was his first
big hit. He wrote for Broadway reviews, musicals, and film. "God Bless
America" is perhaps his best-known song.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berlin, Sir Isaiah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berlin, Sir Isaiah%@AE@%,%@CR:BERLIN2         @%%@QR:Berlin, Sir Isaiah@% 1909-, English political scientist; b. Latvia. He was%@EH@%
a professor of social and political theory at Oxford Univ. (1957-67). His
writings include %@AI@%The Hedgehog and the Fox%@AE@% (1953)-an exploration of
%@AU@%TOLSTOY'S%@BO:          967364@%%@AE@% view of irresistible historical forces-and books on %@AU@%MARXISM%@BO:          5c61b3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berlin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berlin%@AE@%,%@CR:BERLIN3         @%%@QR:Berlin@% city, former capital of Germany and Prussia, located within the%@EH@%
German Democratic Republic (East Germany), on the Spree and Havel rivers.
In 1945 it was divided into British, American, and French occupation
zones (now West Berlin) and a Soviet sector (now East Berlin). Formed
from two villages chartered in the 13th cent., Berlin was a leading
member of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% and became prominent as a commercial,
cultural, and communications center of Central Europe. It was the capital
of the German Empire after 1871 and of the Weimar Republic (see %@AU@%GERMANY%@BO:          398bcc@%%@AE@%)
after %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% it was badly damaged by Allied bombing
and a Soviet artillery attack. The status of divided Berlin became a
major %@AU@%COLD WAR%@BO:          202276@%%@AE@% issue, and in 1948-49 the Western powers carried out a
large-scale airlift to supply West Berlin during a Soviet land and water
blockade. In 1949 East Berlin wias made the capital of East Germany; in
1950 West Berlin was established as a state within, and the de jure
capital of, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), with %@AU@%BONN%@BO:          11e424@%%@AE@% as
the de facto capital. In Aug. 1961 East German authorities erected a
29-mi (47-km) wall along the line of partition to halt the exodus of
refugees to the West. Accords between the two Germanies were finally
reached in 1972. %@AB@%West Berlin%@AE@% (1986 est. pop. 1,868,700), over 100 mi (161
km) inside East Germany, has such industries as electrical equipment,
clothing, and tourism. Its cultural institutions include the Berlin
Philharmonic and the gallery of the Charlottenberg Palace, with its many
Rembrandts. %@AB@%East Berlin%@AE@% (1986 pop. 1,223,309), slower to recover from the
war, has electrical, chemical, and other industries. Among its museums is
the Pergamum, known for classical art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berlin, Conference of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berlin, Conference of%@AE@%,%@CR:BERLIN4         @%%@QR:Berlin, Conference of@% 1884-85, international meeting aimed at settling%@EH@%
colonial problems in Africa. Attending were all European nations, with
the U.S. and Turkey. In effect, the conference legitimized the
sovereignty these nations were already exercising over their African
colonies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berlin, Congress of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berlin, Congress of%@AE@%,%@CR:BERLIN5         @%%@QR:Berlin, Congress of@% 1878, international meeting called primarily to%@EH@%
thwart Russian expansion in the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% (Turkey). Included were
all the European powers, %@AU@%RUSSIA%@BO:          8228d5@%%@AE@%, and Turkey, with Otto von %@AU@%BISMARCK%@BO:          103161@%%@AE@% as
the chairman. The treaty that resulted significantly changed the existing
political situation in eastern Europe. Montenegro, Serbia, and Rumania
were recognized as independent; Bosnia and Hercegovina were assigned to
Austria-Hungary; the boundary lines between Greece and Turkey were
redrawn; S Bessarabia was ceded to Russia; and Cyprus was put under
British occupation. Russia was angered at Bismarck's handling of the
conference, thus ending the first %@AU@%THREE EMPERORS' LEAGUE%@BO:          9562df@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berlinguer, Enrico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berlinguer, Enrico%@AE@%,%@CR:BERLINGUER      @%%@QR:Berlinguer, Enrico@% 1922-84, Italian politician. A member of the Italian%@EH@%
Communist party since 1944, he entered the Italian chamber of deputies in
1958, and became secretary general of the party in 1972. He is noted for
his willingness to cooperate with other political parties.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berlioz, Louis-Hector%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berlioz, Louis-Hector%@AE@%%@CR:BERLIOZ         @%%@QR:Berlioz, Louis-Hector@%, 1803-69, French romantic composer. He abandoned%@EH@%
medical study to enter the Paris Conservatory. His %@AI@%Symphonie fantastique%@AE@%
(1830) marked a new development in program music, and that year Berlioz
won the Prix de Rome. In the next decade he wrote the symphonies %@AI@%Harold
%@AI@%in Italy%@AE@% and %@AI@%Romeo and Juliet.%@AE@% Other works included the operas %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Damnation of Faust%@AE@% (1846) and %@AI@%The Trojans%@AE@% (1856-59) and the successful
%@AU@%ORATORIO%@BO:          6e4380@%%@AE@% %@AI@%The Childhood of Christ.%@AE@% Berlioz's ideas of orchestration
influenced many later composers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bermuda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bermuda%@AE@%,%@CR:BERMUDA         @%%@QR:Bermuda@% British dependency (1985 pop. 57,145), 20 sq mi (52 sq km),%@EH@%
comprising 300 coral rocks, islets and islands, in the Atlantic Ocean,
c.650 mi (1,050 km) SE of Cape Hatteras, N.C. The capital is Hamilton.
Tourism is the mainstay of Bermuda's economy. Probably discovered by the
Spanish in the early 16th cent., the islands remained uninhabited until
colonists bound for Virginia were shipwrecked there in 1609. Bermuda's
government became the responsibility of the British crown in 1684;
internal self-government was granted in 1968. The U.S. operates a naval
and air force base there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bermuda Triangle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bermuda Triangle%@AE@%,%@CR:BERMUDAE        @%%@QR:Bermuda Triangle@% area in the Atlantic Ocean off Florida where a number%@EH@%
of ships and aircraft have vanished. Also known as the Devil's Triangle,
it is bounded at its points by Melbourne, Fla.; Bermuda; and Puerto Rico.
Storms are common in the region, and investigations to date have not
produced scientific evidence of any unusual phenomena involved in the
disappearances.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bern%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bern%@AE@%%@CR:BERN            @%%@QR:Bern@% or %@AB@%Berne,%@AE@%city (1985 est. pop. 138,600), capital of Switzerland and%@EH@%
of Bern canton, W central Switzerland, within a loop of the Aare R. A
university, administrative, and industrial center, it manufactures such
products as precision instruments, textiles, and machinery. It is the
seat of the Universal Postal Union, the International Copyright Union,
and other world agencies. Said to have been founded in 1191, it joined
the Swiss Confederation in 1353 and became its leading member. Bern
accepted the %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@% in 1528 and adopted a liberal constitution in
1831. It became the Swiss capital in 1848. Its historic buildings include
a medieval clock tower and a 15th-cent. town hall.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernadotte, Count Folke%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernadotte, Count Folke%@AE@%%@CR:BERNADOTTE1     @%%@QR:Bernadotte, Count Folke@%, 1895-1948, Swedish internationalist. Active in%@EH@%
the Swedish %@AU@%RED CROSS%@BO:          7d4b19@%%@AE@%, which he headed after 1946, he arranged (1945) the
evacuation of Danish and Norwegian prisoners from Germany. He was
assassinated by Jewish extremists while serving as UN mediator in
Palestine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules (Charles XIV)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules (Charles XIV)%@AE@%:%@CR:BERNADOTTE2     @%%@QR:Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules (Charles XIV)@% see under %@AU@% CHARLES, %@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@%kings%@EH@%
of Sweden.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernanos, Georges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernanos, Georges%@AE@%%@CR:BERNANOS        @%%@QR:Bernanos, Georges@%, 1888-1948, French author. His novels %@AI@%The Star of Satan%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1926) and %@AI@%The Diary of a Country Priest%@AE@% (1936) reflect his mystical,
Catholic bent. A Royalist until the Spanish civil war, Bernanos condemned
%@AU@%FRANCO'S%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% policies in %@AI@%A Diary of My Times%@AE@% (1938).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernard, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernard, Saint%@AE@%:%@CR:BERNARD1        @%%@QR:Bernard, Saint@% see %@AU@%BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX, SAINT%@BO:           efc37@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernard, Claude%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernard, Claude%@AE@%%@CR:BERNARD2        @%%@QR:Bernard, Claude@%, 1813-78, French physiologist. One of the great%@EH@%
scientific investigators, he is known as the founder of experimental
medicine through his work on the digestive process and on the vasomotor
mechanism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:BERNARDRVAUX    @%%@QR:Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint@% 1090?-1153, French churchman, Doctor of the%@EH@%
Church. He founded (1115) a Cistercian monastery at Clairvaux, where he
remained as abbot for the rest of his life, despite efforts to move him
higher. His holiness, intellect, and eloquence made him one of the most
powerful figures of his day; he brought about the condemnation of Peter
%@AU@%ABELARD%@BO:            3464@%%@AE@% and preached the Second %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%. His writings exerted a profound
influence on Roman Catholic spirituality, especially that known as
%@AI@%devotio moderna.%@AE@% He was canonized in 1174. Feast: Aug. 20.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernhardt, Sarah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernhardt, Sarah%@AE@%,%@CR:BERNHARDT       @%%@QR:Bernhardt, Sarah@% 1844-1923, French actress; b. Rosine Bernard. Called%@EH@%
"the divine Sarah" by Oscar %@AU@%WILDE%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@%, she was the queen of French romantic
and classical tragedy. She became famous for her superb portrayals in
%@AI@%Phedre%@AE@% (1874), in Victor %@AU@%HUGO'S%@BO:          4524a7@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Ruy Blas%@AE@% (1872), and in %@AI@%Adrienne
%@AI@%Lecouvreur%@AE@% (1880). She also starred in works by %@AU@%SARDOU%@BO:          848fef@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ROSTAND%@BO:          815867@%%@AE@%, and
wrote some of her own vehicles. She made tours of Europe and the U.S.,
including many "farewell tours" after her leg was amputated in 1915. She
played Hamlet at her own Theatre Sarah Bernhardt in 1899.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo%@AE@%%@CR:BERNINI         @%%@QR:Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo@% or %@AB@%Gianlorenzo,%@AE@%1598-1680, Italian sculptor and%@EH@%
architect, the dominant figure of the Italian %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@%. Working for the
major patrons of his day, he produced brilliantly vital, dynamic
sculpture in reaction against mannerist traditions (see %@AU@%MANNERISM%@BO:          5b052e@%%@AE@%) and
dramatic, impressive works of architecture enriched with sculpture. For
Cardinal Borghese he produced %@AI@%David%@AE@% (pre-1620), %@AI@%Rape of Proserpine%@AE@%
(1622), and %@AI@%Apollo and Daphne%@AE@% (1625; all: Borghese Gallery, Rome). He
designed churches, chapels, fountains, monuments, tombs, and statues for
the popes. In 1629 he became architect of %@AU@%SAINT.PETER'S.CHURCH%@BO:          8358cd@%%@AE@%, designing
interior details and the great, embracing, elliptical piazza in front of
the church. His other Roman works include the Churches of Santa Maria
della Vittoria (which houses his great sculpture the %@AI@%Ecstasy of St.
%@AI@%Theresa%@AE@%) and Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, and the fountains of the Piazza
Navona.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernoulli%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernoulli%@AE@%,%@CR:BERNOULLI       @%%@QR:Bernoulli@% Swiss family distinguished in scientific and mathematical%@EH@%
history. %@AB@%Jakob, Jacques,%@AE@% or %@AB@%James Bernoulli,%@AE@% 1654-1705, was one of the
chief developers of both the ordinary calculus and the calculus of
variations. His %@AI@%Ars conjectandi%@AE@% (1713) was an important treatise on the
theory of probability. His brother, %@AB@%Johann, Jean,%@AE@% or %@AB@%John Bernoulli,%@AE@%
1667-1748, was famous for his work on integral and exponential calculus;
he was also a founder of the calculus of variations and contributed to
the study of geodesics, complex numbers, and trigonometry. His son,
%@AB@%Daniel Bernoulli,%@AE@% 1700-1782, has often been called the first mathematical
physicist. His greatest work was his %@AI@%Hydrodynamica%@AE@% (1738), which included
the principle now known as Bernoulli's principle and anticipated the law
of conservation of energy and the kinetic-molecular theory of gases
developed a century later. He also made important contributions to
probability theory, astronomy, and the theory of differential equations.
Other members of the family were noted in the fields of mathematics,
physics, astronomy, and geography.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernoulli's principle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernoulli's principle%@AE@%:%@CR:BERNOULCIPLE    @%%@QR:Bernoulli's principle@% see %@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bernstein, Leonard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bernstein, Leonard%@AE@%,%@CR:BERNSTEIN       @%%@QR:Bernstein, Leonard@% 1918-, American composer and conductor; b. Lawrence,%@EH@%
Mass. He has composed symphonic works (%@AI@%Kaddish Symphony,%@AE@% 1963); %@AU@%CHAMBER
%@AU@%MUSIC%@BO:          1b4fd9@%%@AE@%; ballets (%@AI@%Fancy Free,%@AE@% 1944); %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%On the Town,%@AE@% 1944; %@AI@%Candide,%@AE@%
1956; %@AI@%West Side Story,%@AE@% 1957); and choral music (%@AI@%Chichester Psalms,%@AE@% 1965).
His %@AI@%Mass%@AE@% (1971), "a theater piece for singers, dancers, and players," was
performed at the opening of the John F. Kennedy Cultural Center,
Washington, D.C. From 1958 to 1969 he was musical director of the New
York Philharmonic (see %@AU@%ORCHESTRA%@BO:          6e56f7@%%@AE@%, ).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berrettini, Pietro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berrettini, Pietro%@AE@%:%@CR:BERRETTINI      @%%@QR:Berrettini, Pietro@% see %@AU@%CORTONA, PIETRO DA%@BO:          23a2b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berryman, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berryman, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BERRYMAN        @%%@QR:Berryman, John@% 1914-72, American poet; b. McAlester, Okla. His verse is%@EH@%
complex, dramatic, and personal, often mirroring the anguish of a trivial
age. Among his works are %@AI@%Homage to Mistress Bradstreet%@AE@% (1956), %@AI@%77 Dream
%@AI@%Songs%@AE@% (1964; Pulitzer), %@AI@%His Toy, His Dream, His Rest%@AE@% (1968), and
%@AI@%Delusions, etc.%@AE@% (1972).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcelin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcelin%@AE@%%@CR:BERTHELOT       @%%@QR:Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcelin@%, 1827-1907, French chemist. Professor%@EH@%
at the Ecole Superieure de Pharmacie and later at the College de France,
he became a member of the French Academy in 1900. A founder of modern
organic chemistry, he was the first to synthesize organic compounds
(e.g., methanol, ethanol, benzene, and acetylene), thereby dispelling the
old theory of a vital force inherent in organic compounds. He also worked
in thermochemistry and in explosives.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berthollet, Claude Louis, Comte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berthollet, Claude Louis, Comte%@AE@%%@CR:BERTHOLLET      @%%@QR:Berthollet, Claude Louis, Comte@%, 1748-1822, French chemist. Noted for his%@EH@%
ideas on chemical affinity and his discovery of the reversibility of
reactions, he supported Antoine %@AU@%LAVOISIER'S%@BO:          52dca9@%%@AE@% theory of combustion and
collaborated with him in reforming chemical nomenclature. He analyzed
ammonia and prussic acid and discovered the bleaching properties of
chlorine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beryl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beryl%@AE@%,%@CR:BERYL           @%%@QR:beryl@% extremely hard beryllium and aluminum silicate mineral%@EH@%
(Be%@AH@%3%@AE@%Al%@AH@%2%@AE@%Si%@AH@%6%@AE@%O%@AH@%18%@AE@%), occurring in crystals that may be of enormous size and
are usually white, yellow, blue, green, or colorless. It is commonly used
as a %@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%, the most valued variety being the greenish %@AU@%EMERALD%@BO:          2e7af0@%%@AE@%; the blue to
bluish-green variety is %@AU@%AQUAMARINE%@BO:           6e159@%%@AE@%. Beryl is the principal raw material
for the element %@AU@%BERYLLIUM%@BO:           f1b28@%%@AE@% and its compounds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beryllium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beryllium%@AE@%%@CR:BERYLLIUM       @%%@QR:beryllium@% (Be), metallic element, first isolated in 1828 independently by%@EH@%
Friedrich %@AU@%WOHLER%@BO:          a2b74d@%%@AE@% and Antoine Bussy. The silver-gray, %@AU@%ALKALINE-EARTH METAL%@BO:           3cfda@%%@AE@%
is light, strong, high-melting, and resistant to corrosion. It is used as
a window material for X-ray tubes and as a shield and a moderator in
nuclear reactors. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Berzelius, Jons Jakob, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Berzelius, Jons Jakob, Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:BERZELIUS       @%%@QR:Berzelius, Jons Jakob, Baron@% 1779-1848, Swedish chemist. He developed%@EH@%
the modern system of symbols and formulas in chemistry, made a remarkably
accurate table of atomic weights, analyzed many chemical compounds, and
discovered the elements %@AU@%SELENIUM%@BO:          86a1ff@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%THORIUM%@BO:          954b9c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CERIUM%@BO:          1b1244@%%@AE@%. He coined the
words %@AI@%isomerism, allotropy,%@AE@% and %@AI@%protein%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Besant, Annie (Wood)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Besant, Annie (Wood)%@AE@%,%@CR:BESANT          @%%@QR:Besant, Annie (Wood)@% 1847-1933, English theosophist and reformer.%@EH@%
Rejecting Christianity and advocating free thought and socialism, Besant
edited the %@AI@%National Reformer%@AE@% with Charles Bradlaugh. Her atheism and
unconventionality led the courts in 1879 to take away her children. After
embracing %@AU@%THEOSOPHY%@BO:          94ce7e@%%@AE@% in 1889, she went to India, where she campaigned for
nationalism, founded (1898) the Central Hindu College (1898) and the
Indian Home Rule League (1916), and became president (1917) of the Indian
National Congress. In 1926-27, Besant proclaimed the Indian mystic Jiddu
Krishnamurti to be the new Messiah. She published prolifically,
particularly works on theosophy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm%@AE@%,%@CR:BESSEL          @%%@QR:Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm@% 1784-1846, German astronomer and%@EH@%
mathematician. His discovery of the parallax of the fixed star 61 Cygni,
announced in 1838, was the first fully authenticated measurement of a
star's distance from the earth. By 1833 Bessel had increased to 50,000
the number of stars whose positions and proper motions were accurately
determined. He established a class of mathematical functions, named for
him, as a result of his work on planetary perturbation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bessemer process%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bessemer process%@AE@%,%@CR:BESSEMES        @%%@QR:Bessemer process@% industrial process for the manufacture of %@AU@%STEEL%@BO:          8e883b@%%@AE@% from%@EH@%
molten %@AU@%PIG IRON%@BO:          75a3c5@%%@AE@%. The process is carried out in a large steel container,
called the Bessemer converter. %@AU@%IRON%@BO:          49b3ab@%%@AE@% is introduced through an opening in
the narrow upper end. When air is forced upward through perforations in
the bottom, impurities such as manganese, silicon, and carbon unite with
oxygen to form oxides. The carbon monoxide burns off, and the other
impurities form slag. The steel is then poured from the upper opening
into molds, and the slag is left behind. Bessemer steel is used to make
machinery, tools, wire, and nails, and is the essential modern structural
steel used in steel-framework buildings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Best, Charles Herbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Best, Charles Herbert%@AE@%,%@CR:BEST            @%%@QR:Best, Charles Herbert@% 1899-1978, Canadian physiologist; b. West%@EH@%
Pembroke, Me. He, Sir Frederick %@AU@%BANTING%@BO:           bee6f@%%@AE@%, and John %@AU@%MACLEOD%@BO:          590297@%%@AE@% were the first
to isolate (1921) the hormone %@AU@%INSULIN%@BO:          48925b@%%@AE@% from the pancreas and demonstrate
its use in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Best discovered the
antiallergic enzyme histaminase, the blood-clotting substance heparin,
and the vitamin choline.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beta blocker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beta blocker%@AE@%%@CR:BETA.BLOCKER    @%%@QR:beta blocker@% or %@AB@%beta adrenergic blocking agent,%@AE@%drug that reduces the%@EH@%
symptoms connected with %@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@%, cardiac arrhythmias, %@AU@%MIGRAINE%@BO:          607c69@%%@AE@%
headaches, and other disorders related to the central %@AU@%NERVOUS SYSTEM%@BO:          6854a4@%%@AE@%.
Within the central nervous system, beta receptors are located mainly in
the heart, lungs, kidneys, and blood vessels. Beta blockers compete with
%@AU@%EPINEPHRINE%@BO:          2f7384@%%@AE@% for these receptor sites and interfere with the action of
epinephrine, lowering blood pressure and heart rate, stopping
arrhythmias, and preventing migraine headaches. Propranolol is a commonly
used beta blocker.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Betancourt, Romulo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Betancourt, Romulo%@AE@%%@CR:BETANCOURT      @%%@QR:Betancourt, Romulo@%, 1908-81, president of %@AU@%VENEZUELA%@BO:          9c6904@%%@AE@% (1945-48, 1959-64).%@EH@%
He founded (1935) the left-wing party that became %@AI@%Accion Democratica.%@AE@%
When he came to power (1945) by a military coup, he instituted universal
suffrage, social reforms, and oil royalties for the government. After his
exile (1948-58) by a junta, he was elected president (1959) and continued
to promote his reforms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%beta particle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%beta particle%@AE@%,%@CR:BETA.PARTICLE   @%%@QR:beta particle@% a particle emitted in one of the three forms of natural%@EH@%
%@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%betel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%betel%@AE@%,%@CR:BETEL           @%%@QR:betel@% masticatory made from seeds of the betel palm (%@AI@%Areca catechu%@AE@%).%@EH@%
Slices of the seeds (also called betel nuts), together with other
aromatic flavorings and lime paste, are smeared onto a betel pepper
(%@AI@%Piper betle%@AE@%) leaf, which is then rolled up and chewed. Betel contains a
narcotic stimulant and has been chewed in S Asia since ancient times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bethany%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bethany%@AE@%,%@CR:BETHANY         @%%@QR:Bethany@% village at the southeastern foot of the Mount of Olives, modern%@EH@%
Al Ayzariyah (Jordan), 2 mi (3.2 km) E of Jerusalem. Home of %@AU@%LAZARUS%@BO:          5309b5@%%@AE@%,
Martha, and %@AU@%MARY%@BO:          5c70c5@%%@AE@%, it was frequently visited by %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% and is closely
associated with the final scenes of his life. John 11.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bethe, Hans Albrecht%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bethe, Hans Albrecht%@AE@%%@CR:BETHE           @%%@QR:Bethe, Hans Albrecht@%, 1906-, American physicist; b. Germany; came to U.S.%@EH@%
in 1935. He was director (1943-46) of the theoretical physics division of
the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and scientific adviser (1958) to the
U.S. at the Geneva nuclear test-ban talks. Known for his brilliant
theories on atomic properties, Bethe received the 1967 Nobel Prize in
physics for work on the origin of solar and stellar energy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bethlehem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bethlehem%@AE@%,%@CR:BETHLEHEM1      @%%@QR:Bethlehem@% town (1980 est. pop. 14,500), Jordan, on the %@AU@%WEST BANK%@BO:          a09c00@%%@AE@%; the%@EH@%
birthplace of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%. It is a place of pilgrimage and the trade center of
a farming area. The biblical book of %@AU@%RUTH%@BO:          827592@%%@AE@% is set in Bethlehem, and it was
%@AU@%DAVID'S%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% home. %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@% built the Church of the Nativity (completed
333) on the traditional site of Jesus' birth. There St. %@AU@%JEROME%@BO:          4bdef6@%%@AE@% produced
the Vulgate text of the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%. Crusaders held the town from 1099 to 1187.
Annexed to the Ottoman Empire in 1571, it was part of Britain's Palestine
mandate (1922-48) and then of Jordan. Israel occupied it in 1967.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bethlehem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bethlehem%@AE@%,%@CR:BETHLEHEM2      @%%@QR:Bethlehem@% city (1980 pop. 70,419), E Pa., on the Lehigh R.; settled%@EH@%
1740-41, inc. as a city 1917. One of the most important U.S. steel
centers, it is the site of the Bethlehem Steel Corp.; cement, textiles,
and foods are also produced. Bethlehem was settled by %@AU@%MORAVIAN CHURCH%@BO:          63b805@%%@AE@%
members and contains several early Moravian buildings. The city is noted
for its Bach Choir, and Lehigh Univ. and Moravian College are located
there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bethune, Mary McCleod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bethune, Mary McCleod%@AE@%,%@CR:BETHUNE         @%%@QR:Bethune, Mary McCleod@% 1875-1955, black American educator; b. Mayesville,%@EH@%
S.C.; grad. Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, 1895. The 17th child of
former slaves, she taught (1895-1903) in a series of southern mission
schools until founding (1904) the Daytona Normal and Industrial Inst. for
Negro Girls (later Bethune-Cookman College) and the National Council of
Negro Women (1935). She was special adviser on minority affairs to
Franklin D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Betjeman, Sir John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Betjeman, Sir John%@AE@%,%@CR:BETJEMAN        @%%@QR:Betjeman, Sir John@% 1906-84, English poet. He combines a witty appraisal%@EH@%
of the present with nostalgia, especially for the Victorian era. His
works include %@AI@%Mt. Zion%@AE@% (1933) and %@AI@%Collected Poems%@AE@% (1971). He was named
%@AU@%POET LAUREATE%@BO:          772031@%%@AE@% in 1972.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bettelheim, Bruno%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bettelheim, Bruno%@AE@%,%@CR:BETTELHEIM      @%%@QR:Bettelheim, Bruno@% 1903-, American psychologist; b. Austria. In the same%@EH@%
year that he earned his Ph.D. from the Univ. of Vienna (1938) he was
interned in the Dachau and Buchenwald %@AU@%CONCENTRATION CAMPS%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@%. Released in
1939, he emigrated to the U.S., where he published (1943) a world-famous
article about the camps, "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme
Situations." He treated the subject in his book %@AI@%The Informed Heart%@AE@%
(1960). He was (1944-73) director of a school for the rehabilitation of
emotionally disturbed children, many of them autistic (see %@AU@%AUTISM%@BO:           a37a0@%%@AE@%), at
the Univ. of Chicago. His numerous works on child psychology and
child-rearing include %@AI@%Love Is Not Enough%@AE@% (1950), %@AI@%The Empty Fortress%@AE@%
(1967), and %@AI@%The Uses of Enchantment%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Betterton, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Betterton, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BETTERTON       @%%@QR:Betterton, Thomas@% 1635?-1710, English actor and manager of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% stage. He was a great Hamlet and Macbeth with the producer
William D'Avenant's company. As a manager he presented and played in
adaptations of %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%, notably by %@AU@%DRYDEN%@BO:          2adbca@%%@AE@% and himself. His company
opened the Haymarket Theatre in 1705. His wife, %@AB@%Mary Saunderson
%@AB@%Betterton,%@AE@% d. 1711, was the first woman to play Shakespeare's great
female roles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Betti, Ugo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Betti, Ugo%@AE@%%@CR:BETTI           @%%@QR:Betti, Ugo@%, 1892-1953, Italian dramatist and poet. A judge who gained%@EH@%
literary recognition late in life, he is ranked second only to %@AU@%PIRANDELLO%@BO:          760084@%%@AE@%
among 20th-cent. Italian dramatists. His plays, often pessimistic and
moralizing, include %@AI@%The Mistress%@AE@% (1927), %@AI@%The Flood%@AE@% (1943), and %@AI@%Crime on
%@AI@%Goat Island%@AE@% (1950).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bevan, Aneurin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bevan, Aneurin%@AE@%%@CR:BEVAN           @%%@QR:Bevan, Aneurin@%, 1897-1960, British politician. A coal miner and trade%@EH@%
unionist, he served as a Labour member in Parliament (1929-60). As
minister of health (1945-51), he administered the National Health
Service. He was leader (1951-60) of the Labour party's left wing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beveridge, William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beveridge, William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:BEVERIDGE       @%%@QR:Beveridge, William Henry@% 1879-1963, British economist; b. India;%@EH@%
knighted in 1919. An authority on social problems and unemployment,
Beveridge was the director of the London School of Economics (1919-37).
In %@AI@%Social Insurance and Allied Services%@AE@% (1942), he proposed a social
security system "from the cradle to the grave" for all British citizens.
He was made 1st Baron Beveridge of Tugwell in 1946.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beverly Hills%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beverly Hills%@AE@%,%@CR:BEVERLY.HILLS   @%%@QR:Beverly Hills@% city (1986 est. pop. 33,690), S Calif., completely%@EH@%
surrounded by the city of %@AU@%LOS ANGELES%@BO:          56c905@%%@AE@%; inc. 1914. Mainly residential, it
is the home of many film and television personalities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bevin, Ernest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bevin, Ernest%@AE@%%@CR:BEVIN           @%%@QR:Bevin, Ernest@%, 1881-1951, British labor leader and statesman. He was an%@EH@%
orphan who had earned his living from childhood. In 1921 he merged his
dock workers' union with others to form the powerful Transport and
General Workers' Union. A member of the Labour party, he was minister of
labor in Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL'S%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@% wartime cabinet (1940-45). As foreign
minister in the Labour government (1945-51), he worked to build up
Western Europe and to establish NATO.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beyazid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beyazid%@AE@%,%@CR:BEYAZID         @%%@QR:Beyazid@% sultans of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% (Turkey), also spelled Bayazid,%@EH@%
Bajazet, and Bayazit. %@AB@%Beyazid I,%@AE@% 1347-1403 (r.1389-1402), triumphed over
Byzantine Emperor Manuel II, the Turkish rulers of E Anatolia, and
Sigismund of Hungary, who was on a crusade, but he was defeated (1402) by
%@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@%, who routed his armies and took him prisoner. %@AB@%Beyazid II,%@AE@%
1447-1513 (r.1481-1512), was a peace-loving monarch who did little to
advance Ottoman power but much to further Ottoman culture. With the aid
of the %@AU@%JANISSARIES%@BO:          4b2876@%%@AE@% he putdown a revolt of his brother Jem, but he lost
Cilicia to the Mamelukes of Egypt and Cyprus to Venice.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Beyle, Marie Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Beyle, Marie Henri%@AE@%:%@CR:BEYLE           @%%@QR:Beyle, Marie Henri@% see %@AU@%STENDHAL%@BO:          8ec2ea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bhagavad-Gita%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bhagavad-Gita%@AE@%%@CR:BHAGAVADGITA    @%%@QR:Bhagavad-Gita@% [Skt.,=song of the Lord], Sanskrit poem incorporated into%@EH@%
the %@AU@%MAHABHARATA%@BO:          59b297@%%@AE@%, one of the classics of %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%, consisting of a
dialogue between Lord %@AU@%KRISHNA%@BO:          50d604@%%@AE@% and Prince Arjuna on the eve of the battle
of Kurukshetra. Arjuna is overcome with anguish when he sees his kinsmen
and friends in the opposing army, but Krishna persuades him to fight by
instructing him in spiritual wisdom and the means of attaining union with
God (see %@AU@%YOGA%@BO:          a43ef6@%%@AE@%) through selfless action, knowledge, and devotion. The %@AI@%Gita%@AE@%
is essentially related to the %@AU@%UPANISHADS%@BO:          9aea05@%%@AE@% in content.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bhave, Vinoba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bhave, Vinoba%@AE@%%@CR:BHAVE           @%%@QR:Bhave, Vinoba@% 1895-1982, Indian religious figure. He was a disciple of%@EH@%
Mohandas %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37ca17@%%@AE@% and after Gandhi's death (1948) was widely accepted as
his successor. In 1951 he founded the Bhoodan, or land-gift, movement,
seeking donations of land for redistribution to the landless.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bhopal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bhopal%@AE@%,%@CR:BHOPAL          @%%@QR:Bhopal@% city in Central India (1981 pop. 672,329). On Dec. 3, 1984, it%@EH@%
became the site of the worst industrial accident in history when a toxic
gas leak from a Union Carbide insecticide plant killed more than 8,000
people and injured approximately 150,000. Although Indian officials held
the company responsible, charging a history of safety problems, Union
Carbide officials claimed sabotage. The Indian government filed suit on
behalf of the victims in both the U.S. (where the courts rejected the
suit) and India and refused Union Carbide's offers of a $350 million
settlement. In 1989 the Indian Supreme Court ordered Union Carbide to pay
$470 million in damages. Many of the survivors are expected to experience
life-long medical problems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bhutan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bhutan%@AE@%%@CR:BHUTAN          @%%@QR:Bhutan@%, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, kingdom (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
1,300,000), 18,147 sq mi (47,000 sq km), E Asia, in the Himalayas,
bordered by India (S and E), the Tibet region of China (N), and Sikkim
(W). The capital is Thimbu. Bhutan is a land of great mountain ranges,
rising in the north to Kula Kangri (24,784 ft/7,554 m), and intensively
cultivated valleys. The climate ranges from humid subtropical at the
lower altitudes to temperate in the high mountains. Small-scale
subsistence farming, with rice the main crop, and the raising of
livestock dominate the economy. Metal, wood, and leather working;
papermaking; and weaving are also important. Bhutan's people are mostly
Bhotias, ethnically related to Tibetans. Their religion is closely
related to %@AU@%TIBETAN BUDDHISM%@BO:          95ad0e@%%@AE@%; many Bhutanese live in monasteries.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% In the 16th cent. the Tibetans conquered Bhutan's native tribes,
and in 1720 China claimed suzerainty over the area. British interests in
Bhutan dated from the arrival of a trade mission in 1774. Britain annexed
part of Bhutan in 1865, and in 1910 Bhutan's first hereditary king agreed
to let Britain direct the country's foreign affairs; this role was
assumed by India in 1949. After Communist forces occupied (1950) Tibet,
Bhutan became a point of contest between China and India, and the
China-Bhutan border was closed. Jigme Singhe Wangchuk became king in 1972
(crowned 1974). Bhutan became a member of the UN in 1971 and of the
Nonaligned Movement in 1973.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bhutto, Benazir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bhutto, Benazir%@AE@%%@CR:BHUTTO1         @%%@QR:Bhutto, Benazir@%, 1953-, prime minister (1988-) of %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%. The daughter%@EH@%
of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, she led the Pakistan People's Party in exile from
1984 with her mother, Nusrat Bhutto. After the lifting (1986) of martial
law, she returned to Pakistan. Upon her election in 1988, she became the
first female leader of a Muslim nation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali%@AE@%,%@CR:BHUTTO2         @%%@QR:Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali@% 1928-79, president (1971-73) and prime minister%@EH@%
(1973-77) of %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%. He came to power after Pakistan's defeat in the
war over %@AU@%BANGLADESH'S%@BO:           bc3f7@%%@AE@% independence. He was overthrown (1977), tried for
state crimes, and executed (1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bi%@AE@%,%@CR:BI              @%%@QR:Bi@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%BISMUTH%@BO:          103bdf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biafra, Republic of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biafra, Republic of%@AE@%,%@CR:BIAFRA          @%%@QR:Biafra, Republic of@% former African secessionist state, formed in SW%@EH@%
Nigeria. Biafra was established in 1967 by Ibos, an ethnic group who
feared they could not survive within Nigeria. The new state was led by
Lt. Col. C.O. Ojukwu. Soon after secession, fighting erupted between
Nigerian and Biafran forces. More than one million Biafran civilians are
believed to have died of starvation during the war, which ended with
Biafra's defeat in 1970.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bialik, Hayyim Nahman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bialik, Hayyim Nahman%@AE@%%@CR:BIALIK          @%%@QR:Bialik, Hayyim Nahman@%, 1873-1934, Ukrainian poet and novelist who wrote%@EH@%
mainly in Hebrew. His style-some times majestic, sometimes simple-had a
great effect on modern Hebrew literature. His poems include "In the City
of Slaughter" (1903). As an editor and publisher in Odessa, Berlin, and
Tel Aviv, Bialik spread the ideas of the %@AI@%Haskalah,%@AE@% the renaissance of
Jewish culture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biathlon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biathlon%@AE@%,%@CR:BIATHLON        @%%@QR:biathlon@% a sporting event composed of two activities. The best-known%@EH@%
type of biathlon is the winter event, combining cross-country skiing and
target shooting, which has been part of Olympic competition since 1960. A
combined running and swimming event, instituted in Great Britain in 1968,
is also called a biathlon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bible%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bible%@AE@%,%@CR:BIBLE           @%%@QR:Bible@% name of the Christian Scriptures. (For the composition and canon%@EH@%
of the Bible, see %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%APOCRYPHA%@BO:           6a905@%%@AE@%, and articles
on individual books.) The traditional Christian view is that the Bible
was written under the guidance of God and is, therefore, entirely true,
literally or couched in allegory. Interpretation of the Bible is a main
point of difference between Protestantism, which holds that individuals
have the right to interpret the Bible for themselves, and Roman
Catholicism, which teaches that individuals may read the Bible only as
interpreted by the church. In recent times, many Protestants have been
influenced by biblical criticism that has applied scientific and
historical methods to Bible study ("higher criticism"); %@AU@%FUNDAMENTALISM%@BO:          36de09@%%@AE@%,
on the other hand, emphasizes the absolute inerrancy of the Bible. Noted
extant manuscripts of the Bible include Codex Vaticanus (Greek, 4th
cent.), at the Vatican; Codex Alexandrinus (Greek, 5th cent.), in the
British Museum; and Codex Bezae (Greek and Latin, 6th cent.), at
Cambridge, England. Among the %@AU@%DEAD SEA SCROLLS%@BO:          26f982@%%@AE@% are the oldest fragments
of the Hebrew text known; the New Testament has come down to us in Greek.
The first great translation of the whole Bible was the Latin Vulgate of
St. %@AU@%JEROME%@BO:          4bdef6@%%@AE@%. The Greek text generally accepted in the East is, for the Old
Testament, the Septuagint. Great names in the history of the English
Bible are John %@AU@%WYCLIF%@BO:          a3a073@%%@AE@% (d. 1384), whose name appears on two translations;
William %@AU@%TYNDALE%@BO:          9937f3@%%@AE@%, whose New Testament (1525-26) was the first English
translation to be printed; and Miles Coverdale, who published (1535) a
translation of the entire Bible. The greatest English translation was the
Authorized Version (AV), or King James Version (KJV), of 1611, made by a
group of churchmen and scholars led by Lancelot Andrewes. The
Rheims-Douay Version was produced by Roman Catholic scholars at Rheims
(New Testament, 1582) and Douai (Old Testament, 1610), France. In the
19th cent., the Authorized Version was revised as the English Revised
Version and the American Revised Version (pub. 1880-90). American
scholars published (1952) the influential Revised Standard Version (RSV).
New translations are the New English Bible (1970) and such Roman Catholic
translations as the Westminster Version and the New American Bible
(1970); an English translation of the French Catholic Bible de Jerusalem
appeared as the Jerusalem Bible (1966).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biblical archaeology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biblical archaeology%@AE@%,%@CR:BIBLICAOLOGY    @%%@QR:biblical archaeology@% %@AU@%ARCHAEOLOGY%@BO:           75236@%%@AE@% of the biblical lands, especially the%@EH@%
ancient Middle East; its artifacts augment extant texts to recreate the
cultural setting of biblical times. Developed by the British biblical
scholar Edward Robinson in the early 19th cent., biblical archaeology
first focused on ancient %@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%MEGIDDO%@BO:          5e445e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SAMARIA%@BO:          83c32b@%%@AE@%). Because few
written materials or monuments survive in that area, the system of dating
pottery developed by Flinders %@AU@%PETRIE%@BO:          7436c1@%%@AE@% at Tel-el-Hesy was especially
significant. Israeli archaeologists excavated a number of major tells.
Outside Palestine, important excavations in ancient %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SUMER%@BO:          909297@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%ASSYRIA%@BO:           8dd4e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d2f7b@%%@AE@% have also greatly increased understanding of the
Bible (see especially %@AU@%UR%@BO:          9af28e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EBLA%@BO:          2bf988@%%@AE@%). More recent findings of biblical
archaeology indicate that historically the Old Testament is unexpectedly
accurate and that the %@AU@%GOSPELS%@BO:          3ba55d@%%@AE@% are of greater antiquity than had been
thought (see %@AU@%DEAD SEA SCROLLS%@BO:          26f982@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bibliography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bibliography%@AE@%,%@CR:BIBLIOGRAPHY    @%%@QR:bibliography@% listing of writings based on some organizational principle,%@EH@%
such as a subject, an author, a library or collection. The earliest
examples, lists of the contents of early libraries, have been found at
%@AU@%NINEVEH%@BO:          6a4294@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PERGAMUM%@BO:          735264@%%@AE@%. Modern bibliography began with the
invention of the %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@AE@% press and the trade lists issued by publishing
houses, comparable to today's %@AI@%Trade List Annual%@AE@% and the various "books in
print" volumes. By the 19th cent. there had developed an interest in
descriptive bibliography, i.e., the description of a book as a physical
object, which in turn led to textual bibliography, the critical
examination of the book and its production history to determine the
authority of the text. Mechanization has introduced machines to aid the
bibliographer, e.g., the %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% and the Hinman collator. Bibliographies
of holdings are now published by national libraries, e.g., the British
Library and the Library of Congress. Bibliographies of bibliographies
include Theodore Besterman's %@AI@%World Bibliography of Bibliography%@AE@% and the
%@AI@%Bibliographic Index,%@AE@% issued semiannually.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bibliotheque nationale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bibliotheque nationale%@AE@%:%@CR:BIBLIOTTIONALE  @%%@QR:Bibliotheque nationale@% see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bicameral system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bicameral system%@AE@%:%@CR:BICAMERM        @%%@QR:bicameral system@% see %@AU@%LEGISLATURE%@BO:          538545@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bicarbonate of soda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bicarbonate of soda%@AE@%:%@CR:BICARBOSODA     @%%@QR:bicarbonate of soda@% see %@AU@%SODIUM BICARBONATE%@BO:          8afe8c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bicycle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bicycle%@AE@%,%@CR:BICYCLE         @%%@QR:bicycle@% light, two-wheeled vehicle driven by pedals. A model using%@EH@%
pedals, cranks, drive rods, and handlebars was introduced c.1839 in
Scotland; it was followed by the development of the hollow steel frame,
ball bearings, metal wheel spokes, and rubber-rimmed wheels. The front
wheel, directly powered by the pedals, was at one time much larger than
the rear wheel. The first bicycle with a sprocket-chain drive powering an
equal-size rear wheel was made in England in 1885; the pneumatic tire was
invented in Scotland in 1888. Later improvements included
handlebar-mounted brake cables and gearshift systems to facilitate
changes in speed. The bicycle's popularity brought about major
improvements in roads in 19th-cent. Europe and America, and the vehicle
continues to be far more widely used than the automobile in many parts of
the world today.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bidault, Georges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bidault, Georges%@AE@%%@CR:BIDAULT         @%%@QR:Bidault, Georges@%, 1899-83, French political leader. A leader of the%@EH@%
French underground in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, Bidault was a postwar premier
(1949-50) and several times foreign minister. He joined the terrorist
opponents of Algerian independence and fled (1962) into exile. He
returned to France in 1968.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biddle, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biddle, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BIDDLE          @%%@QR:Biddle, John@% 1516-62, founder of English %@AU@%UNITARIANISM%@BO:          99f646@%%@AE@%. After losing his%@EH@%
belief in the %@AU@%TRINITY%@BO:          97db50@%%@AE@%, he stated his conclusions in %@AI@%Twelve Arguments
%@AI@%Drawn Out of Scripture,%@AE@% for which he was imprisoned (1645). He was
banished for publishing his %@AI@%Two-fold Catechism%@AE@% (1654). Returning in 1658,
he taught and preached until again imprisoned (1662).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biedermeier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biedermeier%@AE@%,%@CR:BIEDERMEIER     @%%@QR:Biedermeier@% style of German furniture, 1816-48. The name derives from a%@EH@%
humorous pseudonym used by several German poets. Comfortable and
inexpensive, it featured simplified forms of the %@AU@%EMPIRE STYLE%@BO:          2e931a@%%@AE@% and the
%@AU@%DIRECTOIRE STYLE%@BO:          294180@%%@AE@% and of some 18th-cent. English styles. Black lacquer
substituted for costly ebony, and peasant-style painted decoration was
applied.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biennial%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biennial%@AE@%,%@CR:BIENNIAL        @%%@QR:biennial@% plant requiring two growing seasons to complete its life cycle,%@EH@%
as distinguished from an %@AU@%ANNUAL%@BO:           5daf1@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%PERENNIAL%@BO:          733dc1@%%@AE@%. In the first year the plant
produces leaves and a fleshy root; in the second year it produces flowers
and seeds, and then dies. Some biennials will bloom in the same growing
season if sown early.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bierce, Ambrose Gwinett%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bierce, Ambrose Gwinett%@AE@%,%@CR:BIERCE          @%%@QR:Bierce, Ambrose Gwinett@% 1842-1914?, American writer; b. Meigs co., Ohio.%@EH@%
After Civil War service he turned to journalism, eventually becoming the
literary arbiter of the West Coast. Bierce achieved real distinction in
his short stories, collected in such volumes as %@AI@%In the Midst of Life%@AE@%
(1891) and %@AI@%Can Such Things Be?%@AE@% (1893). He is equally famous for a
collection of sardonic definitions, %@AI@%The Devil's Dictionary%@AE@% (1906). His
work is marked by distilled satire, crisply precise language, and a
realistically developed sense of horror. He disappeared in Mexico in
1913.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%big bang theory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%big bang theory%@AE@%:%@CR:BIG.BANG.THEORY @%%@QR:big bang theory@% see %@AU@%COSMOLOGY%@BO:          23b30e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Big Ben%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Big Ben%@AE@%,%@CR:BIG.BEN         @%%@QR:Big Ben@% the bell in Parliament tower (Westminster Palace), London; also%@EH@%
the tower clock. Installed in 1856, it was named for the commissioner of
works, Sir Benjamin Hall.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Big Bend National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Big Bend National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:BIG.BENAL.PARK  @%%@QR:Big Bend National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bigelow, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bigelow, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BIGELOW         @%%@QR:Bigelow, John@% 1817-1911, American editor, author, and diplomat; b.%@EH@%
Malden, N.Y. As joint owner and editor (1848-61), with William Cullen
%@AU@%BRYANT%@BO:          14d2fb@%%@AE@%, of the New York %@AI@%Evening Post,%@AE@% he wrote vigorous anti-%@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%
editorials. Appointed consul general at Paris (1861) and later (1865-66)
U.S. minister to France, he was largely instrumental in preventing French
recognition of the %@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@% during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bigfoot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bigfoot%@AE@%%@CR:BIGFOOT         @%%@QR:Bigfoot@% or %@AB@%Sasquatch,%@AE@% apelike creature reportedly sighted hundreds of%@EH@%
times in the U.S. and Canada (most often in the Pacific Northwest) since
the mid-19th cent. Similar to Asia's %@AU@%ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN%@BO:            547f@%%@AE@%, Bigfoot is
variously described as standing 7-10 ft (2-3 m) tall and weighing over
500 lb (227 kg), with footprints 17 in. (43 cm) long. Most scientists
discount the existence of such a creature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biggs, E(dward George) Power%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biggs, E(dward George) Power%@AE@%,%@CR:BIGGS           @%%@QR:Biggs, E(dward George) Power@% 1906-77, American organist; b. England.%@EH@%
Through his many performances and recordings, he introduced the %@AU@%ORGAN%@BO:          6ead26@%%@AE@% as
a serious concert instrument to the American public, most notably with
music of the %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@% period and the 20th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bighorn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bighorn%@AE@%%@CR:BIGHORN         @%%@QR:bighorn@% or %@AB@%Rocky Mountain sheep,%@AE@% wild %@AU@%SHEEP%@BO:          881850@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Ovis canadensis%@AE@%) of W North%@EH@%
America. It is a heavy, grayish brown animal with a white patch on the
hindquarters; the male has curling horns. Once plentiful, it is
diminishing in number as a result of indiscriminate hunting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bignonia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bignonia%@AE@%,%@CR:BIGNONIA        @%%@QR:bignonia@% common name for the Bignoniaceae, a family of woody vines,%@EH@%
shrubs, and trees of the American tropics. Members of the family include
the tropical calabash tree, which bears large fruits used as carrying
gourds (called calabashes) and whose wood is used to make pipes; and the
ornamental shade trees of the genus %@AI@%Catalpa,%@AE@% whose wood is used for
lumber.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bigordi, Domenico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bigordi, Domenico%@AE@%:%@CR:BIGORDI         @%%@QR:Bigordi, Domenico@% see %@AU@%GHIRLANDAIO, DOMENICO%@BO:          39f68f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bikini%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bikini%@AE@%,%@CR:BIKINI          @%%@QR:Bikini@% atoll, c.2 sq mi (5.2 sq km), W central Pacific Ocean, in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%MARSHALL ISLANDS%@BO:          5c20ae@%%@AE@%, U.S. Trust Territory of the %@AU@%PACIFIC ISLANDS%@BO:          6fe995@%%@AE@%. Comprising
36 islets on a reef 25 mi (40 km) long, it was used (1946-58) for U.S.
nuclear-bomb tests. Bikinians were evacuated (1946), allowed to return
(1969), and reevacuated (1978) when new data showed high levels of
residual radioactivity. A U.S.-assisted clean-up effort began in 1988.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biko, Steven%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biko, Steven%@AE@%,%@CR:BIKO            @%%@QR:Biko, Steven@% 1946-77, South African political leader. A leader of the%@EH@%
radical "black consciousness" movement, he helped found the all-black
South African Students Organization (1969) and the Black People's
Convention (1972). When the government banned him in 1973, he was already
a hero to young black students. In Aug. 1977, he was arrested for
subversion and died brutally in police custody. As a result, he became a
figure of international importance. His funeral was attended by diplomats
from 13 nations and prompted a boycott by 200,000 students. See also
%@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bilderdijk, Willem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bilderdijk, Willem%@AE@%%@CR:BILDERDIJK      @%%@QR:Bilderdijk, Willem@%, 1756-1831, Dutch poet. Ranked among the great Dutch%@EH@%
poets, he is best known for an unfinished epic, %@AI@%The Destruction of the
%@AI@%First Creation%@AE@% (1820), and other religious verse. His translations
catalyzed the romantic movement in Dutch literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bile%@AE@%,%@CR:BILE            @%%@QR:bile@% bitter, alkaline fluid of a yellow, brown, or green color that aids%@EH@%
in the digestion of fats (see %@AU@%DIGESTIVE SYSTEM%@BO:          28fa20@%%@AE@%). Composed of water, bile
salts, bilirubin (a pigment), cholesterol, and lecithin, bile is secreted
by the %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@% and stored in the %@AU@%GALL BLADDER%@BO:          377bdb@%%@AE@%. It is emptied into the upper
intestine to breakdown fats and enable them (and fat-soluble %@AU@%VITAMINS%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%) to
be absorbed through the intestinal wall. Bile is also a route of
excretion for cholesterol, heme, and many drugs. %@AU@%JAUNDICE%@BO:          4b81e4@%%@AE@% may result if
the flow of bile is impeded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bilingual education%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bilingual education%@AE@%,%@CR:BILINGUTION     @%%@QR:bilingual education@% the sanctioned use of more than one language in U.S.%@EH@%
education. The Bilingual Education Act (1968), confirmed by a Supreme
Court decision (1974) and mandating help for students with limited
English proficiency, requires instruction in the native languages of
students. Critics, maintaining that some students never join the
mainstream culture, have attempted to make English the "official"
language; proponents emphasize the preservation of ethnic heritage and
culture in language.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%billiards%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%billiards%@AE@%,%@CR:BILLIARDS       @%%@QR:billiards@% any of several games played with a leather-tipped stick (cue)%@EH@%
and various numbers of balls on an oblong, cloth-covered table with
raised, cushioned edges. The three main types are carom billiards, played
with three balls on a pocketless table; pocket billiards (or pool), using
a cue ball and 15 object balls on a table with six pockets; and snooker,
similar to pool but with 21 object balls. Variants were popular in
England and France in the 16th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Billings, John Shaw%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Billings, John Shaw%@AE@%,%@CR:BILLINGS1       @%%@QR:Billings, John Shaw@% 1838-1913, American surgeon and librarian; b.%@EH@%
Switzerland co., Ind. Under his direction (1864-95) the National Library
of Medicine became one of the great medical library systems in the world.
He initiated the %@AI@%Index Catalogue%@AE@% and %@AI@%Index Medicus%@AE@% and compiled (1889)
the %@AI@%National Medical Dictionary.%@AE@% He also directed development of the New
York Public Library (see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%, ); suggested what became punched-card
technology; and supervised the 1880 and 1890 U.S. censuses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Billings, Josh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Billings, Josh%@AE@%,%@CR:BILLINGS2       @%%@QR:Billings, Josh@% pseud. of %@AB@%Henry Wheeler Shaw,%@AE@% 1818-85, American humorist;%@EH@%
b. Lanesboro, Mass. His popular, humorous sketches in rural dialect
appeared annually in the %@AI@%Farmer's Allminax%@AE@% (1869-80).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Billings%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Billings%@AE@%,%@CR:BILLINGS3       @%%@QR:Billings@% city (1986 est. pop. 80,310), seat of Yellowstone co., S Mont.,%@EH@%
on the Yellowstone R.; inc. as a city 1885. Founded in 1882 by the
Northern Pacific RR, it became a shipping and fur-trading center. Oil and
sugar refining, meat packing, and flour milling are now its main
industries. The center of a recreational area, it is surrounded by seven
mountain ranges; Yellowstone National Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%, ) is
nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bill of Rights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bill of Rights%@AE@%,%@CR:BILL.OF.RIGHTS1 @%%@QR:Bill of Rights@% 1689, in British history, one of the fundamental%@EH@%
instruments of constitutional law. It incorporated by statute the
Declaration of Rights accepted by %@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARY II%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%, and registered
the results of the struggle between the %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8fe31b@%%@AE@% kings and %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%. The
Bill of Rights stated that no Roman Catholic would rule England; it gave
inviolable civil and political rights to the people and political
supremacy to Parliament. It was supplemented (1701) by the Act of
%@AU@%SETTLEMENT%@BO:          8747df@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bill of Rights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bill of Rights%@AE@%,%@CR:BILL.OF.RIGHTS2 @%%@QR:Bill of Rights@% in U.S. history: see under %@AU@%CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED%@EH@%
%@AU@%STATES.%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Billy the Kid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Billy the Kid%@AE@%,%@CR:BILLY.THE.KID   @%%@QR:Billy the Kid@% 1859-81, American outlaw; b. N.Y.C. A large-scale cattle%@EH@%
rustler in Lincoln co., N.M., from 1878, he was hunted and fatally shot
by Sheriff Pat Garrett. Billy's real name was William H. Bonney.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biloxi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biloxi%@AE@%,%@CR:BILOXI          @%%@QR:Biloxi@% city (1986 est. pop. 47,750), SE Miss., on a peninsula between%@EH@%
Biloxi Bay and Mississippi Sound, on the Gulf of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fcb5a@%%@AE@%; settled 1699,
inc. as a city 1896. Almost tropical in climate, it is a popular resort.
Fishing, especially for shrimp and shellfish, is a major industry, as is
boat-building. French Old Biloxi (est. 1699) was the first white
settlement in the lower Mississippi valley; New Biloxi (est. 1719) was
the capital of French Louisiana until 1722. Beauvoir, the last home of
Jefferson %@AU@%DAVIS%@BO:          26cecd@%%@AE@%, is nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bimetallism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bimetallism%@AE@%,%@CR:BIMETALLISM     @%%@QR:bimetallism@% in economic history, a monetary system in which two%@EH@%
commodities, usually gold and silver, were used as a standard and coined
at a fixed ratio. The system was designed to create a monetary unit with
more stability than one based on a single metal. In a bimetallic system,
the ratio, which is determined by law, is expressed in terms of weight,
e.g., 16 oz of silver equal 1 oz of gold, or a ratio of 16 to 1. The
legal ratio has no relationship to the commercial value of the metals,
which fluctuates constantly. This discrepancy between the commercial and
face values of the two metals made bimetallism too unstable for most
modern nations. The system was practiced in the U.S. and other countries
(except England, where gold was used) in the 18th and 19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%binary star%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%binary star%@AE@%,%@CR:BINARY.STAR     @%%@QR:binary star@% pair of stars that are held together by their mutual%@EH@%
gravitational attraction and revolve about their common center of mass.
True binary stars are distinct from optical doubles-pairs of stars that
lie along nearly the same line of sight from the earth but are not
physically associated. A visual binary is a pair of stars that can be
seen be direct telescopic observation to be a distinct pair with shared
motion. A spectroscopic binary cannot be distinguished telescopically as
two separate stars, but spectral lines from the pair show a periodic
%@AU@%DOPPLER EFFECT%@BO:          2a2e00@%%@AE@% that indicates mutual revolution. An eclipsing binary has
the plane of its orbit lying in the line of sight and shows a periodic
fluctuation in brightness (see %@AU@%VARIABLE STAR%@BO:          9bf0a7@%%@AE@%) as one star passes in front
of the other.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%binary system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%binary system%@AE@%:%@CR:BINARY.SYSTEM   @%%@QR:binary system@% see %@AU@%NUMERATION%@BO:          6c4b74@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bindweed%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bindweed%@AE@%:%@CR:BINDWEED        @%%@QR:bindweed@% see %@AU@%MORNING-GLORY%@BO:          63e72a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Binet, Alfred%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Binet, Alfred%@AE@%%@CR:BINET           @%%@QR:Binet, Alfred@%, 1857-1911, French psychologist. With Theodore Simon, Binet%@EH@%
devised (1905-11) a series of tests of human %@AU@%INTELLIGENCE%@BO:          48b410@%%@AE@% that, with
revisions, came into wide use in schools, industry, and the army.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bingham, George Caleb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bingham, George Caleb%@AE@%,%@CR:BINGHAM1        @%%@QR:Bingham, George Caleb@% 1811-79, American painter and politician; b.%@EH@%
Augusta co., Va. His vigorous %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% scenes accurately picture their time
and locale. They include %@AI@%Fur Traders Descending the Missouri%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.) and %@AI@%Raftsmen Playing Cards%@AE@% (City Art Mus., St.
Louis). Bingham was elected to the Missouri legislature in 1848, served
as state treasurer (1862-65), and became state adjutant general in 1875.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bingham, Hiram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bingham, Hiram%@AE@%,%@CR:BINGHAM2        @%%@QR:Bingham, Hiram@% 1789-1869, American Congregationalist missionary; b.%@EH@%
Bennington, Vt. In 1819 he founded the first Protestant mission in the
Hawaiian Islands. He adapted the Hawaiian language to writing and
translated the Bible into Hawaiian. His son %@AB@%Hiram Bingham,%@AE@% 1831-1908, b.
Honolulu, was also a missionary. In 1857 he founded a mission in the
Gilbert Islands and later adapted the island language to writing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bingham, Hiram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bingham, Hiram%@AE@%,%@CR:BINGHAM3        @%%@QR:Bingham, Hiram@% 1875-1956, American archaeologist and statesman; b.%@EH@%
Honolulu. At Yale Univ. (1907-23), he led expeditions that discovered the
Inca cities of Vitcos and Machu Picchu. He was governor of Connecticut
(1925) and U.S. senator (1925-33).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%binoculars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%binoculars%@AE@%,%@CR:BINOCULARS      @%%@QR:binoculars@% small optical instrument, consisting of a pair of %@AU@%TELESCOPES%@BO:          938e7b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
mounted on a single, usually adjustable frame, that is used for
magnifying distant objects. Light entering each telescope through its
objective %@AU@%LENS%@BO:          53db0f@%%@AE@% is bent by a pair of prisms before passing through one or
more additional lenses in the eyepiece. The prisms turn the
image-inverted by the objective lens-right side up again and allow the
distance between the objective lenses to be twice as far apart as that
between the eyepieces, thus enhancing the viewer's depth perception. The
usually less powerful opera and field glasses are also classed as
binoculars, although both use Galilean telescopes, which do not employ
prisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biochemistry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biochemistry%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOCHEMISTRY    @%%@QR:biochemistry@% science concerned chiefly with the chemistry of biological%@EH@%
processes. From its roots in chemistry, chiefly organic and physical
chemistry, biochemistry has broadened to encompass any biological problem
amenable to the investigative techniques of both chemistry and physics. A
milestone in the growth of the field was the elucidation of the structure
of %@AU@%DNA%@BO:          29a6bd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bioengineering%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bioengineering%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOENGINEERING  @%%@QR:bioengineering@% use of engineering and biological principles for the%@EH@%
identification of the functions of living systems and for the development
of (1) therapeutic devices, especially artificial body parts and systems,
e.g., artificial blood vessels, %@AU@%PACEMAKERS%@BO:          6fe3af@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DIALYSIS%@BO:          28a2fc@%%@AE@% equipment, and
artificial limbs that function like their prototypes; and (2) equipment
for monitoring the performance of healthy and diseased organisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biofeedback%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biofeedback%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOFEEDBACK     @%%@QR:biofeedback@% method for learning to increase one's ability to control%@EH@%
biological responses, such as blood pressure, muscle tension, and heart
rate. Sophisticated instruments are often used to measure physiological
responses and make them apparent to the patient, who then tries to alter
and ultimately control them without the aid of monitoring devices.
Biofeedback programs have been used to teach patients to relax muscles or
adjust blood flow in the case of headache, to help partially paralyzed
stroke victims activate muscles, and to alleviate anxiety in dental
patients.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biography%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOGRAPHY       @%%@QR:biography@% reconstruction in print of the lives of real people. With the%@EH@%
autobiography-an individual's interpretation of his own life-it shares a
venerable tradition. Ancient Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions
proclaimed the deeds of kings. Among the first biographies of ordinary
men, the Dialogues of %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@% (4th cent. BC) reveal their subject,
%@AU@%SOCRATES%@BO:          8aed83@%%@AE@%, by letting him speak for himself. A balanced assessment of
character is achieved in %@AU@%PLUTARCH'S%@BO:          76f2b8@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Parallel Lives%@AE@% (2d cent. AD), where
subjects are paired, e.g., %@AU@%DEMOSTHENES%@BO:          27e841@%%@AE@% with %@AU@%CICERO%@BO:          1e597e@%%@AE@%. In the medieval lives
of saints, human flaws were bypassed for saintly traits, but the few
secular biographies of the period, e.g., %@AU@%EINHARD'S%@BO:          2d174c@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Life of Charlemagne%@AE@%
(9th cent.), contain lively portraits of real people. The %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%
interest in worldly power and self-assertion is reflected in %@AU@%CELLINI'S%@BO:          1ab82e@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Autobiography%@AE@% (16th cent.). By the 17th cent. informality and intimacy
had been introduced, e.g., John %@AU@%AUBREY'S%@BO:           9ac97@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Brief Lives.%@AE@% In the 18th cent.
Dr. %@AU@%JOHNSON'S%@BO:          4cd852@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Lives of the Poets%@AE@% (1780-81) set the example for literary
biographies, notably James %@AU@%BOSWELL'S%@BO:          1276c4@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Life of Samuel Johnson%@AE@% (1791). The
first definitive biography, it was drawn from personal recollection,
letters, memoirs, and interviews. Later developments include the
psychoanalytic biography, e.g., Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD'S%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Leonardo Da Vinci%@AE@% (1910);
the debunking biography, e.g., Lytton Strachey's %@AI@%Eminent Victorians%@AE@%
(1918); and the thematic biography, e.g., Thomas %@AU@%MERTON'S%@BO:          5f09d6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Seven Storey
%@AI@%Mountain%@AE@% (1948), which follows the analogue of %@AU@%DANTE'S%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Inferno.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biological warfare, bacteriological warfare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biological warfare, bacteriological warfare%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOLOGIARE      @%%@QR:biological warfare, bacteriological warfare@% or %@AB@%germ warfare,%@AE@%employment%@EH@%
in war of microorganisms to injure or destroy human beings, animals, or
crops. Although "first use" of both biological and chemical weapons (see
%@AU@%CHEMICAL WARFARE%@BO:          1c73bd@%%@AE@%) was prohibited by the 1925 Geneva Convention, several
nations subsequently conducted research into detection and defense
systems, and developed microorganisms (including strains of smallpox and
the plague) suitable for military retaliation. Such organisms can be
delivered by animals, especially rodents or insects, or by %@AU@%AEROSOL%@BO:           18156@%%@AE@%
packages-built into artillery shells or the warheads of ground-to-ground
or air-to-ground missiles and released into the atmosphere to infect by
inhalation. Research in this area did not end after 1972, despite an
agreement that year by more than 100 nations, including the U.S. and the
USSR, to prohibit the development, testing, and stockpiling of biological
weapons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biology%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOLOGY         @%%@QR:biology@% science dealing with living things, broadly divided into%@EH@%
%@AU@%ZOOLOGY%@BO:          a57189@%%@AE@%, the study of animal life, and %@AU@%BOTANY%@BO:          127e00@%%@AE@%, the study of plant life.
Subdivisions include %@AU@%ANATOMY%@BO:           51e83@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PHYSIOLOGY%@BO:          755de9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@%; molecular biology,
the study of cells (cytology), tissues (histology), embryonic development
(see %@AU@%EMBRYO%@BO:          2e7758@%%@AE@%), and microscopic forms of life; as well as %@AU@%CLASSIFICATION%@BO:          1f0606@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@%, and paleontology (the study of %@AU@%FOSSILS%@BO:          34b3a3@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bioluminescence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bioluminescence%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOLUMINESCENCE @%%@QR:bioluminescence@% production of light by living organisms resulting from%@EH@%
the conversion of chemical energy to light energy. Bioluminescent plants
include certain %@AU@%MUSHROOMS%@BO:          656c63@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BACTERIA%@BO:           adab7@%%@AE@% that emit light continuously. The
dinoflagellates, a group of marine algae, produce light only when
disturbed. Bioluminescent animals include such organisms as %@AU@%COMB JELLIES%@BO:          20d634@%%@AE@%,
annelid worms, %@AU@%MOLLUSKS%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@%, insects such as %@AU@%FIREFLIES%@BO:          33565c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@%. Some
animals seem to use luminescence in courtship and mating, to divert
predators, or to attract prey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biomass energy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biomass energy%@AE@%:%@CR:BIOMASS.ENERGY  @%%@QR:biomass energy@% see %@AU@%ENERGY, SOURCES OF%@BO:          2ed030@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biome%@AE@%:%@CR:BIOME           @%%@QR:biome@% see %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bion%@AE@%,%@CR:BION            @%%@QR:Bion@% fl. 2d cent.? BC, Greek bucolic poet, an imitator of %@AU@%THEOCRITUS%@BO:          94b2ac@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
The %@AI@%Lament for Adonis%@AE@% (attributed to him) was the model for P.B.
%@AU@%SHELLEY'S%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Adonais%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bionics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bionics%@AE@%,%@CR:BIONICS         @%%@QR:bionics@% study of living systems with the intention of applying their%@EH@%
principles to the design of engineering systems. Drawing on
interdisciplinary research in the mechanical and life sciences, bionics
has been used to develop audiovisual equipment based on human eye and ear
function, to design air and naval craft patterned after the biological
structure of birds and fish, and to incorporate principles of the human
neurological system in data-processing systems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biophysics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biophysics%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOPHYSICS      @%%@QR:biophysics@% application of various tools, methods, and principles of%@EH@%
physical science to the study of biological problems. In biophysics,
physical mechanisms and mathematical and physical models have been used
to explain life processes such as the transmission of nerve impulses, the
muscle contraction mechanism, and the visual mechanism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biopsy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biopsy%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOPSY          @%%@QR:biopsy@% examination of cells or tissues removed from a living organism to%@EH@%
aid medical diagnosis. Samples may be removed surgically, as in excision
of breast tissue, or by aspiration of cells through a special needle, as
in the case of bone marrow.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biorhythm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biorhythm%@AE@%%@CR:BIORHYTHM       @%%@QR:biorhythm@% or %@AB@%biological rhythm,%@AE@%cyclic pattern of changes in physiology or%@EH@%
in activity of living organisms, often synchronized with daily, monthly,
or yearly environmental changes. Rhythms that vary according to the time
of day (circadian rhythms), in part a response to daylight or dark,
include the opening and closing of flowers and the nighttime increase in
activity of nocturnal animals. Circadian rhythms also include activities
that occur often during a 24-hour period, such as blood pressure changes
and urine production. Annual cycles, called cirannual rhythms, respond to
changes in the relative length of periods of daylight and include such
activities as migration and animal mating. Marine organisms are affected
by tide cycles. Although the exact nature of the internal mechanism is
not known, various external stimuli-including light, temperature, and
gravity-influence the organism's internal clock; in the absence of
external cues, the internal rhythms gradually drift out of phase with the
environment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biosphere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biosphere%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOSPHERE       @%%@QR:biosphere@% irregularly shaped envelope of the earth's air, water, and%@EH@%
land, encompassing the heights and depths at which living things exist.
The biosphere is a closed and self-regulating system (see %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%)
sustained by grand-scale cycles of energy and materials.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%biotechnology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%biotechnology%@AE@%,%@CR:BIOTECHNOLOGY   @%%@QR:biotechnology@% the industrial exploitation of biological knowledge,%@EH@%
particularly by genetic engineering, a technique for creating
custom-designed foods, new drugs, fertilizers, and pesticides as well as
genetically enhanced livestock and therapies to repair genetic defects.
Because biotechnology in effect involves techniques for patenting life
itself, new developments are raising legal, environmental, and moral
issues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biqa, Al%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biqa, Al%@AE@%,%@CR:BIQA            @%%@QR:Biqa, Al@% upland valley of Lebanon and Syria, 75 mi (121 km) long and 5-9%@EH@%
mi (8-14.5 km) wide, between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges. It is
also spelled El Bika, El Bekaa, or El Baqa. It is a continuation in Asia
of Africa's %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@%. The southern part of Al Biqa, drained and
irrigated by the Litani R., is one of the most productive farming areas
in the Middle East. Wars have been fought for its control since the dawn
of history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%birch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%birch%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRCH           @%%@QR:birch@% common name for some members of the Betulaceae, a family of%@EH@%
deciduous trees or shrubs widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere.
Growing mainly in the Northeast, the genera native to the U.S. are the
birches, %@AU@%ALDER%@BO:           3264e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HAZEL%@BO:          40c755@%%@AE@%, and hornbeam and hop hornbeam (both called
ironwood). Some birches are valued for their fine hardwoods, e.g., the
yellow birch (%@AI@%Betula lutea%@AE@%). White-barked birches are often used as
ornamentals, notably the paper birch (%@AI@%B. papyrifera%@AE@%) of the N United
States and Canada, whose bark was used by Indians for canoes and baskets.
Various birches produce edible fruits, sugar, vinegar, tea from leaves,
and birch beer from sap.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bird, Larry Joe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bird, Larry Joe%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRD1           @%%@QR:Bird, Larry Joe@% 1956-, American basketball player; b. French Lick, Ind.%@EH@%
Beginning in 1979, he starred for the Boston Celtic team that won the
National Basketball Association Championships in 1981, 1984, and 1986. He
was voted the NBA's Most Valuable Player from 1984 to 1986.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bird%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bird%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRD2           @%%@QR:bird@% warm-blooded, egg-laying %@AU@%VERTEBRATE%@BO:          9ce5a4@%%@AE@% of the class Aves, having its%@EH@%
body covered with %@AU@%FEATHERS%@BO:          321d5a@%%@AE@% and its forelimbs modified into wings. Like
%@AU@%MAMMALS%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@%, birds have a four-chambered heart; they have a relatively large
brain and acute hearing but little sense of smell. Believed to have
evolved from %@AU@%REPTILES%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@%, birds are highly adapted for flight. Their
feathers, though light, protect against cold and wet and have great
strength. Intricate courtship displays are performed by many species
during breeding season, when birdsong is most pronounced; singing ability
is usually restricted to, or superior in, the male. Most birds build some
kind of nest for their eggs, which vary in size, shape, color, and number
according to species. The chief domestic birds are the %@AU@%CHICKEN%@BO:          1cd92e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DUCK%@BO:          2b0ad4@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%GOOSE%@BO:          3b7c07@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TURKEY%@BO:          98d17d@%%@AE@%, and guinea fowl. Among the game birds hunted for food and
sport are %@AU@%GROUSE%@BO:          3df8bc@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PHEASANT%@BO:          746b83@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%QUAIL%@BO:          7b7cf2@%%@AE@%, and duck.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bird-of-paradise flower%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bird-of-paradise flower%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRDOFPFLOWER   @%%@QR:bird-of-paradise flower@% large tropical herb (%@AI@%Strelitzia reginae%@AE@%) of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%BANANA%@BO:           baaa8@%%@AE@% family, native to S Africa. Its blue and orange blossom resembles
an exotic bird of that name.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Birdseye, Clarence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Birdseye, Clarence%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRDSEYE        @%%@QR:Birdseye, Clarence@% 1886-1956, American inventor and founder of the%@EH@%
frozen-food industry; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. His successful experiments with
food-freezing processes led to the founding (1924) of the General Foods
Co. By 1949, Birdseye had perfected the anhydrous process, which reduces
the time needed for food freezing from 18 to 11/2 hr.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bird Woman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bird Woman%@AE@%:%@CR:BIRD.WOMAN      @%%@QR:Bird Woman@% see %@AU@%SACAJAWEA%@BO:          82b489@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Birkhoff, George David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Birkhoff, George David%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRKHOFF        @%%@QR:Birkhoff, George David@% 1884-1944, American mathematician; b. Overisel,%@EH@%
Mich. He is known for his work on linear differential equations and
difference equations. His introduction of the concepts of minimal or
recurrent sets of motion and establishment of their existence under
general conditions began a new era in the study of dynamical systems. He
also wrote on the foundations of relativity and quantum mechanics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Birmingham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Birmingham%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRMINGHAM1     @%%@QR:Birmingham@% second largest British city (1986 est. pop. 1,004,100), W%@EH@%
Midlands, England. It is a major industrial and transportation center
with such manufactures as automobiles, motorcycles, and bicycles. A
market town by the 15th cent., Birmingham developed rapidly in the 17th
and 18th cent. because of nearby deposits of iron and coal. In the 1870s
the city underwent extensive municipal improvement, and much of the
center was rebuilt after being bombed in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Birmingham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Birmingham%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRMINGHAM2     @%%@QR:Birmingham@% city (1980 pop. 284,413), seat of Jefferson co., N central%@EH@%
Ala., in the Jones Valley, near the southern end of the Appalachians;
inc. 1871. The largest city in Alabama, it is the leading iron and steel
center in the South. The area's coal, iron, and other resources supply
its plants and factories. Its industry has diversified, and it
manufactures a wide range of products, including transportation
equipment, chemicals, and processed food. Birmingham is also a
governmental, research, and trade center, connected by canal with the
Gulf of Mexico. It is the site of several colleges and cultural
institutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Birney, James Gillespie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Birney, James Gillespie%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRNEY          @%%@QR:Birney, James Gillespie@% 1792-1857, American abolitionist; b. Danville,%@EH@%
Ky. After freeing (1834) his inherited slaves, he helped organize (1835)
the Kentucky Anti-Slavery Society and was active in the American
Anti-Slavery Society. The acknowledged leader of %@AU@%ABOLITIONISTS%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@% favoring
political action, he ran for president on the Liberty Party line in 1840
and 1844.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%birth control%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%birth control%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRTH.CONTROL   @%%@QR:birth control@% practice of preventing conception for the purpose of%@EH@%
limiting the number of births; also called contraception and family
planning. The modern movement for birth control began in Britain, where
the writings of %@AU@%MALTHUS%@BO:          5a7371@%%@AE@% stirred interest in the problems of
overpopulation. The first birth-control clinic in the U.S. was opened in
1916 by birth-control leader Margaret %@AU@%SANGER%@BO:          840f4b@%%@AE@%. On an international level,
birth control is led by the International Planned Parenthood Federation
(founded 1952), and in some countries (e.g., Sweden, Japan, and many
Communist nations) the government provides birth-control assistance to
its people in order to limit population growth. The Roman Catholic Church
has provided the main opposition to the birth control movement, approving
only the so-called rhythm method, or abstinence from intercourse around
the time of ovulation. Other contraceptive methods include, for males,
withdrawal before ejaculation; use of a condom, or rubber sheath over the
penis; and sterilization by %@AU@%VASECTOMY%@BO:          9c0a66@%%@AE@%. Contraception for women includes
precoital use of spermicidal vaginal suppositories, foams, and jellies;
use of a diaphragm, a cup-shaped rubber device inserted into the vagina
before intercourse to prevent sperm from traveling to the egg; use of an
%@AU@%INTRAUTERINE DEVICE%@BO:          491741@%%@AE@%; and "the pill" (see %@AU@%ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE%@BO:          6e30b5@%%@AE@%). Surgical
sterilization for women includes tubal ligation (severing or sealing of
the Fallopian tubes). See also %@AU@%ABORTION%@BO:            5630@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%POPULATION%@BO:          783976@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%birth defects%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%birth defects%@AE@%,%@CR:BIRTH.DEFECTS   @%%@QR:birth defects@% abnormalities in physical and/or mental structure or%@EH@%
function that are present at birth. They range from minor to seriously
deforming and/or life-threatening, with some major defect occurring in
approximately 3% of births. Defects may be genetic in origin (as in
%@AU@%DOWN'S SYNDROME%@BO:          2a722c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TAY-SACHS DISEASE%@BO:          933be9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA%@BO:          88c9c9@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HEMOPHILIA%@BO:          4193aa@%%@AE@%)
or maybe caused by infectious agents (e.g., %@AU@%HERPES SIMPLEX%@BO:          42668f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RUBELLA%@BO:          81ad3f@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%VENEREAL DISEASES%@BO:          9c653d@%%@AE@%). Other teratogenic (malformation-causing) agents
include drugs or hormones taken by the mother (e.g., %@AU@%THALIDOMIDE%@BO:          947e62@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DES%@BO:          282dc7@%%@AE@%)
and maternal illnesses (e.g., %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%). The mother's nutrition, alcohol
and smoking habits, and exposure to radiation can also affect the
developing fetus. Certain birth defects can now be detected prenatally
through the procedure of %@AU@%AMNIOCENTESIS%@BO:           4c9b7@%%@AE@%, and surgical procedures are being
explored to correct certain disorders before birth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%birthstone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%birthstone%@AE@%:%@CR:BIRTHSTONE      @%%@QR:birthstone@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Biscayne National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Biscayne National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:BISCAYNAL.PARK  @%%@QR:Biscayne National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bishop, Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bishop, Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:BISHOP          @%%@QR:Bishop, Elizabeth@% 1911-79, American poet; b. Worcester, Mass. Her%@EH@%
penetrating and detached poetic vision is evident in such volumes as
%@AI@%Poems: North and South-A Cold Spring%@AE@% (1955; Pulitzer) and %@AI@%Geography III%@AE@%
(1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bishops' Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bishops' Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:BISHOPS.WARS    @%%@QR:Bishops' Wars@% two brief campaigns (1639, 1640) of the Scots against%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@% of England. Opposing his attempt to impose episcopacy, the
%@AU@%COVENANTERS%@BO:          241445@%%@AE@% pledged a return to Presbyterianism. They invaded England and
forced Charles to sign the Treaty of Ripon (Oct. 1640). See also %@AU@%ENGLISH
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bismarck, Otto von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bismarck, Otto von%@AE@%,%@CR:BISMARCK1       @%%@QR:Bismarck, Otto von@% 1815-98, German statesman, known as the Iron%@EH@%
Chancellor; premier of Prussia (1862-90) and chancellor of Germany
(1871-90). Upon becoming premier, following the wishes of %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1b62f@%%@AE@%, he
unconstitutionally dissolved parliament and illegally levied taxes for
the army. In order to expel Austria from the %@AU@%GERMAN CONFEDERATION%@BO:          3971e2@%%@AE@% (as a
first step toward unification of the German states), he provoked war with
Denmark (1864) and Austria itself (1866) over the %@AU@%SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN%@BO:          857e77@%%@AE@%
question. The Austro-Prussian war resulted in a quick defeat of Austria,
and Bismarck then formed the North German Confederation, from which
Austria was excluded. He exploited the German states' fears of France in
order to bring them into the Prussian orbit. He provoked the
%@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@% (1870-71), which ended in France's humiliating
defeat. Bismarck now easily brought the German states under the crown of
Prussia, and William was proclaimed emperor. Bismarck became the empire's
first chancellor, and ruled thereafter as virtual dictator. His system of
alliance and alignments made him the acknowledged leader of Europe (see
%@AU@%THREE EMPERORS' LEAGUE%@BO:          9562df@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BERLIN, CONGRESS OF%@BO:           ee464@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE
%@AU@%ENTENTE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%). Domestically, the German economy flourished. Bismarck's
struggle with the Church resulted in his cooperation with the liberals.
Partly to weaken the appeal of the socialists, he initiated (1883-87)
revolutionary social reforms, including child labor laws, maximum hours
legislation, and extensive old age, illness, and unemployment insurance.
Bismarck's economic policies resulted in the rapid growth of German
industry and the acquisition of overseas colonies. The accession (1888)
of %@AU@%WILLIAM II%@BO:          a1b62f@%%@AE@%, a longtime enemy, brought Bismarck's career to a close;
the new emperor dismissed him in 1890.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bismarck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bismarck%@AE@%,%@CR:BISMARCK2       @%%@QR:Bismarck@% city (1986 est. pop. 48,040), state capital and seat of%@EH@%
Burleigh co., S central N.Dak., on hills over the Missouri R.; inc. 1873,
territorial capital from 1883. Bismarck developed in the 1870s when the
Northern Pacific RR reached a steamboat port there. The trade center for
the region, it is a major wheat, grain, and livestock producer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bismuth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bismuth%@AE@%%@CR:BISMUTH         @%%@QR:bismuth@% (Bi), metallic element, established as a separate element by%@EH@%
Claud J. Geoffroy in 1753. The silver-white element is the poorest heat
conductor of all the metals except mercury. Its soluble compounds are
poisonous; its insoluble compounds are used to treat certain gastric
disorders and skin injuries. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bison%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bison%@AE@%,%@CR:BISON           @%%@QR:bison@% hoofed %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Bison%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CATTLE%@BO:          1a63a4@%%@AE@% family, with short horns%@EH@%
and heavy, humped shoulders. The European wisent (%@AI@%B. bonasus%@AE@%) is larger
than the North American bison (%@AI@%B. bison%@AE@%), commonly called %@AU@%BUFFALO%@BO:          152e56@%%@AE@%, which
may reach a shoulder height of 5 ft (1.5 m) and a weight of 2,500 lb
(1,130 kg). Bison roamed America in vast herds until slaughter by
settlers for sport and meat reduced them to near extinction; they are now
protected and thriving.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bissau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bissau%@AE@%,%@CR:BISSAU          @%%@QR:Bissau@% city (1987 est. pop. 109,214), capital of Guinea-Bissau, on the%@EH@%
Geba estuary, off the Atlantic Ocean. It is the country's largest city,
major port, and administrative center. Exports include peanuts, hardwood,
palm oil, coconuts, and shellfish, and there is some transit trade. Food
and beverage processing is the main industry. Founded (1687) by the
Portuguese as a fortified port and trading center, the city was the
capital (1942-74) of Portuguese Guinea.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bit%@AE@%:%@CR:BIT             @%%@QR:bit@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bithynia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bithynia%@AE@%,%@CR:BITHYNIA        @%%@QR:Bithynia@% ancient country of NW Asia Minor, in present-day Turkey. At%@EH@%
first an independent Thracian state, it became an autonomous part of the
Persian empire, and after the death of %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%, it was an
independent kingdom (3d-1st cent. BC). King Nicomedes IV willed it to
Rome (74 BC). Joined with Pontus as a single colony soon afterward,
Bithynia declined in the 2d cent. AD%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bittern%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bittern%@AE@%,%@CR:BITTERN         @%%@QR:bittern@% migratory marsh %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%HERON%@BO:          426287@%%@AE@% family. The American bittern,%@EH@%
widely distributed in E North America, is 2 to 3 ft (61 to 91 cm) tall.
When pursued, the bittern escapes detection by standing motionless with
uplifted bill, its yellow and brown markings blending with the marsh
grasses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bitterroot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bitterroot%@AE@%:%@CR:BITTERROOT      @%%@QR:bitterroot@% see %@AU@%PURSLANE%@BO:          7b1f5e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bittersweet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bittersweet%@AE@%,%@CR:BITTERSWEET     @%%@QR:bittersweet@% name for two unrelated fall-fruiting, woody vines. One%@EH@%
(%@AI@%Solanum dulcamara%@AE@%) belongs to the %@AU@%NIGHTSHADE%@BO:          6a257f@%%@AE@% family. Its twigs and stems
yield a medicinal narcotic poison similar to belladonna. The more popular
bittersweet (%@AI@%Celastrus scandens%@AE@%) is in the staff tree family. Both grow
in North America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bivalve%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bivalve%@AE@%,%@CR:BIVALVE         @%%@QR:bivalve@% %@AU@%MOLLUSK%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@% (class Pelecypoda) with a laterally compressed body and%@EH@%
an external shell consisting of two dorsally hinged valves. Bivalves lack
eyes and tentacles; inmost, a muscular foot, used for burrowing,
protrudes from the valves in front of the body. Shells range in size from
1/16 in. (2 mm) to over 4 ft (120 cm). Bivalves are an important food
source and include %@AU@%CLAMS%@BO:          1edd3c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COCKLES%@BO:          1fe13a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SHIPWORMS%@BO:          8874b4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCALLOPS%@BO:          8536af@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MUSSELS%@BO:          65a3e7@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%OYSTERS%@BO:          6fd339@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bizet, Georges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bizet, Georges%@AE@%%@CR:BIZET           @%%@QR:Bizet, Georges@%, 1838-75, French operatic composer. He is celebrated for%@EH@%
his immensely popular opera %@AI@%Carmen%@AE@% (1875), based on a story by %@AU@%MERIMEE%@BO:          5ef56e@%%@AE@%.
His other works include the opera %@AI@%The Pearlfishers%@AE@% (1863), the Symphony
in C Major (1868), and incidental music to %@AU@%DAUDET'S%@BO:          26acf3@%%@AE@% %@AI@%L'Arlesienne%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bjerknes, Vilhelm Frimann Koren%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bjerknes, Vilhelm Frimann Koren%@AE@%%@CR:BJERKNES        @%%@QR:Bjerknes, Vilhelm Frimann Koren@%, 1862-1951, Norwegian physicist and%@EH@%
pioneer in modern meteorology. He applied hydrodynamic and thermodynamic
theories to atmospheric and hydrospheric conditions in order to predict
future weather conditions. His work in meteorology and on electric waves
was important in the early development of wireless telegraphy. He and his
son %@AB@%Jakob Bjerknes,%@AE@% 1897-1975, evolved the polar-front theory of
cyclones.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bjornsone, Bjornstjerne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bjornsone, Bjornstjerne%@AE@%%@CR:BJORNSONE       @%%@QR:Bjornsone, Bjornstjerne@%, 1832-1910, Norwegian writer, a seminal figure in%@EH@%
19th-cent. Norwegian literature and a lifelong champion of liberal
causes. He sought to free the Norwegian theater from Danish influence and
to revive Norwegian as a literary language. As director of Bergen's Ole
Bull Theater (1857-59) and of the Oslo Theater (1863-67), he recreated
Norway's epic past in sagalike dramas, e.g., the trilogy %@AI@%Sigurd Slembe%@AE@%
(1862). He was named national poet of Norway, and his poem %@AI@%Yes, We Love
%@AI@%This Land of Ours%@AE@% became the national anthem. Other major works include
the novel %@AI@%The Fisher Girl%@AE@% (1868), the epic poem %@AI@%Arnljot Gelline%@AE@% (1870),
and the play %@AI@%Pastor Sang%@AE@% (1893). He received the 1903 Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bjornsson, Sveinn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bjornsson, Sveinn%@AE@%%@CR:BJORNSSON       @%%@QR:Bjornsson, Sveinn@%, 1881-1952, Icelandic diplomat and political leader. He%@EH@%
served as minister to Denmark (1920-41), regent of Iceland (1941-44),
and, after independence from Denmark, Iceland's first president
(1944-52).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bk%@AE@%,%@CR:BK              @%%@QR:Bk@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%BERKELIUM%@BO:           ed01b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black, Hugo Lafayette%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black, Hugo Lafayette%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK1          @%%@QR:Black, Hugo Lafayette@% 1886-1971, associate justice of the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME%@EH@%
%@AU@%COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1937-71); b. Harlan, Ala.; LL.B., Univ. of Alabama (1906). As a
U.S. senator (1927-37), he was an ardent supporter of the %@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@%.
Although his appointment to the Supreme Court was strongly opposed
because he had been a member of the %@AU@%KU KLUX KLAN%@BO:          50fe64@%%@AE@%, Black led the Court in
the battle for civil rights.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK2          @%%@QR:Black, Joseph@% 1728-99, Scottish chemist and physician; b. France.%@EH@%
Professor of chemistry at Glasgow and then at Edinburgh, he is best known
for his theories of latent heat and specific heat. He discovered carbon
dioxide ("fixed air") and helped establish chemistry as an exact science.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black Americans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black Americans%@AE@%%@CR:BLACK.AMERICANS @%%@QR:black Americans@% or %@AB@%Afro-Americans,%@AE@%people of the U.S. whose ancestors came%@EH@%
from sub-Saharan Africa; referred to historically as Negroes or colored
people. In 1980 there were c.26.5 million blacks in the U.S., forming
11.7% of the population. Black people have been in the Americas since the
early 16th cent., when Spanish planters began to transport them from
Africa to the West Indies as slaves. The first blacks on the North
American mainland were brought to Virginia (1619) as indentured servants.
With the success of tobacco planting, Negro %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@% was legalized in
Virginia and Maryland, becoming the foundation of the Southern agrarian
economy. Although there were also slaves in the Northern colonies, the
institution there did not become especially profitable. A black man,
Crispus Attucks, died in the %@AU@%BOSTON MASSACRE%@BO:          1270f2@%%@AE@% (1770), and c.5,000 blacks
fought beside whites in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. Slavery was gradually
abolished in the North, but the U.S. Constitution (ratified 1788)
protected the importation of slaves, and the invention of the %@AU@%COTTON GIN%@BO:          23dbfa@%%@AE@%
(1793) greatly increased the demand for them in the South. By 1830 there
were more than 2 million black slaves in the U.S. Slave revolts were led
by Nat %@AU@%TURNER%@BO:          98eb91@%%@AE@% and other %@AU@%ABOLITIONISTS%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@%. Although some slaves escaped north
via the %@AU@%UNDERGROUND RAILROAD%@BO:          99a7c1@%%@AE@% and a few purchased their freedom or
received testamentary manumission (freedom granted under the terms of a
master's will), the total slave population continued to grow. During the
U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% nearly 200,000 blacks fought in the Union Army-in
segregated units led by white officers-and some 38,000 lost their lives.
Pres. Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN'S%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% %@AU@%EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION%@BO:          2e65d1@%%@AE@% (1863) and Union
victory (1865) freed almost 4 million slaves. During %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@%
(1865-77) 16 blacks served in Congress, but extreme poverty became the
lot of most black Americans under the %@AU@%SHARE CROPPING%@BO:          87f975@%%@AE@% system in the South.
Resented by poor whites as economic competitors, they were often harassed
and sometimes killed (see %@AU@%LYNCHING%@BO:          58473d@%%@AE@%) by mobs or vigilante groups such as
the %@AU@%KU KLUX KLAN%@BO:          50fe64@%%@AE@%. Tennessee was (1875) the first of many states to enact
segregationist laws, and blacks were also disenfranchised by such devices
as the %@AU@%POLL TAX%@BO:          77a0e7@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%GRANDFATHER CLAUSE%@BO:          3c3bc7@%%@AE@%, and arbitrary literacy tests.
Segregation received federal sanction when the Supreme Court ruled (1896)
that it was legal if equal accommodations were provided for blacks and
whites (see %@AU@%PLESSY V. FERGUSON%@BO:          76dc85@%%@AE@%). By the early 1900s many blacks were
seeking better conditions by migrating to northern cities, where they
found work chiefly as domestics and unskilled laborers and lived in
crowded, segregated %@AU@%GHETTOS%@BO:          39ef02@%%@AE@%. After World War I black Americans began to
make some progress in business, the professions, and the arts, aided by
the %@AU@%NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE%@BO:          66beea@%%@AE@% (founded
1910) and the National Urban League (1911). Some northern ghettos,
notably %@AU@%HARLEM%@BO:          3ffcc3@%%@AE@%, in New York City, became centers of a growing black
middle class (see %@AU@%HARLEM RENAISSANCE%@BO:          3fff4c@%%@AE@%). World War II stimulated a new wave
of black migration to metropolitan areas, where many worked in defense
plants. The postwar era brought the end of segregation in the armed
services (1953), but economic progress remained slow. The %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@%
movement gained impetus when the Supreme Court ordered (1954) the
elimination of segregation in schools, overturning the separate-but-equal
rule (see %@AU@%BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION%@BO:          148ee6@%%@AE@%). In 1955 the Montgomery (Ala.) bus
boycott brought Dr. Martin Luther %@AU@%KING%@BO:          4fb6d8@%%@AE@%, Jr., to the forefront of the
fight for equal rights, and growing white support led to congressional
passage (1964, 1965) of sweeping civil rights and voting rights bills.
Nonetheless, many young blacks were drawn in the 1960s to the black
separatist ideal espoused by %@AU@%MALCOLM X%@BO:          5a31b4@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%BLACK MUSLIMS%@BO:          109be5@%%@AE@%, and others.
Tension and frustration produced riots in Rochester, N.Y. (1964), the
Watts district of Los Angeles (1965), Detroit (1967), and, after Dr.
King's assassination (1968), in more than 100 U.S. cities. The civil
rights movement of the 1970s increasingly became a struggle for economic
advancement, and, in the 1980s, such measures as %@AU@%AFFIRMATIVE ACTION%@BO:           1a033@%%@AE@% and
school %@AU@%BUSING%@BO:          160663@%%@AE@% to achieve racial balance were tested in the courts with
considerable success. However, with the median income of blacks far below
that of whites and unemployment much higher (especially among youth),
full equality of opportunity remains a distant goal. See also biographies
of individual black Americans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackbeard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackbeard%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACKBEARD      @%%@QR:Blackbeard@% d. 1718, English pirate. His name was probably Edward Teach%@EH@%
or Thatch. Originally a privateer in the War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@%,
he preyed on the West Indies and along the Atlantic coast. He was killed
by the British.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blackberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blackberry%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACKBERRY      @%%@QR:blackberry@% see %@AU@%BRAMBLE%@BO:          1347f9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blackbird%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blackbird%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACKBIRD       @%%@QR:blackbird@% perching %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% belonging to the family Icteridae, related to%@EH@%
the %@AU@%BOBOLINK%@BO:          113c42@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ORIOLE%@BO:          6eda1b@%%@AE@%. Except during breeding season, blackbirds travel
in flocks; these may number as many as 5 million birds and often do
serious crop damage. Common species are the red-winged, yellow-headed,
and brewer blackbirds. The European blackbird is a %@AU@%THRUSH%@BO:          956cb8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blackbody%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blackbody%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACKBODY       @%%@QR:blackbody@% in physics, an ideal substance that absorbs all and reflects%@EH@%
none of the radiant energy falling on it. An approximate blackbody is
lampblack, which reflects less than 2% of incoming radiation. A study of
blackbody radiation led Max %@AU@%PLANCK%@BO:          767384@%%@AE@% to develop %@AU@%QUANTUM THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@% in 1900.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Death%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Death%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.DEATH     @%%@QR:Black Death@% see %@AU@%PLAGUE%@BO:          76648a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black English%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black English%@AE@%.%@CR:BLACK.ENGLISH   @%%@QR:Black English@% Long considered merely substandard English, the %@AU@%DIALECT%@BO:          289aaf@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
spoken at times by as many as 80% to 90% of %@AU@%BLACK AMERICANS%@BO:          105bd2@%%@AE@% is in fact a
distinct form. African slaves confronting white culture, and themselves
speaking many different languages, developed a %@AU@%PIDGIN%@BO:          7587ae@%%@AE@%, mixing for the
most part English vocabulary and African syntax, that developed into
Black English. Much in Black English that seems grammatically incorrect
actually represents consistent application of African structural
principles. A social, rather than regional, dialect, it is similar in all
parts of the U.S., as research since the 1960s has shown. Its role in
public education is a source of controversy, because its effect on the
process of learning to read and write is not clearly understood. See also
%@AU@%GULLAH%@BO:          3e9228@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black-eyed bean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black-eyed bean%@AE@%%@CR:BLACKEYED.BEAN  @%%@QR:black-eyed bean@% or %@AB@%black-eyed pea:%@AE@% see %@AU@%COWPEA%@BO:          242698@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black-eyed Susan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black-eyed Susan%@AE@%%@CR:BLACKEYED.SUSAN @%%@QR:black-eyed Susan@% or %@AB@%yellow daisy,%@AE@% weedy biennial North American daisylike%@EH@%
wildflower (%@AI@%Rudbeckia hirta%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family, with yellow rays
and a dark brown center. This and other species in the genus are also
called yellow coneflowers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackfoot Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackfoot Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACKFONS       @%%@QR:Blackfoot Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Plains, who spoke an%@EH@%
Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). The Blackfoot, so called because they wore black-dyed
moccasins, were unremittingly hostile to most other tribes and usually to
white men, efficiently repelling intrusion. In the early 19th cent. they
lived in a large territory around the upper Missouri and N Saskatchewan
rivers, ranging W to the Rocky Mts. They developed a nomadic Plains
culture, based on the horse and buffalo. Their only crop was tobacco,
employed in such rituals as the %@AU@%SUN DANCE%@BO:          90b3de@%%@AE@%. The killing off of the buffalo
by the white man brought the Blackfoot almost to starvation. Today they
are mostly farmers and ranchers, living in Montana and Canada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Forest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Forest%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.FOREST    @%%@QR:Black Forest@% block mountain range, SW West Germany, extending c.90 mi%@EH@%
(145 km) along the Rhine rift valley. It is named for its cover of dark
pine forests. A popular resort area, it is known for its cuckoo clock and
toy industries. Baden-Baden and Freiburg are the chief cities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Friday%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Friday%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.FRIDAY    @%%@QR:Black Friday@% Sept. 24, 1869, in U.S. history, day of financial panic. To%@EH@%
corner the gold market, speculators, including Jay %@AU@%GOULD%@BO:          3bd5f6@%%@AE@% and James %@AU@%FISK%@BO:          336f75@%%@AE@%,
sought the support of federal officials of the %@AU@%GRANT%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@% administration. The
attempt failed when government gold was released for sale. The drive
ended on a Friday, when thousands were ruined. Other days of financial
panic have also been called Black Friday.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black gum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black gum%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.GUM       @%%@QR:black gum@% ornamental deciduous tree (%@AI@%Nyssa sylvatica%@AE@%), native to E North%@EH@%
America. The tough wood is used for wheel hubs. Black gum is also called
sour gum, tupelo, and pepperidge. The genus %@AI@%Nyssa%@AE@% may be derived from an
ancestral dogwood and is sometimes classified in the %@AU@%DOGWOOD%@BO:          29cd1b@%%@AE@% family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Hawk War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Hawk War%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.HAWK.WAR  @%%@QR:Black Hawk War@% 1832, conflict between the U.S. and the %@AU@%SAC AND FOX%@EH@%
%@AU@%INDIANS%@BO:          82b74e@%%@AE@%. An 1831 treaty compelled the Sac and Fox to move W of the
Mississippi, but in 1832, under Chief Black Hawk, a group returned to
Illinois. Fighting ensued, and most of Black Hawk's band were killed on
the Bad Axe R. (in present-day Wisconsin) by a force under Henry
Atkinson.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Hills%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Hills%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.HILLS     @%%@QR:Black Hills@% forested mountains rising above the %@AU@%GREAT PLAINS%@BO:          3ce6c6@%%@AE@% in SW South%@EH@%
Dakota and NE Wyoming. Harney Peak (7,242 ft/2,207 m) is the highest
point. Gold mining (begun in 1874) and tourism are chief industries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black hole%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black hole%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.HOLE      @%%@QR:black hole@% see %@AU@%GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE%@BO:          3c7d9e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black lead%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black lead%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.LEAD      @%%@QR:black lead@% see %@AU@%GRAPHITE%@BO:          3c605c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blackleg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blackleg%@AE@%%@CR:BLACKLEG        @%%@QR:blackleg@% or %@AB@%black quarter,%@AE@%acute infectious bacterial disease of cattle%@EH@%
and sometimes sheep, characterized by muscle inflammation and pain in the
affected areas. %@AU@%TOXINS%@BO:          970bcd@%%@AE@% formed by the %@AU@%BACTERIA%@BO:           adab7@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Clostridium%@AE@%) produce
severe muscle damage, and mortality is high.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black lung disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black lung disease%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.LASE      @%%@QR:black lung disease@% see %@AU@%PNEUMOCONIOSIS%@BO:          770653@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black magic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black magic%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.MAGIC     @%%@QR:black magic@% see %@AU@%MAGIC%@BO:          5969a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blackmail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blackmail%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACKMAIL       @%%@QR:blackmail@% see %@AU@%EXTORTION%@BO:          3146ed@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black market%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black market%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.MARKET    @%%@QR:black market@% trading in commodities above legal price or quantity%@EH@%
ceilings. To circumvent rationing and price controls, World War II black
marketeers traded in clothing and liquor in Britain and meat, sugar, and
gasoline in the U.S.; during %@AU@%PROHIBITION%@BO:          79f220@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BOOTLEGGING%@BO:          121f8f@%%@AE@% was also a
black-market operation. Fears of inflation or unrealistic official rates
have led to black-market currency exchange in many countries. Black
marketeering is a chronic problem for nations with state-controlled
economies and for those developing countries attempting to implement
balanced programs of economic growth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Monday%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Monday%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.MONDAY    @%%@QR:Black Monday@% Oct. 19, 1987, in U.S. history, day of financial panic. The%@EH@%
%@AU@%DOW-JONES AVERAGE%@BO:          2a6d9b@%%@AE@% fell 508.32 points. It was the greatest one-day decline
since 1914. The point decline as well as the volume, 604.33 million
shares, also exceeded previous records. Among the possible causes listed
by the Presidential Task Force on Market Mechanisms and by the Securities
and Exchange Commission were investors' anxiety about U.S. international
trade and federal deficits, U.S. criticism of West Germany's economic
policies, the cascading effect of the automatic selling of stocks, and
the drop in stock-index futures triggered by computerized trading
programs. Stocks throughout the world joined the slide. By the spring of
1988, the U.S. economy and the stock market had recovered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackmore, Richard Doddridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackmore, Richard Doddridge%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACKMORE       @%%@QR:Blackmore, Richard Doddridge@% 1825-1900, English novelist. Though he%@EH@%
wrote many novels, he is famous for %@AI@%Lorna Doone%@AE@% (1869), a romance about
17th-cent. outlaws.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackmun, Harry Andrew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackmun, Harry Andrew%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACKMUN        @%%@QR:Blackmun, Harry Andrew@% see %@AU@%SUPREME COURT, UNITED STATES%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Muslims%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Muslims%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.MUSLIMS   @%%@QR:Black Muslims@% popular name for members of a black nationalist movement%@EH@%
in the U.S. Founded (1930) in Detroit, the sect, then called the Nation
of Islam, was led (1934-75) by Elijah %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@%, under whom the sect
greatly expanded. In the 1960s tension between Muhammad and %@AU@%MALCOLM X%@BO:          5a31b4@%%@AE@%, a
Black Muslim minister, developed. Malcolm X's assassination (1965) may
have been instigated by Muhammad's followers. The Black Muslims live
austerely and advocate a separate autonomous nation within the U.S. for
their adherents. Wallace D. Muhammad succeeded his father as leader in
1975 and steered the sect (renamed the World Community of Islam in the
West and later the American Muslim Mission) away from these beliefs and
toward orthodox Islam. A splinter group, known by the original name, the
Nation of Islam, has continued to follow the teachings of Elijah
Muhammad.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Panther party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Panther party%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.PARTY     @%%@QR:Black Panther party@% U.S. black militant political organization (founded%@EH@%
1966) advocating violent revolution to achieve black liberation. Its
members became involved (late 1960s) in clashes with the police, and,
after close FBI scrutiny, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, the party's
founders, were tried in a number of court cases, but were acquitted.
Another leader, Eldridge Cleaver, left (1975) the party, which was torn
by rival factions. By the 1980s the Black Panther party had ceased to
play an important part in the black movement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Prince%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Prince%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.PRINCE    @%%@QR:Black Prince@% see %@AU@%EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE%@BO:          2ca045@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black quarter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black quarter%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.QUARTER   @%%@QR:black quarter@% see %@AU@%BLACKLEG%@BO:          108eb2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.SEA       @%%@QR:Black Sea@% c.159,600 sq mi (413,360 sq km), SE Europe, connected with the%@EH@%
%@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN SEA%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@% via the %@AU@%DARDANELLES%@BO:          2672dd@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BOSPORUS%@BO:          1267b2@%%@AE@%. Bordered by the USSR
(N,E), Turkey (S), and Bulgaria and Rumania (W), it is c.750 mi (1,200
km) wide at its greatest extent and has a maximum depth of 7,364 ft
(2,245 m). Almost tideless, it is ice-free in winter. The %@AU@%CRIMEA%@BO:          24a027@%%@AE@%, a
peninsula on its northern shore, is a major Soviet resort area. %@AU@%ODESSA%@BO:          6ce53f@%%@AE@%
and Constanta are the chief ports.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackstone, Sir William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackstone, Sir William%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACKSTONE      @%%@QR:Blackstone, Sir William@% 1723-80, British jurist. At Oxford, after 1758,%@EH@%
he was the first at a British university to teach English, as opposed to
Roman, law. In his great work %@AI@%Commentaries on the Laws of England%@AE@%
(1765-69) Blackstone ordered and elucidated the bulk of English law,
showing it to be comparable to Roman law and to the civil law of the
Continent. Although criticized, by %@AU@%BENTHAM%@BO:           e8bd7@%%@AE@% among others, for a failure to
analyze social and historical factors, Blackstone's work had tremendous
effect on the profession and study of law, both in Britain and in the
U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black studies%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black studies%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACK.STUDIES   @%%@QR:black studies@% see %@AU@%ETHNIC STUDIES%@BO:          306227@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Black Watch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Black Watch%@AE@%%@CR:BLACK.WATCH     @%%@QR:Black Watch@% or %@AB@%Royal Highland Regiment,%@AE@%Scottish infantry regiment. It was%@EH@%
formed (1739-40) to watch Scottish rebels and keep the peace. It became
known as the Black Watch because of the dark colors of the regimental
tartan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackwell, Alice Stone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackwell, Alice Stone%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACKWELL1      @%%@QR:Blackwell, Alice Stone@% see under %@AU@%STONE, LUCY%@BO:          8f4932@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackwell, Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackwell, Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACKWELL2      @%%@QR:Blackwell, Elizabeth@% 1821-1910, American physician; b. England. An 1849%@EH@%
graduate of the Geneva (N.Y.) Medical College, she was the first woman in
the U.S. to receive a medical degree. She helped to found the New York
Infirmary for Women and Children (1857) and its Women's Medical College
(1868).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blackwell, Henry Brown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blackwell, Henry Brown%@AE@%:%@CR:BLACKWELL3      @%%@QR:Blackwell, Henry Brown@% see under %@AU@%STONE, LUCY%@BO:          8f4932@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%black widow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%black widow%@AE@%,%@CR:BLACK.WIDOW     @%%@QR:black widow@% poisonous %@AU@%SPIDER%@BO:          8d8568@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Latrodectus%@AE@%) found in the Americas.%@EH@%
Adults are black with a red to orange hour glass-shaped abdominal
marking. The female is not quite 1/2 in. (1.3 cm) long; she may eat the
smaller male after mating. The bite venom, a neurotoxin, is sometimes
fatal to children.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bladder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bladder%@AE@%:%@CR:BLADDER         @%%@QR:bladder@% see %@AU@%URINARY SYSTEM%@BO:          9b1328@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blaine, James Gillespie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blaine, James Gillespie%@AE@%,%@CR:BLAINE          @%%@QR:Blaine, James Gillespie@% 1830-93, American politician; b. West%@EH@%
Brownsville, Pa. He was a U.S. representative from Maine (1863-76),
Speaker of the House (1869-75), U.S. senator (1876-81), and U.S.
secretary of state (1881, 1889-92). Blaine failed to capture the 1876
Republican presidential nomination after a scandal; it was alleged that
he had improperly secured a land grant for an Arkansas railroad. The
leader of the "Half-Breed" Republicans who opposed the regular or
"Stalwart" faction, he was the party's nominee in 1884. He was defeated
by Grover %@AU@%CLEVELAND%@BO:          1f5521@%%@AE@%, in part because he failed to disavow a supporter's
remark that characterized the New York Democrats as the party of "rum,
Romanism, and rebellion." As secretary of state, he fostered close
U.S.-Latin American relations and brought about the first Pan-American
Congress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blair, Eric Arthur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blair, Eric Arthur%@AE@%:%@CR:BLAIR1          @%%@QR:Blair, Eric Arthur@% see %@AU@%ORWELL, GEORGE%@BO:          6f153e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blair, Francis Preston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blair, Francis Preston%@AE@%,%@CR:BLAIR2          @%%@QR:Blair, Francis Preston@% 1791-1876, American journalist and politician; b.%@EH@%
Abington, Va. Blair was an ardent supporter of Andrew %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% and a
member of the %@AU@%KITCHEN CABINET%@BO:          50103f@%%@AE@%. In 1830 he founded the Washington %@AI@%Globe.%@AE@%
He was also among the founders of the %@AU@%REPUBLICAN PARTY%@BO:          7e5712@%%@AE@% and was an adviser
to Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@%. His son %@AB@%Francis Preston Blair,%@AE@% 1821-75, was a Union
general in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% and a U.S. senator (1871-73). Another son,
%@AB@%Montgomery Blair,%@AE@% 1813-83, was the first U.S. solicitor in the Court of
Claims (1855-57), in which capacity he served as counsel to Dred Scott in
the %@AU@%DRED SCOTT CASE%@BO:          2a9698@%%@AE@%. He was also Lincoln's postmaster general (1861-64).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blake, Eubie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blake, Eubie%@AE@%%@CR:BLAKE1          @%%@QR:Blake, Eubie@% (James Hubert Blake), 1883-1983, black American pianist and%@EH@%
composer; b. Baltimore. His career has extended from ragtime (see %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%)
to the 1980s. With the songwriter Noble Sissle he produced early black
Broadway musicals, e.g., %@AI@%Shuffle Along%@AE@% (1921). His most famous songs are
"Memories of You" and "I'm Just Wild about Harry."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blake, Nicholas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blake, Nicholas%@AE@%:%@CR:BLAKE2          @%%@QR:Blake, Nicholas@% see %@AU@%DAY LEWIS, CECIL%@BO:          26ea97@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blake, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blake, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BLAKE3          @%%@QR:Blake, William@% 1757-1827, English poet and artist who exerted a great%@EH@%
influence on English %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%. His first book, %@AI@%Poetical Sketches%@AE@%
(1783), was the only one published conventionally during his life. With
the help of his wife, Catherine Boucher, he illustrated and published all
his other major poetry himself. %@AI@%Songs of Innocence%@AE@% (1789) and %@AI@%Songs of
%@AI@%Experience%@AE@% (1794), containing "The Lamb," "The Tyger," and "London," are
written from a child's point of view, directly, simply, and
unsentimentally. Blake was a visionary and a mystic, and in his
"Prophetic Books," including %@AI@%The Book of Thel%@AE@% (1789), %@AI@%The Marriage of
%@AI@%Heaven and Hell%@AE@% (c.1790), %@AI@%Milton%@AE@% (1804-8), and %@AI@%Jerusalem%@AE@% (1804-20), he
created his own mythology in which love, energy, and imagination vie with
the forces of reductive rationalism and repression. Blake's paintings and
engravings, notably his illustrations of his own works, works by Milton,
and the Book of Job, are realistic in their representation of human
anatomy and other natural forms, but also radiantly imaginative, often
depicting fanciful creatures in exacting detail. All of Blake's works
were ignored or dismissed until long after his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blanc, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blanc, Louis%@AE@%%@CR:BLANC           @%%@QR:Blanc, Louis@%, 1811-82, French socialist and journalist; b. Spain. In his%@EH@%
%@AI@%Organization of Work%@AE@% (1840) he outlined an ideal social order based on
the principle "From each according to his abilities, to each according to
his needs." As a first stage he advocated a system of "social workshops"
controlled by workers. A member of the 1848 provisional government, he
was implicated in a workers' revolt and fled to England, where he wrote
his %@AI@%History of the French Revolution%@AE@% (12 vol., 1847-64). On his return to
France (1871) he became a member of the national assembly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blanco, Antonio Guzman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blanco, Antonio Guzman%@AE@%:%@CR:BLANCO          @%%@QR:Blanco, Antonio Guzman@% see %@AU@%GUZMAN BLANCO%@BO:          3ebe50@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bland-Allison Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bland-Allison Act%@AE@%,%@CR:BLANDALT        @%%@QR:Bland-Allison Act@% 1878, passed by the U.S. Congress to provide freer%@EH@%
coinage of silver. Offered by Rep. Richard P. Bland and amended by Sen.
William B. Allison, the act required the U.S. Treasury to purchase
between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion monthly, to be
coined into silver dollars. Attempts of the Western %@AU@%FREE SILVER%@BO:          35e107@%%@AE@% forces to
replace the act with provision for unlimited coinage failed, as did
attempts of the gold-standard forces to repeal it altogether. It remained
law until passage (1890) of the %@AU@%SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE ACT%@BO:          8842d4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blank verse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blank verse%@AE@%:%@CR:BLANK.VERSE     @%%@QR:blank verse@% see %@AU@%PENTAMETER%@BO:          72fb69@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blantyre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blantyre%@AE@%,%@CR:BLANTYRE        @%%@QR:Blantyre@% city (1985 est. pop. 355,200), S Malawi, in the Shire%@EH@%
Highlands. It is Malawi's main commercial and industrial center and is
connected by rail to the Indian Ocean port of Beira, Mozambique.
Manufactures include cement and textiles. Founded in 1876 by Scottish
missionaries, it was named for the birthplace of the explorer David
%@AU@%LIVINGSTONE%@BO:          55dafe@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blasco Ibanez, Vicente%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blasco Ibanez, Vicente%@AE@%%@CR:BLASCO.IBANEZ   @%%@QR:Blasco Ibanez, Vicente@%, 1867-1928, Spanish novelist and politician. For%@EH@%
his anti-monarchist activities he was imprisoned 30 times. His World War
I novel %@AI@%The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse%@AE@% (1916), the best known of his
many in the naturalistic vein, made him world famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blass, Bill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blass, Bill%@AE@%:%@CR:BLASS           @%%@QR:Blass, Bill@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blast furnace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blast furnace%@AE@%,%@CR:BLAST.FURNACE   @%%@QR:blast furnace@% structure used chiefly in %@AU@%SMELTING%@BO:          8a52d3@%%@AE@%, i.e., extracting%@EH@%
%@AU@%METALS%@BO:          5f2d7a@%%@AE@%, mainly %@AU@%IRON%@BO:          49b3ab@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%, from their %@AU@%ORES%@BO:          6e8cf3@%%@AE@%. The principle involved
is that of the reduction of the ores by the action of %@AU@%CARBON MONOXIDE%@BO:          18c734@%%@AE@%,
i.e., the removal of oxygen from the metal oxide in order to obtain the
metal. %@AU@%PIG IRON%@BO:          75a3c5@%%@AE@% prepared in the blast furnace is converted to %@AU@%STEEL%@BO:          8e883b@%%@AE@% by
the %@AU@%BESSEMER PROCESS%@BO:           f25c3@%%@AE@%. Copper ore treated in a blast furnace yields a
copper sulfide mixture, which is usually further refined by electrolytic
methods (see %@AU@%ELECTROLYSIS%@BO:          2d7e18@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blau, Joseph Leon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blau, Joseph Leon%@AE@%,%@CR:BLAU            @%%@QR:Blau, Joseph Leon@% 1909-86, American Jewish scholar and educator; b.%@EH@%
Brooklyn, N.Y. Professor of religion (1962-77) at Columbia, he examined
cross-cultural influences on Judaism's development in %@AI@%The Story of Jewish
%@AI@%Philosophy%@AE@% (1962), %@AI@%The Jews of the United States%@AE@% (ed. with S.W. %@AU@%BARON%@BO:           c6b7c@%%@AE@%,
1963), and %@AI@%Judaism in America%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blaue Reiter, Der%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blaue Reiter, Der%@AE@%%@CR:BLAUE.REITER    @%%@QR:Blaue Reiter, Der@% [Ger.,=the blue rider], German expressionist art%@EH@%
movement (see %@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:          313c02@%%@AE@%) lasting from 1911 to 1914. It was named for
%@AU@%KANDINSKY'S%@BO:          4e21d5@%%@AE@% painting %@AI@%Le cavalier bleu.%@AE@% The movement was led by Kandinsky,
%@AU@%KLEE%@BO:          5020b4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MARC%@BO:          5b6aa0@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MACKE%@BO:          58ded0@%%@AE@%, in Munich. Their works ranged from pure
abstraction to romantic imagery, attempting to express spiritual truths.
Common to the group was a philosophical spirit, an intellectual approach
to technique, and a lyrical spontaneity. A number of their illustrations
and articles were published as the "%@AI@%Blaue Reiter" Album%@AE@% (1911).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blazonry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blazonry%@AE@%,%@CR:BLAZONRY        @%%@QR:blazonry@% science of describing or depicting armorial bearings. Since the%@EH@%
Middle Ages the science has grown very complicated. Its chief part is the
description of the shield of a coat of arms, including the color of the
field on which devices are displayed. Arms are identified by their
charges; the most common of these, the ordinaries, have lines of
division, heraldic animals, and flowers. Blazonry also involves
descriptions of the crest above the shield and of the motto. In England
blazonry is regulated by the %@AU@%HERALDS' COLLEGE%@BO:          421f98@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%HERALDRY%@BO:          4219e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bleaching%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bleaching%@AE@%,%@CR:BLEACHING       @%%@QR:bleaching@% the process of whitening a substance by exposure to the sun,%@EH@%
or by chemical processes. Chemical methods include %@AU@%OXIDATION AND
%@AU@%REDUCTION%@BO:          6fc331@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ADSORPTION%@BO:           1593e@%%@AE@%. In 1799 Charles Macintosh invented the first
modern chemical bleach, chloride of lime, known as bleaching powder.
Previous bleaching agents included chlorine, sulfuric acid, and milk.
Bleaching is applied to a variety of products, including textiles, wood
pulp, wood, and flour.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bleriot, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bleriot, Louis%@AE@%%@CR:BLERIOT         @%%@QR:Bleriot, Louis@%, 1872-1936, French aviator and inventor. He invented an%@EH@%
automobile searchlight, then turned to designing and constructing
monoplanes. On July 25, 1909, he was the first person to cross the
English Channel in a heavier-than-air machine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bligh, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bligh, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BLIGH           @%%@QR:Bligh, William@% 1754-1817, British admiral. He is chiefly remembered for%@EH@%
the mutiny on his ship, the %@AU@%BOUNTY%@BO:          12b38c@%%@AE@%, in 1789. He was later governor of %@AU@%NEW
%@AU@%SOUTH WALES%@BO:          6936b0@%%@AE@% (1805-8).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blight%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blight%@AE@%,%@CR:BLIGHT          @%%@QR:blight@% any sudden, severe plant disease characterized by the withering%@EH@%
and death of the plant; also, the causative agent of such a disease. Most
blights are caused by %@AU@%BACTERIA%@BO:           adab7@%%@AE@% (e.g., bean blights), %@AU@%VIRUSES%@BO:          9de468@%%@AE@%, (e.g.,
soybean bud blight), or %@AU@%FUNGI%@BO:          36e36c@%%@AE@% (e.g., chestnut blight).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blimp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blimp%@AE@%:%@CR:BLIMP           @%%@QR:blimp@% see %@AU@%AIRSHIP%@BO:           26d33@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blindness%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blindness%@AE@%,%@CR:BLINDNESS       @%%@QR:blindness@% partial or complete loss of sight. Blindness may be congenital%@EH@%
or caused by injury or disease. Lesions of the brain, %@AU@%CATARACT%@BO:          1a1737@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GLAUCOMA%@BO:          3a9bab@%%@AE@%,
or retinal detachment can result in loss of vision, as can changes in the
%@AU@%EYE%@BO:          315c49@%%@AE@% associated with disorders such as %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@%. In
retinitis pigmentosa, a genetically transmitted disorder, visual
impairment develops in childhood and gradually progresses to complete
blindness. The %@AU@%BRAILLE%@BO:          133192@%%@AE@% system enables the blind to read and write. See
%@AU@%GUIDE DOG%@BO:          3e59ff@%%@AE@%; see also %@AU@%BIRTH DEFECTS%@BO:          1026a9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COLOR BLINDNESS%@BO:          209d5f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blitzkrieg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blitzkrieg%@AE@%:%@CR:BLITZKRIEG      @%%@QR:blitzkrieg@% see %@AU@%MECHANIZED WARFARE%@BO:          5df1c4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blixen, Karen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blixen, Karen%@AE@%:%@CR:BLIXEN          @%%@QR:Blixen, Karen@% see %@AU@%DINESEN, ISAK%@BO:          29166d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloch, Ernest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloch, Ernest%@AE@%%@CR:BLOCH1          @%%@QR:Bloch, Ernest@%, 1880-1959, Swiss-American composer; b. Switzerland. He%@EH@%
taught in the U.S. and Switzerland. His music is classical, but personal
and Hebraic in tone, e.g., the Hebrew rhapsody %@AI@%Schelomo,%@AE@% the symphonic
poem %@AI@%Israel%@AE@% (both: 1916), and %@AI@%Cinq pieces Hebraique%@AE@% (1951). He also wrote
concertos, string quartets, and pieces for chorus and orchestra.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloch, Konrad Emil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloch, Konrad Emil%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOCH2          @%%@QR:Bloch, Konrad Emil@% 1912-, American biochemist; b. Germany. For his%@EH@%
discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and
fatty-acid metabolism, he shared with Feodor Lynen the 1964 Nobel Prize
in physiology or medicine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloch, Marc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloch, Marc%@AE@%%@CR:BLOCH3          @%%@QR:Bloch, Marc@%, 1886-1944, French historian. An authority on medieval%@EH@%
feudalism, he wrote %@AI@%Feudal Society%@AE@% (1939, 1940), a brilliant synthesis on
the subject. His other works include %@AI@%French Rural History%@AE@% (1931), and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Historian's Craft%@AE@% (1949). Active in the French Resistance during World
War II, he was executed by the Germans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Block, Herbert Lawrence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Block, Herbert Lawrence%@AE@%:%@CR:BLOCK           @%%@QR:Block, Herbert Lawrence@% see %@AU@%HERBLOCK%@BO:          42301c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%block book%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%block book%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOCK.BOOK      @%%@QR:block book@% book printed from engraved wooden blocks, one for each page.%@EH@%
Although produced in Europe before and after the invention of %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@AE@%,
block books have a richer history in China and Japan, where the large
number of written characters made printing from movable type impractical.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloemfontein%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloemfontein%@AE@%%@CR:BLOEMFONTEIN    @%%@QR:Bloemfontein@%, city (1980 pop. 230,688), capital of the Orange Free State%@EH@%
and judicial capital of South Africa. It is a transportation and
industrial center. The city was founded in 1846 by Boer settlers and was
captured (1900) by the British during the %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICAN WAR%@BO:          8be2a7@%%@AE@%. It was the
site of negotiations that led to the founding (1910) of the Union of
South Africa and the conference (1912) founded the %@AU@%AFRICAN NATIONAL
%@AU@%CONGRESS%@BO:           1e574@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blois%@AE@%%@CR:BLOIS           @%%@QR:Blois@%, town (1982 pop. 49,422), capital of Loir-et-Cher dept., central%@EH@%
France, known for its trade in wine and brandies. From the 10th cent. the
counts of Blois were France's most powerful lords. With the accession
(1498) of Louis XII (who was born in its Renaissance chateau), Blois
passed to the French crown.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich%@AE@%%@CR:BLOK            @%%@QR:Blok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich@%, 1880-1921, Russian poet, considered the%@EH@%
leading Russian %@AU@%SYMBOLIST%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%. Influenced by Soloviev, he voiced mysticism
and idealistic passion in%@AI@%Verses about the Beautiful Lady%@AE@% (1904). %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Unknown Woman%@AE@% (1906) expresses his later despair. He celebrated the
Bolshevik Revolution in %@AI@%The Twelve%@AE@% (1918) and %@AI@%The Scythians%@AE@% (1920).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blood%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOD           @%%@QR:blood@% fluid that is pumped by the %@AU@%HEART%@BO:          40ef87@%%@AE@% and circulates through the body%@EH@%
via arteries, veins, and capillaries, carrying oxygen and nutrients to
the body tissues, and carbon dioxide and wastes away from them (see
%@AU@%CIRCULATORY SYSTEM%@BO:          1e85bb@%%@AE@%). It is also involved in tissue repair, cell
%@AU@%METABOLISM%@BO:          5f2b14@%%@AE@%, infection resistance, and other life-sustaining activities.
Blood is made up of plasma, a colorless fluid containing red blood cells
(erythrocytes), which carry on oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange; white
blood cells (leukocytes), which defend the body from foreign agents;
platelets that function in blood clotting; %@AU@%HORMONES%@BO:          446acb@%%@AE@%; and essential salts
and %@AU@%PROTEINS%@BO:          7a2e5b@%%@AE@%. There are about 6 quarts (5.6 liters) of blood in an
average-sized adult male human. Blood is classified into %@AU@%BLOOD GROUPS%@BO:          10ffb2@%%@AE@%. A
deficiency of red blood cells is %@AU@%ANEMIA%@BO:           56094@%%@AE@%; abnormal proliferation of
leukocytes is known as %@AU@%LEUKEMIA%@BO:          544d09@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%BLOOD BANK%@BO:          10fda2@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BLOOD TRANSFUSION%@BO:          110bf4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blood bank%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blood bank%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOD.BANK      @%%@QR:blood bank@% site for collecting, processing, typing, and storing whole%@EH@%
%@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% and blood products. Whole blood may be preserved up to 21 days
without losing its usefulness in %@AU@%BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS%@BO:          110bf4@%%@AE@%; an anticoagulant is
added to it to prevent clotting. Blood plasma, the fluid portion of the
blood, may be frozen and stored indefinitely.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blood groups%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blood groups%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOD.GROUPS    @%%@QR:blood groups@% classifications of human %@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% based on immunological%@EH@%
properties. The most widely used blood classification system is the ABO
system, described by %@AU@%LANDSTEINER%@BO:          51f700@%%@AE@%. It divides blood into A, B, AB, and O
groups, depending on the presence of specific chemical substances on the
surface of the red blood cells (A, B, or AB), or their absence (O). These
substances act antigenically, i.e., to cause the formation of specific
antibodies when injected into a recipient (see %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%). Because the
formation of antibodies can create a potentially dangerous condition in
an individual receiving a %@AU@%BLOOD TRANSFUSION%@BO:          110bf4@%%@AE@%, the blood of a donor must be
compatible with that of the recipient. Another blood-group system
important in blood transfusion compatibility is the %@AU@%RH FACTOR%@BO:          7ebcbd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bloodhound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bloodhound%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOODHOUND      @%%@QR:bloodhound@% large %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.25 in. (63.5 cm); weight,%@EH@%
80-110 lb (36.3-49.9 km). Its short, smooth coat is black and tan, red
and tan, or tawny. The skin hangs infolds on the face. The oldest hound,
known in Europe over 2,000 years ago, it was brought to the U.S. in the
19th cent. It has a superb sense of smell and is used for tracking.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blood poisoning%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blood poisoning%@AE@%:%@CR:BLOOD.POISONING @%%@QR:blood poisoning@% see %@AU@%SEPTICEMIA%@BO:          870a1b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blood pressure%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blood pressure%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOD.PRESSURE  @%%@QR:blood pressure@% force exerted by blood upon the walls of the arteries. It%@EH@%
is initiated by the pumping action of the heart, and pressure waves can
be felt at the wrist and other %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aea57@%%@AE@% points. Blood pressure is strongest
in the aorta, where the blood leaves the %@AU@%HEART%@BO:          40ef87@%%@AE@%, and diminishes
progressively in the smaller vessels. Contraction of the heart (systole)
produces the highest pressure, while heart relaxation (diastole) reduces
the pressure to its lowest point. Pressure is measured at the brachial
artery in the forearm (for consistency) in millimeters of mercury;
pressures of about 120/80 (systolic/ diastolic) are considered normal in
young people. Conditions involving high blood pressure include
%@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%STROKE%@BO:          8fcd44@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bloodstone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bloodstone%@AE@%%@CR:BLOODSTONE      @%%@QR:bloodstone@% or %@AB@%heliotrope,%@AE@%green %@AU@%CHALCEDONY%@BO:          1b3e0e@%%@AE@% spotted with red, used as a%@EH@%
%@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%. It is found in India, the U.S., Brazil, and Australia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blood transfusion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blood transfusion%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOD.TON       @%%@QR:blood transfusion@% transfer of blood from the venous system of one person%@EH@%
to that of another, or from one animal to another of the same species.
Transfusions are performed to replace a large loss of blood (as in
hemorrhage, %@AU@%SHOCK%@BO:          8879e3@%%@AE@%, and severe %@AU@%BURNS%@BO:          15cd80@%%@AE@%) and as supportive treatment in
certain disorders (e.g., %@AU@%HEMOPHILIA%@BO:          4193aa@%%@AE@%). In whole blood transfusions, the
%@AU@%BLOOD GROUPS%@BO:          10ffb2@%%@AE@% (including the %@AU@%RH FACTOR%@BO:          7ebcbd@%%@AE@%) must be compatible with that of
the recipient; if not, red blood cells will rupture and clump, a
condition that can result in %@AU@%JAUNDICE%@BO:          4b81e4@%%@AE@%, kidney damage, and death. People
with blood group O are universal donors, having blood that is compatible
with all other groups; those with blood group AB are universal
recipients, able to accept blood from all other groups. When whole blood
is not needed or is unavailable, the fluid part of the blood (plasma) may
be given.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloody Assizes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloody Assizes%@AE@%:%@CR:BLOODY.ASSIZES  @%%@QR:Bloody Assizes@% see %@AU@%JEFFREYS OF WEM, GEORGE JEFFREYS%@BO:          4bb89b@%%@AE@%, 1st %@AU@%BARON%@BO:           c6b7c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloomer, Amelia Jenks%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloomer, Amelia Jenks%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOMER         @%%@QR:Bloomer, Amelia Jenks@% 1818-94, American reformer; b. Homer, N.Y. She%@EH@%
edited (1848-54) the %@AI@%Lily,%@AE@% dedicated to women's rights and temperance. In
1851 she adopted the full trousers that became known as the Bloomer
costume, or bloomers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloomfield, Leonard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloomfield, Leonard%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOMFIELD      @%%@QR:Bloomfield, Leonard@% 1887-1949, American linguist; b. Chicago. His%@EH@%
masterpiece, %@AI@%Language%@AE@% (1933), a standard text, is a clear statement of
principles that have become axiomatic: that language study must always be
centered in the spoken language; that the definitions used in grammar
should be based on the forms of the language; and that a given language
at a given time is a complete system of sounds and forms existing
independently of the past, so that the history of a form does not explain
its meaning.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bloomsbury group%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bloomsbury group%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOOMSBP        @%%@QR:Bloomsbury group@% influential literary and intellectual group (fl.%@EH@%
1904-c.1939) that made Bloomsbury Square, London, its center. Its members
included Lytton Strachey, Virginia %@AU@%WOOLF%@BO:          a30b84@%%@AE@%, Leonard Woolf, E.M. %@AU@%FORSTER%@BO:          348b3e@%%@AE@%, V.
%@AU@%SACKVILLE-WEST%@BO:          82c461@%%@AE@%, Roger Fry, Clive Bell, and John Maynard %@AU@%KEYNES%@BO:          4f402b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blount, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blount, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BLOUNT          @%%@QR:Blount, William@% 1749-1800, U.S. political leader; b. near Windsor, N.C.%@EH@%
He was a member of the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% (1782-83, 1786-87) and the
U.S. Constitutional Convention (1787). Elected (1796) to the Senate from
Tennessee, he was expelled for plotting to help the British seize Spanish
Florida.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von%@AE@%%@CR:BLUCHER         @%%@QR:Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht von@%, 1742-1819, Prussian field marshal. He%@EH@%
helped to defeat %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% at Leipzig (1813) and at Laon (1814).
Napoleon defeated him at Ligny (June 15, 1815), but Blucher's timely
arrival at %@AU@%WATERLOO%@BO:          9face6@%%@AE@% three days later helped the duke of %@AU@%WELLINGTON%@BO:          a06c35@%%@AE@% to
turn that battle into a great victory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blueberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blueberry%@AE@%,%@CR:BLUEBERRY       @%%@QR:blueberry@% widely distributed shrubs or small trees (genus %@AI@%Vaccinium%@AE@%) of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%HEATH%@BO:          410664@%%@AE@% family, usually found in acid soils. They are related to
%@AU@%HUCKLEBERRY%@BO:          44f80c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CRANBERRY%@BO:          2449b8@%%@AE@%. Blueberries are a popular food and are
commercially important. The most cultivated are the high-bush blueberry
(%@AI@%V. cerymbosum%@AE@%) and the low-bush blueberry (%@AI@%V. augustifolium%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bluebird%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bluebird%@AE@%,%@CR:BLUEBIRD        @%%@QR:bluebird@% migratory %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%THRUSH%@BO:          956cb8@%%@AE@% family. The Eastern bluebird%@EH@%
(%@AI@%Sialia sialis%@AE@%), vivid blue with a red breast, usually nests in orchards
or on the edge of woodlands; it eats insects and wild fruits.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bluefish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bluefish%@AE@%,%@CR:BLUEFISH        @%%@QR:bluefish@% stout-bodied, delicately flavored marine %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% of the family%@EH@%
Pomatomidae, resembling the %@AU@%POMPANO%@BO:          77f81e@%%@AE@% but more closely related to the sea
%@AU@%BASS%@BO:           cec0d@%%@AE@%. Averaging 30 in. (75 cm) in length and 10 to 12 lb (4.5 to 5.5 kg)
in weight, the bluefish is found in warm waters of the Atlantic and
Indian oceans and Mediterranean Sea. It is an excellent game fish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blue jay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blue jay%@AE@%:%@CR:BLUE.JAY        @%%@QR:blue jay@% see %@AU@%JAY%@BO:          4b8f86@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blue laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blue laws%@AE@%,%@CR:BLUE.LAWS       @%%@QR:blue laws@% U.S. state laws regulating private and public conduct and%@EH@%
morals, especially Sabbath observance. The term is derived from the blue
paper on which some 17th-cent. laws were printed. Blue laws, which
usually forbade work or sport on Sunday, were most common and most strict
in Puritan New England. They declined after the American Revolution but
many were revived in the 20th cent. during %@AU@%PROHIBITION%@BO:          79f220@%%@AE@%. Many states
retain blue laws today.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blue Rider%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blue Rider%@AE@%:%@CR:BLUE.RIDER      @%%@QR:Blue Rider@% see %@AU@%BLAUE REITER, DER%@BO:          10d5d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blue Ridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blue Ridge%@AE@%,%@CR:BLUE.RIDGE      @%%@QR:Blue Ridge@% eastern range of the %@AU@%APPALACHIAN MTS.%@BO:           6bff1@%%@AE@%, extending S from S%@EH@%
Pennsylvania to N Georgia. Heavily forested and long a barrier to early
colonial expansion, the area is noted for its resorts and its scenery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%blues%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%blues%@AE@%:%@CR:BLUES           @%%@QR:blues@% see %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blum, Leon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blum, Leon%@AE@%%@CR:BLUM            @%%@QR:Blum, Leon@%, 1872-1950, French Socialist statesman. He was premier%@EH@%
(1936-37) in the first Popular Front government (a coalition of Radical
Socialists, Socialists, and Communists) and passed important labor
reforms. Arrested (1940) by the %@AU@%VICHY%@BO:          9d11e0@%%@AE@% government, he was imprisoned by
the Germans until 1945. Blum grew more moderate in his later years and
was again premier (1946-47) in a Socialist government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Blunt, Anthony Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Blunt, Anthony Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:BLUNT           @%%@QR:Blunt, Anthony Frederick@% 1907-83, English art historian. He was director%@EH@%
of the Courtauld Institute, professor of art at the Univ. of London, and
Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures. His major writings include %@AI@%Artistic
%@AI@%Theory in Italy, 1450-1600%@AE@% (1940) and %@AI@%Art and Architecture in France,
%@AI@%1500-1700%@AE@% (1953). Knighted in 1956, he was divested of the title in 1979,
when it became known that he had been a Soviet agent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bly, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bly, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BLY             @%%@QR:Bly, Robert@% 1926-, American poet; b. Madison, Minn. His personal,%@EH@%
precisely observant poems are collected in such volumes as %@AI@%The Light
%@AI@%Around the Body%@AE@% (1967) and %@AI@%Loving a Woman in Two Worlds%@AE@% (1985). Also a
publisher, he has printed translations of lesser-known foreign poets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%B'nai B'rith%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%B'nai B'rith%@AE@%,%@CR:BNAI.BRITH      @%%@QR:B'nai B'rith@% American Jewish service organization, est. 1843. Its%@EH@%
broad-based program includes orphanage and hospital work, disaster
relief, and vocational training. The Hillel Foundation (for Jewish
students), the Anti-Defamation League (est. 1913 to combat
%@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@%), and B'nai B'rith Women are branches. It has over 500,000
members.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boa%@AE@%,%@CR:BOA             @%%@QR:boa@% live-bearing constrictor %@AU@%SNAKE%@BO:          8a8a29@%%@AE@% of the family Boidae, which also%@EH@%
includes the %@AU@%PYTHONS%@BO:          7b689b@%%@AE@%, found mostly in the Americas. Boas suffocate their
prey by squeezing it. Best known are the boa constrictor (%@AI@%Constrictor
%@AI@%constrictor%@AE@%), which lives in terrestrial habitats from S Mexico to
central Argentina and averages 6 to 9 ft (1.8 to 2.7 m); and the South
American anaconda, the longest (up to 25 ft/7.9 m) and thickest (3 ft/90
cm in girth) boa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boadicea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boadicea%@AE@%%@CR:BOADICEA        @%%@QR:Boadicea@%, d. AD 61, British queen of the Iceni (of Norfolk). She led the%@EH@%
Iceni in revolt against the Romans. Her army was crushed, and she took
poison.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boar%@AE@%:%@CR:BOAR            @%%@QR:boar@% see %@AU@%SWINE%@BO:          919953@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boas, Franz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boas, Franz%@AE@%,%@CR:BOAS            @%%@QR:Boas, Franz@% 1858-1942, German-American anthropologist; b. Germany. No%@EH@%
one has more greatly influenced American anthropology. Boas reexamined
the premises of physical anthropology and pioneered in the use of
statistical methods. His field work began with observations of the
Central Eskimos (1883) and of British Columbian Indians (1886).
Associated with the American Museum of Natural History from 1895 to 1905,
he became (1899) the first professor of anthropology at Columbia Univ., a
position he held for 37 years. In his studies of %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@% Boas stressed the importance of internal linguistic structure,
and the strict methodology of his contributions gave them scientific
value. Among his works are %@AI@%The Mind of Primitive Man%@AE@% (1911, rev. ed.
1938), %@AI@%Primitive Art%@AE@% (1927, repr. 1955), %@AI@%Race, Language and Culture%@AE@%
(1940), and %@AI@%Race and Democratic Society%@AE@% (1945).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boat people%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boat people%@AE@%,%@CR:BOAT.PEOPLE     @%%@QR:boat people@% term applied to people who escape political oppression by%@EH@%
going to sea in makeshift boats. Most recently, it has described
thousands of Indochinese refugees who fled Communist rule after the
Vietnam War (1975) in small boats. Many perished, and others, upon
reaching other countries, discovered they could not remain permanently.
The U.S. and Canada admitted thousands of these people.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boaz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boaz%@AE@%:%@CR:BOAZ            @%%@QR:Boaz@% see %@AU@%RUTH%@BO:          827592@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bobcat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bobcat%@AE@%:%@CR:BOBCAT          @%%@QR:bobcat@% see %@AU@%LYNX%@BO:          584b49@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bobolink%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bobolink%@AE@%,%@CR:BOBOLINK        @%%@QR:bobolink@% American songbird (%@AI@%Dolichonyx oryzivorus%@AE@%) of the family%@EH@%
Icteridae. The spring plumage of the male is black and white; after the
breeding season, it is yellowish and brown-streaked like the female. In
the north, bobolinks are insectivorous, but may feed on rice crops during
southern migration; once hunted because of this destructive feeding
habit, they are now protected.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bobsledding%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bobsledding%@AE@%,%@CR:BOBSLEDDING     @%%@QR:bobsledding@% sport in which a bobsled (an open, steel-bodied vehicle with%@EH@%
runners) hurtles down an icy, steeply banked, twisting course. Sleds
accommodate either two or four persons, including a driver and brakeman
in each type, and can attain speeds of 90 mi (145 km) per hr. It has been
an Olympic event since the first Winter Games (1924).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bobwhite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bobwhite%@AE@%,%@CR:BOBWHITE        @%%@QR:bobwhite@% American henlike %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%PHEASANT%@BO:          746b83@%%@AE@% family. Bobwhites feed on%@EH@%
insects and travel in coveys, sleeping at night in a tight circle, tails
to center. In spring the coveys disperse, and each male selects a nesting
territory. The characteristic call of "bob-white" functions to attract a
mate and warn off other males. Hunted as game birds, bobwhites are often
called %@AU@%QUAIL%@BO:          7b7cf2@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%PARTRIDGE%@BO:          71cf36@%%@AE@%. The eastern bobwhite quail (%@AI@%Colinus
%@AI@%virginianus%@AE@%) is c.10 in. (25 cm) long; the male has mixed brown, black,
and white plumage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boccaccio, Giovanni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boccaccio, Giovanni%@AE@%%@CR:BOCCACCIO       @%%@QR:Boccaccio, Giovanni@%, 1313-75, Italian poet, storyteller, and humanist; b.%@EH@%
Paris. His early works include %@AI@%Filocolo%@AE@% (c.1340), a vernacular prose
romance; %@AI@%Filostrato,%@AE@% a poem infusing the Troilus and Cressida legend with
a Neapolitan court atmosphere; the allegorical %@AI@%Amorosa visione,%@AE@% imitative
of %@AU@%DANTE%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@%; and a psychological romance, %@AI@%Amorous Fiametta.%@AE@% From 1348 to
1353 he wrote his secular classic, the %@AI@%Decameron,%@AE@% a collection of 100
witty and sometimes licentious tales set against the somber backdrop of
the Black Death. In the %@AI@%Decameron,%@AE@% medieval courtly themes began to give
way to modern society; the masterful style of the work became a model for
later Italian prose. In Florence after 1341, Boccaccio met %@AU@%PETRARCH%@BO:          7432a8@%%@AE@%, who
inspired him to devote his later life to the study of Greek and other
humanistic concerns, producing important critical works in anthropology,
biography, and mythology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boccherini, Luigi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boccherini, Luigi%@AE@%%@CR:BOCCHERINI      @%%@QR:Boccherini, Luigi@%, 1743-1805, Italian composer and cellist. His masterful%@EH@%
classical style is often compared to that of %@AU@%HAYDN%@BO:          40ade8@%%@AE@%. Boccherini wrote more
than 400 works, including 4 cello concertos, some 90 string quartets, and
about 125 string quintets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boccioni, Umberto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boccioni, Umberto%@AE@%%@CR:BOCCIONI        @%%@QR:Boccioni, Umberto@%, 1882-1916, Italian futurist, painter and sculptor. He%@EH@%
was the major figure of %@AU@%FUTURISM%@BO:          370ed5@%%@AE@% (1910-14). His principal works include
the painting %@AI@%The City Rises%@AE@% (1910) and the sculpture %@AI@%Unique Forms of
%@AI@%Continuity in Space%@AE@% (1913; both: Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bocskay, Stephen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bocskay, Stephen%@AE@%%@CR:BOCSKAY         @%%@QR:Bocskay, Stephen@%, 1557-1606, Hungarian noble, voivode governor (1604-6)%@EH@%
and prince (1605-6) of Transylvania. In 1604, with Turkish support, he
led a revolt against Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%RUDOLF II'S%@BO:          81c25a@%%@AE@% attempt to impose
Roman Catholicism on Hungary. In 1606 he negotiated a treaty at Vienna
legalizing the partition of Hungary among the %@AU@%HAPSBURGS%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%, the Turkish
sultan, and the prince of Transylvania. It guaranteed constitutional and
religious freedom to Hungary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bode's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bode's law%@AE@%:%@CR:BODES.LAW       @%%@QR:Bode's law@% see %@AU@%TITIUS-BODE LAW%@BO:          961ff9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bodin, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bodin, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:BODIN           @%%@QR:Bodin, Jean@%, 1530?-1596, French social and political philosopher. A%@EH@%
lawyer, he was dismayed by the chaos resulting from conflict between
Roman Catholics and Huguenots (see %@AU@%RELIGION, WARS OF%@BO:          7ddea5@%%@AE@%) and argued in his
most important work, %@AI@%Six Bookes of the Commonweale%@AE@% (1576), that the
well-ordered state required religious toleration and a fully sovereign
monarch. His writings made a major theoretical contribution to the rise
of the modern nation-state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bodleian Library%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bodleian Library%@AE@%:%@CR:BODLEIAY        @%%@QR:Bodleian Library@% see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bodley, Sir Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bodley, Sir Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BODLEY          @%%@QR:Bodley, Sir Thomas@% 1545-1613, English scholar and diplomat, organizer of%@EH@%
the Bodleian Library at Oxford Univ. (see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%, ). He offered (1598)
to restore Duke Humphrey's library and spent most of his life and fortune
on it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bodoni, Giambattista%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bodoni, Giambattista%@AE@%,%@CR:BODONI          @%%@QR:Bodoni, Giambattista@% 1740-1813, Italian printer. His stately quartos and%@EH@%
folios, in pseudoclassical typefaces, with impressive title pages and
luxurious margins, were coldly elegant and frankly made to be admired
rather than read. He was relatively indifferent to the accuracy of the
text.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%body language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%body language%@AE@%,%@CR:BODY.LANGUAGE   @%%@QR:body language@% nonverbal communication by means of facial expressions,%@EH@%
eye behavior, gestures, posture, and other bodily signs. This form of
language expresses emotions, feelings, and attitudes. Some nonverbal
expressions are understood by people in all cultures; other expressions
are particular to certain cultures. Kinesics, the scientific study of
body language, was pioneered by anthropologist Ray L. Birdwhistell, who
wrote %@AI@%Introduction to Kinesics%@AE@% (1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%body-marking%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%body-marking%@AE@%,%@CR:BODYMARKING     @%%@QR:body-marking@% painting, tattooing, or scarification (cutting or burning)%@EH@%
of the body for ritual, aesthetic, medicinal, magic, or religious
purposes. Evidence indicates that body-marking existed in ancient times;
ethnographic studies show that it is still practiced. Markings may
indicate religious dedication or alliance with a particular god; they may
also serve as protection against some evil such as disease, as
identification with a certain group, such as a tribe, or as evidence of
personal rank or status within the group.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius)%@AE@%:%@CR:BOECE.AEVERINU  @%%@QR:Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius)@% see %@AU@%BOETHIUS%@BO:          11650e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boehme%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boehme%@AE@%%@CR:BOEHME          @%%@QR:Boehme@%, %@AB@%Bohme,%@AE@% or %@AB@%Behmen, Jakob,%@AE@% 1575-1624, German religious mystic. In%@EH@%
%@AI@%De signatura rerum%@AE@% and %@AI@%Mysterium magnum,%@AE@% he describes God as the abyss,
the nothing and the all, from which the creative will struggles to find
manifestation and self-consciousness. Evil results when single elements
of the Deity strive to become the whole. Boehme had many followers in
Germany, Holland, and England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boeotia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boeotia%@AE@%%@CR:BOEOTIA         @%%@QR:Boeotia@%, region of ancient %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, N of the Gulf of Corinth. The Boeotian%@EH@%
League, formed (c.7th cent. BC) by the cities of the region, was
dominated by %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94ac71@%%@AE@%, which fought many battles to prevent encroachment by
the other great %@AU@%CITY-STATES%@BO:          1eaf77@%%@AE@%. The league was disbanded when the Greeks
besieged Thebes (479) and after a brief revival was defeated by %@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@%
(457), which annexed the Boeotian cities. Thebes resumed leadership of
the league in 446; after Thebes defeated Sparta (371) the history of
Boeotia was absorbed into that of Thebes. Boeotia was the home of the
poets %@AU@%HESIOD%@BO:          42918d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PINDAR%@BO:          75cd12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boer%@AE@%,%@CR:BOER            @%%@QR:Boer@% inhabitant of %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICA%@BO:          8bccf8@%%@AE@% of Dutch or French Huguenot descent.%@EH@%
Boers are also known as Afrikaners.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boerhaave, Hermann%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boerhaave, Hermann%@AE@%%@CR:BOERHAAVE       @%%@QR:Boerhaave, Hermann@%, 1668-1738, Dutch physician and humanist. An%@EH@%
influential clinician and teacher, he helped to revive the Hippocratic
method of bedside instruction. Through post-mortem examinations he
demonstrated the relation of symptoms to lesions, thereby instituting the
clinico-pathological conference still in use today. His works include
%@AI@%Institutiones Medicinae%@AE@% (1708) and %@AI@%Elementa Chemiae%@AE@% (1732), long used as
standard texts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boer War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boer War%@AE@%:%@CR:BOER.WAR        @%%@QR:Boer War@% see %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICAN WAR%@BO:          8be2a7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boethius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boethius%@AE@%%@CR:BOETHIUS        @%%@QR:Boethius@%, %@AB@%Boetius%@AE@% , or %@AB@%%@AE@%%@AB@%Boece (Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius),%@AE@%%@EH@%
c.475-525, Roman philosopher and statesman. A consul (510) in Rome, he
became minister under Emperor Theodoric, but was falsely accused of
treason, imprisoned, and sentenced to death. While awaiting execution he
wrote his great work, %@AI@%The Consolation of Philosophy.%@AE@% His treatise on
ancient music was for many centuries the unquestioned authority on
Western music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bogan, Louise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bogan, Louise%@AE@%,%@CR:BOGAN           @%%@QR:Bogan, Louise@% 1897-1970, American poet; b. Livermore, Me. Her verse,%@EH@%
intense, personal, and metaphysical in tone, is included in such volumes
as %@AI@%Collected Poems%@AE@% (1954) and %@AI@%The Blue Estuaries%@AE@% (1968). She also wrote
literary criticism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bogardus, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bogardus, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BOGARDUS        @%%@QR:Bogardus, James@% 1800-1874, American architect; b. Catskill, N.Y. He was%@EH@%
among the first to use cast iron in constructing facades. The Iron
Building, N.Y.C., is the best known of his commercial building designs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bogart, Humphrey (DeForest)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bogart, Humphrey (DeForest)%@AE@%,%@CR:BOGART          @%%@QR:Bogart, Humphrey (DeForest)@% 1899-1957, American film actor; b. N.Y.C. He%@EH@%
played tough, cynical heroes in such films as %@AI@%The Maltese Falcon%@AE@% (1941),
%@AI@%Casablanca%@AE@% (1942), and %@AI@%The African Queen%@AE@% (1954; Academy Award).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bogazkoy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bogazkoy%@AE@%%@CR:BOGAZKOY        @%%@QR:Bogazkoy@%or %@AB@%Boghazkeui%@AE@% , village, N central Turkey. Bogazkoy was the chief%@EH@%
center of the %@AU@%HITTITE%@BO:          433893@%%@AE@% empire (1400-1200 BC). Hugo %@AU@%WINCKLER%@BO:          a22679@%%@AE@% found Hittite
inscriptions there that greatly added to the knowledge of Hittite
civilization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bogota%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bogota%@AE@%,%@CR:BOGOTA          @%%@QR:Bogota@% city (1985 pop. 4,185,174), central Colombia, capital of%@EH@%
Colombia. Built on a high plateau (c.8,560 ft/2,610 m), it is the
financial, political, and cultural center of the republic. Manufactures
include beverages, foodstuffs, and metal goods. Founded in 1538, it was
long the capital of the Spanish colonial viceroyalty of New Granada and a
leading Latin American religious and intellectual center. It became the
capital of the independent confederation called Greater Colombia in 1819
and of what was later called Colombia in 1830. A picturesque city, it is
known for its colonial architecture, its collection of pre-Colombian gold
art, and its bookshops.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bohemia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bohemia%@AE@%,%@CR:BOHEMIA         @%%@QR:Bohemia@% historic region (20,368 sq mi/52,753 sq km) and former kingdom,%@EH@%
W Czechoslovakia, bordered by Austria (SE), West and East Germany (W,
NW), Poland (N, NE), and Moravia (E). The traditional capital is %@AU@%PRAGUE%@BO:          78ff37@%%@AE@%.
Bohemia is Czechoslovakia's most urbanized and industrialized area, with
such manufactures as machinery, munitions, and textiles. Grains, sugar
beets, hops, and other crops are grown, and coal, silver, and other
resources are mined. Bohemia emerged (9th cent.) under the Premysl
dynasty and became part (950) of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. It became a
kingdom within the empire in 1198 and under Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES IV%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%
(r.1355-78) was the empire's seat. In the 15th cent. Bohemia was the
scene of the %@AU@%HUSSITE%@BO:          45ace1@%%@AE@% religious movement. The %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% dynasty of Austria
dominated the kingdom after 1526; a revolt (1618) against Hapsburg rule
began the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@%. In 1627 the kingdom was demoted to an
imperial crown land. After %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% it became the core of the new
nation of Czechoslovakia. The %@AU@%MUNICH PACT%@BO:          652305@%%@AE@% (1938) transferred the %@AU@%SUDETEN%@BO:          9042bb@%%@AE@%
area of Bohemia to Germany, which occupied (1939-45) all of Bohemia
during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. Bohemia was abolished as a province of
Czechoslovakia in 1948; in 1960 it was divided into five regions and the
city of Prague.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bohemond I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bohemond I%@AE@%,%@CR:BOHEMOND.I      @%%@QR:Bohemond I@% c.1056-1111, prince of Antioch, Turkey (1099-1111), the son%@EH@%
of %@AU@%ROBERT GUISCARD%@BO:          7fa683@%%@AE@% and a leader in the First %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%. Breaking his oath
of fealty to Byzantine Emperor %@AU@%ALEXIUS I%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%, he made himself prince of
Antioch. Defeated (1108) in a crusade against Alexius, he acknowledged
the emperor's suzerainty. He retired and %@AU@%TANCRED%@BO:          929154@%%@AE@% became regent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bohm, Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bohm, Karl%@AE@%,%@CR:BOHM            @%%@QR:Bohm, Karl@% 1894-1981, Austrian conductor. He directed the Vienna State%@EH@%
Opera (1943-45; 1954-56) and the Salzburg Festival (see %@AU@%MUSIC FESTIVALS%@BO:          657e38@%%@AE@%,
), and appeared internationally with many orchestras, specializing in the
works of Mozart and Richard Strauss.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bohr, Niels Henrik David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bohr, Niels Henrik David%@AE@%%@CR:BOHR            @%%@QR:Bohr, Niels Henrik David@%, 1885-1962, Danish physicist and one of the%@EH@%
foremost scientists in modern physics. He was professor of theoretical
physics at the Univ. of Copenhagen and was later director of its
Institute for Theoretical Physics, which he helped to found. Bohr was
awarded the 1922 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on atomic structure.
Classical theory had been unable to explain the stability of the nuclear
model of the %@AU@%ATOM%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@%, but Bohr solved the problem by postulating that
electrons move in restricted orbits around the atom's nucleus and
explaining how the atom emits and absorbs energy. He thus combined the
%@AU@%QUANTUM THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@% with this concept of atomic structure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas%@AE@%%@CR:BOILEAUX        @%%@QR:Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas@%, 1636-1711, French critic and poet, known for%@EH@%
his poetic satires on the clergy, on life in Paris, and on women. His
critical precepts, embodied in %@AI@%L'Art poetique%@AE@% (1674), established him as
the champion of %@AU@%CLASSICISM%@BO:          1efbdb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boiler%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boiler%@AE@%,%@CR:BOILER          @%%@QR:boiler@% device for generating steam. Two types are common: fire-tube%@EH@%
boilers, containing long steel tubes through which the hot gases from a
furnace pass and around which the water to be changed to steam
circulates, and water-tube boilers, in which the conditions are reversed.
A boiler must be equipped with a safety valve for venting the steam if
pressure becomes too great.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boiling point%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boiling point%@AE@%,%@CR:BOILING.POINT   @%%@QR:boiling point@% the temperature at which a substance boils, or changes%@EH@%
from a liquid to a vapor or gas (see %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%), through the
formation and rise to the surface of bubbles of vapor within the liquid.
In a stricter sense, the boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at
which its vapor pressure is equal to the local atmospheric pressure.
Decreasing (or increasing) the pressure of the surrounding gases thus
lowers (or raises) the boiling point of a liquid. The quantity of heat
necessary to change 1 g of any substance from liquid to gas at its
boiling point is known as its latent heat of vaporization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boise%@AE@%%@CR:BOISE           @%%@QR:Boise@%, city (1986 est. pop. 108,390), state capital and seat of Ada co.,%@EH@%
SW Idaho, on the Boise R.; inc. 1864. It is the largest city in Idaho,
and a trade and transportation center. Food processing, steel, lumber,
light manufacturing, and government offices provide employment. In its
early years a gold-mining trade center, it later became oriented toward
the agriculture of the region.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boito, Arrigo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boito, Arrigo%@AE@%%@CR:BOITO           @%%@QR:Boito, Arrigo@%, 1842-1918, Italian composer and librettist. His opera%@EH@%
%@AI@%Mefistofele%@AE@% (1868, rev. 1875), influenced by Richard %@AU@%WAGNER'S%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@%
music-drama, became very popular. Boito wrote the %@AU@%LIBRETTOS%@BO:          54c160@%%@AE@% for %@AU@%VERDI'S%@BO:          9c9742@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Otello%@AE@% and %@AI@%Falstaff%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bok, Edward William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bok, Edward William%@AE@%,%@CR:BOK             @%%@QR:Bok, Edward William@% 1863-1930, American editor; b. the Netherlands. He%@EH@%
founded the %@AI@%Brooklyn Magazine%@AE@% (later %@AI@%Cosmopolitan%@AE@%) in 1883. As editor
(1889-1919), he made %@AI@%The Ladies' Home Journal%@AE@% a leading woman's magazine.
His autobiographical %@AI@%Americanization of Edward Bok%@AE@% (1920) won a %@AU@%PULITZER
%@AU@%PRIZE%@BO:          7ae4c0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bokassa, Jean Bedel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bokassa, Jean Bedel%@AE@%,%@CR:BOKASSA         @%%@QR:Bokassa, Jean Bedel@% 1921-, president of the %@AU@%CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC%@BO:          1ae521@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1966-79). An army officer, he overthrew David %@AU@%DACKO%@BO:          25e968@%%@AE@% in 1966, assumed the
presidency, and declared (1976) the country the Central African Empire,
calling himself Emperor Bokassa I. He was thrown out of office in 1979.
In 1987, he was convicted of murdering several political opponents. His
death sentence was commuted to a life term.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boleslaus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boleslaus%@AE@%,%@CR:BOLESLAUS       @%%@QR:Boleslaus@% Polish rulers. %@AB@%Boleslaus I,%@AE@% c.966-1025, king of %@AU@%POLAND%@BO:          774f3b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(992-1025), was the first Polish ruler to style himself king. He
succeeded his father, Mieszko I, duke of Poland. As king, he greatly
expanded Polish territories. %@AB@%Boleslaus II,%@AE@% c.1039-1081, duke (1058-76)
and king (1076-79) of Poland, sided with the pope against the Holy Roman
emperor but was deposed after killing the bishop of Krakow. %@AB@%Boleslaus
%@AB@%III,%@AE@% 1085-1138, duke of Poland (1102-38), reunited Poland by defeating
(1109) his brother Zbigniew, who had the support of Holy Roman Emperor
%@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@%. He added (1135) Pomerania and Rugen to his domains.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boleyn, Anne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boleyn, Anne%@AE@%,%@CR:BOLEYN          @%%@QR:Boleyn, Anne@% 1505-36, second queen consort of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England;%@EH@%
mother of %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%. Henry divorced %@AU@%KATHARINE OF ARAGON%@BO:          4e9070@%%@AE@% to marry her.
The marriage was unpopular, and when she did not produce a male heir, his
ardor cooled. She was executed for alleged adultery and incest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bolingbroke, Henry of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bolingbroke, Henry of%@AE@%:%@CR:BOLINGBROKE     @%%@QR:Bolingbroke, Henry of@% see %@AU@%HENRY IV %@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%under %@AU@%HENRY, %@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%kings of England.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bolivar, Simon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bolivar, Simon%@AE@%%@CR:BOLIVAR         @%%@QR:Bolivar, Simon@%, 1783-1830, revolutionary leader who liberated much of%@EH@%
South America from Spanish rule; b. Caracas, Venezuela. He joined (1810)
the Venezuelan revolution against Spain and won notable victories in
%@AU@%COLOMBIA%@BO:          20685c@%%@AE@% before a royalist army crushed (1815) his forces. After fleeing
to Jamaica and Haiti, he invaded (1816) %@AU@%VENEZUELA%@BO:          9c6904@%%@AE@% and met disaster,
forcing his return to Haiti. Recalled (1817) to command the rebel forces,
he seized the lower Orinoco basin. In 1819 he boldly defeated the Spanish
at Boyaca, and he became president of Greater Colombia. Cooperating with
such other rebel leaders as %@AU@%SUCRE%@BO:          9025ac@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SAN MARTIN%@BO:          842164@%%@AE@%, he won further
victories, culminating (1824) in %@AU@%PERU%@BO:          73d93e@%%@AE@% at Junin and %@AU@%AYACUCHO%@BO:           a6a75@%%@AE@%, which sealed
the triumph of the revolution. Now the most powerful man of the
continent, Bolivar organized (1824) the government of Peru and created
(1825) %@AU@%BOLIVIA%@BO:          119aec@%%@AE@%. His vision of a united South America was not to be,
however, for his dictatorial methods were widely resented and separatist
movements shook the union. Venezuela and %@AU@%ECUADOR%@BO:          2c3cc0@%%@AE@% seceded from Greater
Colombia, and he resigned (1830) as president. Although bitterly hated at
the time of his death, today Bolivar is revered as Latin America's
greatest hero and as its liberator.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bolivia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bolivia%@AE@%%@CR:BOLIVIA         @%%@QR:Bolivia@%, officially Republic of Bolivia, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
6,797,000), 424,162 sq mi (1,098,581 sq km), W South America. One of the
two inland countries of the continent, it is bordered by Chile and Peru
(W), Brazil (E, N), Paraguay (SE), and Argentina (S). %@AU@%SUCRE%@BO:          9028a2@%%@AE@% is the legal
capital, but %@AU@%LA PAZ%@BO:          5254e8@%%@AE@% is the administrative capital and seat of government.
Bolivia's topography is one of sharp contrasts. In the west are the
%@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@%, whose snow-capped peak of Illampu reaches 21,276 ft (6,485 m), and
a high plateau (%@AU@%ALTIPLANO%@BO:           4309e@%%@AE@%), 12,000 ft (3,660 m) above sea level, which is
the population center of the country. The east is dominated by tropical
rain forests, which, in the southeast, merge into the plains of the %@AU@%GRAN
%@AU@%CHACO%@BO:          3c299f@%%@AE@%. In the north, on the border with Peru, is Lake %@AU@%TITICACA%@BO:          961dbb@%%@AE@%, the
largest freshwater lake in South America; this region, with its ruins of
%@AU@%TIAHUANACO%@BO:          959749@%%@AE@%, was the home of one of the great pre-Columbian civilizations.
Bolivia has some of the richest mineral resources in the world; it is one
of the leading producers of tin; and silver, copper, tungsten, bismuth,
antimony, and zinc are also produced. Despite these mineral riches, most
Bolivians are subsistence farmers, raising sugarcane, potatoes, corn,
wheat, and rice. More than half the population is pure Indian, although
the whites and those of mixed blood maintain hegemony. Most of the people
are Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The Aymara Indians of Bolivia had been absorbed into the %@AU@%INCA%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@%
empire long before the Spanish conquest of Bolivia (1538) by Gonzalo and
Hernando %@AU@%PIZARRO%@BO:          7659a2@%%@AE@%. Attracted by Bolivia's mineral wealth, Spanish
exploiters poured into the area, developing mines, textile mills, and
great estates-all with forced Indian labor. Bolivia was attached to the
viceroyalty of Peru until 1776 and later to that of La Plata. Revolt
against Spanish rule first erupted in 1809, but Bolivia remained Spanish
until the campaigns of Jose de %@AU@%SAN MARTIN%@BO:          842164@%%@AE@% and Simon %@AU@%BOLIVAR%@BO:          119482@%%@AE@% and the
victory by Antonio Jose de %@AU@%SUCRE%@BO:          9025ac@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%AYACUCHO%@BO:           a6a75@%%@AE@% in 1824. Independence was
formally proclaimed in 1825. A series of disastrous border wars,
including the War of the Pacific (1879-84) against Chile and the Chaco
War (1932-35) against Paraguay, cost Bolivia valuable territory,
including its outlet to the sea. In 1952 the nationalistic, pro-miner
Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) won control of the government,
nationalizing the tin mines and launching a program of agrarian reform.
They were overthrown by the military in 1964, and Bolivia resumed its
history of political strife and instability, marked by recurring military
coups that continued into the early 1980s. In 1982, however, a civilian
government headed by Pres. Hernan Siles Zuazo assumed leadership. Paz
Estenssoro became president in 1985 after Zuazo resigned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boll, Heinrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boll, Heinrich%@AE@%%@CR:BOLL            @%%@QR:Boll, Heinrich@%, 1917-85, German writer. His novels and stories present%@EH@%
his critical, antimilitarist view of modern society. Among his works are
the story collection %@AI@%Traveller, If You Come to Spa%@AE@% (1950) and the novels
%@AI@%Billiards at Half Past Nine%@AE@% (1959) and %@AI@%The Safety Net%@AE@% (tr. 1982). Boll
was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1972.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bologna, Giovanni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bologna, Giovanni%@AE@%,%@CR:BOLOGNA1        @%%@QR:Bologna, Giovanni@%or %@AB@%Giambologna%@AE@%, 1524-1608, Flemish mannerist sculptor%@EH@%
(see %@AU@%MANNERISM%@BO:          5b052e@%%@AE@%); b. Jean Bologne or Boulogne. Identified with the Italian
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%, he is best known for %@AI@%The Rape of the Sabines%@AE@% (Florence),
with its spiralling forms, and %@AI@%Flying Mercury%@AE@% (Bargello, Florence).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bologna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bologna%@AE@%,%@CR:BOLOGNA2        @%%@QR:Bologna@% city (1986 pop. 432,406), capital of Emilia-Romagna, N central%@EH@%
Italy, at the foot of the Apennines. It is a commercial and industrial
center, with such manufactures as steel and food products. An Etruscan
town, it came under Roman (189 BC), Byzantine (6th cent.), and papal
rule. Its famous university (founded c.1088) made it an intellectual
center. Political control turned on rivalries among great families
(13th-15th cent.) until papal rule was restored, lasting, nearly
unbroken, from 1506 until Italian unification (1860). There are many
notable medieval and Renaissance buildings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bologne, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bologne, Jean%@AE@%:%@CR:BOLOGNE         @%%@QR:Bologne, Jean@% see %@AU@%BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI%@BO:          11aa24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bolshevism and Menshevism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bolshevism and Menshevism%@AE@%,%@CR:BOLSHEVSM       @%%@QR:Bolshevism and Menshevism@% the two main branches of Russian socialism%@EH@%
from 1903 to 1918. In 1903 the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' party
split into two factions. One, led by %@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@%, had a temporary majority and
was thereafter known as the %@AI@%Bolsheviki%@AE@% majority members; their opponents,
led by %@AU@%PLEKHANOV%@BO:          76d7a7@%%@AE@%, were dubbed %@AI@%Mensheviki%@AE@% minority members. The Bolsheviks
favored a small party of professional revolutionaries and the
establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. The
Mensheviks wanted a loosely organized mass party and held that before
reaching socialism Russia must develop a bourgeois-democratic stage. In
the 1917 %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@% the Mensheviks took part in the %@AU@%KERENSKY%@BO:          4f2c93@%%@AE@%
provisional government, which was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in the
October Revolution. The Bolsheviks became the Russian Communist party in
1918 and had suppressed all rival political groups by 1921. In 1952 the
party adopted its present name, Communist party of the Soviet Union.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bolshoi Ballet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bolshoi Ballet%@AE@%,%@CR:BOLSHOI.BALLET  @%%@QR:Bolshoi Ballet@%  the principal ballet company of the USSR. It began%@EH@%
(1773) as a dancing school for the Moscow Orphanage. Opened in 1856, the
Bolshoi Theatre at first competed with the Maryinsky Theatre of St.
Petersburg. Alexander Gorsky revitalized it in the early 20th cent. In
the 1930s, Igor Moiseyev (see %@AU@%MOISEYEV DANCE COMPANY%@BO:          623b46@%%@AE@%) experimented with
folk-dance ballets at the theater. The company is internationally
acclaimed and tours with such classics as %@AI@%Giselle%@AE@% and %@AI@%Swan Lake%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boltzmann, Ludwig%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boltzmann, Ludwig%@AE@%,%@CR:BOLTZMANN       @%%@QR:Boltzmann, Ludwig@% 1844-1906, Austrian physicist, known for his important%@EH@%
contributions to the %@AU@%KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES%@BO:          4fae30@%%@AE@%. By investigating
the relationship between the temperature and the energy distribution of
molecules in a gas, he laid the foundations of statistical mechanics. In
1883 he demonstrated theoretically a law (sometimes called the
Stefan-Boltzmann law) describing the radiation from a %@AU@%BLACK BODY%@BO:          107667@%%@AE@% that had
earlier been found experimentally by the Austrian physicist Josef Stefan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bolyai, Janos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bolyai, Janos%@AE@%%@CR:BOLYAI          @%%@QR:Bolyai, Janos@%or %@AB@%Johann%@AE@%, 1802-60, Hungarian mathematician. In 1823 he%@EH@%
independently developed hyperbolic geometry, a form of %@AU@%NON-EUCLIDEAN
%@AU@%GEOMETRY%@BO:          6b0516@%%@AE@%. His father, %@AB@%Farkas,%@AE@% or %@AB@%Wolfgang, Bolyai,%@AE@% 1775-1856, was also a
Hungarian mathematician. Farkas's %@AI@%Tentamen%@AE@% (1823-33), a systematic
treatment of geometry, arithmetic, algebra, and analysis, contains as an
appendix his son's theory of absolute space.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bombax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bombax%@AE@%,%@CR:BOMBAX          @%%@QR:bombax@% common name for the Bombacaceae, a family of tall, thick-trunked%@EH@%
deciduous trees, found chiefly in the American tropics. Many members of
the family are commercially important, e.g., the %@AU@%BAOBAB%@BO:           bf8ca@%%@AE@%; balsa, or
corkwood, which yields the lightest lumber in the world; and the ceiba
tree, source of %@AU@%KAPOK%@BO:          4e61a8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bombay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bombay%@AE@%,%@CR:BOMBAY          @%%@QR:Bombay@% city and former province of British India, on the Arabian Sea.%@EH@%
The region was ruled by dynasties from Central India. In the 18th cent.
it came under the control of the %@AU@%MAHRATTAS%@BO:          59c78e@%%@AE@%. The islands on which the city
is built were under Portuguese control from 1534, and came under the
British in 1661. The surrounding areas were incorporated into Bomby
Presidency (or province) after the defeat of the Mahrattas in the early
19th cent. Bombay became a state when India gained independence in 1947;
it was split into the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960. The city
of %@AB@%Bombay%@AE@% (1981 pop. 8,227,332), India's largest city and the capital of
Maharashtra state, occupies two islands off the coast. It has the only
natural deepwater harbor in W India. Manufactures include textiles,
chemicals, and petroleum products, and the city is the center of the
Indian film industry. It has the largest community of %@AU@%PARSIS%@BO:          719d49@%%@AE@% in India.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonaparte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonaparte%@AE@%,%@CR:BONAPARTE       @%%@QR:Bonaparte@% Ital. %@AI@%Buonaparte,%@AE@% family name of %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% of France. Besides%@EH@%
Napoleon, this Corsican family produced many other notable figures.
Napoleon's older brother, %@AB@%Joseph Bonaparte,%@AE@% 1768-1844, was king of Naples
(1806-08), but he proved to be an inefficient administrator. As king of
Spain (1808-13), he failed to cope with the %@AU@%PENINSULAR WAR%@BO:          72d325@%%@AE@% and was forced
to abdicate. He lived from 1815 to 1841 in the U.S., but died in Italy.
Napoleon's brother %@AB@%Lucien Bonaparte,%@AE@% 1775-1840, helped Napoleon to
overthrow the %@AU@%DIRECTORY%@BO:          29442d@%%@AE@% in the coup of 18 Brumaire (1799), but later
criticized him. They were reconciled while Napoleon was on Elba, and
Lucien supported his brother during the Hundred Days. Another brother,
%@AB@%Louis Bonaparte,%@AE@% 1778-1846, reluctantly married (1802) Hortense de
%@AU@%BEAUHARNAIS%@BO:           d7047@%%@AE@%; their son became %@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@%. Louis was king of Holland
(1806-10), but Napoleon forced him to abdicate for ignoring France's
Continental System in favor of Dutch interests. Napoleon's youngest
brother, %@AB@%Jerome Bonaparte,%@AE@% 1784-1860, king of Westphalia (1807-13), was
extravagant and irresponsible. On a visit to the U.S. he married (1803)
Elizabeth Patterson, but Napoleon had the marriage annulled and married
him to a German princess. Jerome commanded a division at Waterloo and
later received honors at the court of his nephew, Napoleon III.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonaventure%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonaventure%@AE@%%@CR:BONAVENTURE     @%%@QR:Bonaventure@% or %@AB@%Bonaventura, Saint,%@AE@%1221-74, Italian scholastic theologian,%@EH@%
cardinal, Doctor of the Church, called the Seraphic Doctor. After
teaching at the Univ. of Paris, he was made (1257) general of the
%@AU@%FRANCISCANS%@BO:          35493e@%%@AE@%. His writings reconcile %@AU@%ARISTOTLE'S%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@% learning with Augustinian
Christianity. His later mystical works bring the teachings of %@AU@%BERNARD OF
%@AU@%CLAIRVAUX%@BO:           efc37@%%@AE@% to full flower. Feast: July 15. See also %@AU@%AUGUSTINE, SAINT%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bond%@AE@%,%@CR:BOND            @%%@QR:bond@% in finance, a formal certificate of indebtedness issued by%@EH@%
governments or business corporations in return for loans. It bears a
fixed rate of interest and promises to repay the funds borrowed after a
certain period, usually 10 years or more. A bond is generally protected
by security; debentures are bonds unsecured by a pledge against specific
assets. Bonds were sold by the U.S. government to help finance both world
wars and are still an important money-raising device. Bonds issued by
city and state governments are exempt from federal income taxes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bone%@AE@%,%@CR:BONE            @%%@QR:bone@% hard substance that forms the %@AU@%SKELETON%@BO:          89cd4c@%%@AE@% in vertebrate animals. Bone%@EH@%
consists of a gelatinous organic material called collagen, together with
minerals (mainly calcium and phosphorus). In the very young, the mineral
content is low and the bones are mostly cartilage, which is pliable. With
age, as their mineral content increases, bones become more brittle. Bone
tissue has a three-layered structure: the spongy inner layer; the compact
layer surrounding the inner layer, providing support for the body; and
the tough outer membrane. The inner spaces of long bones, as those in the
arms and legs, are filled with marrow, important in the formation of
%@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% cells.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonhoeffer, Dietrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonhoeffer, Dietrich%@AE@%%@CR:BONHOEFFER      @%%@QR:Bonhoeffer, Dietrich@%, 1906-45, German Protestant theologian. Influenced%@EH@%
by Karl %@AU@%BARTH%@BO:           c98cb@%%@AE@%, he urged a conformation to the form of Christ as the
suffering servant in a total commitment of self to others. He was
imprisoned for two years and hanged for his role in a plot to overthrow
%@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@%. His writings were published posthumously.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bon Homme Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bon Homme Richard%@AE@%:%@CR:BON.HOMRD       @%%@QR:Bon Homme Richard@% see %@AU@%JONES, JOHN PAUL%@BO:          4d12f4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boniface, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boniface, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:BONIFACE1       @%%@QR:Boniface, Saint@% c.675-754?, English missionary monk and martyr, called%@EH@%
the Apostle of Germany. From 718 he devoted himself to the conversion of
pagan Germany, where he founded many bishoprics and abbeys. He was named
metropolitan of Germany (731) and archbishop of Mainz (745). He was
martyred by pagans in Friesland. Feast: June 5.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boniface VIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boniface VIII%@AE@%,%@CR:BONIFACE.VIII   @%%@QR:Boniface VIII@% 1235-1303, pope (1294-1303), an Italian named Benedetto%@EH@%
Caetani. Boniface became pope after the abdication of %@AU@%CELESTINE V%@BO:          1aa777@%%@AE@%, and,
to avoid schism, he imprisoned Celestine for life. Trying to assert papal
authority, Boniface interfered unsuccessfully in Sicily and further
aggravated the quarrel of the %@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%. He was involved in
a bitter struggle with %@AU@%PHILIP IV%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% of France. The pope tried to prevent
Philip from his illegal levies on the clergy with the bull %@AI@%Clericis
%@AI@%laicos%@AE@% (1296), but was forced to back down. The struggle was renewed
after new troubles, and Boniface issued %@AI@%Ausculta fili%@AE@% (1301) and %@AI@%Unam
%@AI@%sanctam%@AE@% (1302), the latter being an extreme statement regarding the duty
of princes to be subject to the pope. As a result, Philip sent an agent
to depose Boniface at Anagni, but after the agent's companion struck the
pope, the outraged townspeople drove the emissaries out. Boniface died
soon afterward and was succeeded by Benedict XI. Philip later forced Pope
%@AU@%CLEMENT V%@BO:          1f3434@%%@AE@% to repudiate many of the acts of Boniface. An able canon
lawyer, Boniface issued (1298) a new revision of the code called the
%@AI@%Sext%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boniface%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boniface%@AE@%,%@CR:BONIFACE2       @%%@QR:Boniface@% d. 432, Roman general. In %@AU@%AFRICA%@BO:           1b67e@%%@AE@% as a semi-in dependent%@EH@%
governor, he was named count of Africa by %@AU@%VALENTINIAN III%@BO:          9b7a8d@%%@AE@%. Recalled to
Rome in 427, he rebelled, causing a civil war between Africa and Rome.
The struggle prepared the way for the invasion of Africa by the Vandals
under %@AU@%GAISERIC%@BO:          3743a0@%%@AE@%. After a truce was arranged, Boniface attacked the Vandals
and was defeated and beseiged (430) at Hippo. He died of wounds received
in a battle with a rival Roman general, Aetius.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonifacio, Jose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonifacio, Jose%@AE@%%@CR:BONIFACIO       @%%@QR:Bonifacio, Jose@%, 1763-1838, Brazilian scientist and architect of%@EH@%
Brazilian independence. An eminent geologist, he influenced the
Portuguese prince regent, Dom Pedro, to declare (1822) Brazil an
independent monarchy with himself as Emperor %@AU@%PEDRO I%@BO:          728d17@%%@AE@%. Bonifacio served as
first minister (1822-23) of the new empire, and many of his ideas were
included in the 1824 constitution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonin Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonin Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:BONIN.ISLANDS   @%%@QR:Bonin Islands@% volcanic island group, c.40 sq mi (100 sq km), in the W%@EH@%
Pacific Ocean, c.500 mi (800 km) S of Tokyo. Principal products of the
sparsely populated archipelago are sugarcane, cocoa, bananas, and
pineapples. The islands were claimed by Britain (1827) and Japan (1875).
A Japanese stronghold in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, the Bonins were captured (1945) by
the U.S. They were returned to Japan in 1968.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonn%@AE@%,%@CR:BONN            @%%@QR:Bonn@% city (1986 est. pop. 290,800), capital of the Federal Republic of%@EH@%
Germany, North Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany, on the Rhine R. It is
the administrative center of West Germany. Manufactures include chemicals
and pharmaceuticals. Founded (1st cent. AD) by the Romans, it was later
(1238-1794) the residence of the electors of Cologne. In 1949 it became
the capital of West Germany (see under %@AU@%GERMANY%@BO:          398bcc@%%@AE@%). %@AU@%BEETHOVEN%@BO:           db753@%%@AE@% was born in
Bonn.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonnard, Pierre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonnard, Pierre%@AE@%%@CR:BONNARD         @%%@QR:Bonnard, Pierre@%, 1867-1947, French painter, lithographer, and%@EH@%
illustrator. He excelled at domestic interiors that emphasized light
effects similar in exuberance to %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%Bowl of Fruit%@AE@%
(1933; Philadelphia Mus. Art). His late works are intensely colorful.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonneville Salt Flats%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonneville Salt Flats%@AE@%,%@CR:BONNEVI.FLATS   @%%@QR:Bonneville Salt Flats@% desert area in Tooele co., NW Utah, c.14 mi (22.5%@EH@%
km) long and 7 mi (11.2 km) wide. It is part of Great Salt Lake Desert,
the former bed of Lake Bonneville, whose area, once c.19,500 sq mi
(50,500 sq km), shrank at the end of the Pleistocene epoch. The smooth
salt surface of the Flats is ideal for auto racing, and several world
speed records have been set there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bonnie Prince Charlie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bonnie Prince Charlie%@AE@%:%@CR:BONNIE.HARLIE   @%%@QR:Bonnie Prince Charlie@% see under %@AU@%STUART, JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD>%@BO:          8ff707@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bonsai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bonsai%@AE@%,%@CR:BONSAI          @%%@QR:bonsai@% the art of cultivating dwarf trees, and the plants developed by%@EH@%
this method. Bonsai, developed over 1,000 years ago in Japan, derives
from the Chinese practice of growing miniature plants. In bonsai
cultivation, the plants are kept small and in true proportion to their
natural models by growing them in small containers, feeding and watering
only enough for healthy growth, pruning, and forming branches to the
desired shape by applying wire coils. The selection of containers, the
plant's position in a container, and the choice of single plants or a
group are important aesthetic considerations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bontemps, Arna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bontemps, Arna%@AE@%,%@CR:BONTEMPS        @%%@QR:Bontemps, Arna@% 1902-73, black American writer; b. Alexandria, La. He is%@EH@%
best remembered as the author of the novel %@AI@%God Sends Sunday%@AE@% (1931), the
basis of the play %@AI@%St. Louis Woman%@AE@% (1946); and of %@AI@%Black Thunder%@AE@% (1936), a
tragic account of the slave insurrection led by Gabriel Prosser in
Richmond, Va., in 1800. Bontemps was also an editor, anthologizer, and
historian.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%booby%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%booby%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOBY           @%%@QR:booby@% large, streamlined sea %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Sulidae, called gannets%@EH@%
in northern waters. Boobies have heavy bodies, long, pointed wings, long,
wedge-shaped tails, and short, stout legs. They fish by diving on their
prey from great heights and pursuing it under water. Gullible and unwary,
as its name indicates, the booby is easy prey for hunters and is
diminishing in number.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bookbinding%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bookbinding%@AE@%.%@CR:BOOKBINDING     @%%@QR:bookbinding@% The practice of bookbinding began with the protection of%@EH@%
parchment manuscripts with boards. Parchment sheets had been folded and
sewn together from the 2d cent. AD In the Middle Ages, the art of fine
binding rose to great heights. Books were rare and precious and many were
covered exquisitely. Techniques of folding and sewing sheets together in
small lots, taping the lots together, and adding outside protection
changed little from the medieval monastery to the modern bindery. The
invention of %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@AE@% greatly increased the demand for binding, however.
In machine binding, called casing, the cover, or case, is made separately
from the book and then glued to it. With the development of
mass-production processes and new materials, new methods of binding have
become popular; "perfect" binding uses glue without sewing. The finest
binding is still done by hand, often to restore damaged books.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Book of Changes (I Ching)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Book of Changes (I Ching)%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOK.OF.I.CHING @%%@QR:Book of Changes (I Ching)@% classic ancient Chinese book of prophecy and%@EH@%
wisdom. Its earliest parts are thought to date from the century before
%@AU@%CONFUCIUS%@BO:          21eaae@%%@AE@%. It consists of eight trigrams, corresponding to the powers of
nature. They are used to interpret the future with the textual help of
supplementary definitions, intuitions, and Confucian commentary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Book of Common Prayer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Book of Common Prayer%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOK.OFPRAYER   @%%@QR:Book of Common Prayer@% title given to the service book used in the Church%@EH@%
of %@AU@%ENGLAND%@BO:          2ef54b@%%@AE@% and in other churches of the %@AU@%ANGLICAN COMMUNION%@BO:           582ae@%%@AE@%. The first
Prayer Book (1549), mainly the work of Thomas %@AU@%CRANMER%@BO:          24543b@%%@AE@%, was essentially
derived from the breviary and the missal. This was revised (1552), but
was suppressed under %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%. Revised under %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, it was again
suppressed (1645-60) by the Commonwealth and the Protectorate. A new
revision was made compulsory by the Act of Uniformity (1662). The first
U.S. revision was adopted by the Episcopal Church in 1789; the latest
edition is that of 1979.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%book of hours%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%book of hours%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOK.OF.HOURS   @%%@QR:book of hours@% form of devotional book developed in the 14th cent.%@EH@%
containing prayers and meditations appropriate to seasons, months, days,
and hours. Many are masterpieces of %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@%; among the greatest is
%@AI@%Tres Riches Heures%@AE@% (c.1415; Musee Conde, Chantilly), made by the %@AU@%LIMBOURG
%@AU@%BROTHERS%@BO:          5526ed@%%@AE@% and other artists for the renowned collector Jean, duc de Berry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Book of the Dead%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Book of the Dead%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOK.OFD        @%%@QR:Book of the Dead@% Egyptian funerary literature. The texts consist of%@EH@%
charms, spells, and formulas for use by the deceased in the afterworld.
At first inscriptions, the texts were later papyrus rolls placed inside
the mummy case. Essential ideas of Egyptian religion are known through
them. The earliest collection is from the XVIII dynasty (1580-1350 BC).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%book publishing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%book publishing%@AE@%.%@CR:BOOK.PUBLISHING @%%@QR:book publishing@% The term %@AI@%publishing%@AE@% usually means the issuing of printed%@EH@%
materials, such as books, magazines, and %@AU@%PERIODICALS%@BO:          735ce2@%%@AE@%, and is therefore
closely related both to %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@AE@% and to the retailing of printed
materials. Although the practice of making extra copies of manuscripts
goes back to ancient times, it was the introduction of printing into
Europe in the 15th cent. that caused publishing to spring into existence
(see %@AU@%TYPE%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@%). The differentiation of printer, publisher, and bookseller
began very early. In 1583 the first important publishing house, that of
the Elzevir family in Holland (see %@AU@%ELZEVIR, LOUIS%@BO:          2e609e@%%@AE@%), published its first
book. With a steadily broadening readership, great publishing houses
slowly appeared in Leipzig, Vienna, Florence, Zurich, Paris, London, and
Edinburgh. In the U.S., Boston, Philadelphia, and especially New York
City took the lead. During the 19th cent. specialization became
increasingly evident. Music publishing became almost a separate business,
as did map publishing. %@AU@%UNIVERSITY PRESSES%@BO:          9adb7b@%%@AE@% began to be established in the
U.S. Specialization also grew within the houses in the 20th cent.
Editorial departments became distinct from production departments, and
both were quite separate from the sales, promotion, and distribution
departments. Publishers also specialized according to the subject matter
of their books and the means by which they were distributed. Thus, trade
books are fiction and nonfiction books sold to readers primarily through
bookstores (or the trade), whereas textbooks are directed toward college
professors and school boards for use by students in the classroom.
Moreover, with the proliferation of book clubs (supported by individuals
who order through the mail), many books are issued with this market in
mind. During the 1930s and 40s the paperbound, pocket-sized book rose
meteorically in popularity in English-speaking countries; by the 1980s
one third of all books sold in the U.S. were paperbacks. Publishing has
traditionally been an industry of small, family-owned firms. After the
1960s, however, American firms were continually being bought by and
consolidated with other companies; often they were taken over by
conglomerate companies in quite different lines of business. By the 1970s
the advent of new technologies for the transmission, storage, and
distribution of data, once the prerogative of book publishing, had become
a problem for the industry; television screens and data bases became
symbols of the challenges to editors and publishers alike (see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL%@BO:          4820c8@%%@AE@%). The increasing use of sophisticated
copying machines posed new problems to the need of publishers and authors
to protect their property by %@AU@%COPYRIGHT%@BO:          233160@%%@AE@%, and in 1976 the U.S. Congress
passed a major revision to the federal copyright law that attempted to
define to what extent published material could be reproduced without
payment of royalties.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boole, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boole, George%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOLE           @%%@QR:Boole, George@% 1815-64, English mathematician and logician. Boolean%@EH@%
algebra, his form of symbolic %@AU@%LOGIC%@BO:          5634cd@%%@AE@%, is central to the study of the
foundations of pure mathematics and is the basis of computer technology.
Boole wrote %@AI@%An Investigation of the Laws of Thought%@AE@% (1854), as well as
works on calculus and differential equations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boolean algebra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boolean algebra%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOLEAN.ALGEBRA @%%@QR:Boolean algebra@% an abstract mathematical system primarily used in%@EH@%
%@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% science and in expressing the relationships between %@AU@%SETS%@BO:          873a33@%%@AE@% (groups
of objects or concepts). The notational system was developed by the
English mathematician George %@AU@%BOOLE%@BO:          120d8d@%%@AE@% about 1850 to permit an algebraic
manipulation of logical statements. Such manipulation can demonstrate
whether or not a statement is true and show how a complicated statement
can be rephrased in a simpler, more convenient form without changing its
meaning. When used in set theory, Boolean algebra can demonstrate the
relationship between groups, indicating what is in each set alone, what
is jointly contained in both, and what is contained in neither. The
expression of electrical networks in Boolean notation has aided the
development of switching theory and the design of computers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boone, Daniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boone, Daniel%@AE@%,%@CR:BOONE           @%%@QR:Boone, Daniel@% 1734-1820, American frontiersman; b. near Reading, Pa. In%@EH@%
March 1775, as advance agent for the %@AU@%TRANSYLVANIA COMPANY%@BO:          978977@%%@AE@%, he blazed the
%@AU@%WILDERNESS ROAD%@BO:          a1917b@%%@AE@% and founded Boonesboro, Ky. In 1779 he helped defend
Boonesboro against the Indians. Boone moved (1799) to Missouri after his
land titles in Kentucky were overturned. His legendary adventures, many
disproved by historical scholarship, were popularized in a so-called
autobiographical account (1784) by John Filson.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Booth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Booth%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOTH1          @%%@QR:Booth@% family prominent in the %@AU@%SALVATION ARMY%@BO:          83b6cc@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%William Booth,%@AE@% 1829-1912,%@EH@%
was an evangelist in London, where he and his wife, %@AB@%Catherine Mumford
%@AB@%Booth,%@AE@% 1829-90, established (1865) a movement that became (1878) the
Salvation Army. Their eldest son, %@AB@%Bramwell Booth,%@AE@% 1856-1929, succeeded
his father in 1912 as general of this organization. Another son,
%@AB@%Ballington Booth,%@AE@% 1859-1940, was commander of the Salvation Army in
Australia (1885-87) and in the U.S. (1887-96), withdrawing (1896) to
found the Volunteers of America. A daughter, %@AB@%Evangeline Cory Booth,%@AE@%
1865-1950, commander of the Salvation Army in Canada (1895-1904) and the
U.S. (1904-34), was general (1934-39) of the international Salvation
Army.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Booth, Junius Brutus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Booth, Junius Brutus%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOTH2          @%%@QR:Booth, Junius Brutus@% 1796-1852, Anglo-American actor. He came from%@EH@%
England to the U.S. in 1821 and became the foremost tragic actor of his
day. His son %@AB@%Edwin Booth,%@AE@% 1833-93, b. near Bel Air, Md., toured with his
father and scored great successes in Shakespearean tragedies. His
100-night run of %@AI@%Hamlet%@AE@% in New York City in 1864 was famous. The next
year he retired briefly from the stage because of the scandal involving
his brother (see below). He built Booth's Theatre in New York City (1869)
and was the founder (1888) and first president of the Players' Club.
Another son, %@AB@%John Wilkes Booth,%@AE@% 1838-65, won acclaim in Shakespearean
roles but is best known as the assassin of Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@%. A Southern
sympathizer (unlike the rest of his family) during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, he
plotted with six fellow conspirators to assassinate Union leaders. On
Apr. 14, 1865, he shot Pres. Lincoln during a performance of %@AI@%Our American
%@AI@%Cousin%@AE@% at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C., vaulted to the stage
(breaking a leg), and escaped. A search party cornered him in a burning
barn near Bowling Green, Va., on Apr. 26, and Booth was fatally shot,
either by himself or by one of his pursuers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bootlegging%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bootlegging%@AE@%,%@CR:BOOTLEGGING     @%%@QR:bootlegging@% the illegal production or distribution of proscribed or%@EH@%
highly taxed goods. Historically, the term is most often applied to
illegal dealing in liquor during %@AU@%PROHIBITION%@BO:          79f220@%%@AE@% in the U.S. By 1930, liquor
bootlegging had become a large industry dominated by gangsters such as Al
%@AU@%CAPONE%@BO:          189b3f@%%@AE@%. Its association with graft and violence was a major factor in
Prohibition's repeal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bophuthatswana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bophuthatswana%@AE@%%@CR:BOPHUTHATSWANA  @%%@QR:Bophuthatswana@%, black African homeland or %@AU@%BANTUSTAN%@BO:           bf566@%%@AE@% (1985 est. pop.%@EH@%
1,660,000), 15,571 sq mi (40,330 sq km), declared independent by the
Republic of South Africa in 1977. Mmabatho is the capital. The "state,"
which has seven separate areas (six along the Botswana border), is the
designated homeland for the Tswana people. South Africa forcibly
reinstated Kgosi Lucas Mangope as president after a 1988 coup attempt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%borage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%borage%@AE@%,%@CR:BORAGE          @%%@QR:borage@% common name for the Boraginaceae, a family of widely distributed%@EH@%
herbs and tropical shrubs and trees characterized by rough or hairy
stems; four-part fruits; and, usually, fragrant blossoms. Species of
forget-me-not (%@AI@%Myosotis%@AE@%) and species of heliotrope (%@AI@%Heliotropium%@AE@%) are
cultivated in and native to North America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borah, William Edgar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borah, William Edgar%@AE@%,%@CR:BORAH           @%%@QR:Borah, William Edgar@% 1865-1940, U.S. senator from Idaho (1907-40); b.%@EH@%
near Fairfield, Ill. Sometimes called "the great opposer," he was a
Republican noted for his independent stands and his interest in foreign
policy. He opposed the %@AU@%LEAGUE OF NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@%, but advocated disarmament.
Borah also opposed economic monopolies and the growth of big government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%borax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%borax%@AE@%%@CR:BORAX           @%%@QR:borax@% or %@AB@%sodium tetraborate decahydrate,%@AE@%chemical compound (Na%@AH@%2%@AE@%B%@AH@%4%@AE@%O%@AH@%7%@AE@%.10H%@AH@%2%@AE@%O)%@EH@%
occurring as a colorless, crystalline salt or a white powder. Borax is
used as an antiseptic, cleansing agent, water softener, corrosion
inhibitor in anti freeze, and flux for silver soldering, and in the
manufacture of fertilizers, Pyrex glass, and pharmaceuticals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bordeaux%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bordeaux%@AE@%%@CR:BORDEAUX        @%%@QR:Bordeaux@%, city (1982 pop. 211,197), capital of Gironde dept., SW France,%@EH@%
on the Garonne R. It is a busy port, accessible to the Atlantic, with
important shipyards and industries. Wine is its major product, with
Bordeaux the generic name of the region's wine. A prosperous Roman city,
it flourished (11th cent.) as the seat of the dukes of %@AU@%AQUITAINE%@BO:           6f00a@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%ELEANOR
%@AU@%OF AQUITAINE%@BO:          2d478c@%%@AE@% precipitated war between France and the English, who ruled
the city (1154-1453). The city reached its height of prosperity in the
18th cent. It was the temporary seat of French government in 1914 and
1940.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borden, Gail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borden, Gail%@AE@%,%@CR:BORDEN1         @%%@QR:Borden, Gail@% 1801-74, American inventor; b. Norwich, N.Y. His process%@EH@%
(patented 1856) of evaporating %@AU@%MILK%@BO:          60aebc@%%@AE@% was of great value for the army
during the Civil War, and its use spread rapidly afterwards. Borden also
patented processes for concentrating fruit juices and other beverages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borden, Lizzie Andrew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borden, Lizzie Andrew%@AE@%,%@CR:BORDEN2         @%%@QR:Borden, Lizzie Andrew@% 1860-1927, American woman tried for the ax murders%@EH@%
(1892) of her father and stepmother; b. Fall River, Mass. Claiming that
she was out of the house when the murders occurred, she was acquitted.
The case is unsolved.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borden, Sir Robert Laird%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borden, Sir Robert Laird%@AE@%,%@CR:BORDEN3         @%%@QR:Borden, Sir Robert Laird@% 1854-1937, Canadian prime minister (1911-20).%@EH@%
He headed the Conservative government (1911-17) and a Union coalition
(1917-20) during World War I. It was largely through his efforts that
%@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@% and other British dominions attained new self-governing status.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bordet, Jules%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bordet, Jules%@AE@%%@CR:BORDET          @%%@QR:Bordet, Jules@%, 1870-1961, Belgian serologist and immunologist. He%@EH@%
received the 1919 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for his work in
immunity. With Octave Gengou he devised (1900) the technique of the
complement-fixation reaction (applied by August %@AU@%WASSERMANN%@BO:          9f768c@%%@AE@% to the
diagnosis of syphilis) and discovered (1906) the bacillus of whooping
cough.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borg, Bjorn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borg, Bjorn%@AE@%,%@CR:BORG            @%%@QR:Borg, Bjorn@% 1956-, Swedish tennis player. As a teenage star he led%@EH@%
(1975) Sweden to its first Davis Cup victory. Before losing to John
McEnroe in 1981, he captured five successive Wimbledon titles, a
tournament record. He retired in 1983.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borges, Jorge Luis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borges, Jorge Luis%@AE@%%@CR:BORGES          @%%@QR:Borges, Jorge Luis@%, 1899-86, Argentine poet, critic, and short-story%@EH@%
writer. Perhaps the foremost contemporary Spanish-American author, he
wrote his early poetry, beginning with %@AI@%Fervor of Buenos Aires%@AE@% (1923),
under the influence of %@AI@%ultraismo,%@AE@% a movement for pure poetry that
followed %@AU@%MODERNISMO%@BO:          620e80@%%@AE@%. He was director of the National Library and
professor of English at the Univ. of Buenos Aires. His imaginative poetry
is collected in %@AI@%Selected Poems: 1923-1967%@AE@% (1967). His philosophical and
literary essays appear in such collections as %@AI@%Other Inquisitions%@AE@% (1952).
He is known for his original short fiction, e.g., %@AI@%A Universal History of
%@AI@%Infamy%@AE@% (1935), %@AI@%Ficciones%@AE@% (1944), %@AI@%The Book Of Imaginary Beings%@AE@% (1957), and
%@AI@%The Book of Sand%@AE@% (1975).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borghese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borghese%@AE@%%@CR:BORGHESE        @%%@QR:Borghese@%, noble Roman family. It produced one pope, Paul V; several%@EH@%
cardinals; and many prominent citizens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borgia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borgia%@AE@%%@CR:BORGIA1         @%%@QR:Borgia@%, Spanish-Italian family whose members included the popes %@AU@%CALIXTUS%@EH@%
%@AU@%III%@BO:          174b43@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ALEXANDER VI%@BO:           34601@%%@AE@%, and Saint Francis Borgia. %@AB@%Cesare Borgia,%@AE@% 1476-1507,
a son of Pope Alexander VI, was an outstanding figure of the Italian
Renaissance. A cardinal by 1493, Cesare resigned after the death (1498)
of his elder brother (in whose murder he was probably involved) and
entered politics. An ally of %@AU@%LOUIS XII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France, he overran the cities
of Romagna. He then lured his chief enemies to a castle, where he had
some of them strangled. He hoped to make his position independent of the
papacy, but the death of his father and the election of Pope %@AU@%JULIUS II%@BO:          4da75a@%%@AE@%
were fatal to his plans. Louis XII turned against him, and Julius
demanded the surrender of Cesare's lands. Cesare was imprisoned in Spain,
escaped, and found refuge (1506) with the king of Navarre, for whom he
died fighting at Viana. Intelligent, cruel, treacherous, and
opportunistic, he has long been considered the model of the Renaissance
prince, the prototype of %@AU@%MACHIAVELLI'S%@BO:          58c681@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Prince.%@AE@% His sister was %@AB@%Lucretia
%@AB@%Borgia,%@AE@% 1480-1519. Her first marriage was annulled (1497), and her second
husband, Alfonso of Aragon, was murdered (1500) by her brother, Cesare
Borgia. She then married (1501) Alfonso d'Este, who became (1505) the
duke of Ferrara, and set up a brilliant court. Her beauty and kindness
won her much esteem. The stories of her crimes and vices are unfounded,
although she is best known for her wicked legend portrayed in dramas and
operas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borgia, Rodrigo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borgia, Rodrigo%@AE@%:%@CR:BORGIA2         @%%@QR:Borgia, Rodrigo@% see %@AU@%ALEXANDER VI%@BO:           34601@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borglum, (John) Gutzon (de la Mothe)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borglum, (John) Gutzon (de la Mothe)%@AE@%,%@CR:BORGLUM         @%%@QR:Borglum, (John) Gutzon (de la Mothe)@% 1867-1941, American sculptor; b.%@EH@%
Idaho. His first commission was a statue of Abraham Lincoln (Capitol,
Wash., D.C.). A figurative sculptor, Borglum is famous for the monumental
works he designed for, and helped to carve on, mountainsides, especially
the enormous busts of four U.S. presidents at %@AU@%MOUNT RUSHMORE NATIONAL
%@AU@%MEMORIAL%@BO:          64a5d5@%%@AE@%, S.D., begun in 1927.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boris%@AE@%,%@CR:BORIS           @%%@QR:Boris@% rulers of Bulgaria. %@AB@%Boris I,%@AE@% d. 907, khan ruler of Bulgaria%@EH@%
(852-89), was a Christian convert and introduced Byzantine Christianity
into Bulgaria. In 889 he abdicated, entering a monastery. %@AB@%Boris III,%@AE@%
1894-1943, czar (1918-43), ruled constitutionally until 1935 and
thereafter as a dictator. He joined the Axis in 1940 and died
mysteriously soon after visiting %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% in Berlin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boris Godunov%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boris Godunov%@AE@%:%@CR:BORIS.GODUNOV   @%%@QR:Boris Godunov@% see %@AU@%GODUNOV, BORIS%@BO:          3af456@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borlaug, Norman Ernest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borlaug, Norman Ernest%@AE@%,%@CR:BORLAUG         @%%@QR:Borlaug, Norman Ernest@% 1914-, American agronomist; b. Cresco, Iowa.%@EH@%
Associated with the Rockefeller Foundation in Mexico from 1944, he headed
a team of scientists experimenting with improvement of grains. He won the
1970 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to eradicate hunger and build
international prosperity. His "green revolution," using improved wheat
seed, new types of higher-yield rice, and more efficient use of
fertilizers and water, improved food production in many less-developed
countries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bormann, Martin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bormann, Martin%@AE@%,%@CR:BORMANN         @%%@QR:Bormann, Martin@% 1900-1945, German %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% leader. In 1942 he became%@EH@%
%@AU@%HITLER'S%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% private secretary. Although he was rumored to have escaped to
Argentina in 1945, his skeleton was unearthed and identified in West
Berlin in 1973.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Born, Max%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Born, Max%@AE@%,%@CR:BORN            @%%@QR:Born, Max@% 1882-1970, German physicist. For his statistical%@EH@%
interpretation of quantum mechanics (see %@AU@%QUANTUM THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@%), he shared the
1954 Nobel Prize in physics. Born was head (1921-33) of the physics
department at the Univ. of Gottingen. After Nazi policies forced him to
leave Germany, he taught at Cambridge Univ. and the Univ. of Edinburgh
before returning to Germany in 1954.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borneo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borneo%@AE@%,%@CR:BORNEO          @%%@QR:Borneo@% island (1980 pop. 9,233,504), SE Asia, world's third largest%@EH@%
island, c.287,000 sq mi (743,330 sq km), in the Malay Archipelago. It is
divided among Indonesia, which holds about 70% of the island (called
Kalimantan), Brunei, and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak. Dense
jungles and rain forests cover much of the mountainous island, which
reaches a high point of 13,455 ft (4,101 m) at Mt. Kinabalu. The hot,
humid climate has a prolonged monsoon season lasting from Nov. to May.
Primitive %@AU@%DYAKS%@BO:          2b836a@%%@AE@% occupy the sparsely populated interior; Malays
predominate in coastal regions. Oil, discovered in 1888, is the chief
resource.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borodin, Aleksandr Porfirevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borodin, Aleksandr Porfirevich%@AE@%%@CR:BORODIN         @%%@QR:Borodin, Aleksandr Porfirevich@%, 1833-87, Russian composer. He was one of%@EH@%
the group known as The %@AU@%FIVE%@BO:          337cb8@%%@AE@%. His principal works include the %@AU@%SYMPHONIC
%@AU@%POEM%@BO:          91d55a@%%@AE@% %@AI@%In the Steppes of Central Asia%@AE@% (1880) and the unfinished opera
%@AI@%Prince Igor%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boroimhe, Brian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boroimhe, Brian%@AE@%:%@CR:BOROIMHE        @%%@QR:Boroimhe, Brian@% see %@AU@%BRIAN BORU%@BO:          13c625@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boron%@AE@%%@CR:BORON           @%%@QR:boron@% (B), nonmetallic element, isolated by Sir Humphry %@AU@%DAVY%@BO:          26d9c9@%%@AE@% in 1807. As%@EH@%
a dark-brown to black amorphous powder, boron is more reactive than its
jet-black to silver-gray crystalline metallike form. %@AU@%BORAX%@BO:          1227f3@%%@AE@% and boric acid
are common compounds. Boron is used in the shielding material and in some
control rods of nuclear reactors. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borromini, Francesco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borromini, Francesco%@AE@%,%@CR:BORROMINI       @%%@QR:Borromini, Francesco@% 1599-1677, major Italian %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@% architect. His%@EH@%
innovations in palace and church architecture were influential in Italy
and N Europe. Among his buildings is San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane,
Rome, noted for its undulating rhythm of architectural elements within a
geometric plan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Borrow, George Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Borrow, George Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:BORROW          @%%@QR:Borrow, George Henry@% 1803-81, English writer. A wanderer, he distributed%@EH@%
Bibles on the Continent and was a friend of the gypsies. His books, all
of which are based on his travels, include %@AI@%The Bible in Spain%@AE@% (1843),
%@AI@%Lavengro%@AE@% (1851), and %@AI@%Romany Rye%@AE@% (1857).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boru, Brian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boru, Brian%@AE@%:%@CR:BORU            @%%@QR:Boru, Brian@% see %@AU@%BRIAN BORU%@BO:          13c625@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%borzoi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%borzoi%@AE@%,%@CR:BORZOI          @%%@QR:borzoi@% tall, swift %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 26-31 in. (66-81.2 cm);%@EH@%
weight, c.85 lb (38.6 kg). Its long, silky coat may be flat, wavy, or
curly, and any color (usually white with markings). Developed in Russia
in the early 17th cent. to hunt wolves and hares, it is also called a
Russian wolfhound.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bos, Jerom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bos, Jerom%@AE@%:%@CR:BOS             @%%@QR:Bos, Jerom@% see %@AU@%BOSCH, HIERONYMUS%@BO:          125d14@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bosch, Hieronymus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bosch, Hieronymus%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSCH           @%%@QR:Bosch, Hieronymus@%or %@AB@%Jerom Bos%@AE@%, c.1450-1516, Flemish painter. His surname%@EH@%
was van Aeken. A great influence on Pieter Brueghel, the Elder (see
%@AU@%BRUEGEL%@BO:          14a0ed@%%@AE@%, family), and hailed in the 20th cent. as a forerunner of
%@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, Bosch had a passion for the grotesque and macabre. His
paintings, e.g., %@AI@%Adoration of the Magi%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.), are filled
with bizarre plants, animals, and figures suggested perhaps by folk
legends or moralizing religious literature. He was a favorite of %@AU@%PHILIP
%@AU@%II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of Spain, who collected such works as %@AI@%Garden of Earthly Delights%@AE@%
(Prado) and the %@AI@%Temptation of St. Anthony%@AE@% (Lisbon).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bose, Sir Jagadis Chunder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bose, Sir Jagadis Chunder%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSE            @%%@QR:Bose, Sir Jagadis Chunder@% 1858-1937, Indian physicist and plant%@EH@%
physiologist. Professor of physical science (1885-1915) at Presidency
College, Calcutta, he is noted for his researches in plant life,
especially his comparison of the responses of plant and animal tissue to
various stimuli. One of his inventions is the crescograph, a device for
measuring plant growth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bosnia and Hercegovina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bosnia and Hercegovina%@AE@%%@CR:BOSNIA.EGOVINA  @%%@QR:Bosnia and Hercegovina@%, constituent republic of Yugoslavia (1985 pop.%@EH@%
4,310,000), 19,741 sq mi (51,129 sq km), W central Yugoslavia. Bosnia is
to the north of Hercegovina. The capital is %@AU@%SARAJEVO%@BO:          8479d9@%%@AE@%. Despite rich
mineral deposits, the republic remains one of the poorer areas of
Yugoslavia. About half of the land is forested; one fourth is cultivated,
with grains, tobacco, and cotton among the major crops. The region was
settled (7th cent.) by the Serbs and ruled from the 15th to 19th cent. by
the Turks. Bosnia and Hercegovina were placed (1878) under
Austro-Hungarian administration, and Austria annexed the region in 1908.
The assassination (1914) of Austrian Archduke %@AU@%FRANCIS FERDINAND%@BO:          354ea2@%%@AE@% by a
Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo precipitated %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. Bosnia and
Hercegovina were annexed to Serbia in 1918. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% they were
(1941-45) part of the German puppet state of %@AU@%CROATIA%@BO:          24bd64@%%@AE@%. In 1946 they were
combined as one of the six constituent republics of Yugoslavia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bosporus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bosporus%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSPORUS        @%%@QR:Bosporus@% strait, c.20 mi (30 km) long and c.2,100 ft (640 m) wide at its%@EH@%
narrowest, separating European and Asian Turkey. The fortified strait
connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. As a part (with the
%@AU@%DARDANELLES%@BO:          2672dd@%%@AE@%) of a passage linking the %@AU@%BLACK%@BO:          10a43e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@% seas, it is
a critically important shipping lane for the USSR. A bridge (3,524 ft/
1,074 m long) spans the Bosporus at Istanbul, near the southern end of
the strait.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boston%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSTON          @%%@QR:Boston@% city (1986 est. pop. 573,600; met. area 2,824,200), state capital%@EH@%
and seat of Suffolk co., E Mass., on Boston Bay; inc. 1822. The largest
city of New England, it is a major financial, government, and educational
center, and a leading port. Industries include publishing, food
processing, and the manufacture of shoes, textiles, machinery, and
electronic equipment. Established by John %@AU@%WINTHROP%@BO:          a268ec@%%@AE@% as the main colony of
the %@AU@%MASSACHUSETTS BAY COMPANY%@BO:          5ce2ce@%%@AE@% in 1630, Boston was an early center of
American %@AU@%PURITANISM%@BO:          7b1a77@%%@AE@%, with a vigorous intellectual life. A focus of
opposition to the British, it was the scene of several actions in the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. The city prospered in the 19th cent., and
shipbuilding, commercial, and industrial magnates such as the Cabots,
Lowells, and Lodges patronized the arts, making Boston the "Athens of
America." The arrival of many immigrants (at first mainly Irish) helped
transform Boston into an industrial metropolis with expanded city limits.
Today the city cherishes its landmarks, among them Paul %@AU@%REVERE'S%@BO:          7e8dce@%%@AE@% house,
Old North Church, and Faneuil Hall. Boston's great cultural institutions
include its Museum of Fine Arts, Symphony Orchestra, Public Library, and
Athenaeum. Boston Univ., Northeastern Univ., New England Medical Center,
and Harvard Medical School are among the institutions that make Boston
world famous as an educational, medical, and research center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boston Massacre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boston Massacre%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSTON.MASSACRE @%%@QR:Boston Massacre@% 1770, incident prior to the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% in which%@EH@%
five members of a rioting crowd were killed by British soldiers sent to
Boston to maintain order and enforce the %@AU@%TOWNSHEND ACTS%@BO:          970451@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boston Public Library%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boston Public Library%@AE@%:%@CR:BOSTON.IBRARY   @%%@QR:Boston Public Library@% see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boston Tea Party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boston Tea Party%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSTON.Y        @%%@QR:Boston Tea Party@% Boston, Mass., Dec. 16, 1773, a protest against the%@EH@%
British tea tax retained after the repeal of the %@AU@%TOWNSHEND ACTS%@BO:          970451@%%@AE@%. Angry
colonists disguised as Indians boarded three tea ships and threw the tea
into Boston harbor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boston terrier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boston terrier%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSTON.TERRIER  @%%@QR:Boston terrier@% small, lively %@AU@%NONSPORTING DOG%@BO:          6b0c62@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 14-17 in.%@EH@%
(35.6-43.2 cm); weight, 13-25 lb (5.9-11.3 kg). Its short, smooth coat
may be brindle or black, with white markings. One of the few breeds
native to the U.S., it was developed by cross-breeding in the mid-19th
cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boswell, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boswell, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BOSWELL         @%%@QR:Boswell, James@% 1740-95, Scottish author; b. Edinburgh. The son of a%@EH@%
judge, he reluctantly studied law and practiced throughout his life. His
true interest was in a literary career and in associating with the great
men of the time. He met Samuel %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cd852@%%@AE@% in 1763 and, having himself
achieved fame with his %@AI@%Account of Corsica%@AE@% (1768), produced %@AI@%Journal of a
%@AI@%Tour of the Hebrides with Samuel Johnson, LL.D.%@AE@% (1785). His great work,
%@AI@%The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.%@AE@% appeared in 1791. Boswell recorded
Johnson's conversation so minutely that Johnson is better remembered
today for his sayings than for his own literary works. The curious
combination of Boswell's own character (he was vainglorious and
dissolute) and his genius at biography has led later critics to call him
the greatest of all biographers. Masses of Boswell manuscript, discovered
in the 20th cent. near Dublin, have enhanced his reputation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%botanical garden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%botanical garden%@AE@%,%@CR:BOTANICN        @%%@QR:botanical garden@% public place where plants are grown both for display%@EH@%
and for scientific study. An %@AI@%arboretum%@AE@% is a botanical garden devoted
chiefly to woody plants, which are often arranged in cultural or habitat
groups such as rock gardens, desert gardens, and tropical gardens.
Botanical gardens collect and cultivate plants from all over the world,
conduct experiments in plant breeding and hybridization (see %@AU@%HYBRID%@BO:          45cca3@%%@AE@%), and
maintain libraries and herbariums. The Missouri Botanical Garden (St.
Louis), founded c.1860, was the first botanical garden in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%botany%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%botany%@AE@%,%@CR:BOTANY          @%%@QR:botany@% science devoted to the study of plants, a major branch of%@EH@%
%@AU@%BIOLOGY%@BO:           fed53@%%@AE@%. In the 17th cent. the work of %@AU@%LINNAEUS%@BO:          5570cf@%%@AE@% on the %@AU@%CLASSIFICATION%@BO:          1f0606@%%@AE@% of
organisms contributed greatly to the growth of the science, and the
introduction of the %@AU@%MICROSCOPE%@BO:          6041bf@%%@AE@% marked the beginning of the study of plant
anatomy and cells. Modern botany has expanded into all areas of biology,
e.g., plant breeding and %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@%. Practical areas of botanical study
include %@AU@%AGRICULTURE%@BO:           21c43@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AGRONOMY%@BO:           224f5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FORESTRY%@BO:          347f5e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HORTICULTURE%@BO:          4493da@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Botany Bay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Botany Bay%@AE@%,%@CR:BOTANY.BAY      @%%@QR:Botany Bay@% inlet, New South Wales, SE Australia, just S of Sydney. It%@EH@%
was visited in 1770 by Capt. James %@AU@%COOK%@BO:          22f2d1@%%@AE@% and named for the interesting
flora on its shores. Australia's first penal colony, often called Botany
Bay, was at Sydney.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Botev, Khristo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Botev, Khristo%@AE@%%@CR:BOTEV           @%%@QR:Botev, Khristo@%, 1848-76, Bulgarian poet. As a student in Russia he%@EH@%
absorbed socialist ideas. In 1875 a volume of his patriotic lyrics and
ballads appeared. He was killed leading a band of rebels against Turkish
rule.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Botha, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Botha, Louis%@AE@%%@CR:BOTHA1          @%%@QR:Botha, Louis@%, 1862-1919, South African soldier and statesman. He%@EH@%
commanded the Boer troops in the %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICAN WAR%@BO:          8be2a7@%%@AE@% (1899-1902). He was
prime minister (1907-10) of the Transvaal and, as leader of the Unionist
party, prime minister (1910-19) of the Union of %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICA%@BO:          8bccf8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Botha, Pieter Willem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Botha, Pieter Willem%@AE@%,%@CR:BOTHA2          @%%@QR:Botha, Pieter Willem@% 1916-, South African politician and prime minister%@EH@%
(1978-). A member of the National party, he has worked for limited
reforms in his nation's policy of %@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@% and has continued the
creation of %@AU@%BANTUSTANS%@BO:           bf566@%%@AE@% as homelands for the black population. Botha also
served (1965-80) as defense minister.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th earl of%@AE@%,%@CR:BOTHWELL        @%%@QR:Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th earl of@% 1536?-1578, Scottish nobleman,%@EH@%
third husband of %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@%. After the murder of her secretary
%@AU@%RIZZIO%@BO:          7f8a2f@%%@AE@% by conspirators, among them her husband, Lord %@AU@%DARNLEY%@BO:          268826@%%@AE@%, Mary
trusted only Bothwell. Accused of murdering Darnley, Bothwell was
acquitted in a rigged trial and married Mary (1567). The Scottish
aristocracy attacked him and forced Mary to give him up. He fled to
Denmark, where he was imprisoned and died insane.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Botswana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Botswana%@AE@%%@CR:BOTSWANA        @%%@QR:Botswana@%, officially Republic of Botswana, republic (1987 pop.%@EH@%
1,169,000), 231,804 sq mi (600,372 sq km), S central Africa, formerly
Bechuanaland, bordered by Namibia (South West Africa; W and N), Zambia
(N), Zimbabwe (E), and South Africa (S and E). Gabarone is the capital.
The terrain is mostly an arid plateau (c.3,000 ft/910 m high) of rolling
land, with hills in the east, the %@AU@%KALAHARI%@BO:          4e004a@%%@AE@% Desert in the south and west,
and the Okavango Swamp in the northwest. Cattle-raising and the export of
beef are the chief economic activities. Farm production is severely
hampered by lack of water. Botswana has vast mineral resources,
discovered in the 1960s, and mining is being rapidly developed. Diamonds
have become the principal export, and copper, nickel, asbestos,
manganese, and coal are also being extracted. Because of its landlocked
location, however, the country remains economically dependent on its
neighbors, %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICA%@BO:          8bccf8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ZIMBABWE%@BO:          a53356@%%@AE@% (which controls the railroad through
Botswana). The population is mainly Tswana, who are divided into eight
Bantu-speaking groups. English and Tswana are the official languages, and
traditional religions are dominant, although there is a small Christian
minority.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The region was originally inhabited by the San (Bushmen), who
were supplanted by the Tswana in the 18th cent. In the early 1800s Khama,
chief of the largest Tswana tribe, curbed expansion by Zulu and Ndebele
tribesmen into the territory and established a fairly unified state. A
new threat arose in the late 19th cent. when, after gold was discovered
in the region (1867), neighboring Transvaal sought to annex parts of
Botswana. This move was opposed by the British, who took the area under
supervision (1885) as a protectorate called Bechuanaland. A British plan
to incorporate Bechuanaland into the Union of South Africa was eventually
abandoned because of South Africa's apartheid policy, and in 1966, as
Botswana, it gained full independence. Led by its first president, Sir
Seretse Khama (grandson of Khama) until his death (1980), Botswana has
won respect as a stable, democratic, nonracialist nation committed to a
moderate foreign policy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bottger, Johann Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bottger, Johann Friedrich%@AE@%%@CR:BOTTGER         @%%@QR:Bottger, Johann Friedrich@%, 1682-1719, German chemist and originator of%@EH@%
Dresden china. He developed various glazes, used gold and silver
decoration, and in 1715 perfected white %@AU@%PORCELAIN%@BO:          7845b1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Botticelli, Sandro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Botticelli, Sandro%@AE@%%@CR:BOTTICELLI      @%%@QR:Botticelli, Sandro@%, c.1444-1510, Florentine %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% painter; b.%@EH@%
Alessandro di Mariano Filipepi. He was a student of Fra Filippo %@AU@%LIPPI%@BO:          5586d6@%%@AE@%,
whose influence can be seen in the delicate coloration of his early work;
this later gave way to the more vigorous style of Pollaiuolo (see
%@AU@%POLLAIUOLO%@BO:          779137@%%@AE@%, family) and %@AU@%VERROCCHIO%@BO:          9cd23c@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%Portrait of a Young Man%@AE@%
(Uffizi). He became a favorite of the %@AU@%MEDICI%@BO:          5e071c@%%@AE@% and was influenced by their
Neoplatonic circle. Botticelli was one of the great colorists and a
master of rhythmic line. His enchanting mythological scenes, %@AI@%Spring,
%@AI@%Birth of Venus,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Mars and Venus%@AE@% allude to the triumph of love and
reason over brutal instinct. In his last years, his popularity probably
declined, and he turned to religious scenes. His piety is evident in the
%@AI@%Nativity%@AE@% (National Gall., London) and %@AI@%Last Communion of St. Jerome%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.). In the 19th cent. he was rediscovered by the
%@AU@%PRE-RAPHAELITES%@BO:          79430b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%botulism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%botulism%@AE@%,%@CR:BOTULISM        @%%@QR:botulism@% acute, often fatal food poisoning from ingestion of food%@EH@%
containing toxins produced by %@AI@%Clostridium botulinum%@AE@% bacteria. Most cases
are caused by canned food that has been improperly processed. The disease
causes disturbances in vision, speech, and swallowing and, ultimately,
paralysis of respiratory muscles, leading to suffocation. Treatment
involves the administration of antitoxin as soon as possible after
exposure to contaminated food.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bouake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bouake%@AE@%,%@CR:BOUAKE          @%%@QR:Bouake@% city (1975 pop. 175,264), central Ivory Coast. It is a commercial%@EH@%
and transportation center linked by rail to %@AU@%ABIDJAN%@BO:            4510@%%@AE@%. Tobacco is processed
in the town, and gold and manganese are found nearby. A variant spelling
is Bwake.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boucher, Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boucher, Francois%@AE@%%@CR:BOUCHER         @%%@QR:Boucher, Francois@%, 1703-70, French painter. Boucher's art reflected the%@EH@%
spirit of his day: elegant, frivolous, and artificial. A prodigy, he was
influenced by %@AU@%WATTEAU%@BO:          9fcc02@%%@AE@% and became the most fashionable and prolific artist
of his day, producing a vast number of pictures, decorations, tapestry
designs, stage settings for ballet and opera, and fine %@AU@%ETCHINGS%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@%. His
best-known works are brilliant, voluptuous decorations, e.g., those in
the Frick Collection (N.Y.C.). %@AU@%FRAGONARD%@BO:          34f72e@%%@AE@% was his pupil.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boudin, Eugene Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boudin, Eugene Louis%@AE@%%@CR:BOUDIN          @%%@QR:Boudin, Eugene Louis@%, 1824-98, French painter. His small paintings of%@EH@%
Brittany beach scenes are noted for their pervasive clarity and
directness. He painted from nature and greatly influenced %@AU@%MONET%@BO:          629b2a@%%@AE@%. Examples
of his work are in the Metropolitan Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bougainville, Louis Antoine de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bougainville, Louis Antoine de%@AE@%%@CR:BOUGAINVILLE    @%%@QR:Bougainville, Louis Antoine de@%, 1729-1811, French navigator. He was an%@EH@%
aide-de-camp to Gen. %@AU@%MONTCALM%@BO:          633714@%%@AE@% in Canada. From 1767 to 1769 he made a
voyage around the world, rediscovering the %@AU@%SOLOMON ISLANDS%@BO:          8b445c@%%@AE@%, the largest
of which is named for him. In the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% he fought Adm. Hood
at Martinique. His %@AI@%Description of a Voyage around the World%@AE@% (2 vol.,
1771-72) popularized the theories of %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bougainvillea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bougainvillea%@AE@%%@CR:BOUGAINVILLEA   @%%@QR:bougainvillea@% or %@AB@%bougainvillaea,%@AE@% chiefly tropical plant (genus%@EH@%
%@AI@%Bougainvillaea%@AE@%) of the four-o'clock family. Bougainvilleas are woody
vines with brilliant purple or red bracts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boulanger, Georges Ernest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boulanger, Georges Ernest%@AE@%%@CR:BOULANGER1      @%%@QR:Boulanger, Georges Ernest@%, 1837-91, French general and reactionary%@EH@%
politician. He served in the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@% and was minister of war
(1886-87). Envisioning himself as a dictator, he attracted opponents of
the Third Republic and was elected (1889) as a parliamentary deputy. A
military coup seemed probable, but Boulanger failed to act. Accused of
treason, he fled into exile and killed himself.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boulanger, Nadia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boulanger, Nadia%@AE@%,%@CR:BOULANGER2      @%%@QR:Boulanger, Nadia@% 1887-1979, French conductor and musician. As the%@EH@%
teacher of such American composers as Aaron %@AU@%COPLAND%@BO:          231b79@%%@AE@% and Virgil %@AU@%THOMSON%@BO:          953d88@%%@AE@%,
she profoundly influenced American music. She was noted for her teaching
of composition and for her conducting of choral works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boulder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boulder%@AE@%,%@CR:BOULDER         @%%@QR:Boulder@% city (1986 est. pop. 76,480), seat of Boulder co., N central%@EH@%
Colo.; inc. 1871. It is a major %@AU@%ROCKY MOUNTAIN%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@% resort, and the site of
the Univ. of Colo. and the National Center for Atmospheric Research.
Manufactures include aircraft and electronic equipment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boulez, Pierre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boulez, Pierre%@AE@%%@CR:BOULEZ          @%%@QR:Boulez, Pierre@%, 1925-, French composer and conductor. His works apply the%@EH@%
techniques of %@AU@%SERIAL MUSIC%@BO:          8723fc@%%@AE@% not only to melody and %@AU@%COUNTERPOINT%@BO:          23f1c0@%%@AE@% but also
to %@AU@%RHYTHM%@BO:          7eedb5@%%@AE@% and dynamics. They include %@AI@%Pli selon pli%@AE@% (1962) and %@AI@%Memoriales%@AE@%
(1975). From 1971 to 1977 he was music director of the New York
Philharmonic (see %@AU@%ORCHESTRA%@BO:          6e56f7@%%@AE@%, ).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boulogne, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boulogne, Jean%@AE@%:%@CR:BOULOGNE        @%%@QR:Boulogne, Jean@% see %@AU@%BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI%@BO:          11aa24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boult, Sir Adrian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boult, Sir Adrian%@AE@%,%@CR:BOULT           @%%@QR:Boult, Sir Adrian@% 1889-1983, English conductor. He led the BBC Symphony%@EH@%
Orchestra (1930-50) and the London Philharmonic (1950-57). His handbook
on the technique of conducting appeared in 1968.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boumedienne, Houari%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boumedienne, Houari%@AE@%%@CR:BOUMEDIENNE     @%%@QR:Boumedienne, Houari@%, 1932?-78, Algerian president and prime minister%@EH@%
(1965-78). He came to power in a coup that toppled Ahmed %@AU@%BEN BELLA%@BO:           e46c8@%%@AE@%. His
government assumed a rigorous anti-Israeli stance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bounty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bounty%@AE@%,%@CR:BOUNTY          @%%@QR:Bounty@% British naval ship, scene of a noted mutiny (1789) while on a%@EH@%
trading voyage in the Pacific. Capt. %@AU@%BLIGH%@BO:          10e03b@%%@AE@% and 18 crew members were set
adrift in a small boat; they sailed 3,618 mi (5,822 km) to %@AU@%TIMOR%@BO:          95e5d9@%%@AE@%. Some of
the mutineers were captured; others settled on %@AU@%PITCAIRN ISLAND%@BO:          7621b8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bourassa, Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bourassa, Henri%@AE@%%@CR:BOURASSA        @%%@QR:Bourassa, Henri@%, 1868-1952, Canadian politician and publisher. He founded%@EH@%
the opposition Nationalist party in %@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7ba00e@%%@AE@%, which caused the fall (1911)
of the Liberal government of Sir Wilfrid %@AU@%LAURIER%@BO:          52cc9b@%%@AE@%. He also founded (1910)
and edited a Montreal daily newspaper, %@AI@%Le Devoir%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bourbaki, Nicolas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bourbaki, Nicolas%@AE@%,%@CR:BOURBAKI        @%%@QR:Bourbaki, Nicolas@% collective pseudonym of a group of French%@EH@%
mathematicians who in 1939 began publishing a highly influential general
survey of mathematics. The writers, whose identities remain secret, have
attempted to develop mathematics from a few broad axioms and have divided
it into general structural categories, rather than adhering to
traditional mathematical classifications.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bourbon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bourbon%@AE@%,%@CR:BOURBON1        @%%@QR:Bourbon@% royal family that ruled in France, Spain, the %@AU@%TWO SICILIES%@BO:          99270d@%%@AE@%, and%@EH@%
Parma; a cadet branch of the %@AU@%CAPETIANS%@BO:          18783e@%%@AE@%. It takes its name from the now
ruined castle of Bourbon in France. In 1272 Robert of Clermont, sixth son
of %@AU@%LOUIS IX%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France, married the heiress of Bourbon. His son Louis was
created (1327) 1st duc de Bourbon. A younger son of the first duke
founded the line of Bourbon-Vendome. His descendant Antoine de Bourbon,
1518-62, duke of Vendome, became king of Navarre by marrying (1548)
Jeanne d'Albret, later queen of %@AU@%NAVARRE%@BO:          67ae3b@%%@AE@%. From his brother Louis descend
the houses of %@AU@%CONDE%@BO:          21bece@%%@AE@% and Conti. Antoine's son became (1589) the first
Bourbon king of France as %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@%. His direct descendants ruled France
(except from 1792 to 1814) until 1830, when %@AU@%CHARLES X%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% was deposed, and
died out in 1883 with Henri, comte de Chambord. The younger branch of
Bourbon-Orleans gave France King %@AU@%LOUIS PHILIPPE%@BO:          575921@%%@AE@%. The house of
%@AB@%Bourbon-Spain%@AE@% began in 1700 when %@AU@%LOUIS XIV'S%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% grandson %@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% ascended
the Spanish throne. The succession in Spain was contested (19th cent.) by
the %@AU@%CARLISTS%@BO:          18f04e@%%@AE@% against %@AU@%ISABELLA II%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@%. Alfonso XIII was deposed in 1931, but
the monarchy was restored in 1975 with his grandson %@AU@%JUAN CARLOS I%@BO:          4d6ba3@%%@AE@%. The
house of %@AB@%Bourbon-Sicily,%@AE@% sprung from the Spanish line, was founded (1759)
by Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and ceased to rule when Francis II was
deposed (1860). The house of %@AB@%Bourbon-Parma%@AE@% was founded (1748) in the
duchy of Parma by a younger son of Philip V of Spain. Robert, the fifth
duke in the line, was deposed in 1859.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bourbon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bourbon%@AE@%:%@CR:BOURBON2        @%%@QR:bourbon@% see %@AU@%WHISKEY%@BO:          a11709@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bourdelle, Emile Antoine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bourdelle, Emile Antoine%@AE@%%@CR:BOURDELLE       @%%@QR:Bourdelle, Emile Antoine@%, 1861-1929, French sculptor. He studied with%@EH@%
%@AU@%RODIN%@BO:          802c08@%%@AE@% and achieved his greatest success with Greek- and Gothic-inspired
heroic monuments, e.g., %@AI@%Hercules%@AE@% (cast; Metropolitan Mus.), and with
portrait heads.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bourgeoisie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bourgeoisie%@AE@%,%@CR:BOURGEOISIE     @%%@QR:bourgeoisie@% name given in Europe to the middle class. Emerging among the%@EH@%
merchants and craftsmen of medieval cities, it played a major role in the
16th cent. in uprooting vestiges of %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@% and from the late 18th
cent. in spearheading democratic reform. Following the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%, the high bourgeoisie (industrialists and bankers) came to be
distinguished from the petty bourgeoisie (tradespeople and white-collar
workers). From the time of %@AU@%MOLIERE%@BO:          625664@%%@AE@%, the bourgeoisie was ridiculed by some
for its preoccupation with status and material gain. In Karl %@AU@%MARX'S%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@%
theory of class struggle, it was seen as a reactionary force trying to
prevent the ascendancy of the wage-earning proletariat.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bourget, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bourget, Paul%@AE@%%@CR:BOURGET         @%%@QR:Bourget, Paul@%, 1852-1935, French novelist. Catholic and conservative, he%@EH@%
is noted for works of psychological analysis. Representative of his more
than 60 novels are %@AI@%Love's Cruel Enigma%@AE@% (1885) and %@AI@%The Night Cometh%@AE@%
(1915).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bourguiba, Habib%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bourguiba, Habib%@AE@%,%@CR:BOURGUIBA       @%%@QR:Bourguiba, Habib@% 1903-, president of %@AU@%TUNISIA%@BO:          989bfb@%%@AE@% (1957-). As leader of%@EH@%
Tunisia's nationalist movement after 1934, he was several times
imprisoned and forced to leave the country. He became premier when
Tunisia achieved independence in 1956. A year later he deposed the bey;
he was president from 1957 to 1987.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bourke-White, Margaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bourke-White, Margaret%@AE@%,%@CR:BOURKEWHITE     @%%@QR:Bourke-White, Margaret@% 1904-71, American photojournalist; b. N.Y.C. On%@EH@%
the staff of %@AI@%Fortune, Life,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Time,%@AE@% she produced notable photographs of
World War II, the rural South during the Great Depression, mining in
South Africa, and guerrilla warfare in Korea, as well as portraits of
world leaders.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bournonville, Auguste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bournonville, Auguste%@AE@%%@CR:BOURNONVILLE    @%%@QR:Bournonville, Auguste@% (ugust' boornoNvel'l), 1805-79, Danish ballet%@EH@%
dancer, choreographer, and teacher. He studied in Copenhagen and Paris
before joining (1828) the %@AU@%ROYAL DANISH BALLET.%@BO:          819539@%%@AE@% As a soloist, he developed
a distinctive style. He choreographed over 50 works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bourse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bourse%@AE@%:%@CR:BOURSE          @%%@QR:bourse@% see %@AU@%STOCK EXCHANGE%@BO:          8f28bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bovet, Daniele%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bovet, Daniele%@AE@%%@CR:BOVET           @%%@QR:Bovet, Daniele@%, 1907-, Italian pharmacologist; b. Switzerland. He was%@EH@%
awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for work in
developing antihistamines, sulfa drugs, and curare derivatives and other
muscle relaxants for use in surgery. He also studied the effects of
mental illness on the brain's chemistry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bow Bells%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bow Bells%@AE@%,%@CR:BOW.BELLS       @%%@QR:Bow Bells@% in the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, London, England. Tradition%@EH@%
says that only one who is born within their sound is a true Londoner, or
Cockney.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bowdler, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bowdler, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BOWDLER         @%%@QR:Bowdler, Thomas@% 1754-1825, English editor. His prudish textual%@EH@%
expurgations, especially of Shakespeare and the Bible, gave rise to the
term %@AI@%bowdlerize%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bowen, Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bowen, Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:BOWEN           @%%@QR:Bowen, Elizabeth@% 1899-1973, Anglo-Irish author; b. Dublin. Her complex%@EH@%
psychological novels include %@AI@%The Hotel%@AE@% (1927), %@AI@%The House in Paris%@AE@% (1936),
%@AI@%The Death of the Heart%@AE@% (1938), and %@AI@%The Heat of the Day%@AE@% (1949). She also
wrote short stories and reminiscences.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bowie, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bowie, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BOWIE           @%%@QR:Bowie, James@% c.1796-1836, Texas hero; b. Logan co., Ky. He was a leader%@EH@%
of the Americans in %@AU@%TEXAS%@BO:          94505d@%%@AE@% who opposed Mexican rule. A colonel in the
Texas Revolution (1835-36), he died at the %@AU@%ALAMO%@BO:           2a0ae@%%@AE@%. Legend credits him with
inventing the bowie knife.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bowles, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bowles, Paul%@AE@%,%@CR:BOWLES1         @%%@QR:Bowles, Paul@% 1910-, American author; b. N.Y.C. Originally a composer, he%@EH@%
is best known for his fiction. A longtime resident of Morocco, Bowles
often records the collision between the civilized and the primitive.
Among his many works are the novel %@AI@%The Sheltering Sky%@AE@% (1949) and the
short-story collection %@AI@%The Delicate Prey%@AE@% (1950). His wife, %@AB@%Jane Auer
%@AB@%Bowles,%@AE@% 1917-73, b. N.Y.C., was also a writer. Her original,
idiosyncratic works include %@AI@%Two Serious Ladies%@AE@% (1943), a novel, and %@AI@%In
%@AI@%the Summer House%@AE@% (1954), a play.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bowles, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bowles, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:BOWLES2         @%%@QR:Bowles, Samuel@% 1797-1851, American newspaper editor; b. Hartford, Conn.%@EH@%
He founded (1824) the Springfield (Mass.) %@AI@%Republican,%@AE@% a weekly. In 1844
it became a daily under the influence of his son, %@AB@%Samuel Bowles,%@AE@% 1826-78,
b. Springfield, Mass., who took control at 25 and made it one of the
half-dozen most influential newspapers in the U.S. He aided the
anti-%@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@% movement and helped found the %@AU@%REPUBLICAN PARTY%@BO:          7e5712@%%@AE@% in New
England. In later life he wrote reports and books about his travels. His
son, %@AB@%Samuel Bowles,%@AE@% 1851-1915, the third of the family to edit the
%@AI@%Republican,%@AE@% maintained its high quality.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bowling%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bowling%@AE@%,%@CR:BOWLING         @%%@QR:bowling@% indoor sport, also called %@AB@%tenpins,%@AE@% in which a ball is rolled at%@EH@%
10 maple pins down an alley of polished wood. A regulation alley is 41 to
42 in. (104.1 to 106.7 cm) wide and 60 ft (18.3 m) from the foul line to
the head pin. A ball, usually weighing 16 lb (7.26 kg) and having three
finger holes, is rolled at the pins, set up in a triangular array.
Scoring is based on the number of pins knocked down; a perfect game is
300 points. Bowling originated in ancient Germany and was introduced in
America by the Dutch. The American Bowling Congress (founded 1895) and
the Women's International Bowling Congress (1916) hold yearly
championships. Duck pins, candle pins, and barrel pins are similar games
played with much smaller balls and pins.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bowman, Isaiah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bowman, Isaiah%@AE@%,%@CR:BOWMAN          @%%@QR:Bowman, Isaiah@% 1878-1950, American geographer; b. Canada. He taught at%@EH@%
Yale (1905-15), was director of the American Geographical Society
(1915-35), and was president of Johns Hopkins Univ. (1935-48). He was an
adviser to Pres. Wilson at Versailles and an adviser to the Dept. of
State in World War II. One of the great modern authorities on political
geography, he wrote on many subjects, including the Andes, the Atacama
desert, and forest physiography.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%box%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%box%@AE@%,%@CR:BOX             @%%@QR:box@% common name for the Buxaceae, a family of trees and shrubs with%@EH@%
leathery green leaves, native to tropical and subtropical regions of the
Old World and Central America. Boxes (genus %@AI@%Buxus%@AE@%) are widely cultivated
as hedge plants and for their close-grained, strong hardwood. Boxwood
takes a high polish and is used for wood engraving, carving, and turning,
and for making musical instruments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boxer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boxer%@AE@%,%@CR:BOXER           @%%@QR:boxer@% medium-sized, muscular %@AU@%WORKING DOG%@BO:          a324a5@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 21-25 in.%@EH@%
(53.3-63.5 cm); weight, 60-75 lb (27.2-34 kg). Its short, smooth coat is
fawn or brindle, often with white markings. First used for fighting, the
breed originated in 16th-cent. Europe and was perfected in 19th-cent.
Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boxer Uprising%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boxer Uprising%@AE@%,%@CR:BOXER.UPRISING  @%%@QR:Boxer Uprising@% 1898-1900, antiforeign movement in China. By the late%@EH@%
19th cent. the West and Japan had wide interests in China. The dowager
empress %@AU@%TZ'U HSI%@BO:          9957c1@%%@AE@% favored expelling the foreigners and encouraged an
antiforeign society called I Ho Ch'uan [Chinese,=righteous, harmonious
fists] or, in English, the Boxers. The movement grew menacing in 1899,
and in June 1900 some 140,000 Boxers occupied Peking and besieged
Westerners and Chinese Christians there. The siege was lifted in August
by an international force of British, French, Russian, U.S., German, and
Japanese troops. In 1901 China was compelled to pay an indemnity of $333
million, to amend commercial treaties in favor of foreign nations, and to
allow foreign troops to be posted in Peking.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boxing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boxing%@AE@%,%@CR:BOXING          @%%@QR:boxing@% sport of fighting with fists, also called pugilism and%@EH@%
prizefighting. Boxers compete in a roped-off area, or ring, about 20 ft
(6.1 m) square, and fight for a prescribed number of 3-min rounds,
separated by 1-min rest periods. Bouts maybe decided by a knockout, when
a floored contestant is unable to rise within 10 sec, or by the decision
of the officials. Professional boxers are divided into eight weight
classes, ranging from flyweight (under 112 lb/50.81 kg) to heavyweight
(over 175 lb/79.38 kg). One of the oldest forms of competition known,
boxing died out after the fall of Rome but was revived in England in the
early 18th cent. Modern boxing began with the code of rules introduced
(1865) by the marquess of %@AU@%QUEENSBERRY%@BO:          7bb7ac@%%@AE@%, which called for the use of
gloves. In the U.S., boxing was illegal for many years before New York
became the first state to legalize it (1896). Today professional boxing
is regulated in each state by an athletic or boxing commission. Boxing
has been an Olympic sport since 1904.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boyars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boyars%@AE@%,%@CR:BOYARS          @%%@QR:boyars@% upper nobility in Russia from the 10th to the 17th cent. They%@EH@%
occupied the highest state offices, advising the princes of Kiev through
a council. Although they retained their influence after power shifted
(14th-15th cent.) to Moscow, it was gradually eroded; %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@% abolished
the rank.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boyce, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boyce, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BOYCE           @%%@QR:Boyce, William@% c.1710-1779, English composer. The major English-born%@EH@%
composer of his day, he wrote symphonies, stage works, and much vocal
music. His %@AI@%Cathedral Music%@AE@% (3 vol., 1760-68) is a compilation of English
church music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boycott%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boycott%@AE@%,%@CR:BOYCOTT         @%%@QR:boycott@% usually, concerted economic ostracism exercised by one group%@EH@%
against another. In the U.S. it is often a weapon in labor disputes.
Boycotts may be primary or secondary. A primary boycott occurs when, for
example, a labor union urges its members and supporters not to buy goods
produced by a company against which it is striking. A secondary boycott
is directed at a third party, e.g., a retail chain that stocks the
company's products, and is illegal under U.S. %@AU@%LABOR LAWS%@BO:          514c1e@%%@AE@%. The term was
coined (1880) when Capt. Charles Boycott, a ruthless English land agent
in Ireland, was ostracized by his victims.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boyd, Louise Arner%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boyd, Louise Arner%@AE@%,%@CR:BOYD            @%%@QR:Boyd, Louise Arner@% 1887-1972, American arctic explorer; b. San Rafael,%@EH@%
Calif. She led a series of scientific explorations on the east coast of
%@AU@%GREENLAND%@BO:          3d5d00@%%@AE@% (1933-41). In 1955 she became the first woman to fly over the
%@AU@%NORTH POLE%@BO:          6bad4f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boyd Orr, John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boyd Orr, John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:BOYD.ORR        @%%@QR:Boyd Orr, John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron@% 1880-1971, British nutritionist and%@EH@%
agronomist. He made notable contributions to the science of nutrition and
to the solution of world food problems, winning the 1949 Nobel Peace
Prize for advocating a world food policy based on need rather than trade
interests. He was director general (1946-47) of the UN Food and
Agriculture Organization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boyle, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boyle, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BOYLE           @%%@QR:Boyle, Robert@% 1627-91, Anglo-Irish physicist and chemist. Often referred%@EH@%
to as the father of modern chemistry, he separated chemistry from alchemy
and gave the first precise definitions of a chemical element, a chemical
reaction, and chemical analysis. He invented a vacuum pump and used it in
the discovery (1662) of what is known as %@AB@%Boyle's law%@AE@% (see %@AU@%GAS LAWS%@BO:          382cec@%%@AE@%). His
diverse experimental and theoretical work supplemented Sir Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON'S%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@%
achievements in establishing the dominance of mechanistic theory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Boy Scouts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Boy Scouts%@AE@%,%@CR:BOY.SCOUTS      @%%@QR:Boy Scouts@% organization of boys from 7 to 18 years of age, founded%@EH@%
(1908) in Great Britain by Sir Robert %@AU@%BADEN-POWELL%@BO:           ae8e9@%%@AE@%, incorporated 1910 in
the U.S. Activities of the Boy Scouts aim at mental, moral, and physical
development, stressing outdoor skills and training in citizenship and
life-saving. The basic scout unit is a troop of about 15 boys, under the
leadership of an adult scoutmaster. There is also a coeducational program
for young adults between the ages of 14 and 21. In 1982 there were nearly
4.5 million Boy Scouts in the U.S. See also %@AU@%GIRL SCOUTS%@BO:          3a6396@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%boysenberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%boysenberry%@AE@%:%@CR:BOYSENBERRY     @%%@QR:boysenberry@% see %@AU@%BRAMBLE%@BO:          1347f9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bozeman Trail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bozeman Trail%@AE@%,%@CR:BOZEMAN.TRAIL   @%%@QR:Bozeman Trail@% a shortcut through Indian lands from the East to the%@EH@%
goldfields of Colorado and Montana, made by John M. Bozeman in 1862-63.
The trail was used by a few parties, but after the Fetterman Massacre
(1866) it was abandoned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Br%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Br%@AE@%,%@CR:BR              @%%@QR:Br@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%BROMINE%@BO:          1432ca@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brackets%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brackets%@AE@%:%@CR:BRACKETS        @%%@QR:brackets@% see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bracton, Henry de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bracton, Henry de%@AE@%,%@CR:BRACTON         @%%@QR:Bracton, Henry de@% d. 1268, English writer on law. His %@AI@%On the Laws and%@EH@%
%@AI@%Customs of England%@AE@% is often considered the most important English legal
treatise before that of %@AU@%BLACKSTONE%@BO:          10a742@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braddock, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braddock, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADDOCK        @%%@QR:Braddock, Edward@% 1695-1755, British general in the %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%. While on an expedition (1755) to take Fort Duquesne from the
French, he was set upon by a force of some 900 French and Indians at the
Monongahela R. Many of his men bolted; more than half were killed, and he
was mortally wounded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradford, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradford, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADFORD1       @%%@QR:Bradford, William@% 1590-1657, governor of Plymouth Colony; b. England. He%@EH@%
succeeded John %@AU@%CARVER%@BO:          1989a2@%%@AE@% as governor in 1621 and was reelected 30 times. He
was largely responsible for the success of the colony. His %@AI@%History of
%@AI@%Plymouth Plantation%@AE@% (first published 1856) is famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradford, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradford, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADFORD2       @%%@QR:Bradford, William@% 1663-1752, English printer in the American colonies.%@EH@%
He emigrated (1685) and set up the first press in Philadelphia. Moving to
New York City (c.1693), he became royal printer, and issued some 400
items over 50 years, including the first American %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@%
(1710). In 1725 he began the %@AI@%Gazette,%@AE@% the first New York newspaper. His
son, %@AB@%Andrew Bradford,%@AE@% 1686-1742, b. Philadelphia, established his own
press in 1712. In 1719 he began the %@AI@%American Weekly Mercury,%@AE@% the first
Pennsylvania newspaper. Imprisoned for political publishing, he defended
himself, establishing a precedent for %@AU@%ZENGER%@BO:          a51048@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%William Bradford,%@AE@% 1722-91,
grandson of William and nephew of Andrew, founded in Philadelphia the
anti-British %@AI@%Weekly Advertiser,%@AE@% and became a leader of the %@AU@%SONS OF
%@AU@%LIBERTY%@BO:          8b960e@%%@AE@% and printer to the first %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradford%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradford%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADFORD3       @%%@QR:Bradford@% city (1986 pop. 463,100), West Yorkshire, N central England. A%@EH@%
center of the worsted industry since the Middle Ages, Bradford now also
produces synthetic fabrics, machinery, automobiles, and other
manufactures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradley, Francis Herbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradley, Francis Herbert%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADLEY1        @%%@QR:Bradley, Francis Herbert@% 1846-1924, English philosopher. His metaphysics%@EH@%
was influenced by %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@%. In %@AI@%Appearance and Reality%@AE@% (1893) he held that
%@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@%, in which the world of appearance is characterized by apparent
contradictions, is opposed to the absolute, in which all contradictions
are transcended.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradley, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradley, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADLEY2        @%%@QR:Bradley, James@% 1693-1762, English astronomer. He discovered the%@EH@%
%@AU@%ABERRATION OF STARLIGHT%@BO:            43bc@%%@AE@% (announced in 1729) and the %@AU@%NUTATION%@BO:          6c64a6@%%@AE@%, or
"nodding," of the earth's axis (announced in 1748). Bradley became
astronomer royal and director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory in 1742.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradley, Omar Nelson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradley, Omar Nelson%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADLEY3        @%%@QR:Bradley, Omar Nelson@% 1893-1981, U.S. general; b. Clark, Mo. During %@AU@%WORLD%@EH@%
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he led the U.S. 1st Army in the invasion of Normandy (1944). He
was chairman (1949-53) of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and became general of
the army in 1950.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradley, William (Bill)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradley, William (Bill)%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADLEY4        @%%@QR:Bradley, William (Bill)@% 1943-, U.S. politician; b. Crystal City, Mo.%@EH@%
After a successful basketball career with the New York Knicks (1967-77),
he was elected (1978) Democratic senator from New Jersey. He actively
supported passage of the tax reform act of 1986.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bradstreet, Anne (Dudley)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bradstreet, Anne (Dudley)%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADSTREET      @%%@QR:Bradstreet, Anne (Dudley)@% c.1612-1672, American poet; b. Northampton,%@EH@%
England; came to Massachusetts with her father and husband, both later
governors of the colony. The first important woman author in America, she
is known for poems that, while derivative and formal, are often realistic
and genuine. Her volumes of verse include %@AI@%The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up
%@AI@%in America%@AE@% (1650) and %@AI@%Several Poems%@AE@% (1678).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brady, Diamond Jim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brady, Diamond Jim%@AE@%%@CR:BRADY1          @%%@QR:Brady, Diamond Jim@% (James Buchanan Brady), 1856-1917, American financier;%@EH@%
b. N.Y.C. After amassing a fortune selling railroad supplies, he
collected diamonds and other jewels and became famous for his lavish
life-style. He funded (1912) the Brady Urological Institute at Johns
Hopkins Hospital (Baltimore).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brady, Mathew B.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brady, Mathew B.%@AE@%,%@CR:BRADY2          @%%@QR:Brady, Mathew B.@% c.1823-1896, American photographer; b. Warren co., N.Y.%@EH@%
Brady opened his New York City studio in 1844 and gained widespread fame
as a portraitist. He photographed Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% often and produced an
invaluable record of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, now in the Library of Congress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braga, Teofilo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braga, Teofilo%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAGA           @%%@QR:Braga, Teofilo@% 1843-1924, Portuguese intellectual and political leader.%@EH@%
His teachings and writings, e.g., his general history of Portuguese
literature (10 vol., 1870-71), exerted a great influence on Portuguese
intellectual life. A republican and anticlericalist, he was the first
president of the new republic of Portugal (1910-11; 1915).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braganza%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braganza%@AE@%%@CR:BRAGANZA        @%%@QR:Braganza@%, royal house that ruled %@AU@%PORTUGAL%@BO:          786f48@%%@AE@% (1640-1910) and %@AU@%BRAZIL%@BO:          137c76@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1822-89). The line was descended from Alfonso, the natural son of %@AU@%JOHN
%@AU@%I%@BO:          4c8989@%%@AE@%, and its first king was %@AU@%JOHN IV%@BO:          4c8989@%%@AE@%. The family's Brazilian rulers were
%@AU@%PEDRO I%@BO:          728d17@%%@AE@% and his son, %@AU@%PEDRO II%@BO:          728d17@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bragg, Braxton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bragg, Braxton%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAGG1          @%%@QR:Bragg, Braxton@% 1817-76, Confederate general in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
Warrenton, N.C. As commander of the Army of Tennessee, he tried
unsuccessfully (1862) to invade Kentucky. In the %@AU@%CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          1c40ed@%%@AE@%, he
was defeated (1863) by Gen. %@AU@%GRANT%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@%. He then became military adviser to
Jefferson %@AU@%DAVIS%@BO:          26cecd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bragg, Sir William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bragg, Sir William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAGG2          @%%@QR:Bragg, Sir William Henry@% 1862-1942, English physicist. He was on the%@EH@%
faculties of the Univ. of Adelaide, Australia, the Univ. of Leeds, and
the Univ. of London and director from 1923 of the Royal Institution's
research laboratory. With his son, %@AB@%Sir William Lawrence Bragg,%@AE@% 1890-1971,
he shared the 1915 Nobel Prize in physics for studies, with the X-ray
spectrometer, of X-ray spectra and of crystal structure. The younger
Bragg was professor of physics at Victoria Univ. (Manchester) and
Cambridge and was director (1938-53) of the Cavendish Laboratory at
Cambridge.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brahe, Tycho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brahe, Tycho%@AE@%%@CR:BRAHE           @%%@QR:Brahe, Tycho@%, 1546-1601, Danish astronomer. His exact observations of the%@EH@%
planets were the basis for %@AU@%KEPLER'S LAWS%@BO:          4f2804@%%@AE@% of planetary motion. Studies of
the moon's motion and of a supernova (1572) and improvements of
instruments were among his contributions. Brahe never fully accepted the
%@AU@%COPERNICAN SYSTEM%@BO:          2315e8@%%@AE@%, compromising between that and the %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@%. In
his system, the earth was the immobile body around which the sun
revolved, and the five planets then known revolved around the sun.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brahma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brahma%@AE@%%@CR:BRAHMA          @%%@QR:Brahma@%, one of the supreme gods of %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%; in the Hindu trinity he is%@EH@%
the creator (see also %@AU@%SHIVA%@BO:          88786f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VISHNU%@BO:          9dfbf1@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brahman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brahman%@AE@%%@CR:BRAHMAN1        @%%@QR:Brahman@% or %@AB@%Brahma,%@AE@%in %@AU@%VEDANTA%@BO:          9c3ec1@%%@AE@%, the ultimate reality or Self from which the%@EH@%
world has come into being. See %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brahman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brahman%@AE@%%@CR:BRAHMAN2        @%%@QR:Brahman@% or %@AB@%Brahmin,%@AE@%member of the highest, or priestly, caste of the%@EH@%
Hindus; see %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brahmaputra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brahmaputra%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAHMAPUTRA     @%%@QR:Brahmaputra@% major river of S Asia, flowing c.1,800 mi (2,900 km) from%@EH@%
the Kailas range of the Himalayas to join the %@AU@%GANGES%@BO:          37d39d@%%@AE@% R. at a vast delta
on the Bay of %@AU@%BENGAL%@BO:           e6303@%%@AE@%. It is called Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet (where it
forms the principal river valley), the Brahmaputra in Assam (NE India),
and the Jamuna in Bangladesh. The river's lower course is sacred to
Hindus. Large craft navigate the river c.800 mi (1,290 km) upstream.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brahms, Johannes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brahms, Johannes%@AE@%%@CR:BRAHMS          @%%@QR:Brahms, Johannes@%, 1833-97, German composer, ranked among the foremost%@EH@%
masters. He earned a living in Vienna as a moderately successful
composer, incorporating the romantic impulse with classical spirit. His
conservative style sparked controversy between his supporters (among them
Robert and Clara %@AU@%SCHUMANN%@BO:          85c058@%%@AE@%) and those of the dramatic romantic style of
%@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@% and Richard %@AU@%WAGNER%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@%. His four %@AU@%SYMPHONIES%@BO:          91d836@%%@AE@% are considered among the
greatest in symphonic music. Other well-known works are the %@AI@%German
%@AI@%Requiem%@AE@% (1866), the Violin Concerto in D (1878), and the Piano Concerto
in B Flat (1878-81). He composed in almost every genre except opera,
devoting special attention to chamber music and song. His %@AU@%LIEDER%@BO:          54ed89@%%@AE@% are
worldwide favorites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brahui%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brahui%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAHUI          @%%@QR:Brahui@% Dravidian language of Baluchistan. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braille, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braille, Louis%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAILLE         @%%@QR:Braille, Louis@% 1809?-1852, French inventor of the Braille system of%@EH@%
printing and writing for the blind. Blind from an accident at age three,
he attended and later taught at the Institution des Jeunes Aveugles,
Paris. He evolved a system of writing with points based on Charles
Barbier's method, though much simpler. The %@AB@%Braille system%@AE@% consists of six
raised points used in 63 possible combinations; it is in use, in modified
form, for printing, writing, and musical notation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brain%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAIN           @%%@QR:brain@% supervisory center of the %@AU@%NERVOUS SYSTEM%@BO:          6854a4@%%@AE@% in all vertebrates. The%@EH@%
brain controls both conscious behavior (e.g., walking and thinking) and
most involuntary behavior (e.g., heartbeat and breathing). In higher
animals, it is also the site of emotions, memory, self-awareness, and
thought. It functions by receiving information via nerve cells (neurons)
from every part of the body, evaluating the data, and then sending
directives to muscles and glands or simply storing the information.
Information, in the form of electrical and chemical signals, moves
through complex brain circuits, which are networks of the billions of
nerve cells in the nervous system. A single neuron may receive
information from as many as 1,000 other neurons. Anatomically, the brain
occupies the skull cavity (cranium) and is enveloped by three protective
membranes (meninges). The adult brain weighs 21/4 to 31/4 lb (1-1.5 kg).
It has several parts, each with a loosely associated function. The
%@AI@%brainstem%@AE@% (hindbrain), monitoring involuntary activity (e.g., breathing),
and the %@AI@%cerebellum,%@AE@% coordinating muscular movements and posture, are
together the basic machinery for survival and reproduction. The
%@AI@%forebrain,%@AE@% composed of the limbic system and cerebral cortex, regulates
higher functions. The limbic system (including the thalamus,
hypothalamus, pituitary, amygdala and hippocampus, and olfactory cortex)
is associated with vivid emotions, memory, sexuality, and smell. The
forebrain's cerebral cortex, in the uppermost portion of the skull, has
some areas concerned with muscle control and the senses and others
concerned with language and anticipation of action. The cerebral cortex
is split into two hemispheres, each controlling the side of the body
opposite to it. In addition, the right hemisphere is associated with
perception of melody, nonverbal visual patterns, and emotion, while the
left hemisphere is associated with verbal skills. Brain function is
monitored by %@AU@%ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY%@BO:          2d7ad7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braine, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braine, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAINE          @%%@QR:Braine, John@% 1922-86, English author. His first novel, %@AI@%Room at the Top%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1957), was a bitter analysis of class structure in an English factory
town. His other works include %@AI@%Writing a Novel%@AE@% (1974).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brain Trust%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brain Trust%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAIN.TRUST     @%%@QR:Brain Trust@% an academic group of close advisers to Franklin Delano%@EH@%
%@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% as N.Y. governor and as U.S. president. His advisers on the %@AU@%NEW
%@AU@%DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@% included Columbia professors Raymond Moley, Adolf A. Berle, Jr., and
Rexford G. Tugwell.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brake%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAKE           @%%@QR:brake@% device used to slow or stop the motion of a mechanism or vehicle.%@EH@%
Friction brakes, the most common kind, operate on the principle that
friction can be used to convert the mechanical energy of a moving object
into heat energy, which is absorbed by the brake. Friction brakes consist
of a rotating part-such as a wheel, axle, disk, or brake drum-and a
stationary part that is pressed against the rotating part to slow it or
stop it. The stationary part usually has a lining, called a brake lining,
that can generate a great amount of friction yet give long wear. The
simplest brake form is the single-block brake, a wooden block shaped to
fit against the rim of a wheel or drum. In disk brakes, two blocks press
against either side of a disk that rotates with the wheel. Drum brakes
have two semicircular brake shoes inside a rotating brake drum; when
actuated, they press against the inner wall of the drum. Automobiles use
hydraulic pressure to power disk and drum brakes (see %@AU@%HYDRAULIC
%@AU@%MACHINERY%@BO:          45dc46@%%@AE@%). Additional braking pressure may be supplied by a "power"
brake, which utilizes the vacuum created within the running engine to
hold a brake shoe away from a drum. The air brake, invented (1868) by
George %@AU@%WESTINGHOUSE%@BO:          a0ba83@%%@AE@%, uses compressed air to power block brakes on trains.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bramante, Donato%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bramante, Donato%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAMANTE        @%%@QR:Bramante, Donato@% 1444-1514, Italian architect and painter. His buildings%@EH@%
in Rome are the most characteristic examples of High Renaissance style.
He favored central plans and a sense of noble severity. He designed much
of Santa Maria presso San Satiro, Milan, painting its choir in
perspective to give the illusion of depth. From 1499 he was in Rome,
where his works include the Tempietto in the courtyard of San Pietro in
Montorio; the Belvedere courtyard at the Vatican; and the original
central plan for St. Peter's.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bramble%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bramble%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAMBLE         @%%@QR:bramble@% plants (genus %@AI@%Rubus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%ROSE%@BO:          811e84@%%@AE@% family, with representatives%@EH@%
worldwide. Members include the blackberries, raspberries, loganberries,
boysenberries, and dewberries. The plants are typically shrubs with
prickly stems (canes) and edible fruits that botanically are not berries
but aggregates of drupelets (see %@AU@%FRUIT%@BO:          369f0d@%%@AE@%). The underground parts of
brambles are perennial and the canes biennial; only second-year canes
bear flowers and fruits. Berries are grown commercially for sale as
fresh, frozen, and canned fruit, and for use in preserves, beverages, and
liqueurs. Other thorny shrubs are also called brambles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brampton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brampton%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAMPTON        @%%@QR:Brampton@% town (1985 pop. 177,675), S Ontario, Canada, part of the%@EH@%
regional municipality of Peel (1980 est. pop. 464,491). It is one of
Canada's chief automobile-producing centers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bran%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bran%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAN            @%%@QR:bran@% outer coat of cereal %@AU@%GRAINS%@BO:          3c0fe9@%%@AE@% such as wheat, rye, and corn. Various%@EH@%
brans are used as food and livestock feed, and are important in dyeing
and calico printing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brancusi, Constantin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brancusi, Constantin%@AE@%%@CR:BRANCUSI        @%%@QR:Brancusi, Constantin@%, 1876-1957, Rumanian sculptor. The radical,%@EH@%
economical style of his abstract sculptures, e.g., %@AI@%The Kiss%@AE@% (1908),
%@AI@%Sleeping Muse%@AE@% (1910), and the portrait of Mlle Pogany (1923; Musee
national d'art moderne, Paris), caused much controversy. %@AI@%Bird in Space%@AE@%
(1919; Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.) exemplifies his simple forms and organic,
symbolic characterization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brandao, Raul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brandao, Raul%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANDAO         @%%@QR:Brandao, Raul@% 1867-1930, Portuguese novelist. His major theme was the%@EH@%
tragic lives of poor people, and he often depicted a nightmare world of
suffering ruled by inexplicable forces. His major works of fiction
include the short-story collection %@AI@%Impressions and Landscapes%@AE@% (1890) and
the novels %@AI@%The Poor%@AE@% (1906) and %@AI@%Reduced to Begging%@AE@% (1931).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brandeis, Louis Dembitz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brandeis, Louis Dembitz%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANDEIS        @%%@QR:Brandeis, Louis Dembitz@% 1856-1941, associate justice of the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME%@EH@%
%@AU@%COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1916-39); b. Louisville, Ky.; LL.B., Harvard Univ. (1877). A
Boston public interest attorney, he revolutionized legal practice by
introducing sociological and economic facts-the "Brandeis brief"-in his
arguments before the Supreme Court in %@AI@%Muller%@AE@% v. %@AI@%Oregon%@AE@% (1908). An enemy
of industrial and financial monopoly, he formulated the economic doctrine
of Woodrow Wilson's New Freedom. He earned a high reputation for judicial
liberalism, and after 1933 he was one of the few justices who voted to
uphold most of the %@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@% legislation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brandenburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brandenburg%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANDENBURG     @%%@QR:Brandenburg@% former state, central East Germany. %@AU@%POTSDAM%@BO:          78b1c4@%%@AE@% was the capital.%@EH@%
A Slavic principality, it was acquired (12th cent.) by the German
margrave Albert the Bear and was later ruled by electors of the %@AU@%HOLY
%@AU@%ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. In 1417 it passed to the %@AU@%HOHENZOLLERN%@BO:          43779a@%%@AE@% family, who added
(1618) the duchy of Prussia (later %@AU@%EAST PRUSSIA%@BO:          2bf205@%%@AE@%) to their holdings. The
later history of Brandenburg is that of %@AU@%PRUSSIA%@BO:          7a630c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brandes, Georg Morris Cohen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brandes, Georg Morris Cohen%@AE@%%@CR:BRANDES         @%%@QR:Brandes, Georg Morris Cohen@%, 1842-1927, Danish literary critic. He%@EH@%
exposed Scandinavia to contemporary European thought. A disciple of Taine
and an opponent of %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%, he helped direct Scandinavian literature
toward %@AU@%REALISM%@BO:          7d1c18@%%@AE@% and social consciousness. A major work is %@AI@%Main Currents in
%@AI@%Nineteenth-Century Literature%@AE@% (6 vol., 1872-90).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brando, Marlon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brando, Marlon%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANDO          @%%@QR:Brando, Marlon@% 1924-, American film actor; b. Omaha, Nebr. He is noted%@EH@%
for the naturalism of his acting. His films include %@AI@%A Streetcar Named
%@AI@%Desire%@AE@% (1952), %@AI@%On the Waterfront%@AE@% (1954; Academy Award), %@AI@%The Godfather%@AE@%
(1972; Academy Award), and %@AI@%Apocalypse Now%@AE@% (1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brandt, Willy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brandt, Willy%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANDT          @%%@QR:Brandt, Willy@% 1913-, German political leader; b. Herbert Ernst Karl%@EH@%
Frahm. A Social Democrat, he opposed %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% and fled (1933) to Norway.
Returning after World War II, he was elected mayor of West Berlin (1957).
He became chancellor of West Germany in 1969 and instituted peace talks
with Eastern European countries, including East Germany. He was awarded
the 1971 Nobel Peace Prize. Brandt resigned in 1974 after an East German
spy was discovered within his administration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brandy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brandy%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANDY          @%%@QR:brandy@% strong alcoholic spirit distilled from wine. Manufactured in many%@EH@%
countries, brandy is most notable in the form of cognac, made from white
grapes in the Charente district of France. Most fine brandies are
distilled in pot stills, blended and flavored, and stored in casks
(preferably oak) to mellow. Brandies are also made from fruits other than
the grape, such as plum (slivovitz) or peach.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brandywine, battle of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brandywine, battle of the%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANDYWINE      @%%@QR:Brandywine, battle of the@% in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, fought Sept. 11,%@EH@%
1777, along the Brandywine Creek in SE Pennsylvania, between Sir William
Howe (see under %@AU@%HOWE, RICHARD HOWE, EARL%@BO:          44d76c@%%@AE@%) and Gen. %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@%. Howe's
strategy of attacking the American right flank forced Washington to
retreat, and the advancing British took Philadelphia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brant, Joseph (Thayendanegea)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brant, Joseph (Thayendanegea)%@AE@%,%@CR:BRANT           @%%@QR:Brant, Joseph (Thayendanegea)@% 1742-1807, influential Mohawk (see%@EH@%
%@AU@%IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY%@BO:          49c1ee@%%@AE@%) chief who bound Indians to the British side in the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. He fought at Oriskany (1777) in the %@AU@%SARATOGA
%@AU@%CAMPAIGN%@BO:          847e59@%%@AE@% and joined Walter Butler in the Cherry Valley Massacre (1778).
After the war he failed to settle Indian land claims in the U.S. but
gained land and subsidies for Mohawks in Canada. An educated man and a
Christian, Brant translated the %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@% and the Gospel of
%@AU@%MARK%@BO:          5bdcd6@%%@AE@% into Mohawk.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braque, Georges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braque, Georges%@AE@%%@CR:BRAQUE          @%%@QR:Braque, Georges@%, 1882-1963, French painter. Among the developers of%@EH@%
%@AU@%FAUVISM%@BO:          32182e@%%@AE@%, he later met %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@%, and the two explored form and structure,
which in turn led to %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%. %@AI@%Nude%@AE@% (1907-8; Cuttoli Coll., Paris),
exemplifies the analytical stage of that movement, with its orderly
decomposing of objects. After leading the way to %@AU@%COLLAGE%@BO:          203c7f@%%@AE@%, he produced
works, e.g., %@AI@%The Table%@AE@% (Pulitzer Coll., St. Louis), that are more
curvilinear in style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brasilia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brasilia%@AE@%,%@CR:BRASILIA        @%%@QR:Brasilia@% city and federal district (1980 pop. 411,305), E central%@EH@%
Brazil, capital of Brazil. One of the world's newest cities, it was laid
out (1957) in the shape of an airplane by the Brazilian architect Lucio
Costa and replaced %@AU@%RIO DE JANEIRO%@BO:          7f60c2@%%@AE@% as capital in 1960. The sparsely
settled region is dominated by ultramodern public buildings designed by
Oscar %@AU@%NIEMEYER%@BO:          69f6b1@%%@AE@%. Extensive residential developments were built in the
1960s, and highways linking Brasilia with the major cities of southern
and central Brazil were completed in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brasov%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brasov%@AE@%%@CR:BRASOV          @%%@QR:Brasov@%, city (1985 pop. 630,455), central Rumania, in Transylvania, at%@EH@%
the foot of the Transylvanian Alps. It is an industrial center known for
motor vehicles and textiles, and a winter sports center. Founded in the
13th cent., Brasov was ceded to Rumania by Hungary in 1920. It has
several old churches and the remains of a 17th-cent. citadel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brass%@AE@%,%@CR:BRASS           @%%@QR:brass@% %@AU@%ALLOY%@BO:           3f294@%%@AE@% having %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@% (55% to 90%) and %@AU@%ZINC%@BO:          a54458@%%@AE@% (10% to 45%) as its%@EH@%
essential components. Its properties vary with the proportion of copper
and zinc and with the addition of small amounts of other elements.
Cartridge brass is used for cartridge cases, plumbing and lighting
fixtures, rivets, screws, and springs. Aluminum brass has greater
resistance to corrosion than ordinary brass. Brass containing tin (naval
brass) resists seawater corrosion. Brass can be forged or hammered into
various shapes, rolled into thin sheets, drawn into wires, and machined
and cast. See also %@AU@%SOLDER%@BO:          8b2f6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brasses, monumental%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brasses, monumental%@AE@%%@CR:BRASSES         @%%@QR:brasses, monumental@% or %@AB@%sepulchral,%@AE@%memorials to the dead, in use in%@EH@%
European churches in the 13th cent. and for several centuries thereafter.
Engraved with a figure of the deceased, they are usually set in the
pavement. Those that still exist are of native design and show costumes
and genealogy of the time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bratislava%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bratislava%@AE@%,%@CR:BRATISLAVA      @%%@QR:Bratislava@% Ger. %@AI@%Pressburg,%@AE@% Hung. %@AI@%Pozsony,%@AE@% city (1986 est. pop. 417,000),%@EH@%
S Czechoslovakia, on the Danube R. near the Austrian and Hungarian
borders. The third largest Czechoslovak city and the traditional capital
of %@AU@%SLOVAKIA%@BO:          8a3193@%%@AE@%, it is a major Danubian port, with industries such as
mechanical engineering and oil refining. A Roman outpost by the 1st cent.
AD, it was later ruled (9th cent.) by %@AU@%MORAVIA%@BO:          63b07b@%%@AE@%. From 1541 to 1784 it was
the capital of Hungary. It became part of Czechoslovakia in 1918.
Landmarks include several 13th-cent. buildings, e.g., St. Martin's
Cathedral.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braudel, Fernand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braudel, Fernand%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAUDEL         @%%@QR:Braudel, Fernand@% 1902-85, French historian. He studied under Lucien%@EH@%
Febvre and was a founder of the %@AI@%Annales%@AE@% school of historiography. As a
German prisoner-of-war during World War II, he wrote his monumental %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II%@AE@% (1949).
After the war, he was professor at the College de France in Paris,
(1949-72), editor of the journal %@AI@%Annales%@AE@%, a founder (1963) of the Maison
des Sciences de l'Homme, and president of the VIth Section of the Ecole
des Hautes Etudes (1952-56).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Braun, Eva%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Braun, Eva%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAUN           @%%@QR:Braun, Eva@% 1912-45, mistress and later wife of German dictator Adolf%@EH@%
%@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@%. She entered Hitler's household in 1936, but they were married
just a few days before their double suicide. She had no influence on the
Nazi government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brautigan, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brautigan, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAUTIGAN       @%%@QR:Brautigan, Richard@% 1935-84, American novelist and poet; b. Tacoma, Wash.%@EH@%
He is a countercultural hero of the 1960s. His work is an indictment of
the cultural environment of America. His novel, %@AI@%Trout Fishing in America%@AE@%
(1967), examines the American landscape.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brauwer, Adriaen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brauwer, Adriaen%@AE@%:%@CR:BRAUWER         @%%@QR:Brauwer, Adriaen@% see %@AU@%BROUWER, ADRIAEN%@BO:          146aa2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brazil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brazil%@AE@%%@CR:BRAZIL          @%%@QR:Brazil@%, Port. %@AI@%Brasil,%@AE@% officially Federative Republic of Brazil, republic%@EH@%
(1987 est. pop. 141,300,000), 3,286,470 sq mi (8,511,965 sq km), E South
America, bordered by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana (N);
Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia (W); Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay (SW);
ands the Atlantic Ocean (E). It is a federation of 22 states, four
territories, and the federal district of Brasilia. The capital is
%@AU@%BRASILIA%@BO:          1368f0@%%@AE@%, and principal cities include %@AU@%SAO PAULO%@BO:          845ed8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RIO DE JANEIRO%@BO:          7f60c2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RECIFE%@BO:          7d28ad@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%BELO HORIZONTE%@BO:           e348e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SALVADOR%@BO:          83b446@%%@AE@%. The largest South American country, Brazil
occupies nearly half the continent and has a varied topography and
climate, ranging from tropical in the rain forests of the great %@AU@%AMAZON%@BO:           45a09@%%@AE@%
basin in the north to temperate in the highlands of the heavily populated
east and south, which make up two thirds of the country's land and
contain its chief economic centers. Despite rapid industrialization
beginning in the 1960s, Brazil still depends heavily on agriculture,
which accounts for nearly 50% of its exports. It is an important cattle
producer; major commercial crops are coffee (of which it is the world's
leading producer), cocoa, cotton, sugarcane, citrus fruit, corn, tobacco,
bananas, and soybeans. Industrial production is led by motor vehicles,
steel, cotton textiles, paper, fertilizer, cement, and machinery. The
country's vast mineral wealth includes some of the finest iron resources
in the world, as well as quartz, coal, manganese, chromium, industrial
diamonds, uranium, and platinum. Petroluem deposits have not been fully
developed; petroleum accounts for 40% of imports. The population is
diverse in origin, and Brazil boasts that the new "race" of Brazilians is
a successful amalgam of Indian, black, and European strains. About
200,000 Indians of several tribes live in the Amazon basin. Portuguese is
the official language and Roman Catholicism the predominant religion.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Although the Spaniard Vicente Yanez Pinzon (see under %@AU@%PINZON,
%@AU@%M.A.%@BO:          75f3f3@%%@AE@%) and possibly others visited the coast earlier, the Portuguese,
under Pedro Alvares %@AU@%CABRAL%@BO:          169ffd@%%@AE@%, claimed the land in 1500. The first permanent
settlement, at Sao Vicente in present-day Sao Paulo, was not made until
1532; development of the region now known as the Northeast began at the
same time. Portuguese claims did not go unchallenged: French %@AU@%HUGUENOTS%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@%
had to be expelled from a base in Rio de Janeiro harbor in 1567, and the
Dutch held the Northeast for almost 20 years before they were driven out
in 1654. When %@AU@%NAPOLEON%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% invaded Portugal, Portugal's king, %@AU@%JOHN VI%@BO:          4c8989@%%@AE@%, fled
(1807) to Brazil, and on his arrival (1808) in Rio de Janeiro that city
became the capital of the Portuguese empire. In 1821 John returned to
Portugal, leaving behind as regent his son, who in 1822 declared Brazil
independent and himself Emperor %@AU@%PEDRO I%@BO:          728d17@%%@AE@%. Forced by his restrictive
policies to abdicate, he was succeeded by his son, the popular %@AU@%PEDRO II%@BO:          728d17@%%@AE@%,
whose long reign (1831-89) saw the development of Brazil as a modern
nation; wars with Argentina (1851-52) and Paraguay (1865-70) brought
little benefit to Brazil, however. The abolition of slavery (1888) helped
bring on a bloodless revolution that established Brazil as a republic in
1889. Large-scale European immigration, an expanding coffee market, and a
wild-rubber boom brought wealth to Brazil in the late 19th and early 20th
cent. Later, under the presidency of Getulio %@AU@%VARGAS%@BO:          9beca5@%%@AE@% (1930-45, 1950-54),
who came to power in a revolution (1930), industrial expansion and
diversification of agriculture was stressed. Brazil joined the Allies in
World War II (as in World War I), enjoying a new boom (chiefly in rubber
and minerals). To spur development of the interior, Juscelino %@AU@%KUBITSCHEK%@BO:          50f36c@%%@AE@%,
elected president in 1955, undertook the building of the planned city of
Brasilia, which replaced Rio de Janeiro as the national capital in 1960;
he also inaugurated an ambitious program of highway and dam construction.
Political strife and economic chaos led to a coup in 1964 and the
installation of a rightist military regime, which, headed by a succession
of generals who served as president, still rules. In the 1980s Brazil
experienced severe economic recession, with inflation rates approaching
600%, and had the largest foreign debt of any developing nation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brazil nut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brazil nut%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAZIL.NUT      @%%@QR:Brazil nut@% common name for the Lecythidaceae, a family of tropical%@EH@%
trees. Members include the West Indian anchovy pear (%@AI@%Grias cauliflora%@AE@%);
several lumber trees of South America, e.g., the cannonball; and the
Brazil nut trees (genus %@AI@%Bertholletia%@AE@%). Brazil nut trees are found chiefly
along the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. The edible nuts are oil-rich seeds
that grow clumped together in hard, grapefruit-sized, woody seed pods.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brazzaville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brazzaville%@AE@%,%@CR:BRAZZAVILLE     @%%@QR:Brazzaville@% city (1984 pop. 595,102), capital of the People's Republic%@EH@%
of the Congo. The country's largest city, and an important port on the
Congo R., it receives wood, rubber, and agricultural products from the
region and ships them by rail to %@AU@%POINTE-NOIRE%@BO:          772f8e@%%@AE@% on the Atlantic Ocean. The
city was founded (1880) by French explorers and was the capital (1910-58)
of %@AU@%FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA%@BO:          361070@%%@AE@%. It was an important outpost of Free France
in the Vichy period. A meeting there in 1944 began the process of
independence for France's African colonies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%breadfruit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%breadfruit%@AE@%:%@CR:BREADFRUIT      @%%@QR:breadfruit@% see %@AU@%MULBERRY%@BO:          64fc4d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breakspear, Nicholas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breakspear, Nicholas%@AE@%:%@CR:BREAKSPEAR      @%%@QR:Breakspear, Nicholas@% see %@AU@%ADRIAN IV%@BO:           15414@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%breast%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%breast%@AE@%:%@CR:BREAST          @%%@QR:breast@% see %@AU@%MAMMARY GLAND%@BO:          5a877d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breasted, James Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breasted, James Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:BREASTED        @%%@QR:Breasted, James Henry@% 1865-1935, American Egyptologist; b. Rockford,%@EH@%
Ill. While Egyptology professor (1905-33) at the Univ. of Chicago and
director (1895-1901) of its Haskell Oriental Museum and (after 1919)
Oriental Institute, he directed research in Mesopotamia and made
important discoveries in Egypt. His many books include %@AI@%History of Egypt
%@AI@%from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest%@AE@% (rev. ed. 1928), %@AI@%Dawn of
%@AI@%Conscience%@AE@% (1933), and translations of Egyptian historical records.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brebeuf, Jean de, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brebeuf, Jean de, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:BREBEUF         @%%@QR:Brebeuf, Jean de, Saint@%, 1593-1649, French Roman Catholic missionary, one%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%JESUIT%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@% Martyrs of North America. A missionary to the %@AU@%HURON
%@AU@%INDIANS%@BO:          459023@%%@AE@%, Brebeuf with his colleague Gabriel Lalemant was killed by the
Iroquois. Feast: Oct. 19 (in the U.S.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brecht, Bertolt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brecht, Bertolt%@AE@%%@CR:BRECHT          @%%@QR:Brecht, Bertolt@%, 1898-1956, German dramatist and poet; b. Berthold%@EH@%
Brecht. In the late 1920s he turned to %@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:          313c02@%%@AE@%, as in %@AI@%Man is Man%@AE@%
(1926), and began to develop his revolutionary "epic theater," designed
to create-through the use of effects such as bright lights, films, and
mottoes displayed on cards-a politically conscious distance between the
spectator and the stage. %@AI@%The Threepenny Opera%@AE@% (1928), with music by Kurt
%@AU@%WEILL%@BO:          a04701@%%@AE@%, reflects Brecht's social views. During the %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% period he went
into exile in Denmark and then settled in the U.S. His later works
include %@AI@%Mother Courage and Her Children%@AE@% (1941), %@AI@%The Good Woman of Setzuan%@AE@%
(1943), and %@AI@%The Caucasian Chalk Circle%@AE@% (1955). A Marxist, Brecht lived
from 1948 in East Berlin, where he directed the state-supported Berliner
Ensemble.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breckinridge, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breckinridge, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BRECKINRIDGE    @%%@QR:Breckinridge, John@% 1760-1806, American statesman; b. Augusta co., Va. In%@EH@%
the Kentucky legislature, he won passage (1798) of the Kentucky
Resolutions (see %@AU@%KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS%@BO:          4f1095@%%@AE@%). In the U.S. Senate
(1801-5), he sponsored Western interests. He was attorney general (1805)
under Pres. %@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%. His grandson, %@AB@%John Cabell Breckinridge,%@AE@% 1821-75,
b. Lexington, Ky., was vice president of the U.S. under Pres. %@AU@%BUCHANAN%@BO:          14e9b9@%%@AE@%.
He later served the %@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@% as a brigadier general and as secretary
of war (1865).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%breeder reactor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%breeder reactor%@AE@%:%@CR:BREEDER.REACTOR @%%@QR:breeder reactor@% see %@AU@%NUCLEAR REACTOR%@BO:          6c1c99@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%breeding%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%breeding%@AE@%,%@CR:BREEDING        @%%@QR:breeding@% the deliberate selection of certain parent plants and animals%@EH@%
for propagation in order to adapt them to human needs. Plants and animals
have been bred selectively since their domestication in the Neolithic
period. Among plants, pure lines are established by self-pollination,
planting the resultant seed, and repeating the process through several
generations. Crosses of pure lines produce hybrids of great vigor and
uniformity. Pure-bred animals show a breeding uniformity approaching that
of pure-line plants. New varieties are developed by hybridization and by
breeding individuals that have developed %@AU@%MUTATIONS%@BO:          65b679@%%@AE@%. See %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HYBRID%@BO:          45cca3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breed's Hill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breed's Hill%@AE@%:%@CR:BREEDS.HILL     @%%@QR:Breed's Hill@% see %@AU@%BUNKER HILL, BATTLE OF%@BO:          1582b2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bremen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bremen%@AE@%,%@CR:BREMEN          @%%@QR:Bremen@% city (1986 est. pop. 524,700), N West Germany, on the Weser R. It%@EH@%
is the oldest German port city and West Germany's second largest port.
Shipbuilding and steel-making are among its industries. Made an
archbishopric in 845, it became a leading member (1358) of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC
%@AU@%LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% and a free imperial city (1646). It prospered as an overseas
trading center during the 18th and 19th cent. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% it was
badly damaged, but such structures as the Gothic city hall (1405-9) and
the Romanesque-Gothic cathedral (begun 1043) remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brennan, William Joseph, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brennan, William Joseph, Jr.%@AE@%:%@CR:BRENNAN         @%%@QR:Brennan, William Joseph, Jr.@% see %@AU@%SUPREME COURT, UNITED STATES%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brenner Pass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brenner Pass%@AE@%,%@CR:BRENNER.PASS    @%%@QR:Brenner Pass@% Alpine Pass, 4,495 ft (1,370 m) high, connecting Innsbruck,%@EH@%
Austria, with Bolzano, Italy. The lowest of the principal passes in the
%@AU@%ALPS%@BO:           41c4e@%%@AE@%, it was an important Roman route through which many invasions of
Italy were made.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brentano, Clemens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brentano, Clemens%@AE@%%@CR:BRENTANO1       @%%@QR:Brentano, Clemens@%, 1778-1842, German poet of the romantic school; brother%@EH@%
of Bettina von Arnim. With Achim von %@AU@%ARNIM%@BO:           8198a@%%@AE@% he collaborated on %@AI@%The Boy's
%@AI@%Magic Horn%@AE@% (1806-8), a folk-song collection that influenced Eichendorff,
%@AU@%HEINE%@BO:          414964@%%@AE@%, and the brothers %@AU@%GRIMM%@BO:          3dc9d1@%%@AE@%. Brentano wrote plays, lyric poems, fairy
tales, and novellas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brentano, Franz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brentano, Franz%@AE@%,%@CR:BRENTANO2       @%%@QR:Brentano, Franz@% 1838-1917, German philosopher and psychologist. He%@EH@%
believed that mental processes are the data of psychology, to be regarded
as acts rather than as passive processes. In %@AI@%Psychology from an Empirical
%@AI@%Standpoint%@AE@% (1874) he tried to establish psychology as an independent
science. His students included %@AU@%HUSSERL%@BO:          45a95a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bresson, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bresson, Robert%@AE@%%@CR:BRESSON         @%%@QR:Bresson, Robert@%, 1907-, French film director. His austere films on%@EH@%
spiritual themes include %@AI@%Diary of a Country Priest%@AE@% (1950), %@AI@%The Trial of
%@AI@%Joan of Arc%@AE@% (1961), and %@AI@%Lancelot of the Lake%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brest%@AE@%,%@CR:BREST           @%%@QR:Brest@% city (1982 pop. 160,355), Finistere dept., NW France, on an inlet%@EH@%
of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a commercial port and naval station.
Clothing and electronics equipment are the chief manufactures, and there
is a national engineering school. The spacious, landlocked harbor was
created in 1631. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Brest was a major German submarine
base and was almost completely destroyed by Allied bombing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of%@AE@%,%@CR:BRESTLITOVSK    @%%@QR:Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of@% separate peace treaty of %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, signed by%@EH@%
Soviet Russia and the Central Powers on Mar. 3, 1918, at present-day
Brest, USSR. It followed the removal of Russia from the war by the
Bolsheviks after they seized power in Nov. 1917. By its terms, considered
humiliating to the Russians, Russia ceded large areas to the Central
Powers and recognized the independence of Poland, the Baltic states,
Georgia, and the Ukraine. Later Russia agreed to pay a large indemnity.
In the general armistice of Nov. 1918, the Allies forced the Central
Powers to renounce the treaty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brethren%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brethren%@AE@%,%@CR:BRETHREN        @%%@QR:Brethren@% German Baptist sect. Known also as Dunkers (from Ger., "to%@EH@%
dip"), they practice baptism by triple immersion. Organized in 1708, the
Brethren are opposed to war and advocate a simple life. In the U.S. there
are several denominations, of which the largest is the Church of the
Brethren.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breton, Andre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breton, Andre%@AE@%%@CR:BRETON          @%%@QR:Breton, Andre@%, 1896-1966, French writer. At first a Dadaist, he later%@EH@%
became the founder of %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, for which he wrote three manifestos
(1924, 1930, 1934) and opened a studio for "surrealist research."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breuer, Josef%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breuer, Josef%@AE@%%@CR:BREUER1         @%%@QR:Breuer, Josef@%, 1842-1925, Austrian physician. His cathartic method of%@EH@%
therapy and his theory of %@AU@%HYSTERIA%@BO:          46302c@%%@AE@%, when developed by Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@%,
became the basis for %@AU@%PSYCHOANALYSIS%@BO:          7a7b44@%%@AE@%. Together with Freud, Breuer wrote
%@AI@%Studies in Hysteria%@AE@% (1895).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breuer, Marcel Lajos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breuer, Marcel Lajos%@AE@%%@CR:BREUER2         @%%@QR:Breuer, Marcel Lajos@%, 1902-81, American architect and furniture designer;%@EH@%
b. Hungary. In the 1920s he was associated with the %@AU@%BAUHAUS%@BO:           d21f4@%%@AE@% and won fame
for his tubular chair. In the U.S. he was associated (1937-41) with
Walter %@AU@%GROPIUS%@BO:          3ddd69@%%@AE@% in building houses. Among his well-known buildings is the
Whitney Museum, N.Y.C. (1966).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Breughel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Breughel%@AE@%,%@CR:BREUGHEL        @%%@QR:Breughel@% family of painters: see %@AU@%BRUEGEL%@BO:          14a0ed@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brewster, Sir David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brewster, Sir David%@AE@%,%@CR:BREWSTER        @%%@QR:Brewster, Sir David@% 1781-1868, Scottish physicist and natural%@EH@%
philosopher. His invention of the kaleidoscope was one result of his
notable light-polarization studies. He improved the spectroscope and
devised the dioptic system of lighthouse illumination. Among his many
writings is a major biography (1855) of Sir Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich%@AE@%%@CR:BREZHNEV        @%%@QR:Brezhnev, Leonid Ilyich@%, 1906-82. Soviet leader. Rising through the%@EH@%
Communist party, he became chairman of the presidium of the Supreme
Soviet in 1960 and, when Nikita %@AU@%KHRUSHCHEV%@BO:          4f69f0@%%@AE@% fell in 1964, first secretary
(later general secretary) of the party. He shared power with Alexei
%@AU@%KOSYGIN%@BO:          50b737@%%@AE@% but emerged as the chief Soviet leader. In 1977, retaining his
party post, he became president of the USSR. Brezhnev's hard line toward
democratic or independent trends in neighboring countries, evidenced by
the Soviet invasions of Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979),
often conflicted with his attempts at %@AU@%DETENTE%@BO:          28591e@%%@AE@% with the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brian Boru%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brian Boru%@AE@%%@CR:BRIAN.BORU      @%%@QR:Brian Boru@%or %@AB@%Brian Boroimhe%@AE@%, 940?-1014, king of Ireland. A clan prince,%@EH@%
he became high king by subjugating all Ireland. He annihilated the
coalition of the Norse and his Irish enemies at Clontarf in 1014, but he
was murdered soon after. His victory ended Norse power in Ireland, but
the nation fell into anarchy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Briand, Aristide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Briand, Aristide%@AE@%%@CR:BRIAND          @%%@QR:Briand, Aristide@%, 1862-1932, French statesman. He was premier 10 times%@EH@%
between 1909 and 1921. After %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, he emerged as a leading
proponent of international peace and cooperation. As foreign minister
(1925-32) Briand was the chief architect of the %@AU@%LOCARNO PACT%@BO:          5606fd@%%@AE@% (1925) and
the %@AU@%KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT%@BO:          4ecb3d@%%@AE@% (1928). He shared the 1926 Nobel Peace Prize with
Gustav %@AU@%STRESEMANN%@BO:          8faf05@%%@AE@% and advocated a plan for a United States of Europe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brick%@AE@%,%@CR:BRICK           @%%@QR:brick@% building material made by shaping clay into blocks and then%@EH@%
hardening them in a %@AU@%KILN%@BO:          4fa069@%%@AE@%. Sun-dried bricks are among the most ancient
building materials. Examples from c.5,000 years ago have been discovered
in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. The Romans faced brick buildings with
stone or marble, but Byzantine and later European builders used the brick
itself to provide a decorative surface. The many varieties of modern
brick include firebrick, made of special clays that can be fired at very
high temperatures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bridge%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGE1         @%%@QR:bridge@% structure spanning and giving passage over a waterway, a%@EH@%
depression, or some other obstacle. Early bridges ranged from suspended
rope walkways to arched structures of stone or brick. The mid-19th-cent.
development of steel allowed for longer spans, the use of the steel truss
in place of stone or masonry arches, and steel-wire suspension %@AU@%CABLES%@BO:          1693be@%%@AE@% of
great tensile strength. Movable bridges, whose center portions can be
raised, are generally constructed over waterways where it is impossible
to build a fixed bridge high enough for water traffic to pass under it.
Military bridges-temporary structures that can be erected rapidly-include
the pontoon bridge, which uses air-filled floats called pontoons to
support the roadway. See also %@AU@%AQUEDUCT%@BO:           6ea69@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BROOKLYN BRIDGE%@BO:          145ec7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GOLDEN GATE
%@AU@%BRIDGE%@BO:          3b2bf7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VERRAZANO-NARROWS BRIDGE%@BO:          9cd0b5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bridge%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGE2         @%%@QR:bridge@% card game derived from whist, played with 52 cards by four%@EH@%
players in two partnerships. It probably originated in the Middle East.
In contract bridge, a now popular form, the cards rank from ace down to
two; in bidding, suits rank spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs. After
all the cards are dealt, the auction begins. Players bid to win a stated
number of tricks over six (a trick being the three cards played in
rotation after the lead) with a named suit as trump or with no-trump. The
highest bid becomes the contract after three consecutive passes end the
bidding. The player who first named the suit (or no-trump) is the
declarer; his partner's hand is the dummy and is played by the declarer
face-up as he attempts to win at least enough tricks to fulfill his
contract. Duplicate bridge, in which prearranged hands are played, is the
main form of competitive bridge. The governing principles of bidding were
delineated by Ely %@AU@%CULBERTSON%@BO:          253953@%%@AE@%, and the currently popular point-counting
system in bidding was introduced by Charles H. Goren.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bridgeport%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bridgeport%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGEPORT      @%%@QR:Bridgeport@% city (1986 est. pop. 141,860), SW Conn., on Long Island%@EH@%
Sound; inc. 1836. A port, it is Connecticut's largest city and chief
industrial center. Manufactures include electrical appliances, firearms,
helicopters, turbine engines, trucks, and aerosol sprays. Settled in
1639, it grew as a fishing community. Noteworthy is the Barnum Inst.,
commemorating the city's resident, P.T. %@AU@%BARNUM%@BO:           c6174@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bridger, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bridger, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGER         @%%@QR:Bridger, James@% 1804-81, American fur trapper, one of the most noted of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%MOUNTAIN MEN%@BO:          6498e5@%%@AE@%; b. Virginia. A fur trader and guide, with Louis Vasquez
he opened (1843) Fort Bridger on the %@AU@%OREGON TRAIL%@BO:          6ea275@%%@AE@%. He was a picturesque
figure who won fame for his "tall tales."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bridges, Harry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bridges, Harry%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGES1        @%%@QR:Bridges, Harry@% 1901-, American labor leader; b. Australia, as Alfred%@EH@%
Renton Bridges. Arriving in San Francisco in 1920, he became a
longshoreman and militant labor organizer. In 1937 he set up the
International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union (ILWU), serving as
its president for the next 40 years. Efforts by the U.S. government to
deport him as a Communist alien failed, and he became a citizen in 1945.
Bridges was convicted and sentenced (1950) to prison for perjury in
denying Communist party membership, but the U.S. Supreme Court overturned
the conviction in 1953. Bridges led his last major strike in 1971-72.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bridges, Robert Seymour%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bridges, Robert Seymour%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGES2        @%%@QR:Bridges, Robert Seymour@% 1844-1930, English lyric poet. The philosophical%@EH@%
poem %@AI@%The Testament of Beauty%@AE@% (1929) is considered his greatest work.
Bridges also wrote two major works on prosody and published the poems of
his friend G.M. %@AU@%HOPKINS%@BO:          445b3c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bridgetown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bridgetown%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGETOWN      @%%@QR:Bridgetown@% city (1985 est. pop. 7,466), capital of %@AU@%BARBADOS%@BO:           c0c55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bridgman, Percy Williams%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bridgman, Percy Williams%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIDGMAN        @%%@QR:Bridgman, Percy Williams@% 1882-1961, American physicist; b. Cambridge,%@EH@%
Mass. A professor at Harvard, he won the 1946 Nobel Prize in physics for
his work in high pressures. He also studied electrical conduction in
metals and the properties of crystals, and wrote on the philosophy of
modern science.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bright, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bright, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BRIGHT          @%%@QR:Bright, John@% 1811-89, English statesman and orator. Noted for his%@EH@%
%@AU@%LAISSEZ FAIRE%@BO:          51a32f@%%@AE@% views, he was, with %@AU@%COBDEN%@BO:          1fc931@%%@AE@%, the greatest 19th-cent.
champion of the middle class. In 1839 he helped found the %@AU@%ANTI-CORN-LAW
%@AU@%LEAGUE%@BO:           6329b@%%@AE@% and used his formidable oratory to urge repeal of the %@AU@%CORN LAWS%@BO:          23759f@%%@AE@%. A
member of Parliament for many years (1847-57, 1858-89), he also served in
%@AU@%GLADSTONE'S%@BO:          3a840b@%%@AE@% cabinets (1868-70, 1873-74, 1880-82).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brimstone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brimstone%@AE@%:%@CR:BRIMSTONE       @%%@QR:brimstone@% see %@AU@%SULFUR%@BO:          906c74@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brinkley, David McClure%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brinkley, David McClure%@AE@%,%@CR:BRINKLEY        @%%@QR:Brinkley, David McClure@% 1920-, American television journalist; b.%@EH@%
Wilmington, N.C. From 1956-70 he and Chet Huntley coanchored the
%@AI@%Huntley-Brinkley Report%@AE@%, the popular nightly news program. Since then he
has hosted weekly news programs examining national politics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brisbane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brisbane%@AE@%,%@CR:BRISBANE        @%%@QR:Brisbane@% city (1986 est. pop. 702,500; est. urban agglomeration%@EH@%
1,171,300), capital and chief port of Queensland, E Australia, on the
Brisbane R., above Moreton Bay. The third-largest city in Australia, it
has shipyards; oil refineries; and food-processing, textile, and
automotive industries. Sugar, bananas, and bauxite are exported. Brisbane
was first settled (1824) as a penal colony. The Univ. of Queensland is
here.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bristol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bristol%@AE@%,%@CR:BRISTOL         @%%@QR:Bristol@% city (1986 est. pop. 391,500), Avon, SW England. A leading%@EH@%
international port, Bristol has been a trading center since the 12th
cent. It now manufactures a wide range of general and nuclear machinery,
aircraft, and tobacco and food products. Although the city was heavily
bombed during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, many historic buildings remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Britain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Britain%@AE@%:%@CR:BRITAIN         @%%@QR:Britain@% see %@AU@%GREAT BRITAIN%@BO:          3c9d4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%britannia metal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%britannia metal%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITANNIA.METAL @%%@QR:britannia metal@% %@AU@%ALLOY%@BO:           3f294@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%TIN%@BO:          95ed7b@%%@AE@% with %@AU@%ANTIMONY%@BO:           64e7e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
and, sometimes, %@AU@%BISMUTH%@BO:          103bdf@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ZINC%@BO:          a54458@%%@AE@%. Similar in appearance to pewter but
harder, it is used in manufacturing tableware.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British Columbia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British Columbia%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITISHA        @%%@QR:British Columbia@% province (1986 pop. 2,883,367), 366,252 sq mi (948,596%@EH@%
sq km), W Canada, bounded by Alberta (E), Montana, Idaho, and Washington
(S), the Pacific Ocean and Alaska (W), and the Yukon and Northwest
Territories (N). The province is almost totally mountainous, with the
%@AU@%ROCKY MOUNTAINS%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@% in the east and the %@AU@%COAST MOUNTAINS%@BO:          1fbb97@%%@AE@% along the Pacific;
hydroelectric power is highly developed. The coast is deeply indented
with many offshore islands, including %@AU@%VANCOUVER ISLAND%@BO:          9bb2e0@%%@AE@%. The chief rivers
include the %@AU@%FRASER%@BO:          3591d3@%%@AE@%, the upper %@AU@%COLUMBIA%@BO:          20b32b@%%@AE@%, and the Skeena. Nearly 75% of the
land is covered with forests, and lumbering and related enterprises are
the major industries. The province is also rich in minerals, including
silver, gold, iron ore, zinc, and lead. It ranks first among the
provinces in fishing. Large areas of N and central British Columbia are
sparsely settled, and almost 75% of the population is crowded into the
southwestern coastal strip. %@AU@%VANCOUVER%@BO:          9bafbd@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2daa@%%@AE@%, the capital, are the
chief cities.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The area was originally inhabited by Indians of the Pacific
Northwest. In 1774 the Spaniard Juan Perez probably sailed along the
coast, and in 1778 James %@AU@%COOK%@BO:          22f2d1@%%@AE@% explored the shoreline and claimed the area
for Britain. Rival British and Spanish claims were resolved (1790) and
George %@AU@%VANCOUVER%@BO:          9badfc@%%@AE@% mapped (1792-94) the coast for Britain. In the early
19th cent. fur traders of the %@AU@%NORTH WEST COMPANY%@BO:          6bb408@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%HUDSON'S BAY
%@AU@%COMPANY%@BO:          45078d@%%@AE@% established posts in the area, and in 1846 the border with the
U.S. was set at the 49th parallel. Vancouver Island became (1849) a crown
colony and a new colony was formed (1858) on the mainland. The two were
merged (1866) and in 1871 British Columbia voted to join the Canadian
confederation. The Canadian Pacific Railway reached Vancouver in 1885,
making the city a busy port. The Alaskan boundary dispute with the U.S.
was settled in 1903. British Columbian politics were dominated (1952-72)
by the %@AU@%SOCIAL CREDIT%@BO:          8abaed@%%@AE@% party. In 1972 the New Democratic party won control
of the provincial assembly, but in 1975 Social Credit was returned to
power. The province sends 6 senators (appointed) and 28 representatives
(elected) to the national parliament.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British East India Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British East India Company%@AE@%:%@CR:BRITISHANY      @%%@QR:British East India Company@% see %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY, BRITISH%@BO:          2be578@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British Empire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British Empire%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITISH.EMPIRE  @%%@QR:British Empire@% overseas territories linked to Great Britain in a variety%@EH@%
of constitutional relationships. Established over three centuries, the
empire resulted primarily from commercial and political motives, and from
emigration. At its height in the late 19th and early 20th cent. it
included 25% of the world's population and area.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The First British Empire%@AE@% The foundations of the empire were laid in the
late 16th cent. by the chartered companies, commercial ventures
encouraged by the crown. In the 17th cent. sugar and tobacco plantations
were founded in the Caribbean and in SE North America, and religious
dissenters emigrated to NE North America. An integrated imperial trade
arose, involving the exchange of African slaves for West Indian molasses
and sugar, English cloth and manufactures, and American fish and timber.
The theories of %@AU@%MERCANTILISM%@BO:          5ed231@%%@AE@% were implanted by the %@AU@%NAVIGATION ACTS%@BO:          67b92c@%%@AE@%. The
British %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be578@%%@AE@% furthered expansion into India, and during the
%@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@% (1756-63) Britain ousted France from Canada and India.
The financial burdens of the war, however, caused difficulties in the
American colonies, and the success of the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% marked the
end of the first British Empire.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Second British Empire%@AE@% The voyages of James %@AU@%COOK%@BO:          22f2d1@%%@AE@% and further conquests
in India began a new phase of British expansion. The %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@% and Napoleonic Wars (see %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%) added further possessions,
e.g., the Cape Colony, Ceylon, British Guiana, and Malta, and Britain's
%@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@% lent greater force to the ideas of free %@AU@%TRADE%@BO:          971a1e@%%@AE@%.
Humanitarian concerns led to the abolition of the slave trade (1807) and
of slavery (1833). The %@AU@%BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT%@BO:          141142@%%@AE@% of 1867, which granted
%@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@% internal self-rule as a dominion, inaugurated a pattern by which
Britain surrendered its direct governing powers in European-settled
colonies, e.g., %@AU@%AUSTRALIA%@BO:           9f239@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NEW ZEALAND%@BO:          699524@%%@AE@%. Concurrently, Britain assumed
greater responsibility in Africa and India.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%From Empire to Commonwealth%@AE@% %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% brought the British Empire to the
peak of its expansion. Imperial contributions had considerably
strengthened the British war effort, and victory brought Britain mandates
over new territories, e.g., Palestine, Iraq, and German territories in
Africa. In 1931 the statute of Westminster officially recognized the
independent and equal status under the crown of the former dominions
within a British %@AU@%COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS%@BO:          210dd2@%%@AE@%. After %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%,
self-government advanced rapidly in all parts of the empire. In 1947
India was partitioned and independence was granted to the new states of
%@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%. Other parts of the empire, notably in %@AU@%AFRICA%@BO:           1b67e@%%@AE@%, gained
independence and subsequently joined the British Commonwealth. Britain
still administers many dependencies throughout the world, e.g., %@AU@%BERMUDA,
%@AU@%GIBRALTAR%@BO:           eece1@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HONG KONG%@BO:          4413e4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British Honduras%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British Honduras%@AE@%:%@CR:BRITISHS        @%%@QR:British Honduras@% see %@AU@%BELIZE%@BO:           e0bd6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British Imperial System of weights and measures%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British Imperial System of weights and measures%@AE@%:%@CR:BRITISH.OF.WEI  @%%@QR:British Imperial System of weights and measures@% see %@AU@%ENGLISH UNITS OF%@EH@%
%@AU@%MEASUREMENT%@BO:          2f136f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WEIGHTS AND MEASURES%@BO:          a0404d@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British Indian Ocean Territory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British Indian Ocean Territory%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITISHRRITORY  @%%@QR:British Indian Ocean Territory@% archipelago (1981 est. pop. 2,500),%@EH@%
c.1,180 mi (1,900 km), NE of Mauritius, in the central Indian Ocean. The
islands, which form the Chagos Archipelago, were administered by
%@AU@%MAURITIUS%@BO:          5d75e6@%%@AE@% before they became a British dependency in 1965. Their
importance is strategic; the U.S. maintains a major naval facility on the
main island, %@AU@%DIEGO GARCIA%@BO:          28e874@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British Museum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British Museum%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITISH.MUSEUM  @%%@QR:British Museum@% the national repository in London for treasures in%@EH@%
science and art. It has departments of archaeology, antiquities, prints
and drawings, coins and medals, and ethnography. Established (1753) with
the acquisition of several collections, its exhibits now include the
%@AU@%ROSETTA STONE%@BO:          813cdb@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%ELGIN MARBLES%@BO:          2e0509@%%@AE@%, the caryatid from the %@AU@%ERECHTHEUM%@BO:          2fbc7a@%%@AE@%, and
the remains of a Saxon ship (c.660), with its gold and silver treasures,
from the English archaeological site at Sutton Hoo. The %@AB@%British Library%@AE@%,
a non-lending, reference library is a copyright depository. It houses one
of the world's outstanding collections of rare books and manuscripts,
including %@AU@%BEOWULF%@BO:           ea328@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MAGNA CARTA%@BO:          596ecc@%%@AE@%. The great domed reading room was
finished in 1857. The library has plans to expand at a site in Euston.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British North America Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British North America Act%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITISHCT       @%%@QR:British North America Act@% 1867, law providing for the unification of%@EH@%
%@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@% that functioned as the dominion's constitution until 1982. It
spelled out provisional powers and granted residual authority to the
dominion government. Under it, the power of amendment was nominally
vested in the British Parliament, which in practice acted only at the
request of Canada's Parliament. It was superseded by the %@AU@%CONSTITUTION
%@AU@%ACT%@BO:          2298a5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%British thermal unit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%British thermal unit%@AE@%%@CR:BRITISH.UNIT    @%%@QR:British thermal unit@% (Btu), unit of energy required to raise the%@EH@%
temperature of 1 lb of water by one degree Fahrenheit (from 59.5 deg to
60.5 degF). 1 Btu=251.996 calories=778.26 foot-pounds=1054.8 joules.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brittany%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brittany%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITTANY        @%%@QR:Brittany@% region and former province, NW France, a peninsula between the%@EH@%
English Channel and the Bay of Biscay. Its economy is based on farming,
fishing, and tourism. Breton, a Celtic language, is spoken in some rural
traditionalist areas. Brittany got its modern name when it was settled
(c.500) by Britons whom the %@AU@%ANGLO-SAXONS%@BO:           58e42@%%@AE@% had driven from Britain. It
struggled for independence from the %@AU@%FRANKS%@BO:          3588b6@%%@AE@% (5th-9th cent.), from the
dukes of Normandy and the counts of Anjou (10th-12th cent.), and finally
from England and France. Brittany was absorbed by France after the
accession (1488) of %@AU@%ANNE OF BRITTANY%@BO:           5d3a9@%%@AE@% and formally incorporated into
France in 1532.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brittany spaniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brittany spaniel%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITTANL        @%%@QR:Brittany spaniel@% medium-sized %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.19 in.%@EH@%
(48.3 cm); weight, 30-40 lb (13.6-18.1 kg). Its dense, flat or wavy coat
is dark orange and white or liver and white. It dates back hundreds of
years, to France and Spain, and is the only spaniel that points its
quarry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Britten, Benjamin, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Britten, Benjamin, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITTEN         @%%@QR:Britten, Benjamin, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh@% 1913-76, English composer.%@EH@%
His most popular works, all written in a traditional vein, include %@AI@%A
%@AI@%Ceremony of Carols%@AE@% (1942), %@AI@%A Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra%@AE@%
(1945), and the great %@AI@%War Requiem%@AE@% (1962). His operas include %@AI@%Peter Grimes%@AE@%
(1945), %@AI@%The Turn of the Screw%@AE@% (1954), and %@AI@%Death in Venice%@AE@% (1973). In 1976
Queen Elizabeth II named him a life peer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brittle star%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brittle star%@AE@%,%@CR:BRITTLE.STAR    @%%@QR:brittle star@% marine invertebrate animal (class Ophiuroidea). An%@EH@%
%@AU@%ECHINODERM%@BO:          2c0d95@%%@AE@%, it has five long, slender arms that radiate from a central
disk, and the water-vascular system and tube feet common to echinoderms.
Their arms break off readily, but new arms are easily regenerated. Most
brittle stars are less than 1 in. (2.5 cm) across the central disk.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brno%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brno%@AE@%%@CR:BRNO            @%%@QR:Brno@%, Ger. %@AI@%Brunn,%@AE@% city (1986 est. pop. 385,000), central Czechoslovakia,%@EH@%
at the confluence of the Svratka and Svitava rivers. The second largest
Czechoslovak city and %@AU@%MORAVIA'S%@BO:          63b27a@%%@AE@% chief city, it produces textiles,
tractors, and other manufactures. Brno flourished (13th-14th cent.) as a
free city within the kingdom of %@AU@%BOHEMIA%@BO:          117097@%%@AE@%. The Spielberg castle in Brno was
a notorious %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% prison (1740-1855).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%broadcasting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%broadcasting%@AE@%,%@CR:BROADCASTING    @%%@QR:broadcasting@% transmission of sound or images to a large number of %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
or %@AU@%TELEVISION%@BO:          93a2aa@%%@AE@% receivers. The first regularly scheduled radio broadcasts
in the U.S. began in 1920. The sale of advertising began in 1922,
establishing commercial broadcasting as an industry. A coast-to-coast
hookup began early in 1924, and expansion of both audience and
transmission facilities continued rapidly. By 1980 4,498 AM and 3,057 FM
commercial radio stations existed in the U.S. Experiments in broadcasting
television began in the 1920s but were interrupted by World War II. By
1988, the U.S. had 1017 commercial and 325 educational television
stations, and %@AU@%CABLE TELEVISION%@BO:          169771@%%@AE@% systems in the U.S. served 42,296,110
subscribers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Broadway%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Broadway%@AE@%,%@CR:BROADWAY        @%%@QR:Broadway@% street in New York City. One of the world's longest streets, it%@EH@%
extends c.150 mi (241 km) from lower Manhattan N to Albany. Its theater
district is known as the "Great White Way" for its dazzling electric
lights and signs. The world-famous intersection of Times Square is formed
by Broadway, Seventh Ave., and 42d St.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%broccoli%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%broccoli%@AE@%,%@CR:BROCCOLI        @%%@QR:broccoli@% variety of %@AU@%CABBAGE%@BO:          1681e7@%%@AE@% grown for the edible immature flower%@EH@%
panicles. It is the same variety as cauliflower (%@AI@%Brassica oleracea
%@AI@%botrytis%@AE@%) and similarly cultivated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brock, Sir Isaac%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brock, Sir Isaac%@AE@%,%@CR:BROCK           @%%@QR:Brock, Sir Isaac@% 1769-1812, British general in Canada. As the commander%@EH@%
(1806-12) of British forces, he defeated an American army and captured
(1812) %@AU@%DETROIT%@BO:          285c4b@%%@AE@% early in the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%. Brock died in battle while
defending the Niagara frontier.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brodsky, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brodsky, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:BRODSKY         @%%@QR:Brodsky, Joseph@% 1940-, Russian poet. He has lived in the U.S. since%@EH@%
1972. Brodsky is highly regarded for the formal technique, depth, irony,
and wit displayed in his poetry, which often treats the themes of loss
and exile. Among his works in English translation are %@AI@%A Part of Speech%@AE@%
(tr. 1980) and %@AI@%Less Than One%@AE@% (tr. 1986). He was awarded the 1987 Nobel
Prize in Literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Broglie, Louis Victor, prince de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Broglie, Louis Victor, prince de%@AE@%%@CR:BROGLIE         @%%@QR:Broglie, Louis Victor, prince de@%, 1892-87, French physicist. From his%@EH@%
hypothesis that particles should exhibit certain wavelike properties,
wave mechanics, a form of quantum mechanics, was developed (see %@AU@%QUANTUM
%@AU@%THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@%). Experiments proved (1927) the existence of these waves; he was
awarded the 1929 Nobel Prize in physics for his theory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Broken Hill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Broken Hill%@AE@%,%@CR:BROKEN.HILL     @%%@QR:Broken Hill@% city (1985 est. pop. 26,650), New South Wales, SE Australia,%@EH@%
near the South Australia border. It is the site of one of the world's
richest silver-lead and zinc deposits (first developed in 1884).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bromeliad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bromeliad%@AE@%,%@CR:BROMELIAD       @%%@QR:bromeliad@% common name for some members of the family Bromeliaceae,%@EH@%
chiefly epiphytic herbs and small shrubs native to the American tropics
and subtropics. A typical bromeliad has strap-shaped leaves clustered in
a rosette around a central cup; the flowers are found in the central cup
or above it on a spike. The central cup retains water, enabling tropical
bromeliads to survive dry spells. Bromeliad species such as those of the
genus %@AI@%Aechmea%@AE@% and %@AI@%Cryptanthus%@AE@% are often grown as house and conservatory
plants for their colorful flowers and foliage. Other members of the
family include %@AU@%SPANISH MOSS%@BO:          8d2503@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%PINEAPPLE%@BO:          75db28@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bromine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bromine%@AE@%%@CR:BROMINE         @%%@QR:bromine@% (Br), volatile liquid element, discovered in 1826 by Antoine J.%@EH@%
Balard. A %@AU@%HALOGEN%@BO:          3f5f77@%%@AE@%, it is a reddish-brown fuming liquid with an offensive
odor. Bromine corrodes the skin, and its vapor irritates the eyes and the
membranes of the nose and throat. The only nonmetallic element that is
liquid under ordinary conditions, bromine occurs in compounds in
seawater, mineral springs, and salt deposits. Its compounds are used in
photographic film, in flame retardants, and in conjunction with an
anti-knock compound in gasoline. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bronchitis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bronchitis%@AE@%,%@CR:BRONCHITIS      @%%@QR:bronchitis@% inflammation of the bronchial tubes caused by viral or%@EH@%
bacterial infection or by the inhalation of irritating fumes (e.g.,
tobacco smoke, air pollutants). Symptoms include cough, fever, and chest
pains. Acute bronchitis may subside, or, particularly with continued
exposure to irritants, may persist and progress to chronic bronchitis or
%@AU@%PNEUMONIA%@BO:          770a97@%%@AE@%. Bronchitis can be treated with antihistamines, cough
suppressants, bronchodilators, or %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bronte, Charlotte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bronte, Charlotte%@AE@%%@CR:BRONTE          @%%@QR:Bronte, Charlotte@%, 1816-55, %@AB@%Emily Jane Bronte,%@AE@% 1818-48, and %@AB@%Anne Bronte,%@AE@%%@EH@%
1820-49, English novelists and poets. As children in a Yorkshire
parsonage, the sisters created an imaginary literary world. In 1846 they
published a pseudonymous collection of their poems, and in 1847 Anne's
novel %@AI@%Agnes Grey,%@AE@% Emily's %@AI@%Wuthering Heights,%@AE@% and Charlotte's %@AI@%Jane Eyre%@AE@%
all appeared. Soon after, tragedy struck: Emily died in Dec. 1848, and
Anne (whose %@AI@%Tenant of Wildfell Hall%@AE@% came out in 1848) died in 1849, both
from tuberculosis. Charlotte's career, however, burgeoned with %@AI@%Shirley%@AE@%
(1849) and %@AI@%Villette%@AE@% (1853). She married her father's curate, Arthur Bell
Nichols, in 1854 but died a year later. %@AI@%The Professor%@AE@% was published in
1857. Charlotte's %@AI@%Jane Eyre,%@AE@% the strong, violently emotional story of a
governess and her passionate love for her employer, Mr. Rochester,
articulates the theme of a woman's need for both love and independence;
it ranks among the great English novels. Emily's %@AI@%Wuthering Heights,%@AE@% the
intense story of the almost demonic love between Catherine Earnshaw and
Heathcliff-less characters than forces-is considered a work of genius.
Her lyric poems are among the best in English poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bronze%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bronze%@AE@%,%@CR:BRONZE          @%%@QR:bronze@% %@AU@%ALLOY%@BO:           3f294@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PHOSPHORUS%@BO:          750941@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TIN%@BO:          95ed7b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ZINC%@EH@%
%@AU@%%@BO:          a54458@%%@AE@%, and, sometimes, small amounts of other elements. It is harder than
%@AU@%BRASS%@BO:          136d90@%%@AE@%, and its properties depend on the proportions of its components.
%@AU@%ALUMINUM%@BO:           436c3@%%@AE@% bronze, with its high strength and corrosion resistance, is used
for bearings, valve seats, and machine parts; leaded bronze is cast into
heavy-duty bushings and bearings; silicon bronze is used for telegraph
wires and chemical containers; and bronze with 20% to 24% tin is used for
casting bells. Bronze is used for coins, medals, steam fittings, and
%@AU@%GUNMETAL%@BO:          3e98cd@%%@AE@%, and in artistic castings, engravings, and forgings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bronze Age%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bronze Age%@AE@%,%@CR:BRONZE.AGE      @%%@QR:Bronze Age@% technological period when metals were first used to make%@EH@%
tools and weapons. The earliest stage, when pure copper and bronze were
used interchangeably, has been called the Copper Age. %@AU@%CASTING%@BO:          19d9c0@%%@AE@% was well
established in the Middle East by 3500 BC; in the New World the first
bronze was cast AD c.1100. Development of a metallurgical industry
coincided with urbanization, support of an artisan class, and trade for
raw materials, laying the foundation for the %@AU@%IRON AGE%@BO:          49ba8f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bronze sculpture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bronze sculpture%@AE@%.%@CR:BRONZE.E        @%%@QR:bronze sculpture@% Bronze is an ideal alloy for casting, engraving, and%@EH@%
repousse work. When melted, it flows into the crevices of a mold,
reproducing every detail; once hardened, it is easily worked with a tool.
The ancient Egyptians used bronze for utensils, armor, and statuary, and
outstanding Oriental bronzes have been made since ancient times.
Unexcelled in bronze sculpture, the Greeks created such masterpieces as
%@AI@%The Zeus of Artemesium%@AE@% (National Mus., Athens) and %@AI@%The Delphic Charioteer%@AE@%
(Delphi Mus.). Copying Greek models, the Romans made thousands of bronze
sculptures, as well as utilitarian objects. Most medieval bronzes were
utensils and ornaments. During the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%, Italian sculptors wrought
magnificent bronzes, such as the %@AU@%GHIBERTI%@BO:          39f2dd@%%@AE@% doors to the baptistery of
Florence and sculpture by %@AU@%DONATELLO%@BO:          2a1044@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VERROCCHIO%@BO:          9cd23c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CELLINI%@BO:          1ab82e@%%@AE@%. In the 18th
cent. France was well known for gilded bronze furniture mounts. Major
modern sculptors who have worked in bronze include %@AU@%RODIN%@BO:          802c08@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%EPSTEIN%@BO:          2f8bb3@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%BRANCUSI%@BO:          134d9f@%%@AE@%, Henry %@AU@%MOORE%@BO:          639b98@%%@AE@%, and Lipschitz.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brook, Peter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brook, Peter%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOK           @%%@QR:Brook, Peter@% 1925-, English theatrical director. Since 1962 he has been%@EH@%
codirector of the Royal Shakespeare Company (see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@%, ). His
innovative, controversial productions include Peter %@AU@%WEISS'S%@BO:          a05541@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Marat/Sade%@AE@%
(1965) and %@AI@%A Midsummer Night's Dream%@AE@% (1970). He has also directed films,
e.g., %@AI@%Lord of the Flies%@AE@% (1963) and %@AI@%King Lear%@AE@% (1971).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooke, Edward William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooke, Edward William%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKE1         @%%@QR:Brooke, Edward William@% 1919-, U.S. senator from Massachusetts (1967-79),%@EH@%
the first black U.S. senator since %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@%; b. Washington, D.C. A
Republican, he served (1967) on the President's Commission on Civil
Disorders, which investigated the causes of race riots. Although he was
defeated for reelection (1978) in part because his fiscal records were
investigated by the Senate Ethics Committee, he was later exonerated of
any wrongdoing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooke, Sir James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooke, Sir James%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKE2         @%%@QR:Brooke, Sir James@% 1803-68, rajah of Sarawak on %@AU@%BORNEO%@BO:          124e00@%%@AE@%. He was made%@EH@%
(1841) rajah for helping the sultan of Brunei to suppress rebel tribes.
He was succeeded by his nephew, %@AB@%Sir Charles Anthony Johnson Brooke,%@AE@%
1829-1917, who made the country prosperous. His son and successor, %@AB@%Sir
%@AB@%Charles Vyner Brooke,%@AE@% 1874-1963, was forced out of Sarawak by the
Japanese in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. He ceded (1946) the country to Britain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooke, Rupert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooke, Rupert%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKE3         @%%@QR:Brooke, Rupert@% 1887-1915, English poet. His social charm, wit, and%@EH@%
tragic death during World War I made him a legend. He wrote %@AI@%Poems%@AE@% (1911)
and %@AI@%1914 and Other Poems%@AE@% (1915). The romantic patriotism of his war poems
contrasts sharply with the bitterness of %@AU@%OWEN%@BO:          6fa1d8@%%@AE@% and Sassoon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brook Farm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brook Farm%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOK.FARM      @%%@QR:Brook Farm@% 1841-47, experimental farm at West Roxbury, Mass.; founded by%@EH@%
the Unitarian minister George %@AU@%RIPLEY%@BO:          7f675f@%%@AE@%. It was based on cooperative living
and the principles of %@AU@%TRANSCENDENTALISM%@BO:          973e73@%%@AE@% and fostered shared manual labor
and a stimulating intellectual life. Nathaniel %@AU@%HAWTHORNE%@BO:          40a3dd@%%@AE@% was a member,
and visitors included R.W. %@AU@%EMERSON%@BO:          2e7cc0@%%@AE@%, Margaret %@AU@%FULLER%@BO:          36cab5@%%@AE@%, and Horace %@AU@%GREELEY%@BO:          3d392c@%%@AE@%.
Brook Farm adopted the ideas of Charles %@AU@%FOURIER%@BO:          34d27b@%%@AE@% in 1844. It was disbanded
shortly after its central building burned in 1846.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brookhaven National Laboratory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brookhaven National Laboratory%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKHAORATORY  @%%@QR:Brookhaven National Laboratory@% scientific research center, Upton, Long%@EH@%
Island, N.Y.; founded (1947) and operated by Associated Universities Inc.
under contract to the U.S. Dept. of Energy. The laboratory's equipment
includes a number of highly sophisticated nuclear reactors, particle
accelerators, and electronic computers; there is also a medical research
center for work in nuclear medicine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brookings Institution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brookings Institution%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKINTUTION   @%%@QR:Brookings Institution@% at Washington, D.C.; chartered in 1927 as a%@EH@%
consolidation of the Inst. for Government Research (est. 1916), the Inst.
of Economics (est. 1922), and the Robert S. Brookings Graduate School of
Economics and Government (est. 1924). The institution makes social
science research available to government and business by financing
projects and publishing findings, sometimes working under government
contract.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooklyn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooklyn%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKLYN        @%%@QR:Brooklyn@% borough of %@AU@%NEW YORK CITY%@BO:          697ade@%%@AE@% (1986 est. pop. 2,293,200), 71 sq mi%@EH@%
(184 sq km), coextensive with Kings co., SE N.Y., at the SW extremity of
%@AU@%LONG ISLAND%@BO:          568a88@%%@AE@%; settled 1636, chartered as part of New York City 1898. The
largest of New York's five boroughs, it has diverse industries and a
waterfront handling foreign and domestic commerce. From Dutch and Walloon
settlements it became the village of Brooklyn Ferry (1816) and the city
of Brooklyn (1834), absorbing as it grew settlements like Flatbush and
Gravesend; it became (1855) the third largest U.S. city. Points of
interest include Prospect Park, the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, and Coney
Island.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooklyn Bridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooklyn Bridge%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKLYN.BRIDGE @%%@QR:Brooklyn Bridge@% the first steel-wire suspension bridge in the world,%@EH@%
built 1869-83, over the East R., linking the boroughs of Manhattan and
Brooklyn in New York City. Designed by J.A. and W.A. %@AU@%ROEBLING%@BO:          80319a@%%@AE@%, it was the
world's longest suspension bridge at the time of its completion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brookner, Anita%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brookner, Anita%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKNER        @%%@QR:Brookner, Anita@% 1928-, English writer and art critic. After establishing%@EH@%
an academic career at London's Courtauld Institute of Art, she began
(1980) writing fiction. Her novels are usually about middle-aged women
unable to establish relationships with those around them, e.g., %@AI@%Hotel du
%@AI@%Lac%@AE@% (1984) and %@AI@%A Misalliance%@AE@% (1986).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooks, Gwendolyn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooks, Gwendolyn%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKS1         @%%@QR:Brooks, Gwendolyn@% 1917-, black American poet; b. Topeka, Kans. Treating%@EH@%
the black American experience, her poems are in such volumes as %@AI@%Annie
%@AI@%Allen%@AE@% (1949; Pulitzer) and %@AI@%Riot%@AE@% (1970). She is also the author of %@AI@%Maud
%@AI@%Martha%@AE@% (1953), a novelette. Brooks was the first black woman to win the
Pulitzer Prize for poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooks, Mel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooks, Mel%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKS2         @%%@QR:Brooks, Mel@% 1927-, American film director, writer, and actor; b. N.Y.C.%@EH@%
as Melvin Kaminsky. His comic movies, often parodies of popular film
genres, include %@AI@%The Producers%@AE@% (1968), %@AI@%Blazing Saddles%@AE@% (1974), %@AI@%Young
%@AI@%Frankenstein%@AE@% (1975), and %@AI@%History of the World, Part I%@AE@% (1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooks, Phillips%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooks, Phillips%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKS3         @%%@QR:Brooks, Phillips@% 1835-93, American Episcopal bishop; b. Boston. He began%@EH@%
(1869) his ministry at Trinity Church, Boston, and became one of the most
influential ministers of his time. In 1891 he was consecrated bishop of
Massachusetts. Brooks wrote the hymn "O Little Town of Bethlehem."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brooks, Van Wyck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brooks, Van Wyck%@AE@%,%@CR:BROOKS4         @%%@QR:Brooks, Van Wyck@% 1886-1963, American critic; b. Plainfield, N.J. An%@EH@%
extremely prolific writer, he concentrated in his early work on the
influence of Puritanism on American culture, e.g., %@AI@%The Wine of the
%@AI@%Puritans%@AE@% (1909), and on critical biography, e.g., %@AI@%The Ordeal of Mark
%@AI@%Twain%@AE@% (1920). His masterpiece, the series %@AI@%Makers and Finders: A History
%@AI@%of the Writer in America, 1800-1915,%@AE@% which began with the Pulitzer
Prize-winning %@AI@%The Flowering of New England%@AE@% (1936), is a humanistic
interpretation of American literary history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brouwer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brouwer%@AE@%%@CR:BROUWER         @%%@QR:Brouwer@%or %@AB@%Brauwer, Adriaen%@AE@%, c.1606-38, Flemish painter. His later%@EH@%
depictions of peasant life and humorous single figures, such as %@AI@%Drinkers
%@AI@%at a Table%@AE@% (Brussels) and %@AI@%The Smokers%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.), were often
monochromatic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Browder, Earl Russell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Browder, Earl Russell%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWDER         @%%@QR:Browder, Earl Russell@% 1891-1973, American Communist leader; b. Wichita,%@EH@%
Kan. He was the Communist party's candidate for president in 1936 and
1940. In 1946 the party expelled him for urging Soviet cooperation with
the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, Charles Brockden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, Charles Brockden%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN1          @%%@QR:Brown, Charles Brockden@% 1771-1810, considered America's first%@EH@%
professional novelist; b. Philadelphia. His most popular work, %@AI@%Wieland%@AE@%
(1799), foreshadowed the psychological novel. His other works include
%@AI@%Edgar Huntley%@AE@% and %@AI@%Ormond%@AE@% (both: 1799).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, Ford Madox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, Ford Madox%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN2          @%%@QR:Brown, Ford Madox@% 1821-93, English historical painter; b. France.%@EH@%
Closely affiliated with the %@AU@%PRE-RAPHAELITES%@BO:          79430b@%%@AE@%, he painted %@AI@%Work%@AE@% (1852-63;
Manchester Art Gall.) and 12 %@AU@%FRESCOES%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% (in the town hall of Manchester)
showing the city's history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, George%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN3          @%%@QR:Brown, George@% 1818-80, Canadian journalist and statesman. After%@EH@%
emigrating from Scotland at the age of 24 he founded (1844) the Toronto
%@AI@%Globe%@AE@% and made it a powerful political journal. A member of the Canadian
assembly (1851-67), he worked for political representation by population
and for the confederation of %@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, Jerry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, Jerry%@AE@%%@CR:BROWN4          @%%@QR:Brown, Jerry@% (Edmund Gerald Brown, Jr.), 1938-, American politician,%@EH@%
governor of California (1975-83); b. San Francisco. He studied to become
a Jesuit, became a lawyer, and served (1970-74) as California's secretary
of state. Although basically a liberal Democrat, as governor he gained a
reputation for austerity, frugality, and unpredictability. He ran
unsuccessfully for the U.S. Senate in 1982. His father, %@AB@%Edmund Gerald
%@AB@%(Pat) Brown,%@AE@% 1905-, b. San Francisco, was also governor of California
(1959-67).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, Jimmy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, Jimmy%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN5          @%%@QR:Brown, Jimmy@% 1936-, American football player; b. St. Simon Island, Ga.%@EH@%
An All-American (1956) at Syracuse Univ., he became one of the greatest
fullbacks in the game's history while with the Cleveland Browns (1957-65)
of the National Football League (NFL). He set NFL lifetime records for
most touchdowns (126), yards gained rushing (12,312), and highest rushing
average (5.22). After 1965 he became a movie actor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN6          @%%@QR:Brown, John@% 1800-1859, American %@AU@%ABOLITIONIST%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@%; b. Torrington, Conn.%@EH@%
Raised in Ohio, he moved to Kansas in 1855. In 1856, in retaliation for
the sack of %@AU@%LAWRENCE%@BO:          52f8f3@%%@AE@%, he led the slaughter of five proslavery men on the
banks of the Pottawatamie R., asserting that he was an instrument in the
hand of God. On Oct. 16, 1859, having initiated a plan to liberate
Southern slaves through armed intervention, Brown and 21 followers
captured the U.S. arsenal at %@AU@%HARPERS FERRY%@BO:          401e6f@%%@AE@%, Va. (now W.Va.). It was taken
the next morning by Robert E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@%, and Brown was hanged on Dec. 2. The
dignity and sincerity that he displayed during his widely reported trial
led many to regard him as a martyr.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, John Carter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, John Carter%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN7          @%%@QR:Brown, John Carter@% 1797-1874, American book collector and%@EH@%
philanthropist; b. Providence. His collection of %@AU@%AMERICANA%@BO:           46eeb@%%@AE@%, 5,600
volumes, was enlarged after his death and donated to Brown Univ. as the
John Carter Brown Library.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN8          @%%@QR:Brown, Robert@% 1773-1858, Scottish botanist and botanical explorer. He%@EH@%
went as a naturalist and collector to Australia (1801) and described its
flora in his %@AI@%Prodromus florae Novae Hollandiae%@AE@% (1810). Librarian to the
Linnaean Society and British Museum curator, he observed %@AU@%BROWNIAN
%@AU@%MOVEMENT%@BO:          1482c1@%%@AE@% in 1827 and discovered the cell nucleus in 1831.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Browne, Charles Farrar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Browne, Charles Farrar%@AE@%:%@CR:BROWNE1         @%%@QR:Browne, Charles Farrar@% see %@AU@%WARD, ARTEMUS%@BO:          9f0b7f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Browne, Sir Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Browne, Sir Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWNE2         @%%@QR:Browne, Sir Thomas@% 1605-82, English author and physician. In %@AI@%Religio%@EH@%
%@AI@%Medici%@AE@% (c.1635) he attempted to reconcile science and religion. Other
works, including %@AI@%Hydriotaphia: Urn Burial%@AE@% (1656), express a philosophy
now chiefly of historical interest. The quality of Browne's faith and his
mode of expression make him an outstanding figure in English literary
history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%brown hematite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%brown hematite%@AE@%:%@CR:BROWN.HEMATITE  @%%@QR:brown hematite@% see %@AU@%LIMONITE%@BO:          553971@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brownian movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brownian movement%@AE@%%@CR:BROWNIANT       @%%@QR:Brownian movement@% or %@AB@%motion,%@AE@% irregular, zigzag motion of minute particles%@EH@%
of matter suspended in a fluid. First observed (1827) by the botanist
Robert Brown, the effect is a result of collisions between the particles
and the fluid molecules, which are in constant thermal motion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Browning, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Browning, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWNING        @%%@QR:Browning, Robert@% 1812-89, English poet. His psychological portraits in%@EH@%
verse and his experiments in diction and rhythm have made him an
important influence on 20th-cent. poetry. Browning was master of the
dramatic monologue, e.g., "My Last Duchess," "Fra Lippo Lippi," "Andrea
del Sarto," "The Bishop Orders His Tomb." In 1846, after a secret
courtship, he married the poet Elizabeth Barrett and took her to Italy,
where they lived until her death in 1861. He returned to England and
published %@AI@%Dramatis Personae%@AE@% (1864), %@AI@%Dramatic Idylls%@AE@% (1879-80), and
%@AI@%Asolando%@AE@% (1889). His masterpiece is %@AI@%The Ring and the Book%@AE@% (4 vol.,
1868-69). His wife, %@AB@%Elizabeth Barrett Browning,%@AE@% 1806-61, published %@AI@%Poems%@AE@%
in 1844. This volume brought her both fame and Browning's attention.
Defying her poor health and a tyrannical father, she married Browning in
1846. E.B. Browning's highly individual gift for lyric poetry is shown in
%@AI@%Sonnets from the Portuguese%@AE@% (1850), her greatest work. Other works
include %@AI@%Casa Guidi Windows%@AE@% (1851) and %@AI@%Aurora Leigh%@AE@% (1857), a novel in
verse.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brownson, Orestes Augustus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brownson, Orestes Augustus%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWNSON        @%%@QR:Brownson, Orestes Augustus@% 1803-76, American author and clergyman; b.%@EH@%
Stockbridge, Vt. At first a Presbyterian, he later became a Universalist,
a Unitarian minister, head of his own church, a transcendentalist, and
finally (1844) a Roman Catholic. As a writer and magazine editor,
Brownson dealt with religious questions and fought social injustice.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brownsville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brownsville%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWNSVILLE     @%%@QR:Brownsville@% city (1986 est. pop. 102,110), seat of Cameron co., extreme%@EH@%
S Tex., on the Rio Grande near the Gulf of Mexico, across the river from
Matamoras, Mexico; inc. 1850. A deep water channel accommodates seagoing
vessels, and the city has oil and gas, shrimp, and electronics
industries. Fort Texas was attacked (1846) by the Mexicans, precipitating
the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%; it was renamed Fort Brown for its defender, Major Jacob
Brown. Brownsville grew around the fort. In 1906 a group of black
soldiers were blamed for a gun raid that killed a resident. Their
controversial dishonorable discharge by Pres. Theodore %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80ff43@%%@AE@% was
reversed in 1972.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas%@AE@%,%@CR:BROWN.VION.OF.  @%%@QR:Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas@% case decided in 1954 by%@EH@%
the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%, holding that de jure segregation in public
schools was a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th
amendment to the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%. A unanimous Court stated that racial
separation, no matter how equal the facilities, branded minority children
as inferior, thus hindering their development. The "separate but equal"
doctrine of %@AU@%PLESSY V. FERGUSON%@BO:          76dc85@%%@AE@% was reversed. In 1955 the Court added that
schools must desegregate "with all deliberate speed." The %@AI@%Brown%@AE@% decision
gave impetus to the civil-rights movement of the 1950s and 60s, and
hastened the end of segregation in all public facilities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruce%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruce%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUCE1          @%%@QR:Bruce@% Scottish royal family, descended from an 11th-cent. Norman duke,%@EH@%
Robert de Brus, who aided %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1d3b9@%%@AE@% in his conquest of England. In the
struggle following the death of %@AU@%MARGARET MAID OF NORWAY%@BO:          5b8f14@%%@AE@%, the Bruces
claimed succession to the Scottish throne. Robert the Bruce was a
claimant in 1290, rivaled by John de %@AU@%BALIOL%@BO:           b6953@%%@AE@%. His grandson was the famous
Robert the Bruce, %@AU@%ROBERT I%@BO:          7f9d75@%%@AE@% of Scotland. Edward Bruce, brother of Robert
I, was crowned king of Ireland in 1316. The youngest son of Robert I
succeeded him as %@AU@%DAVID II%@BO:          26bb9b@%%@AE@%. He was succeeded by his nephew, %@AU@%ROBERT II%@BO:          7f9d75@%%@AE@%, the
first %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8fe31b@%%@AE@% king.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruce, earls of Elgin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruce, earls of Elgin%@AE@%:%@CR:BRUCE2          @%%@QR:Bruce, earls of Elgin@% see %@AU@%ELGIN, THOMAS BRUCE, 7TH EARL OF%@BO:          2e01b8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruce of Melbourne, Stanley Melbourne, Viscount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruce of Melbourne, Stanley Melbourne, Viscount%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUCE.ORNE      @%%@QR:Bruce of Melbourne, Stanley Melbourne, Viscount@% 1883-1967, Australian%@EH@%
prime minister (1923-29). He advocated close relations between Australia
and the empire and was later Australian delegate to the %@AU@%LEAGUE OF
%@AU@%NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@%. He was Australian high commissioner in London (1933-45).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruch, Max%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruch, Max%@AE@%%@CR:BRUCH           @%%@QR:Bruch, Max@%, 1838-1920, German composer. His Violin Concerto in G Minor%@EH@%
(1868) and his variations on the %@AI@%Kol Nidre%@AE@% (1881) for cello and orchestra
are well known.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brucke, Die%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brucke, Die%@AE@%%@CR:BRUCKE          @%%@QR:Brucke, Die@% [Ger.,=the bridge], German Expressionist art movement lasting%@EH@%
from 1905 to 1913 (see %@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:          313c02@%%@AE@%). Founded in Dresden by %@AU@%KIRCHNER%@BO:          4fed42@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%SCHMIDT-ROTTLUFF%@BO:          858a89@%%@AE@%, and the painter Erich Heckel, the group at first lived
and worked communally, developing an intense, violent style with
primitive and demonic qualities. Their exhibits, influenced by %@AI@%Jugendstil%@AE@%
(the German equivalent of %@AU@%ART NOUVEAU%@BO:           87c26@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%VAN GOGH%@BO:          9bd194@%%@AE@%, displayed brutally
deformed, boldly colored subjects, a reaction against %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%REALISM%@BO:          7d19d6@%%@AE@%. Unlike contemporaneous %@AU@%FAUVISM%@BO:          32182e@%%@AE@%, Die Brucke lacked coherent
definition; the group disbanded because of disagreements over a statement
of its aims.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruckner, Anton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruckner, Anton%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUCKNER        @%%@QR:Bruckner, Anton@% 1824-96, Austrian composer and organist. Influenced by%@EH@%
Richard %@AU@%WAGNER'S%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@% orchestral grandeur and use of the chromatic %@AU@%SCALE%@BO:          8527cd@%%@AE@%, he
employed complex, extended melody in such works as the %@AU@%MASSES%@BO:          5cc4ab@%%@AE@% in D Minor
(1864), E Minor (1866), and F Minor (1867-71); a %@AI@%Te Deum%@AE@% (1881-84); and
nine symphonies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruegel, Brueghel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruegel, Brueghel%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUEGEL         @%%@QR:Bruegel, Brueghel@%or %@AB@%Breughel%@AE@%, outstanding family of Flemish %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
landscape painters. The foremost, %@AB@%Pieter Bruegel,%@AE@% the Elder, c.1525-69,
portrayed in vibrant colors the living world of field and forest in which
lively, robust peasants work and play, e.g., %@AI@%The Harvesters%@AE@% (Metropolitan
Mus.) and %@AI@%Peasant Wedding%@AE@% (Vienna). %@AU@%BOSCH'S%@BO:          125d14@%%@AE@% influence is seen in %@AI@%The Fall
%@AI@%of the Rebel Angels%@AE@% (Brussels). Bruegel also painted religious histories,
parables, and rhythmic landscapes based on diagonal lines unfolding into
the distance. %@AB@%Pieter Bruegel,%@AE@% the Younger, 1564-1637, often copied his
father's works and was known for his pictures of the infernal regions.
His brother %@AB@%Jan Bruegel,%@AE@% 1568-1625, called Velvet Bruegel, specialized in
still life and landscapes. He occasionally supplied floral ornament for
works from %@AU@%RUBENS'S%@BO:          81af8d@%%@AE@% shop and shared his father's popularity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruges%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUGES          @%%@QR:Bruges@% city (1987 est. pop. 117,755), NW Flemish Belgium, connected by%@EH@%
canal to the North Sea. Founded in the 9th cent., it was (13th cent.) a
major port of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. At its zenith (14th cent.) it was a
great commercial center, particularly for the wool industry. It has
revived as a commercial and tourist center in this century. Once
(14th-15th cent.) the cradle of Flemish art, its churches and museums
house many works by such masters as Jan van %@AU@%EYCK%@BO:          31564b@%%@AE@% and Gerard David.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruhn, Erik%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruhn, Erik%@AE@%%@CR:BRUHN           @%%@QR:Bruhn, Erik@% (er'ik broon), 1928-1986, Danish ballet dancer. He joined%@EH@%
(1947) the %@AU@%ROYAL DANISH BALLET%@BO:          819539@%%@AE@% and was (1953-58) a permanent member of
the American Ballet Theatre. He was known for his dramatic, precise style
in such ballets as %@AI@%Giselle%@AE@% and %@AI@%Swan Lake%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brumaire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brumaire%@AE@%:%@CR:BRUMAIRE        @%%@QR:Brumaire@% see %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR%@BO:          362b58@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brummell, Beau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brummell, Beau%@AE@%%@CR:BRUMMELL        @%%@QR:Brummell, Beau@% (George Bryan Brummell), 1778-1840, English dandy and wit.%@EH@%
A friend of the prince regent (later George IV), he popularized dark,
simply cut clothes, elaborate neckwear, and trousers rather than
breeches.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brunehaut, Frankish queen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brunehaut, Frankish queen%@AE@%:%@CR:BRUNEHAUT       @%%@QR:Brunehaut, Frankish queen@% see %@AU@%BRUNHILDA%@BO:          14b878@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brunei%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brunei%@AE@%%@CR:BRUNEI          @%%@QR:Brunei@%, sultanate (1985 est. pop. 221,900), 2,226 sq mi (5,765 sq km), NW%@EH@%
Borneo, surrounded by %@AU@%SARAWAK%@BO:          848548@%%@AE@%, Malaysia. The capital and major port is
Bandar Seri Begawan. A British protectorate since 1888, it was granted
self-government in 1971 and full independence in 1983. Oil is the chief
export. Although a majority of the population are Malays, the small
Chinese community dominates the economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUNEL          @%%@QR:Brunel, Sir Marc Isambard@% 1769-1849, English engineer and inventor; b.%@EH@%
France. His most important work was the construction of the Thames Tunnel
(begun 1825), in which a shield was used for the first time (see %@AU@%TUNNEL%@BO:          98a702@%%@AE@%).
His son, %@AB@%Isambard Kingdom Brunel,%@AE@% 1806-59, an English civil engineer, is
best known for his designing and construction of three oceangoing
%@AU@%STEAMSHIPS%@BO:          8e82b5@%%@AE@%: the %@AI@%Great Western%@AE@% (1838), the first transatlantic steam
vessel; the %@AI@%Great Britain%@AE@% (1845), the first ocean screw steamship; and
the %@AI@%Great Eastern%@AE@% (1858), the largest steam vessel of its time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brunelleschi, Filippo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brunelleschi, Filippo%@AE@%%@CR:BRUNELLESCHI    @%%@QR:Brunelleschi, Filippo@%, 1377-1446, first great Italian Renaissance%@EH@%
architect, a Florentine. After his trial panel (1401) for the bronze
doors of the Florence baptistery was not accepted, he concentrated on
architectural planning. His Church of San Lorenzo, Florence, with its
systematic use of perspective, and his Foundling Hospital, with its
series of arches supported on columns, were tremendously influential. In
1420 he began a great octagonal ribbed %@AU@%DOME%@BO:          29e93e@%%@AE@% for the cathedral in
Florence, one of the great domical constructions in architectural
history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brunhild%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brunhild%@AE@%%@CR:BRUNHILD        @%%@QR:Brunhild@%, %@AB@%Brunnehilde%@AE@% , or %@AB@%Brynhild%@AE@% , in Germanic mythology and%@EH@%
literature, mighty female warrior. In the medieval %@AU@%NIBELUNGEN%@BO:          69b73c@%%@AE@% epic she is
the queen of Iceland, defeated by %@AU@%SIEGFRIED%@BO:          88d85a@%%@AE@%, whose death she contrives.
In the Icelandic %@AU@%VOLSUNGASAGA%@BO:          9e3956@%%@AE@% she is Brynhild, chief of the %@AU@%VALKYRIES%@BO:          9b8319@%%@AE@%.
Loved and later deserted by Sigurd, she brings about his death, and
destroys herself on his funeral pyre. As Brunnehilde, a Valkyrie, she
figures in Richard %@AU@%WAGNER'S%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@% operatic cycle %@AI@%Ring of the Nibelungs.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brunhilda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brunhilda%@AE@%%@CR:BRUNHILDA       @%%@QR:Brunhilda@% or %@AB@%Brunehaut,%@AE@%d. 613, Frankish queen, wife of Sigebert I of%@EH@%
Austrasia. She was the real ruler, through her son and grandsons, of
Austrasia and %@AU@%BURGUNDY%@BO:          15a228@%%@AE@%. She played a leading part in the bloody war
(567-613) against Neustria. Clotaire I of Neustria, her nephew, put her
to death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brunhoff, Jean de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brunhoff, Jean de%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUNHOFF        @%%@QR:Brunhoff, Jean de@%  1899-1937, French author and illustrator of%@EH@%
children's books. Beginning with %@AI@%The Story of Babar, the Little Elephant%@AE@%
(1932), he published several books about an elephant who runs away from
the jungle to live in Paris. His son %@AB@%Laurent de Brunhoff%@AE@% (1925-) has
continued the series.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bruno, Giordano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bruno, Giordano%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUNO           @%%@QR:Bruno, Giordano@% 1548-1600, Italian philosopher. A Dominican, Bruno was%@EH@%
accused of heresy, left the order (c.1576), and became a wandering
scholar. His works were regarded as heretical, and he was arrested
(1591), tried before the %@AU@%INQUISITION%@BO:          486fa4@%%@AE@%, and burned at the stake. His major
metaphysical works, %@AI@%On the Infinite Universe and Worlds%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Infinite%@AE@%
(both 1584), drew heavily from Hermetic gnosticism and other works on
magic and the occult. His defense of Copernicus was based not on
mathematics but on animist and religious grounds. Bruno held that there
are many possible modes of viewing the world, because we cannot postulate
absolute truth. He was the first to state what is now called the cosmic
theory: that the physical world is composed of irreducible elements
(monads) inconstant motion, and that the universe is infinite in scope.
This view, reflected in the works of %@AU@%LEIBNIZ%@BO:          539448@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SPINOZA%@BO:          8d99f9@%%@AE@%, accounts for
Bruno's position as a forerunner of modern science.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brussels%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brussels%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUSSELS        @%%@QR:Brussels@% Fr. %@AI@%Bruxelles,%@AE@% city (1982 est. pop. 128,893), capital of%@EH@%
Belgium. An important manufacturing center, it is also the seat of the
European %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@% and of %@AU@%NATO%@BO:          677dd8@%%@AE@%. Brussels was inhabited by the Romans
and later (7th cent.) by the Franks. It developed into a center of the
wool trade in the 13th cent. and became (1430) the seat of the dukes of
Burgundy and later (1477) of the governors of the Spanish (after 1714,
Austrian) Netherlands. In 1830 it became the capital of an independent
Belgium. Its historic buildings include the Maison du Roi (13th cent.),
Gothic city hall (15th cent.), and parliament building (18th cent.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brussels sprouts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brussels sprouts%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUSSELS        @%%@QR:Brussels sprouts@% variety (%@AI@%gemmifera%@AE@%) of %@AU@%CABBAGE%@BO:          1681e7@%%@AE@%, producing small edible%@EH@%
heads (sprouts) along the stem. Cultivated like cabbage, it was first
developed in Belgium and France in the 18th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brustein, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brustein, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUSTEIN        @%%@QR:Brustein, Robert@% 1927-, American educator and drama critic; b. N.Y.C. As%@EH@%
dean of the Yale Univ. Drama School (1966-78) he made Yale one of the
major American drama schools. In 1979 he became head of the Loeb Drama
Center at Harvard Univ. Brustein is an exacting critic of the modern
American theater. His books include %@AI@%Seasons of Discontent%@AE@% (1965),
%@AI@%Revolution as Theatre%@AE@% (1971), and %@AI@%Making Scenes%@AE@% (1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brut, Brute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brut, Brute%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUT            @%%@QR:Brut, Brute@% or %@AB@%Brutus,%@AE@%a Trojan, the legendary first king of England, a%@EH@%
descendant of %@AU@%AENEAS%@BO:           174f4@%%@AE@%. His name titles long poems by Wace and %@AU@%LAYAMON%@BO:          5304ab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brutus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brutus%@AE@%,%@CR:BRUTUS          @%%@QR:Brutus@% in ancient Rome, a surname of the Junian gens. %@AB@%Lucius Junius%@EH@%
%@AB@%Brutus%@AE@%, fl. 510 BC, was the founder of the Roman Republic. Roman
historians tell how he led the Romans in expelling the %@AU@%TARQUINS%@BO:          92f40a@%%@AE@% after the
rape of Lucrece and how he executed his sons for plotting a Tarquinian
restoration. %@AB@%Marcus Junius Brutus%@AE@%, 85? BC-42 BC, was the principal
assassin of Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%. He had sided with %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@%, but after the battle
of Pharsala (48 BC), Caesar pardoned him. Nevertheless, he joined Caius
Cassius Longinus (see %@AU@%CASSIUS%@BO:          19c74d@%%@AE@%, family) in the plot against Caesar. After
Caesar's murder (44 BC), Brutus went east and was defeated at Philippi in
42 BC by Octavian (later %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%) and Antony. Brutus then committed
suicide. His character has long been disputed. A lesser member of the
conspiracy was %@AB@%Decimus Junius Brutus%@AE@%, d. 43 BC, a partisan of Caesar
against Pompey and a favorite of the dictator. After Caesar's death,
Brutus was killed by %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bryan, William Jennings%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bryan, William Jennings%@AE@%,%@CR:BRYAN           @%%@QR:Bryan, William Jennings@% 1860-1925, American political leader; b. Salem,%@EH@%
Ill. He was a member (1891-95) of the U.S. House of Representatives. At
the 1896 Democratic national convention he made his famous "Cross of
Gold" speech in defense of %@AU@%FREE SILVER%@BO:          35e107@%%@AE@%. He was nominated for president
but lost to %@AU@%MCKINLEY%@BO:          58f4bb@%%@AE@% that year and in 1900; in 1908 he lost to W.H. %@AU@%TAFT%@BO:          92400f@%%@AE@%.
In 1912 he helped to elect Woodrow %@AU@%WILSON%@BO:          a215a5@%%@AE@%, who named him secretary of
state (1913-15). Bryan negotiated treaties with some 30 nations providing
for investigation of disputes. An advocate of religious %@AU@%FUNDAMENTALISM%@BO:          36de09@%%@AE@%,
he appeared for the prosecution in the 1925 %@AU@%SCOPES TRIAL%@BO:          85f562@%%@AE@%. Many of the
reforms he urged were later adopted, e.g., the %@AU@%INCOME TAX%@BO:          472641@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WOMAN
%@AU@%SUFFRAGE%@BO:          a2d595@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bryant, William Cullen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bryant, William Cullen%@AE@%,%@CR:BRYANT          @%%@QR:Bryant, William Cullen@% 1794-1878, American poet and editor; b.%@EH@%
Cummington, Mass. In his youth he was well known for his poems, e.g.,
"Thanatopsis," and "To a Waterfowl." He practiced law until 1825, when he
moved to New York City. He became editor (1826), then part owner
(1829-78) of the %@AI@%Evening Post,%@AE@% in which he advocated free trade,
abolition of slavery, and other reforms. The earliest American theorist
on poetry, Bryant also translated the %@AI@%Iliad%@AE@% (1870) and the %@AI@%Odyssey%@AE@%
(1872).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bryce, James Bryce, Viscount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bryce, James Bryce, Viscount%@AE@%,%@CR:BRYCE           @%%@QR:Bryce, James Bryce, Viscount@% 1838-1922, British historian and statesman;%@EH@%
b. Northern Ireland. A professor of law at Oxford, he wrote monumental
works in several fields; the first was his %@AI@%History of the Holy Roman
%@AI@%Empire%@AE@% (1864). He became a leader of the Liberal party, held several
government posts, and was a popular ambassador to the U.S. (1907-13). His
treatise %@AI@%The American Commonwealth%@AE@% (1888) is still used.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bryce Canyon National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bryce Canyon National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:BRYCE.CARK      @%%@QR:Bryce Canyon National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bryn Mawr College%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bryn Mawr College%@AE@%,%@CR:BRYN.MAGE       @%%@QR:Bryn Mawr College@% at Bryn Mawr, Pa.; founded 1885 by the Society of%@EH@%
Friends. The first women's college in the U.S. to offer graduate degrees,
Bryn Mawr now has a coeducational graduate school. Its library includes
famous medieval and rare book collections. It shares many facilities with
Haverford College, a coeducational institution nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bryophyta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bryophyta%@AE@%,%@CR:BRYOPHYTA       @%%@QR:Bryophyta@% division of the plant kingdom consisting of the %@AU@%MOSSES%@BO:          643c74@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
%@AU@%LIVERWORTS%@BO:          55d1ea@%%@AE@%, and hornworts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brythonic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brythonic%@AE@%%@CR:BRYTHONIC       @%%@QR:Brythonic@%, group of languages belonging to the Celtic subfamily of the%@EH@%
Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Brzezinski, Zbigniew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Brzezinski, Zbigniew%@AE@%%@CR:BRZEZINSKI      @%%@QR:Brzezinski, Zbigniew@%, 1928-, American political scientist and public%@EH@%
official; b. Poland. While teaching (1960-77) at Columbia Univ., he
became an acknowledged expert on political affairs in the Communist
world. As Pres. %@AU@%CARTER'S%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% national security adviser (1977-81), he
advocated a harder line toward the USSR. He returned to Columbia in 1981.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Btu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Btu%@AE@%:%@CR:BTU             @%%@QR:Btu@% see %@AU@%BRITISH THERMAL UNIT%@BO:          1413c9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bubble chamber%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bubble chamber%@AE@%:%@CR:BUBBLE.CHAMBER  @%%@QR:bubble chamber@% see %@AU@%PARTICLE DETECTOR%@BO:          71bcdd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buber, Martin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buber, Martin%@AE@%,%@CR:BUBER           @%%@QR:Buber, Martin@% 1878-1965, Jewish philosopher; b. Austria. He taught%@EH@%
Jewish philosophy and religion in Germany until he was forced (1938) to
leave the country; he settled in Jerusalem. The mysticism of the %@AU@%HASIDIM%@BO:          405eae@%%@AE@%
and the Christian existentialism of %@AU@%KIERKEGAARD%@BO:          4f8884@%%@AE@% influenced him. His major
work, %@AI@%I and Thou%@AE@% (1923), which posited a personal and direct dialogue
between God and the individual, has had a great impact on contemporary
Christian and Jewish theology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bubonic plague%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bubonic plague%@AE@%:%@CR:BUBONIC.PLAGUE  @%%@QR:bubonic plague@% see %@AU@%PLAGUE%@BO:          76648a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bucer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bucer%@AE@%%@CR:BUCER           @%%@QR:Bucer@%or %@AB@%Butzer, Martin%@AE@%, 1491-1551, German Protestant reformer. Influenced%@EH@%
by %@AU@%LUTHER'S%@BO:          57f60a@%%@AE@% preaching, he joined (1523) the %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@% movement in
Strasbourg. He promoted Protestant education and brought about (1536) the
Wittenberg Concord on the doctrine of the Eucharist. At the invitation of
Thomas %@AU@%CRANMER%@BO:          24543b@%%@AE@%, he spent his last years in England, teaching at
Cambridge.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buchan, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buchan, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCHAN          @%%@QR:Buchan, John@% 1st %@AB@%Baron Tweedsmuir,%@AE@% 1875-1940, Scottish author and%@EH@%
statesman. He wrote history, biography, and popular adventure novels,
including %@AI@%The Thirty-nine Steps%@AE@% (1915). In 1935 he was appointed governor
general of Canada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buchanan, Franklin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buchanan, Franklin%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCHANAN1       @%%@QR:Buchanan, Franklin@% 1800-1874, U.S. naval officer; b. Baltimore. The%@EH@%
first superintendent (1845-47) of the U.S. Naval Academy, he was the
ranking officer in the Confederate navy in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. Wounded at
Hampton Roads (1863), he surrendered to Adm. %@AU@%FARRAGUT%@BO:          31d12f@%%@AE@% in the battle of
Mobile Bay (1864).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buchanan, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buchanan, James%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCHANAN2       @%%@QR:Buchanan, James@% 1791-1868, 15th president of the U.S. (1857-61); b. near%@EH@%
Mercersburg, Pa. A learned lawyer, he was a congressman (1821-31) and
senator (1834-45) from Pennsylvania. At first a Federalist, he became a
conservative Democrat and was Pres. %@AU@%POLK'S%@BO:          778644@%%@AE@% secretary of state (1845-49)
during the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%. Under Pres. %@AU@%PIERCE%@BO:          758f4e@%%@AE@%, he was (1853-56) minister to
Great Britain and helped draft the %@AU@%OSTEND MANIFESTO%@BO:          6f417b@%%@AE@%. In 1856 he was
elected president. Believing slavery was morally wrong but not
unconstitutional, he tried to keep the "sacred balance" between
proslavery and antislavery factions, but his views alienated radicals in
both North and South. After the 1860 election was won by Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@%,
Buchanan was faced with the crisis of secession. Believing that states
did not have the right to secede nor the federal government the right to
coerce them, he promised there would be no hostile moves during
negotiations. U.S. troops were, however, moved to %@AU@%FORT SUMTER%@BO:          34a5d9@%%@AE@%; shortly
after he left office, gunfire there set off the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bucharest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bucharest%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCHAREST       @%%@QR:Bucharest@% Rum. %@AI@%Bucuresti,%@AE@% city (1985 est. pop. 1,975,808), capital and%@EH@%
largest city of Rumania, SE Rumania, on the Dimbovita R., a tributary of
the Danube. It is Rumania's chief industrial center and produces
machines, petroleum products, and textiles. Founded in the 14th cent., it
became the capital of %@AU@%WALACHIA%@BO:          9e9cdd@%%@AE@% in 1698 and of Rumania in 1861. During
World War I the city was occupied (1916-18) by the Central Powers. After
Rumania's surrender to the Allies (Aug. 1944) in World War II, the
Germans bombed it severely. Soon after, Soviet troops entered the city.
Bucharest contains many old churches, e.g., Metropolitan Church (1649).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buchman, Frank Nathan Daniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buchman, Frank Nathan Daniel%@AE@%%@CR:BUCHMAN         @%%@QR:Buchman, Frank Nathan Daniel@%, 1878-1961, American evangelist; b.%@EH@%
Pennsburg, Pa. After preaching "world-changing through life-changing" at
Oxford in 1921, he became the head of a movement called the Oxford Group
or Buchmanism. In 1938 he founded the controversial Moral Re-Armament
movement (MRA).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buchner, Georg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buchner, Georg%@AE@%%@CR:BUCHNER         @%%@QR:Buchner, Georg@%, 1813-37, German dramatist. A student of medicine and a%@EH@%
political agitator, Buchner wrote a powerful drama, %@AI@%Danton's Death%@AE@%
(1835); the fragmentary tragedy %@AI@%Wozzeck%@AE@% (1850), which Alban %@AU@%BERG%@BO:           eacd0@%%@AE@% adapted
for his opera; and a comedy, %@AI@%Leonce and Lena%@AE@% (1850).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buchwald, Art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buchwald, Art%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCHWALD        @%%@QR:Buchwald, Art@% 1925-, American newspaper columnist; b. Mount Vernon, N.Y.%@EH@%
Specializing in political and social satire, his columns appear in about
500 newspapers. He was awarded the Pulitzer prize for commentary in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buck, Pearl S(ydenstricker)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buck, Pearl S(ydenstricker)%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCK            @%%@QR:Buck, Pearl S(ydenstricker)@% 1892-1973, American author; b. Hillsboro,%@EH@%
W.Va. Until 1924 she lived in China, where she, her parents, and her
first husband were missionaries. She is famous for her vivid,
compassionate novels about life in China, the finest of which is thought
to be %@AI@%The Good Earth%@AE@% (1931; Pulitzer). Buck published over 85 books,
including novels, children's books, plays, biographies, and non-fiction.
She was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1938.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buckeye%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buckeye%@AE@%:%@CR:BUCKEYE         @%%@QR:buckeye@% see %@AU@%HORSE CHESTNUT%@BO:          448180@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st duke of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st duke of%@AE@%%@CR:BUCKINGHAM      @%%@QR:Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st duke of@%, 1592-1628, English nobleman, a%@EH@%
royal favorite. He arrived (1614) at the English court as %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% was
tiring of Robert Carr and rose rapidly, becoming lord high admiral in
1619. By 1620 he was dispensing the king's patronage. He gained
popularity with Parliament by urging war with Spain, then lost it by
negotiating %@AU@%CHARLES I'S%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@% marriage to %@AU@%HENRIETTA MARIA%@BO:          41a236@%%@AE@%, a Catholic princess
of France. He remained powerful after Charles came to the throne. After
the failure of several expeditions, notably one against Cadiz (1625), he
was impeached by Parliament, but the king dissolved Parliament to prevent
his trial. Villiers was at Portsmouth preparing an expedition to relieve
the %@AU@%HUGUENOTS%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@% at La Rochelle when he was killed by a discontented naval
officer. His son, %@AB@%George Villiers,%@AE@% 2d %@AB@%duke of Buckingham,%@AE@% 1628-87, was a
royalist in the %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@%. He served %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% in exile, but
intrigues and his marriage to the daughter of a Puritan lord caused
estrangement. He regained favor after the %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% and became an
extremely powerful courtier. Vain and ambitious, he was noted for his
temper, recklessness, and dissoluteness. He was a member of the %@AU@%CABAL%@BO:          167ae1@%%@AE@% but
was dismissed for misconduct in 1674. Despite earlier opposition to %@AU@%JAMES
%@AU@%II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%, he regained favor in 1684. A scholar with exquisite tastes, he wrote
poetry and plays, including %@AI@%The Rehearsal%@AE@% (1671).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buckingham Palace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buckingham Palace%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCKINGCE       @%%@QR:Buckingham Palace@% residence of British sovereigns since 1837,%@EH@%
Westminster, London. Built (1703) by the Duke of Buckingham, it was
purchased (1761) by %@AU@%GEORGE III%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@% and remodeled (1825) by John %@AU@%NASH%@BO:          668f1d@%%@AE@%. The
palace has nearly 600 rooms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buckle, Henry Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buckle, Henry Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCKLE          @%%@QR:Buckle, Henry Thomas@% 1821-62, English historian. Using a scientific%@EH@%
method, he undertook the ambitious plan of writing a history of
civilization rather than of battles and wars. At the time of his death,
he had completed the first two volumes of his %@AI@%History of Civilization in
%@AI@%England%@AE@% (1857-61), which profoundly influenced liberal thought and later
historians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buckley, William F., Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buckley, William F., Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCKLEY         @%%@QR:Buckley, William F., Jr.@% 1925-, American editor and writer; b. N.Y.C. A%@EH@%
witty spokesman for the conservative viewpoint, he founded the magazine
%@AI@%National Review%@AE@% in 1955, hosted the weekly television show "Firing Line"
from 1966, and wrote a syndicated newspaper column. His books include %@AI@%God
%@AI@%and Man at Yale%@AE@% (1951) and %@AI@%Marco Polo, If You Can%@AE@% (1982), an espionage
novel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buckthorn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buckthorn%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCKTHORN       @%%@QR:buckthorn@% common name for some members of the Rhamnaceae, a family of%@EH@%
widely distributed woody shrubs, small trees, and climbing vines. The
buckthorns (some species of the genus %@AI@%Rhamnus%@AE@%) and the jujube (%@AI@%Zizyphus
%@AI@%jujuba%@AE@%) are cultivated as ornamentals. Jujube was also used as a
flavoring and in confectionery. Some members of the family yield dyes;
others are used for lumber, e.g., cogwood. Other American species of
%@AI@%Rhamnus%@AE@% are the redberry, the Indian cherry, and %@AI@%R. purshiana,%@AE@% which
yields the purgative cascara sagrada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buckwheat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buckwheat%@AE@%,%@CR:BUCKWHEAT       @%%@QR:buckwheat@% common name for some members of the Polygonaceae, a family of%@EH@%
herbs and shrubs found chiefly in north temperate areas and having a
characteristic pungent juice containing oxalic acid. Members of the
family include the knotweeds and smartweeds (genus %@AI@%Polygonum%@AE@% or
%@AI@%Persicaria%@AE@%), some sorrels (the common name used also for the unrelated
%@AU@%OXALIS%@BO:          6faa46@%%@AE@%), and the economically important rhubarb (genus %@AI@%Rheum%@AE@%) and
buckwheat (genus %@AI@%Fagopyrum%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bucolics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bucolics%@AE@%:%@CR:BUCOLICS        @%%@QR:bucolics@% see %@AU@%PASTORAL%@BO:          71f1d9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Budapest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Budapest%@AE@%,%@CR:BUDAPEST        @%%@QR:Budapest@% city (1985 est. pop. 2,089,000), capital and largest city of%@EH@%
Hungary, N central Hungary, on both banks of the Danube R. About half of
Hungary's industrial output comes from Budapest and its suburbs; major
products include machinery, chemicals, and iron and steel. One of the
capitals of the %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%, the city was formed in 1873 by
the union of Buda and Obuda, on the right bank of the Danube, with Pest,
on the left bank. The area may have been settled in the Neolithic era.
Under Roman rule from the 1st cent. AD, the cities were destroyed by the
Mongols in 1241. Buda became the capital of Hungary in 1361 and fell to
the Turks in 1541. After 1686 the cities were under %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% rule. During
World War II Budapest was occupied (1944-45) by the Germans and was
largely destroyed during a 14-week siege by Soviet troops. It became the
capital of the Hungarian People's Republic in 1949. In 1956 it was the
center of an unsuccessful uprising against the Communist regime.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buddha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buddha%@AE@%%@CR:BUDDHA          @%%@QR:Buddha@% [Skt.,=the enlightened one], title given to the founder of%@EH@%
%@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%, Siddhartha Gautama, c.563-c.483 BC; b. S Nepal. A soothsayer is
said to have predicted at Siddhartha's birth that he would become a world
ruler or a world teacher. His father, King Suddhodana, of the warrior
caste, raised him in great luxury, but at the age of 29 Siddhartha
renounced the world to become a wandering ascetic and search for a
solution to the problems of death and human suffering. After six years of
spiritual discipline, he achieved supreme enlightenment at the age of 35
while meditating under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya. He spent the rest of
his life teaching his doctrines and establishing a community of monks,
the %@AI@%sangha,%@AE@% to continue his work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buddhism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buddhism%@AE@%,%@CR:BUDDHISM        @%%@QR:Buddhism@% religion and philosophy founded in India in the 6th and 5th%@EH@%
cent. BC by Siddhartha Gautama, called the %@AU@%BUDDHA%@BO:          1512ce@%%@AE@%. One of the great Asian
religions, it teaches the practice of %@AU@%MEDITATION%@BO:          5e3516@%%@AE@% and the observance of
moral precepts. The basic doctrines include the "four noble truths"
taught by the Buddha: existence is suffering; the cause of suffering is
desire; there is a cessation of suffering, called %@AU@%NIRVANA%@BO:          6a4696@%%@AE@%, or total
transcendence; and there is a path leading to the end of suffering, the
"eightfold noble path" of right views, right resolve, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration. Buddhism defines reality in terms of cause-and-effect
relations, thus accepting the doctrine common to Indian religions of
%@AI@%samsara,%@AE@% or bondage to the repeating cycle of births and deaths according
to one's physical and mental actions (see %@AU@%KARMA%@BO:          4e76fc@%%@AE@%). The ideal of early
Buddhism was the perfected saint, %@AI@%arahant%@AE@% or %@AI@%arhat,%@AE@% purified of all
desires. Of the various Buddhist schools and sects that arose, the
Theravada [doctrine of the elders] school of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) is
generally accepted as representative of early Buddhist teaching. Mahayana
great vehicle Buddhism has as a central concept the potential Buddhahood
innate in all beings. Its ideal for both layman and monk is the
%@AI@%bodhisattva,%@AE@% the perfected one who postpones entry into %@AI@%nirvana%@AE@% (although
meriting it) until all others may be similarly enlightened. Buddhism was
greatly strengthened in the 3d cent. BC by the support of the Indian
emperor %@AU@%ASOKA%@BO:           8b9e3@%%@AE@%, but it declined in India in succeeding centuries and was
virtually extinct there by the 13th cent., while it spread and flourished
in Ceylon (3d cent. AD) and Tibet (7th cent. AD). In the 1st cent. AD
Buddhism entered China, where it encountered resistance from %@AU@%CONFUCIANISM%@BO:          21e3e6@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%TAOISM%@BO:          92c149@%%@AE@%, and from there spread to Korea (4th cent. AD) and to Japan
(6th cent. AD). Two important sects that became established in the 5th
cent. AD and have greatly increased in popularity are %@AU@%ZEN BUDDHISM%@BO:          a50967@%%@AE@%,
featuring the practice of meditation to achieve "sudden enlightenment,"
and Pure Land Buddhism, or Amidism, a devotional Mahayana sect centered
on the worship of the Buddha Amitabha, who vowed to save all sentient
beings by bringing them to rebirth in his realm, the "Western Paradise."
Buddhism still flourishes in Asia and has an influence in the modern
Western world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Budge, Don%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Budge, Don%@AE@%%@CR:BUDGE           @%%@QR:Budge, Don@% (John Donald Budge), 1915-, American tennis player; b.%@EH@%
Oakland, Calif. He won the U.S. and Wimbledon singles titles in 1937 and
1938, and in 1938 he was the first to achieve the tennis grand slam
(U.S., British, Australian, and French championships). He turned
professional in 1939.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%budget%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%budget%@AE@%,%@CR:BUDGET          @%%@QR:budget@% a list of proposed expenditures and expected receipts for a%@EH@%
definite period, usually one year. The governmental budget originated in
England during the late 18th cent. In the U.S., a 1921 law requires that
the president annually submit a federal budget to %@AU@%CONGRESS%@BO:          2209cf@%%@AE@%. The Bureau of
the Budget, in the executive office, scrutinizes the expenditure
estimates submitted by all government services and recommends changes to
increase economy and efficiency. The U.S. budget has grown enormously
since World War II, and large deficits have occurred. The 1982 budget,
totaling $695 billion, was over 75 times as large as the $9.1 billion
budget of 1940.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buenos Aires%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buenos Aires%@AE@%,%@CR:BUENOS.AIRES    @%%@QR:Buenos Aires@% city and federal district (1983 est. pop. 3,000,000), E%@EH@%
Argentina, capital of Argentina, on the Rio de la Plata. It is one of the
largest cities of Latin America, a major world port, and Argentina's
commercial and social center. Heavily industrialized, the city is one of
the world's leading exporters of processed foods. It was founded in 1536,
abandoned, then resettled in 1580, and was the first Latin American city
to revolt (1810) against Spanish rule. Officially independent in 1816, it
became the capital of a united Argentina in 1862. It grew into an urban
colossus in the late 19th cent., when railroads into the agriculturally
abundant %@AU@%PAMPA%@BO:          706b0f@%%@AE@% to the west began to supplement the great inland river
transportation system that linked the city with Uruguay, Paraguay, and
Brazil, and immigration from Europe increased. Famous landmarks include
the 19th-cent. cathedral, the opera house, and the many beautiful
municipal parks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buffalo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buffalo%@AE@%,%@CR:BUFFALO1        @%%@QR:Buffalo@% city (1980 pop. 357,870; met. area 1.2 million), seat of Erie%@EH@%
co., W N.Y., on Lake Erie and the Niagara and Buffalo rivers; inc. 1832.
One of the major grain-distributing ports in the U.S. and a railroad hub,
it has automobile, electrochemical, electrometallurgical, and steel
industries. Laid out in 1803, it was almost entirely destroyed by fire in
the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%. Transportation, particularly after the opening (1825) of
the %@AU@%ERIE CANAL%@BO:          2fcbb9@%%@AE@%, was primary to the city's development. Its downtown area
underwent major renewal in the 1970s and 80s. Buffalo is the site of a
branch of the State Univ. of N.Y., the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, and
other noted institutions. The Peace Bridge (1927) connects it with Fort
Erie, Canada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buffalo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buffalo%@AE@%,%@CR:BUFFALO2        @%%@QR:buffalo@% name commonly applied to the North American %@AU@%BISON%@BO:          103ded@%%@AE@% but correctly%@EH@%
restricted to related African and Asian hoofed %@AU@%MAMMALS%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%CATTLE%@BO:          1a63a4@%%@AE@%
family. The water, or Indian, buffalo (%@AI@%Bubalus bubalis%@AE@%) is a large,
strong, dark gray animal with widespread curved horns, domesticated for
draft. Wild forms live near rivers, where they wallow; they feed on grass
and have fierce tempers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buffalo Bill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buffalo Bill%@AE@%%@CR:BUFFALO.BILL    @%%@QR:Buffalo Bill@% (William Frederick Cody), 1846-1917, American scout and%@EH@%
showman; b. near Davenport, Iowa. He worked as an army scout and hunted
buffalo for railroad camps. He organized (1883) and then toured with
Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buffer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buffer%@AE@%,%@CR:BUFFER          @%%@QR:buffer@% solution that can keep its %@AI@%p%@AE@%H, i.e., its relative acidity or%@EH@%
alkalinity, constant despite the addition of strong acids or bases (see
%@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%). Buffer solutions contain either a weak acid or weak
base and one of their salts. See article on %@AI@%p%@AE@%H.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, comte de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, comte de%@AE@%%@CR:BUFFON          @%%@QR:Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, comte de@%, 1707-88, French naturalist and%@EH@%
author. From 1739 he was keeper of the Jardin du Roi (later Jardin des
Plantes) in Paris, making it a center of research during the
Enlightenment. His works include his monumental compendium on natural
history, %@AI@%Histoire naturelle%@AE@% (44 vol., 1749-1804). On his reception into
the French Academy in 1753, he delivered his famous %@AI@%Discours sur le
%@AI@%style.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bug%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bug%@AE@%,%@CR:BUG             @%%@QR:bug@% name correctly applied to %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% of the order Hemiptera, although%@EH@%
other insects are also referred to as bugs. True bugs have partially
thickened, partially membranous front wings and piercing-sucking
mouthparts in the form of a beak. Most bugs are terrestrial but many are
aquatic (e.g., %@AU@%WATER BUGS%@BO:          9f8f40@%%@AE@%). Most suck plant juices (e.g., squash bug);
some suck the blood of other insects and spiders. Others feed on humans
and other animals (e.g., %@AU@%BEDBUG%@BO:           d9120@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buganda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buganda%@AE@%:%@CR:BUGANDA         @%%@QR:Buganda@% see %@AU@%UGANDA%@BO:          9961c2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bugle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bugle%@AE@%:%@CR:BUGLE           @%%@QR:bugle@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%building and loan association%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%building and loan association%@AE@%:%@CR:BUILDINIATION   @%%@QR:building and loan association@% see %@AU@%SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATION%@BO:          8500af@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buisson, Ferdinand Edouard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buisson, Ferdinand Edouard%@AE@%%@CR:BUISSON         @%%@QR:Buisson, Ferdinand Edouard@%, 1841-1932, French educator and 1927 Nobel%@EH@%
Peace Prize winner. A professor of pedagogy at the Sorbonne, he produced
the %@AI@%Dictionnaire de pedagogie%@AE@% (1882-93) and was an ardent pacifist and
civil-liberties worker.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bujumbura%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bujumbura%@AE@%,%@CR:BUJUMBURA       @%%@QR:Bujumbura@% city (1986 est. pop. 272,600), capital of Burundi, W Burundi.%@EH@%
A port on Lake %@AU@%TANGANYIKA%@BO:          9298ed@%%@AE@%, it is the country's largest city and economic
center, and has a growing tourist industry. Coffee, cotton, hides, and
skins are shipped via the lake to Tanzania and Zaire. The city became
(1899) a military post in German East Africa. After World War I it was
the administrative center of Ruanda-Urundi, a Belgian %@AU@%MANDATE%@BO:          5ab6c8@%%@AE@%. It was
called Usumbura until 1962.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich%@AE@%,%@CR:BUKHARIN        @%%@QR:Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich@% 1888-1938, Soviet Communist leader and%@EH@%
theoretician. After the 1917 %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@% he edited the newspaper
%@AI@%Pravda%@AE@% and was a %@AU@%COMINTERN%@BO:          20f17d@%%@AE@% leader. A full member of the politburo after
1924, he lost his major party posts in 1929 for advocating slow
agricultural collectivization, in opposition to the Stalinist majority.
In 1938 he was tried for treason and executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulawayo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulawayo%@AE@%,%@CR:BULAWAYO        @%%@QR:Bulawayo@% city (1982 est. pop. 414,800), SW Zimbabwe. The country's%@EH@%
second largest city, it is an important commercial, railroad, and
industrial center that produces textiles, motor vehicles, and metal
products. The city was founded by the British in 1893. Nearby are the
18th-cent. ruins of Khami.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bulb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bulb%@AE@%,%@CR:BULB            @%%@QR:bulb@% thickened, fleshy plant bud, usually formed below the soil surface,%@EH@%
which stores food from one blooming season to the next. Bulbs have either
layers (e.g., onion and hyacinth) or scales (e.g., some lilies).
Structures that serve similar functions include the %@AU@%TUBER%@BO:          985e9e@%%@AE@% of the potato
and the %@AU@%RHIZOMES%@BO:          7ec8d3@%%@AE@% of some irises. All are specialized %@AU@%STEMS%@BO:          8ebe4e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulfinch, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulfinch, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:BULFINCH1       @%%@QR:Bulfinch, Charles@% 1763-1844, American architect; b. Boston. He was%@EH@%
chairman of the Boston board of selectmen (equivalent to mayor) from 1799
to 1818. He designed the first theater in New England, the Federal Street
Theater (1794; now demolished). Remaining are his chief monumental
works-the statehouse, Boston (1799); University Hall at Harvard (1815);
and Massachusetts General Hospital (1820). Bulfinch's completion
(1818-30) of the %@AU@%CAPITOL%@BO:          189528@%%@AE@% at Washington inspired state capitol architects
throughout the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulfinch, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulfinch, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:BULFINCH2       @%%@QR:Bulfinch, Thomas@% 1796-1867, American author; b. Newton, Mass. He wrote%@EH@%
works that popularized myth and fable, e.g., %@AI@%The Age of Fables%@AE@% (1855) and
%@AI@%The Age of Chivalry%@AE@% (1858).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulgakov, Mikhail Afanasyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulgakov, Mikhail Afanasyevich%@AE@%%@CR:BULGAKOV        @%%@QR:Bulgakov, Mikhail Afanasyevich@%, 1891-1940, Russian author. %@AI@%The White%@EH@%
%@AI@%Guard%@AE@% (1925), a novel, and %@AI@%The Days of the Turbines%@AE@% (1926), a play, are
about the %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@% (1917). His masterpiece is %@AI@%The Master and
%@AI@%Margarita%@AE@% (published in a censored edition in 1967-68; tr. 1967), a
satiric, philosophical fantasy about Satan's visit to Moscow.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulganin, Nikolai Aleksandrovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulganin, Nikolai Aleksandrovich%@AE@%,%@CR:BULGANIN        @%%@QR:Bulganin, Nikolai Aleksandrovich@% 1895-1975, Soviet leader. He was mayor%@EH@%
of Moscow (1931-37), chairman of the state bank (1937-41), and defense
minister under %@AU@%STALIN%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MALENKOV%@BO:          5a3c7a@%%@AE@%, whom he succeeded as premier (1955).
In 1958, forced from office by %@AU@%KHRUSHCHEV%@BO:          4f69f0@%%@AE@%, he was expelled from the
Communist party central committee.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulgaria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulgaria%@AE@%,%@CR:BULGARIA        @%%@QR:Bulgaria@% officially the People's Republic of Bulgaria, republic (1987%@EH@%
est. pop. 8,970,000), 42,823 sq mi (110,912 sq km), SE Europe, on the E
%@AU@%BALKAN PENINSULA%@BO:           b6e1c@%%@AE@%. It is bordered by the Black Sea (E), Rumania (N),
Yugoslavia (W), Greece (S), and European Turkey (SE). %@AU@%SOFIA%@BO:          8b0973@%%@AE@% is the
capital. Central Bulgaria is traversed from east to west by the Balkan
Mts.; the Rhodope range, with the country's highest peak, Musala Mt.
(9,592 ft/ 2,923 m), is in the southwest. The principal river is the
%@AU@%DANUBE%@BO:          266955@%%@AE@%. Bulgaria has been considerably industrialized since World War II,
but agriculture (chiefly wheat, corn, barley, sugar beets, grapes, and
livestock) remains the principal occupation. Most of the land was
collectivized in 1958. The leading industries are food processing,
engineering, metallurgy, and the production of machinery, chemicals, and
fertilizers. The population consists chiefly of Bulgars (86%) and Turks
(9%); the %@AU@%ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH%@BO:          6f08b3@%%@AE@% is the predominant religion.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% In AD 679-80 ancient %@AU@%THRACE%@BO:          955dae@%%@AE@% and Moesia, site of modern Bulgaria,
were conquered by Eastern Bulgars, who gradually merged with earlier
Slavic settlers and adopted their language. The first Bulgarian empire
was established in 681, introduced to Christianity by %@AU@%BORIS I%@BO:          1244b5@%%@AE@% (r.852-89)
in 865, at the height of its power under %@AU@%SIMEON I%@BO:          8951f0@%%@AE@% (r.893-927), and
subjugated by the Byzantines in 1018. The second Bulgarian empire rose in
1186 and reached its apex under Ivan II (r.1218-41). In 1396 it was
absorbed by the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%, which ruled it for almost five centuries.
Turkey's suppression of a Bulgarian revolt (1876) was one of the reasons
for the %@AU@%RUSSO-TURKISH WAR%@BO:          8263a1@%%@AE@% of 1877-78. The Treaty of San Stefano, which
created a large, autonomous Bulgaria, was revised by the Congress of
%@AU@%BERLIN%@BO:           ee464@%%@AE@%, which divided Bulgaria into three parts. In 1908 %@AU@%FERDINAND%@BO:          327f00@%%@AE@% of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha proclaimed Bulgarian independence, with himself as
czar. The country's borders were changed significantly by the %@AU@%BALKAN
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:           b70f4@%%@AE@%, and Bulgarian claims in %@AU@%MACEDONIA%@BO:          58a8d3@%%@AE@% prompted Bulgaria to side with
Germany in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. Under Boris III (r.1918-43) Bulgaria was often in
political turmoil, and in 1935 Boris established a personal dictatorship.
In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Bulgaria again allied (1941) with Germany. The Soviet
Union occupied the country in 1944, and Communists took over the
government. The monarchy was abolished, and a republic proclaimed in
1946. Bulgaria is a member of the %@AU@%WARSAW TREATY ORGANIZATION%@BO:          9f4187@%%@AE@%. It is
governed by a 1971 constitution that provides for a unicameral national
assembly, council of state, and cabinet of ministers, but actual power
resides in the Communist party.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulgarian language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulgarian language%@AE@%,%@CR:BULGARIAGE      @%%@QR:Bulgarian language@% member of the South Slavic group of the Slavic%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulgars, Eastern%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulgars, Eastern%@AE@%,%@CR:BULGARS         @%%@QR:Bulgars, Eastern@% Turkic-speaking people who appeared on the middle Volga%@EH@%
R., E European Russia, by the 8th cent.; also called Volga or Kama
Bulgars. One branch moved west into Bulgaria and there merged with the
%@AU@%SLAVS%@BO:          8a1825@%%@AE@%. The Eastern Bulgars accepted %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@% in the 10th cent. and founded a
powerful state; it survived the Mongol conquests of 1237 and 1361 but
disappeared after its capture by the grand duke of Moscow in 1431.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bulimia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bulimia%@AE@%:%@CR:BULIMIA         @%%@QR:bulimia@% see %@AU@%EATING DISORDERS%@BO:          2bf6e6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bull%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bull%@AE@%,%@CR:BULL            @%%@QR:bull@% letter containing an important pronouncement of the pope. In modern%@EH@%
times encyclicals (letters to all bishops) are usually used for doctrinal
statements, whereas bulls are employed for solemn or grave
pronouncements.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bulldog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bulldog%@AE@%,%@CR:BULLDOG         @%%@QR:bulldog@% thick-set %@AU@%NONSPORTING DOG%@BO:          6b0c62@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 13-15 in. (33-38.1%@EH@%
cm); weight, 40-50 lb (18.1-22.7 kg). Its short, flat-lying coat is
brindle, white, red, or fawn. It has a low-slung body and undershot jaw,
and was developed in Britain for bullbaiting and pit-fighting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bullfighting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bullfighting%@AE@%,%@CR:BULLFIGHTING    @%%@QR:bullfighting@% national sport of Spain, also popular in Mexico and other%@EH@%
Latin American countries. The object is for one of the bullfighters, the
matador, to kill an untamed bull with a sword in a manner largely
prescribed by tradition. The matador is assisted by two mounted picadors
and three capemen on foot (%@AI@%banderilleros%@AE@%), who sting the bull with lances
and barbed sticks to spur his charge. In the final act, the matador makes
daring passes at the bull with his cape, or %@AI@%muleta,%@AE@% before thrusting his
sword between the animal's shoulderblades into the heart. Although a
matador's performance is often one of grace and beauty, critics have
denounced bullfighting as an inhumane spectacle. The Portuguese practice
a style of bullfighting from horseback in which the bull is not killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bull Moose party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bull Moose party%@AE@%:%@CR:BULL.MOY        @%%@QR:Bull Moose party@% see %@AU@%PROGRESSIVE PARTY%@BO:          79ec35@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bull Run%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bull Run%@AE@%,%@CR:BULL.RUN        @%%@QR:Bull Run@% small stream, NE Va., c.30 mi (50 km) SW of Washington, D.C.;%@EH@%
the site of two Union defeats in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. The %@AB@%first battle of Bull
%@AB@%Run%@AE@% (or Manassas) was the first major clash of the war, on July 21, 1861.
On July 16, Union Gen. Irvin McDowell began to move on Confederate Gen.
P.G.T. %@AU@%BEAUREGARD%@BO:           d7d46@%%@AE@% at Manassas Junction. McDowell attacked Beauregard's
men, who were joined by some forces of Gen. Joseph E. %@AU@%JOHNSTON%@BO:          4ce94c@%%@AE@%, near the
stone bridge over Bull Run and drove them to the Henry House Hill. But
Confederate Gen. Stonewall %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4ab6a8@%%@AE@% checked the Union advance and,
reinforced, routed the raw Union troops. In the %@AB@%second battle of Bull
%@AB@%Run,%@AE@% Aug. 29-30, 1862, Jackson was attacked by Union Gen. John Pope just
as Gen. James %@AU@%LONGSTREET%@BO:          56963c@%%@AE@% arrived with reinforcements; together they twice
repulsed Pope, who withdrew to Washington. Both battlefields are in
Manassas National Battlefield Park.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bull terrier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bull terrier%@AE@%,%@CR:BULL.TERRIER    @%%@QR:bull terrier@% large, muscular %@AU@%TERRIER%@BO:          942cc2@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 19-22 in.%@EH@%
(48.3-55.9 cm); weight, 30-36 lb (13.6-16.3 kg). Its short, flat-lying,
harsh coat is glossy white or brindle with white markings. It was
developed for dogfighting in England c.1835.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulow, Hans Guido, Freiherr von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulow, Hans Guido, Freiherr von%@AE@%,%@CR:BULOW           @%%@QR:Bulow, Hans Guido, Freiherr von@% 1830-94, German pianist and conductor.%@EH@%
He studied with %@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@%, married his daughter Cosima (who left him to marry
Richard %@AU@%WAGNER%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@%), and became a champion of %@AU@%BRAHMS%@BO:          132ca7@%%@AE@%. He was the first modern
virtuoso conductor (see %@AU@%CONDUCTING%@BO:          21ce33@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bulrush%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bulrush%@AE@%:%@CR:BULRUSH         @%%@QR:bulrush@% see %@AU@%SEDGE%@BO:          8684d9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bultmann, Rudolf Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bultmann, Rudolf Karl%@AE@%%@CR:BULTMANN        @%%@QR:Bultmann, Rudolf Karl@%, 1884-1976, German existentialist theologian.%@EH@%
Influenced by Martin %@AU@%HEIDEGGER%@BO:          413b0d@%%@AE@%, he is best known for his work on the New
Testament, which he reduced-with the exception of the Passion-to basic
elements of myth. His approach is termed "demythologization." His classic
work is %@AI@%Theology of the New Testament%@AE@% (tr. 1951).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton%@AE@%,%@CR:BULWERLYTTON    @%%@QR:Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton@% 1803-73,%@EH@%
English novelist. Best remembered for his popular, extremely
well-researched historical novels, particularly %@AI@%The Last Days of Pompeii%@AE@%
(1834) and %@AI@%Rienzi%@AE@% (1835), he also wrote novels of manners and successful
plays. He served in Parliament and as colonial secretary. His son, %@AB@%Edward
%@AB@%Robert Bulwer-Lytton,%@AE@% 1st %@AB@%earl of Lytton,%@AE@% pseud. %@AB@%Owen Meredith,%@AE@% 1831-91,
was a diplomat and poet. He was viceroy of India (1876-80) and, later,
ambassador to France. His poetry includes %@AI@%Lucile%@AE@% (1860) and the epic
fantasy %@AI@%King Poppy%@AE@% (1892).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunau-Varilla, Philippe Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunau-Varilla, Philippe Jean%@AE@%%@CR:BUNAUVARILLA    @%%@QR:Bunau-Varilla, Philippe Jean@%, 1859-1940, French engineer. He organized%@EH@%
the company that built the %@AU@%PANAMA CANAL%@BO:          707a5d@%%@AE@%. He was a leader in the
conspiracy that successfully wrested %@AU@%PANAMA%@BO:          706f6b@%%@AE@% from Colombia. As minister of
the new Panamanian republic, he negotiated the treaty (1903) that gave
the U.S. control of the waterway.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bunchberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bunchberry%@AE@%:%@CR:BUNCHBERRY      @%%@QR:bunchberry@% see %@AU@%DOGWOOD%@BO:          29cd1b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunche, Ralph Johnson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunche, Ralph Johnson%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNCHE          @%%@QR:Bunche, Ralph Johnson@% 1904-71, U.S. diplomat; b. Detroit. He was (1945)%@EH@%
the first black to be a division head in the U.S. Dept. of State. He
entered the UN in 1946 as director of the Trusteeship Division. For his
work (1947) as principal secretary of the UN Palestine Commission he was
awarded (1950) the Nobel Peace Prize. He later served as undersecretary
general for special political affairs (1958-71).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bundestag%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bundestag%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNDESTAG       @%%@QR:Bundestag@% lower house of the parliament of the Federal Republic of%@EH@%
Germany (West Germany). It is a popularly elected body that elects the
chancellor, passes all legislation, and ratifies the most important
treaties. It can remove the chancellor by a vote of no confidence, but
only if it simultaneously elects a new chancellor. The Bundesrat (federal
council), the upper house, represents the states.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bundy, McGeorge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bundy, McGeorge%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNDY           @%%@QR:Bundy, McGeorge@% 1919-, U.S. educator and official. The youngest dean%@EH@%
(1953-61) of the arts and sciences faculty at Harvard, he was special
assistant (1961-66) for national security to Pres. J.F. %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@% and Pres.
Lyndon %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4ccc58@%%@AE@%, and supervised the National Security Council. A major
voice in foreign policy, he supported the %@AU@%BAY OF PIGS INVASION%@BO:           d3bc8@%%@AE@% (1961) and
the U.S. military role in the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%. He served (1966-79) as head of
the Ford Foundation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunin, Ivan Alekseyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunin, Ivan Alekseyevich%@AE@%%@CR:BUNIN           @%%@QR:Bunin, Ivan Alekseyevich@%, 1870-1953, Russian writer. He came to world%@EH@%
attention with %@AI@%The Village%@AE@% (1910), a pessimistic novel of peasant life.
Best known are his short stories, e.g., the title story in the collection
%@AI@%The Gentleman from San Francisco%@AE@% (1916), an ironic study of vanity and
death; and his autobiographical novel %@AI@%The Well of Days%@AE@% (1930). An
aristocrat, he lived in exile after 1919. He received the 1933 Nobel
Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunker Hill, battle of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunker Hill, battle of%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNKER.HILL     @%%@QR:Bunker Hill, battle of@% in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, June 17, 1775;%@EH@%
actually fought on nearby Breed's Hill, Charlestown, Mass. Colonial
militia defended the height against Gen. William Howe (see under %@AU@%HOWE,
%@AU@%RICHARD HOWE, EARL%@BO:          44d76c@%%@AE@%) until their powder gave out. The British victory
failed to break the Patriots' siege of Boston, and the gallant American
defense heightened colonial morale and resistance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNSEN          @%%@QR:Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm@% 1811-99, German scientist. A professor (1852-89)%@EH@%
at Heidelberg, he studied organic compounds of arsenic and developed a
method of gas analysis from studies on blast furnaces. With Gustav
%@AU@%KIRCHHOFF%@BO:          4fe7f3@%%@AE@% he discovered by spectroscopy the elements %@AU@%CESIUM%@BO:          1b1df2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RUBIDIUM%@BO:          81ba7a@%%@AE@%.
He invented and improved various kinds of laboratory equipment, e.g., the
Bunsen burner.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunshaft, Gordon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunshaft, Gordon%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNSHAFT        @%%@QR:Bunshaft, Gordon@% 1909-, American architect; b. Buffalo. As chief%@EH@%
designer for the firm of Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill, he was responsible
for Lever House, New York City's first glass-wall %@AU@%SKYSCRAPER%@BO:          89f1f1@%%@AE@% (1952),
which was widely imitated. Among his other works are the Albright-Knox
Art Gallery, Buffalo, and the %@AU@%HIRSHHORN MUSEUM%@BO:          4314a6@%%@AE@%, Washington, D.C.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunuel, Luis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunuel, Luis%@AE@%%@CR:BUNUEL          @%%@QR:Bunuel, Luis@%, 1900-1983, Spanish film director. His critical, often%@EH@%
witty, studies of social hypocrisy include %@AI@%L'Age d'or%@AE@% (1930), %@AI@%Los
%@AI@%Olvidados%@AE@% (1949), %@AI@%The Exterminating Angel%@AE@% (1962), and %@AI@%That Obscure Object
%@AI@%of Desire%@AE@% (1977).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunyan, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunyan, John%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNYAN1         @%%@QR:Bunyan, John@% 1628-88, English author. A tinker by trade and a%@EH@%
Parliamentary soldier, he became a Baptist lay preacher and wrote to
defend his beliefs. Arrested in 1660 for unlicensed preaching, he spent
12 years in prison. There he wrote his spiritual autobiography, %@AI@%Grace
%@AI@%Abounding to the Chief of Sinners%@AE@% (1666), and other books. Imprisoned a
second time, he began his masterpiece, %@AI@%Pilgrim's Progress from This World
%@AI@%to That Which Is to Come%@AE@% (1678, second part 1684). The allegory of
Christian's journey from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City is
written in a prose that unites biblical eloquence with the clarity of
common speech.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bunyan, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bunyan, Paul%@AE@%,%@CR:BUNYAN2         @%%@QR:Bunyan, Paul@% legendary American lumberjack of fantastic size and%@EH@%
strength, hero of many "tall tales" popular in the Western timber
country. His prized possession was the huge Babe the Blue Ox, whose horns
were 42 ax handles apart.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buonaparte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buonaparte%@AE@%:%@CR:BUONAPARTE      @%%@QR:Buonaparte@% see %@AU@%BONAPARTE%@BO:          11c306@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buonarroti, Michelangelo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buonarroti, Michelangelo%@AE@%:%@CR:BUONARROTI      @%%@QR:Buonarroti, Michelangelo@% see %@AU@%MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI%@BO:          5ffcb6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buoninsegna, Duccio di%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buoninsegna, Duccio di%@AE@%:%@CR:BUONINSEGNA     @%%@QR:Buoninsegna, Duccio di@% see %@AU@%DUCCIO DE BUONINSEGNA%@BO:          2b03d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buoyancy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buoyancy%@AE@%:%@CR:BUOYANCY        @%%@QR:buoyancy@% see %@AU@%ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE%@BO:           765b4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burbage, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burbage, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:BURBAGE         @%%@QR:Burbage, Richard@% 1567?-1619, first great English actor. He originated%@EH@%
the title roles in %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE'S%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Hamlet, King Lear, Othello,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Richard
%@AI@%III.%@AE@% He also acted in the premieres of many plays by Thomas %@AU@%KYD%@BO:          513be3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BEAUMONT%@BO:           d76ca@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%FLETCHER%@BO:          33b0db@%%@AE@%, Ben %@AU@%JONSON%@BO:          4d1c39@%%@AE@%, and John %@AU@%WEBSTER%@BO:          a016f2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burbank, Luther%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burbank, Luther%@AE@%,%@CR:BURBANK         @%%@QR:Burbank, Luther@% 1849-1926, American plant breeder; b. Lancaster, Mass.%@EH@%
He developed many new varieties of fruits, vegetables, and flowers,
including the Burbank potato and the famous Shasta daisy. His methods and
results are described in his books %@AI@%How Plants Are Trained to Work for Man%@AE@%
(1921) and, with Wilbur Hall, %@AI@%Harvest of the Years%@AE@% (1927) and %@AI@%Partners of
%@AI@%Nature%@AE@% (1939).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burbidge, (Eleanor) Margaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burbidge, (Eleanor) Margaret%@AE@%,%@CR:BURBIDGE        @%%@QR:Burbidge, (Eleanor) Margaret@% 1925-, Anglo-American astronomer. She was%@EH@%
(1972-73) the first woman appointed director of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory and was named (1982) president of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science. Burbidge; her husband, Geoffrey Burbidge;
William Fowler; and Sir Fred Hoyle showed (1956) how heavier elements can
be built up from lighter ones in the interiors of stars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burckhardt, Jacob Christoph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burckhardt, Jacob Christoph%@AE@%%@CR:BURCKHARDT      @%%@QR:Burckhardt, Jacob Christoph@%, 1818-97, Swiss historian, one of the%@EH@%
founders of the cultural interpretation of history. His %@AI@%Civilization of
%@AI@%the Renaissance in Italy%@AE@% (1860) remains the great classic on the
Renaissance. He influenced his friend %@AU@%NIETZSCHE%@BO:          69fce1@%%@AE@% and the work of J.A.
%@AU@%SYMONDS%@BO:          91d1dc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burgess, Anthony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burgess, Anthony%@AE@%,%@CR:BURGESS         @%%@QR:Burgess, Anthony@% 1917-, English novelist. Of his surreal, darkly comic%@EH@%
novels, the best known is the futuristic thriller %@AI@%A Clockwork Orange%@AE@%
(1962). Others include %@AI@%Inside Mr. Enderby%@AE@% (1961), %@AI@%MF%@AE@% (1971), and %@AI@%Earthly
%@AI@%Powers%@AE@% (1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burghley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burghley%@AE@%%@CR:BURGHLEY        @%%@QR:Burghley@%or %@AB@%Burleigh, William Cecil,%@AE@% 1st %@AB@%Baron%@AE@%, 1520-98, English%@EH@%
statesman. He was chief adviser to %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, whom he served faithfully
for 40 years-as her chief spokesman in Parliament (1558-98) and as
secretary (1558-72) and lord treasurer (1572-98). A supporter of the
Anglican church, he suppressed Catholic revolts and convinced Elizabeth
to execute %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burgoyne, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burgoyne, John%@AE@%%@CR:BURGOYNE        @%%@QR:Burgoyne, John@%, 1722-92, British general. A hero of the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
he was elected to Parliament in 1761. In the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% he led a
poorly equipped army in the %@AU@%SARATOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          847e59@%%@AE@% and surrendered (Oct.
1777).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burgundy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burgundy%@AE@%,%@CR:BURGUNDY        @%%@QR:Burgundy@% historic region, E France. Dijon is the historic capital.%@EH@%
Burgundy, centered in the fertile Saone and upper Rhone river valleys, is
famous for its fine wines. The Burgundii, a tribe from Savoy, conquered
(c.480) the area from Rome and established the First Kingdom of Burgundy,
comprising SE France and W Switzerland. Burgundy was partitioned after it
fell (534) to the Franks, but it was later united to form (933) the
kingdom of %@AU@%ARLES%@BO:           7e5b1@%%@AE@%. The duchy of Burgundy, roughly the area of the present
region, was created in 877. In 1364 %@AU@%JOHN II%@BO:          4c7d80@%%@AE@% of France bestowed it upon
his son, %@AU@%PHILIP THE BOLD%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@%. Under Philip and his successors, %@AU@%JOHN THE
%@AU@%FEARLESS%@BO:          4cf0f5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PHILIP THE GOOD%@BO:          74cc90@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CHARLES THE BOLD%@BO:          1c1e34@%%@AE@%, Burgundy became a great
power and acquired vast territory, including much of the Low Countries.
After the accession (1477) of %@AU@%MARY OF BURGUNDY%@BO:          5c89e7@%%@AE@%, most of Burgundy's
possessions came under %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% rule; the duchy itself was incorporated
into France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burke, Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burke, Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:BURKE1          @%%@QR:Burke, Edmund@% 1729-97, British political writer and statesman; b.%@EH@%
Ireland. He was a member of Samuel %@AU@%JOHNSON'S%@BO:          4cd852@%%@AE@% literary circle. His early
writings concerned aesthetics and philosophy. In 1765 he became private
secretary to the marquess of Rockingham (then prime minister) and entered
Parliament. In %@AI@%Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents%@AE@% (1770) he
was the first to argue the value of political parties. As a member of
Parliament he called for conciliation with the American colonists and
warned against taxing them excessively. Attempting to reform the British
%@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be578@%%@AE@% in the 1780s, he instigated the impeachment of Warren
%@AU@%HASTINGS%@BO:          406a00@%%@AE@%, governor general of India, on corruption charges. His most
famous work, %@AI@%Reflections on the Revolution in France%@AE@% (1790), expresses
his opposition to the Revolution. Burke's writings greatly influenced
19th-cent. conservative political theory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burke, Kenneth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burke, Kenneth%@AE@%,%@CR:BURKE2          @%%@QR:Burke, Kenneth@% 1897-1986, American literary critic; b. Pittsburgh. A%@EH@%
writer and music critic, he was known as a theorist of literary forms. He
believed that literature is a form of "symbolic action," and his insights
drew on data from the social sciences. His writings include %@AI@%A Grammar of
%@AI@%Motives%@AE@% (1945) and %@AI@%A Rhetoric of Motives%@AE@% (1950).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burkina Faso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burkina Faso%@AE@%,%@CR:BURKINA.FASO    @%%@QR:Burkina Faso@% formerly Upper Volta, republic (1987 est. pop. 8,330,000),%@EH@%
105,869 sq mi (274,200 sq km), W Africa, bordered by Mali (W and N),
Niger (NE), Benin (SE), and Togo, Ghana, and Ivory Coast (S). The capital
is %@AU@%OUAGADOUGOU%@BO:          6f8941@%%@AE@%. The country is made up of vast, semidesert plains except
in the southwest, where the low hills are covered by savanna. Rainfall is
sparse, and the soil is of poor quality. Burkina Faso is an impoverished
agricultural nation, with the great majority of its work force engaged in
subsistence farming or stock-raising. Cotton, oilseeds, karite nuts, live
animals, meat, and hides are exported. Large reserves of manganese,
limestone, phosphates, and bauxite have not been fully exploited. The
country is economically dependent on foreign aid and on remittances from
some 500,000 Burkina Faso citizens who work in Ivory Coast and Ghana. The
population consists of black Africans, of whom the Mossi is the largest
ethnic group. French is the official language. Most people adhere to
traditional religious beliefs, but there are about a million Muslims and
220,000 Roman Catholics.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Mossi invaders from present-day Ghana conquered the region around
AD 1100 and, although far outnumbered by their subjects, created powerful
states that endured for more than 500 years. France gained control of the
country in the 1890s, administering it as part of Soudan until 1919, when
it became a separate protectorate. The country gained full independence
in 1960. The new nation has alternated between civilian and military
governments. A new democratic constitution was adopted in 1978, but coups
in 1980 and 1982 reinstated military rule. The name of the nation was
changed from Upper Volta in 1984.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burleigh, William Cecil, 1st Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burleigh, William Cecil, 1st Baron%@AE@%:%@CR:BURLEIGH        @%%@QR:Burleigh, William Cecil, 1st Baron@% see %@AU@%BURGHLEY%@BO:          159e0b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%burlesque%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%burlesque%@AE@%%@CR:BURLESQUE       @%%@QR:burlesque@% [Ital.,=mockery; from the %@AI@%burleschi%@AE@% of Francesco Berni, a%@EH@%
16th-cent. Italian poet], an entertainment that, unlike %@AU@%COMEDY%@BO:          20dac0@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%FARCE%@BO:          31b828@%%@AE@%,
works by caricature, ridicule, and distortion, but, unlike %@AU@%SATIRE%@BO:          84ce7e@%%@AE@%, has no
ethical element. Early English burlesque often ridiculed celebrated
literary works or sentimental drama, e.g., %@AU@%GAY'S%@BO:          386225@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Beggar's Opera%@AE@% (1728).
Extravaganza and burletta were similar to burlesque; the latter was a
musical production. American burlesque (from 1865) began as a variety
show characterized by vulgar dialogue and broad humor; Al %@AU@%JOLSON%@BO:          4d0111@%%@AE@%, Fanny
Brice, and W.C. %@AU@%FIELDS%@BO:          3311c6@%%@AE@% were famous stars. By 1920 the term had come to
mean a "strip-tease" show. Burlesque fell victim to the popularity of
nightclubs, movies, and television.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burlington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burlington%@AE@%,%@CR:BURLINGTON1     @%%@QR:Burlington@% town (1985 pop. 115,593), SE Ontario, Canada, part of the%@EH@%
regional municipality of Halton (1979 est. pop. 234,892). Located on Lake
%@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6de5b2@%%@AE@%, it is part of the rapidly growing lakefront industrial area
between %@AU@%TORONTO%@BO:          96b1aa@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f8282@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burlington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burlington%@AE@%,%@CR:BURLINGTON2     @%%@QR:Burlington@% city (1980 pop. 37,712), seat of Chittenden co., NW Vt., on%@EH@%
Lake Champlain; settled 1773, inc. 1865. The largest city in Vermont, it
has such manufactures as missiles and ordnance parts, data-processing
machinery, and wood and steel products. During the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%, the city
was the target of an abortive British naval attack. The Univ. of Vermont
is in Burlington.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burma%@AE@%,%@CR:BURMA           @%%@QR:Burma@% officially the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, republic%@EH@%
(1986 est. pop. 39,411,000), 261,789 sq mi (678,033 sq km), SE Asia,
bordered by India, Bangladesh, and the Bay of Bengal (W), China (N and
NE), Laos and Thailand (E), and the Andaman Sea (S). Principal cities
include %@AU@%RANGOON%@BO:          7caf7d@%%@AE@%, the capital, and %@AU@%MANDALAY%@BO:          5ab034@%%@AE@%. Except for the centrally
located %@AU@%IRRAWADDY%@BO:          49c83d@%%@AE@% valley and delta, where most of the people live, the
terrain is mountainous. The climate is mostly tropical monsoonal. About
65% of the labor force is employed in agriculture (mostly rice
cultivation) and forestry (especially teak and rubber production). Rich
mineral resources, not fully exploited, include petroleum, tin, copper,
zinc, and coal. The nationalized industrial sector is small but
expanding. Burma's developing economy, depressed by past political
turmoil, began to make a recovery in the 1980s. Burmans, a Mongoloid
people, constitute about 70% of the predominantly rural population;
important minorities are the Karens, Shans, Kachins, Chins, Indians,
Chinese, and Bangladeshi. The majority is Buddhist. The official language
is Burmese, but more than 100 distinct languages are spoken.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The Burmans established a kingdom in Upper Burma in the 9th cent.
Under King Anawrahta, who introduced Hinayana Buddhism, they gained (11th
cent.) supremacy over the rival Mon kingdom and the Irrawaddy delta. The
Burmese capital, Pagan, fell (1287) to the Mongols, and the area was then
divided among local rulers. The Burmese Toungoo dynasty united the area
in the 16th cent. A resurgence (18th cent.) of Mon rule was checked
(1758) by Alaungapaya, who extended Burmese influence. During three
Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824-26, 1852, 1885) Burma was annexed piecemeal to
British India and did not receive limited self-government until 1937.
Occupied by Japan in World War II, Burma achieved complete independence
in 1948, with U %@AU@%NU%@BO:          6c04e5@%%@AE@% as prime minister. Economic chaos and opposition by
insurgent minorities plagued the new government, and in 1958 leadership
passed to Gen. %@AU@%NE WIN%@BO:          68f450@%%@AE@% who restored order. U Nu was returned to power in
1960, but conditions continued to deteriorate, and in 1962 Ne Win staged
a successful military coup. A new constitution, making Burma a one-party
socialist republic, was adopted in 1974. In 1981 Ne Win resigned the
presidency but retained party leadership. In 1988, after continued
popular protest, insurgent activity, and several leadership changes, U
Maung Maung Kha was named president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burma Road%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burma Road%@AE@%,%@CR:BURMA.ROAD      @%%@QR:Burma Road@% road extending c.700 mi (1,150 km) from Kunming, Yunnan prov,%@EH@%
S China, to Lashio, a railhead in Burma. A major feat of engineering, it
was built (1937-38) over mountainous terrain by the Chinese. It achieved
its greatest importance during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, when Japan controlled the E
Asian coast and it served as a vital artery for the transport of Allied
military supplies to China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burmese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burmese%@AE@%,%@CR:BURMESE         @%%@QR:Burmese@% language belonging to the Tibeto-Burman subfamily of the%@EH@%
Sino-Tibetan family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burmese cat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burmese cat%@AE@%:%@CR:BURMESE.CAT     @%%@QR:Burmese cat@% see under %@AU@%CAT%@BO:          19fbb3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%burn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%burn%@AE@%,%@CR:BURN            @%%@QR:burn@% injury resulting from exposure to heat, electricity, radiation, or%@EH@%
caustic chemicals. First-degree burns, characterized by simple reddening
of the skin, can be treated locally with ice baths and ointments.
Second-degree burns, characterized by formation of blisters, may require
the care of a doctor to prevent infection. Third-degree burns, with
destruction of upper and lower %@AU@%SKIN%@BO:          89dd3c@%%@AE@% layers, are serious and often fatal;
they require prompt medical attention to reduce pain and prevent %@AU@%SHOCK%@BO:          8879e3@%%@AE@%
and infection. %@AU@%BLOOD TRANSFUSION%@BO:          110bf4@%%@AE@% maybe necessary to replace body fluids;
long-term treatment may include %@AU@%TRANSPLANTATION%@BO:          976ffa@%%@AE@% of natural or artificial
skin grafts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burne-Jones, Sir Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burne-Jones, Sir Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNEJONES      @%%@QR:Burne-Jones, Sir Edward@% 1833-98, English painter and decorator. A%@EH@%
%@AU@%PRE-RAPHAELITE%@BO:          79430b@%%@AE@% and lifelong friend of William %@AU@%MORRIS%@BO:          6405bb@%%@AE@%, he described a
dreamlike, medieval world in such popular paintings as %@AI@%King Cophetua and
%@AI@%the Beggar Maid%@AE@% (1884; Tate Gall., London) and %@AI@%Depths of the Sea%@AE@%
(Birmingham Gall.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burnet, Sir Macfarlane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burnet, Sir Macfarlane%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNET          @%%@QR:Burnet, Sir Macfarlane@% 1899-1985, Australian virologist and physician.%@EH@%
An expert on viruses, he contributed to the understanding of influenza
and the development of immunity against it. For work in immunological
tolerances, specifically the reactions of the body to the transplantation
of foreign living tissues, he shared with Peter %@AU@%MEDAWAR%@BO:          5dfb5c@%%@AE@% the 1960 Nobel
Prize in physiology or medicine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burnett, Frances Eliza Hodgson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burnett, Frances Eliza Hodgson%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNETT         @%%@QR:Burnett, Frances Eliza Hodgson@% 1849-1924, American author; b. England.%@EH@%
She is known for her children's books, particularly %@AI@%Little Lord
%@AI@%Fauntleroy%@AE@% (1886).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burney, Fanny%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burney, Fanny%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNEY          @%%@QR:Burney, Fanny@% later %@AB@%Madame D'Arblay,%@AE@% 1752-1840, English novelist.%@EH@%
%@AI@%Evelina%@AE@% (1778) made her famous, and she became part of Samuel %@AU@%JOHNSON'S%@BO:          4cd852@%%@AE@%
circle. She later wrote %@AI@%Cecilia%@AE@% (1782), %@AI@%Camilla%@AE@% (1796), and %@AI@%The Wanderer%@AE@%
(1814). Her theme is the entry into society and the coming of age of a
virtuous, inexperienced young girl. Burney's diaries and letters vividly
depict English society from 1768 to 1840.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burnham, Daniel Hudson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burnham, Daniel Hudson%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNHAM         @%%@QR:Burnham, Daniel Hudson@% 1846-1912, American architect and city planner;%@EH@%
b. Henderson, N.Y. With John W. Root, he built many major buildings in
Chicago. The 20-story Masonic Temple Building (1892) was the first
important skeleton %@AU@%SKYSCRAPER%@BO:          89f1f1@%%@AE@%. Other projects included the "Rookery," the
first suitably planned modern office building. Other works include the
Flatiron Building, N.Y.C., and Union Station, Washington, D.C. Burnham
and Root designed the greatly influential general plan for the 1893
Columbian Exposition at Chicago.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burns, Arthur F.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burns, Arthur F.%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNS1          @%%@QR:Burns, Arthur F.@% 1904-87, American economist; b. Austria. While teaching%@EH@%
at Rutgers (1927-44) and Columbia Univ. (1944-59), he was associated
(from 1933) with the National Bureau of Economic Research (president,
1957-67), where he did important work in analyzing business cycles. He
served as chairman (1953-56) of the Council of Economic Advisers under
Pres. Eisenhower and economic counselor (1969-70) to Pres. Nixon. As
chairman (1970-78) of the board of governors of the %@AU@%FEDERAL RESERVE
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          32461d@%%@AE@%, he advocated fiscal and monetary restraint. He later (1981-85)
served as ambassador to West Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burns, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burns, George%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNS2          @%%@QR:Burns, George@% 1896-, b. N.Y.C. as Nathan Birnbaum, and %@AB@%Gracie Allen,%@AE@%%@EH@%
1906-64, b. San Francisco, American comedy team (1923-58). On radio
(1932-50) and television (1950-58) and in films, they played an endlessly
patient husband and scatterbrained wife. For his role in %@AI@%The Sunshine
%@AI@%Boys%@AE@% (1975) Burns won an Academy Award.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burns, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burns, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BURNS3          @%%@QR:Burns, Robert@% 1759-96, Scottish poet. Raised on a farm, as a boy he read%@EH@%
Scottish poetry, as well as %@AU@%POPE%@BO:          78246d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%. He wrote early
but did not publish until, in 1786, hoping to emigrate to Jamaica, he
sold %@AI@%Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect,%@AE@% which became an immediate
success. Burns did not emigrate and spent the rest of his life in
Scotland, failing as a farmer but producing hundreds of songs, among them
"Flow Gently, Sweet Afton," "My Heart's in the Highlands," "Auld Lang
Syne," and "Comin' thro' the Rye." Burns is noted for his humor and
humanitarianism, and for the descriptive power he brings to bear on
Scottish rural life. His use of dialect brought needed freshness into
English poetry, but his scope far exceeds his apparent regionalism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burr, Aaron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burr, Aaron%@AE@%,%@CR:BURR            @%%@QR:Burr, Aaron@% 1756-1836, American political leader; b. Newark, N.J. After%@EH@%
service in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, he was (1791-97) U.S. senator from
New York. He tied with Thomas %@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@% in the presidential election of
1800. Through the efforts of Alexander %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f7530@%%@AE@%, the House of
Representatives named Jefferson president and Burr vice president.
Hamilton's hostility also figured in Burr's defeat (1804) for governor of
N.Y. His political career ended when he mortally wounded Hamilton in a
duel. Burr plotted with Gen. James %@AU@%WILKINSON%@BO:          a1a949@%%@AE@% to colonize the Southwest
and was tried (1807) for treason; he was found not guilty and retired
from public life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burroughs, Edgar Rice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burroughs, Edgar Rice%@AE@%,%@CR:BURROUGHS       @%%@QR:Burroughs, Edgar Rice@% 1875-1950, American novelist. He wrote %@AI@%Tarzan of%@EH@%
%@AI@%the Apes%@AE@% (1914) and many other thrillers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bursitis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bursitis%@AE@%,%@CR:BURSITIS        @%%@QR:bursitis@% acute or chronic inflammation of a bursa, a fluid-filled sac%@EH@%
located close to a joint. Caused by infection, injury, or diseases like
%@AU@%ARTHRITIS%@BO:           846a1@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GOUT%@BO:          3be670@%%@AE@%, the inflammation produces pain, tenderness, and
restricted motion. Treatment includes rest, application of heat, use of
%@AU@%ANALGESICS%@BO:           50835@%%@AE@% and other drugs, and occasionally surgery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burton, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burton, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:BURTON1         @%%@QR:Burton, Richard@% 1925-84, Anglo-American actor; b. Wales as Richard%@EH@%
Jenkins. He starred in Shakespeare plays; in the musical %@AI@%Camelot%@AE@% (1960,
1980); and in films, e.g., %@AI@%The Robe%@AE@% (1953) and %@AI@%Becket%@AE@% (1964).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burton, Sir Richard Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burton, Sir Richard Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:BURTON2         @%%@QR:Burton, Sir Richard Francis@% 1821-90, English explorer, linguist, and%@EH@%
writer. Fluent in Arabic, he journeyed (1853) in disguise to the
forbidden cities of %@AU@%MECCA%@BO:          5de8a1@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MEDINA%@BO:          5e3244@%%@AE@%. In 1858 he and J.H. %@AU@%SPEKE%@BO:          8d669d@%%@AE@% tried
unsuccessfully to find the source of the %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@% R. In 1865 he explored
Santos, in Brazil. His works include a translation of the %@AI@%Arabian Nights%@AE@%
(1885-88).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burton, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burton, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:BURTON3         @%%@QR:Burton, Robert@% 1577-1640, English clergyman and scholar. His %@AI@%Anatomy of%@EH@%
%@AI@%Melancholy%@AE@% (1621), on the causes and effects of melancholy, ranged widely
into social and historical questions in an idiosyncratic, anecdotal
style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Burundi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Burundi%@AE@%%@CR:BURUNDI         @%%@QR:Burundi@%, officially Republic of Burundi, republic, (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
5,001,000), 10,747 sq mi (27,834 sq km), E central Africa, formerly part
of Ruanda-Urundi, bordered by Rwanda (N), Tanzania (E), Lake Tanganyika
(SW), and Zaire (W). %@AU@%BUJUMBURA%@BO:          153cfb@%%@AE@% is the capital. The three main geographic
zones are a narrow area, part of the %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@%, in the west; a
central region of mountains reaching a height of c.8,800 ft (2,680 m);
and, in the east, an area of broken plateaus and somewhat lower
elevations (c.4,500-6,000 ft/ 1,370-1,830 m), where most of the people
live. Burundi is one of the smallest, most densely populated, and poorest
countries in Africa. It relies almost exclusively on coffee for its
income. Deposits of nickel and vanadium could be important in the future.
The two main ethnic groups are the Hutu (about 85% of the population) and
the Tutsi (about 14%), who, despite their relatively small numbers,
dominate the government and maintain a virtual lord-serf relationship
with the Hutu. The remaining 1% are the Twa, who are %@AU@%PYGMIES%@BO:          7b3d58@%%@AE@%. French and
Kurundi are the official languages. About half the people are Christian
(mostly Roman Catholic); the rest follow traditional religions.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The original inhabitants, the Twa (Pygmies), were followed
(c.1200) and then outnumbered by the Hutu, who in turn gave way to the
migrating Tutsi in the 15th cent. By the 19th cent. the Tutsi had
established dominance, and a Tutsi king (mwami) ruled the country. In
1890 Burundi was incorporated into German East Africa. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%
it was occupied by Belgian forces, and in 1919 it became part of the
Belgian League of Nations mandate of %@AU@%RUANDA-URUNDI%@BO:          819ec3@%%@AE@% (made a UN trust
territory in 1946). Burundi became an independent kingdom in 1962, but
the monarchy was overthrown in 1966 and a military republic established.
The years following independence have been marked by bitter fighting
between the Tutsi and Hutu, resulting in thousands of Hutu deaths in the
1970s. The early 1980s saw reduced military influence and efforts at
Tutsi-Hutu reconciliation, but a military coup in 1987 brought Maj.
Pierre Buyoya to power, and in 1988 there were serious ethnic clashes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bush, George Herbert Walker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bush, George Herbert Walker%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSH1           @%%@QR:Bush, George Herbert Walker@% 1924-, 41st president of the U.S. (1989-);%@EH@%
b. Milton, Mass. A graduate of Yale Univ., he was a Navy fighter pilot in
World War II and after 1953 headed an oil drilling firm in Texas. In 1966
he began the first of two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. He
was ambassador to the UN (1971-73), chairman of the Republican National
Committee (1973-74), chief of the U.S. liaison office in China (1974-75),
and director of the CIA (1976-77). After losing the 1980 Republican
presidential nomination to Ronald %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@%, Bush served as vice president
(1981-88). In 1988, Bush and his running mate Daniel Quayle defeated
Michael %@AU@%DUKAKIS%@BO:          2b1805@%%@AE@% in the presidential election.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bush, Vannevar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bush, Vannevar%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSH2           @%%@QR:Bush, Vannevar@% 1890-1974, American electrical engineer and physicist; b.%@EH@%
Everett, Mass. While professor and dean of engineering at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1923-38), Bush designed the
differential analyzer, an early computer. During World War II, he led the
U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development, directing such
programs as the development of the first atomic bomb.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bushbuck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bushbuck%@AE@%:%@CR:BUSHBUCK        @%%@QR:bushbuck@% see %@AU@%ANTELOPE%@BO:           604e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bushmen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bushmen%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSHMEN         @%%@QR:Bushmen@% people who live in the Kalahari Desert region of Namibia and%@EH@%
Botswana. Most are nomadic hunters and food-gatherers like their
ancestors, but some work on cattle ranches or farms. Numbering about
50,000, they travel in small groups of 25-60 and have no social classes
and few private possessions. Their languages include clicking sounds that
are rarely found in other languages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bushnell, Horace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bushnell, Horace%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSHNELL        @%%@QR:Bushnell, Horace@% 1802-76, American Congregational minister; b. Bantam,%@EH@%
Conn. As pastor of the North Church, Hartford, Conn. (1833-59), he
repudiated the austerity of Calvinism and stressed the divine in humanity
and nature. He had profound influence on liberal Protestant thought.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%bushrangers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%bushrangers%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSHRANGERS     @%%@QR:bushrangers@% bandits who terrorized the bush country of Australia in the%@EH@%
19th cent. The first bushrangers were mainly escaped convicts; later
outlaws preyed on gold convoys. Ned Kelly (d. 1880) was one of the last
bushrangers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%busing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%busing%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSING          @%%@QR:busing@% in the U.S., transporting students from one area to another to%@EH@%
achieve racial balance in schools. This policy grew out of the U.S.
Supreme Court's decision in %@AU@%BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION%@BO:          148ee6@%%@AE@% (1954), declaring
public school desegregation unconstitutional. Proponents argue that
busing is often the only way to achieve integration; opponents argue that
children should be able to attend local neighborhood schools. See also
%@AU@%INTEGRATION%@BO:          48a964@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Busoni, Ferruccio Benvenuto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Busoni, Ferruccio Benvenuto%@AE@%%@CR:BUSONI          @%%@QR:Busoni, Ferruccio Benvenuto@%, 1866-1924, Italian pianist and composer.%@EH@%
Influenced by %@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@%, he taught widely, transcribed J.S. %@AU@%BACH'S%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@% organ
works for piano, edited Bach's %@AI@%Well-tempered Clavier,%@AE@% and composed piano
music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bustamante, Sir Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bustamante, Sir Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSTAMANTE1     @%%@QR:Bustamante, Sir Alexander@% 1884-1977, Jamaican politician. Of Irish and%@EH@%
black descent, he founded the country's largest trade union and (1943)
the Jamaica Labour party. He served as chief minister (1953-55) and was
prime minister from 1962, the year Jamaica gained independence within the
British Commonwealth, until 1967. He launched an ambitious program of
public works and land reform.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bustamante, Antonio Sanchez de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bustamante, Antonio Sanchez de%@AE@%,%@CR:BUSTAMANTE2     @%%@QR:Bustamante, Antonio Sanchez de@% 1865-1951, Cuban jurist. He was a member%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%HAGUE TRIBUNAL%@BO:          3f07ac@%%@AE@% (from 1908) and a judge of the %@AU@%WORLD COURT%@BO:          a32fb6@%%@AE@%
(1921-39). Bustamante also served as president of the Pan American
Congress (1928), which ratified his monumental code of private
international law pertaining to the security of person and property.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buthelezi, Gatsha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buthelezi, Gatsha%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTHELEZI       @%%@QR:Buthelezi, Gatsha@% (1928-), chief minister of the Zulu homeland. His%@EH@%
Inkatha movement, which claims a membership of 900,000, is South Africa's
largest black political group. He works within the current system of
%@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@% and is willing to accept a political solution to apartheid
based on tribalism instead of a one-adult-one-vote policy. Militant black
leaders claim that his policy would allow the South African government to
minimize the political influence of blacks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Butler, Benjamin Franklin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Butler, Benjamin Franklin%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTLER1         @%%@QR:Butler, Benjamin Franklin@% 1818-93, American politician and Union %@AU@%CIVIL%@EH@%
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% general; b. Deerfield, N.H. He was made military governor of %@AU@%NEW
%@AU@%ORLEANS%@BO:          692489@%%@AE@% (1862), but his harsh rule caused his removal. He commanded
(1864) the Union expedition to seize Fort Fisher, N.C., but it failed,
and he was removed from command. As a U.S. representative from
Massachusetts he favored the radical Republican policy of %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@%
and led the impeachment proceedings against Pres. Andrew %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cc07d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Butler, Nicholas Murray%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Butler, Nicholas Murray%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTLER2         @%%@QR:Butler, Nicholas Murray@% 1862-1947, American educator; b. Elizabeth, N.J.%@EH@%
As president of the Industrial Education Association (1886) he helped
found the institution that became Teachers College, Columbia Univ.
Instrumental in the expansion of Columbia College into Columbia Univ., he
was president from 1902 to 1945 and instituted the school of journalism,
the medical center, and other units. An advocate of peace through
education, he established the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
(president 1925-45), and shared the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize with Jane
%@AU@%ADDAMS%@BO:           118a5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Butler, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Butler, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTLER3         @%%@QR:Butler, Samuel@% 1612-80, English poet and satirist. His best-known work%@EH@%
is %@AI@%Hudibras%@AE@% (in three parts-1663, 1664, 1678), a venomous satire against
the Puritans given as the mock-heroic story of the "Presbyterian knight,"
Sir Hudibras.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Butler, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Butler, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTLER4         @%%@QR:Butler, Samuel@% 1835-1902, English author, painter, and composer. After%@EH@%
amassing a fortune in New Zealand as a sheep rancher, he returned to
England, where he did work in the arts and in biology. He is best known
as a writer. %@AI@%Erewhon,%@AE@% a novel in which he satirized English social and
economic injustices, appeared in 1872 and %@AI@%Erewhon Revisited%@AE@% in 1901. His
ironic, witty attack on Victorian life, the autobiographical %@AI@%The Way of
%@AI@%All Flesh%@AE@% (1903), is ranked among the great English novels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Butor, Michel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Butor, Michel%@AE@%%@CR:BUTOR           @%%@QR:Butor, Michel@%, 1926-, French novelist. His experimental novels use%@EH@%
shifting time sequences and the interior monologue. They include %@AI@%Passage
%@AI@%to Milan%@AE@% (1954), %@AI@%Degrees%@AE@% (1960), and %@AI@%Third Below%@AE@% (1977).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Butte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Butte%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTTE1          @%%@QR:Butte@% city (1986 est. pop. 33,380), seat of Silver Bow co., SW Mont.;%@EH@%
inc. 1879. The mining industry has dominated the city since its founding
(1862). Copper is the major resource; others are silver, zinc, manganese,
gold, lead, and arsenic. Copper was discovered c.1880, and the Anaconda
Copper company began to exploit it. Its giant open-pit mine forced
relocation of one fifth of the city. However, a slump in the metals
industry caused the company to abandon (1982) the mine, precipitating an
economic crisis in the area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%butte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%butte%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTTE2          @%%@QR:butte@% an isolated hill with steep sides and a flat top, resulting from%@EH@%
the more rapid erosion of the surrounding areas. Many occur in the plains
of the W U.S. See %@AU@%MESA%@BO:          5f100d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%butter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%butter%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTTER          @%%@QR:butter@% dairy product obtained by churning milk or cream until its fat%@EH@%
solidifies. Cow's milk is generally the basis for butter, but milk from
goats, sheep, and mares has also been used. Butter was known by 2000 BC,
and as it became a staple food various kinds of hand churns were
developed. Traditional butter-making involves cooling milk in pans,
allowing the cream to rise and skimming it off, letting the cream ripen
by natural fermentation, then churning it. Farm-made until 1850, butter
has since then increasingly become a factory product. Commercially made
butter usually contains 80% to 85% milk fat, 12% to 16% water, and 2%
salt. Butter without salt is known as sweet butter. The world's leading
butter producers are the USSR, France, West Germany, the U.S., and India.
Clarified butter (butterfat with milk solids removed) is widely used in
Egypt and in India, where it is known as ghee. The high dietary value of
butter is due to its large proportion of easily digested fat and its
vitamin A and vitamin D content.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%butter-and-eggs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%butter-and-eggs%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTTERANDEGGS   @%%@QR:butter-and-eggs@% perennial plant (%@AI@%Linaria vulgaris%@AE@%) of the figwort%@EH@%
family, originally native to Europe but now common in the U.S. It has
small, snapdragonlike flowers of yellow and orange and is consequently
also known as wild snapdragon. Other yellow and orange flowers are
sometimes called butter-and-eggs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buttercup%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buttercup%@AE@%%@CR:BUTTERCUP       @%%@QR:buttercup@% or %@AB@%crowfoot,%@AE@%common name for the Ranuncula-ceae, a family of%@EH@%
chiefly annual or perennial herbs of cool regions of the Northern
Hemisphere. Primitive plants, they typically have a simple flower
structure. The buttercups and crowfoots comprise the largest genus
(%@AI@%Ranunculus%@AE@%). Found mainly in the arctic, north temperate, and alpine
regions, most have glossy yellow flowers and deeply cut leaves. A dozen
or more species are common in every part of the U.S. The family also
includes many other wildflowers and cultivated ornamentals. Some of these
are the %@AU@%ANEMONE%@BO:           5630c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CLEMATIS%@BO:          1f2be7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COLUMBINE%@BO:          20bb3e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LARKSPUR%@BO:          526f5a@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PEONY%@BO:          730e12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%butterfly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%butterfly%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTTERFLY       @%%@QR:butterfly@% flying %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% that with the %@AU@%MOTH%@BO:          644a76@%%@AE@% comprises the order%@EH@%
Lepidoptera. Butterflies have coiled, sucking mouthparts; two pairs of
wings that function as one; and antennae with knobs at the tips. Most
feed on nectar from flowers and are active by day. The butterfly larva
(caterpillar) is transformed into a pupa (chrysalis) with a hardened
outer integument within which it changes into the adult (see
%@AU@%METAMORPHOSIS%@BO:          5f404f@%%@AE@%). Adults of most species live only about a month.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%butternut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%butternut%@AE@%:%@CR:BUTTERNUT       @%%@QR:butternut@% see %@AU@%WALNUT%@BO:          9ed79f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buttonwood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buttonwood%@AE@%:%@CR:BUTTONWOOD      @%%@QR:buttonwood@% see %@AU@%PLANE TREE%@BO:          768103@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buttress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buttress%@AE@%,%@CR:BUTTRESS        @%%@QR:buttress@% mass of masonry built against a wall to strengthen it,%@EH@%
particularly when a vault or arch places a heavy load or thrust on one
section. The decorative possibilities were known in Mesopotamia
(3500-3000 BC). In larger Roman buildings, internal buttresses served as
partitions; the basilica of Constantine in Rome is typical. Buttresses
evolved from simple 11th-cent. piers to bold and complex Gothic
structures. The flying buttress, a masonry arch, abutted the wall of a
building. Buttresses were often enriched with gables and sculpture;
pinnacles were added to increase their weight. In cathedrals like
Notre-Dame de Paris, buttresses express the elasticity and equilibrium of
Gothic architecture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Buxtehude, Dietrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Buxtehude, Dietrich%@AE@%%@CR:BUXTEHUDE       @%%@QR:Buxtehude, Dietrich@%, 1637-1707, Swedish composer and organist. From 1668%@EH@%
he was organist at Lubeck, where his concerts attracted musicians from
all over Germany, including J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@%, whom he greatly influenced.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%buzzard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%buzzard%@AE@%,%@CR:BUZZARD         @%%@QR:buzzard@% %@AU@%HAWK%@BO:          408efa@%%@AE@% of the genera %@AI@%Buteo%@AE@% and %@AI@%Pernis.%@AE@% Honey buzzards (%@AI@%Pernis%@AE@%)%@EH@%
feed on insects, wasp and bumblebee larvae, and small reptiles. The term
%@AI@%buzzard%@AE@% is often incorrectly applied to various hawks and New World
%@AU@%VULTURES%@BO:          9e6d66@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byelorussia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byelorussia%@AE@%:%@CR:BYELORUSSIA     @%%@QR:Byelorussia@% see %@AU@%BELORUSSIA%@BO:           e36e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byng, Julian Hedworth George, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byng, Julian Hedworth George, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy%@AE@%,%@CR:BYNG            @%%@QR:Byng, Julian Hedworth George, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy@% 1862-1935,%@EH@%
British general. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% Canadian troops under his command stormed
(1917) Vimy Ridge, in N France. He was later governor general of Canada
(1921-26).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bynkershoek, Cornelius van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bynkershoek, Cornelius van%@AE@%%@CR:BYNKERSHOEK     @%%@QR:Bynkershoek, Cornelius van@%, 1673-1743, Dutch writer on %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL LAW%@BO:          48f092@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
He is best known for his classic %@AI@%De dominio maris%@AE@% (1702), on maritime
law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Bynner, Witter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Bynner, Witter%@AE@%,%@CR:BYNNER          @%%@QR:Bynner, Witter@% 1881-1968, American poet; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. Adept at%@EH@%
mimicking other writers and cultures, he was coauthor of the poetic
parody %@AI@%Spectra%@AE@% (1916) and cotranslator (from the Chinese) of %@AI@%The Jade
%@AI@%Mountain%@AE@% (1929). He wrote several volumes of lyric poetry, as well as
plays and essays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byrd, Richard Evelyn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byrd, Richard Evelyn%@AE@%,%@CR:BYRD1           @%%@QR:Byrd, Richard Evelyn@% 1888-1957, American explorer; b. Winchester, Va. He%@EH@%
was a naval flier. In 1926 he and Floyd Bennett became the first men to
fly over the %@AU@%NORTH POLE%@BO:          6bad4f@%%@AE@%. Byrd is remembered mainly for his five
expeditions to %@AU@%ANTARCTICA%@BO:           5f5e2@%%@AE@%: 1930, 1933, 1939-40, 1946-47, 1955-56. He was
promoted to rear admiral in 1930 and set up a base in Antarctica; from
there he conducted major explorations. In 1933 he spent several months
close to the South Pole alone; %@AI@%Discovery%@AE@% (1935) and %@AI@%Alone%@AE@% (1938) are
records of this trip. He was made commander of all U.S. Antarctic
activities in 1955. His explorations form the basis of U.S. claims in
Antarctica.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byrd, Robert Carlyle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byrd, Robert Carlyle%@AE@%,%@CR:BYRD2           @%%@QR:Byrd, Robert Carlyle@% 1917-, U.S. senator from W.Va. (1959-); b. North%@EH@%
Wilkesboro, N.C., as Cornelius Calvin Sale, Jr. Before entering the
Senate, he served (1953-59) in the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1971
he defeated Sen. Edward %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4ee6d2@%%@AE@% for the position of Senate majority whip
and was later Senate minority leader (1980-87) and Senate majority leader
(1977-79, 1987-88).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byrd, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byrd, William%@AE@%,%@CR:BYRD3           @%%@QR:Byrd, William@% 1674-1744, American colonial writer and official. After%@EH@%
inheriting extensive lands in Virginia, he served in the house of
burgesses and as a Virginia council member. In 1737 he had the city that
was to be Richmond laid out on one of his estates. He kept wise and witty
journals and diaries, excerpts from which were published posthumously. At
his death he left a library of some 4,000 volumes at his Westover estate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byrne, Jane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byrne, Jane%@AE@%,%@CR:BYRNE           @%%@QR:Byrne, Jane@% 1934-, American politician; b. Chicago as Jane Margaret%@EH@%
Burke. She was city consumer sales commissioner (1968-77) under Mayor
Richard %@AU@%DALEY%@BO:          2612fa@%%@AE@% before being elected (1979) the first woman mayor of
Chicago. Under Byrne, the city faced severe financial problems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byrnes, James Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byrnes, James Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:BYRNES          @%%@QR:Byrnes, James Francis@% 1879-1972, American public official; b.%@EH@%
Charleston, S.C. A Democrat, he served in the House of Representatives
(1911-25); in the Senate (1931-41), where he advised on the %@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@%
budget; and on the Supreme Court (1941-42). He headed several wartime
agencies. As secretary of state (1945-47), Byrnes tried to mend postwar
differences with the USSR, but later became extremely anti-Soviet. As
governor (1951-55) of South Carolina, he opposed racial integration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byron, George Gordon Noel Byron, 6th Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byron, George Gordon Noel Byron, 6th Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:BYRON           @%%@QR:Byron, George Gordon Noel Byron, 6th Baron@% 1788-1824, one of the great%@EH@%
English romantic poets. In his life and in his poetry, Lord Byron
epitomizes %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%. Born with a clubfoot, he grew to be a dark,
handsome man, beloved by, but contemptuous of, women. When an early work,
%@AI@%Hours of Idleness%@AE@% (1807), was ridiculed by the %@AI@%Edinburgh Review,%@AE@% he
replied with %@AI@%English Bards and Scotch Reviewers%@AE@% (1809), a satire that
made him famous. His many love affairs before and after his ill-fated
marriage (1815-16) to Anne Isabella Milbanke (notably with Lady Caroline
Lamb, wife of Viscount %@AU@%MELBOURNE%@BO:          5e69ec@%%@AE@%, and Claire Clairmont, %@AU@%SHELLEY'S%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@%
sister-in-law) made him notorious. Byron settled in Venice in 1817. After
wandering restlessly about Europe, he died working for Greek
independence. Byron's writings include long romances and stories in
verse, e.g., %@AI@%Childe Harold%@AE@% (1812-18), %@AI@%The Bride of Abydos%@AE@% (1813), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Corsair%@AE@% (1814), %@AI@%Manfred%@AE@% (1817), %@AI@%Beppo%@AE@% (1818), and %@AI@%Mazeppa%@AE@% (1819); shorter
works such as %@AI@%The Prisoner of Chillon;%@AE@% and lyrics. His masterpiece is %@AI@%Don
%@AI@%Juan%@AE@% (1819-24), an epic-satire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%byte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%byte%@AE@%:%@CR:BYTE            @%%@QR:byte@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byzantine art and architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byzantine art and architecture%@AE@%%@CR:BYZANTITECTURE  @%%@QR:Byzantine art and architecture@% include not only works done in the city of%@EH@%
Byzantium after it became the capital of the Roman Empire (AD 330), but
also work done under Byzantine influence, as in Italy, Syria, Greece,
Russia, and other Eastern countries. A blend of Hellenistic and Oriental
traditions, Byzantine art emphasized decorativeness and flat line
harmony. Except for the interruption of %@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@% (726-843), when
content was restricted to ornamental forms and symbols such as the cross,
the style persisted until the fall of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          2283b5@%%@AE@% in 1453. The
pillaging of Constantinople in 1204 was followed by a late flowering of
Byzantine art that brought impressive achievements in %@AU@%MOSAIC%@BO:          641af7@%%@AE@% decoration.
Mosaics depicting sacred personages placed in descending order of
importance were applied to all available surfaces in Byzantine churches.
The stylized gestures of the figures and luminous shimmer of the gold
backgrounds made the entire church a tangible evocation of celestial
order. The cult of icons (see %@AU@%ICONOGRAPHY%@BO:          46718f@%%@AE@%) also played a leading role in
Byzantine art. The icons were made using the %@AU@%ENCAUSTIC%@BO:          2ea2dd@%%@AE@% technique. Little
scope was given to individuality since the effectiveness of the image was
held to depend on its fidelity to prototype. A large group of icons has
been preserved in the monastery of St. Catherine on Mt. Sinai. The
development of Byzantine painting can also be seen in manuscript
%@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@%, e.g., the 9th cent. %@AI@%Homilies of Gregory Nazianzus%@AE@% and the
10th-cent. %@AI@%Paris Psalter%@AE@%. Byzantine enamel, ivory, and metalwork objects
such as reliquaries, devotional panels, and ivory caskets were highly
prized throughout the Middle Ages. Byzantine architecture was based on
the great legacy of Roman formal and technical achievements. The 5th
cent. %@AU@%BASILICA%@BO:           cd380@%%@AE@% of St. John of the Studion is the oldest extant church in
Constantinople and an early example of Byzantine reliance on traditional
Roman models. The most imposing example of Byzantine architecture is the
Church of Holy Wisdom (%@AU@%HAGIA SOPHIA%@BO:          3efc8f@%%@AE@%), which is the culmination of several
centuries of experimentation with a unified space of monumental
dimensions. These centrally planned religious structures were greatly
favored and had in common a central domed space flanked by smaller domes
and half-domes spanning the peripheral spaces. Two of the great
achievements of Byzantine architecture are the Italian octagonal church
of San Vitale in Ravenna (547) and %@AU@%ST. MARK'S CHURCH%@BO:          834471@%%@AE@% in Venice. In its
later phases, the Byzantine prototype became more ornate, e.g., the
Moscow Cathedral. Byzantine secular architecture has left few traces.
Best known are the ruins of the 5th-cent. walls of Constantinople,
consisting of an outer and an inner wall, each of which was originally
studded with 96 towers, of which some can still be seen.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byzantine Empire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byzantine Empire%@AE@%,%@CR:BYZANTIE        @%%@QR:Byzantine Empire@% successor state to the Roman Empire (see %@AU@%ROME%@BO:          80bece@%%@AE@%), also%@EH@%
called the Eastern or East Roman Empire. It was named for ancient
Byzantium, which %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          2279f8@%%@AE@% rebuilt in AD 330 as his capital,
Constantinople. The Roman Empire split permanently (395) into East and
West, but after the Western Empire fell (476) the Eastern Empire claimed
the entire Roman world. Boundaries shifted, but the core of the Byzantine
Empire was %@AU@%ASIA MINOR%@BO:           8b216@%%@AE@% and the S %@AU@%BALKAN PENINSULA%@BO:           b6e1c@%%@AE@%. Throughout its 1,000
years of existence the empire was continually beset by invaders. Also,
there was constant religious controversy (see %@AU@%ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH%@BO:          6f08b3@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MONOTHELETISM%@BO:          62fc7f@%%@AE@%) and internal political strife.
Nevertheless, despite a complex administration, gross violence, and moral
decay, the empire carried on Graeco-Roman civilization, blended with
Oriental influences, while the West was in chaos. It regained vigor in
the 6th-cent. reign of %@AU@%JUSTINIAN I%@BO:          4ddb31@%%@AE@%, under whom Byzantine art and
architecture reached their peak, but his successors lost vast lands to
the %@AU@%LOMBARDS%@BO:          565551@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ARABS%@BO:           716c0@%%@AE@%. The schism between the Eastern and Western
churches arose soon after %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% became emperor of the West (800).
The reigns of %@AU@%BASIL I%@BO:           cce0c@%%@AE@% (9th cent.) and his successors brought renewed
imperial splendor and vigor, until the defeat by the Seljuk %@AU@%TURKS%@BO:          98db81@%%@AE@% (1071)
and the loss of Asia Minor. The empire was further weakened by the
attacks of the Norman leaders %@AU@%ROBERT GUISCARD%@BO:          7fa683@%%@AE@% and Bohemond. After a brief
resurgence under %@AU@%ALEXIUS I%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%, a century of decay ended with the Fourth
%@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%, the fall of Constantinople (1204), and the breakup of the empire
into %@AU@%NICAEA, TREBIZOND%@BO:          69bcab@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%EPIRUS%@BO:          2f7952@%%@AE@%. The weak Latin empire of Venice was
conquered by the Nicaean emperor %@AU@%MICHAEL VIII%@BO:          5fefb7@%%@AE@%, who restored the Byzantine
Empire. Gradually, however, the empire was encircled by the %@AU@%OTTOMAN%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%
Turks, and despite a desperate defense under %@AU@%CONSTANTINE XI%@BO:          2279f8@%%@AE@%
Constantinople fell (1453) to %@AU@%MUHAMMAD II%@BO:          64e167@%%@AE@%. The modern era is
traditionally reckoned from that date.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%RULERS OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE%@AE@% %@AI@%(including dates of reign)%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
Constantine I (the Great), 330--37%@NL@%
Constantius, 337--61%@NL@%
Julian (the Apostate), 361--63%@NL@%
Jovian, 363--64%@NL@%
Valens, 364--78%@NL@%
Theodosius I (the Great), 379--95%@NL@%
Arcadius, 395--408%@NL@%
Theodosius II, 408--50%@NL@%
Marcian 450--57%@NL@%
Leo I (the Great or the Thracian), 457--74%@NL@%
Leo II, 474%@NL@%
Zeno, 474--75%@NL@%
Basiliscus, 475--76%@NL@%
Zeno (restored), 476--91%@NL@%
Anastasius I, 491--518%@NL@%
Justin I, 518--27%@NL@%
Justinian I (the Great), 527--65%@NL@%
Justin II, 565--78%@NL@%
Tiberius II Constantinus, 578--82%@NL@%
Maurice, 582--602%@NL@%
Phocas 602--10%@NL@%
Heraclius, 610--41%@NL@%
Constantine III and Heracleonas, 641%@NL@%
Heracleonas, 641%@NL@%
Constans II Pogonatus, 641--68%@NL@%
Constantine IV, 668--85%@NL@%
Justinian II Rhinotmetus, 685--95%@NL@%
Leontius, 695--98%@NL@%
Tiberius III, 698--705%@NL@%
Justinian II (restored), 705--11%@NL@%
Philippicus Bardanes, 711--13%@NL@%
Anastasius II, 713--15%@NL@%
Theodosius III, 716--17%@NL@%
Leo III (the Isaurian or the Syrian), 717--41%@NL@%
Constantine V Copronymus, 741--75%@NL@%
Leo IV (the Khazar), 775--80%@NL@%
Constantine VI, 780--97%@NL@%
Irene, 797--802%@NL@%
Nicephorus I, 802--11%@NL@%
Stauracius, 811%@NL@%
Michael I, 811--13%@NL@%
Leo V (the Armenian), 813--20%@NL@%
Michael II (the Stammerer), 820--29%@NL@%
Theophilus, 829--42%@NL@%
Michael III (the Drunkard), 842--67%@NL@%
Basil I (the Macedonian), 867--86%@NL@%
Leo VI (the Wise or the Philosopher), 886--912%@NL@%
Alexander, 912--13%@NL@%
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, 913--19%@NL@%
Romanus I Lecapenus, 919--44%@NL@%
Constantine VII (restored), 944--59%@NL@%
Romanus II, 959--63%@NL@%
Basil II Bulgaroktonos, 963%@NL@%
Nicephorus II Phocas, 963--69%@NL@%
John I Tzimisces, 969--76%@NL@%
Basil II (restored), 976--1025%@NL@%
Constantine VIII, 1025--28%@NL@%
Zoe and Romanus III Argyrus, 1028--34%@NL@%
Zoe and Michael IV (the Paphlagonian), 1034--41%@NL@%
Zoe and Michael V Calaphates, 1041--42%@NL@%
Zoe and Theodora, 1042%@NL@%
Zoe, Theodora, and Constantine IX Monomachus 1042--50%@NL@%
Theodora and Constantine IX, 1050--55%@NL@%
Theodora, 1055--56%@NL@%
Michael VI Stratioticus, 1056--57%@NL@%
Isaac I Comnenus, 1057--59%@NL@%
Constantine X Ducas, 1059--67%@NL@%
Michael VII Ducas (Parapinaces), 1067--68%@NL@%
Romanus IV Diogenes, 1068--71%@NL@%
Michael VII Ducas (restored), 1071--78%@NL@%
Nicephorus III Botaniates, 1078--81%@NL@%
Alexius I Comnenus, 1081--1118%@NL@%
John II Comnenus, 1118--43%@NL@%
Manuel I Comnenus, 1143--80%@NL@%
Alexius II Comnenus, 1180--83%@NL@%
Andronicus I Comnenus, 1183--85%@NL@%
Isaac II Angelus, 1185--95%@NL@%
Alexius III Angelus, 1195--1203%@NL@%
Isaac II (restored) and Alexius IV Angelus, 1203--4%@NL@%
Alexius V Ducas, 1204%@NL@%
Theodore I Lascaris, 1204--22%@NL@%
John III Vatatzes or Ducas, 1222--54%@NL@%
Theodore II Lascaris, 1254--58%@NL@%
John IV Lascaris, 1258--61%@NL@%
Michael VIII Palaeologus, 1259--82%@NL@%
Andronicus II Palaeologus, 1282--1328%@NL@%
Andronicus III Palaeologus, 1328--41%@NL@%
John V Palaeologus, 1341--76%@NL@%
John VI Cantacuzenus (usurper), 1347--55%@NL@%
Andronicus IV Palaeologus, 1376--79%@NL@%
John V Palaeologus (restored), 1379--91%@NL@%
John VII Palaeologus (usurper), 1390%@NL@%
Manuel II Palaeologus, 1391--1425%@NL@%
John VII Palaeologus (restored as coemperor), 1399--1412%@NL@%
John VIII Palaeologus, 1425--48%@NL@%
Constantine XI Palaeologus, 1449--53%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byzantine music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byzantine music%@AE@%,%@CR:BYZANTINE.MUSIC @%%@QR:Byzantine music@% music of the %@AU@%BYZANTINE EMPIRE%@BO:          165ae5@%%@AE@% (4th to 15th cent.),%@EH@%
composed to Greek texts as ceremonial festival or church music. Elements
were derived from Syrian, Hebrew, and Greek sources. Although Greek
instruments were used, the %@AU@%ORGAN%@BO:          6ead26@%%@AE@% was the main one. Almost all surviving
Byzantine music is sacred; its major form was the %@AU@%HYMN%@BO:          461652@%%@AE@%. Byzantine chant
was monodic, in free %@AU@%RHYTHM%@BO:          7eedb5@%%@AE@%. Notation was first a series of symbols to
remind the singer of a melody he already knew; later a staffless notation
indicating starting note and subsequent intervals of a melody was used
(see %@AU@%MUSICAL NOTATION%@BO:          6572d2@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Byzantium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Byzantium%@AE@%,%@CR:BYZANTIUM       @%%@QR:Byzantium@% ancient city of Thrace, on the site of present-day Istanbul,%@EH@%
Turkey. Founded by Greeks in 667 BC, it was chosen (AD 330) by
%@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227fe2@%%@AE@% as the site for Constantinople, later the capital of the
%@AU@%BYZANTINE EMPIRE%@BO:          165ae5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%C%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%C%@AE@%,%@CR:C               @%%@QR:C@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ca%@AE@%,%@CR:CA              @%%@QR:Ca@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CALCIUM%@BO:          16e8ab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cabal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cabal%@AE@%,%@CR:CABAL           @%%@QR:Cabal@% inner circle of advisers to %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% of England. Their initials%@EH@%
form the word-Clifford of Chudleigh, Ashley (Lord Shaftesbury),
%@AU@%BUCKINGHAM%@BO:          14fabf@%%@AE@% (George Villiers), Arlington (Henry Bennet), and Lauderdale
(John Maitland). One or more of this group dominated court policy from
1667 to 1673.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cabala%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cabala%@AE@%%@CR:CABALA          @%%@QR:cabala@% [Heb.,=traditional lore], mystical Jewish system of interpretation%@EH@%
of the Scriptures. Cabala is based on the belief that every word, letter,
number, and even accent of the Scriptures contains mysteries. Cabalistic
signs and writings are used as amulets and in magical practices. Cabala
has two principal written sources. The first, %@AI@%Sefer Yezira%@AE@% (tr. %@AI@%Book of
%@AI@%Creation,%@AE@% 1894), probably written in the 3d cent., is a series of
monologues supposedly delivered by the patriarch Abraham. The second,
%@AI@%Zohar%@AE@% (partial tr., 1949), is a mystical commentary on the Pentateuch
written by Moses de Leon (13th cent.) but attributed to Simon ben Yohai,
a great scholar of the 2d cent. The movement appears to have arisen in
11th-cent. France and spread, most notably to Spain. After the expulsion
of the Jews from Spain in 1492, cabala became messianic in emphasis,
especially as developed by Isaac %@AU@%LURIA%@BO:          57eca5@%%@AE@%. This form of cabala had many
adherents, including the pseudo-Messiah %@AU@%SABBATAI ZEVI%@BO:          82ad92@%%@AE@%. It was also a
major influence in the development of 18th-cent. %@AU@%HASIDISM%@BO:          4062bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cabbage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cabbage%@AE@%,%@CR:CABBAGE         @%%@QR:cabbage@% leafy garden vegetable of many widely dissimilar varieties, all%@EH@%
probably descended from the wild, or sea, cabbage (%@AI@%Brassica oleracea%@AE@%) of
the %@AU@%MUSTARD%@BO:          65af93@%%@AE@% family, found on European coasts. Cabbage is used as food for
humans and animals. Varieties include %@AU@%BROCCOLI%@BO:          1426e0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BRUSSELS SPROUTS%@BO:          14c0e0@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%CAULIFLOWER%@BO:          1a7268@%%@AE@%, collards, %@AU@%KALE%@BO:          4e036a@%%@AE@%, and kohlrabi. All grow best in cool moist
climates. Chinese cabbage is a separate species.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cabell, (James) Branch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cabell, (James) Branch%@AE@%,%@CR:CABELL          @%%@QR:Cabell, (James) Branch@% 1879-1958, American author; b. Richmond. Popular%@EH@%
in the 1920s, many of his anti-realistic novels, e.g., %@AI@%Jurgen%@AE@% (1919), are
set in an imaginary medieval kingdom and can be considered moral
allegories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez%@AE@%%@CR:CABEZA.DE.VACA  @%%@QR:Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez@%, c.1490-c.1557, Spanish explorer. During an%@EH@%
expedition to %@AU@%FLORIDA%@BO:          33d075@%%@AE@% in 1528 he was shipwrecked on a %@AU@%TEXAS%@BO:          94505d@%%@AE@% island and
enslaved by Indians. He escaped and wandered over the Southwest, reaching
Mexico in 1536. His reports of the %@AU@%PUEBLO INDIANS%@BO:          7ac21a@%%@AE@% gave rise to the myth
of the Seven Cities of Cibola. He was later governor of a region of
%@AU@%PARAGUAY%@BO:          710be3@%%@AE@% but was deposed in 1544.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cabinda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cabinda%@AE@%,%@CR:CABINDA         @%%@QR:Cabinda@% (1970 pop. 81,265), exclave of Angola, from which it is%@EH@%
separated by Zairian territory. Situated on the Atlantic Ocean, Cabinda
has produced oil from large offshore reserves since 1968, accounting for
most of Angola's output. The scene of heavy fighting during the war for
independence from Portugal (1961-75), its secessionary movement has been
reconciled with the government of Angola.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cabinet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cabinet%@AE@%,%@CR:CABINET         @%%@QR:cabinet@% group of advisers to the head of government who are also usually%@EH@%
the heads of administrative government departments. In Great Britain,
where cabinet ministers are drawn from the majority party in the House of
Commons, its modern status developed after the establishment of the
sovereignty of %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@% and the emergence of party government in the
18th cent. In multi-party systems, e.g., that of France, coalition
cabinets are more common. The U.S. cabinet, not specifically established
by the Constitution, has evolved through custom and is now defined by
statute. Its members are appointed by the president and approved by the
Senate. The first cabinet appointments (1789) were the secretaries of
state, treasury, and war. The executive departments whose secretaries are
in the cabinet are (in order of establishment) the departments of %@AU@%STATE%@BO:          8e58cd@%%@AE@%;
the %@AU@%TREASURY%@BO:          979044@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DEFENSE%@BO:          275e26@%%@AE@% (formerly departments of War and Navy); the
%@AU@%INTERIOR%@BO:          48cbea@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AGRICULTURE%@BO:           2226e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%JUSTICE%@BO:          4dd65a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COMMERCE%@BO:          20fba7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%LABOR%@BO:          514862@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HEALTH AND HUMAN
%@AU@%SERVICES%@BO:          40d85f@%%@AE@% (formerly Health, Education, and Welfare); %@AU@%HOUSING AND URBAN
%@AU@%DEVELOPMENT%@BO:          44baa4@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TRANSPORTATION%@BO:          977b7c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ed987@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%EDUCATION%@BO:          2c7e14@%%@AE@%; and %@AU@%VETERANS AFFAIRS%@BO:          9d05c1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cable, George Washington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cable, George Washington%@AE@%,%@CR:CABLE1          @%%@QR:Cable, George Washington@% 1844-1925, American author; b. New Orleans. He%@EH@%
is chiefly known for his early works describing picturesque Louisiana
Creole life, e.g., %@AI@%Old Creole Days%@AE@% (1879) and %@AI@%The Grandissimes%@AE@% (1880).
His later essays, e.g., %@AI@%The Negro Question%@AE@% (1890), reflect his social
concern.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cable%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cable%@AE@%,%@CR:CABLE2          @%%@QR:cable@% usually, high-strength wire cord or heavy metal chain used for%@EH@%
hauling, towing, supporting the roadway of a suspension bridge, or
securing a large ship to its anchor or mooring. Electric cables are
conductors used for the transmission of electrical signals. A coaxial
cable, virtually immune to external electromagnetic interference,
consists of a tube of copper or other conducting material, the center of
which contains another conductor. The two conductors are separated by an
insulator. By means of coaxial cables a large number of telegraph and
telephone messages, as well as television images (see %@AU@%CABLE TELEVISION%@BO:          169771@%%@AE@%),
can be simultaneously transmitted. An intertwined and insulated group of
wires that conducts electricity from generator to consumer is also called
a cable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cable television%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cable television%@AE@%%@CR:CABLE.TN        @%%@QR:cable television@% (CATV), form of %@AU@%BROADCASTING%@BO:          142173@%%@AE@% that sends programs to%@EH@%
paying subscribers by means of coaxial %@AU@%CABLE%@BO:          1693be@%%@AE@% rather than through the
airwaves. It originated (1949) to serve areas where reception was poor or
nonexistent, and expanded rapidly in the mid-1970s with the easing of
government restrictions and the use of %@AU@%COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE%@BO:          211e4c@%%@AE@%
transmission. Further programming and audience growth came in the early
1980s, when the government moved to deregulate the industry. In addition
to providing the programming of the local television broadcasting
stations, CATV operators often offer additional channels of first-run
movies, sports events, and around-the-clock news programming. The most
advanced systems offer two-way, or interactive, communication;
information services such as %@AU@%VIDEOTEX%@BO:          9d465a@%%@AE@%; and burglar- and fire-alarm
protection.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cabot, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cabot, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CABOT           @%%@QR:Cabot, John@% fl. 1461-98, English explorer; probably b. Genoa, Italy.%@EH@%
Under a patent granted by %@AU@%HENRY VII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%, he sailed W from Bristol in 1497,
probably seeking the riches of the Far East, and touched the North
American coast. His second expedition (1498) disappeared. English claims
in %@AU@%NORTH AMERICA%@BO:          6b42c8@%%@AE@% were based on his discovery. His son, %@AB@%Sebastian Cabot%@AE@%,
b. 1483-86?, d. 1557, was an explorer in English and Spanish service. In
1509 he was part of an expedition in search of the %@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@% and
may have reached %@AU@%HUDSON BAY%@BO:          4501be@%%@AE@%. Later he explored (1526-30) the Rio de la
Plata region of Brazil for the Spanish. In 1548 he became governor of a
joint-stock company in England (later the %@AU@%MUSCOVY COMPANY%@BO:          655b35@%%@AE@%), which
negotiated a commercial treaty with Russia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cabral, Pedro Alvares%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cabral, Pedro Alvares%@AE@%%@CR:CABRAL          @%%@QR:Cabral, Pedro Alvares@%, c.1467-c.1520, Portuguese navigator. On an%@EH@%
expedition to %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% in 1500, he went far west of his course and reached
%@AU@%BRAZIL%@BO:          137c76@%%@AE@%, which he claimed for Portugal. He finally reached India, but his
high-handed practices in trade and religion angered the Indians, and he
returned to Portugal. His landing in Brazil, accidental or prearranged,
was not the first European visit there, though the question of who
actually discovered Brazil is still debated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cabrini, Saint Frances Xavier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cabrini, Saint Frances Xavier%@AE@%,%@CR:CABRINI         @%%@QR:Cabrini, Saint Frances Xavier@% 1850-1917, American nun; b. Italy. She%@EH@%
founded in Italy the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus; in
1889 she was sent by the pope to the U.S. to aid Italian immigrants. She
was the first U.S. citizen to be canonized (1946). Feast: Nov. 13 (in the
U.S.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cacao%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cacao%@AE@%%@CR:CACAO           @%%@QR:cacao@% tropical tree (%@AI@%Theobroma cacao%@AE@%) of the sterculia family, native to%@EH@%
South America and now widely cultivated in the Old World. The fruit is a
pod that contains a sweet pulp with rows of embedded seeds (the cocoa
"beans" of commerce). Cocoa is obtained by fermenting the pods and then
curing and roasting the extracted seeds. The resulting clean kernels, or
cocoa nibs, are then processed. %@AU@%CHOCOLATE%@BO:          1db631@%%@AE@% is one product. Cacao products
have high food value due to their fat, carbohydrate, and protein content.
Other uses are in cosmetics and medicines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cactus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cactus%@AE@%,%@CR:CACTUS          @%%@QR:cactus@% common name for the Cactaceae, a family of succulent plants found%@EH@%
almost entirely in the New World. Cactus plants have fleshy green stems
that function as leaves (the leaves are typically insignificant or
absent), and, usually, spines of various colors, shapes, and
arrangements. The large, showy, delicate flowers are commonly yellow,
white, red, or purple. Cactus fruits are berries, some of which are
edible. The reduced leaf surface and fleshy stem make cacti well fitted
for water storage and retention. An extensive, ramified root system makes
the plants adaptable to hot, dry regions, although cacti are not
restricted to the desert. Most cacti blossom briefly in the spring,
sometimes for only a few hours. Blossoms are especially sensitive to
light, and different species bloom at different times of the day, e.g.,
the night-blooming cereus, whose fragrant blossoms unfold after sunset
and last one night. Many species are cultivated for food or ornamentals;
the hallucinatory drug %@AU@%PEYOTE%@BO:          7451f7@%%@AE@% comes from a cactus of that name.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe%@AE@%%@CR:CADILLAC        @%%@QR:Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe@%, c.1658-1730, French colonial governor in%@EH@%
North America; founder (1701) of Detroit. In 1711 he became governor of
Louisiana, but after quarrels in his administration he was recalled
(1716).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cadiz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cadiz%@AE@%%@CR:CADIZ           @%%@QR:Cadiz@%, city (1981 pop. 157,766), capital of Cadiz prov., SW Spain, in%@EH@%
Andalusia, on the Bay of Cadiz. It is a port with such industries as
shipbuilding and fishing. Founded c.1100 BC by the Phoenicians, it passed
to Carthage (c.500 BC), Rome (3d cent. BC), the Moors (AD 711), and
%@AU@%ALFONSO X%@BO:           3888e@%%@AE@% of Castile (1262). It became a New World trade center but
declined when Spain lost its American colonies. The clean, white city has
palm-lined promenades and parks and a 13th-cent. cathedral.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cadmium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cadmium%@AE@%%@CR:CADMIUM         @%%@QR:cadmium@% (Cd), metallic element, discovered in 1817 by Friedrich%@EH@%
Stromeyer. Cadmium is a silver-white, lustrous, malleable, ductile metal.
Its major use is as an electroplated coating on iron and steel to prevent
corrosion. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cadmus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cadmus%@AE@%,%@CR:CADMUS          @%%@QR:Cadmus@% in Greek myth, son of Agenor; founder of %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94ac71@%%@AE@%. He killed the%@EH@%
sacred dragon that guarded the spring of %@AU@%ARES%@BO:           780db@%%@AE@%. As instructed by %@AU@%ATHENA%@BO:           94c26@%%@AE@%,
he sowed the dragon's teeth; from them sprang the Sparti, ancestors of
the Theban nobility. He married Harmonia, daughter of Ares and %@AU@%APHRODITE%@BO:           6a3b4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caduceus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caduceus%@AE@%,%@CR:CADUCEUS        @%%@QR:caduceus@% wing-topped staff, wound about by two snakes, carried by%@EH@%
%@AU@%HERMES%@BO:          424809@%%@AE@%. In earlier cultures, notably the Babylonian, the intertwined
snakes symbolized fertility, wisdom, and healing. The staff was carried
by Greek officials and became a Roman symbol for truce and neutrality.
Since the 16th cent. it has served as a symbol of medicine; it is the
insignia of the medical branch of the U.S. army.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caecilian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caecilian%@AE@%,%@CR:CAECILIAN       @%%@QR:caecilian@% legless, tailless tropical %@AU@%AMPHIBIAN%@BO:           4df7b@%%@AE@% (family Caecilidae). Most%@EH@%
are c.1 ft (30 cm) long. Resembling earthworms superficially, but having
vertebrate characteristics such as jaws and teeth, caecilians eat animals
like termites and earthworms and are found in swampy places. Their eyes
are nearly functionless; a groove on either side of the head contains a
retractable sensory tentacle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caedmon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caedmon%@AE@%,%@CR:CAEDMON         @%%@QR:Caedmon@% fl. 670, English poet, said by %@AU@%BEDE%@BO:           d9426@%%@AE@% to have written early%@EH@%
English versions of %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@% stories. A herdsman reputed to have
received poetic powers through a vision, he later became a lay brother at
the abbey of Whitby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caesar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caesar%@AE@%,%@CR:CAESAR1         @%%@QR:Caesar@% name used by a patrician family of Rome. The careers of Julius%@EH@%
%@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% and the adopted %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@% led to the name acquiring an imperial
character. In the later Roman Empire it was the title given to the
subemperor, who would presumably later become the emperor. The title
reappeared later as the German %@AI@%kaiser%@AE@% and the Russian %@AI@%czar%@AE@% or %@AI@%tsar%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caesar, (Caius) Julius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caesar, (Caius) Julius%@AE@%,%@CR:CAESAR2         @%%@QR:Caesar, (Caius) Julius@% 102? BC-44 BC, Roman statesman and general.%@EH@%
Although he was born into the Julian gens, one of the oldest patrician
families in Rome, Caesar was always a member of the democratic or popular
party. In 82 BC, %@AU@%SULLA%@BO:          9074e8@%%@AE@% proscribed Caesar, who fled from Rome (81 BC). On
Sulla's death, Caesar returned (78 BC) to Rome and began his political
career as a member of the popular party. In 69 BC he helped %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@% to
obtain the supreme command for the war in the East. He himself returned
to Rome from Spain in 68 BC and continued to support the enactment of
popular measures and to prosecute senatorial extortionists. In 63 BC, as
pontifex maximus, he undertook the reform of the calendar with the help
of Sosigenes; the result was one of his greatest contributions to
history, the Julian %@AU@%CALENDAR%@BO:          170f32@%%@AE@%. In 60 BC he organized a coalition, known as
the First Triumvirate, made up of Pompey, commander in chief of the army;
Marcus Licinius Crassus (see %@AU@%CRASSUS%@BO:          245a2c@%%@AE@%, family), the wealthiest man in
Rome; and Caesar himself. In the years 58 to 49 BC he firmly established
his reputation in the %@AU@%GALLIC WARS%@BO:          377e6e@%%@AE@%. Caesar made explorations into Britain
in 55 and 54 BC and defeated the Britons. By the end of the wars Caesar
had reduced all Gaul to Roman control. These campaigns proved him one of
the greatest military commanders of all time and also developed the
personal devotion of the Roman legions to Caesar. Crassus' death (53 BC)
ended the First Triumvirate and set Pompey and Caesar at odds. In 50 BC
the senate ordered Caesar to disband his army, but two tribunes faithful
to Caesar, Marc %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@% and Quintus Cassius Longinus, vetoed the bill.
They fled to Caesar, who assembled his army and got the support of the
soldiers against the senate. On Jan. 19, 49 BC, Caesar crossed the
Rubicon, the stream bounding his province, to enter Italy, and civil war
began. His march to Rome was a triumphal progress. At Pharsala in 48 BC,
Caesar defeated Pompey, who fled to Egypt, where he was killed. Caesar,
having pursued Pompey to Egypt, remained there for some time, living with
%@AU@%CLEOPATRA%@BO:          1f4a5a@%%@AE@% and establishing her firmly on the Egyptian throne. On his
return to Rome, he set about reforming the living conditions of the
people by passing %@AU@%AGRARIAN LAWS%@BO:           218f9@%%@AE@% and by improving housing accommodations.
In 44 BC he became dictator for life. His dictatorial powers had aroused
great resentment in his enemies, but when a conspiracy was formed against
him, it was made up of his friends and proteges, among them Cimber,
Casca, Cassius, and Marcus Junius Brutus (see %@AU@%BRUTUS%@BO:          14c941@%%@AE@%, family). On March
15 (the Ides of March), 44 BC, he was stabbed to death in the senate
house. His will left everything to his 18-year-old grandnephew Octavian
(later %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%). Caesar made the Roman Empire possible by uniting the
state after a century of disorder, by establishing an autocracy in place
of the oligarchy, and by pacifying Italy and the provinces. He has always
been one of the most controversial characters of history, either
considered the defender of the rights of the people against an oligarchy
or regarded as an ambitious demagogue who forced his way to power and
destroyed the republic. That he was gifted and versatile there can be
little doubt. His commentaries on the Gallic Wars (seven books) and on
the civil war (three books) are literary masterpieces as well as classic
military documents. He was married three times: to Cornelia, to Pompeia,
and to %@AU@%CALPURNIA%@BO:          1768b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caesarean section%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caesarean section%@AE@%:%@CR:CAESAREON       @%%@QR:Caesarean section@% see %@AU@%CESAREAN SECTION%@BO:          1b1ba4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caetano, Marcello%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caetano, Marcello%@AE@%%@CR:CAETANO         @%%@QR:Caetano, Marcello@%, 1906-80, Portuguese statesman. A law professor and%@EH@%
close associate of Antonio %@AU@%SALAZAR%@BO:          838135@%%@AE@%, he helped to plan Portugal's
corporate state and served as prime minister (1968-74). His government
was overthrown by a military coup, and he was exiled.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caffeine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caffeine%@AE@%,%@CR:CAFFEINE        @%%@QR:caffeine@% odorless, slightly bitter %@AU@%ALKALOID%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@% found in coffee, tea, %@AU@%COLA%@BO:          201aa9@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
nuts, %@AU@%MATE%@BO:          5d0be2@%%@AE@%, and cocoa (see %@AU@%CACAO%@BO:          16a465@%%@AE@%). In moderation, caffeine is a mild
stimulant that increases urination and the heart rate and rhythm.
Excessive intake can cause restlessness, insomnia, heart irregularities,
and delirium.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cage, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cage, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CAGE            @%%@QR:Cage, John@% 1912-, American composer; b. Los Angeles. He is famous for%@EH@%
his controversial theories, experimental compositions, and performances,
featuring percussion instruments that include a piano "prepared" with
objects attached to the strings. Cage has also experimented with aleatory
or "chance" music, e.g., %@AI@%Music of Changes%@AE@% (1951), in which certain
elements were derived by use of charts from the %@AI@%I Ching.%@AE@% His famous
%@AI@%Imaginary Landscape No. 4%@AE@% (1951) is scored for 12 radios tuned at random.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cagney, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cagney, James%@AE@%,%@CR:CAGNEY          @%%@QR:Cagney, James@% 1904-86, American film actor; b. N.Y.C. A tough guy in%@EH@%
such films as %@AI@%Public Enemy%@AE@% (1930) and %@AI@%White Heat%@AE@% (1949), he also made
musicals, e.g., %@AI@%Yankee Doodle Dandy%@AE@% (1942; Academy Award).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cahan, Abraham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cahan, Abraham%@AE@%%@CR:CAHAN           @%%@QR:Cahan, Abraham@%, 1860-1951, American journalist and author; b. Lithuania.%@EH@%
He helped found (1897) the %@AI@%Jewish Daily Forward,%@AE@% the most influential
Jewish newspaper in the U.S. A leader of the Socialist party, he
encouraged the unionization of the garment workers in New York City.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cain%@AE@%,%@CR:CAIN1           @%%@QR:Cain@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, eldest son of %@AU@%ADAM%@BO:            ee16@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EVE%@BO:          30e3e2@%%@AE@%, a tiller of the soil. In%@EH@%
jealousy he killed his brother %@AU@%ABEL%@BO:            2f17@%%@AE@% and became a fugitive. Gen. 4.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cain, James M.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cain, James M.%@AE@%,%@CR:CAIN2           @%%@QR:Cain, James M.@% 1892-1977, American novelist; b. Annapolis, Md. His%@EH@%
"hard-boiled" books, many made into movies, often concern middle-class
lovers driven to violence. His novels include %@AI@%The Postman Always Rings
%@AI@%Twice%@AE@% (1934) and %@AI@%Mildred Pierce%@AE@% (1941).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cairn terrier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cairn terrier%@AE@%,%@CR:CAIRN.TERRIER   @%%@QR:cairn terrier@% small working %@AU@%TERRIER%@BO:          942cc2@%%@AE@%: shoulder height, c.10 in. (25 cm);%@EH@%
weight, c.14 lb (6.4 kg). Its tough double coat has a soft, furry
underlayer and a profuse, hard outercoat of any color but white. It was
originally bred (19th cent.) on the Isle of Skye for hunting vermin and
otters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cairo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cairo%@AE@%,%@CR:CAIRO           @%%@QR:Cairo@% city (1985 est. pop. 6,205,000), capital of Egypt, N Egypt, a port%@EH@%
on the Nile R., near the head of its delta. Cairo is Egypt's
administrative center and, along with %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@%, the heart of its
economy. Manufactures include textiles, food products, and chemicals. It
was founded in AD 969 by the %@AU@%FATIMID%@BO:          31ffbf@%%@AE@% dynasty as capital of Egypt. In 1517
it became part of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%. Cairo fell to %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% in 1798
and to the British in 1801. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% it was Allied
headquarters in the Middle East. In the late 1970s Cairo became an
important Middle Eastern financial and commercial center.
Egyptian-Israeli talks took place (1977) there, and the headquarters of
the %@AU@%ARAB LEAGUE%@BO:           713e4@%%@AE@% was moved (1979) from Cairo to %@AU@%TUNIS%@BO:          9898d8@%%@AE@%. Cairo has many
mosques, palaces, museums, and universities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caisson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caisson%@AE@%,%@CR:CAISSON         @%%@QR:caisson@% chamber of steel, wood, or concrete used in constructing%@EH@%
foundations or piers in or near water. Types of caissons include open (a
cylinder or box, open at the top and bottom, that is sunk and then filled
with concrete) and pneumatic (a cylinder or box with an airtight bulkhead
permitting people to work under it; air pressure is high enough to
prevent water entry).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calais%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calais%@AE@%,%@CR:CALAIS          @%%@QR:Calais@% city (1982 pop. 76,935), N France, on the Strait of Dover. An%@EH@%
industrial center, it has been a major seaport and communications link
with England since the Middle Ages. England held it from 1347 to 1558,
when the Duke of %@AU@%GUISE%@BO:          3e7bd6@%%@AE@% recovered it. Calais was almost razed in World War
II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calamity Jane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calamity Jane%@AE@%%@CR:CALAMITY.JANE   @%%@QR:Calamity Jane@% (Martha Jane Canary), c.1852-1903, American frontier%@EH@%
character; b. Princeton, Mo. In 1876 she appeared in Deadwood, S.D.,
dressed in men's clothes, and boasted of her exploits as a pony-express
rider and army scout. She later toured the West in a burlesque show.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calcia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calcia%@AE@%:%@CR:CALCIA          @%%@QR:calcia@% see %@AU@%CALCIUM OXIDE%@BO:          16ee1e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calcite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calcite%@AE@%,%@CR:CALCITE         @%%@QR:calcite@% widely distributed calcium carbonate mineral (CaCO%@AH@%3%@AE@%) that ranges%@EH@%
from white or colorless through a great variety of colors, owing to
impurities. Its crystals are noted for their perfect cleavage. Calcite
also occurs in a number of massive forms, including %@AU@%MARBLE%@BO:          5b652f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LIMESTONE%@BO:          552e39@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%CHALK%@BO:          1b417c@%%@AE@%. Other forms include %@AU@%ICELAND SPAR%@BO:          466a1f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%STALACTITE AND STALAGMITE%@BO:          8e0df7@%%@AE@%
formations, Oriental %@AU@%ALABASTER%@BO:           29b33@%%@AE@%, and marl. It is used as a building stone
and is the raw material for quicklime (%@AU@%CALCIUM OXIDE%@BO:          16ee1e@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%CEMENT%@BO:          1aceae@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calcium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calcium%@AE@%%@CR:CALCIUM         @%%@QR:calcium@% (Ca), metallic element, first isolated in 1808 by Sir Humphry%@EH@%
%@AU@%DAVY%@BO:          26d9c9@%%@AE@%. It is a silver-white, soft, malleable %@AU@%ALKALINE-EARTH METAL%@BO:           3cfda@%%@AE@%. The
fifth most abundant element (3.64%) of the earth's crust, it is not found
uncombined but occurs in numerous compounds, e.g., %@AU@%APATITE%@BO:           6966e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CALCITE%@BO:          16e522@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%DOLOMITE%@BO:          29e190@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ICELAND SPAR%@BO:          466a1f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LIMESTONE%@BO:          552e39@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MARBLE%@BO:          5b652f@%%@AE@%. Calcium acts as a reducing
agent in the preparation of other metals. It occurs inmost plant and
animal matter, and is essential for the formation and maintenance of
strong bones and teeth. Calcium helps to regulate the heartbeat and is
necessary for blood clotting. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calcium carbonate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calcium carbonate%@AE@%:%@CR:CALCIUMTE       @%%@QR:calcium carbonate@% see %@AU@%CALCITE%@BO:          16e522@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CHALK%@BO:          1b417c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%LIMESTONE%@BO:          552e39@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calcium oxide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calcium oxide%@AE@%%@CR:CALCIUM.OXIDE   @%%@QR:calcium oxide@% or %@AB@%calcia,%@AE@%chemical compound (CaO), also called lime,%@EH@%
quicklime, or caustic lime. A colorless crystalline or white amorphous
substance, it has wide industrial uses, e.g., in making porcelain and
glass; in purifying sugar; in preparing bleaching powder, calcium
carbide, and calcium cyanamide; in water softeners; in mortars and
cements; and in treating acidic soil (liming).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calculator, electronic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calculator, electronic%@AE@%,%@CR:CALCULATOR      @%%@QR:calculator, electronic@% electronic device for performing numerical%@EH@%
computations. Electronic calculators became available in the early 1960s,
and in the early 70s miniature types, some pocket size, were marketed as
consumer items. Electronic calculators have ten keys that can be used to
enter numbers into the machine; additional keys are provided to enable
the user to perform a range of operations, from basic arithmetic in
simple devices to the generation of complex mathematical functions in
more advanced types. The results are either shown on an electronic
display or printed. Some of these machines are actually small %@AU@%COMPUTERS%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%
with limited memory and programming capabilities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calculus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calculus%@AE@%,%@CR:CALCULUS        @%%@QR:calculus@% branch of %@AU@%MATHEMATICS%@BO:          5d1200@%%@AE@% that studies continuously changing%@EH@%
quantities. It was developed in the 17th cent. independently by Sir Isaac
%@AU@%NEWTON%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@% and G.W. %@AU@%LEIBNIZ%@BO:          539448@%%@AE@%. The calculus is characterized by the use of
infinite processes, involving passage to a %@AU@%LIMIT%@BO:          55320b@%%@AE@%. The %@AI@%differential
%@AI@%calculus%@AE@% arises from the study of the rate at which a %@AU@%FUNCTION%@BO:          36d8ee@%%@AE@%, usually
symbolized by %@AI@%y or%@AE@% %@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%), changes relative to a change in the independent
variable, usually %@AI@%x.%@AE@% This relative rate can be computed from a new
function-the derivative of %@AI@%y%@AE@% with respect to %@AI@%x,%@AE@% denoted by %@AI@%dy/dx, y',%@AE@% or
%@AI@%f'%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%)-arrived at by a process called %@AI@%differentiation.%@AE@% Formulas have been
developed for the derivatives of all commonly encountered functions. For
example, if %@AI@%y%@AE@%=%@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%n%@AE@% for any real number %@AI@%n%@AE@% except-1, then %@AI@%y%@AE@%'=%@AI@%nx%@AE@%%@AH@%n-1%@AE@%, and if
%@AI@%y%@AE@%=sin %@AI@%x,%@AE@% then %@AI@%y'%@AE@%=cos %@AI@%x%@AE@% (see %@AU@%TRIGONOMETRY%@BO:          97c6ce@%%@AE@%). In physical applications, the
independent variable is frequently time, e.g., if %@AI@%s%@AE@%=%@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%t%@AE@%) expresses the
relation between the distance %@AI@%s%@AE@% traveled and the time %@AI@%t%@AE@% elapsed, then
%@AI@%s'=%@AE@%%@AI@%f'%@AE@%(%@AI@%t%@AE@%) represents the rate of change of distance with time, i.e., the
speed or velocity (see %@AU@%MOTION%@BO:          64539b@%%@AE@%) at time %@AI@%t.%@AE@% Geometrically, the derivative
is interpreted as the slope of the line tangent to a curve at a point.
This view of the derivative yields applications, e.g., in the design of
optical mirrors and lenses and the determination of projectile paths. The
%@AI@%integral calculus%@AE@% arises from the study of the limit of a sum of elements
when the number of such elements increases without bound while the size
of the elements diminishes. Conventionally, the area %@AI@%A%@AE@% under the curve
%@AI@%y%@AE@%=%@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%) between the two values %@AI@%x=a%@AE@% and %@AI@%x=b%@AE@% is symbolized by
%@AI@%A=integral%@AE@%%@AH@%b%@AE@%%@AH@%a%@AE@%f(%@AI@%x%@AE@%)%@AI@%dx,%@AE@% called the definite integral of %@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%) from %@AI@%a%@AE@% to %@AI@%b.%@AE@% The
area is approximated by summing the products of %@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%) and %@AI@%dx%@AE@% for each of
the infinitely small distances (%@AI@%dx%@AE@%) that comprise the measurable distance
between %@AI@%a%@AE@% and %@AI@%b.%@AE@% This method can be used to determine the lengths of
curves, the areas bounded by curves, and the volumes of solids bounded by
curved surfaces. The connection between the integral and the derivative
is known as the Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus, which, in symbols,
is %@AI@%integral%@AE@%%@AH@%b%@AE@%%@AH@%a%@AE@%f(%@AI@%x%@AE@%)%@AI@%dx=F%@AE@%(%@AI@%b%@AE@%)-%@AI@%F%@AE@%(%@AI@%a%@AE@%), where %@AI@%F%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%) is a function whose derivative is
%@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%). The calculus has been developed to treat functions not only of a
single variable but also of several variables and is the foundation for
the larger branch of mathematics known as %@AU@%ANALYSIS%@BO:           50fa1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calcutta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calcutta%@AE@%,%@CR:CALCUTTA        @%%@QR:Calcutta@% city (1981 est. pop. 9,166,000), capital of West Bengal state,%@EH@%
E India, on the Hooghly R. It is India's second largest city, and the
chief port and industrial center of E India. Jute is milled, and
textiles, chemicals, and metal products are manufactured. Nearly 60
languages are spoken in the city, which suffers from poverty,
overcrowding, and high unemployment. It was founded 1696 by the British
%@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be578@%%@AE@%. In 1756 the nawab of Bengal captured the garrison,
many of whom died when imprisoned in a small, stifling room known as the
"black hole." Robert Clive retook the city in 1757. It became (1912) the
capital of British India. It is one of the great cultural centers of
India.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caldecott, Randolph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caldecott, Randolph%@AE@%%@CR:CALDECOTT       @%%@QR:Caldecott, Randolph@%, 1846-86, English artist. His colored illustrations%@EH@%
for 16 picture books, e.g., %@AI@%The House That Jack Built%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Grand
%@AI@%Panjandrum Himself,%@AE@% inspired the Caldecott Medal for children's-book
illustration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calder, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calder, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:CALDER          @%%@QR:Calder, Alexander@% 1898-1976, one of the most innovative modern American%@EH@%
sculptors; b. Philadelphia. Famous for his %@AU@%MOBILES%@BO:          61e22b@%%@AE@%, brightly colored
constellations of moving shapes, he is also known for his witty wire
portraits, imaginative jewelry, colorful and complex miniature zoo (1925;
Whitney Mus., N.Y.C.), and abstract immobile sculptures called stabiles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calderon de la Barca, Pedro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calderon de la Barca, Pedro%@AE@%%@CR:CALDEROBARCA    @%%@QR:Calderon de la Barca, Pedro@%, 1600-1681, Spanish dramatist, last major%@EH@%
figure of the %@AU@%GOLDEN AGE%@BO:          3b20f6@%%@AE@%. He wrote more than 100 plays, including 70
%@AI@%autos sacramentales%@AE@% (one-act religious plays) for the Corpus Christi
festival; cloak-and-dagger thrillers; and comedies of manners like %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Mayor of Zalamea%@AE@% (c.1640). His philosophical drama %@AI@%Life Is a Dream%@AE@% (1635)
is considered a masterpiece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caldwell, Erskine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caldwell, Erskine%@AE@%,%@CR:CALDWELL1       @%%@QR:Caldwell, Erskine@% 1903-1987, American author; b. White Oak, Ga. His%@EH@%
realistic, earthy novels of the rural South include %@AI@%Tobacco Road%@AE@% (1932)
and %@AI@%God's Little Acre%@AE@% (1933). His short stories appear in many
collections, e.g., %@AI@%Jackpot%@AE@% (1940).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caldwell, Sarah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caldwell, Sarah%@AE@%,%@CR:CALDWELL2       @%%@QR:Caldwell, Sarah@% 1924-, American opera director and conductor; b.%@EH@%
Maryville, Mo. In 1957 she founded the Boston Opera Group, later renamed
the Opera Company of Boston. Under her direction, the company became
noted for its innovative productions of such operas as %@AU@%MOUSSORGSKY'S%@BO:          64aef5@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Boris Godunov%@AE@% and %@AU@%SCHOENBERG'S%@BO:          85937e@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Moses and Aaron.%@AE@% In 1976 she became the
first woman to conduct the %@AU@%METROPOLITAN OPERA%@BO:          5f8daf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calendar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calendar%@AE@%,%@CR:CALENDAR        @%%@QR:calendar@% system of reckoning time usually based on a recurrent natural%@EH@%
cycle, such as the cycle of the sun through the seasons (see %@AU@%YEAR%@BO:          a3ff13@%%@AE@%) or the
moon through its phases (see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%). Because the solar year is 365 days 5
hr 48 min 46 sec and the lunar year (12 synodic months of 29.53 days) is
354 days 8 hr 48 min, people have been confronted from ancient times with
the problem of the discrepancy. Because the year is not exactly divisible
by months and days, the practice arose of making arbitrary divisions and
inserting extra (intercalary) days or months. The Gregorian calendar,
generally accepted today, evolved from the Roman calendar reformed (46
BC) by Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%. In the Julian calendar April, June, September, and
November had 30 days, February 28 days (29 days every fourth, or leap,
year), and all other months 31 days. The date was computed by counting
backward from the Kalends (the 1st day), the Nones (the 7th day in March,
May, July, and October; the 5th day in other months), and the Ides (the
15th day in March, May, July, and October; the 13th day in other months);
hence Jan. 10 was the 4th day of the Ides of January. Because the Julian
year of 365 days 6 hr was too long, by the 16th cent. the vernal equinox
was displaced from March 21 to March 11. Pope %@AU@%GREGORY XIII%@BO:          3d893b@%%@AE@% ordained that
10 days be dropped in 1582 and that years ending in hundreds be leap
years only if divisible by 400. The non-Roman Catholic countries were
slow to accept the Gregorian (New Style) calendar; it was adopted in
England in 1752 and by the Eastern Church in the 20 cent. The Christian
ecclesiastical calendar was based on the belief that %@AU@%JESUS'%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% resurrection
was on a Sunday, hence Easter should fall on Sunday. The First Council of
%@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@% (325) decreed that Easter be the Sunday following the first full
moon after the vernal %@AU@%EQUINOX%@BO:          2fa379@%%@AE@%; today the date varies from the
astronomical reckoning because certain factors of the lunar period are
not considered. Other calendars include the Jewish calendar (12 months,
plus intercalary months 7 times in 19 years) and the Muslim lunar
calendar. See also %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR%@BO:          362b58@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calgary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calgary%@AE@%,%@CR:CALGARY         @%%@QR:Calgary@% city (1986 pop. 636,104), S Alberta, Canada, at the confluence%@EH@%
of the Bow and Elbow rivers. It is a major center for the region's
expanding oil and natural-gas industry, and also an agricultural
processing and wholesaling center. The Calgary Stampede, begun in 1912,
is an annual rodeo usually held in July. Built at the site of a fort
established (1875) by the Northwest Mounted Police, Calgary is now one of
Canada's fastest growing cities. The 1988 Winter Olympic Games were held
there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calhoun, John Caldwell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calhoun, John Caldwell%@AE@%,%@CR:CALHOUN         @%%@QR:Calhoun, John Caldwell@% 1782-1850, American statesman; b. near Abbeville,%@EH@%
S.C. He was the great defender of the agrarian South against the
industrial North, and of the sovereign power of %@AU@%STATES' RIGHTS%@BO:          8e68df@%%@AE@%. After
serving in the House of Representatives (1811-17) and as secretary of war
(1817-25), he was vice president (1825-32) under J.Q. %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:           10887@%%@AE@% and Andrew
%@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@%. He and Jackson disagreed, however, over the nature of the Union,
and Calhoun directed passage (1832) of South Carolina's %@AU@%NULLIFICATION%@BO:          6c33c2@%%@AE@% of
an increased tariff inimical to its interests. As a U.S. senator
(1832-43, 1845-50), he eloquently defended slavery and %@AU@%SECESSION%@BO:          8673dc@%%@AE@%. As
secretary of state (1844-45) under Pres. %@AU@%TYLER%@BO:          992b6c@%%@AE@%, he secured the admission
of Texas to the Union as a slave state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cali%@AE@%,%@CR:CALI            @%%@QR:Cali@% city (1985 pop. 1,397,433), W Colombia, capital of Valle del Cauca%@EH@%
dept., on the Cali R. It is an industrial center, shipping minerals,
lumber, and food products and manufacturing tires, textiles, and building
materials. Founded in 1536, it has doubled its population since 1950,
largely because of a regional hydroelectric power project.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caliari, Paolo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caliari, Paolo%@AE@%:%@CR:CALIARI         @%%@QR:Caliari, Paolo@% see %@AU@%VERONESE, PAOLO%@BO:          9cca79@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%California%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%California%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIFORNIA1     @%%@QR:California@% most populous state in the U.S., located in the Far West;%@EH@%
bordered by Oregon (N), Nevada and Arizona, across the Colorado R. (E),
Mexico (S), and the Pacific Ocean (W).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 158,693 sq mi (411,015 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 26,981,000, a 14.0%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Sacramento. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Sept. 9, 1850
(31st state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Mt. Whitney, 14,491 ft (4,417 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@%
Death Valley, 282 ft (86 m) below sea level. %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Golden State.
%@AI@%Motto, Eureka%@AE@% I Have Found It. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% California valley quail. %@AI@%State
%@AI@%flower,%@AE@% golden poppy. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% California redwood. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Calif.; CA.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% The %@AU@%COAST RANGES%@BO:          1fbd3b@%%@AE@% extend along the Pacific, and in the
north are the famous giant redwood forests. The %@AU@%SAN ANDREAS FAULT%@BO:          83de29@%%@AE@% has
caused severe earthquakes and tremors in the coastal region. To the west
of the Coast Ranges is the fertile Central Valley, drained by the
%@AU@%SACRAMENTO%@BO:          82cced@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SAN JOAQUIN%@BO:          841420@%%@AE@% rivers. Farther east is the dramatic %@AU@%SIERRA
%@AU@%NEVADA%@BO:          88f1f9@%%@AE@% range, location of Kings Canyon, Sequoia, and Yosemite national
parks (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%, ), and of Mt. %@AU@%WHITNEY%@BO:          a15e42@%%@AE@%. California is also the
site of Channel Islands, Lassen Volcanic, and Redwood national parks (see
). The state's eastern section, largely desert, includes %@AU@%DEATH VALLEY%@BO:          2711fc@%%@AE@% and
Joshua Tree national monuments. The climate of California is extremely
varied. In general, there are two seasons: a rainy period from October to
April and a dry period from May to September. Temperatures, mainly mild,
are warmer in the south than in the central and northern sections,
extremely hot in the deserts, and cold in the mountains. Almost 93% of
the population lives in metropolitan areas. %@AU@%LOS ANGELES%@BO:          56c905@%%@AE@% proper is the
country's third-largest city, while Los Angeles-Long Beach is the
second-largest metropolitan area in the U.S. Other major California
cities are %@AU@%SAN DIEGO%@BO:          83f817@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SAN FRANCISCO%@BO:          8406e7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SAN JOSE%@BO:          841826@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LONG BEACH%@BO:          5682f6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OAKLAND%@BO:          6c7476@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%SACRAMENTO%@BO:          82ca13@%%@AE@%. California has large, well-established Hispanic and Asian
populations. In 1984 84% of the population was white, 16% was black,
Asian, or others.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% California's economy is dominated by manufacturing. Leading
products are transportation equipment, including materials for the
aerospace industry and for ships; electronic and electrical equipment;
machinery; and processed foods. Leading the states in the value of its
agricultural output, California produces a wide variety of fruits and
vegetables, including grapes for wine and citrus fruits. More than two
thirds of the farms are irrigated. The raising of cattle and the growing
of cotton are also important. The most profitable minerals extracted are
oil and natural gas, and California leads the nation in the production of
asbestos, boron, gypsum, tungsten, and other minerals. Fishing is
important along the coast. The state-and in particular, Disneyland-is a
favorite destination for tourists.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution of 1879 provides for a governor serving a
four-year term. The legislature is composed of a senate whose 40 members
serve four-year terms and an assembly with 80 members elected every two
years. California elects 2 senators and 45 representatives to the U.S.
Congress and has 47 electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The Spanish first explored the southern coast in 1542. Father
Junipero %@AU@%SERRA%@BO:          872fc7@%%@AE@%, a Franciscan missionary, founded (1769) the first of many
missions. American settlers began to move to California during the 1840s.
After Mexico's defeat in the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@% California was ceded (1848) to
the U.S. In the same year gold was discovered, bringing thousands of new
settlers. Many Chinese laborers came to work on the Transcontinental
Railroad (completed 1869), which linked the state with the East. Industry
expanded rapidly during World War II. California is the nation's center
of defense-related industries and of motion-picture and television film
production. Since the 1960s the area around San Jose, the so-called
%@AU@%SILICON VALLEY%@BO:          892b09@%%@AE@%, has become a center for high-technology industries.
Although the state's future prosperity seems assured, it faces
environmental problems, especially involving the allocation of scarce
water resources.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%California, Gulf of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%California, Gulf of%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIFORNIA2     @%%@QR:California, Gulf of@% arm of the Pacific Ocean, NW Mexico. It is c.700 mi%@EH@%
(1,130 km) long and 50-130 mi (80-209 km) wide, and it separates the
states of %@AU@%BAJA CALIFORNIA%@BO:           b1fac@%%@AE@% and Baja California Sur from the Mexican
mainland. The gulf, which is part of a structural depression that extends
north to the Coachella Valley of S Calif., reaches a maximum depth of
c.8,500 ft (2,590 m) in the south.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%California, University of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%California, University of%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIFORNIA3     @%%@QR:California, University of@% at nine campuses, main campus at Berkeley;%@EH@%
chartered 1868. It offers a very wide range of undergraduate and graduate
training, and operates a statewide extension service. The enrollment of
over 125,000 is one of the largest in the U.S. The institution began by
taking over the College of California (est. 1853) at Oakland. It moved to
Berkeley in 1873 and acquired or established its other branches in the
20th cent., the first being at Los Angeles (1919). The university's
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, at La Jolla, became the nucleus of
the campus at San Diego. Other branches are at Davis, Santa Barbara,
Riverside, Irvine, and Santa Cruz, and a campus devoted entirely to
medical sciences is in San Francisco. The university also operates the
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, the Lick Observatory, and the Lawrence
Berkeley and Livermore laboratories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%California holly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%California holly%@AE@%:%@CR:CALIFORY        @%%@QR:California holly@% see %@AU@%CHRISTMASBERRY%@BO:          1e0d65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%californium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%californium%@AE@%%@CR:CALIFORNIUM     @%%@QR:californium@%  (Cf), synthetic, radioactive, metallic element, produced in%@EH@%
1950 by Glenn %@AU@%SEABORG%@BO:          8642d4@%%@AE@% and colleagues by alpha-particle bombardment of
curium-242. It is in the %@AU@%ACTINIDE SERIES%@BO:            ddd8@%%@AE@%. Californium-252, produced in
nuclear reactors, is a neutron source. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caligula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caligula%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIGULA        @%%@QR:Caligula@% AD 12-41, Roman emperor (AD 37-41), son of Germanicus Caesar%@EH@%
and Agrippina I. His real name was Caius Caesar Germanicus; as a small
child he wore military boots, whence his nickname %@AI@%caligula%@AE@%=little boots.
On the death of %@AU@%TIBERIUS%@BO:          959cd5@%%@AE@% the army helped make Caligula emperor. Shortly
afterward he became severely ill; it is widely believed that he was
thereafter insane. He earned a reputation for ruthless and cruel
autocracy. He was assassinated, and %@AU@%CLAUDIUS I%@BO:          1f0f37@%%@AE@% succeeded to the throne.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caliphate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caliphate%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIPHATE       @%%@QR:caliphate@% the rulership of %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%. Since Islam is theoretically a%@EH@%
theocracy, the caliph is ideally both temporal and spiritual leader of
the Muslims. When %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@% the Prophet died, %@AU@%ABU BAKR%@BO:            7d06@%%@AE@% was chosen as the
first caliph. After the caliphate of Ali (656-61) the caliphate split
between the Umayyads, who ruled from Damascus, and the %@AU@%ABBASIDS%@BO:            1519@%%@AE@%, who
ruled from Baghdad. The Abbasids massacred the Umayyads in 750, but one
member escaped to Spain, where he established the Western Caliphate, or
the Caliphate of Cordoba; it lasted until 1031. A third caliphate,
established by the Fatimid sect in Africa, lasted from 909 to 1171. After
the rise of the Ottoman Turks, the sultans assumed the title of caliph.
The title died out with the last sultan in 1924.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calisthenics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calisthenics%@AE@%:%@CR:CALISTHENICS    @%%@QR:calisthenics@% see %@AU@%GYMNASTICS%@BO:          3ec19f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calixtus I, Callixtus I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calixtus I, Callixtus I%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIXTUS.I      @%%@QR:Calixtus I, Callixtus I@% or %@AB@%Callistus I, Saint,%@AE@%c.160-c.222, pope%@EH@%
(217-222), a Roman. As archdeacon to Pope Zephyrinus, he established the
famous Calixtus Cemetery in Rome. As pope, Calixtus was opposed by the
antipope Hippolytus and extended absolution to many classes of sinners
thought to be unforgivable. Feast: Oct. 14.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calixtus II, Callixtus II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calixtus II, Callixtus II%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIXTUS.II     @%%@QR:Calixtus II, Callixtus II@% or %@AB@%Callistus II,%@AE@%d. 1124, pope (1119-24), a%@EH@%
Burgundian named Guy. Succeeding Gelasius II, Calixtus triumphed over the
antipope Gregory VIII and ended the %@AU@%INVESTITURE%@BO:          491c94@%%@AE@% controversy when Holy
Roman Emperor %@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@% signed (1122) the Concordat of Worms. Calixtus then
called (1123) the First Lateran Council.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calixtus III, Callixtus III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calixtus III, Callixtus III%@AE@%,%@CR:CALIXTUS.III    @%%@QR:Calixtus III, Callixtus III@% or %@AB@%Callistus III,%@AE@%1378-1458, pope (1455-58),%@EH@%
a Spaniard named Alonso de Borja (Ital., Borgia). He supplied aid to John
Hunyadi and %@AU@%SCANDERBEG%@BO:          85384b@%%@AE@% to fight the Turks and quarreled with %@AU@%ALFONSO V%@BO:           3806d@%%@AE@% of
Aragon. His nepotism established the %@AU@%BORGIA%@BO:          123a5e@%%@AE@% family in Italy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callaghan, (Leonard) James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callaghan, (Leonard) James%@AE@%,%@CR:CALLAGHAN       @%%@QR:Callaghan, (Leonard) James@% 1912-, British statesman. He was elected a%@EH@%
Labour member of Parliament in 1945. Later he served as chancellor of the
exchequer (1964-67), resigning when forced to accept devaluation of the
pound; home secretary (1967-70); and foreign secretary (1974-76). Upon
the resignation of Harold %@AU@%WILSON%@BO:          a210e5@%%@AE@% in 1976 he became prime minister. His
government was plagued by inflation, unemployment, and its inability to
restrain unions' wage demands. He lost the 1979 election to Margaret
%@AU@%THATCHER%@BO:          948b6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callao%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callao%@AE@%%@CR:CALLAO          @%%@QR:Callao@%, city (1981 pop. 260,581), capital of Callao dept., W Peru, on%@EH@%
Callao Bay of the Pacific Ocean. It is 8 mi (13 km) west of the Peruvian
capital, %@AU@%LIMA%@BO:          552178@%%@AE@%, and, as Peru's chief seaport, handles well over half of
the nation's foreign trade. Callao has survived foreign attack, tidal
waves, and at least two major earthquakes, in 1746 and 1940.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callas, Maria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callas, Maria%@AE@%,%@CR:CALLAS          @%%@QR:Callas, Maria@% 1923-77, Greek-American operatic soprano; b. N.Y.C. to%@EH@%
Greek parents. She made her debut at Verona, Italy, in 1947 and at the
%@AU@%METROPOLITAN OPERA%@BO:          5f8daf@%%@AE@% in 1956. Noted for her dramatic intensity, she
excelled in Cherubini's %@AI@%Medea,%@AE@% %@AU@%BELLINI'S%@BO:           e28ee@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Norma,%@AE@% and %@AU@%PUCCINI'S%@BO:          7aba68@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Tosca%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calles, Plutarco Elias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calles, Plutarco Elias%@AE@%%@CR:CALLES          @%%@QR:Calles, Plutarco Elias@%, 1877-1945, president of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@% (1924-28). His%@EH@%
revolutionary administration initiated economic reforms, enforced
anticlerical laws, and unified the government under the National
Revolutionary party. After leaving office he remained political chieftain
of the nation until he opposed %@AU@%CARDENAS%@BO:          18cf31@%%@AE@% and was exiled (1936-41).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calley, William L.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calley, William L.%@AE@%:%@CR:CALLEY          @%%@QR:Calley, William L.@% see %@AU@%MY LAI INCIDENT%@BO:          65cf90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callicrates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callicrates%@AE@%,%@CR:CALLICRATES     @%%@QR:Callicrates@% 5th cent. BC, Greek architect. With %@AU@%ICTINUS%@BO:          46762c@%%@AE@% he built%@EH@%
(447-432 BC) the %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@% at Athens. At Athens he also designed (c.427)
the Temple of Nike.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calligraphy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calligraphy%@AE@%%@CR:CALLIGRAPHY     @%%@QR:calligraphy@% [Gr.,=beautiful writing], skilled penmanship practiced as a%@EH@%
fine art. Papyrus fragments from the 4th cent. BC show two early European
types of handwriting: a cursive script, used for letters and records, and
a more polished style, called uncials, used for literary works. This
style was developed after the first cent. AD, giving rise to many
splendid scripts throughout the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%. With the establishment of
the printing press, the use of calligraphy declined until the 20th cent.,
when interest in the art was revived by the work of Owen Jones and
William %@AU@%MORRIS%@BO:          6405bb@%%@AE@%. Calligraphy has always been valued by Far Eastern peoples
as a major aesthetic expression, equal in significance to painting. Fine
examples of Islamic calligraphy are found in many beautifully copied and
decorated %@AU@%KORANS%@BO:          508524@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callimachus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callimachus%@AE@%,%@CR:CALLIMACHUS     @%%@QR:Callimachus@% fl. c.265 BC, Greek poet and critic. At %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@% he drew%@EH@%
up a catalogue constituting a full literary history. Among his over 800
hymns, epigrams, and poems is %@AI@%Aetia,%@AE@% a collection of legends.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calliope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calliope%@AE@%:%@CR:CALLIOPE        @%%@QR:Calliope@% see %@AU@%MUSES%@BO:          655f08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callisto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callisto%@AE@%,%@CR:CALLISTO        @%%@QR:Callisto@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dc4a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callistus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callistus%@AE@%:%@CR:CALLISTUS       @%%@QR:Callistus@% see %@AU@%CALIXTUS%@BO:          174722@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callixtus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callixtus%@AE@%:%@CR:CALLIXTUS       @%%@QR:Callixtus@% see %@AU@%CALIXTUS%@BO:          174722@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calloc'h, Jean Pierre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calloc'h, Jean Pierre%@AE@%%@CR:CALLOCH         @%%@QR:Calloc'h, Jean Pierre@%, 1888-1917, Breton poet. Often regarded as%@EH@%
Brittany's finest poet, he was important in the revival of Breton
literature. His chief work, %@AI@%On Both Knees%@AE@% (1925), celebrates Breton
fishermen.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Callot, Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Callot, Jacques%@AE@%%@CR:CALLOT          @%%@QR:Callot, Jacques@%, c.1592-1635, French etcher and engraver. An influential%@EH@%
innovator, he developed a hard varnish that allowed for more flexibility
and finesse in etching. In the service of Cosimo de' Medici he created
such works as the vast %@AI@%Fair at Impruneta%@AE@% (1620). Commissioned to engrave
the sieges of Breda, Rochelle, and Re, he was deeply affected by the
scenes of carnage and in 1633 executed %@AI@%Miseries of War,%@AE@% his masterpiece.
Callot produced nearly 1,500 plates and 2,000 drawings, influencing such
masters as %@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WATTEAU%@BO:          9fcc02@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calonne, Charles Alexandre de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calonne, Charles Alexandre de%@AE@%,%@CR:CALONNE         @%%@QR:Calonne, Charles Alexandre de@% 1734-1802, French statesman and controller%@EH@%
general of finances (1783-87). His spending policy, designed to restore
public credit, ended in disaster and hastened the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%calorie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%calorie%@AE@%%@CR:CALORIE         @%%@QR:calorie@% (cal), unit of energy required to raise the temperature of one%@EH@%
gram of water one degree Centigrade (from 14.5 deg to 15.5 degC); 1
cal=4.1840 joules. Nutritionists use the kilocalorie (1,000 cal) to state
the heat content of food.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calpurnia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calpurnia%@AE@%,%@CR:CALPURNIA       @%%@QR:Calpurnia@% d. after 44 BC, Roman matron. The daughter of Lucius%@EH@%
Calpurnicus Piso Caesoninus, she was married to Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% in 59 BC
She was loyal to him despite his many infidelities and his neglect.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calvary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calvary%@AE@%%@CR:CALVARY         @%%@QR:Calvary@%[Lat.,=a skull] or %@AB@%Golgotha %@AE@%, place where %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% was crucified,%@EH@%
outside the walls of %@AU@%JERUSALEM%@BO:          4be799@%%@AE@%. Its location is not certainly known. The
traditional site is now occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calvert, George, 1st Baron Baltimore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calvert, George, 1st Baron Baltimore%@AE@%,%@CR:CALVERT         @%%@QR:Calvert, George, 1st Baron Baltimore@% c.1580-1632, English colonizer in%@EH@%
America. After holding high offices in England, he was granted (1623)
Avalon peninsula in Newfoundland, but the colony he founded failed. In
1632 James I granted him territory that eventually became Maryland, but
he died before the colony's charter was accepted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calvin, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calvin, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CALVIN          @%%@QR:Calvin, John@% 1509-64, French Protestant theologian of the Reformation;%@EH@%
b. Noyon, Picardy. Having studied theology and law, he experienced (1533)
a "sudden conversion" and turned his attention to the cause of the
%@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%, for which he was persecuted and hunted. His work in Geneva
began in 1536, but the system he tried to impose was rejected, and he was
banished (1538). After a stay at Basel and Strasbourg, he was welcomed
back to Geneva in 1541. Calvin had begun the work of systematizing
Protestant thought in his %@AI@%Institutes of the Christian Religion%@AE@% (1536).
His theology diverged from Catholic doctrine in such fundamental ways as
rejection of papal authority and acceptance of justification by faith
alone, and the doctrine of %@AU@%PREDESTINATION%@BO:          792ccf@%%@AE@%. He also maintained that the
Bible was the sole source of God's law, and that it was man's duty to
interpret it and to preserve the orderly world that God had ordained. It
was such a system that he sought to realize at Geneva by founding a
government based solely on religious law. From his teachings grew one of
the principal Christian religious systems, %@AU@%CALVINISM%@BO:          177395@%%@AE@%, whose extension to
all spheres of human activity was extremely important in a Europe
changing from an agrarian to a commercial economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calvinism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calvinism%@AE@%,%@CR:CALVINISM       @%%@QR:Calvinism@% term used in several different senses. It can mean the%@EH@%
teachings of John %@AU@%CALVIN%@BO:          176dba@%%@AE@% himself; all that developed from his doctrine
and practice in Protestant countries in social, political, ethical, and
theological aspects of life and thought; or the system of doctrine,
distinctive in its rejection of consubstantiation in the Eucharist and in
its doctrine of predestination, that was accepted by the Reformed
churches (see %@AU@%PRESBYTERIANISM%@BO:          794734@%%@AE@%). Calvinism produced the church-dominated
societies of Geneva and Puritan New England. It stressed that only those
whom God elects are saved, and that man does nothing to effect his
salvation. The doctrine challenged %@AU@%LUTHERANISM%@BO:          5802ad@%%@AE@% in Europe, spread to
Scotland, and influenced the Puritans of England and New England. It
receded under rationalism (18th-19th cent.), but found new expression in
the Reformed theology of Karl %@AU@%BARTH%@BO:           c98cb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calvino, Italo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calvino, Italo%@AE@%,%@CR:CALVINO         @%%@QR:Calvino, Italo@% 1923-85, Italian novelist; b. Cuba. He wrote in a variety%@EH@%
of genres and styles. Among his works are %@AI@%The Path to the Nest of Spiders%@AE@%
(1947), a realistic novel about World War II; %@AI@%Cosmicomics%@AE@% (1965), 12
science fiction tales; and %@AI@%If on a Winter's Night a Traveler%@AE@% (1979), a
novel composed of fragments of 10 stylistically different novels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calvo, Carlo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calvo, Carlo%@AE@%,%@CR:CALVO           @%%@QR:Calvo, Carlo@% 1824-1906, Argentine diplomat and historian, writer on%@EH@%
international law. His principle known as the %@AB@%Calvo Doctrine %@AE@%would
prohibit diplomatic intervention to enforce private claims before local
remedies had been exhausted. The %@AB@%Calvo Clause %@AE@%found in statutes,
treaties, and contracts is the concrete application of his doctrine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calvo Sotelo, Leopoldo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calvo Sotelo, Leopoldo%@AE@%,%@CR:CALVO.SOTELO    @%%@QR:Calvo Sotelo, Leopoldo@% 1926-, Spanish engineer and political leader. He%@EH@%
held (1975-77) ministerial posts before becoming (1980) deputy prime
minister for economic affairs. After leading the Union of the Democratic
Center to victory in 1981, he was confirmed as prime minister despite an
abortive military coup in which the parliament was seized. He resigned
before the 1982 elections in which the Socialist party, led by Felipe
%@AU@%GONZALEZ MARQUEZ%@BO:          3b745d@%%@AE@%, was victorious.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calydonian hunt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calydonian hunt%@AE@%:%@CR:CALYDONIAN.HUNT @%%@QR:Calydonian hunt@% see %@AU@%MELEAGER%@BO:          5e7244@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Calypso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Calypso%@AE@%,%@CR:CALYPSO         @%%@QR:Calypso@% nymph, daughter of %@AU@%ATLAS%@BO:           96e40@%%@AE@%, in %@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Odyssey.%@AE@% She entertained%@EH@%
%@AU@%ODYSSEUS%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@% on the island of Ogygia for seven years before he rejected her
offer of immortality and continued home.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Camaguey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Camaguey%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMAGUEY        @%%@QR:Camaguey@% city (1986 est. pop. 260,800), E Cuba, capital of Camaguey%@EH@%
prov. The island's third-largest city, it is a commercial center with
meat-packing and other food-processing industries. Founded in the early
16th cent., it produced salted beef for Spanish fleets and was often
sacked by pirates. It has retained a Spanish colonial atmosphere.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cambium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cambium%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMBIUM         @%%@QR:cambium@% thin layer of reproductive tissue lying between the %@AU@%BARK%@BO:           c3ed2@%%@AE@% and the%@EH@%
wood of a %@AU@%STEM%@BO:          8ebe4e@%%@AE@%, most active in woody plants. In herbaceous plants the
cambium is usually inactive; in monocotyledons (see %@AU@%ANGIOSPERM%@BO:           576a3@%%@AE@%) it is
absent. Producing thin layers of phloem on the outside and xylem on the
inside (see %@AU@%WOOD%@BO:          a2e197@%%@AE@%), cambium growth increases the diameter of the stem. Its
seasonal growth is responsible for %@AU@%ANNUAL RINGS%@BO:           5dcd4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cambodia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cambodia%@AE@%%@CR:CAMBODIA        @%%@QR:Cambodia@% or %@AB@%Kampuchea,%@AE@%country (1985 est. pop. 6,232,000), 69,898 sq mi%@EH@%
(181,035 sq km), SE Asia. It is bordered by Thailand (N and W), Laos (N),
Vietnam (E), and the Gulf of Siam (S). The capital is %@AU@%PHNOM PENH%@BO:          74edb1@%%@AE@%. The
heart of the country consists of a large central alluvial plain, drained
by the %@AU@%MEKONG%@BO:          5e5fdb@%%@AE@% R. and including the Tonle Sap (Great Lake). Mountains
flank the plain in the northwest and southwest. Cambodia has a tropical
monsoonal climate ideal for growing rice, the chief crop. Corn,
vegetables, peanuts, tobacco, and sugar palm are also grown. The
industrial sector centers on the processing of agricultural products.
Mineral resources are limited to various kinds of stone and salt. Both
the industrial and agricultural sectors were destroyed during the war and
civil strife of the 1970s. About 90% of the population is ethnic Khmer
and speaks Khmer; minorities include Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham-Malays,
and a number of hill tribes. Buddhism is practiced, but discouraged by
the government.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The early history of Cambodia is that of the %@AU@%KHMER EMPIRE%@BO:          4f5960@%%@AE@%. After
the empire's fall (15th cent.), Cambodia fell prey to Siam and later
(17th cent.) to %@AU@%ANNAM%@BO:           5b6f3@%%@AE@%. It was declared (1863) a French protectorate and
became (1887) part of French-ruled %@AU@%INDOCHINA%@BO:          47ba63@%%@AE@%. Cambodia was occupied by
the Japanese in World War II. It became self-governing (1946) and gained
full independence (1953) as the Kingdom of Cambodia. %@AU@%NORODOM SIHANOUK%@BO:          6b2cec@%%@AE@% led
the country until he was deposed (1970) in a military coup led by Gen.
%@AU@%LON NOL%@BO:          569bcb@%%@AE@%. Cambodia became (1970) the Khmer Republic and was a major
battlefield of the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%. The ousted Sihanouk formed a government
in exile in Peking, and the Communist %@AU@%KHMER ROUGE%@BO:          4f5c04@%%@AE@% waged a successful
full-scale civil war that overthrew (1975) the Lon Nol government.
Sihanouk was restored as head of state, and a new socialist constitution
(1976) renamed the country Democratic Kampuchea. However, Sihanouk was
soon succeeded by Khieu Samphan, and %@AU@%POL POT%@BO:          77b77e@%%@AE@% became prime minister. The
economy deteriorated following a massive collectivization drive in which
urban populations were evacuated to work in the countryside. Many
Cambodians fled to Thailand, and perhaps as many as 1 million or more had
been killed or had died from enforced hardships by 1978. Border conflicts
(1977-78) with Vietnam led to a Vietnamese invasion and the installation
(1979) of a rebel Communist government opposed to Pol Pot. The country
was renamed the People's Republic of Kampuchea, headed by Heng Samrin.
The Khmer Rouge and other anti-Vietnamese groups continued to wage
guerrilla warfare against the new regime, and in 1982 three factions
formed a coalition government-in-exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cambrai, Treaty of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cambrai, Treaty of%@AE@%:%@CR:CAMBRAI         @%%@QR:Cambrai, Treaty of@% see %@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cambrian period%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cambrian period%@AE@%:%@CR:CAMBRIAN.PERIOD @%%@QR:Cambrian period@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cambridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cambridge%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMBRIDGE1      @%%@QR:Cambridge@% city (1986 est. pop. 99,800), Cambridgeshire, E central%@EH@%
England, on the Cam R. An ancient market town that now has some light
industry on its outskirts, it is famous as the site of Cambridge Univ.
(est. 13th cent.). In addition to the magnificent college buildings, the
city abounds in medieval churches, old inns, and narrow, winding streets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cambridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cambridge%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMBRIDGE2      @%%@QR:Cambridge@% city (1986 est. pop. 91,260), a seat of Middlesex co., E%@EH@%
Mass., across the Charles R. from %@AU@%BOSTON%@BO:          126a4a@%%@AE@%; settled 1630 as New Towne, inc.
as a city 1846. A famous educational and research center, it is the seat
of Harvard Univ. (est. 1636), the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
and other colleges and seminaries. Its industries include electrical and
scientific manufactures, and rubber and glass goods. Printing has been
important since c.1639. The city, which was the home of such notable
people as H.W. %@AU@%LONGFELLOW%@BO:          5685c5@%%@AE@% and J.R. %@AU@%LOWELL%@BO:          578168@%%@AE@%, has numerous historic sites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cambridge Platform%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cambridge Platform%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMBRIDORM      @%%@QR:Cambridge Platform@% declaration of principles of church government and%@EH@%
discipline, forming a constitution of the Congregational churches.
Adopted (1648) by a synod in Cambridge, Mass., it is the basis of
temporal church government. Connecticut Congregationalists subscribed
(1708) to more centralized church government in the Saybrook Platform.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cambridge University%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cambridge University%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMBRIDRSITY    @%%@QR:Cambridge University@% at Cambridge, England. It originated in the early%@EH@%
12th cent., possibly earlier than %@AU@%OXFORD UNIV%@BO:          6fc015@%%@AE@%., and was organized into
residential colleges by the end of the 13th cent. There are now some 31
colleges (including three women's colleges). Cambridge was a center of
the new learning in the Renaissance and of Reformation theology. In
modern times it offers a wide range of subjects, excelling in science.
The university's famous Cavendish Laboratory of experimental physics
(opened 1873) has had many of the world's outstanding physicists on its
faculty. The Cambridge University Press dates from the 16th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%camel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%camel%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMEL           @%%@QR:camel@% hoofed ruminant (family Camelidae). The family consists of the%@EH@%
true camels of Asia, the wild guanaco and domesticated %@AU@%ALPACA%@BO:           4105e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LLAMA%@BO:          55e6b5@%%@AE@%
of South America, and the vicuna of South America. The two species of
true camel are the single-humped Arabian camel, or dromedary (%@AI@%Camelus
%@AI@%dromedarius%@AE@%), a domesticated animal of Arabia and N Africa; and the
two-humped Bactrian camel (%@AI@%C. bactrianus%@AE@%) of central Asia. Their humps
are storage places for fat. Ranging in color from dirty white to dark
brown, camels are well adapted for desert life and can go without water
for several days.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%camellia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%camellia%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMELLIA        @%%@QR:camellia@% evergreen shrub or small tree (genus %@AI@%Camellia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%TEA%@BO:          934b9b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, native to Asia, now widely cultivated for the white, red, or
variegated showy blossoms and glossy, dark-green foliage. Tea-seed oil,
from the seeds of %@AI@%C. sasanqua,%@AE@% is used in cooking, and in soap and
textile manufacturing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Camelot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Camelot%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMELOT         @%%@QR:Camelot@% in %@AU@%ARTHURIAN LEGEND%@BO:           855f0@%%@AE@%, the seat of King Arthur's court, frequently%@EH@%
located in Somerset of Monmouthshire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cameo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cameo%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMEO           @%%@QR:cameo@% small relief carving, usually on striated precious or semiprecious%@EH@%
stones or on shell. The design, often a portrait head, is cut in the
light-colored vein; the dark vein becomes the background. Glass of two
colors in layers may also be cameo-cut. The art originated in Asia and
spread to ancient Greece and Rome; it was revived during the Renaissance
and in the Victorian era.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%camera%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%camera%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMERA          @%%@QR:camera@% in %@AU@%PHOTOGRAPHY%@BO:          751dbd@%%@AE@%, device for recording an image on film or some%@EH@%
other light-sensitive material. It consists of a lightproof box; a %@AU@%LENS%@BO:          53db0f@%%@AE@%
through which light enters and is focused; a shutter that controls the
size of the lens opening and the length of time it is open; a mechanism
for moving the film between exposures; and a viewfinder, or eyepiece,
that shows the user the image the lens sees. The camera developed from
the %@AB@%camera obscura%@AE@% [Lat.,=dark chamber], an artist's tool dating from the
Middle Ages. It was a light-tight box with a convex lens at one end and a
screen that reflected the image at the other; the artist traced the
image. Joseph Nicephore Niepce produced the first negative image in 1826.
See also %@AU@%PHOTOGRAPHY, STILL%@BO:          751dbd@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%POLAROID CAMERA%@BO:          776bfc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cameron, Julia Margaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cameron, Julia Margaret%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMERON         @%%@QR:Cameron, Julia Margaret@% 1815-79, English pioneer photographer; b. India.%@EH@%
In 1864 she began to photograph her many illustrious friends, e.g.,
Alfred, Lord %@AU@%TENNYSON%@BO:          93fba6@%%@AE@% and Ellen %@AU@%TERRY%@BO:          94399c@%%@AE@%. Her superb portraits appeared as
%@AI@%Victorian Photographs of Famous Men and Fair Women%@AE@% (rev. ed. 1973).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cameroon, Republic of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cameroon, Republic of%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMEROON        @%%@QR:Cameroon, Republic of@% republic (1987 est. pop. 10,822,000), 183,568 sq%@EH@%
mi (475,442 sq km), W central Africa, bordered by the Gulf of Guinea (W,
SW), Nigeria (NW), Chad (NE), the Central African Republic (E), and the
Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea (S). Major cities are %@AU@%YAOUNDE%@BO:          a3f754@%%@AE@% (the
capital) and %@AU@%DOUALA%@BO:          2a4ac9@%%@AE@%. Cameroon consists of a coastal region of swamps and
dense rain forests, an interior plateau covered with forests and savanna,
and an arid northern region. Volcanic peaks near the coast rise to 13,354
ft (4,070 m). The economy is based on a varied agriculture that makes the
country self-sufficient in food. Cameroon is a leading producer of cocoa
which, along with crude oil, coffee, bananas, palm products, cotton,
rubber, timber, and aluminum, constitute the chief exports.
Aluminum-smelting, using hydroelectric power, is the principal industry.
Cameroon's diverse population includes more than 150 ethnic groups.
French and English are the official languages. Traditional religious
beliefs are dominant, but there are large minorities of Christians and
Muslims, the latter in the north.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The first Europeans to arrive in the region were the Portuguese
(1472), who developed a large-scale slave trade. By the 19th cent. palm
oil and ivory had become the main items of commerce. The British
established commercial hegemony over the coast in the early 1800s, but
were supplanted by the Germans, who made the area a protectorate in 1884.
The area was occupied by French and British troops in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, after
which it was divided into French and British mandates under the League of
Nations. These became UN trust territories in 1946. In the 1950s
guerrilla warfare, sparked by demands for independence, raged in the
French Cameroons; the French granted self-government in 1957 and
independence in 1960. Following a UN plebiscite in 1961, the southern
zone of British Cameroons was incorporated into the new country (the
northern zone joined %@AU@%NIGERIA%@BO:          6a0f00@%%@AE@%), which became a federal republic with two
prime ministers and two legislatures but a single president. A new
constitution adopted in 1972 created a unitary state to replace the
federation. (See also %@AU@%CAMEROONS%@BO:          17b580@%%@AE@%.)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cameroons%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cameroons%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMEROONS       @%%@QR:Cameroons@% former German colony, W Africa, in the region that is now%@EH@%
Cameroon and Nigeria. After World War I the colony was divided into
British Cameroons and French Cameroons, both League of Nations mandates.
Both colonies became UN trust territories and then achieved independence
after World War II. French Cameroons and the southern part of British
Cameroons became the United Republic of %@AU@%CAMEROON%@BO:          17abb3@%%@AE@%, and the northern
section of British Cameroons joined %@AU@%NIGERIA%@BO:          6a0f00@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Camoes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Camoes%@AE@%%@CR:CAMOES          @%%@QR:Camoes@%or %@AB@%Camoens, Luis de%@AE@%, 1524?-1580, Portugal's national poet and%@EH@%
greatest literary figure. Among the events of his turbulent life were
study at the Univ. of Coimbra; banishment from court (1546); loss of an
eye in the Moroccan campaign; imprisonment for street-fighting; military
service in India; dismissal from an official post in Macao; and shipwreck
on his return (1570) to Portugal. %@AI@%The Lusiads%@AE@% [Port. %@AI@%Os Lusiadas%@AE@%=sons of
Lusus, i.e., the Portuguese] (1572), a Vergilian epic encompassing the
voyage of Vasco da %@AU@%GAMA%@BO:          37aa9b@%%@AE@% and much of Portuguese history, is his
masterpiece. Camoes received a meager royal pension but died in poverty.
His sonnets and lyrics appeared posthumously.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%campanile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%campanile%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMPANILE       @%%@QR:campanile@% Italian form of bell tower, chiefly medieval. Built in%@EH@%
connection with a church or town hall, it served as belfry, watch tower,
and often civil monument. The campanile generally stands as a detached
unit. In the 8th cent., square campaniles succeeded the earlier round
towers. %@AU@%GIOTTO'S%@BO:          3a515a@%%@AE@% campanile in Florence (1334) is entirely faced in marble
and ornamented with sculptures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campbell, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campbell, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMPBELL1       @%%@QR:Campbell, Alexander@% 1788-1866, clergyman, cofounder of the %@AU@%DISCIPLES OF%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHRIST%@BO:          295789@%%@AE@%; b. Ireland. His father, %@AB@%Thomas Campbell, %@AE@%1763-1854, came to the
U.S. in 1807 and settled in Pennsylvania, where he withdrew his
congregation from the Presbyterian Church. Alexander came to the U.S. in
1809 and joined his father's followers, known as Campbellites. Nominally
Baptists (c.1812-c.1827), they advocated a return to scriptural
simplicity and became the Disciples of Christ. Alexander founded (1840)
Bethany College in West Virginia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campbell, Mrs. Patrick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campbell, Mrs. Patrick%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMPBELL2       @%%@QR:Campbell, Mrs. Patrick@% 1865-1940, English actress; b. Beatrice Stella%@EH@%
Tanner. She won fame in Pinero's %@AI@%Second Mrs. Tanqueray%@AE@% (1893). A friend
of G.B. %@AU@%SHAW%@BO:          8807c3@%%@AE@%, she created the part of Eliza Doolittle in his %@AI@%Pygmalion%@AE@%
(1913).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campbell, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campbell, Robert%@AE@%:%@CR:CAMPBELL3       @%%@QR:Campbell, Robert@% see %@AU@%ROB ROY%@BO:          7fcf20@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campbell, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campbell, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMPBELL4       @%%@QR:Campbell, Robert@% 1808-94, Canadian explorer; b. Scotland. As a fur%@EH@%
trader for the %@AU@%HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY%@BO:          45078d@%%@AE@% he explored (1834-52) the Mackenzie
R. region and discovered the Pelly R. At its junction with the Lewes R.
to form the %@AU@%YUKON%@BO:          a4afa2@%%@AE@% R. he established (1848) Fort Selkirk. Later (1850-51)
he followed the Yukon as far as Fort Yukon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMPBELAN       @%%@QR:Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry@% 1836-1908, British statesman. A Liberal,%@EH@%
he served as secretary to the admiralty (1882-84), secretary of state for
Ireland (1884), and secretary of state for war (1886, 1892-95). As prime
minister (1905-8), he furthered many Liberal measures, including
self-government for the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Camp David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Camp David%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMP.DAVID      @%%@QR:Camp David@% woodland camp in the Catoctin Mts., Md., used as a retreat by%@EH@%
U.S. presidents since F.D. Roosevelt. Many important meetings have been
held here, e.g., the conference that produced the %@AU@%CAMP DAVID ACCORDS%@BO:          17c878@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Camp David accords%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Camp David accords%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMP.DARDS      @%%@QR:Camp David accords@% popular name for the 1979 peace treaty between Israel%@EH@%
and Egypt, named for the U.S. presidential retreat (Camp David) in
Maryland where the agreement was forged. It was signed Mar. 26, 1979, in
Washington, D.C., by Menachem %@AU@%BEGIN%@BO:           dc150@%%@AE@% of Israel and Anwar %@AU@%SADAT%@BO:          82ced6@%%@AE@% of Egypt,
with U.S. Pres. Jimmy %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% signing as a witness. Under the pact, which
was denounced by other Arab states, Israel agreed to return the %@AU@%SINAI%@BO:          897022@%%@AE@% to
Egypt, a transfer that was completed in 1982. In a joint letter the two
sides also agreed to negotiate Palestinian autonomy measures in the
occupied %@AU@%WEST BANK%@BO:          a09c00@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GAZA STRIP%@BO:          386a23@%%@AE@%, but virtually no progress was made on
this issue before Sadat's assassination in 1981. After Israel's siege of
%@AU@%BEIRUT%@BO:           dd83a@%%@AE@% in 1982 to force the PLO out of Lebanon, U.S. Pres. Ronald %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@%
put forth a proposal for Palestinian autonomy. See also %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%camphor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%camphor%@AE@%%@CR:CAMPHOR         @%%@QR:camphor@% (C%@AH@%10%@AE@%H%@AH@%16%@AE@%O), white, crystalline solid with a pungent odor and%@EH@%
taste. It can be obtained from the camphor tree or synthesized from oil
of %@AU@%TURPENTINE%@BO:          98f2af@%%@AE@%. Camphor is used to make %@AU@%CELLULOID%@BO:          1abf12@%%@AE@% and lacquers. In
medicine it is used as a stimulant, a diaphoretic, and an inhalant;
camphor ice, a mixture chiefly of camphor and %@AU@%WAX%@BO:          9fde2c@%%@AE@%, is applied externally.
The alcoholic solution is known as spirits of camphor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campi, Giulio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campi, Giulio%@AE@%%@CR:CAMPI           @%%@QR:Campi, Giulio@%, c.1500-c.1572, Italian painter and architect, founder of a%@EH@%
school of painters at Cremona. Influenced by %@AU@%CORREGGIO%@BO:          238643@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RAPHAEL%@BO:          7cbdba@%%@AE@%, he
did many altarpieces in Milan and Cremona. His pupils included his
brothers Cavaliere %@AB@%Antonio Campi, %@AE@%c.1536-1591; %@AB@%Vincenzo Campi, %@AE@%1532-91, a
painter of portraits and still lifes; and %@AB@%Bernardino Campi, %@AE@%1522-c.1590,
known for frescoes in San Sigismondo, Cremona.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campian, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campian, Thomas%@AE@%:%@CR:CAMPIAN         @%%@QR:Campian, Thomas@% see %@AU@%CAMPION, THOMAS%@BO:          17d81a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campin, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campin, Robert%@AE@%%@CR:CAMPIN          @%%@QR:Campin, Robert@%, 1378-1444, Flemish painter who with the van %@AU@%EYCKS%@BO:          31564b@%%@AE@% was a%@EH@%
founder of the Netherlandish school. He has been identified as the Master
of Flemalle on the basis of three panels said to have come from the abbey
of Flemalle, near Liege, Belgium. The %@AI@%Merode Altarpiece%@AE@% (Cloisters,
N.Y.C.) has also been attributed to him. His robust realism and concern
for details of daily life reflected the values of the rising middle
class.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campion, Saint Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campion, Saint Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMPION1        @%%@QR:Campion, Saint Edmund@% c.1540-1581, English %@AU@%JESUIT%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@% martyr. He early found%@EH@%
favor with %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, but had Roman Catholic leanings and fled to the
Continent, where he joined (1573) the Society of Jesus. He returned
(1580) to England as a missionary and converted many, but was arrested,
tortured, and executed. He was canonized in 1970. Feast: Dec. 1.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Campion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Campion%@AE@%%@CR:CAMPION2        @%%@QR:Campion@% or %@AB@%Campian, Thomas,%@AE@%1567-1620, English poet and composer. He wrote%@EH@%
poems and lute music, e.g., five %@AI@%Books of Airs%@AE@% (1601-17); a treatise on
%@AU@%COUNTERPOINT%@BO:          23f1c0@%%@AE@%; and a treatise on poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%camp meeting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%camp meeting%@AE@%,%@CR:CAMP.MEETING    @%%@QR:camp meeting@% outdoor religious gathering, held usually in the summer%@EH@%
over several days. A prominent institution of the American frontier, it
originated (c.1800) under the preaching of James McGready in Kentucky and
spread rapidly with the revival movement. Camp meetings were held by
evangelical sects, e.g., Methodists and Baptists, and were characterized
by emotional fervor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Camus, Albert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Camus, Albert%@AE@%%@CR:CAMUS           @%%@QR:Camus, Albert@%, 1913-60, French writer and thinker; b. Algiers. His belief%@EH@%
in the absurdity of the human condition identified him with
%@AU@%EXISTENTIALISM%@BO:          311d9f@%%@AE@%, but his courageous humanism distinguished him from that
group. The characters in his novels and plays, although keenly aware of
the meaninglessness of the human condition, assert their humanity by
rebelling against their circumstances. His best-known works are the
novels %@AI@%The Stranger%@AE@% (1942), %@AI@%The Plague%@AE@% (1947), and %@AI@%The Fall%@AE@% (1956) and
the essays %@AI@%The Myth of Sisyphus%@AE@% (1942) and %@AI@%The Rebel%@AE@% (1951). Camus was
awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cana%@AE@%,%@CR:CANA            @%%@QR:Cana@% ancient town of Galilee. Here %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% performed his first miracle by%@EH@%
turning water into wine at a wedding. John 2.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canaan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canaan%@AE@%,%@CR:CANAAN          @%%@QR:Canaan@% name for ancient %@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@%. It was the Promised Land of the%@EH@%
Israelites, which they conquered after their delivery from Egypt. Its
inhabitants, who were probably related to the Amorites, were called
Canaanites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canada%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canada%@AE@%,%@CR:CANADA          @%%@QR:Canada@% independent nation (1987 est. pop. 25,652,000), second largest%@EH@%
country in the world (3,831,012 sq mi/9,922,330 sq km), occupying all of
North America east of Alaska and north of a 5,335-mi-long (8,892-km)
border with the U.S., and including adjacent islands of the Arctic
Archipelago. It comprises 10 provinces and 2 federal territories. The
provinces are %@AU@%ALBERTA%@BO:           2e4d4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MANITOBA%@BO:          5aebcf@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SASKATCHEWAN%@BO:          84af59@%%@AE@%, collectively known as
the Prairie Provinces; %@AU@%NEW BRUNSWICK%@BO:          68b03a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NOVA SCOTIA%@BO:          6be561@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND%@BO:          7991f9@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%NEWFOUNDLAND%@BO:          68d0bf@%%@AE@%, known as the Atlantic Provinces (the first three also
being called the Maritime Provinces); and %@AU@%BRITISH COLUMBIA%@BO:          13ed8a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6ddb6d@%%@AE@%; and
%@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7ba00e@%%@AE@%. The territories are the %@AU@%YUKON%@BO:          a4afa2@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%NORTHWEST TERRITORIES%@BO:          6bbc1e@%%@AE@%.
Canada is a member of the %@AU@%COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS%@BO:          210dd2@%%@AE@%. Its capital is %@AU@%OTTAWA%@BO:          6f5e4d@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Occupying more than half of the nation's land area in the
east and north is the vast %@AU@%CANADIAN SHIELD%@BO:          1810c9@%%@AE@%, a sparsely populated expanse
of ancient, metamorphic rocks locally rich in iron, nickel, gold, and
other minerals. Its rim extends from Labrador in the east, along the
northern edge of Canada's urban-industrial heartland (the %@AU@%SAINT LAWRENCE%@BO:          833462@%%@AE@%
R. valley and the peninsula of S Ontario), through %@AU@%WINNIPEG%@BO:          a25ebe@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%GREAT
%@AU@%SLAVE%@BO:          3cf02f@%%@AE@% and Great Bear lakes to the ice-clogged %@AU@%ARCTIC OCEAN%@BO:           77380@%%@AE@% in the north.
Southeast of the Shield, occupying the Maritime Provinces and the island
of Newfoundland, are the worn-down northern ranges of the %@AU@%APPALACHIAN
%@AU@%MOUNTAINS%@BO:           6bff1@%%@AE@% system. To the west, in SW Manitoba and most of Alberta and
Saskatchewan, are the great wheat-growing, oil-rich plains, or prairies,
underlain by sedimentary rock in the Interior Lowlands region. The plains
continue north through the %@AU@%PEACE%@BO:          726190@%%@AE@% R. and Athabasca districts to the area
at the mouth of the %@AU@%MACKENZIE%@BO:          58e949@%%@AE@% R., in the far north. West of the plains,
along the western boundary of Alberta and in British Columbia and the
Yukon, is the c.500-mi-wide (800-km) complex of high mountains and
plateaus known as the Western Cordillera. It includes the %@AU@%ROCKY MOUNTAINS%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@%
(E) and %@AU@%COAST MOUNTAINS%@BO:          1fbb97@%%@AE@% (W), and reaches an elevation of 19,524 ft (5,951
m) at Mt. %@AU@%LOGAN%@BO:          56315e@%%@AE@%, Canada's highest point, in the Yukon. Canada's climate
ranges from temperate, with short, mild winters, in the southwest, to
bitter, Arctic cold. It is temperate, with long, cold, and usually snowy
winters in E Canada and the Prairie Provinces. Climatic conditions become
progressively harsher to the north, where permafrost severely limits
development. The population is predominantly of British or French origin,
with smaller minorities of other Europeans, some Asians, and an
indigenous population of c.300,000 Indians on reservations and c.23,000
Inuit (%@AU@%ESKIMO%@BO:          2ffda3@%%@AE@%). Most Canadians live along the southern edge of the
nation, within 100 mi (160 km) of the U.S. border. More than half are
concentrated in S Ontario and S Quebec. French (spoken by a majority in
Quebec) and English are both official languages. %@AU@%TORONTO,%@BO:          96b1aa@%%@AE@% %@AU@%MONTREAL%@BO:          6372cc@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%VANCOUVER%@BO:          9bafbd@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%EDMONTON%@BO:          2c6ebb@%%@AE@% are the largest urban areas.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Manufacturing, heavily concentrated in S Quebec and Ontario, is
the chief economic activity, with major manufactures including motor
vehicles, processed food, petrochemicals, aluminum, and iron and steel.
Canada, which ranks first among world mineral exporters, produces zinc,
asbestos, silver, and nickel for export, and also mines potash, sulfur,
uranium, copper, and iron. Coal, oil, and natural gas are abundant in
Alberta and to a lesser extent in Saskatchewan. Huge hydroelectric
installations on the St. Lawrence, %@AU@%CHURCHILL%@BO:          1e4551@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COLUMBIA%@BO:          20b32b@%%@AE@%, Peace, and other
rivers supply additional energy in fuel-deficient regions. The extensive
forest cover just north of the settled fringe supports large exports of
newsprint, pulp and paper, and other forest products; and there are major
exports of wheat and other grains from the Prairies, as well as fruit and
meat. The U.S. is the leading trading partner and principal foreign
investor. A trade agreement that took effect in 1989 will eliminate all
tariffs between the U.S. and Canada by 1999. The %@AU@%GREAT LAKES-SAINT
%@AU@%LAWRENCE SEAWAY%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@% is the chief trading artery.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% Canada's constitution was patriated (i.e., returned to full
Canadian control by the British Parliament in London) in 1982. It is
derived from the British North America Act of 1867. Under the
constitution the head of state is the British monarch, acting in Canada
through an appointed governor general. Legislative power is vested in a
bicameral Canadian Parliament, consisting of a House of Commons (282
elected members) and a Senate (104 appointed members). The head of
government is the prime minister, a member of the House. Each province
has its own parliament.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Newfoundland and the eastern seaboard were discovered for England
in 1497 by John %@AU@%CABOT%@BO:          169bc9@%%@AE@% and the mouth of the St. Lawrence R. and the %@AU@%GASPE
%@AU@%PENINSULA%@BO:          383b87@%%@AE@% for France in 1524 by Jacques %@AU@%CARTIER%@BO:          197a33@%%@AE@%. Port Royal (now
%@AU@%ANNAPOLIS ROYAL%@BO:           5c17e@%%@AE@%), Canada's first known permanent mainland settlement, was
founded by the French in 1605, and, traveling out from the colony of New
France (made a royal colony in 1663), French fur traders, explorers, and
missionaries rapidly extended French influence deep into the North
American interior. British interest was sparked by the commercial efforts
of the %@AU@%HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY%@BO:          45078d@%%@AE@% after 1670. Through the 18th cent.
Anglo-French hostility in Europe kept spilling over into the New World
(see %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%). In 1713 Britain gained control of Nova
Scotia (the heart of the French colony called %@AU@%ACADIA%@BO:            913e@%%@AE@%), Newfoundland, and
the Hudson Bay region. The rest of French Canada fell to the British in
1763, following the defeat (1759) of Gen. %@AU@%MONTCALM%@BO:          633714@%%@AE@% by James %@AU@%WOLFE%@BO:          a2be5d@%%@AE@% on the
Plains of Abraham, near the city of Quebec. French residents, then in the
majority, were granted rights to their own language and religion and
given other concessions under the Quebec Act of 1774. Tensions mounted,
however, as British settlement accelerated, especially after the American
Revolution, with an influx of loyalists from the former American
colonies. In an effort to deal with the growing Anglo-French antagonism,
Quebec was divided (1791) into English-speaking Upper Canada (now
Ontario) and French-speaking Lower Canada (present-day Quebec). Following
revolts in both colonies and the report by the earl of %@AU@%DURHAM%@BO:          2b5a46@%%@AE@% in 1839,
Upper and Lower Canada were again merged (1841) to form a single colony
called Canada Province. The union lasted until confederation: the
creation (1867), under the British North America Act, of a self-governing
Dominion of Canada. Ontario and Quebec (as separate provinces), New
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were the four founding members at
confederation. They were later joined by Manitoba (1870), British
Columbia (1871), Prince Edward Island (1873), Alberta and Saskatchewan
(1905), and Newfoundland (1949). The Northwest Territories were purchased
from the Hudson's Bay Company to become (1869) a federal territory, from
which the Yukon was created as a separate territory in 1898. A strong,
sometimes violent French Canadian separatist movement in Quebec, seeking
independence or sovereignty for the province, gathered momentum in the
late 1960s. In the 1970s new regional strains arose as residents of the
rapidly developing western provinces (especially oil-rich Alberta) chafed
under a federal system that, in their view, deprived them of the full
benefits of their resources. Such controversies pointed to the need for
reform of the traditional federal-provincial power arrangement and led to
agitation for the patriation of the constitution. In 1982 Canada's
constitution was returned to the Canadians, together with an amending
formula and a nationally applicable "charter of rights." In the same year
first steps toward the redistribution of federal and provincial powers
were taken by Prime Min. Pierre %@AU@%TRUDEAU'S%@BO:          982358@%%@AE@% Liberal Party government. In
1984 Trudeau retired, and his successor, John Turner, called for a new
election. The Conservatives won with a sweeping majority, and Brian
%@AU@%MULRONEY%@BO:          6509e9@%%@AE@% became prime minister.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%CANADIAN PRIME MINISTERS SINCE CONFEDERATION%@AE@% %@AI@%(including party and dates
%@AI@%%@AI@%in office)%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
Sir John A. Macdonald [Conservative] 1867--73%@NL@%
Alexander Mackenzie [Liberal] 1873--78%@NL@%
Sir John A. Macdonald [Conservative] 1878--%@NL@%
Sir John J. C. Abbott [Conservative] 1891--92%@NL@%
Sir John S. D. Thompson [Conservative] 1892--94%@NL@%
Sir Mackenzie Bowell [Conservative] 1894--96%@NL@%
Sir Charles Tupper [Conservative] 1896%@NL@%
Sir Wilfred Laurier [Liberal] 1896--1911%@NL@%
Sir Robert L. Borden [Conservative/Unionist] 1911--20%@NL@%
Arthur Meighen [Conservative] 1920--21%@NL@%
W. L. M. King [Liberal] 1921--26%@NL@%
Arthur Meighen [Conservative] 1926%@NL@%
W. L. M. King [Liberal] 1926--30%@NL@%
Richard B. Bennett [Conservative] 1930--35%@NL@%
W. L. M. King [Liberal] 1935--48%@NL@%
Louis St. Laurent [Liberal] 1948--57%@NL@%
John G. Diefenbaker [Progressive Conservative] 1957--63%@NL@%
Lester B. Pearson [Liberal] 1963--68%@NL@%
Pierre Elliott Trudeau [Liberal] 1968--79%@NL@%
Joseph Clark Progressive Conservative] 1979--80%@NL@%
Pierre Elliott Trudeau [Liberal] 1980--84%@NL@%
John Turner [Liberal] 1984%@NL@%
Brian Mulroney [Progressive Conservative] 1984--%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canada Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canada Company%@AE@%,%@CR:CANADA.COMPANY  @%%@QR:Canada Company@% land settlement company chartered in 1826 that acquired%@EH@%
government land along the Lake Huron side of the %@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6ddb6d@%%@AE@% peninsula, and
founded Guelph and Goderick. Its first secretary in Canada was the
Scottish novelist John %@AU@%GALT%@BO:          37966b@%%@AE@%. It remained in existence until the 1950s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canada First movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canada First movement%@AE@%,%@CR:CANADA.VEMENT   @%%@QR:Canada First movement@% short-lived political party founded after Canada's%@EH@%
confederation (1867) to promote Canadian nationalism, and to encourage
immigration and native industry. Its ideals were absorbed by older
political parties.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canadian football%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canadian football%@AE@%:%@CR:CANADIALL       @%%@QR:Canadian football@% see under %@AU@%FOOTBALL%@BO:          344211@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canadian Shield%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canadian Shield%@AE@%%@CR:CANADIAN.SHIELD @%%@QR:Canadian Shield@% or %@AB@%Laurentian Plateau,%@AE@%a region of ancient, mostly%@EH@%
metamorphic rock forming the geologic nucleus of North America. Rich in
minerals and water-power potential, it occupies E Canada, from the Great
Lakes and the St. Lawrence N to the Arctic Ocean. It also covers much of
Greenland and extends S into the U.S. as the %@AU@%ADIRONDACK MTS.%@BO:           137e4@%%@AE@% and the
Superior Highlands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canal, Antonio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canal, Antonio%@AE@%:%@CR:CANAL1          @%%@QR:Canal, Antonio@% see %@AU@%CANALETTO%@BO:          181950@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canal%@AE@%,%@CR:CANAL2          @%%@QR:canal@% an artificial waterway constructed for navigation or for the%@EH@%
movement of water, e.g., irrigation, drainage of wetlands, and flood
control. Irrigation canals probably date back to the beginnings of
agriculture. Navigation canals developed later and for a long time were
level, shallow cuts or had inclined planes up which vessels were hauled
from one level to the next. The %@AB@%canal lock, %@AE@%a stretch of water enclosed
by gates at each end, provides another means of raising or lowering
vessels. When a vessel enters a lock through one gate, the gate is closed
behind it. Water is let into or drained out of the lock until its level
equals that of the water ahead. The vessel then passes out through the
forward gate. Canal locks developed separately in China (10th cent.) and
Holland (13th cent.). The %@AU@%GRAND CANAL%@BO:          3c32e9@%%@AE@% of China is the world's longest
canal. Europe developed a complex system of canals, and in the U.S.
canal-building boomed after the opening (1825) of the %@AU@%ERIE CANAL%@BO:          2fcbb9@%%@AE@%. The
rise of railroads, however, brought a decline in the use of canals as
inland waterways. Canals have also been built to shorten sea routes,
e.g., the %@AU@%PANAMA CANAL%@BO:          707a5d@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%SUEZ CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canaletto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canaletto%@AE@%,%@CR:CANALETTO       @%%@QR:Canaletto@% 1697-1768, Venetian painter; b. Antonio Canal. Unsurpassed as%@EH@%
an architectural painter, he executed such finely detailed works as %@AI@%View
%@AI@%on the Grand Canal%@AE@% (National Gall., London) and %@AI@%The Piazzetta, Venice%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.). He also produced superb etchings and drawings that
were not preparatory but complete in themselves. His nephew and pupil,
Bernardo Bellotto, was also called Canaletto.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canary%@AE@%,%@CR:CANARY          @%%@QR:canary@% small %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%FINCH%@BO:          332f4d@%%@AE@% family, descended from either the wild%@EH@%
serin finch or the wild canary (%@AI@%Serinus canarius%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CANARY ISLANDS%@BO:          181e1b@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%MADEIRA ISLANDS%@BO:          593272@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%AZORES%@BO:           a7f8a@%%@AE@%. The wild birds are usually gray or green;
breeding has yielded plain and variegated birds, mostly yellow and buff.
Captive canaries are trained to sing and can live for 15 years or more.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canary Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canary Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:CANARY.ISLANDS  @%%@QR:Canary Islands@% group of seven islands, 2,808 sq mi (7,273 sq km),%@EH@%
constituting two provinces of Spain, in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast
of NW Africa. Tenerife, Palma, Gomera, and Hierro islands are part of
Santa Cruz de Tenerife prov.; Grand Canary, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura
are part of Las Palmas prov. The islands are of volcanic origin and rise
to 12,162 ft (3,707 m) in Mt. Teide, the highest point in Spain. With
their warm climate and fine beaches, the Canaries are a popular tourist
center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canasta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canasta%@AE@%:%@CR:CANASTA         @%%@QR:canasta@% see %@AU@%RUMMY%@BO:          81f409@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canberra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canberra%@AE@%,%@CR:CANBERRA        @%%@QR:Canberra@% city (1986 est. pop. 285,800), capital of Australia, in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY%@BO:           a0bf8@%%@AE@%, SE Australia. The site chosen (1908) for
the capital was developed by the American architect Walter Burley
Griffin, whose plans won (1911) an international competition. Parliament
first met there in 1927. The federal government is the city's largest
employer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cancer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cancer%@AE@%,%@CR:CANCER          @%%@QR:cancer@% common term for tumors (neoplasms) characterized by uncontrolled%@EH@%
growth. Unlike normal cells, cancer cells are atypical in structure and
do not have specialized functions. They compete with normal cells for
nutrients, eventually killing normal tissue. Cancerous, or malignant,
tissue can remain localized, invading only neighboring tissue, or can
spread to other tissues or organs via the %@AU@%LYMPHATIC SYSTEM%@BO:          583eee@%%@AE@% or blood
(i.e., metastasize); virtually all tissues and organs are susceptible.
Cancer symptoms, which are often nonspecific, include weakness and loss
of appetite and weight. The causes are thought to include chemical agents
that alter the cell's nucleic acids, e.g., nitrogen mustard; toxic
substances, e.g., %@AU@%ASBESTOS%@BO:           88c27@%%@AE@%, pollutants, substances in cigarette smoke;
hormonal imbalances, possibly brought on by drugs, e.g., %@AU@%DES%@BO:          282dc7@%%@AE@%; genetic
tendencies for certain types of cancer, e.g., of the breast or stomach;
physical agents such as X rays and radioactivity; and %@AU@%VIRUSES%@BO:          9de468@%%@AE@%. Methods of
detection include visual observation, palpation, X-ray study, %@AU@%CAT SCANS%@BO:          1a5c3d@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%ULTRASOUND%@BO:          999294@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BIOPSY%@BO:           ffb02@%%@AE@%. Tumors caught early, before metastasis, have the
best cure rates. Cancer is treated by surgery, %@AU@%CHEMOTHERAPY%@BO:          1c801a@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%RADIATION%@BO:          7c1c4c@%%@AE@%. The branch of medicine concerned with diagnosis, treatment,
and research into the causes of cancer is oncology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%candytuft%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%candytuft%@AE@%,%@CR:CANDYTUFT       @%%@QR:candytuft@% low-growing Old World plant (genus %@AI@%Iberis%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MUSTARD%@BO:          65af93@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, often cultivated as a rock garden and border ornamental.
Candytufts have flat-topped or elongated clusters of variously colored
flowers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cane%@AE@%,%@CR:CANE            @%%@QR:cane@% in botany, name for a hollow or woody, usually slender, jointed%@EH@%
plant stem (e.g., %@AU@%RATTAN%@BO:          7cde15@%%@AE@% and some bamboos) and for some tall %@AU@%GRASSES%@BO:          3c64a1@%%@AE@%
(e.g., %@AU@%SUGARCANE%@BO:          9050cd@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SORGHUM%@BO:          8baa56@%%@AE@%). Giant cane (%@AI@%Arundinaria macrosperma%@AE@% or
%@AI@%gigantea%@AE@%), a %@AU@%BAMBOO%@BO:           ba81b@%%@AE@% grass native to the U.S., often forms impenetrable
thickets, the canebrakes of the South.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cane sugar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cane sugar%@AE@%:%@CR:CANE.SUGAR      @%%@QR:cane sugar@% see %@AU@%SUCROSE%@BO:          902b6d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canetti, Elias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canetti, Elias%@AE@%,%@CR:CANETTI         @%%@QR:Canetti, Elias@% 1905-, German writer; b. Bulgaria. He has lived in%@EH@%
England since 1938 and is known for two works: %@AI@%Auto da fe%@AE@% (1935), a
searing picture of man as degraded and evil, and %@AI@%Crowds and Power%@AE@% (1960),
a study of mass psychology. He also wrote plays; a study of %@AU@%KAFKA%@BO:          4df9b9@%%@AE@%, and
autobiographical works. He was awarded the 1981 Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cannabis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cannabis%@AE@%:%@CR:CANNABIS        @%%@QR:cannabis@% see %@AU@%HEMP%@BO:          4197ee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cannibalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cannibalism%@AE@%,%@CR:CANNIBALISM     @%%@QR:cannibalism@% practice of eating human flesh, found in Africa, South%@EH@%
America, the South Pacific islands, and the West Indies. Victims for
rites of life- or power-transfer are usually sought among alien groups,
although some peoples eat part of a kinsman's corpse as a gesture of
respect for the deceased. %@AU@%HEADHUNTING%@BO:          40d228@%%@AE@% may have evolved from cannibalism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canning, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canning, George%@AE@%,%@CR:CANNING1        @%%@QR:Canning, George@% 1770-1827, British statesman. A %@AU@%TORY%@BO:          96cefe@%%@AE@%, he served (1807-9)%@EH@%
as foreign minister during the wars against %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% and was
influential in military affairs. After %@AU@%CASTLEREAGH'S%@BO:          19e9c6@%%@AE@% suicide, he was
again foreign minister (1822-27). He refused to cooperate in the
suppression of European revolutions, aided the %@AU@%MONROE DOCTRINE%@BO:          6309de@%%@AE@% by
recognizing the independence of Spanish colonies in America, and arranged
the Anglo-French-Russian agreement that resulted in Greek independence.
He was prime minister in 1827.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canning%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canning%@AE@%,%@CR:CANNING2        @%%@QR:canning@% process of hermetically sealing cooked food for future use,%@EH@%
including meat, poultry, fruits and vegetables, seafood, milk, preserves
and pickles, jams and jellies. Developed early in 19th-cent. France by
Nicolas Appert, a chef, the method spread throughout Europe and the U.S.,
where it was patented around 1815. The process was widely used to provide
foodstuffs to soldiers during the U.S. Civil War. The early glass and tin
containers were later supplanted by tin-plated steel cans, mass-produced
in America since 1847 and now the basis of a modern industry. In home as
in factory canning, the process involves cleaning and preparing the raw
product (with rapid handling necessary to prevent vitamin loss, bacterial
spoilage, or enzyme changes). Once filled, the containers are thermally
exhausted to release gases, then subjected to heat to destroy any
microorganisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cannon, Annie Jump%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cannon, Annie Jump%@AE@%,%@CR:CANNON1         @%%@QR:Cannon, Annie Jump@% 1863-1941, American astronomer; b. Dover, Del. A%@EH@%
staff assistant (from 1896) and curator of astronomical photographs
(1911-38) at the Harvard College Observatory, she developed the
definitive Harvard system of spectral classification (see %@AU@%SPECTRAL CLASS%@BO:          8d4ec5@%%@AE@%)
and published spectral classifications of over 350,000 stars appearing on
Harvard photographic plates. In the course of her work she discovered
more than 300 variable stars, many through their spectral
characteristics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cannon, Joseph Gurney%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cannon, Joseph Gurney%@AE@%,%@CR:CANNON2         @%%@QR:Cannon, Joseph Gurney@% 1836-1926, Speaker of the U.S. House of%@EH@%
Representatives (1903-11); b. Guilford co., N.C. A lawyer from Illinois,
he ruled the House dictatorially in the interest of "Old Guard"
Republicans until a bill reforming House rules (1910) broke his power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cannon, Walter Bradford%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cannon, Walter Bradford%@AE@%,%@CR:CANNON3         @%%@QR:Cannon, Walter Bradford@% 1871-1945, American physiologist. He was the%@EH@%
first to use (1897) bismuth as a contrast medium in an X-ray examination
of the gastrointestinal tract. His interest in the physiological effects
of emotional stimuli, especially on digestion, led to publication (1919)
of his %@AI@%Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage.%@AE@% Cannon also
introduced (1932) the concept of homeostasis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cannon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cannon%@AE@%,%@CR:CANNON4         @%%@QR:cannon@% in warfare: see %@AU@%ARTILLERY%@BO:           8773d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canoe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canoe%@AE@%,%@CR:CANOE           @%%@QR:canoe@% long, narrow watercraft with sharp ends, propelled by paddle,%@EH@%
sail, or, recently, outboard motor. Used by most primitive peoples,
canoes vary in materials and construction. North American Indians used
birchbark, stretched hides, or hollowed logs; the Oldtown, or Penobscot,
Indians in Maine developed canvas-covered wooden craft. In the South
Pacific, large sailing canoes with outriggers were made for ocean
journeys. The Eskimo kayak features a sealskin covering that fits snugly
about the paddler. Modern canoes, generally used for recreational
journeys or fixed-distance racing, are made of aluminum alloy, wood, or
synthetic materials. Sport canoeing is generally credited to John
MacGregor, an English barrister who founded (1865) the Royal Canoe Club.
There are now Olympic events for kayaks and Canadian (North American)
canoes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canon%@AE@%,%@CR:CANON           @%%@QR:canon@% in music, a type of %@AU@%COUNTERPOINT%@BO:          23f1c0@%%@AE@% in which all the instruments or%@EH@%
voices have the same melody, beginning at different times, with
successive entrances at the same or different pitches. A well-known vocal
form is the round, of which the earliest known example is the medieval
song %@AI@%Sumer is Icumen in.%@AE@% The Canon in D for string orchestra by the
17th-cent. German composer Johann Pachelbel was popular in the U.S. in
the 1970s. The canon is an essential device for %@AU@%SERIAL MUSIC%@BO:          8723fc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canonization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canonization%@AE@%:%@CR:CANONIZATION    @%%@QR:canonization@% see %@AU@%SAINT%@BO:          82fd64@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%canon law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%canon law%@AE@%,%@CR:CANON.LAW       @%%@QR:canon law@% in the %@AU@%ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH%@BO:          806faa@%%@AE@%, law of the church courts, based%@EH@%
on legislation of councils, popes, and bishops. It deals with the
governance of the clergy and the church, including administration of the
sacraments. The present code was promulgated in 1917, but has been
undergoing revision since the 1960s. It has a long development, begun
with the early letters of the popes. The greatest figure in canon law was
Gratian, whose compilation was the basis of all later collections. The
Council of %@AU@%TRENT%@BO:          97a7e3@%%@AE@% added much to the law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canova, Antonio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canova, Antonio%@AE@%,%@CR:CANOVA          @%%@QR:Canova, Antonio@% 1757-1822, Italian sculptor. Leading examples of%@EH@%
neoclassicism, his statues and bas-reliefs, e.g., the monuments to
Clement XIV (1782-87; Church of the Apostles, Rome) and Clement XIII
(1792; St. Peter's, Rome), are executed with grace, polish and purity of
contour. His portraits include two nudes of Napoleon I as a Roman
emperor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cantaloupe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cantaloupe%@AE@%:%@CR:CANTALOUPE      @%%@QR:cantaloupe@% see %@AU@%GOURD%@BO:          3bdf96@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MELON%@BO:          5e7db2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cantata%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cantata%@AE@%,%@CR:CANTATA         @%%@QR:cantata@% composite musical form similar to a short unacted opera or brief%@EH@%
%@AU@%ORATORIO%@BO:          6e4380@%%@AE@%, developed in Italy in the %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@% period. In France and Italy
the secular cantatas included arias and recitatives; the sacred cantatas
of Germany had choral and instrumental sections. J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@% utilized hymn
verses in his chorale cantatas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canterbury%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canterbury%@AE@%,%@CR:CANTERBURY      @%%@QR:Canterbury@% city (1986 est. pop. 127,000), Kent, SE England, on the Stour%@EH@%
R. The seat of the primate of the Church of England and the spiritual
center of the country, it is a major attraction. Following his arrival
(597) in England, St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@% founded an abbey there and became the
first archbishop of Canterbury. After the murder (1170) of %@AU@%THOMAS A
%@AU@%BECKET%@BO:          952656@%%@AE@%, the city became the object of pilgrimage, as described in
%@AU@%CHAUCER'S%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Canterbury Tales.%@AE@% The magnificent cathedral (1070-1180;
1379-1503) embodies the styles of several periods. Although the city was
bombed during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, the cathedral and many other historic
buildings survive.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canterbury Tales%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canterbury Tales%@AE@%:%@CR:CANTERBS        @%%@QR:Canterbury Tales@% see %@AU@%CHAUCER, GEOFFREY%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canticles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canticles%@AE@%:%@CR:CANTICLES       @%%@QR:Canticles@% another name for the %@AU@%SONG OF SOLOMON%@BO:          8b89e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canton%@AE@%%@CR:CANTON          @%%@QR:Canton@% or %@AB@%Guangzhou,%@AE@%city (1986 est. pop. 3,290,000), capital of Guangdong%@EH@%
prov., S China, a major deepwater port on the Pearl R. delta. Among the
largest cities in the country, Canton is the transportation, industrial,
and trade center of S China. It has shipyards, a steel complex, and
factories producing many heavy and light industrial products. Its
principal exports are textiles, paper, cement, and sugar. Canton has a
large international airport and is linked with %@AU@%HONG KONG%@BO:          4413e4@%%@AE@% by the
Canton-Kowloon RR and by hovercraft. It became a part of China in the 3d
cent. BC and was later the first Chinese port regularly visited by
European traders. The seat (1913) of %@AU@%SUN YAT-SEN'S%@BO:          90cc8f@%%@AE@% revolutionary
movement, Canton was a Nationalist center in the 1920s and its fall
(1950) to Communist armies signalled the Communist victory in all of
China. Foreign trade expositions have been held there since 1957. Canton
remains a major marketplace for China's foreign trade, and for foreign
investment in S China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cantor, Georg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cantor, Georg%@AE@%,%@CR:CANTOR          @%%@QR:Cantor, Georg@% 1845-1918, German mathematician; b. Russia. His work on%@EH@%
transfinite numbers (see %@AU@%INFINITY%@BO:          480e2c@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%SET%@BO:          873a33@%%@AE@% theory revolutionized
mathematics and led to a critical investigation of its foundations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canute%@AE@%%@CR:CANUTE          @%%@QR:Canute@%, 995?-1035, king of England, Norway, and Denmark. The younger son%@EH@%
of Sweyn of Denmark, he invaded England with his father in 1013 and
forced %@AU@%AETHELRED%@BO:           19421@%%@AE@% to flee to Norway. On Sweyn's death (1014) he withdrew
to Denmark. He reinvaded England in 1015 and, after the Danish victory at
the battle of Assendun, divided the country with %@AU@%EDMUND IRONSIDE%@BO:          2c73ee@%%@AE@%. On
Edmund's death (1016), Canute was accepted as sole king. He gave England
peace, restored the church to a high place, and codified English law. He
married Emma, the widow of AEthelred. In 1018 he succeeded to the throne
of Denmark. After several expeditions to Norway, he threw out %@AU@%OLAF II%@BO:          6d5b90@%%@AE@% in
1028, thus becoming ruler of three kingdoms. He made his son Harthacanute
king of Denmark and his son Sweyn king of Norway. Canute also established
friendly relations with the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canyon de Chelly National Monument%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canyon de Chelly National Monument%@AE@%,%@CR:CANYON.AL.MONU  @%%@QR:Canyon de Chelly National Monument@% area near Chinle, Ariz., including a%@EH@%
canyon known for its ruins of spectacular cliff dwellings, built in AD
350-1300 by the Indians known as the basket makers and their successors,
the %@AU@%PUEBLO INDIANS%@BO:          7ac21a@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%NAVAHO INDIANS%@BO:          679fa7@%%@AE@%, who now live and farm there,
settled in the canyon c.1700.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Canyonlands National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Canyonlands National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:CANYONLRK       @%%@QR:Canyonlands National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capacitance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capacitance%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPACITANCE     @%%@QR:capacitance@% in electricity, the capability of a body, a system, or an%@EH@%
%@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% for storing electric %@AU@%CHARGE%@BO:          1bad43@%%@AE@%. Capacitance, in units of
farads, is expressed as the ratio of stored charge in coulombs to the
applied potential difference in volts. In electric circuits, devices
designed to store charge are called %@AU@%CAPACITORS%@BO:          1866ad@%%@AE@%. When alternating current
flows through a capacitor, the capacitor produces a reactance, inversely
proportional to the capacitance, that resists the current flow (see
%@AU@%IMPEDANCE%@BO:          46f386@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capacitor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capacitor%@AE@%%@CR:CAPACITOR       @%%@QR:capacitor@% or %@AB@%condenser,%@AE@%device for storing electric charge. Simple%@EH@%
capacitors usually consist of two plates made of an electrically
conducting material (e.g., a metal) separated by a nonconducting material
(e.g., glass, paraffin, mica, oil, or air). If an electric %@AU@%POTENTIAL%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@%
(voltage) is applied to the capacitor plates, the plates will become
charged, one positively and one negatively. If the externally applied
voltage is then removed, the capacitor plates remain charged, and the
electric charge induces an electric potential between the two plates.
This phenomenon is called electrostatic %@AU@%INDUCTION%@BO:          47d40f@%%@AE@%. The capacity of the
device for storing electric charge (i.e., its capacitance) can be
increased by increasing the area of the plates, by decreasing their
separation, or by varying the substance used as an insulator. The
%@AU@%DIELECTRIC%@BO:          28eaa1@%%@AE@% constant is a measure of the increase in capacitance due to a
particular insulator used to separate the plates. The Leyden jar, a form
of capacitor invented at the Univ. of Leiden in the 18th cent., consists
of a narrow-necked glass jar coated on part of its inner and outer
surfaces with conductive metal foil.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cape Breton Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cape Breton Island%@AE@%%@CR:CAPE.BRAND      @%%@QR:Cape Breton Island@% (1986 pop. 47,030), 3,970 sq mi (10,282 sq km), in NE%@EH@%
Nova Scotia, separated from the Canadian mainland by the Gut (or Strait)
of Canso. It was discovered by the English navigator John %@AU@%CABOT%@BO:          169bc9@%%@AE@% in 1497.
Under French control (1623-1763), it was renamed Ile Royale and
fortified (at %@AU@%LOUISBURG%@BO:          573c81@%%@AE@%) by French loyalists (the Acadians) after the
rest of %@AU@%NOVA SCOTIA%@BO:          6be561@%%@AE@% passed to the English in 1713. It was a separate
colony from 1784 to 1820, with its capital at Sydney.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cape Canaveral%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cape Canaveral%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPE.CANAVERAL  @%%@QR:Cape Canaveral@% low promontory, E Florida (called Cape Kennedy, 1963-73).%@EH@%
Since 1947 it has been the chief U.S. launching site for long-range test
missiles and manned space flights.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cape Cod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cape Cod%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPE.COD        @%%@QR:Cape Cod@% hook-shaped, sandy peninsula, SE Massachusetts, extending 65 mi%@EH@%
(105 km) E and N into the Atlantic Ocean. It is a popular resort area.
Parts of it constitute the %@AB@%Cape Cod National Seashore %@AE@%(44,600
acres/18,050 hectares; est. 1961). %@AB@%Cape Cod Canal, %@AE@%built 1910-14, cut the
New York-Boston shipping distance by 75 mi (121 km).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capek, Karel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capek, Karel%@AE@%%@CR:CAPEK           @%%@QR:Capek, Karel@%, 1890-1938, Czech writer. He wrote two brilliant satirical%@EH@%
plays attacking technological and materialist excess: %@AI@%R.U.R.%@AE@% (%@AI@%Rossum's
%@AI@%Universal Robots,%@AE@% 1921), which introduced the word %@AI@%robot;%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Insect
%@AI@%Play%@AE@% (1921), written with his brother Josef. His other works include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Makropoulos Secret%@AE@% (1922), a play on which %@AU@%JANAcEK%@BO:          4b2622@%%@AE@% based an opera; %@AI@%The
%@AI@%War with the Newts%@AE@% (1936), a satirical science-fiction attack on
totalitarianism; philosophical novels; travel sketches; and volumes of
conversations with Thomas %@AU@%MASARYK%@BO:          5ca3d7@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Josef Capek, %@AE@%1887-1945, was a writer
and painter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cape Kennedy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cape Kennedy%@AE@%:%@CR:CAPE.KENNEDY    @%%@QR:Cape Kennedy@% see %@AU@%CAPE CANAVERAL%@BO:          186eef@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caper%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPER           @%%@QR:caper@% common name for members of the family Capparidaceae, chiefly Old%@EH@%
World tropical plants closely related to the %@AU@%MUSTARD%@BO:          65af93@%%@AE@% family. The pickled
caper, used as a condiment, is the flower bud of %@AI@%Capparis spinosa,%@AE@%
cultivated in the Mediterranean area. The family also includes the
spiderflower (%@AI@%Cleome spinosa%@AE@%), a common garden annual.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capetians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capetians%@AE@%%@CR:CAPETIANS       @%%@QR:Capetians@%, royal house of France, named for %@AU@%HUGH CAPET%@BO:          4515ab@%%@AE@%, who became king%@EH@%
in 987. His direct descendants ruled France until the death of %@AU@%CHARLES IV%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%
in 1328. The throne then passed to the collateral branch of %@AU@%VALOIS%@BO:          9b92f8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cape Town%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cape Town%@AE@%%@CR:CAPE.TOWN       @%%@QR:Cape Town@% or %@AB@%Capetown,%@AE@%city (1980 pop. 213,830), legislative capital of%@EH@%
South Africa and capital of Cape Province, an important port on the
Atlantic Ocean. It is a commercial and industrial center, linked by road,
rail, and airlines to other South African cities. Situated at the foot of
Table Mt. (c.3,570 ft/1, 090 m), Cape Town is a tourist resort with fine
beaches and a pleasant climate. The city, founded in 1652, is the site of
a fortress, church, museum, and other buildings dating to the early Dutch
settlement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cape Verde%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cape Verde%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPE.VERDE      @%%@QR:Cape Verde@% Port. %@AI@%Ilhas do Cabo Verde,%@AE@% officially Republic of Cape Verde,%@EH@%
republic (1987 est. pop. 350,000), c.1,560 sq mi (4,040 sq km), W Africa,
in the Atlantic Ocean, about 300 mi (480 km) W of Senegal. Cape Verde is
an archipelago made up of 10 islands and 5 islets, divided into two main
groups-the Barlavento, or Windward, in the north, which include Santo
Antao, Sao Vicente, Santa Luzia, Sao Nicolau, Boa Vista, and Sal; and the
Sotavento, or Leeward, which include Sao Tiago, Fogo, Maio, and Brava.
Praia, the capital, is located on Sao Tiago, the largest island. The
islands are mountainous and of volcanic origin; the only active volcano,
and the archipelago's highest point, is Cano (c.9,300 ft/2,830 m), on
Fogo. Farming, the main economic activity, is limited by the small annual
rainfall. Occasionally, severe drought, as in the 1970s and 80s, further
reduces production of the main crops (maize, bananas, sweet potatoes,
beans, sugarcane, and coffee). Tuna and lobster are the major fishing
catches. The mineral resources are puzzolana (used in mortar) and salt.
Many of the islanders work in Portugal and the U.S., and their
remittances, along with foreign assistance, help to support the weak
economy. About 70% of the population is of mixed black African and
European descent; most of the rest are black Africans.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Cape Verde was discovered in 1456 by Luigi da Cadamosto, a
navigator in the service of Portugal. Portuguese colonists began to
settle in the islands, which were probably uninhabited, in 1462, and soon
began importing blacks from W Africa as slaves. Slavery was abolished in
the islands in 1876. Cape Verde became an overseas province in 1951 and
gained its independence in 1975. A movement for union with Guinea-Bissau
(formerly Portuguese Guinea, administered as part of the Cape Verde
islands until 1879), was blocked by a 1980 coup in Guineau-Bissau, which
brought to power leaders opposed to such close ties with Cape Verde. The
new nation has been concerned with a prolonged drought that caused
staggering economic problems and large-scale emigration, an 80%
unemployment rate, and the need to import nearly all of its food supply.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capillarity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capillarity%@AE@%%@CR:CAPILLARITY     @%%@QR:capillarity@% or %@AB@%capillary action, %@AE@%phenomenon in which the surface of a%@EH@%
liquid is elevated or depressed when it comes in contact with a solid.
The result depends on the outcome of two opposing forces, %@AU@%ADHESION AND
%@AU@%COHESION%@BO:           1351b@%%@AE@%. Adhesion between glass and water causes the water to rise along
a glass wall until this force is balanced by the cohesive force acting to
minimize the liquid's surface area (see %@AU@%SURFACE TENSION%@BO:          91177b@%%@AE@%). When adhesion
is less than cohesion, as with glass and mercury, the surface is lowered.
The upward flow of water in soil and in plants is partially caused by
capillarity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capital gains tax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capital gains tax%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPITALAX       @%%@QR:capital gains tax@% levy on profits earned by the sale of capital assets,%@EH@%
such as stocks, bonds, and real estate. In the U.S., long-term gains on
assets held for one year or more are taxed at a lower rate than
short-term gains.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capitalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capitalism%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPITALISM      @%%@QR:capitalism@% economic system characterized by private ownership of%@EH@%
property and of the means of production. Generally the capitalist, or
private enterprise, system embodies the concepts of individual
initiative, competition, %@AU@%SUPPLY AND DEMAND%@BO:          90e0e3@%%@AE@%, and the profit motive.
Capitalism and %@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@% are the two major economic systems in the world.
The modern importance of capitalism dates from the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%,
which started in the 18th cent. when bankers, merchants, and
industrialists began to displace landowners in importance, especially in
Britain. By the early 20th cent. capitalism had created vast credit,
manufacturing, and distributing institutions, and the social and economic
effects of the system had largely transformed world culture. However, it
was also held responsible for various abuses, notably the exploitation of
labor. Complete freedom of economic action has been circumscribed in
recent times by the growth of strong labor %@AU@%UNIONS%@BO:          99c254@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%NATIONALIZATION%@BO:          66dbaf@%%@AE@% in
some countries of certain basic industries, and %@AU@%ANTITRUST LAWS%@BO:           66ee2@%%@AE@% limiting
the power of %@AU@%MONOPOLIES%@BO:          62f2e0@%%@AE@%, as well as by social reforms, %@AU@%ENVIRONMENTALISM%@BO:          2f3e43@%%@AE@%,
and legislation ensuring product safety. See also %@AU@%LAISSEZ-FAIRE%@BO:          51a32f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capital levy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capital levy%@AE@%:%@CR:CAPITAL.LEVY    @%%@QR:capital levy@% see %@AU@%TAXATION%@BO:          931ca9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capital punishment%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capital punishment%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPITALENT      @%%@QR:capital punishment@% imposition of the death penalty by the state. Applied%@EH@%
from ancient times in most societies, it has been used as punishment for
crimes ranging in gravity from petty theft to murder. Modern opposition
to capital punishment arose in France in the 18th cent. and spread
through W Europe, where most nations abolished such laws in the 20th
cent. In the U.S. the death penalty was applied with decreasing frequency
after World War II, and in 1972 the U.S. Supreme Court voided all federal
and state laws calling for the death penalty on the grounds that
condemned persons were being subjected to "cruel and unusual punishment,"
in violation of the 8th amendment to the %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%. Since then, some
states have passed new measures imposing the penalty in specified kinds
of murder cases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capitol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capitol%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPITOL         @%%@QR:Capitol@% seat of the U.S. government, at Washington, D.C., built on an%@EH@%
elevated site chosen by %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% and Major Pierre %@AU@%L'ENFANT%@BO:          53c42b@%%@AE@%. The
building is the work of several architects. William Thornton's 1792 plan
was initiated in 1793. E.S. Hallet, George Hadfield, and James Hoban
succeeded Thornton. In 1814 the British burned the uncompleted building,
and B.H. %@AU@%LATROBE%@BO:          52b104@%%@AE@% and Charles %@AU@%BULFINCH%@BO:          1545df@%%@AE@% restored and completed it
(1818-30). The House and Senate wings and the dome were added (1851-65)
by T.U. Walter. The dome is 288 ft (90 m) high.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capitoline Hill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capitoline Hill%@AE@%%@CR:CAPITOLINE.HILL @%%@QR:Capitoline Hill@% or %@AB@%Capitol,%@AE@%highest of the seven hills of ancient Rome,%@EH@%
historic and religious center of the city in ancient times. In the Middle
Ages the Capitol remained the political center of Rome, and it is the
center of municipal government in modern Rome. In the 16th cent.
%@AU@%MICHELANGELO%@BO:          5ffcb6@%%@AE@% designed the Capitol's present plan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capitol Reef National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capitol Reef National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:CAPITOLARK      @%%@QR:Capitol Reef National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capone, Al(phonse)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capone, Al(phonse)%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPONE          @%%@QR:Capone, Al(phonse)@% 1899-1947, American gangster; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. His%@EH@%
crime syndicate terrorized Chicago in the 1920s, controlling gambling and
prostitution there. In 1931 he was sentenced to prison for federal
income-tax evasion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capote, Truman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capote, Truman%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPOTE          @%%@QR:Capote, Truman@% 1924-84, American author; b. New Orleans. His fiction%@EH@%
reflected a world of grotesque and strangely innocent people. He wrote
novels, e.g., %@AI@%The Grass Harp%@AE@% (1951); short stories, e.g., %@AI@%Breakfast at
%@AI@%Tiffany's%@AE@% (1958); nonfiction; and the "nonfiction novel" %@AI@%In Cold Blood%@AE@%
(1966).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cappadocia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cappadocia%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPPADOCIA      @%%@QR:Cappadocia@% ancient region of Asia Minor, in present E central Turkey.%@EH@%
The name was applied at different times to territories of varying size.
Before 1800 BC, Cappadocia was the heart of an old %@AU@%HITTITE%@BO:          433893@%%@AE@% state; later,
it was controlled by the Persians. During the 3d cent. BC it developed as
an independent kingdom. In AD 17 Rome annexed the region.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Capra, Frank%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Capra, Frank%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPRA           @%%@QR:Capra, Frank@% 1897-, American film director; b. Sicily. %@AI@%It Happened One%@EH@%
%@AI@%Night%@AE@% (1934), %@AI@%Mr. Deeds Goes to Town%@AE@% (1936), and %@AI@%You Can't Take It with
%@AI@%You%@AE@% (1938), mixing "screwball" comedy and populism, won Academy Awards.
Among his other films is %@AI@%It's a Wonderful Life%@AE@% (1946).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caprivi Strip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caprivi Strip%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPRIVI.STRIP   @%%@QR:Caprivi Strip@% panhandle area of NE Namibia, 300 mi (480 km) long and 50%@EH@%
mi (80 km) wide, between Botswana (S) and Angola and Zambia (N). It was
obtained from Great Britain by Germany in 1890 to give German South West
Africa (now %@AU@%NAMIBIA%@BO:          661ef0@%%@AE@%) access to the %@AU@%ZAMBEZI%@BO:          a4d9be@%%@AE@% R.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%capybara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%capybara%@AE@%,%@CR:CAPYBARA        @%%@QR:capybara@% largest living %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@%, reaching a length of 4 ft (120 cm) and a%@EH@%
weight of 75 to 100 lb (34 to 45 kg). Found in Central and much of South
America, it has coarse, scant, brownish hair flecked with yellow. An
expert swimmer, the capybara is also called the water hog.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caracalla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caracalla%@AE@%,%@CR:CARACALLA       @%%@QR:Caracalla@% 188-217, Roman emperor (211-17); son of Septimius %@AU@%SEVERUS%@BO:          876b4c@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Born Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; he received his nickname from the
caracalla, a Gallic tunic he regularly wore. His reign was infamous for
its cruelty and bloodshed. Caracalla did pacify the German frontier and
extended Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. In 217
he was murdered by his successor, Macrinus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caracas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caracas%@AE@%,%@CR:CARACAS         @%%@QR:Caracas@% city (1981 pop. 1,816,901), N Venezuela, capital and largest%@EH@%
city of Venezuela. An extremely cosmopolitan city, it is a major
industrial center, shipping through the nearby Caribbean port of La
Guaira. Caracas was founded in 1567 and was the base for Spanish
colonization of Venezuela. It was the birthplace of the liberators
Francisco de %@AU@%MIRANDA%@BO:          615fca@%%@AE@% and Simon %@AU@%BOLIVAR%@BO:          119482@%%@AE@%. Caracas retains an old section,
with many examples of colonial architecture. The oil boom of the 1950s
made possible massive public building projects, transforming much of
Caracas into an ultramodern metropolis famed for such futuristic
complexes as University City and the Centro Bolivar government center. A
cultural hub, the city is the site of a large performing arts center
(1981), three orchestras, an opera, a ballet, and three major art
museums.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caramanlis, Constantine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caramanlis, Constantine%@AE@%:%@CR:CARAMANLIS      @%%@QR:Caramanlis, Constantine@% see %@AU@%KARAMANLIS, CONSTANTINE%@BO:          4e6c1e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da%@AE@%%@CR:CARAVAGGIO      @%%@QR:Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da@% or %@AB@%Amerigi da Caravaggio, %@AE@%1573-1610,%@EH@%
Italian painter. After his early years in Rome doing %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% paintings,
e.g., %@AI@%Concert of Youths%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.) and the %@AI@%Fortune Teller%@AE@%
(Louvre), Caravaggio devoted himself to religious works and portraits.
His use of models from lower walks of life in religious works was thought
irreverent, but his strong chiaroscuro technique, partially illuminating
figures against a dark background, was adopted by his contemporaries. His
wide influence can be seen in the works of %@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RIBERA%@BO:          7ef2f3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caraway%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caraway%@AE@%,%@CR:CARAWAY         @%%@QR:caraway@% biennial plant (%@AI@%Carum carvi%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family, cultivated in%@EH@%
Europe and North America for its aromatic, spicy seeds. The seeds are
used to flavor pastry, cabbage, sausage, cheese, and liqueurs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carbohydrate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carbohydrate%@AE@%,%@CR:CARBOHYDRATE    @%%@QR:carbohydrate@% any member of a large class of chemical compounds that%@EH@%
includes sugars, starches, cellulose, and related compounds.
Carbohydrates are produced naturally by green plants from carbon dioxide
and water (see %@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@%). Important as foods, they supply energy
and are used to make fats. The three main classes of carbohydrates are
monosaccharides, which are the simple %@AU@%SUGARS%@BO:          904d5f@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AU@%FRUCTOSE%@BO:          369c9b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GLUCOSE%@BO:          3abd28@%%@AE@%;
disaccharides, which are made up of two monosaccharide units and include
%@AU@%LACTOSE%@BO:          516a52@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MALTOSE%@BO:          5a763a@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SUCROSE%@BO:          902b6d@%%@AE@%; and polysaccharides, which are polymers
with many monosaccharide units and include %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GLYCOGEN%@BO:          3ac24c@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%STARCH%@BO:          8e4143@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carbon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carbon%@AE@%%@CR:CARBON          @%%@QR:carbon@% (C), nonmetallic element, known since ancient times. Pure carbon%@EH@%
forms are amorphous carbon (found in such sources as %@AU@%CHARCOAL%@BO:          1ba6ea@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COAL%@BO:          1fb074@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%COKE%@BO:          201906@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LIGNITE%@BO:          550bbe@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PEAT%@BO:          7284ca@%%@AE@%) and the crystals %@AU@%GRAPHITE%@BO:          3c605c@%%@AE@%, a very soft,
dark-gray or black, lustrous material, and %@AU@%DIAMOND%@BO:          28a6e2@%%@AE@%, the hardest substance
known. %@AU@%ORGANIC CHEMISTRY%@BO:          6eb250@%%@AE@% is the study of carbon compounds. All living
organisms contain carbon. Carbon has seven isotopes; carbon-12 is the
basis for %@AU@%ATOMIC WEIGHTS%@BO:           99540@%%@AE@%; carbon-14, with a half-life of 5,730 years, is
used to trace chemical reactions and to date geologic and archeologic
specimens (see %@AU@%DATING%@BO:          26a228@%%@AE@%). See %@AU@%CARBON CYCLE%@BO:          18bb41@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CARBON DIOXIDE%@BO:          18bf7d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CARBON
%@AU@%MONOXIDE%@BO:          18c734@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carbon cycle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carbon cycle%@AE@%,%@CR:CARBON.CYCLE    @%%@QR:carbon cycle@% in biology, the exchange of carbon between living organisms%@EH@%
and the nonliving environment. Carbon, the central element in the
compounds of which organisms are composed, is derived from free carbon
dioxide found in air or dissolved water. Plants incorporate carbon into
carbohydrates and other complex organic molecules by means of
%@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@%; during %@AU@%RESPIRATION%@BO:          7e6ed3@%%@AE@%, or %@AU@%OXIDATION%@BO:          6fc331@%%@AE@%, they combine oxygen
with portions of the carbohydrate molecule, releasing carbon in the form
of carbon dioxide and water. Carbon is also returned to the environment
when plants die and their organic material is broken down by bacteria and
other microorganisms. Animals obtain carbon by feeding on plants and
other animals; they release carbon through respiration and, after death,
indirectly through the respiration of microorganisms that consume them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carbon dioxide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carbon dioxide%@AE@%%@CR:CARBON.DIOXIDE  @%%@QR:carbon dioxide@% (CO%@AH@%2%@AE@%), chemical compound, occurring as a colorless,%@EH@%
odorless, tasteless gas that is about 11/2 times as dense as air under
ordinary conditions. It does not burn and will not support combustion of
ordinary materials. Its weakly acidic aqueous solution is called %@AU@%CARBONIC
%@AU@%ACID%@BO:          18c48f@%%@AE@%. The gas, easily liquefied by compression and cooling, provides the
sparkle in carbonated beverages. Solid carbon dioxide, or dry ice, is a
refrigerant. Dough rises because of carbon dioxide formed by the action
of yeast and baking powder. Carbon dioxide is a raw material for
%@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@% in green plants, and is a product of animal %@AU@%RESPIRATION%@BO:          7e6ed3@%%@AE@%
and of the decay of organic matter. Carbon dioxide occurs both free and
combined in nature, and makes up about 1% of the volume of dry air. It
can cause death by suffocation if inhaled in large amounts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carbon-14 dating%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carbon-14 dating%@AE@%:%@CR:CARBON14.DATING @%%@QR:carbon-14 dating@% see %@AU@%DATING%@BO:          26a228@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carbonic acid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carbonic acid%@AE@%%@CR:CARBONIC.ACID   @%%@QR:carbonic acid@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%CO%@AH@%3%@AE@%), a weak dibasic acid (see %@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%) formed when%@EH@%
%@AU@%CARBON DIOXIDE%@BO:          18bf7d@%%@AE@% dissolves in water; it exists only in solution. With bases
it forms the %@AU@%CARBONATE%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@% and bicarbonate salts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carboniferous period%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carboniferous period%@AE@%:%@CR:CARBONIERIOD    @%%@QR:Carboniferous period@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carbon monoxide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carbon monoxide%@AE@%,%@CR:CARBON.MONOXIDE @%%@QR:carbon monoxide@% chemical compound (CO), colorless, odorless, tasteless,%@EH@%
extremely poisonous gas that is less dense than air under ordinary
conditions. It burns in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing
carbon dioxide. It is a component of the artificial fuels producer gas
and %@AU@%WATER GAS%@BO:          9f9f66@%%@AE@%. As a reducing agent, it removes oxygen from many compounds
and is used in the reduction of metals from ores. When air containing as
little as 0.1% carbon monoxide by volume is inhaled, the oxygen of
hemoglobin is replaced by the carbon monoxide, resulting in fatal oxygen
starvation throughout the body.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carburetor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carburetor%@AE@%,%@CR:CARBURETOR      @%%@QR:carburetor@% device in a gasoline engine that vaporizes the gas and mixes%@EH@%
it with a regulated amount of air for efficient combustion in the engine
cylinders. Land vehicles, boats, and light aircraft have a float
carburetor, in which a float regulates the fuel level in a reservoir from
which the fuel is continuously sucked into the intake manifold at a
restriction called a venturi. When there is an individual spray for each
cylinder and the injection is an intermittent, timed, metered spurt, the
device is called a fuel injector. See also %@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carcinogen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carcinogen%@AE@%:%@CR:CARCINOGEN      @%%@QR:carcinogen@% see %@AU@%CANCER%@BO:          182344@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carcinoma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carcinoma%@AE@%:%@CR:CARCINOMA       @%%@QR:carcinoma@% see %@AU@%TUMOR%@BO:          98899d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cardamom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cardamom%@AE@%:%@CR:CARDAMOM        @%%@QR:cardamom@% see %@AU@%GINGER%@BO:          3a3f62@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cardenas, Lazaro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cardenas, Lazaro%@AE@%,%@CR:CARDENAS        @%%@QR:Cardenas, Lazaro@% 1895-1970, president of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@% (1934-40). He fought%@EH@%
(1913-17) as a general in the Mexican revolution and was elected
president. He expropriated foreign-held properties, distributed land to
peasants, and instituted reforms to benefit Indians and Mexican workers.
His influence in advancing constitutional processes was great.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cardiff%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cardiff%@AE@%,%@CR:CARDIFF         @%%@QR:Cardiff@% city (1986 pop. 279,500), S Glamorgan, S Wales, on the Bristol%@EH@%
Channel. The capital, largest city, and chief port of Wales, it produces
iron and steel, machinery, ships, automobiles, paper, and other
manufactures. Cardiff was one of the world's greatest coal-shipping ports
in the 19th and early 20th cent. The ruins of Cardiff Castle, built
(1090) on the site of a Roman fort, are of special interest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cardinal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cardinal%@AE@%,%@CR:CARDINAL1       @%%@QR:cardinal@% a member of the highest body within the Roman Catholic Church%@EH@%
below the pope-the college of cardinals, having the duty of electing the
pope (since 1059) and all the duties of a privy council to him. Its
members are appointed by the pope and are of three classes: cardinal
bishops, bishops of the seven sees around Rome and the Eastern rite
patriarchs; cardinal priests, mostly archbishops outside the Roman
province; and cardinal deacons, priests with functions within papal
government. A cardinal's insignia resemble those of a bishop except for
the red, broad-brimmed, tasseled hat, which is conferred by the pope but
not subsequently worn. Pope %@AU@%SIXTUS V%@BO:          89c283@%%@AE@% set the number of cardinals at 70,
but since the pontificate of %@AU@%JOHN XXIII%@BO:          4c6d68@%%@AE@%, the number has greatly
increased.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cardinal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cardinal%@AE@%%@CR:CARDINAL2       @%%@QR:cardinal@% or %@AB@%redbird,%@AE@%North American songbird of the %@AU@%FINCH%@BO:          332f4d@%%@AE@% family. The%@EH@%
eastern cardinal (%@AI@%Richmondena cardinalis%@AE@%) male is bright red with a black
throat and face; the female is brown with red patches. Both have crests
and red bills.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cardiopulmonary resuscitation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cardiopulmonary resuscitation%@AE@%%@CR:CARDIOPTATION   @%%@QR:cardiopulmonary resuscitation@% (CPR), emergency procedure used to treat%@EH@%
victims of cardiac and respiratory arrest. Special training is
recommended for CPR, which combines external heart massage (to keep the
blood flowing through the body) with %@AU@%ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION%@BO:           87220@%%@AE@% (to keep air
flowing in and out of the lungs). The victim is placed face up and
prepared for artificial respiration. The person administering CPR places
his (or her) hands (one on top of the other, with fingers interlocked)
heel down on the victim's breastbone, leans forward, and presses down
rhythmically about 60 times a minute. This procedure is alternated with
mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan%@AE@%,%@CR:CARDOZO         @%%@QR:Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan@% 1870-1938, associate justice of the U.S.%@EH@%
%@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1932-38); b. N.Y.C.; A.B., Columbia Univ. (1889). A New
York attorney and judge of considerable stature, on the Court he was an
eloquent and influential supporter of liberal social and economic views.
His published lectures are considered classics of jurisprudence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carducci, Giosue%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carducci, Giosue%@AE@%,%@CR:CARDUCCI        @%%@QR:Carducci, Giosue@% 1835-1907, Italian poet and teacher. Professor of%@EH@%
literature at the Univ. of Bologna from 1860 to 1904, he was a scholar,
editor, orator, critic, and patriot. He was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize
in literature. His verse, classic in design, with great emotional range,
ranks him among leading Italian poets. His works include %@AI@%Hymn to Satan%@AE@%
(1865) and %@AI@%Lyrics and Rhythms%@AE@% (1899).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cargo cults%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cargo cults%@AE@%,%@CR:CARGO.CULTS     @%%@QR:cargo cults@% nativistic religious movements in Melanesia holding that at%@EH@%
the millennium ancestor spirits will bring cargoes of modern goods to
believers. Dating from the 19th cent., these cults expanded after World
War II forces left surplus goods in the islands and contact with the West
increased.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caribbean Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caribbean Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:CARIBBEAN.SEA   @%%@QR:Caribbean Sea@% tropical sea, c.750,000 sq mi (1,942,500 sq km), an arm of%@EH@%
the Atlantic Ocean bordered by the West Indies (N, E), South America (S),
and Central America (W). Its waters are clear and warm (averaging 75
degF/24 degC), with almost no tidal range. Bartlett Trench (22,788
ft/6,946 m below sea level), between Cuba and Jamaica, is the deepest
point. After its discovery (1493) by Christopher %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% the sea was
controlled by Spain, but other European nations later established
colonies on its western fringe. Since the %@AU@%MONROE DOCTRINE%@BO:          6309de@%%@AE@% of 1823, and
especially after the opening (1914) of the %@AU@%PANAMA CANAL%@BO:          707a5d@%%@AE@%, the U.S. has
tried to exclude foreign powers from this strategic area (see %@AU@%CUBAN
%@AU@%MISSILE CRISIS%@BO:          252bdd@%%@AE@%) and has often intervened in the region's domestic
affairs, e.g., in the %@AU@%DOMINICAN REPUBLIC%@BO:          29fd97@%%@AE@% in 1965. See also %@AU@%WEST INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caribou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caribou%@AE@%,%@CR:CARIBOU         @%%@QR:caribou@% name in North America for the %@AU@%DEER%@BO:          275a2e@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Rangifer%@AE@%) from which%@EH@%
the %@AU@%REINDEER%@BO:          7dc15e@%%@AE@% was domesticated. Found in arctic and subarctic regions,
caribou are the only deer of which both sexes have antlers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caricature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caricature%@AE@%,%@CR:CARICATURE      @%%@QR:caricature@% a satirical portrait in art or literature that, through%@EH@%
exaggeration and distortion of features, makes its subject appear
ridiculous. The comic tradition in art was established in 17th-cent.
Italy by the %@AU@%CARRACCI%@BO:          193c9a@%%@AE@%. Caricature flourished in 18th-cent. England in the
works of %@AU@%HOGARTH%@BO:          43706f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROWLANDSON%@BO:          818aca@%%@AE@%, and Gillray. Expanding to include political
and social satire, the genre developed into the %@AU@%CARTOON%@BO:          197dfd@%%@AE@%. Caricature was
extremely popular in European and American periodicals of the 19th cent.,
many of which included work by such artists as %@AU@%DAUMIER%@BO:          26b182@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRUIKSHANK%@BO:          24fb85@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%TENNIEL%@BO:          93f3f5@%%@AE@%, and Art Young. Notable modern caricaturists include %@AU@%BEERBOHM%@BO:           db030@%%@AE@%,
Ronald Searle, Al Hirschfeld, and David Levine. In literature, caricature
has been a popular form since the ancient Greeks. Perhaps the most
striking and pervasive use of literary caricature in English is in the
work of Charles %@AU@%DICKENS%@BO:          28be2c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carillon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carillon%@AE@%,%@CR:CARILLON        @%%@QR:carillon@% in music: see %@AU@%BELL%@BO:           e1879@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carleton, Guy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carleton, Guy%@AE@%,%@CR:CARLETON        @%%@QR:Carleton, Guy@% 1st %@AB@%Baron Dorchester, %@AE@%1724-1808, British governor and%@EH@%
commander of %@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7ba00e@%%@AE@% in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. He repelled (1775) an
American attack on Fort Quebec and seized (1776) Crown Point, N.Y. He was
replaced (1776-77) as commander and governor, but served as commander
(1782-83) of British forces in America and as governor (1786-96) of
British North America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carlists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carlists%@AE@%,%@CR:CARLISTS        @%%@QR:Carlists@% partisans of Don Carlos (1788-1855) and his successors in their%@EH@%
claims to the Spanish throne. After %@AU@%FERDINAND VII%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@% changed the law to
enable his daughter, %@AU@%ISABELLA II%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@%, to succeed him (1833), his brother, Don
Carlos, claimed the throne and initiated an unsuccessful civil war
(1833-40). The conservative, clericalist Carlists revived the claim
(1860) for Don Carlos's son, Don Carlos, conde de Montemolin (1818-61),
and again (1869, 1872) on behalf of the latter's nephew, Don Carlos,
duque de Madrid (1848-1909). They seized most of the Basque provinces and
other territory and fought another civil war (1873-76), which failed. The
Carlists supported the Nationalists in the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@% (1936-39),
but %@AU@%FRANCO%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% ended their dynastic claim in 1969 by naming the Bourbon
prince, %@AU@%JUAN CARLOS%@BO:          4d6ba3@%%@AE@%, as his successor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carlos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carlos%@AE@%.%@CR:CARLOS1         @%%@QR:Carlos@% For Spanish rulers thus named, see %@AU@%CHARLES%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carlos, Don%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carlos, Don%@AE@%:%@CR:CARLOS2         @%%@QR:Carlos, Don@% see %@AU@%CARLISTS%@BO:          18f04e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carlsbad Caverns National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carlsbad Caverns National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:CARLSBAAL.PARK  @%%@QR:Carlsbad Caverns National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carlson, Chester Floyd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carlson, Chester Floyd%@AE@%,%@CR:CARLSON         @%%@QR:Carlson, Chester Floyd@% 1906-68, American inventor; b. Seattle, Wash. A%@EH@%
patent lawyer, he invented (1938) xerography (see %@AU@%PHOTOCOPYING%@BO:          7510f3@%%@AE@%), a method
of electrostatic printing, and made a fortune from the Haloid Co. (later
the Xerox Corp.). The first Xerox copier was marketed in 1959.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carlstadt, Karlstadt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carlstadt, Karlstadt%@AE@%,%@CR:CARLSTADT       @%%@QR:Carlstadt, Karlstadt@% or %@AB@%Karolstadt,%@AE@%c.1480-1541, German Protestant%@EH@%
reformer, originally named Andreas Rudolph Bodenstein. During %@AU@%LUTHER'S%@BO:          57f60a@%%@AE@%
stay at Wartberg (1521-22), Carlstadt became the leader at Wittenberg and
implemented his radical beliefs. Luther later accused him of betrayal.
Accused of revolutionary political activity, Carlstadt fled to
Switzerland, where he taught theology at Basel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carlyle, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carlyle, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:CARLYLE         @%%@QR:Carlyle, Thomas@% 1795-1881, English author; b. Scotland. He first gained%@EH@%
attention as an interpreter of German %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% with his %@AI@%Life of
%@AI@%Schiller%@AE@% (1825) and a translation of Goethe's %@AI@%Wilhelm Meister%@AE@% (1824). In
1826 he married Jane Baillie Welsh, an ambitious woman who did much to
aid his career. A trenchant critic of materialism, he expressed his views
in a sort of spiritual autobiography, %@AI@%Sartor Resartus%@AE@% (1833-34), and in
his interpretative rather than historical %@AI@%French Revolution%@AE@% (1837). He
attacked laissez-faire theory and parliamentary democracy and stressed
his belief in strong government and great men in %@AI@%On Heroes, Hero-Worship,
%@AI@%and The Heroic in History%@AE@% (1841) and %@AI@%Past and Present%@AE@% (1843), in an
edition of the writings of Oliver %@AU@%CROMWELL%@BO:          24d49f@%%@AE@% (1845), and in a biography of
Frederick the Great (1858-65). Carlyle had great influence on the
literary world of his day; his style, tortuous yet effective, is unique.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carmelites%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carmelites%@AE@%,%@CR:CARMELITES      @%%@QR:Carmelites@% Roman Catholic order of mendicant friars. Originating%@EH@%
apparently as hermits on Mt. Carmel in Palestine, they were made into a
Western order by St. Simon Stock (d. 1265) and became prominent in
university life. An enclosed order of Carmelite nuns was established.
After a decline, the Carmelites were revived by the reforms of St.
%@AU@%THERESA%@BO:          94d8ba@%%@AE@% of Avila and St. %@AU@%JOHN OF THE CROSS%@BO:          4cb50d@%%@AE@% in 16th-cent. Spain. The now
larger reformed order is known as the Discalced Carmelites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carmichael, Hoagy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carmichael, Hoagy%@AE@%%@CR:CARMICHAEL      @%%@QR:Carmichael, Hoagy@% (Hoagland Howard Carmichael), 1899-1981, American%@EH@%
songwriter; b. Bloomington, Ind. His melodies reflect early %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%
influence. "Stardust" (1929) is his best-known song; others include
"Georgia on My Mind" and "Skylark." He also appeared in films, e.g., %@AI@%To
%@AI@%Have and Have Not%@AE@% (1944).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carnap, Rudolf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carnap, Rudolf%@AE@%,%@CR:CARNAP          @%%@QR:Carnap, Rudolf@% 1891-1970, German-American philosopher. One of the most%@EH@%
influential of contemporary thinkers, he was a founder of %@AU@%LOGICAL
%@AU@%POSITIVISM%@BO:          563cf5@%%@AE@% and made important contributions to logic, semantics, and the
philosophy of science. He defined philosophy as `'the logic of the
sciences" and considered it a general language whose only legitimate
concern could be to describe and criticize the language of the particular
sciences. Through linguistic analysis he revealed the inadequacies of
everyday speech. Carnap later modified this extreme view, which rejects
almost all traditional philosophy. His works include %@AI@%The Logical Syntax
%@AI@%of Language%@AE@% (1934) and %@AI@%Introduction to Symbolic Logic%@AE@% (1954).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carnarvon, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, 5th earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carnarvon, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, 5th earl of%@AE@%,%@CR:CARNARVON       @%%@QR:Carnarvon, George Edward Stanhope Molyneux Herbert, 5th earl of@%%@EH@%
1866-1923, English Egyptologist who, with Howard %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          1961e4@%%@AE@%, excavated
(1906-22) in the Valley of the Kings, Luxor, Egypt. The tomb of
%@AU@%TUTANKHAMEN%@BO:          9902cd@%%@AE@% was their final discovery (1922).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carnation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carnation%@AE@%:%@CR:CARNATION       @%%@QR:carnation@% see %@AU@%PINK%@BO:          75e2ac@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carnegie, Andrew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carnegie, Andrew%@AE@%,%@CR:CARNEGIE        @%%@QR:Carnegie, Andrew@% 1835-1919, American industrialist and philanthropist;%@EH@%
b. Scotland, emigrated to the U.S. 1848. As a superintendent (1859-65)
for the Pennsylvania RR he invested in iron manufactures. In 1873 he
began to acquire firms that later became the Carnegie Steel Co., which by
1900 was producing a quarter of the steel in the U.S. and controlled iron
mines, ore ships, and railroads. His partnership with Henry C. %@AU@%FRICK%@BO:          365d82@%%@AE@%
aided his success. In 1901 he sold his interests to the U.S. Steel Corp.
and retired. Believing that wealth should be used for the public good, he
donated c.$350 million, establishing such philanthropic organizations as
the Carnegie Corp. of New York, the Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, and over 2,800 libraries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carnegie Corporation of New York%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carnegie Corporation of New York%@AE@%:%@CR:CARNEGI.NEW.YO  @%%@QR:Carnegie Corporation of New York@% see %@AU@%FOUNDATION%@BO:          34c586@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carnivore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carnivore%@AE@%,%@CR:CARNIVORE       @%%@QR:carnivore@% term applied to any animal whose diet consists primarily of%@EH@%
animal matter. In animal systematics, it refers to members of the
mammalian order Carnivora, which contains aquatic and terrestrial
species, including the dog, cat, seal, and other families. The term
%@AI@%herbivore%@AE@% refers to animals whose diets consist mainly of plant matter;
%@AI@%omnivore%@AE@% refers to animals that eat animal and plant matter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carnivorous plants%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carnivorous plants%@AE@%:%@CR:CARNIVONTS      @%%@QR:carnivorous plants@% see %@AU@%PITCHER PLANT%@BO:          7629e7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VENUS'S-FLYTRAP%@BO:          9c917d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite%@AE@%%@CR:CARNOT1         @%%@QR:Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite@%, 1753-1823, French revolutionary. He%@EH@%
organized the republican armies and masterminded a successful strategy in
the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%. A member of the %@AU@%DIRECTORY%@BO:          29442d@%%@AE@%, he later held
high posts under %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% and wrote a classic work on fortification
(1810).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carnot, (Nicholas Leonard) Sadi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carnot, (Nicholas Leonard) Sadi%@AE@%,%@CR:CARNOT2         @%%@QR:Carnot, (Nicholas Leonard) Sadi@% 1796-1832, French physicist, son of%@EH@%
Lazare %@AU@%CARNOT%@BO:          1912d2@%%@AE@%. He studied the relation between heat and mechanical energy
and devised an ideal engine whose operations showed that even under ideal
conditions a heat engine must reject some heat energy instead of
converting it all into mechanical energy. This illustrates the second law
of %@AU@%THERMODYNAMICS%@BO:          94e3ba@%%@AE@%, formulated later.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caro, Joseph ben Ephraim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caro, Joseph ben Ephraim%@AE@%,%@CR:CARO            @%%@QR:Caro, Joseph ben Ephraim@% 1488-1575, Jewish codifier of law; b. Spain, d.%@EH@%
Palestine. His chief work is %@AI@%Shulhan Arukh%@AE@% [the table set], still an
authority for Orthodox religious and legal disputes. Caro was also a
cabalist (see %@AU@%CABALA%@BO:          167cc0@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carob%@AE@%,%@CR:CAROB           @%%@QR:carob@% evergreen tree (%@AI@%Ceratonia siliqua%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family, native to%@EH@%
the Mediterranean but cultivated in other warm areas. Its large, red pods
have been a food source since prehistoric times, and the pods and their
extracts have many common names, e.g., St. John's bread and locust bean
gum. Carob is used as a food stabilizer and a caffeine-free chocolate
substitute; carob pods are used as livestock feed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carol%@AE@%,%@CR:CAROL1          @%%@QR:Carol@% kings of %@AU@%RUMANIA%@BO:          81dbb9@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Carol I %@AE@%or %@AB@%Charles I, %@AE@%1839-1914, prince%@EH@%
(1866-81) and first king (1881-1914), was a Prussian of the
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty. He achieved full independence for
Rumania at the Congress of %@AU@%BERLIN%@BO:           ee464@%%@AE@% (1878). He married %@AU@%ELIZABETH%@BO:          2e32e2@%%@AE@% of Wied.
%@AB@%Carol II, %@AE@%1893-1953, was forced (1925) to renounce his right to
succession in favor of his infant son, %@AU@%MICHAEL%@BO:          5ff762@%%@AE@%, but in 1930 he proclaimed
himself king, dethroning Michael. He instituted a personal dictatorship
in 1938, but was dethroned by %@AU@%ANTONESCU%@BO:           6788f@%%@AE@% in 1940, and Michael again became
king.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carol%@AE@%,%@CR:CAROL2          @%%@QR:carol@% popular, joyful %@AU@%HYMN%@BO:          461652@%%@AE@%, celebrating an occasion such as %@AU@%EASTER%@BO:          2bd5a6@%%@AE@% or%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHRISTMAS%@BO:          1e099f@%%@AE@%. English carols date from the 15th cent. Like the %@AU@%FOLK SONG%@BO:          342065@%%@AE@%,
the carol is characterized by simplicity of thought and expression.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caroline Affair%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caroline Affair%@AE@%.%@CR:CAROLINE.AFFAIR @%%@QR:Caroline Affair@% In 1837 a group of U.S. citizens sided with a Canadian%@EH@%
rebellion headed by W.L. %@AU@%MACKENZIE%@BO:          58e664@%%@AE@%. A small American ship, the %@AI@%Caroline,%@AE@%
carried men and supplies to the rebels, who were on Navy Island, above
%@AU@%NIAGARA FALLS%@BO:          69ad74@%%@AE@%. Loyal Canadians set fire to the ship and sent it over the
falls. One American was killed. After this incident, anti-British feeling
contributed to tense U.S. relations with Britain until the
%@AU@%WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY%@BO:          a0200c@%%@AE@% of 1842.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caroline of Brunswick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caroline of Brunswick%@AE@%,%@CR:CAROLINNSWICK   @%%@QR:Caroline of Brunswick@% 1768-1821, consort of %@AU@%GEORGE IV%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@% of England. She%@EH@%
married George in 1795, separated from him in 1796, and lived abroad
after 1814. When George became king in 1820, she returned to claim her
rights as queen. The king instituted divorce proceedings on the grounds
of adultery. The charges were probably true, but Caroline's persecution
by a profligate husband aroused sympathy, and they were dropped.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carolingian architecture and art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carolingian architecture and art%@AE@%.%@CR:CAROLINE.AND.A  @%%@QR:Carolingian architecture and art@% In the 8th cent. under %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
changes in Western culture and art reached their apex. In architecture,
the small, boxlike structures of the Merovingian period gave way to
centrally planned, spacious %@AU@%BASILICAS%@BO:           cd380@%%@AE@%. But of incalculable importance to
the later Middle Ages was the new emphasis given to the western facade of
the church, called the westwork. Its function is still debated, but it
was flanked by symmetrical towers and was several stories high. A vaulted
vestibule was below, and the room above may have been a chapel for
dignitaries. The outstanding Carolingian structure still in existence is
the palatine chapel at Aachen (805), in West Germany, which may have been
based partly on the 5th-cent. Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. The
best-preserved artistic works of the period are small objects-illuminated
manuscripts, ivory carving, and metalwork. They show a fusion of
Anglo-Saxon and Irish ornamental motifs with figures derived from
antiquity, e.g., the Gospel book by Godescalc (783). The nervous,
flickering illustrations of the Utrecht Psalter are unparalleled in early
Western art. Carved ivory book covers are rare, and metalwork is rarer,
but the gold altar of Sant' Ambrogio (835, Milan), the portable altar of
Arnulf (Munich), several splendid book covers, and other sumptuously
decorated objects provide insights into the artistic accomplishments of
the period, which ended in the late 9th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carolingians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carolingians%@AE@%,%@CR:CAROLINGIANS    @%%@QR:Carolingians@% Frankish dynasty founded (7th cent.) by Pepin of Landen.%@EH@%
They ruled as mayors of the palace under the %@AU@%MEROVINGIANS%@BO:          5f00c4@%%@AE@% until 751, when
%@AU@%PEPIN THE SHORT%@BO:          73135a@%%@AE@% made himself king. His son, %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%, who was crowned
emperor in 800, brought the dynasty to its zenith. In 840, on the death
of %@AU@%LOUIS I%@BO:          56ed3b@%%@AE@%, the Treaty of Verdun split the empire among his three sons:
Lotharingia went to Lothair I; Germany went to Louis the German; and
France went to Charles II. In 870 Lotharingia was divided between Louis
and Charles. The dynasty died out in Germany in 911 and in France in 987.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carp%@AE@%,%@CR:CARP            @%%@QR:carp@% freshwater, bottom-feeding %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Cyprinus carpio%@AE@%), largest of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%MINNOW%@BO:          613153@%%@AE@% family, native to Asia but now found throughout Europe and
America. Carp may be up to 3 ft (90 cm) and 25 lb (11.3 kg). They have
four "whiskers" (barbels) around the mouth, and are usually dark greenish
or brown with red on the fins.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carpaccio, Vittore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carpaccio, Vittore%@AE@%,%@CR:CARPACCIO       @%%@QR:Carpaccio, Vittore@% c.1450-1522, Venetian painter. He was influenced by%@EH@%
Giovanni Bellini (see %@AU@%BELLINI%@BO:           e247d@%%@AE@%, family). The rich color and wealth of
detail in his St. George series and the %@AI@%Presentation in the Temple%@AE@% (all:
Acad., Venice) show the pageantry of 15th-cent. Venice and a view of life
in the Orient.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carpathians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carpathians%@AE@%%@CR:CARPATHIANS     @%%@QR:Carpathians@% or %@AB@%Carpathian Mountains,%@AE@%major mountain system of central and%@EH@%
E Europe, c.930 mi (1,500 km) long. A continuation of the Alps, they
curve in a great arc through Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the USSR, and
extend into Romania as the Transylvanian Alps, or Southern Carpathians.
Gerlachovka (8,737 ft/2,663 m) is the highest point.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste%@AE@%,%@CR:CARPEAUX        @%%@QR:Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste@% 1827-75, French sculptor and painter. Freedom%@EH@%
and force distinguish his sculptures, e.g., %@AI@%Ugolino%@AE@% (1860-62; Louvre) and
%@AI@%Neapolitan Shellfisher%@AE@% (Louvre), and paintings, e.g., %@AI@%Bal costume aux
%@AI@%Tuileries%@AE@% (Louvre).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carpet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carpet%@AE@%%@CR:CARPET          @%%@QR:carpet@% or %@AB@%rug,%@AE@%thick fabric, originally woolen but now often synthetic,%@EH@%
most commonly used as a floor covering. Of ancient origin, the art of
carpet weaving reached its height in the handloomed Oriental carpets from
16th-cent. Persia, Turkey, and central Asia. European carpets, with many
outstanding examples dating from the 17th cent. in France and the 18th
cent. in England, were handmade until Erastus Bigelow introduced (1841)
the power loom. Although handmade rugs are still produced, contemporary
carpet manufacturing is a mechanized industry. Classifications of both
antique and modern carpets include Oriental, European handwoven, velvet,
chenille, rag, hooked, straw, and fiber.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carpetbaggers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carpetbaggers%@AE@%,%@CR:CARPETBAGGERS   @%%@QR:carpetbaggers@% Southern term for Northerners who went to the South during%@EH@%
%@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@%. Although regarded as transients because they carried
their belongings in carpetbags, most intended to settle in the South and
make money there. The black vote won them important posts in Republican
state governments. Those who were corrupt made the term synonymous with
outsiders who profit from an area's political troubles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carracci%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carracci%@AE@%%@CR:CARRACCI        @%%@QR:Carracci@%, family of Italian painters, founders of an important school of%@EH@%
painting. %@AB@%Lodovico Carracci, %@AE@%1555-1619, a pupil of %@AU@%TINTORETTO%@BO:          95f617@%%@AE@%,
established, with his cousins and Anthony de la Tour, a school of
painting in Bologna that sought to unite in one system the best
characteristics of the great masters. The academy was one of the
outstanding schools in Italy, and its noted pupils include %@AU@%DOMENICHINO%@BO:          29eefc@%%@AE@%.
An excellent painter, Lodovico was best known for his %@AI@%Sermon of John the
%@AI@%Baptist%@AE@% (Pinocoteca, Bologna) and %@AI@%Vision of Hyacinth%@AE@% (Louvre). His cousin
%@AB@%Agostino Carracci, %@AE@%1557-1602, at first a goldsmith, later joined the
academy and participated in numerous joint painting commissions such as
the Farnese Palace gallery. His best-known work, %@AI@%Celestial, Terrestrial
%@AI@%and Venal Love,%@AE@% is in the Casino, Parma. Agostino's brother %@AB@%Annibale
%@AB@%Carracci, %@AE@%1560-1609, worked in the academy and also on the Farnese
gallery, with its influential feigned architectural and sculptural forms.
Among his best-known works are %@AI@%The Dead Christ%@AE@% (Louvre) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Temptation of St. Anthony%@AE@% (National Gall., London).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carranza, Venustiano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carranza, Venustiano%@AE@%,%@CR:CARRANZA        @%%@QR:Carranza, Venustiano@% 1859-1920, Mexican political leader. He fought in%@EH@%
the Mexican revolution and helped to overthrow (1914) Gen. %@AU@%HUERTA%@BO:          450fe1@%%@AE@%. He
became president (1914) and, aided by Gen. %@AU@%OBREGON%@BO:          6c93de@%%@AE@%, survived a civil war
(1915). When he did not enforce the reform constitution of 1917 and tried
to prevent Obregon from becoming president, the latter revolted (1920).
Carranza fled the capital and was murdered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carrel, Alexis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carrel, Alexis%@AE@%,%@CR:CARREL          @%%@QR:Carrel, Alexis@% 1873-1944, American surgeon and experimental biologist;%@EH@%
b. France. For his work in suturing blood vessels, in transfusion, and in
transplantation of organs, he was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in
physiology or medicine. With Charles A. %@AU@%LINDBERGH%@BO:          555597@%%@AE@% he invented an
artificial heart, with which he kept alive a number of different kinds of
tissues and organs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carroll, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carroll, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CARROLL1        @%%@QR:Carroll, John@% 1735-1815, American Roman Catholic churchman, the first%@EH@%
Roman Catholic bishop in the U.S.; b. Maryland. A %@AU@%JESUIT%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@%, he supported
the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and was a friend of Benjamin %@AU@%FRANKLIN%@BO:          357a50@%%@AE@%. In 1784 he
became superior of the missions in the U.S. In 1790 he was made bishop of
Baltimore and in 1808 archbishop. Carroll battled anti-Catholic feeling
in the U.S. and founded various educational institutions, including
Georgetown Univ.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carroll, Lewis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carroll, Lewis%@AE@%,%@CR:CARROLL2        @%%@QR:Carroll, Lewis@% pseud. of %@AB@%Charles Lutwidge Dodgson%@AE@%, 1832-98, English%@EH@%
writer and mathematician. He lectured on mathematics at Oxford, but his
fame rests on the fantasy novels %@AI@%Alice's Adventures in Wonderland%@AE@% (1865)
and %@AI@%Through the Looking Glass%@AE@% (1872). These books grew out of stories he
told to children, among them Alice Liddell, the daughter of H.G. Liddell,
dean of Christ Church, Oxford. An amateur photographer, Carroll
photographed children.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%carrot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%carrot%@AE@%,%@CR:CARROT          @%%@QR:carrot@% common name for some members of the Umbelliferae (also called%@EH@%
parsley family), a family of mainly perennial or biennial herbs of north
temperate areas. Most are typified by aromatic foliage, a dry fruit that
splits when mature, and an umbellate inflorescence (in which the floret
stems of the flattened flower cluster arise from the same point, like an
umbrella). The seeds and leaves of many of these herbs are used for
seasoning or as greens, e.g., %@AU@%ANISE%@BO:           5aba7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CARAWAY%@BO:          18b049@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CORIANDER%@BO:          234edb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CUMIN%@BO:          254c90@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DILL%@BO:          290993@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%FENNEL%@BO:          327167@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PARSLEY%@BO:          719ff1@%%@AE@%. The carrot, %@AU@%CELERY%@BO:          1a9c2d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PARSNIP%@BO:          71a148@%%@AE@% are commercially
important vegetables. The common carrot (%@AI@%Daucus carota sativa%@AE@%) is a root
crop, probably derived from the wild carrot (or %@AU@%QUEEN ANNE'S LACE%@BO:          7bb494@%%@AE@%).
Carrots are rich in carotene (vitamin A), especially when cooked; in
antiquity they were used medicinally. Some types, e.g., button snakeroot
and sweet cicely, are used as aromatic ornamentals. A few members of the
family, e.g., %@AU@%POISON HEMLOCK%@BO:          773f3b@%%@AE@%, produce lethal poisons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carrucci, Jacopo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carrucci, Jacopo%@AE@%:%@CR:CARRUCCI        @%%@QR:Carrucci, Jacopo@% see %@AU@%PONTORMO, JACOPO DA%@BO:          781820@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carson, Kit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carson, Kit%@AE@%%@CR:CARSON1         @%%@QR:Carson, Kit@% (Christopher Carson), 1809-68, American frontiersman; b.%@EH@%
Madison co., Ky. In 1825 he went to Taos, N.Mex., and served as cook,
guide, and hunter for exploring parties, including those of J.C. %@AU@%FREMONT%@BO:          35f794@%%@AE@%.
In 1853 he became an Indian agent. He was a Union general in the %@AU@%CIVIL
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carson, Rachel Louise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carson, Rachel Louise%@AE@%,%@CR:CARSON2         @%%@QR:Carson, Rachel Louise@% 1907-64, American writer and marine biologist; b.%@EH@%
Springdale, Pa. Her book %@AI@%Silent Spring%@AE@% (1962) was an influential study on
the dangers of insecticides. Some of her other popular works include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Sea Around Us%@AE@% (1951) and %@AI@%The Edge of the Sea%@AE@% (1954).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carson City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carson City%@AE@%,%@CR:CARSON.CITY     @%%@QR:Carson City@% city (1986 est. pop. 36,900), state capital, W Nev., in the%@EH@%
Carson valley; settled 1858, inc. 1875. It is a trade center for a mining
and agricultural area. The discovery (1859) of the %@AU@%COMSTOCK LODE%@BO:          219a9b@%%@AE@% brought
early development. The capital of the newly created (1861) Nevada
Territory, it became state capital in 1864. The U.S. Mint, closed 1893,
is now the Nevada State Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cartagena%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cartagena%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTAGENA       @%%@QR:Cartagena@% city (1986 pop. 559,581), capital of Bolivar dept., NW%@EH@%
Colombia, a port on the Bay of Cartagena, in the Caribbean Sea.
Oil-refining and the manufacture of sugar and tobacco are major
industries, and there is an expanding petrochemical complex. Founded in
1533, Cartagena became the treasure city of the %@AU@%SPANISH MAIN%@BO:          8d230a@%%@AE@%, where
precious New World minerals awaited transshipment to Spain. It was often
sacked despite its massive fortifications, some of which still stand. It
declared its independence from Spain in 1811 and was incorporated into
Colombia in 1821. Its rapid development in the 20th cent. was due largely
to the discovery of oil in the Magdalena basin. One of the most
picturesque of Latin American cities, with shady plazas and cobblestone
streets, Cartagena attracts many tourists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cartel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cartel%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTEL          @%%@QR:cartel@% national or international organization of producers who act in%@EH@%
concert to fix prices, limit supply, divide markets, or set quotas.
Basically, the cartel seeks maximum profits by driving out competition
and by limiting production in times of oversupply. Like the %@AU@%TRUST%@BO:          983f69@%%@AE@% and the
%@AU@%MONOPOLY%@BO:          62f2e0@%%@AE@%, it is criticized for eliminating the price benefits of
competition. Defenders argue that it distributes risks, stabilizes
markets, and protects weak members. The system sometimes fails because
member firms or nations deviate from the rules of the cartel to serve
their own interests. In Germany before World War II nearly all industry
was controlled by cartels. In the U.S. cartels are illegal, except for
export associations. The most successful cartel of recent times is the
%@AU@%ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES%@BO:          6ec01c@%%@AE@% (OPEC).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carter, Elliott%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carter, Elliott%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTER1         @%%@QR:Carter, Elliott@% 1908-, American composer; b. N.Y.C. His music is%@EH@%
organized into intellectualized contrapuntal patterns. He uses %@AU@%TEMPO%@BO:          93d39d@%%@AE@% as
an element of form. His works include the ballet %@AI@%Pocahontas%@AE@% (1938), three
string quartets (1950, 1959, 1971), and a brass quintet (1974).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carter, Howard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carter, Howard%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTER2         @%%@QR:Carter, Howard@% 1873-1939, English Egyptologist who, with Lord %@AU@%CARNARVON%@BO:          19084f@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
excavated (1906-22) in the Valley of the Kings at Luxor, Egypt, and
discovered (1922) the tomb of %@AU@%TUTANKHAMEN%@BO:          9902cd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carter, Jimmy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carter, Jimmy%@AE@%%@CR:CARTER3         @%%@QR:Carter, Jimmy@% (James Earl Carter, Jr.), 1924-, 39th president of the U.S.%@EH@%
(1977-81); b. Plains, Ga. A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy at
Annapolis, Md. (1946), he served in the U.S. navy and in 1953 returned to
his family's peanut farm, which he built into a prosperous business. As
governor of Georgia (1970-75), he reorganized the state executive branch
and sponsored consumer and land-use legislation. After a spectacularly
successful campaign for the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination,
Carter, although a Southerner and political outsider, narrowly defeated
the Republican candidate, Pres. Gerald %@AU@%FORD%@BO:          345d5a@%%@AE@%; his running mate was Walter
%@AU@%MONDALE%@BO:          6293d4@%%@AE@%. Carter's presidency was plagued by difficult relations with
Congress, which ratified his two Panama Canal treaties (1977) giving
eventual control of the canal to Panama, but would not ratify his arms
limitation treaty with the Soviet Union (1979). He was successful,
however, in effecting (1979) a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel (see
%@AU@%CAMP DAVID ACCORDS%@BO:          17c878@%%@AE@%). During Carter's term of office the U.S. suffered
high interest rates, inflation, and then recession, all of which he had
little success in controlling. In Nov. 1979 a group of Muslim militants
in Teheran, Iran, took some 50 U.S. citizens hostage and held them until
Jan. 1981. Carter's failure to attain their release before the 1980
presidential election contributed to his defeat by Ronald %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carteret, Sir George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carteret, Sir George%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTERET        @%%@QR:Carteret, Sir George@% c.1610-1680, British proprietor of East Jersey,%@EH@%
part of New Jersey. He commissioned his fourth cousin, %@AB@%Philip Carteret,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1639-82, as the first governor (1665-76) of New Jersey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cartesian coordinates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cartesian coordinates%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTESIINATES   @%%@QR:Cartesian coordinates@% system for representing the relative positions of%@EH@%
points in a plane or in space. In a plane, the point %@AI@%P%@AE@% is specified by
the pair of numbers (%@AI@%x, y%@AE@%) representing the distances of the point from
two intersecting straight lines, referred to as the %@AI@%x-%@AE@%axis and the
%@AI@%y%@AE@%-axis. The point of intersection of these axes, which are called the
coordinate axes, is known as the origin. If the axes are perpendicular,
as is commonly the case, the coordinate system is called rectangular;
otherwise it is oblique. In either type the %@AI@%x-%@AE@%coordinate, or abscissa, of
%@AI@%P%@AE@% is measured along a line parallel to the %@AI@%x%@AE@%-axis, and the %@AI@%y%@AE@%-coordinate,
or ordinate, along a line parallel to the %@AI@%y%@AE@%-axis. A point in space may be
similarly specified by the triple of numbers (%@AI@%x, y, z%@AE@%) representing the
distances from three planes determined by three intersecting straight
lines not all in the same plane. Named for the French philosopher and
scientist Rene %@AU@%DESCARTES%@BO:          28372d@%%@AE@%, Cartesian coordinates allow certain questions
in geometry to be transformed into questions about numbers and resolved
by means of %@AU@%ANALYTIC GEOMETRY%@BO:           51332@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carthage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carthage%@AE@%%@CR:CARTHAGE        @%%@QR:Carthage@%, ancient city of N Africa, on the Bay of Tunis and near modern%@EH@%
Tunis. Founded (traditionally by %@AU@%DIDO%@BO:          28de35@%%@AE@%) by Phoenicians from Tyre in the
9th cent. BC, it eventually grew to be a mercantile %@AU@%CITY-STATE%@BO:          1eaf77@%%@AE@% under an
oligarchy, with explorers (e.g., Hanno) going far and wide to gather
trade. Carthage's greatest weakness lay in the rivalry of two blocs of
leading families who contended for control. By the 6th cent. BC the
Carthaginians had established themselves on Sardinia, Malta, and the
Balearic Islands. Their attempt to conquer Sicily in the 5th cent. BC was
set back by the victory of Gelon of Syracuse at Himera (480 BC). Later
Carthaginian excursions into Sicily led to the %@AU@%PUNIC WARS%@BO:          7b0708@%%@AE@%. The contest
between Rome and Carthage was hotly pursued, and the greatest general
involved was a Carthaginian, %@AU@%HANNIBAL%@BO:          3fbbe1@%%@AE@%. Nevertheless, Carthage was finally
defeated at the battle of %@AU@%ZAMA%@BO:          a4d822@%%@AE@% (202 BC), and the Carthaginian commercial
empire fell. The city itself was destroyed by Scipio Africanus Minor at
the end of the Third Punic War (146 BC). A new city was founded in 44 BC
and under %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@% became an important center of Roman administration.
Carthage was later (AD 439-533) the capital of the Vandals, a Germanic
tribe, and was briefly recovered (533) for the Byzantine Empire by
Belisarius. Although practically destroyed by the Arabs in 698, the site
was populated for many centuries afterward. %@AU@%LOUIS IX%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France died there
(1270) while on crusade.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cartier, Sir Georges Etienne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cartier, Sir Georges Etienne%@AE@%%@CR:CARTIER1        @%%@QR:Cartier, Sir Georges Etienne@%, 1814-73, Canadian statesman. A leader of%@EH@%
the French Canadians and the co-leader of the Mcdonald-Cartier (see
%@AU@%MACDONALD%@BO:          5896de@%%@AE@%, Sir J.A.) ministry (1857-62), he was chiefly responsible for
persuading French Canadians to accept the proposals for %@AU@%CANADA'S%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@%
confederation (1867).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cartier, Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cartier, Jacques%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTIER2        @%%@QR:Cartier, Jacques@% 1491-1557, French explorer in %@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@%, discoverer of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%SAINT LAWRENCE%@BO:          833462@%%@AE@% R. In three voyages between 1534 and 1542 he discovered
the Magdalene Islands and %@AU@%PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND%@BO:          7991f9@%%@AE@%, and ascended the St.
Lawrence to the modern sites of Quebec and Montreal. French claims to the
St. Lawrence valley were based on his explorations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cartier-Bresson, Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cartier-Bresson, Henri%@AE@%%@CR:CARTIERBRESSON  @%%@QR:Cartier-Bresson, Henri@%, 1908-, French photojournalist. His superb images%@EH@%
convey a strong sense of the rush of time arrested. Among his many books
is %@AI@%The Decisive Moment%@AE@% (1952) and %@AI@%Henri Cartier-Bresson: Photographer%@AE@%
(1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cartoon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cartoon%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTOON         @%%@QR:cartoon@% in the fine arts, a full-sized preliminary drawing for a work in%@EH@%
fresco, oil, mosaic, stained glass, or tapestry. Some Italian Renaissance
painters, e.g., %@AU@%RAPHAEL%@BO:          7cbdba@%%@AE@%, made complete cartoons for their frescoes, and
many are considered masterpieces in themselves. The use of the term
%@AI@%cartoon%@AE@% to mean a humorous or satirical drawing began in the mid-19th
cent. The first political cartoons preceded the terminology by some three
centuries, appearing in 16th-cent. Germany during the Reformation. In
18th-cent. England the cartoon was an integral part of journalism. By the
mid-19th cent. editorial cartoons had become regular features of American
newspapers, with the work of Thomas %@AU@%NAST%@BO:          66a620@%%@AE@% particularly influential. With
the development of the color press in the late 19th cent., humorous
nonpolitical cartoons became popular, soon evolving into narrative comic
strips. Some noted 20th-cent. cartoonists are Bill %@AU@%MAULDIN%@BO:          5d52a3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HERBLOCK%@BO:          42301c@%%@AE@%,
Charles %@AU@%ADDAMS%@BO:           11759@%%@AE@%, Saul Steinberg, and James %@AU@%THURBER%@BO:          958154@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cartwright, Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cartwright, Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:CARTWRIGHT      @%%@QR:Cartwright, Edmund@% 1743-1823, English inventor of a power loom (patented%@EH@%
1785) that made possible the weaving of wide cotton cloth and led to the
development of the modern loom. Cartwright also invented a wool-combing
machine (1789), a ropemaking machine (1792), and an alcohol-fueled engine
(1797) and, with Robert %@AU@%FULTON%@BO:          36d566@%%@AE@%, experimented with steam navigation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caruso, Enrico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caruso, Enrico%@AE@%,%@CR:CARUSO          @%%@QR:Caruso, Enrico@% 1873-1921, Italian operatic tenor. The beauty, range, and%@EH@%
power of his voice made him one of the greatest of all singers. He sang
more than 50 roles in Europe, the U.S., and Latin America, excelling in
works by %@AU@%VERDI%@BO:          9c9742@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PUCCINI%@BO:          7aba68@%%@AE@%. After his death his recordings perpetuated
his fame.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carver, George Washington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carver, George Washington%@AE@%,%@CR:CARVER1         @%%@QR:Carver, George Washington@% 1864?-1943, black American agricultural%@EH@%
chemist; b. Diamond, Mo. Born a slave, he was director (1896-1943) of
agricultural research at Tuskeegee Institute. Carver dedicated his life
to bettering the position of blacks and to improving the economy of the
South through soil improvement and crop diversification; he discovered
hundreds of uses for the peanut, sweet potato, and soybean, and devised
many products from cotton waste.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carver, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carver, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CARVER2         @%%@QR:Carver, John@% c.1576-1621, first governor (1620) of the %@AU@%PLYMOUTH COLONY%@BO:          7701e8@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
A man of wealth, he was the chief figure in arranging the %@AU@%PILGRIMS'%@BO:          75b5b2@%%@AE@%
migration to America, hiring and provisioning the %@AU@%MAYFLOWER%@BO:          5db4f3@%%@AE@%, and
selecting the Plymouth site.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Carver, Raymond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Carver, Raymond%@AE@%,%@CR:CARVER3         @%%@QR:Carver, Raymond@%  1938-88, American author; b. Clatskanie, Oreg. His%@EH@%
short stories and poems depicted blue-collar characters and focused on
everyday life. Among his volumes of short stories is %@AI@%Where I'm Calling
%@AI@%From%@AE@% (1988).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cary, (Arthur) Joyce (Lunel)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cary, (Arthur) Joyce (Lunel)%@AE@%,%@CR:CARY            @%%@QR:Cary, (Arthur) Joyce (Lunel)@% 1888-1957, English author. He is best known%@EH@%
for two trilogies exploring English social change. The first consists of
%@AI@%Herself Surprised%@AE@% (1941), %@AI@%To Be a Pilgrim%@AE@% (1942), and %@AI@%The Horse's Mouth%@AE@%
(1944). The second includes %@AI@%Prisoner of Grace%@AE@% (1952), %@AI@%Except the Lord%@AE@%
(1953), and %@AI@%Not Honour More%@AE@% (1955).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Casablanca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Casablanca%@AE@%,%@CR:CASABLANCA      @%%@QR:Casablanca@% city (1981 est. pop. 2,408,600), W Morocco, on the Atlantic%@EH@%
Ocean. It is the country's largest city and major commercial center,
handling over two thirds of its commerce and trade, particularly exports
of phosphates and imports of petroleum products. Almost destroyed by an
earthquake (1755), rebuilt in 1757, Casablanca was occupied by the French
in 1907. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% it was a site for the Allied invasion (1942) of
N Africa and for a conference (Nov. 1943) between F.D. Roosevelt and
Winston Churchill.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Casablanca Conference%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Casablanca Conference%@AE@%,%@CR:CASABLAERENCE   @%%@QR:Casablanca Conference@% Jan. 12-14, 1943, %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% meeting of U.S.%@EH@%
Pres. F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% and British Prime Min. Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@% at
Casablanca, French Morocco. The policy of unconditional %@AU@%AXIS%@BO:           a6909@%%@AE@% surrender
was enunciated there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Casals, Pablo (Pau)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Casals, Pablo (Pau)%@AE@%,%@CR:CASALS          @%%@QR:Casals, Pablo (Pau)@% 1876-1973, Spanish cellist and conductor, the%@EH@%
greatest cellist of the 20th cent. He began his concert career in 1891
and conducted his own orchestra in 1919. He was especially noted for his
performance of J.S. %@AU@%BACH'S%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@% unaccompanied suites and for the music
festivals he directed at Prades, France, and after 1956 in Puerto Rico.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Giacomo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Giacomo%@AE@%,%@CR:CASANOVNGALT    @%%@QR:Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Giacomo@% 1725-98, Venetian adventurer and%@EH@%
author. He traveled all over Europe supporting himself by gambling,
spying, writing, and seducing women. In 1756 he escaped from Venice's
state prison; in Paris, he became director of the lottery and amassed a
fortune. In 1785 he retired to the castle of Dux, Bohemia, where he
worked as a librarian. A man of wide interests, learning, and taste,
Casanova left memoirs that became world-famous, although not published in
full until 1960.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Casas, Bartolome de las%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Casas, Bartolome de las%@AE@%:%@CR:CASAS           @%%@QR:Casas, Bartolome de las@% see %@AU@%LAS CASAS%@BO:          5278b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cascade Range%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cascade Range%@AE@%,%@CR:CASCADE.RANGE   @%%@QR:Cascade Range@% forested mountain chain in the western part of the North%@EH@%
American cordillera, extending c.700 mi (1,130 km) from British Columbia
to N California. Prominent peaks include Mts. Rainier (the highest,
14,410 ft/4,392 m), Shasta, and Hood, and volcanically active %@AU@%LASSEN PEAK%@BO:          5289d8@%%@AE@%
and Mt. %@AU@%SAINT HELENS%@BO:          8322a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%case%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%case%@AE@%,%@CR:CASE            @%%@QR:case@% in language, one of the several possible forms of a given noun,%@EH@%
pronoun, or adjective that indicate its grammatical function (see
%@AU@%INFLECTION%@BO:          481801@%%@AE@%), usually by a series of suffixes attached to a stem, as in
Latin %@AI@%amicus,%@AE@% "friend" (nominative), %@AI@%amicum%@AE@% (accusative), %@AI@%amici%@AE@%
(genitive), and %@AI@%amico%@AE@% (ablative and dative). The hypothetical ancestor of
the Indo-European languages had eight cases: nominative, referring to a
person performing an action; possessive or genitive, indicating a
possessor; dative, indicating the secondary recipient of an action;
accusative, referring to the entity directly affected by an action;
ablative, indicating separation or locating place and time; vocative,
referring to a person addressed; instrumental, indicating means or
instrument; and locative, referring to location. Old English used the
nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental cases, but
modern English uses only two cases. e.g., %@AI@%man%@AE@% (common or nominative) and
%@AI@%man's%@AE@% (possessive or genitive). Some pronouns have three, e.g., %@AI@%he%@AE@%
(nominative), %@AI@%him%@AE@% (objective), and %@AI@%his%@AE@% (possessive). The Altaic and
Finno-Ugric language families also use case systems. German has four
cases, Russian six, and Finnish sixteen.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%casehardening%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%casehardening%@AE@%,%@CR:CASEHARDENING   @%%@QR:casehardening@% in metallurgy, a process to harden steel by increasing the%@EH@%
percentage of carbon at its surface. This is done by packing the %@AU@%STEEL%@BO:          8e883b@%%@AE@% in
charcoal and then heating it; by heating it in a furnace with a
hydrocarbon gas atmosphere; or by heating it in a molten-salt bath
containing potassium and sodium cyanides.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%casein%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%casein%@AE@%,%@CR:CASEIN          @%%@QR:casein@% a group of proteins found especially in milk, providing many%@EH@%
essential nutrients. When milk is treated with acid, casein separates as
an insoluble white curd; it is used in cheese, adhesives, and water
paints. Rennet curded casein is used to make cheese and a plastic from
which imitation gemstones and other objects are made.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cash, Johnny%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cash, Johnny%@AE@%,%@CR:CASH            @%%@QR:Cash, Johnny@% 1932-, American singer; b. Kingsland, Ark. He went to%@EH@%
Memphis in 1955 and began to record hits like "I Walk the Line." Cash is
a major figure in %@AU@%COUNTRY AND WESTERN MUSIC%@BO:          23f5a6@%%@AE@%. He is noted for his
performances at prisons and appears widely in concert, on television, and
in films.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cashew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cashew%@AE@%,%@CR:CASHEW          @%%@QR:cashew@% tropical American tree (%@AI@%Anacardium occidentale%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%SUMAC%@BO:          908b44@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, valued chiefly for its kidney-shaped nut, whose sweet, oily
kernel is used for food and yields an oil used in cooking. The nut grows
at the end of a red, white, or yellow pear-shaped fleshy stalk, or cashew
apple, which is also eaten or pressed to extract the juice, which may be
fermented to make wine. The acrid sap of the cashew tree is used to make
a varnish that protects woodwork from insects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Casimir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Casimir%@AE@%,%@CR:CASIMIR         @%%@QR:Casimir@% Polish rulers. %@AB@%Casimir I, %@AE@%c.1015-58, duke of %@AU@%POLAND%@BO:          774f3b@%%@AE@% (c.1040-58),%@EH@%
reunited the Polish lands under the hegemony of the Holy Roman Empire.
%@AB@%Casimir II, %@AE@%1138-94, duke of Poland (1177-94), deposed his brother and
secured for his descendants the hereditary right to the crown. %@AB@%Casimir
%@AB@%III, %@AE@%1310-70, king of Poland (1333-70), known as %@AB@%Casimir the Great,
%@AB@%%@AE@%extended Polish territories, codified the law, improved the lot of
peasants and Jews, founded (1364) Krakow Univ., and in general greatly
increased royal power. %@AB@%Casimir IV, %@AE@%1427-92, king of Poland and Lithuania
(1447-92), successfully ended (1466) the war with the Teutonic Knights.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%casino%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%casino%@AE@%%@CR:CASINO          @%%@QR:casino@% or %@AB@%cassino,%@AE@%card game played with a full 52-card deck by two to%@EH@%
four players. Four cards are dealt to each player, four open cards to the
table. Each player "takes in" cards, principally by matching his cards
with cards of corresponding indices on the table. The game ends after all
the cards are dealt. The object is to take the greatest total number of
cards; the greatest number of spades; and the point-scoring cards,
namely, the aces, the ten of diamonds (big casino), and the two of spades
(little casino).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caslon, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caslon, William%@AE@%,%@CR:CASLON          @%%@QR:Caslon, William@% 1692-1766, English %@AU@%TYPE%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@% designer. His individual letters%@EH@%
were less impressive than those of %@AU@%BASKERVILLE%@BO:           cd686@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%BODONI%@BO:          115388@%%@AE@%, but were
regular, legible, and of sensitive proportion. His typefaces were used
for most important printed works c.1740 to c.1800; some are still in use.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caspar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caspar%@AE@%:%@CR:CASPAR          @%%@QR:Caspar@% see %@AU@%WISE MEN OF THE EAST%@BO:          a28a24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Casper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Casper%@AE@%,%@CR:CASPER          @%%@QR:Casper@% city (1986 est. pop. 47,310), seat of Natrona co., E central%@EH@%
Wyo., on the North Platte R.; inc. 1889. At a ford on the %@AU@%OREGON TRAIL%@BO:          6ea275@%%@AE@%,
it was founded (1888) with the coming of the railroad. In 1890 an oil
boom started; today Casper produces oil, coal, and uranium, and is the
center of a rich agricultural region. The area also attracts many
tourists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caspian Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caspian Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:CASPIAN.SEA     @%%@QR:Caspian Sea@% world's largest lake, c.144,000 sq mi (373,000 sq km), in%@EH@%
the USSR and Iran, on the traditional border between Europe and Asia. The
salty lake is 92 ft (28 m) below sea level and reaches a maximum depth of
3,200 ft (980 m) in the south. More than 75% of its waters are derived
from the %@AU@%VOLGA%@BO:          9e2e1e@%%@AE@% R., whose flow is now diminished by dams and lakes. Beluga
caviar is a major product of the shallow waters in the north. Baku and
Astrakhan are the chief ports.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cass, Lewis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cass, Lewis%@AE@%,%@CR:CASS            @%%@QR:Cass, Lewis@% 1782-1866, American statesman; b. Exeter, N.H. He was%@EH@%
governor of Michigan Territory (1813-31). As secretary of war (1831-36),
he favored moving the Indians W of the Mississippi. A U.S. senator from
Michigan (1845-48, 1849-57), he was the unsuccessful Democratic candidate
for president in 1848. He was also (1857-60) secretary of state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cassander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cassander%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSANDER       @%%@QR:Cassander@% 358-297 BC, king of %@AU@%MACEDON%@BO:          58a317@%%@AE@% (316-297 BC); one of the %@AU@%DIADOCHI%@BO:          28955b@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
The son of %@AU@%ANTIPATER%@BO:           65fcf@%%@AE@%, he deposed the regent, Polyperchon. To consolidate
his power, he procured the murder (316) of %@AU@%OLYMPIAS%@BO:          6d9ccd@%%@AE@%, mother of %@AU@%ALEXANDER
%@AU@%THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%, and (311) of Alexander's widow, Roxana, and their son; he
married Alexander's half sister, Thessalonica (316). One of a coalition
that defeated Antigonus and %@AU@%DEMETRIUS I%@BO:          27c96f@%%@AE@% at Ipsus (301), he ruled
Macedonia and Greece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cassandra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cassandra%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSANDRA       @%%@QR:Cassandra@% in Greek mythology, Trojan princess; daughter of Priam and%@EH@%
%@AU@%HECUBA%@BO:          412808@%%@AE@%. She was given the power of prophecy by %@AU@%APOLLO%@BO:           6b067@%%@AE@%, but when she
spurned him he decreed that she should never be believed. A slave of
%@AU@%AGAMEMNON%@BO:           1f531@%%@AE@% after the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%, she was killed with him by %@AU@%CLYTEMNESTRA%@BO:          1fa977@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cassatt, Mary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cassatt, Mary%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSATT         @%%@QR:Cassatt, Mary@% 1845-1926, American painter; b. Pittsburgh. She lived%@EH@%
mainly in France, where she embraced %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%. Her paintings are
simple, vigorous, and pleasing in color. Her favorite subject was
motherhood, e.g., versions of %@AI@%Mother and Child%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.; Mus.
Fine Arts, Boston). She also excelled in %@AU@%ETCHING%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@% and pastels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cassava%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cassava%@AE@%%@CR:CASSAVA         @%%@QR:cassava@% or %@AB@%manioc,%@AE@%plant (genus %@AI@%Manihot%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%SPURGE%@BO:          8ddbaf@%%@AE@% family, native to%@EH@%
Brazil. The roots are the source of cassava starch, cassava flour, and
tapioca; they are also fermented to make an alcoholic beverage and have
other uses. The raw roots of bitter cassava (%@AI@%M. esculenta%@AE@%), chief source
of cassava flour, contain potentially lethal amounts of prussic acid,
which must be dispelled in preparation. Sweet cassava roots contain less
acid and can be eaten raw.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cassini, Gian Domenico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cassini, Gian Domenico%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSINI         @%%@QR:Cassini, Gian Domenico@% 1625-1712, Italian-French astronomer. He%@EH@%
determined rotational periods for the planets Jupiter, Mars, and Venus,
discovered four of Saturn's satellites, and studied the division in
Saturn's ring system that is named for him. He and three generations of
descendants directed the Royal Observatory in Paris from its founding
(1669) to the time (1793) of the French Revolution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cassiopeia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cassiopeia%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSIOPEIA      @%%@QR:Cassiopeia@% in Greek mythology: see %@AU@%ANDROMEDA%@BO:           5583a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cassirer, Ernst%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cassirer, Ernst%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSIRER        @%%@QR:Cassirer, Ernst@% 1874-1945, German philosopher. A Neo-Kantian, he devoted%@EH@%
himself, in %@AI@%Substance and Function%@AE@% (1910), to a critical-historical study
of the problem of knowledge. In %@AI@%Philosophy of Symbolic Forms%@AE@% (3 vol.,
1923-29) he characterized the human being as a "symbolic animal," holding
that all cultural achievements result from the human ability to
conceptualize experience in artificial signs, or symbols.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cassius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cassius%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSIUS         @%%@QR:Cassius@% ancient Roman family. %@AB@%Quintus Cassius Longinus, %@AE@%d. 45 BC, served%@EH@%
with %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@% as a tribune, and in 49 BC vetoed the attempts of the senate
to deprive Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% of his army. Cassius died in a shipwreck. The
best-known family member was %@AB@%Caius Cassius Longinus, %@AE@%d. 42 BC, leader in
the successful conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar on the Ides of
March in 44 BC When the people were aroused by Antony against the
conspirators, Cassius went to Syria and joined Marcus Junius Brutus (see
%@AU@%BRUTUS%@BO:          14c941@%%@AE@%, family) Antony and Octavian (later %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%) met them in battle
at Philippi in 42 BC In the first engagement, Cassius, thinking the
battle lost, committed suicide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cassowary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cassowary%@AE@%,%@CR:CASSOWARY       @%%@QR:cassowary@% flightless forest %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of Australia and the Malay Archipelago,%@EH@%
smaller than the %@AU@%OSTRICH%@BO:          6f4e57@%%@AE@%. The plumage is dark and glossy, with a
brilliantly-colored head and neck. Nocturnal and mostly herbivorous, they
are fast runners. Cassowaries are notoriously vicious, and have killed
people with their sharp, spikelike toenails.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castagno, Andrea del%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castagno, Andrea del%@AE@%%@CR:CASTAGNO        @%%@QR:Castagno, Andrea del@%, c.1423-57, Florentine painter. In c.1445 he began%@EH@%
the Passion of Christ cycle for the church of Sant' Apollonia in
Florence. Best known of these scenes is %@AI@%The Last Supper%@AE@% with its harsh
perspective and metallic light. %@AU@%DONATELLO'S%@BO:          2a1044@%%@AE@% influence is seen in his
later heroic figures of Dante and Petrarch in the Villa Pandolfini.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%castanets%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%castanets%@AE@%:%@CR:CASTANETS       @%%@QR:castanets@% see %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caste%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTE           @%%@QR:caste@% ranked hereditary social group. Rigidly restricted occupationally%@EH@%
and socially, members may not marry outside the caste. Caste is strongest
and most complex in Hindu India, where a hierarchy of thousands of
distinct %@AI@%jatis,%@AE@% or castes, reflect religious practice, occupation,
locale, culture status, or tribal affiliation. In addition, society is
divided into four %@AI@%varna,%@AE@% or social classes-the Brahmans, priests and
scholars; Kshatriyas, the military and rulers; Vaisyas, farmers and
merchants; and Sudras, peasants and laborers. Below the Sudras were the
untouchables, who performed menial tasks. Untouchability was legally
abolished in 1949; while occupational barriers are breaking down, strong
social distinctions remain resistant to change.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castelo Branco, Humberto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castelo Branco, Humberto%@AE@%%@CR:CASTELO.BRANCO  @%%@QR:Castelo Branco, Humberto@%, 1900-1967, president of %@AU@%BRAZIL%@BO:          137c76@%%@AE@% (1964-67). An%@EH@%
army officer, he helped oust (1964) Pres. Goulart in a coup and became
provisional president. He curtailed political freedoms but imposed
economic reforms that spurred the country's growth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castile%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTILE         @%%@QR:Castile@% region and former kingdom, central and N Spain, traditionally%@EH@%
divided into Old Castile (N) and New Castile (S). It is a vast, generally
underdeveloped area surrounding the highly industrialized city of %@AU@%MADRID%@BO:          594474@%%@AE@%.
In Old Castile grains are grown and sheep raised. The fertile areas,
especially in New Castile, produce olive oil and grapes. Castile became a
kingdom in 1035 and was united with %@AU@%LEON%@BO:          53fc90@%%@AE@% in 1230. Castilian kings were
prominent in the fight against the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%, from whom they wrested New
Castile. The privileges of the nobles were limited by %@AU@%PETER THE CRUEL%@BO:          74237e@%%@AE@%
(r.1350-69). In 1479 a personal union of Castile and %@AU@%ARAGON%@BO:           72576@%%@AE@% was
established by %@AU@%ISABELLA I%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@% of Castile and her husband, Spanish King
%@AU@%FERDINAND V%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@%. Castile was the core of the Spanish monarchy, centralized in
Madrid (the capital after 1561).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%casting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%casting%@AE@%%@CR:CASTING         @%%@QR:casting@% or %@AB@%founding,%@AE@%the shaping of %@AU@%METAL%@BO:          5f2d7a@%%@AE@% by melting and pouring into a%@EH@%
mold. Most castings are made in sand molds. Sand, mixed with a binder to
hold it together, is pressed around a wooden pattern that leaves a cavity
in the sand. Molten metal is poured into the cavity and allowed to
solidify. %@AI@%Investment casting%@AE@% is used for small, complex shapes. Wax or
plastic replicas of the parts are covered with sand in a box. When the
whole mold is heated, the replica melts, leaving behind a cavity into
which the metal is poured. %@AI@%Die casting,%@AE@% in which molten metal is forced
under pressure into metal molds, is used to make large numbers of small,
precise parts with metals of low melting points.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cast iron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cast iron%@AE@%,%@CR:CAST.IRON       @%%@QR:cast iron@% form of %@AU@%IRON%@BO:          49b3ab@%%@AE@% made from pig iron remelted in a small cupola%@EH@%
furnace and poured into molds to make castings. It usually contains from
2% to 6% carbon, and scrap iron or steel is often added to vary the
composition. Cast iron is used extensively to make machine parts, engine
cylinder blocks, stoves, pipes, radiators, and many other products.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cast-iron architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cast-iron architecture%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTIROECTURE   @%%@QR:cast-iron architecture@% a term used to designate buildings that%@EH@%
incorporate cast iron for structural and/or decorative purposes. After
1800 cast-iron supports were exploited as an alternative to masonry, and
with the introduction of wrought-iron beams at mid-century, an efficient,
prefabricated method of skeletal construction was possible, of which the
most notable example was Joseph Paxton's %@AU@%CRYSTAL PALACE%@BO:          251b4b@%%@AE@% (1851) in London.
Iron and glass canopies were used to cover such diverse structures as
shopping arcades, library reading rooms, and the vast new railway
terminals. In the U.S., James %@AU@%BOGARDUS%@BO:          1168f2@%%@AE@% pioneered the use of cast-iron
commercial facades, which combined utility with the easy replication of
attenuated classical orders in repeated bays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castle, Vernon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castle, Vernon%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTLE1         @%%@QR:Castle, Vernon@% 1887-1918, English dancer. He made his debut in 1907. In%@EH@%
1911 he married %@AB@%Irene Foot, %@AE@%1893-1969, b. New Rochelle, N.Y. Together
they won international acclaim for their original dances, such as the
"Texas Tommy," the "Castle Walk," and the "hesitation" waltz.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%castle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%castle%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTLE2         @%%@QR:castle@% fortified dwelling characteristic of the Middle Ages. In the 9th%@EH@%
cent. feudal lords began to develop private fortress-residences suitable
to conditions of warfare. The castle of W Europe was a Norman creation,
an outgrowth of the 10th- and 11th-cent. mound castle, which was
essentially an artificial mound of earth, surrounded by a ditch, and
surmounted by a blockhouse and palisade. Until the 12th cent., the only
English development was the addition of a masonry keep inside the
palisade, e.g., the %@AU@%TOWER OF LONDON%@BO:          96f87e@%%@AE@%. With evolving siegecraft, provisions
for aggressive defense were needed. Outer masonry walls came into use,
with gates, flanking towers, and earthworks. Subterranean passages and
curving walls were developed. Castles were designed for security not
comfort. Defenders fought from galleries atop the walls; with successive
series of defenses, the loss of one did not mean complete defeat, as
those inside could retreat until they were within the keep. Gunpowder and
the development of artillery rendered the castle obsolete. It was
replaced by the manor house, but its effect on architecture still
continues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, 2d Viscount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, 2d Viscount%@AE@%%@CR:CASTLEREAGH     @%%@QR:Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, 2d Viscount@%, 1769-1822, British statesman;%@EH@%
b. Ireland. As acting chief secretary for Ireland, he suppressed the
French-aided rebellion of 1798. He was secretary of war (1805-6, 1807-9)
during the wars with %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%, coordinating British land and sea power
and, after early disasters in the %@AU@%PENINSULAR WAR%@BO:          72d325@%%@AE@%, putting the duke of
%@AU@%WELLINGTON%@BO:          a06c35@%%@AE@% in command. He resigned (1809) after what he considered to be
a political betrayal by George %@AU@%CANNING%@BO:          1833b1@%%@AE@% (with whom he fought a duel). As
foreign secretary (1812-22), he helped form the "concert of Europe"
against Napoleon, later confirmed by the %@AU@%QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE%@BO:          7b7810@%%@AE@%. He advocated
a moderate peace settlement for France, and was a dominant figure at the
Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@%. A great statesman, Castlereagh was personally cold
and never popular. He committed suicide in 1822.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castor and Pollux%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castor and Pollux%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTOR.UX       @%%@QR:Castor and Pollux@% in classical mythology, twin heroes called the%@EH@%
Dioscuri; Castor was the son of %@AU@%LEDA%@BO:          535750@%%@AE@% and Tyndareus, Pollux the son of
Leda and %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%. Castor was a skilled horseman, Pollux a boxer. They were
famous warriors, noted for their devotion to each other. In one legend,
Zeus created the constellation Gemini in their honor. Patrons of
mariners, the Dioscuri were especially honored by the Romans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%castrato%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%castrato%@AE@%:%@CR:CASTRATO        @%%@QR:castrato@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castries%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castries%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTRIES        @%%@QR:Castries@% city, (1981 pop. 50,000), capital of %@AU@%SAINT LUCIA%@BO:          833f9c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castriota, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castriota, George%@AE@%:%@CR:CASTRIOTA       @%%@QR:Castriota, George@% see %@AU@%SCANDERBEG%@BO:          85384b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castro, Fidel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castro, Fidel%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTRO1         @%%@QR:Castro, Fidel@% 1926-, Cuban revolutionary and premier of %@AU@%CUBA%@BO:          251e58@%%@AE@% (1959-). He%@EH@%
opposed the %@AU@%BATISTA%@BO:           d0ef6@%%@AE@% dictatorship and unsuccessfully attacked an army post
on July 26, 1953. After being imprisoned and released (1955), he went to
Mexico, where he organized the 26th of July revolutionary movement. He
invaded (1956) SE Cuba and, with his brother Raul, "Che" %@AU@%GUEVARA%@BO:          3e4ada@%%@AE@%, and
nine other rebels, hid out in the Sierra Maestra Mountains, from where
they attracted supporters and fought a guerrilla campaign that toppled
(1959) Batista. A brilliant propagandist and charismatic orator, Castro
established a totalitarian government that benefited the working class at
the expense of the middle class, many of whom fled. A declared
Marxist-Leninist, he nationalized industry, confiscated foreign-owned
property, collectivized agriculture, and has increasingly depended on the
economic assistance of the USSR. He weathered the severance of economic
and political ties by the U.S. and Latin American nations, the %@AU@%BAY OF
%@AU@%PIGS INVASION%@BO:           d3bc8@%%@AE@% (1961), a U.S. economic blockade, and the %@AU@%CUBAN MISSILE
%@AU@%CRISIS%@BO:          252bdd@%%@AE@% (1962). He has supported revolutionary movements in other Latin
American countries and in Africa, and he has remained the symbol of
revolution and social change in Latin America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Castro, Ines de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Castro, Ines de%@AE@%,%@CR:CASTRO2         @%%@QR:Castro, Ines de@% or %@AB@%Inez de Castro,%@AE@%d. 1355, Spanish noblewoman at the%@EH@%
Portuguese court. Her love affair with the crown prince, Dom Pedro (later
%@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          741191@%%@AE@%), ended in tragedy; she bore him four children but was murdered
with the connivance of his father, %@AU@%ALFONSO IV%@BO:           3830c@%%@AE@%, to preserve the legitimate
succession to the throne. Her life has been a favorite theme of
Portuguese and Spanish writers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cat%@AE@%,%@CR:CAT             @%%@QR:cat@% carnivorous %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the family Felidae, including the domestic cat%@EH@%
(%@AI@%Felis catus%@AE@%), the great cats (e.g., %@AU@%LION%@BO:          557c69@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TIGER%@BO:          95c89c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LEOPARD%@BO:          541434@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CHEETAH%@BO:          1c651d@%%@AE@%),
and the smaller wild cats (e.g., %@AU@%LYNX%@BO:          584b49@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%OCELOT%@BO:          6cc58f@%%@AE@%). Highly adapted for
hunting and devouring their prey, cats have short muzzles, large eyes,
sensitive whiskers, and sharp claws and teeth. Most have long tails, and
all have a flexible musculo-skeletal system. Lions and cheetahs live in
groups called prides, but most cats are solitary. Cats have been
domesticated since prehistoric times and were often the objects of
veneration or superstitious fear. Domestic cats vary in size, with males
usually weighing 9-14 lb (4.1-6.4 kg) and females 6-10 lb (2.2-4.5 kg).
They have coats of various lengths and many colors (black, white, and
shades of red, yellow, brown, and gray) in a variety of patterns. Besides
the common house cat, the species %@AI@%F. catus%@AE@% includes many recognized
breeds maintained by selective mating. Most breeds are short-haired.
%@AB@%Abyssinian cats %@AE@%have ruddy brown coats with ticking (marking on each
hair) of darker brown or black. %@AB@%Burmese cats %@AE@%are small and muscular with
medium- to dark-brown coats; the %@AB@%Manx cat %@AE@%is a variously colored,
tailless breed with hind legs longer than its forelegs, elevating the
rump. %@AB@%Siamese cats %@AE@%have almond-shaped blue eyes and white, cream, or fawn
coats with brown or gray areas (points) on the feet, tail, ears, and
head. The %@AB@%Russian Blue cat, %@AE@%with green eyes and a blue-gray coat, is
distinguished by two layers of short, thick fur, and the %@AB@%Rex cat, %@AE@%the
only curly-haired cat, has a woolly coat that may be any color. %@AB@%Persian
%@AB@%cats %@AE@%are stocky and long-haired and may be a variety of colors; the other
long-haired breed, the %@AB@%Himalayan cat %@AE@%(a Persian-Siamese cross), has
Siamese coloring.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catacombs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catacombs%@AE@%,%@CR:CATACOMBS       @%%@QR:catacombs@% large underground vaults and galleries serving as cemeteries%@EH@%
for early Christians, who did not follow the Greek and Roman practice of
cremation. They were built in Italy, N Africa, Asia Minor, and other
Christian areas from the 1st to the 5th cent. AD The main ones, outside
the city gates of Rome, lie from 22 to 65 ft (6.7 to 19.8 m) below ground
and occupy 600 acres (240 hectares) of space in multilevel passages lined
with tiers of niches for bodies. Plaster walls and ceilings were
frescoed. Goths and later invaders plundered the catacombs; by the 8th
cent. most bodies had been transferred to churches and the labyrinths
forgotten. Rediscovery began in 1578, and preservation is now controlled
by the papacy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catalan language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catalan language%@AE@%,%@CR:CATALANE        @%%@QR:Catalan language@% member of the Romance group of the Italic subfamily of%@EH@%
the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catalog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catalog%@AE@%,%@CR:CATALOG         @%%@QR:catalog@% descriptive list of the contents of a library, displayed on%@EH@%
cards, in a book, on microfilm, or on-line (see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%). %@AU@%ASSURBANIPAL'S%@BO:           8daf9@%%@AE@%
library at Nineveh was cataloged on shelves of slate. The first known
subject catalog was compiled by %@AU@%CALLIMACHUS%@BO:          175cd1@%%@AE@% at the library in %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@%
(3d cent. BC). An early union catalog of British monastic libraries was
compiled in 1472. In the 19th cent. Sir Anthony %@AU@%PANIZZI%@BO:          708ece@%%@AE@% began the
printing of the British Museum Catalog; Charles Cutter devised the modern
dictionary catalog (with author, title, and subject entries arranged in
one alphabet); and Melvil %@AU@%DEWEY%@BO:          288556@%%@AE@% devised his decimal classification
system. In 1901 the U.S. Library of Congress began to print its catalog
entries on small cards, distributing them to other libraries
inexpensively and thus providing libraries with a standardized format,
call numbers, and subject headings. The %@AI@%National Union Catalog,%@AE@% begun by
the Library of Congress in 1952, collates the catalogued entries of many
large American libraries and presents the results in book form. The
%@AI@%National Union Catalog, pre-1956 Imprints%@AE@% does the same for earlier
materials. Libraries are now cooperating in networks to develop
computerized cataloging systems that will offer a more extensive and
efficient catalog with a greater variety of formats and access points.
See also %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catalonia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catalonia%@AE@%,%@CR:CATALONIA       @%%@QR:Catalonia@% region, NE Spain, stretching from the Pyrenees at the French%@EH@%
border southward along the Mediterranean Sea. %@AU@%BARCELONA%@BO:           c285e@%%@AE@% is the historic
capital. Catalonia produces one third of Spanish wines; grows olives and
grains; and manufactures textiles, automobiles, airplanes, and other
products. The counts of Barcelona became (9th cent.) the most powerful
lords of the region, and in 1137 Catalonia was united with %@AU@%ARAGON%@BO:           72370@%%@AE@%. In the
13th and 14th cent. Catalan traders rivaled those of %@AU@%GENOA%@BO:          38caa5@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%VENICE%@BO:          9c7c5c@%%@AE@%. It
briefly won autonomy in the 1930s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catalpa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catalpa%@AE@%:%@CR:CATALPA         @%%@QR:catalpa@% see %@AU@%BIGNONIA%@BO:           fa417@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catalyst%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catalyst%@AE@%,%@CR:CATALYST        @%%@QR:catalyst@% substance that causes a change in the rate of a chemical%@EH@%
reaction without itself being consumed by the reaction. Catalysts, which
work by changing a reaction's activation energy, or minimum energy needed
for the reaction to occur, are used in numerous industrial processes.
Substances that increase the reaction rate are called positive catalysts,
or simply catalysts, whereas substances that decrease the reaction rate
are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. The presence of a small
amount of an acid or base may catalyze some reactions. Finely divided
metals (e.g., platinum, copper, iron, palladium, rhodium) or metal oxides
(e.g., silicon dioxide, vanadium oxide) may also serve as catalysts.
Biological catalysts are called %@AU@%ENZYMES%@BO:          2f4a84@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cataract%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cataract%@AE@%,%@CR:CATARACT        @%%@QR:cataract@% opacity of the lens of the %@AU@%EYE%@BO:          315c49@%%@AE@%, causing impairment of vision.%@EH@%
Most commonly caused by aging, cataracts may also be congenital or result
from eye inflammations or certain diseases, such as %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%. Cataracts
are treated by surgical removal of the lens, implantation of an
artificial lens, and the use of corrective lenses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catastrophism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catastrophism%@AE@%,%@CR:CATASTROPHISM   @%%@QR:catastrophism@% originally, the outdated geological doctrine that the%@EH@%
physical features of the earth's surface, e.g., mountains and valleys,
were formed during violent worldwide cataclysms, e.g., earthquakes and
floods. This theory, easily correlated with religious beliefs, was
systematized by Georges %@AU@%CUVIER%@BO:          2587c4@%%@AE@%, who argued that all living things were
destroyed and replaced with wholly different forms during these
cataclysmic events. In the 18th cent. the doctrine was attacked by James
%@AU@%HUTTON%@BO:          45b928@%%@AE@%, who advanced the doctrine of %@AU@%UNIFORMITARIANISM%@BO:          99be44@%%@AE@%. Geologists now
use the term %@AI@%catastrophe%@AE@% to refer to a more localized, relatively milder
event in earth history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catbird%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catbird%@AE@%:%@CR:CATBIRD         @%%@QR:catbird@% see %@AU@%MIMIC THRUSH%@BO:          60f6ad@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catchment area%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catchment area%@AE@%%@CR:CATCHMENT.AREA  @%%@QR:catchment area@% or %@AB@%drainage basin,%@AE@%area drained by a stream or other water%@EH@%
body. The amount of water reaching a %@AU@%RIVER%@BO:          7f769f@%%@AE@%, reservoir, or %@AU@%LAKE%@BO:          51ab13@%%@AE@% from its
catchment area depends on the size of the area, amount of precipitation,
and loss through evaporation and absorption.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of%@AE@%:%@CR:CATEAUCAMBRESIS @%%@QR:Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of@% see %@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catechism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catechism%@AE@%,%@CR:CATECHISM       @%%@QR:catechism@% originally oral instruction in religion, later written%@EH@%
instruction. Catechisms, usually in the form of questions and answers,
were used to instruct converts and children. Famous catechisms include
the Lutheran Small Catechism (1529), the Anglican catechism contained in
the Book of Common Prayer, and the Baltimore Catechism, which is the
best-known Roman Catholic catechism in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catecholamine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catecholamine%@AE@%,%@CR:CATECHOLAMINE   @%%@QR:catecholamine@% any of several structurally related compounds occurring%@EH@%
naturally in the body that help regulate the sympathetic %@AU@%NERVOUS SYSTEM%@BO:          6854a4@%%@AE@%.
They include %@AU@%EPINEPHRINE%@BO:          2f7384@%%@AE@% (or adrenaline), norepinephrine, and
dopamine-substances that prepare the body to meet emergencies such as
cold, fatigue, and shock. Epinephrine and isoproterenol, a synthetic
catecholamine, are used as drugs to treat diseases such as %@AU@%EMPHYSEMA%@BO:          2e8fb8@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%BRONCHITIS%@BO:          1435da@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ASTHMA%@BO:           8f436@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%categorical imperative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%categorical imperative%@AE@%:%@CR:CATEGORERATIVE  @%%@QR:categorical imperative@% see %@AU@%KANT, IMMANUEL%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%caterpillar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%caterpillar%@AE@%:%@CR:CATERPILLAR     @%%@QR:caterpillar@% see %@AU@%BUTTERFLY%@BO:          162ac2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catfish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catfish%@AE@%,%@CR:CATFISH         @%%@QR:catfish@% freshwater %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% (suborder Nematognathi) with barbels, or%@EH@%
whiskers, around a broad mouth, fleshy, rayless posterior fins, scaleless
skin, and sharp defensive spines on the pectoral and dorsal fins. One
species, the electric catfish, discharges electricity (see %@AU@%ELECTRIC
%@AU@%FISH%@BO:          2d609b@%%@AE@%). Catfish range in size from a few inches to 13 ft (3.9 m) or more.
Omnivorous feeders and scavengers, they are important food fish and are
raised on fish farms in the S U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cathedral%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cathedral%@AE@%,%@CR:CATHEDRAL       @%%@QR:cathedral@% church in which a bishop presides, regardless of size or%@EH@%
magnificence. Romanesque cathedrals (see %@AU@%ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE AND ART%@BO:          807ec2@%%@AE@%)
were massive, domed, heavily vaulted structures based on the %@AU@%BASILICA%@BO:           cd380@%%@AE@%
form, reflecting the style dominant in Europe c.1050 to c.1200. The tall,
wide nave was flanked by narrow side aisles, crossed by transepts, and
illuminated by a clerestory pierced with small windows. The great
cathedrals of the 13th and 14th cent. are the crowning achievement of
%@AU@%GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AND ART%@BO:          3bafc4@%%@AE@%. These buildings are distinctive in their use
of ribbed %@AU@%VAULTS%@BO:          9c1f87@%%@AE@%, pointed %@AU@%ARCHES%@BO:           74d6d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROSE WINDOWS%@BO:          813efb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BUTTRESSES%@BO:          162eec@%%@AE@%, geometric
tracery, and %@AU@%STAINED GLASS%@BO:          8e03fd@%%@AE@%, combined in a rich and complex design. In the
intricacy of the glass, exterior facade, and buttresses, the building's
structure is almost entirely subordinated to detail. Among the most
important cathedrals are: %@AI@%France-%@AE@%Amiens, Beauvais, Chartres, Notre-Dame
de Paris, Rheims, Rouen; %@AI@%England-%@AE@%Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Winchester,
York; %@AI@%Germany-%@AE@%Cologne, Ulm; %@AI@%Belgium-%@AE@%Lou vain; %@AI@%Italy-%@AE@%Florence, Milan;
%@AI@%Spain-%@AE@%Avila, Toledo; %@AI@%Sweden-%@AE@%Lund, Uppsala. A noted modern adaptation of
the form is at Coventry, England (1962).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cather, Willa Sibert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cather, Willa Sibert%@AE@%,%@CR:CATHER          @%%@QR:Cather, Willa Sibert@% 1876-1947, American author; b. Winchester, Va. She%@EH@%
celebrated the frontier in %@AI@%O Pioneers!%@AE@% (1913) and %@AI@%My Antonia%@AE@% (1918), and
showed the artist's need for freedom from inhibiting influences in %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Song of the Lark%@AE@% (1915). Cather later turned to the North American past
for %@AI@%Death Comes for the Archbishop%@AE@% (1927). She also wrote short stories
and several essays on fiction. Her own clear, charming, and stately style
is among the finest in 20th-cent. American literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catherine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catherine%@AE@%,%@CR:CATHERINE       @%%@QR:Catherine@% czarinas of Russia. %@AB@%Catherine I, %@AE@%1683?-1727 (r.1725-27), was%@EH@%
born Martha Skavronskaya, a Livonian peasant. She became the mistress of
%@AU@%MENSHIKOV%@BO:          5ec38f@%%@AE@%, an advisor to %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@%, and then of Peter, who married her in
1712 and had her crowned czarina in 1724. When he died without naming a
successor she was raised to the throne by Menshikov, who dominated her
rule. %@AU@%PETER II%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@% succeeded her; her daughter %@AU@%ELIZABETH%@BO:          2e20de@%%@AE@% became czarina in
1741. %@AB@%Catherine II %@AE@%or %@AB@%Catherine the Great, %@AE@%1729-96 (r.1762-96), b.
Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, married the future %@AU@%PETER III%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@% in 1744.
She became thoroughly Russian and was popular with powerful groups
opposed to her eccentric husband. In June 1762, conspirators headed by
Grigori Orlov, her lover, deposed Peter and proclaimed her ruler; shortly
afterward Peter was murdered. Catherine's rule began with projects of
reform, but after the peasant uprising led by %@AU@%PUGACHEV%@BO:          7adac1@%%@AE@% (1773-74) and the
%@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@% she strengthened serfdom and increased the privileges
of the nobility within a system of provinces that survived until 1917.
Her foreign policy was imperalistic: she increased Russian control of the
Baltic provinces and Ukraine; began colonization of Alaska; annexed the
Crimea and in two wars with Turkey made Russia dominant in the Near East;
and secured for Russia the major share in the partitions of Poland (1772,
1793, 1795). A patron of art and literature, she corresponded with
%@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@% and other French thinkers, and wrote memoirs, comedies, and
stories. Of her many lovers, only Orlov and %@AU@%POTEMKIN%@BO:          78a0be@%%@AE@% influenced her
policies. Her son, %@AU@%PAUL I%@BO:          722e73@%%@AE@%, succeeded her.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catherine de' Medici%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catherine de' Medici%@AE@%%@CR:CATHERIDICI     @%%@QR:Catherine de' Medici@%, 1519-89, queen consort of %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% of France,%@EH@%
daughter of Lorenzo de' %@AU@%MEDICI%@BO:          5e071c@%%@AE@%, duke of Urbino. Married in 1533, she was
neglected in the reigns of Henry and her eldest son, %@AU@%FRANCIS II%@BO:          35371d@%%@AE@%, but was
regent (1560-63) and adviser (1563-74) for her son %@AU@%CHARLES IX%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%. At first
conciliatory toward the French Protestants, she later helped plan the
%@AU@%SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY%@BO:          8305e7@%%@AE@% massacre. %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% was her son.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catherine of Braganza%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catherine of Braganza%@AE@%,%@CR:CATHERIAGANZA   @%%@QR:Catherine of Braganza@% 1638-1705, queen consort of %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% of England;%@EH@%
daughter of %@AU@%JOHN I%@BO:          4c8989@%%@AE@% of Portugal. Her dowry included Bombay and Tangier. A
Roman Catholic, she was never popular. Titus %@AU@%OATES%@BO:          6c7e85@%%@AE@% accused her of
plotting to poison the king, but Charles protected her. After his death,
she returned home and in 1704 acted as regent for her brother, %@AU@%PETER II%@BO:          741191@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catherine of Siena, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catherine of Siena, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:CATHERIENA      @%%@QR:Catherine of Siena, Saint@% 1347-80, Italian %@AU@%DOMINICAN%@BO:          2a066d@%%@AE@%, mystic and%@EH@%
diplomat, Doctor of the Church. In response to a vision she entered
public life and in 1376 influenced Pope %@AU@%GREGORY XI%@BO:          3d8417@%%@AE@% to end the "Babylonian
captivity" of the %@AU@%PAPACY%@BO:          70a3f2@%%@AE@% and return to Rome. She was later papal
ambassador to Florence. Catherine caused a spiritual revival almost
everywhere she went, and her mysticism contains an overwhelming love of
God and humanity. She dictated %@AI@%The Dialogue,%@AE@% a notable mystical work.
Feast: Apr. 29.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catherine of Valois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catherine of Valois%@AE@%%@CR:CATHERILOIS     @%%@QR:Catherine of Valois@%, 1401-37, queen consort of %@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England; mother%@EH@%
of %@AU@%HENRY VI%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%; daughter of %@AU@%CHARLES VI%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of France. Some time after Henry V's
death (1522), she married Owen %@AU@%TUDOR%@BO:          986ea3@%%@AE@%. The Tudor kings are descended from
them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catherine the Great%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catherine the Great%@AE@%%@CR:CATHERIREAT     @%%@QR:Catherine the Great@% (Catherine II): see under %@AU@%CATHERINE%@BO:          1a329e@%%@AE@%, czarinas of%@EH@%
Russia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cathode%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cathode%@AE@%:%@CR:CATHODE         @%%@QR:cathode@% see %@AU@%ELECTRODE%@BO:          2d7836@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cathode-ray tube%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cathode-ray tube%@AE@%,%@CR:CATHODERAY.TUBE @%%@QR:cathode-ray tube@% %@AU@%ELECTRON TUBE%@BO:          2da8a0@%%@AE@% in which electrons are accelerated by%@EH@%
high-voltage anodes, formed into a beam by focusing %@AU@%ELECTRODES%@BO:          2d7836@%%@AE@%, and
projected toward a phosphorescent screen that forms the face of the tube.
The electron beam leaves a bright spot wherever it strikes the screen. To
form the screen display, or image, the electron beam is deflected in the
vertical and horizontal directions either by the electrostatic effect of
electrodes within the tube or by magnetic fields produced by coils
located around the neck of the tube. Some cathode-ray tubes, made for
%@AU@%COMPUTER TERMINALS%@BO:          219321@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OSCILLOSCOPES%@BO:          6f244f@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TELEVISION%@BO:          93a2aa@%%@AE@% receivers, can produce
multiple beams of electrons and have phosphor screens that can display
more than one color. See also %@AU@%RADAR%@BO:          7c0fb6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catholic Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catholic Church%@AE@%:%@CR:CATHOLIC.CHURCH @%%@QR:Catholic Church@% see %@AU@%ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH%@BO:          806faa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catholic Emancipation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catholic Emancipation%@AE@%,%@CR:CATHOLIPATION   @%%@QR:Catholic Emancipation@% term applied to the process by which Roman%@EH@%
Catholics in the British Isles were relieved of civil disabilities,
dating back to %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. In 1791 most of the disabilities in Great
Britain were repealed. Agitation in Ireland, led by Daniel %@AU@%O'CONNELL%@BO:          6ccb08@%%@AE@%,
resulted in the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829), which lifted most other
restrictions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catiline%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catiline%@AE@%%@CR:CATILINE        @%%@QR:Catiline@% (Lucius Sergius Catilina), c.108 BC-62 BC, Roman politician and%@EH@%
conspirator. In 66 BC he was barred from candidacy for the consulship by
accusations of misconduct in office, charges that later proved false.
Feeling with some justification that he had been cheated, he concocted a
wild plot to murder the consuls. He and the other conspirators were
acquitted (65 BC). When in 63 BC he ran again for consul, he found
%@AU@%CICERO%@BO:          1e597e@%%@AE@%, the incumbent, and the conservative party anxious to stop his
election at any cost. Catiline was defeated, prompting him to try for the
consulship by force. Learning of the plot, Cicero arrested the
conspirators still in Rome, but Catiline had fled. On Dec. 5 they were
condemned to death and executed, in spite of an appeal from Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%
to use moderation. Catiline did not surrender; he fell in battle at
Pistoia a month later.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cation%@AE@%:%@CR:CATION          @%%@QR:cation@% see %@AU@%ION%@BO:          492c3f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catlin, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catlin, George%@AE@%,%@CR:CATLIN          @%%@QR:Catlin, George@% 1796-1872, American traveler and artist; b. Wilkes-Barre,%@EH@%
Pa. His trips to the American West, the first c.1832, resulted in several
volumes and hundreds of portraits of Indians and tribal scenes. He also
painted Indians in South and Central America. Much of his work is housed
in the Catlin Gallery of the National Gallery of Art (Wash., D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%catnip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%catnip%@AE@%%@CR:CATNIP          @%%@QR:catnip@% or %@AB@%catmint, %@AE@%strong-scented perennial herb (%@AI@%Nepeta cataria%@AE@%) of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%MINT%@BO:          614b8f@%%@AE@% family, native to Europe and Asia. Catnip, best known for its
stimulating effect on cats, is also used to make a home-remedy tea.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cato the Elder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cato the Elder%@AE@%%@CR:CATO.THE.ELDER  @%%@QR:Cato the Elder@% or %@AB@%Cato the Censor%@AE@%(Marcus Porcius Cato), 234-149 BC, Roman%@EH@%
statesman and moralist. He fought in the Second %@AU@%PUNIC WAR%@BO:          7b0708@%%@AE@% and later
served as consul (195) and censor (184). He was renowned for his devotion
to the old Roman ideals-simplicity of life, honesty, and courage. He told
the senate to destroy Carthage and thus helped to bring on the Third
Punic War, in which Carthage was destroyed. He also wrote many works,
most of which are now lost. %@AB@%Cato the Younger %@AE@%or %@AB@%Cato of Utica %@AE@%(Marcus
Porcius Cato), 95 BC-46 BC, Roman statesman, was the great-grandson of
Cato the Elder. He showed an intense devotion to the principles of the
early republic. He had one of the greatest reputations for honesty and
incorruptibility of any man in ancient times, and his Stoicism put him
above the graft and bribery of his day. His politics were extremely
conservative. Thus he opposed Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% and supported %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@%. After
Pompey's defeat at Pharsala in 48 BC, Cato went to Africa to continue the
struggle and took command at Utica. When Caesar clearly had gained power,
Cato committed suicide, bidding his people make their peace with Caesar.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%CAT scan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%CAT scan%@AE@%%@CR:CAT.SCAN        @%%@QR:CAT scan@% or %@AB@%computerized axial tomography,%@AE@%%@AU@%X-RAY%@BO:          a3d2ea@%%@AE@% technique allowing safe,%@EH@%
painless, and rapid diagnosis in previously inaccessible areas of the
body. An X-ray tube, rotating around a specific area of the body,
delivers an appropriate amount of X-radiation for the tissue being
studied and takes pictures of that part of the internal anatomy from
different angles. A computer then assists in forming a composite,
readable image. CAT scanning has revolutionized medicine, especially
neurology, by facilitating the diagnosis of brain and spinal cord
disorders, %@AU@%CANCER%@BO:          182344@%%@AE@%, and other conditions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catt, Carrie Chapman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catt, Carrie Chapman%@AE@%,%@CR:CATT            @%%@QR:Catt, Carrie Chapman@% 1859-1947, American suffragist; b. Ripon, Wis. As%@EH@%
an organizer and president (from 1900) of the National American Woman
Suffrage Association, she campaigned for a constitutional amendment on
%@AU@%WOMAN SUFFRAGE%@BO:          a2d595@%%@AE@%. When the 19th amendment to the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@% passed
(1920), she organized the %@AU@%LEAGUE OF WOMEN VOTERS%@BO:          5324be@%%@AE@% and later worked for the
peace movement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cattail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cattail%@AE@%%@CR:CATTAIL         @%%@QR:cattail@% or %@AB@%reed mace, %@AE@%perennial herb (genus %@AI@%Typha%@AE@%), found in open%@EH@%
marshes. Cattails, or clubrushes, have long, narrow leaves and one tall
stem with tiny male flowers above the female flowers. Pollinated female
flowers form the familiar cylindrical spike of fuzzy brown fruits; the
male flowers drop off. The starchy rootstocks are edible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cattle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cattle%@AE@%,%@CR:CATTLE          @%%@QR:cattle@% ruminant %@AU@%MAMMALS%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Bos%@AE@%), especially a domesticated species.%@EH@%
The term %@AI@%oxen%@AE@% is often used synonymously, although strictly speaking %@AI@%ox%@AE@%
refers to a mature, castrated male used for draft purposes. Western, or
European, domestic cattle (%@AI@%B. taurus%@AE@%) are thought to be descended from
the aurochs, a large wild ox domesticated in the %@AU@%STONE AGE%@BO:          8f4c47@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%ZEBU%@BO:          a5004a@%%@AE@% is
the domesticated species of Asia and Africa. A grown male is called a
bull; a grown female, a cow; an infant, a calf; a female that has not
given birth, a heifer; and a young castrated male, a steer. Cattle are
bred for beef and %@AU@%DAIRYING%@BO:          25ff56@%%@AE@% and for use as draft animals. Beef breeds
include the Angus, Charolais, and Hereford; dairy breeds include Brown
Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein-Friesian, and Jersey; dual-purpose (beef-dairy)
breeds include the Red Poll and Shorthorn.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Catullus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Catullus%@AE@%%@CR:CATULLUS        @%%@QR:Catullus@% (Caius Valerius Catullus), 84?-54? BC, Roman poet, one of the%@EH@%
greatest %@AU@%LYRIC%@BO:          585494@%%@AE@% poets. His poems, addressed to the faithless Lesbia, his
friend Juventius, and others, include elegies (see %@AU@%ELEGY%@BO:          2db00b@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%EPIGRAMS%@BO:          2f6e0c@%%@AE@%, and
other pieces and range from gay and tender to obscenely derisive. "On the
Death of Lesbia's Sparrow" is well known.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caucasian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caucasian%@AE@%%@CR:CAUCASIAN       @%%@QR:Caucasian@% and %@AB@%Caucasoid:%@AE@%see %@AU@%RACE%@BO:          7bfaee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caucasian languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caucasian languages%@AE@%,%@CR:CAUCASIAGES     @%%@QR:Caucasian languages@% family of languages spoken by about five million%@EH@%
people in the %@AU@%CAUCASUS%@BO:          1a6c62@%%@AE@% region of the USSR. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caucasus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caucasus%@AE@%,%@CR:CAUCASUS        @%%@QR:Caucasus@% great mountain system, SW USSR, extending c.750 mi (1,210 km)%@EH@%
between the Black and Caspian seas, forming part of the traditional
border between Europe and Asia. Mt. %@AU@%ELBRUS%@BO:          2d4127@%%@AE@% (18,481 ft/5,633 m) is the
highest peak. The mountains are usually divided into North Caucasia, a
region of semiarid northern slopes, and the southern slopes of
Transcaucasia. The Caucasus are inhabited by a great variety of ethnic
and linguistic groups, including Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijani in
the south and Ossetians, Circassians, and Dagestani in the north. Russia
gained control in the 19th cent. after a series of wars with Persia (now
Iran) and Turkey. Oil is a major resource.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cauchy, Augustin Louis, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cauchy, Augustin Louis, Baron%@AE@%%@CR:CAUCHY          @%%@QR:Cauchy, Augustin Louis, Baron@%, 1789-1857, French mathematician who was%@EH@%
influential in every branch of %@AU@%MATHEMATICS%@BO:          5d1200@%%@AE@%. In calculus, he invented the
notion of continuity, gave the first adequate definition of the definite
integral as a limit of sums, and defined improper integrals. He provided
the first comprehensive theory of complex numbers, established
fundamental theorems on complex functions, published the first
comprehensive treatise on determinants, and founded the mathematical
theory of elasticity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cauliflower%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cauliflower%@AE@%,%@CR:CAULIFLOWER     @%%@QR:cauliflower@% variety of %@AU@%CABBAGE%@BO:          1681e7@%%@AE@% (var. %@AI@%botrytis%@AE@%), with an edible head of%@EH@%
condensed flowers and stems. Another cultivation of the same variety is
broccoli. Both have been grown since Roman times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cavafy, Constantine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cavafy, Constantine%@AE@%%@CR:CAVAFY          @%%@QR:Cavafy, Constantine@%, 1863-1933, Greek poet; b. Egypt. He lived most of%@EH@%
his life in Alexandria. The background of his poetry is a mythic,
Hellenistic world peopled with historical and imaginary figures. Many of
his poems treat homosexual love. Although his output was small (about 150
poems), he is one of the great modern Greek poets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cavalry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cavalry%@AE@%,%@CR:CAVALRY         @%%@QR:cavalry@% mounted troops trained to fight from horseback. In use since the%@EH@%
time of the ancient Hittites, horsemen remained at a disadvantage against
well-disciplined %@AU@%INFANTRY%@BO:          48046e@%%@AE@% until the introduction (4th cent. AD) of the
saddle. In medieval Europe the mounted %@AU@%KNIGHT%@BO:          5035fe@%%@AE@% became the typical warrior.
Despite the invention of %@AU@%SMALL ARMS%@BO:          8a3da7@%%@AE@%, cavalry remained important in
warfare until the end of the 19th cent. The elite of the fighting forces
in Europe, it was often recruited from the nobility and landed gentry. On
the African, U.S., and British Indian frontiers the cavalry's mobility
was essential against the lightly armed natives, but its value was
drastically diminished by the development of rapid-fire rifles and
machine guns. It was ultimately superseded by mobile %@AU@%TANK%@BO:          92a0ce@%%@AE@% units in World
War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cave%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cave%@AE@%,%@CR:CAVE            @%%@QR:cave@% a hollow in earth or %@AU@%ROCK%@BO:          7fd8d8@%%@AE@%. Caves are formed by the chemical and%@EH@%
mechanical action of water on soluble rock, by volcanic activity (the
formation of large gas pockets in lava or the melting of ice under lava),
and by earthquakes. %@AU@%LIMESTONE%@BO:          552e39@%%@AE@% formations, due to their solubility, almost
invariably have caves, some notable for their %@AU@%STALACTITES AND
%@AU@%STALAGMITES%@BO:          8e0df7@%%@AE@%. Among famous U.S. caves are the Carlsbad Caverns in New
Mexico (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%, ). See also %@AU@%SPELEOLOGY%@BO:          8d68a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cave art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cave art%@AE@%:%@CR:CAVE.ART        @%%@QR:cave art@% see %@AU@%PALEOLITHIC ART%@BO:          70383c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS%@BO:          7fe086@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cavendish, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cavendish, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:CAVENDISH       @%%@QR:Cavendish, Henry@% 1731-1810, English physicist and chemist; b. France. He%@EH@%
determined the specific heats for numerous substances (although these
heat constants were not recognized until later), did research on the
composition of water and air, and studied the properties of a gas that he
isolated and described as "inflammable air" (later named %@AU@%HYDROGEN%@BO:          45f01f@%%@AE@%). In a
now-famous experiment (1798), he determined the value of the constant of
proportionality in Newton's law of %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cavour, Camillo Benso, conte di%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cavour, Camillo Benso, conte di%@AE@%,%@CR:CAVOUR          @%%@QR:Cavour, Camillo Benso, conte di@% 1810-61, Italian statesman, premier of%@EH@%
Sardinia (1852-59, 1860-61). Cavour introduced liberal internal reforms
and involved Sardinia in the %@AU@%CRIMEAN WAR%@BO:          24a5c9@%%@AE@%. He became the chief architect
of Italian unification under %@AU@%VICTOR EMMANUEL II%@BO:          9d1e79@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%RISORGIMENTO%@BO:          7f696b@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Caxton, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Caxton, William%@AE@%,%@CR:CAXTON          @%%@QR:Caxton, William@% c.1421-1491, English printer, the first to print books%@EH@%
in English. Apprenticed as a mercer, he was later a diplomat, and learned
printing in Cologne, Germany, in 1471-72. At Bruges, Belgium (1475), he
printed with Colard Mansion %@AI@%The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,%@AE@% the
first book printed in English. At Westminster (1477) he printed %@AI@%Dictes or
%@AI@%Sayengis of the Philosophres,%@AE@% the first dated book printed in England. He
is known to have printed about 100 books, having translated about one
third of them himself.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cayenne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cayenne%@AE@%,%@CR:CAYENNE         @%%@QR:Cayenne@% city (1982 pop. 38,091), capital of %@AU@%FRENCH GUIANA%@BO:          360a5e@%%@AE@%, on Cayenne%@EH@%
Island. It exports timber and rum, and gives its name to cayenne pepper,
found on the island. Founded (1643) by France, it was held (1808-16) by
Britain and Portugal. Many residents descend from inmates of French
prison colonies (1851-1946).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cayley, Sir George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cayley, Sir George%@AE@%,%@CR:CAYLEY          @%%@QR:Cayley, Sir George@% 1773-1857, English scientist, recognized as the%@EH@%
founder of %@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%. In his studies on the principles of flight, he
experimented with wing design; distinguished between lift and drag; and
formulated the concepts of vertical tail surfaces, steering rudders, rear
elevators, and air screws. Although powered flight was not possible in
his time, he was able to calculate the power required for various speeds
and loads.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cayman Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cayman Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:CAYMAN.ISLANDS  @%%@QR:Cayman Islands@% British dependency (1987 est. pop. 22,900), c.100 sq mi%@EH@%
(259 sq km), West Indies, consisting of three main islands, of which
Grand Cayman is the largest. The capital is George Town. Discovered
(1503) by Christopher %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@%, the islands are now tourist attractions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cayuga Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cayuga Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:CAYUGA.INDIANS  @%%@QR:Cayuga Indians@% see %@AU@%IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY%@BO:          49c1ee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%CB radio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%CB radio%@AE@%:%@CR:CB.RADIO        @%%@QR:CB radio@% see %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cd%@AE@%,%@CR:CD1             @%%@QR:Cd@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CADMIUM%@BO:          16afd0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%CD%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%CD%@AE@%:%@CR:CD2             @%%@QR:CD@% see %@AU@%COMPACT DISC%@BO:          214394@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ce%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ce%@AE@%,%@CR:CE              @%%@QR:Ce@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CERIUM%@BO:          1b1244@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ceausescu, Nicolae%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ceausescu, Nicolae%@AE@%%@CR:CEAUSESCU       @%%@QR:Ceausescu, Nicolae@%, 1918-, Rumanian Communist leader and president of%@EH@%
%@AU@%RUMANIA%@BO:          81dbb9@%%@AE@% (1967-). After the Communist takeover in 1948 he rose steadily in
the party and the government. At the death (1965) of Gheorghiu-dej he
became party leader. He maintained Rumanian independence from the Soviet
Union and close ties with China and the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cecil, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cecil, Robert%@AE@%:%@CR:CECIL1          @%%@QR:Cecil, Robert@% see %@AU@%SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF%@BO:          8392fa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne%@AE@%:%@CR:CECIL2          @%%@QR:Cecil, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne@% see %@AU@%SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT%@EH@%
%@AU@%GASCOYNE-CECIL, 3D MARQUESS OF%@BO:          8392fa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cecil, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cecil, William%@AE@%:%@CR:CECIL3          @%%@QR:Cecil, William@% see %@AU@%BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, 1ST BARON%@BO:          159e0b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cedar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cedar%@AE@%,%@CR:CEDAR           @%%@QR:cedar@% common name for a number of mostly coniferous evergreen trees. The%@EH@%
true cedars (genus %@AI@%Cedrus%@AE@%), of the %@AU@%PINE%@BO:          75d24e@%%@AE@% family, are all native to the Old
World; some, e.g., the cedar of Lebanon (%@AI@%C. libani%@AE@%) and the fragrant
deodar cedar (%@AI@%C. deodara%@AE@%), are cultivated elsewhere. In North America,
the name cedar refers to the %@AU@%JUNIPER%@BO:          4dbd30@%%@AE@% (red cedar), %@AU@%ARBORVITAE%@BO:           74042@%%@AE@% (white
cedar), and other conifers of the %@AU@%CYPRESS%@BO:          25b026@%%@AE@% family. Several tropical
American trees (genus %@AI@%Cedrela%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MAHOGANY%@BO:          59c567@%%@AE@% family are also called
cedars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cedar Rapids%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cedar Rapids%@AE@%,%@CR:CEDAR.RAPIDS    @%%@QR:Cedar Rapids@% city (1986 est. pop. 108,370), seat of Linn co., E central%@EH@%
Iowa, on the Cedar R.; inc. as a city 1856. One of Iowa's chief
commercial and industrial cities, it is the distribution center for an
agricultural area. Its manufactures include cereals, farm machinery,
electrical equipment, and paper and plastic products.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celebes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celebes%@AE@%%@CR:CELEBES         @%%@QR:Celebes@% or %@AB@%Sulawesi,%@AE@%island (1980 pop. 10,410,000), largest island in E%@EH@%
Indonesia, c.73,000 sq mi (189,070 sq km), separated from %@AU@%BORNEO%@BO:          124e00@%%@AE@% by the
Makasar Strait. Irregular in shape, it comprises four large peninsulas.
The terrain is almost wholly mountainous, with many active volcanoes.
Valuable stands of timber cover much of the island; mineral resources
include nickel, gold, diamonds, and sulfur. The inhabitants are Malayan,
with some primitive tribes in the interior. The Dutch took control of
Celebes from the Portuguese in the 1600s. In 1950 it became a province of
the newly created Indonesia. Makasar is the chief city and port.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%celery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%celery%@AE@%,%@CR:CELERY          @%%@QR:celery@% biennial plant (%@AI@%Apium graveolens%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family, widely%@EH@%
distributed and cultivated in north temperate areas. Once used as a
medicine and flavoring, it is now used chiefly as a food, especially in
soups and salads; the seeds are still used for seasoning.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%celesta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%celesta%@AE@%:%@CR:CELESTA         @%%@QR:celesta@% see %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%celestial equator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%celestial equator%@AE@%%@CR:CELESTIOR       @%%@QR:celestial equator@% and %@AB@%celestial horizon: %@AE@%see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE%@EH@%
%@AU@%SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%celestial mechanics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%celestial mechanics%@AE@%,%@CR:CELESTINICS     @%%@QR:celestial mechanics@% the study of the motions of astronomical bodies as%@EH@%
they move under the influence of their mutual %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%. The
calculation of such motions is complicated because many separate forces
are acting at once and all bodies are moving simultaneously. Celestial
mechanics is based on Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON'S%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@% laws of motion and theory of
universal gravitation. Only the problem of two isolated moving bodies
mutually attracted by gravitation can be solved exactly. Because the sun
is the dominant influence in the solar system, an application of the
two-body problem leads to the simple elliptical %@AU@%ORBITS%@BO:          6e4e7f@%%@AE@% as described by
%@AU@%KEPLER'S LAWS%@BO:          4f2804@%%@AE@%, which give a close approximation of planetary motion.
Problems that consider the additional effects, or perturbations, of other
less dominant bodies (such as the other planets in the solar system)
cannot be solved exactly except in a few special cases. Methods have been
devised, however, to allow successive refinements of an approximate
solution to be made to almost any degree of precision.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%celestial meridian, celestial pole%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%celestial meridian, celestial pole%@AE@%,%@CR:CELESTIIAN      @%%@QR:celestial meridian, celestial pole@% and %@AB@%celestial sphere: %@AE@%see %@AU@%%@EH@%
%@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celestine I, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celestine I, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:CELESTINE.I     @%%@QR:Celestine I, Saint@% d. 432, pope (422-432), an Italian. He advanced%@EH@%
orthodoxy by sending a delegation to the Council of Ephesus to oppose
%@AU@%NESTORIANISM%@BO:          685e94@%%@AE@%. Feast: July 27.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celestine V, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celestine V, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:CELESTINE.V     @%%@QR:Celestine V, Saint@% 1215-96, pope (July 5-Dec. 13, 1294), an Italian%@EH@%
named Pietro del Murrone. Elected to end the two-year deadlock in finding
a successor to Nicholas IV, Celestine was a hermit who had attracted a
following of extremists (called Celestines). His papacy was chaotic and
was dominated by Charles II of Naples; it lasted but five months before
he resigned. His successor, %@AU@%BONIFACE VIII%@BO:          11d759@%%@AE@%, confined Celestine for life to
avert schism. Feast: May 19.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celine, Louis Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celine, Louis Ferdinand%@AE@%%@CR:CELINE          @%%@QR:Celine, Louis Ferdinand@%, 1894-1961, French author; b. Louis Ferdinand%@EH@%
Destouches. He wrote sensationally misanthropic but influential novels,
e.g., %@AI@%Journey to the End of Night%@AE@% (1932). Based on his experiences as a
doctor during World War I, his works portray the vileness of humanity
through frank, often obscene, language. Celine later wrote a chaotic
trilogy (1957-61) recounting the last days of the Third Reich in Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cell%@AE@%,%@CR:CELL1           @%%@QR:cell@% in biology, the unit of structure and function of which all plants%@EH@%
and animals are composed. The cell is the smallest unit in the living
organism that is capable of carrying on the essential life processes of
sustaining %@AU@%METABOLISM%@BO:          5f2b14@%%@AE@% for producing energy and reproducing. Many
single-celled organisms (e.g., %@AU@%PROTOZOA%@BO:          7a439f@%%@AE@%) perform all life functions. The
cell is differentiated into the cytoplasm; the cell membrane, which
surrounds it; and the nucleus, which is contained within it. Plant cells
also have a thickened cell wall, composed chiefly of %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@%. Included
in the cytoplasm are mitochondria, which produce energy; lysozymes, which
digest; Golgi apparatuses, which synthesize, store, and secrete
substances; ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis; and %@AU@%CHLOROPLASTS%@BO:          1db46b@%%@AE@%
(in green plants only), in which %@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@% occurs. The nucleus
contains chromosomes, which store the information for the metabolic
functions of the whole cell and pass on their information to daughter
cells by replicating themselves exactly. In higher organisms groups of
cells are differentiated into specialized tissues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cell%@AE@%,%@CR:CELL2           @%%@QR:cell@% in electricity, device that operates by converting chemical energy%@EH@%
into electrical energy. A cell consists of two dissimilar substances, a
positive %@AU@%ELECTRODE%@BO:          2d7836@%%@AE@% and a negative electrode, and a third substance, the
%@AU@%ELECTROLYTE%@BO:          2d82b5@%%@AE@%, that acts chemically on the electrodes. A group of cells
connected together is called a battery. The %@AU@%ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE%@BO:          2d8da4@%%@AE@%, or
voltage produced between the positive and negative electrodes, depends on
the chemical properties of the sub stances used but not on the size of
the electrodes or the amount of electrolyte. When the electrodes are
connected externally by a piece of wire, electrons flow from the negative
electrode, through the wire, and into the positive electrode. There are
several kinds of cells, differing in electrode material and electrolyte.
The Leclanche cell has a zinc negative electrode, a carbon positive
electrode, and an electrolyte consisting of ammonium chloride solution.
It is the basis of the common dry cell, so called because the electrolyte
is in the form of a paste instead of a liquid. An alkaline dry cell,
which can operate up to ten times longer than common dry cells, has a
zinc negative electrode, a manganese dioxide positive electrode, and an
electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. A mercury dry cell, with a zinc
negative electrode, a mercuric oxide positive electrode, and a potassium
hydroxide electrolyte, has a constant output voltage and may be stored
for many years.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cellini, Benvenuto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cellini, Benvenuto%@AE@%%@CR:CELLINI         @%%@QR:Cellini, Benvenuto@%, 1500-71, Italian sculptor, metalsmith, and author.%@EH@%
Under the patronage of Pope %@AU@%CLEMENT VII%@BO:          1f393b@%%@AE@%, he made medals, jewel settings,
caskets, vases, candlesticks, metal plates, and ornaments. His work, with
its decorative quality and exquisite detail, is among the best of the
period. Though most of his works have perished, the famous gold and
enamel saltcellar of %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@% of France and the gold medallion of %@AI@%Leda
%@AI@%and the Swan%@AE@% (both: Vienna Mus.) still remain. His late Florentine
sculptures include the bust of Cosimo I (Bargello, Florence) and %@AI@%Perseus
%@AI@%with the Head of Medusa%@AE@% (Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence). Cellini was a true
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% man, and his autobiography (1558-62) is one of the most
important documents of the 16th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cello%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cello%@AE@%:%@CR:CELLO           @%%@QR:cello@% see %@AU@%VIOLIN%@BO:          9daf0b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cellophane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cellophane%@AE@%,%@CR:CELLOPHANE      @%%@QR:cellophane@% thin, transparent sheet or tube of regenerated %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Used in packaging and for %@AU@%DIALYSIS%@BO:          28a2fc@%%@AE@%, cellophane is made by mixing
alkali-treated cellulose with carbon disulfide to form viscose. After
aging, the viscose is forced through a slit into dilute acid. The
regenerated cellulose that results has a lower molecular weight and a
less orderly structure than cellulose.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%celluloid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%celluloid%@AE@%,%@CR:CELLULOID       @%%@QR:celluloid@% transparent, colorless synthetic %@AU@%PLASTIC%@BO:          769462@%%@AE@% made by treating%@EH@%
%@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@% nitrate with %@AU@%CAMPHOR%@BO:          17cd9d@%%@AE@% and alcohol. The first important synthetic
plastic, celluloid was widely used as a substitute for more expensive
substances, such as ivory, amber, and tortoiseshell. It is highly
flammable and has been largely superseded by newer plastics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cellular telephone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cellular telephone%@AE@%,%@CR:CELLULAONE      @%%@QR:cellular telephone@% a mobile telephone system that uses small%@EH@%
geographical areas known as cells with transmitters and receivers as
bases for operation within a given area, such as a city. As users move
from one cell to another, a central computer system changes their
channels. This switching allows a relatively large amount of telephone
traffic to be handled within a restricted area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cellulose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cellulose%@AE@%,%@CR:CELLULOSE       @%%@QR:cellulose@% a carbohydrate of high molecular weight that is the chief%@EH@%
constituent of the %@AU@%CELL%@BO:          1aac34@%%@AE@% walls of plants. Raw cotton is 91% cellulose.
Other important natural sources are flax, hemp, jute, straw, and wood.
Cellulose has been used to make %@AU@%PAPER%@BO:          70e477@%%@AE@% since the 2d cent. AD Cellulose
derivatives include guncotton (fully nitrated cellulose), used for
%@AU@%EXPLOSIVES%@BO:          313262@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CELLULOID%@BO:          1abf12@%%@AE@% (the first %@AU@%PLASTIC%@BO:          769462@%%@AE@%); and cellulose acetate, used
for plastics, lacquers, and fibers such as %@AU@%RAYON%@BO:          7d057e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celsius temperature scale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celsius temperature scale%@AE@%:%@CR:CELSIUSLE       @%%@QR:Celsius temperature scale@% see %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celtic Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celtic Church%@AE@%,%@CR:CELTIC.CHURCH   @%%@QR:Celtic Church@% name given to the Christian church founded 2d or 3d cent.%@EH@%
in the British Isles before the mission (597) of St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE OF
%@AU@%CANTERBURY%@BO:           9c776@%%@AE@% from Rome. It spread in the 5th cent. through the work of St.
Ninian in Scotland, St. Dyfrig in Wales, and St. %@AU@%PATRICK%@BO:          720fde@%%@AE@% in Ireland, but
was all but extinguished in England by the Saxon invasions, beginning
c.450. At the Synod of Whitby (663) differences in Celtic and Roman
church practices were largely resolved.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celtic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celtic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:CELTIC.S        @%%@QR:Celtic languages@% subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See%@EH@%
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Celts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Celts%@AE@%,%@CR:CELTS           @%%@QR:Celts@% Indo-European-speaking tribal groups who dominated central Europe%@EH@%
during the %@AU@%IRON AGE%@BO:          49ba8f@%%@AE@%, developing the %@AU@%LA TENE%@BO:          5293f3@%%@AE@% culture. Mounted raiders with
iron weapons, they spread rapidly over Europe in the 6th and 5th cent. BC
from their home in SW Germany, reaching the British Isles, France, Spain,
Italy, Macedonia, and Asia Minor. Their social hierarchy included
kinglike chiefs and priests known as %@AU@%DRUIDS%@BO:          2ac9d5@%%@AE@%. A richly ornamental art and
colorful folklore were their important cultural legacies. The term %@AI@%Celts%@AE@%
also refers to natives of areas where a Celtic language is (or was until
recently) spoken, i.e., Ireland, the Scottish Hebrides and Highlands, the
Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cement, hydraulic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cement, hydraulic%@AE@%,%@CR:CEMENT          @%%@QR:cement, hydraulic@% building material typically made by heating a mixture%@EH@%
of limestone and clay until it almost fuses and then grinding it to a
fine powder. Once it is mixed with water, cement will harden even if
immersed in water. The most common cement, Portland cement, is made by
mixing and then heating substances containing lime, silica, alumina, and
iron oxide, with gypsum added during the grinding process. Quick-setting
aluminous cement is made from limestone and bauxite. See also %@AU@%CONCRETE%@BO:          21bbc6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cenozoic era%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cenozoic era%@AE@%:%@CR:CENOZOIC.ERA    @%%@QR:Cenozoic era@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%censorship%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%censorship%@AE@%,%@CR:CENSORSHIP      @%%@QR:censorship@% official restriction of any expression believed to threaten%@EH@%
the political, social, or moral order. Although most often imposed by
totalitarian, autocratic, or theocratic regimes or in times of war,
censorship has long existed in the U.S., where such materials as school
texts, films, and literary works have often been suppressed as morally or
ideologically subversive, by religious organizations, government agencies
(such as the U.S. Post Office or elected local school boards) or private
groups (such as the Watch and Ward Society in Boston, Anthony %@AU@%COMSTOCK'S%@BO:          2198cd@%%@AE@%
New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, or the %@AU@%MORAL MAJORITY%@BO:          63ad02@%%@AE@%). At
times, systems of self-censorship (e.g., the film industry's "Hays Code"
of the 1930s) have been established to reduce the threat of outside
censorship or %@AU@%BOYCOTT%@BO:          12f217@%%@AE@%. A U.S. Supreme Court ruling in 1973 granted to
state governments the right to decide what is subversive or obscene.
Official secrecy, or federal censorship of information about government
operations, was greatly reduced in the U.S. under the %@AU@%FREEDOM OF
%@AU@%INFORMATION ACT%@BO:          35d02f@%%@AE@% (1966), supplemented by the Privacy Act of 1974. See also
%@AU@%PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE%@BO:          7958c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%census%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%census%@AE@%,%@CR:CENSUS          @%%@QR:census@% a periodic official count of persons and their life conditions%@EH@%
and of national resources. Usually taken every 5 or 10 years, the census
provides vital statistical information for government planners and social
scientists. In the U.S. it is conducted by the Bureau of the Census,
established in 1902 as part of the Dept. of %@AU@%COMMERCE%@BO:          20fba7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%centaur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%centaur%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTAUR         @%%@QR:centaur@% in Greek myth, a creature half man, half horse, descended from%@EH@%
Ixion. Most were savage followers of %@AU@%DIONYSUS%@BO:          293219@%%@AE@%, but some, like %@AU@%CHIRON%@BO:          1d979c@%%@AE@%,
were teachers of men.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%center of gravity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%center of gravity%@AE@%:%@CR:CENTER.TY       @%%@QR:center of gravity@% see %@AU@%CENTER OF MASS%@BO:          1adbf3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%center of mass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%center of mass%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTER.OF.MASS  @%%@QR:center of mass@% the point at which all the mass of a body or group of%@EH@%
objects is considered to be concentrated. This point is often the same as
the center of gravity (the point at which all the weight of a body may be
considered to be concentrated). The motions of several colliding
elementary particles, or of the earth and moon around the sun, are
sometimes analyzed from the point of view of the center of mass of the
entire system of objects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Centers for Disease Control%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Centers for Disease Control%@AE@%%@CR:CENTERSTROL     @%%@QR:Centers for Disease Control@% (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health%@EH@%
Service, est. 1973; headquarters are in Atlanta. The agency administers
national programs for the prevention and control of communicable
diseases, develops and implements programs for dealing with environmental
health problems, directs quarantine activities, and conducts
epidemiological research. It also provides consultation on an
international basis for the control of preventable diseases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%centigrade temperature scale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%centigrade temperature scale%@AE@%:%@CR:CENTIGRSCALE    @%%@QR:centigrade temperature scale@% see %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%centimeter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%centimeter%@AE@%:%@CR:CENTIMETER      @%%@QR:centimeter@% see %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WEIGHTS AND MEASURES%@BO:          a0404d@%%@AE@%, .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%centipede%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%centipede%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTIPEDE       @%%@QR:centipede@% invertebrate animal of the class Chilopoda, an %@AU@%ARTHROPOD%@BO:           84a10@%%@AE@%. The%@EH@%
flattened body is divided into a head and trunk comprised of segments
(somites). The average number of legs is 35 pairs, one pair per segment
except for the first one and last two. The appendages of the first
segment are modified into claws equipped with poison glands, used to
capture prey. The largest tropical species may reach 12 in. (30 cm) in
length; temperate species are usually about 1 in. (2.5 cm) long.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Central African Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Central African Republic%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTRALC        @%%@QR:Central African Republic@% republic (1986 est. pop. 2,740,000), 240,534 sq%@EH@%
mi (622,983 sq km), central Africa, bordered by Chad (N), Sudan (E),
Zaire and the Congo Republic (S), and Cameroon (W). %@AU@%BANGUI%@BO:           bcf2b@%%@AE@% is the
capital. Situated on a savanna-covered plateau 2,000-3,000 ft (610-910 m)
above sea level, the country has tropical forests in the south and a
semidesert area in the east. Of the numerous rivers, only the Ubangi is
commercially navigable. Agriculture is the chief economic activity,
engaging about 90% of the people, mostly in subsistence farming. The
principal cash crops and exports are cotton and coffee; other exports
include diamonds and timber. There are no railroads and few adequate
paved roads; rivers are the chief means of transportation. The chief
ethnic groups are the Mandjia-Baya, the Banda, the Mbaka, and the Zande.
French is the official language, but Sangho is the lingua franca. More
than half the population practices traditional animist religions; most of
the rest are Christian.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% In the 19th cent. various tribes fleeing the slave trade arrived
in the region. The French occupied the area in 1887 and organized it
(1894) as the colony of Ubangi-Shari; it was united administratively with
%@AU@%CHAD%@BO:          1b2ab1@%%@AE@% in 1906 and incorporated into %@AU@%FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA%@BO:          361070@%%@AE@% in 1910.
Despite periodic rebellions sparked by French concessionaires' use of
forced labor, the population supported the Free French forces in %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. The colony was given its own territorial assembly in 1946,
received autonomy and took its present name in 1958, and gained full
independence in 1960 under Pres. David %@AU@%DACKO%@BO:          25e968@%%@AE@%. In 1965 the parliamentary
government was overthrown in a military coup led by Col. Jean-Bedel
%@AU@%BOKASSA%@BO:          118bac@%%@AE@%, who in 1976 changed the country's name to Central African Empire
and had himself crowned Emperor Bokassa I. During his brutal regime it
was alleged that he personally took part in a 1979 massacre of children
protesting human rights violations. Shortly thereafter, control was
regained by Dacko, who restored republican government but was ousted
again (1981) in a military coup led by Gen. Andre Kolingba, who has
become increasingly autocratic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Central America%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Central America%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTRAL.AMERICA @%%@QR:Central America@% collective term applied to the six nations of North%@EH@%
America lying SE of Mexico-%@AU@%BELIZE%@BO:           e0bd6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COSTA RICA%@BO:          23c2ac@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%EL SALVADOR%@BO:          2e5434@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GUATEMALA%@BO:          3e2308@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%HONDURAS%@BO:          44040e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%NICARAGUA%@BO:          69befe@%%@AE@%-and usually also including %@AU@%PANAMA%@BO:          706f6b@%%@AE@%, on the Isthmus
of Panama. The region is predominantly mountainous in the interior, with
an active zone of volcanoes and earthquakes marking the junction of North
America's mountain systems and outliers of South America's %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@% chain.
Tajumulko (13,846 ft/4,210 m), a volcano in Guatemala, is the highest
point. The climate varies with altitude from tropical to cool, with heavy
rainfall occurring in the east. Bananas, coffee, and cacao are the chief
commercial crops. The population is mainly Spanish-speaking, Roman
Catholic, and mestizo (of mixed Spanish and native Indian extraction).
Though rich culturally, the area has suffered chronic political and
economic problems, due largely to the persistence of a landholding system
that leaves a vast gap between rich and poor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Central American Federation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Central American Federation%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTRALTION     @%%@QR:Central American Federation@% political confederation (1825-28) of the%@EH@%
republics of Central America-Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, and Nicaragua. Enmity between the states frustrated later
attempts to revive it. The %@AB@%Central American Common Market, %@AE@%formed in 1960
and now composed of the same states, greatly increased trade, but during
its first two decades failed to develop into a close economic or
political union.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%central bank%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%central bank%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTRAL.BANK    @%%@QR:central bank@% financial institution designed to regulate and control a%@EH@%
nation's fiscal and monetary activities. Usually state-owned, central
banks issue notes to be used as legal tender, maintain adequate reserve
backing for the nation's banks, and control the flow of money and
precious metals. By regulating the supply of %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CREDIT%@BO:          246b37@%%@AE@% they
influence %@AU@%INTEREST%@BO:          48bfdb@%%@AE@% rates and, to some extent, the whole national economy.
Most central banks are modeled after the Bank of England (1694), the
first to fill a central banking role. Other notable central banks include
the U.S. %@AU@%FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM%@BO:          32461d@%%@AE@%, the Bank of Canada, France's Banque de
France, and Germany's Deutsche Bundesbank.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Central Intelligence Agency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Central Intelligence Agency%@AE@%%@CR:CENTRALENCY     @%%@QR:Central Intelligence Agency@% (CIA), U.S. agency established (1947) by the%@EH@%
National Security Act. It conducts intelligence and counterintelligence
activities outside the U.S. (see %@AU@%INTELLIGENCE GATHERING%@BO:          48b995@%%@AE@%). It also engages
in domestic counterintelligence operations, but only in coordination with
the %@AU@%FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION%@BO:          322e01@%%@AE@% and subject to the attorney general's
approval. These limitations were mandated by a 1978 executive order,
issued in the wake of abuses related to the %@AU@%WATERGATE AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@% and of a
presidential commission's charge (1975) that the CIA had engaged in
"unlawful" domestic spying. The CIA has also been criticized for taking
an active role in the internal affairs of foreign governments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Central Powers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Central Powers%@AE@%:%@CR:CENTRAL.POWERS  @%%@QR:Central Powers@% see %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%central processing unit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%central processing unit%@AE@%:%@CR:CENTRALING.UNIT @%%@QR:central processing unit@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%centrifuge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%centrifuge%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTRIFUGE      @%%@QR:centrifuge@% device using centrifugal force to separate substances of%@EH@%
different density, e.g., cream from milk. Substances are placed in
containers that are spun at speeds high enough to cause the heavier
elements to sink. The first successful centrifuge was built in 1883 by
the Swedish engineer Carl G.P. de Laval.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%centripetal force and centrifugal force%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%centripetal force and centrifugal force%@AE@%,%@CR:CENTRIPENTRIFU  @%%@QR:centripetal force and centrifugal force@% action-reaction force pair%@EH@%
associated with circular motion. Centripetal ("center-seeking") force is
the constant inward force necessary to maintain circular motion. The
centripetal force %@AI@%F%@AE@% acting on a body of mass %@AI@%m%@AE@% is given by the equation
%@AI@%F=mv%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%/%@AI@%r,%@AE@% where %@AI@%v%@AE@% is its velocity and %@AI@%r%@AE@% is the radius of its path. The
centripetal force, the action, is balanced by a reaction force, the
centrifugal ("center-fleeing") force, which acts not on the circling
object but on the source of centripetal force, usually located at the
circle's center. The two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cephalopod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cephalopod%@AE@%,%@CR:CEPHALOPOD      @%%@QR:cephalopod@% free-swimming %@AU@%MOLLUSK%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@% (class Cephalopoda) with a long body%@EH@%
with a ring of sucker-bearing arms (tentacles) encircling the mouth. The
head is large, with prominent eyes. Only the %@AU@%NAUTILUS%@BO:          679bc0@%%@AE@% has an external
shell; in the %@AU@%SQUID%@BO:          8de86d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CUTTLEFISH%@BO:          258500@%%@AE@% the shell is internal and reduced, and
in the %@AU@%OCTOPUS%@BO:          6cd9bc@%%@AE@% it is completely absent. Most cephalopods are aggressive
carnivores that move by means of a kind of jet propulsion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cepheid variables%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cepheid variables%@AE@%,%@CR:CEPHEIDES       @%%@QR:Cepheid variables@% small class of %@AU@%VARIABLE STARS%@BO:          9bf0a7@%%@AE@% that brighten and dim in%@EH@%
regular periods ranging from 1 to 50 days. The periods of Cepheids, which
are yellow supergiant stars that swell and contract in size, depend on
their intrinsic brightness, or absolute %@AU@%MAGNITUDE%@BO:          599c63@%%@AE@%, in a known way: the
brighter the star, the greater its period. By comparing the Cepheid's
absolute magnitude to its apparent magnitude, one can determine its
distance. The period-luminosity relation of Cepheids make them invaluable
in estimating interstellar and intergalactic distances.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ceramicus Sinus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ceramicus Sinus%@AE@%%@CR:CERAMICUS.SINUS @%%@QR:Ceramicus Sinus@% or %@AB@%Ceramic Gulf,%@AE@%ancient name of the Gulf of Kos, or of%@EH@%
Kerme, SW Turkey, an inlet of the Aegean Sea. The ancient city of
%@AU@%HALICARNASSUS%@BO:          3f471c@%%@AE@% was on the gulf.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cerberus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cerberus%@AE@%%@CR:CERBERUS        @%%@QR:Cerberus@%, in Greek mythology, many-headed dog with a mane and a tail of%@EH@%
snakes; guardian of %@AU@%HADES%@BO:          3ee5a7@%%@AE@%. One of the 12 labors of %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@% was to
capture him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cerebral palsy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cerebral palsy%@AE@%,%@CR:CEREBRAL.PALSY  @%%@QR:cerebral palsy@% disorder in which muscular control and coordination are%@EH@%
impaired, and speech and hearing problems and mental retardation may
occur. It is most commonly caused by brain damage occurring before or
during birth, and varies greatly in severity. Treatment involves
physical, occupational, and speech therapy; braces; orthopedic surgery;
and drugs to reduce muscle stiffness and spasticity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ceres, in astronomy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ceres, in astronomy%@AE@%:%@CR:CERES1          @%%@QR:Ceres, in astronomy@% see %@AU@%ASTEROID%@BO:           8f049@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ceres%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ceres%@AE@%%@CR:CERES2          @%%@QR:Ceres@%, in Roman mythology, goddess of grain; daughter of %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84ddfa@%%@AE@% and Ops.%@EH@%
Her worship involved fertility rites and rites for the dead, and her
chief festival was the Cerealia. She was identified with the Greek
%@AU@%DEMETER%@BO:          27c701@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cerium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cerium%@AE@%%@CR:CERIUM          @%%@QR:cerium@% (Ce), metallic element, purified in 1875 by W.F. Hillebrand and%@EH@%
T.H. Norton. Iron-gray, soft, and malleable, it is the most abundant
%@AU@%RARE-EARTH METAL%@BO:          7cc65d@%%@AE@%. It is used as a core for the carbon electrode of arc
lamps. Cigarette-lighter flints are cerium alloys. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%CERN%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%CERN%@AE@%:%@CR:CERN            @%%@QR:CERN@% see %@AU@%EUROPEAN ORGANIZATION FOR NUCLEAR RESEARCH%@BO:          30bbec@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de%@AE@%%@CR:CERVANTDRA      @%%@QR:Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de@%, 1547-1616, Spanish novelist, dramatist,%@EH@%
and poet, author of %@AI@%Don Quixote.%@AE@% Little is known of Cervantes's youth. In
1569, in the service of a cardinal, he went to Italy, where he studied
literature and philosophy. At the naval battle of Lepanto (1571) his left
arm was permanently crippled. Returning to Spain (1575), he was captured
by Barbary pirates and sold as a slave. After many escape attempts he was
ransomed at ruinous cost from the viceroy of Algiers in 1580. As a
government purchasing agent (1588-97) he was jailed several times for
financial irregularities. His first published work was %@AI@%La Galatea%@AE@% (1585),
a %@AU@%PASTORAL%@BO:          71f1d9@%%@AE@% romance in prose and verse. Part I of his masterpiece, %@AI@%Don
%@AI@%Quixote de la Mancha%@AE@% (1605), was an immediate success. The addled
idealism of Don Quixote, a country gentleman who has read too many
chivalric romances, and the earthy acquisitiveness of his squire, Sancho
Panza, propel them into a series of adventures involving characters from
every level of society. The appearance of a spurious sequel prompted
Cervantes to publish Part II in 1615. The work had an indelible effect on
the development of the European %@AU@%NOVEL%@BO:          6bed67@%%@AE@%. Among his other works are poems;
many plays; the %@AI@%Exemplary Novels%@AE@% (1613), a collection of 12 tales; and
%@AI@%The Travails of%@AE@% %@AI@%Persiles and%@AE@% %@AI@%Sigismunda%@AE@% (1617), a prose epic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cesarean section%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cesarean section%@AE@%,%@CR:CESAREAN        @%%@QR:cesarean section@% delivery of an infant by surgical removal from the%@EH@%
uterus through an abdominal incision. It is usually performed when
childbirth is considered hazardous, as when the mother's pelvis is too
narrow or the fetus is in an abnormal position. Subsequent deliveries
were traditionally also by cesarean section, but the practice is
dimishing. The name comes from the legend that Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% was born in
this manner.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cesium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cesium%@AE@%%@CR:CESIUM          @%%@QR:cesium@% (Cs), metallic element, discovered by spectroscopy in 1860 by%@EH@%
Robert %@AU@%BUNSEN%@BO:          158521@%%@AE@% and Gustav %@AU@%KIRCHHOFF%@BO:          4fe7f3@%%@AE@%. Ductile, soft as wax, and
silver-white, it is the most alkaline element (see %@AU@%ALKALI METALS%@BO:           3cccb@%%@AE@%) and the
most reactive metal. Cesium metal is used in photoelectric cells and
various optical instruments; cesium compounds, in glass and ceramic
production. The cesium-137 radioactive isotope is used to treat cancer.
See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ceuta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ceuta%@AE@%%@CR:CEUTA           @%%@QR:Ceuta@%, city (1981 pop. 70,864), c.7 sq mi (18 sq km), NW Africa, a%@EH@%
Spanish possession, on the Strait of Gibraltar. An enclave in Morocco
administered as part of Cadiz prov., Spain, Ceuta is a free port with
such industries as fishing and food processing. An ancient city, it was
seized (1415) by Portugal and in 1580 passed to Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cezanne, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cezanne, Paul%@AE@%%@CR:CEZANNE         @%%@QR:Cezanne, Paul@%, 1839-1906, French painter. Strongly influenced by%@EH@%
%@AU@%PISSARRO%@BO:          7619af@%%@AE@%, he became a leading figure in the revolution toward
abstraction. His early work is marked by heavy use of the palette knife;
these fantastic, dreamlike scenes anticipate the expressionist idiom of
the 20th cent. (see %@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:          313c02@%%@AE@%). After meeting %@AU@%MANET%@BO:          5ac6b0@%%@AE@% and the
impressionist painters Cezanne became interested in using color to create
perspective (see %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%), but he was utterly unconcerned with
transitory light effects. %@AI@%House of the Hanged Man%@AE@% (1873-74; Louvre) is
characteristic of his impressionist period. He sought to "recreate
nature" by simplifying forms and utilizing color and distortion, as in
%@AI@%Mont Sainte-Victoire%@AE@% (1885-87; Phillips Coll., Wash., D.C.), %@AI@%The Kitchen
%@AI@%Table%@AE@% (1888-90; Louvre), %@AI@%The Card Players%@AE@% (1890-92; one version, S.C.
Clark Coll., N.Y.C.), and vital portraits. He also developed a new type
of spatial pattern, portraying objects from shifting viewpoints. His
simple forms are always represented with almost classical structural
stability, as in %@AI@%Bathers%@AE@% (1898-1905; Philadelphia Mus. Art), a monumental
embodiment of several of his visual systems. Cezanne's influence on the
course of modern art, particularly %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%, was enormous and profound, and
his theories spawned a whole new school of aesthetic criticism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cf%@AE@%,%@CR:CF              @%%@QR:Cf@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CALIFORNIUM%@BO:          173d7e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cgs system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cgs system%@AE@%:%@CR:CGS.SYSTEM      @%%@QR:cgs system@% see %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chad%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAD            @%%@QR:Chad@% Fr. %@AI@%Tchad,%@AE@% officially Republic of Chad, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
5,240,000), 495,752 sq mi (1,284,000 sq km), N central Africa, bordered
by the Central Africa Republic (S), Sudan (E), Libya (N), and Cameroon,
Niger, and Nigeria (W). %@AU@%NDJAMENA%@BO:          67d9cf@%%@AE@% is the capital. The terrain in the south
is wooded savanna, becoming brush country near Lake Chad, on the western
border. Northern Chad is a desert that merges with the S %@AU@%SAHARA%@BO:          82ec0a@%%@AE@% and
includes the mountainous Tibesti region. Chad's backward economy is based
largely on subsistence farming, livestock-raising, and fishing. The
single important cash crop is cotton, which also supports a textile
industry. Deposits of petroleum, tungsten, and uranium have not been
exploited. The population is made up of two distinct, often hostile,
groups: agricultural black Africans, mostly animists, with some
Christians, in the politically dominant south; and seminomadic or nomadic
Muslim tribesmen, who engage in herding, in the north. French is the
official language, but Arabic is a common language in much of the
country.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Long a focal point for trans-Saharan trade routes, the region was
penetrated in the 7th cent. by Arab traders. Shortly thereafter nomads
from N Africa established the state of Kanem, which reached its peak in
the 13th cent. The successor state of Bornu was joined by the rival Wadai
and Bagirmi empires, all of which fell to the Sudanese conqueror Rabih by
the early 1890s. French expeditions moved into the region in 1890 and by
1913 had defeated the Sudanese and conquered Chad, which became a colony
in %@AU@%FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA%@BO:          361070@%%@AE@%. It gained autonomy in 1958 and full
independence in 1960. Internal strife between the Muslim north and the
black south has dominated the new country's affairs, flaring into
guerrilla warfare (with the main Muslim group receiving active support
from %@AU@%LIBYA%@BO:          54c619@%%@AE@%, which occupied part of N Chad in 1973) and precipitating
numerous changes of government. The country's first president, Ngarta
Tombalbaye, was killed in a coup in 1975. In 1979 a coalition government,
headed by Goukouni Oueddei, a former rebel from the north, assumed power,
but fighting broke out again in 1980. In 1982 Jonkouni's government was
overthrown by the forces of former prime minister Hissene Habre, who
finally drove the Libyans from the country in 1987 and moved to include
all factions in his government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chadwick, Sir James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chadwick, Sir James%@AE@%,%@CR:CHADWICK        @%%@QR:Chadwick, Sir James@% 1891-1974, English physicist. He worked on%@EH@%
radioactivity under Ernest Rutherford and was assistant director
(1923-35) of radioactive research at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.
For his discovery of the %@AU@%NEUTRON%@BO:          688b68@%%@AE@% he received the 1935 Nobel Prize in
physics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chagall, Marc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chagall, Marc%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAGALL         @%%@QR:Chagall, Marc@% 1889-1985, Russian painter. He lived mainly in France. A%@EH@%
forerunner of %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, he drew subject matter from Jewish life and
folklore and rendered it with deceptive fairy-tale naivete, as in %@AI@%I and
%@AI@%the Village%@AE@% (1911; Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.) and %@AI@%The Rabbi of Vitebsk%@AE@% (Art
Inst., Chicago). He designed sets and costumes for %@AU@%STRAVINSKY'S%@BO:          8f9f0c@%%@AE@% ballet
%@AI@%The Firebird%@AE@% (1945); 12 stained-glass windows (1962) for Hadassah-Hebrew
Univ. Medical Center synagogue, Jerusalem; and two vast murals for New
York City's Metropolitan Opera House (1966). A museum of his work opened
(1973) in Nice.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chain, Ernst Boris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chain, Ernst Boris%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAIN           @%%@QR:Chain, Ernst Boris@% 1906-79, English biochemist; b. Germany. For their%@EH@%
work in isolating and purifying penicillin, he and Sir Howard %@AU@%FLOREY%@BO:          33ce07@%%@AE@%
shared with Sir Alexander %@AU@%FLEMING%@BO:          33acf1@%%@AE@% the 1945 Nobel Prize in physiology or
medicine. Chain held various teaching and research positions in Berlin,
Rome, and London and at Oxford and Cambridge.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chalcedon, Council of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chalcedon, Council of%@AE@%,%@CR:CHALCEDON       @%%@QR:Chalcedon, Council of@% 451, 4th ecumenical council. It stated that%@EH@%
Christ's divine nature and human nature are distinct, but inseparably
united-Christ is both true God and true man. This dictum refuted
%@AU@%EUTYCHES%@BO:          30cd78@%%@AE@%, and became the test of orthodoxy for the Roman Catholic Church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chalcedony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chalcedony%@AE@%,%@CR:CHALCEDONY      @%%@QR:chalcedony@% form of %@AU@%QUARTZ%@BO:          7b9548@%%@AE@% with microscopic crystals. Some varieties of%@EH@%
chalcedony are %@AU@%AGATE%@BO:           1ffe9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BLOODSTONE%@BO:          110a9c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JASPER%@BO:          4b7e5b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ONYX%@BO:          6de9de@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chalcopyrite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chalcopyrite%@AE@%%@CR:CHALCOPYRITE    @%%@QR:chalcopyrite@% or %@AB@%copper pyrites,%@AE@%copper and iron sulfide mineral (CuFeS%@AH@%2%@AE@%),%@EH@%
brass yellow and sometimes with an iridescent tarnish. It is found in
crystal form but is most often massive. Occurring worldwide in igneous
and metamorphic rocks, it is an important ore of %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chalk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chalk%@AE@%,%@CR:CHALK           @%%@QR:chalk@% a calcium carbonate mineral, similar in composition to limestone%@EH@%
but softer. Chalk has been deposited throughout geologic time. The chief
constituents are the shells of minute animals called foraminifera;
however, the dominant component of the best-known formations, the
Cretaceous chalks (e.g., the White Cliffs of Dover, England), are
coccolith algae. Chalk is used to make putty, plaster, cement, quicklime,
and blackboard chalk. Harder forms are used as building stones, and poor
soils with high clay content are sweetened with chalk.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Challenger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Challenger%@AE@%,%@CR:CHALLENGER      @%%@QR:Challenger@% U.S. space shuttle. It exploded (Jan. 28, 1986), 73 seconds%@EH@%
into its flight, killing all seven crew members, including a civilian
schoolteacher, Christa McAuliffe. The disaster was caused by a faulty
gasket design. As a result of the explosion, the U.S. did not send
astronauts into space for three years as NASA redesigned a number of
features of the space shuttle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Challoner, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Challoner, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:CHALLONER       @%%@QR:Challoner, Richard@% 1691-1781, English Roman Catholic bishop. A convert,%@EH@%
he worked hard to win toleration for Catholics in England. His revision
of the Douay version of the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@% became the standard one chiefly used by
English-speaking Catholics. He also wrote devotional works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMBERLAIN1    @%%@QR:Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville@% 1869-1940, British statesman. A former%@EH@%
Conservative chancellor of the exchequer (1923-24, 1931-37), he succeeded
Stanley %@AU@%BALDWIN%@BO:           b5d0d@%%@AE@% as prime minister in 1937. His belief that %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% was a
rational statesman resulted in the policy of "appeasement" of the %@AU@%AXIS%@BO:           a6909@%%@AE@%
powers that culminated in the %@AU@%MUNICH PACT%@BO:          652305@%%@AE@% (1938). He remained in office
following the outbreak of %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, but he resigned (1940) after the
British debacle in Norway.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chamberlain, Wilt(on Norman)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chamberlain, Wilt(on Norman)%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMBERLAIN2    @%%@QR:Chamberlain, Wilt(on Norman)@% 1936-, American basketball player; b.%@EH@%
Philadelphia. Twice an All-American at the Univ. of Kansas, he starred
(1959-73) in the National Basketball Association (NBA) with Philadelphia
(Warriors and 76ers), San Francisco, and Los Angeles. With his height
(over 7 ft 1 in./216 cm) and agility, he was the top NBA scorer in 7
consecutive seasons and the leading rebounder in 11. He set records for
most points (31,419) and highest average (30.1).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMBERLIN      @%%@QR:Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder@% 1843-1928, American geologist; b. Mattoon,%@EH@%
Ill. He taught at the Univ. of Chicago (1892-1919) and was chief
geologist of the geological survey of Wisconsin (1873-82). With the
American astronomer F.R. Moulton he formulated the planetesimal
hypothesis of the origin of the %@AU@%SOLAR SYSTEM%@BO:          8b1fa4@%%@AE@%. His works include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Origin of the Earth%@AE@% (1916) and %@AI@%Two Solar Families%@AE@% (1928).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chamber music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chamber music%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMBER.MUSIC   @%%@QR:chamber music@% ensemble music for small groups of instruments, with only%@EH@%
one player to each part. Originally played by amateurs in courts, it
began to be performed by professionals in the 19th cent. with the rise of
the concert hall. The main %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@% type was the trio %@AU@%SONATA%@BO:          8b73bf@%%@AE@%. The string
quartet arose c.1750 and, as developed by %@AU@%HAYDN%@BO:          40ade8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@%, became the
principal form of chamber music, used by classicists (%@AU@%BEETHOVEN%@BO:           db753@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%SCHUBERT%@BO:          85b3ce@%%@AE@%), romantics (%@AU@%MENDELSSOHN%@BO:          5ea4fa@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCHUMANN%@BO:          85c058@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DVOrAK%@BO:          2b7b0f@%%@AE@%), and early
20th-cent. composers (%@AU@%DEBUSSY%@BO:          2720ca@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RAVEL%@BO:          7ce8e6@%%@AE@%). Modern composers, such as
%@AU@%SCHOENBERG%@BO:          85937e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BARTOK%@BO:           ca44f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WEBERN%@BO:          a00ff3@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%STRAVINSKY%@BO:          8f9f0c@%%@AE@%, have also experimented with
chamber music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chambers, Sir William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chambers, Sir William%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMBERS        @%%@QR:Chambers, Sir William@% 1723-96, English architect. He designed decorative%@EH@%
architecture for Kew Gardens. The foremost official architect of his day,
he continued the neo-Palladian tradition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chameleon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chameleon%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMELEON       @%%@QR:chameleon@% small- to medium-sized %@AU@%LIZARD%@BO:          55e360@%%@AE@% of the family Chamaeleonidae,%@EH@%
found in sub-Saharan Africa, with a few species in S Asia. Chameleons
have laterally flattened bodies ornamented with crests, horns, or spines
and bulging, independently rotating eyes. Their skin changes color in
response to stimuli such as light, temperature, and emotion, not in
response to background color. The so-called common chameleon (%@AI@%Chamaeleo
%@AI@%chamaeleon%@AE@%) is found around the Mediterranean. The American chameleon,
not a true chameleon, belongs to the %@AU@%IGUANA%@BO:          469f2e@%%@AE@% family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chamisso, Adelbert von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chamisso, Adelbert von%@AE@%%@CR:CHAMISSO        @%%@QR:Chamisso, Adelbert von@%, 1781-1838, German poet and naturalist; b. France%@EH@%
as Louis Charles Adelaide de Chamisso. His poetic cycle %@AI@%Frauenliebe und
%@AI@%Leben%@AE@% (1830) was set to music by %@AU@%SCHUMANN%@BO:          85c058@%%@AE@%. His tale of Peter Schlemihl,
the man who sold his shadow to the devil (1814), has become legend.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chamois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chamois%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMOIS         @%%@QR:chamois@% hollow-horned, hoofed %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Rupicapra rupicapra%@AE@%) found in the%@EH@%
mountains of Europe and the E Mediterranean. About the size of a large
%@AU@%GOAT%@BO:          3ad286@%%@AE@%, it is brown with a black tail and back stripes; its horns are erect
with terminal hooks. The skin was the original chamois leather, a name
now also given to the skins of other animals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chamomile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chamomile%@AE@%%@CR:CHAMOMILE       @%%@QR:chamomile@% or %@AB@%camomile, %@AE@%name for some herbs of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
especially the perennial English, or Roman, chamomile (%@AI@%Anthemis nobilis%@AE@%)
and the annual German, or wild, chamomile (%@AI@%Matricaria chamomilla%@AE@%). The
former is the chamomile most used for ornament and for a tea, made from
the dried flower heads containing a volatile oil. The oil from wild
chamomile flowers is chiefly used as a hair rinse.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Champa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Champa%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMPA          @%%@QR:Champa@% kingdom of the Chams in Vietnam, fl. 2d cent. AD- 17th cent. The%@EH@%
Chams warred successively with China, the %@AU@%KHMER EMPIRE%@BO:          4f5960@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ANNAM%@BO:           5b6f3@%%@AE@%. The
Cham kingdom finally fell to the Annamese, and its people were scattered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Champagne, Philippe de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Champagne, Philippe de%@AE@%:%@CR:CHAMPAGNE1      @%%@QR:Champagne, Philippe de@% see %@AU@%CHAMPAIGNE%@BO:          1b682f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Champagne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Champagne%@AE@%%@CR:CHAMPAGNE2      @%%@QR:Champagne@%, region, NE France. Champagne is a generally arid, chalky%@EH@%
plateau cut by the Aisne, Marne, Seine, Aube, and Yonne rivers.
Agriculture and sheep-grazing are the traditional activities. A small
fertile area around Rheims and Epernay produces virtually all of France's
celebrated champagne wine. Champagne enjoyed an early commercial
prosperity, and in the Middle Ages its great fairs, particularly those at
Troyes and Provins, attracted merchants from all over W Europe. Cultural
life also flourished, culminating in the work of %@AU@%CHRETIEN DE TROYES%@BO:          1de12e@%%@AE@% and
in the Gothic cathedral at %@AU@%RHEIMS%@BO:          7eb477@%%@AE@%. The county of Champagne passed to the
counts of Blois in the 11th cent., and was incorporated into the French
royal domain in 1314. %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% devastated much of the region, but
recently efforts have been made to reforest the area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%champagne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%champagne%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMPAGNE3      @%%@QR:champagne@% sparkling white wine, traditionally made from a mixture of%@EH@%
grapes grown in the old French province of Champagne; the best is from
the Marne valley. It was reputedly developed in the 17th cent. by a monk,
Dom Perignon. The fermented and blended wine is bottled, then sweetened
and allowed to ferment further. The carbonic acid left in the bottle
after the final fermentation gives champagne its sparkle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Champaigne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Champaigne%@AE@%%@CR:CHAMPAIGNE      @%%@QR:Champaigne@%or %@AB@%Champagne, Philippe de%@AE@%, 1602-74, French painter; b. Belgium.%@EH@%
His best-known works, including the %@AU@%FRESCOES%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% at Vincennes and the
Tuileries, show the influence of %@AU@%RUBENS%@BO:          81af8d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%VAN DYCK%@BO:          9bc84f@%%@AE@%. His portraits, such
as those of Richelieu and of his own daughter, a nun at Port-Royal (both:
Louvre), have an air of static majesty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Champlain, Samuel de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Champlain, Samuel de%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMPLAIN1      @%%@QR:Champlain, Samuel de@% 1567-1635, French explorer, chief founder of New%@EH@%
France. In 1605 he founded Port Royal, in %@AU@%NOVA SCOTIA%@BO:          6be561@%%@AE@%, and in 1608
brought his colonists to %@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7ba00e@%%@AE@%. He explored as far W as Lakes Huron and
Ontario, and S to Lake %@AU@%CHAMPLAIN%@BO:          1b6cd4@%%@AE@%, in New York, which bears his name. He
extended French claims as far W as %@AU@%WISCONSIN%@BO:          a27085@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Champlain, Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Champlain, Lake%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMPLAIN2      @%%@QR:Champlain, Lake@% mainly in NE U.S., fourth-largest freshwater lake in the%@EH@%
country (490 sq mi/1,269 sq km), extending S 125 mi (201 km) from S
Quebec to form part of the New York-Vermont border. Its maximum width is
14 mi (23 km). Discovered (1609) by Samuel de %@AU@%CHAMPLAIN%@BO:          1b6a73@%%@AE@%, it was the scene
of battles in the %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% (Crown
Point; %@AU@%TICONDEROGA%@BO:          95b53f@%%@AE@%), and the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Champollion, Jean Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Champollion, Jean Francois%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAMPOLLION     @%%@QR:Champollion, Jean Francois@% 1790-1832, French Egyptologist. The founder%@EH@%
of Egyptology, he discovered the key to Egyptian %@AU@%HIEROGLYPHICS%@BO:          42bd93@%%@AE@% while
deciphering (1821) the %@AU@%ROSETTA%@BO:          813cdb@%%@AE@% stone. Sometimes called Champollion le
jeune, he was trained in archaeology by his elder brother, %@AB@%Jean Jacques
%@AB@%Champollion-Figeac, %@AE@%1778-1867.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chancellorsville, battle of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chancellorsville, battle of%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANCELE        @%%@QR:Chancellorsville, battle of@% May 2-4, 1863, in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. Gen.%@EH@%
Robert E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% and his Army of Northern Virginia attacked Joseph %@AU@%HOOKER'S%@BO:          44386a@%%@AE@%
Union Army of the Potomac, which was entrenched near Chancellorsville,
Va. Lee was brilliantly supported by Stonewall %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4ab6a8@%%@AE@%, who in a flank
attack against the Union right surprised and routed Hooker's army.
Jackson was mortally wounded by his own men. On May 3-4, Confederate
generals Jubal %@AU@%EARLY%@BO:          2bb52b@%%@AE@% and J.E.B. %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8ff3a2@%%@AE@% drove the Union army across the
Rappahannock R. Chancellorsville was Lee's last great victory; it led to
his invasion of the North in the %@AU@%GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN%@BO:          39cc27@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chan Chan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chan Chan%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAN.CHAN       @%%@QR:Chan Chan@% ruins of a pre-Inca Indian city near Trujillo, N Peru. It is%@EH@%
believed to have been built after AD 800 and to have been the capital of
the %@AU@%CHIMU%@BO:          1d0d16@%%@AE@% civilization. Covering c.11 sq mi (28 sq km), it included at
least nine self-contained, walled compounds and may once have had a
population of 200,000.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chandler, Raymond T(hornton)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chandler, Raymond T(hornton)%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANDLER        @%%@QR:Chandler, Raymond T(hornton)@% 1888-1959, American writer; b. Chicago. His%@EH@%
well-plotted, brutally realistic detective novels, all featuring the
tough yet honorable Philip Marlowe, include %@AI@%The Big Sleep%@AE@% (1939) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Long Goodbye%@AE@% (1953).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chandragupta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chandragupta%@AE@%%@CR:CHANDRAGUPTA    @%%@QR:Chandragupta@%(Chandragupta Maurya) , fl. c.321-c.298 BC, Indian emperor,%@EH@%
founder of the %@AU@%MAURYA%@BO:          5d82ea@%%@AE@% dynasty and grandfather of %@AU@%ASOKA%@BO:           8b9e3@%%@AE@%. He conquered the
Magadha kingdom in N India, defeated (305 BC) the invading army of
Seleucus I, and may have expelled the last of %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% army
from India.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANDRASEKHAR   @%%@QR:Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan@%  1910-, American astrophysicist; b. Lahore,%@EH@%
India (now Pakistan). He is a major figure in the research on energy
transfer by radiation in stellar atmospheres. In 1983, he and William A.
Fowler won the Nobel Prize in physics for work on %@AU@%WHITE DWARF%@BO:          a13e74@%%@AE@% stars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chanel, Gabrielle (Coco)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chanel, Gabrielle (Coco)%@AE@%:%@CR:CHANEL          @%%@QR:Chanel, Gabrielle (Coco)@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Changchun%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Changchun%@AE@%%@CR:CHANGCHUN       @%%@QR:Changchun@%, city (1986 est. pop. 1,860,000), capital of Jilin prov.,%@EH@%
China, on the railroad between %@AU@%HARBIN%@BO:          3fe129@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LUDA%@BO:          57b9ef@%%@AE@%. The former capital of the
Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (1932-45), Changchun is a major
industrial city and the center of China's automotive industry. It also
produces machinery, motors, and textiles. The city is a major educational
and cultural center of NE China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%change ringing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%change ringing%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANGE.RINGING  @%%@QR:change ringing@% a form of %@AU@%BELL%@BO:           e1879@%%@AE@%-ringing that developed during the 17th%@EH@%
cent. in England simultaneously with the development of carillon playing
in the Low Countries. A group of ringers, each ringer controlling the
rope pull of one bell, use a peal (set) of 5 to 12 bells tuned to the
diatonic scale; the bells are rung full circle in various predetermined
orders, but without repeating any order. The result is a sound that is
not melodious, but complex and compelling.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Changkiakow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Changkiakow%@AE@%:%@CR:CHANGKIAKOW     @%%@QR:Changkiakow@% see %@AU@%ZHANGJIAKOU%@BO:          a5216e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Changsha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Changsha%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANGSHA        @%%@QR:Changsha@% city (1986 est. pop. 1,160,000), capital of Hunan prov., S%@EH@%
China, on the Xiang R. Changsha is an agricultural distribution and
market center. Founded in the 3d cent. BC, it has long been noted as a
literary and educational center. It was the capital (10th cent.) of the
Chu kingdom and became a %@AU@%TREATY PORT%@BO:          979547@%%@AE@% in the early 1900s. %@AU@%MAO TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@%
spent his early years in and around the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%channeling%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%channeling%@AE@%:%@CR:CHANNELING      @%%@QR:channeling@% see %@AU@%QUARRYING%@BO:          7b92bf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Channel Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Channel Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANNEL.ISLANDS @%%@QR:Channel Islands@% archipelago (1986 est. pop. 144,494), 75 sq mi (194 sq%@EH@%
km), 10 mi (16 km) off the coast of France in the English Channel. The
principal islands are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark. Agriculture
and tourism are the mainstays of the economy. The islands became
possessions of the duke of Normandy in the 10th cent. and were joined to
the English crown at the %@AU@%NORMAN CONQUEST%@BO:          6b2271@%%@AE@%. They were occupied by the
Germans during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Channel Islands National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Channel Islands National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:CHANNELL.PARK   @%%@QR:Channel Islands National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Channing, William Ellery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Channing, William Ellery%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANNING        @%%@QR:Channing, William Ellery@% 1780-1842, American minister and author; b.%@EH@%
Newport, R.I. A great preacher, called "the apostle of Unitarianism," he
advocated tolerance in religion. His writings on slavery, war, labor
problems, and education were extremely progressive and influenced many
American authors, including %@AU@%EMERSON%@BO:          2e7cc0@%%@AE@% and other exponents of
%@AU@%TRANSCENDENTALISM%@BO:          973e73@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HOLMES%@BO:          43a17b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BRYANT%@BO:          14d2fb@%%@AE@%. His works (6 vol., 1841-43) passed
through many editions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chansons de geste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chansons de geste%@AE@%%@CR:CHANSONTE       @%%@QR:chansons de geste@% [Fr.,=songs of deeds], a group of epic poems of%@EH@%
medieval France written from the 11th through the 13th cent. The oldest
extant chanson, and also the best and most famous, is the %@AI@%Chanson de
%@AI@%Roland%@AE@% song of Roland, composed c.1098-1100.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chant%@AE@%,%@CR:CHANT           @%%@QR:chant@% general name for one-voiced, unaccompanied liturgical music,%@EH@%
usually referring to melodies of the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
Anglican branches of Christianity. The texts of Anglican chant are from
the %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@%, and its melodies, unlike the Roman Catholic
%@AU@%PLAINSONG%@BO:          766c01@%%@AE@%, are harmonized.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chantey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chantey%@AE@%%@CR:CHANTEY         @%%@QR:chantey@% or %@AB@%shanty,%@AE@%work song with marked rhythm, particularly one sung by%@EH@%
sailors at work, but also by shore gangs or lumbermen. It often has solo
stanzas sung by a leader, alternating with a chorus by the entire group.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chanukah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chanukah%@AE@%:%@CR:CHANUKAH        @%%@QR:Chanukah@% see Hanukkah under %@AU@%JEWISH HOLIDAYS%@BO:          4c1c13@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chao Phraya%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chao Phraya%@AE@%%@CR:CHAO.PHRAYA     @%%@QR:Chao Phraya@%, %@AB@%Mae Nam Chao Phraya%@AE@%, or %@AB@%Menam Chao Phraya,%@AE@% chief river of%@EH@%
Thailand, formed by the confluence of the Nan and Ping rivers at Nakhon
Sawan. It flows generally south c.140 mi (230 km) past the capital city
of Bangkok to a large delta on the Gulf of Thailand. Its valley is the
country's main rice-producing region.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chaos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chaos%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAOS1          @%%@QR:Chaos@% in Greek mythology, the vacant, unfathomable space from which%@EH@%
everything arose. In the %@AU@%OLYMPIAN%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@% myth %@AU@%GAEA%@BO:          373730@%%@AE@% sprang from Chaos and became
the mother of all things.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chaos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chaos%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAOS2          @%%@QR:chaos@% in science, a field of study devoted to processes whose outcomes%@EH@%
change dramatically and unpredictably from slight changes in initial
conditions. The result of spinning a coin, the shape a cloud will take,
or the path a river will follow are all chaotic processes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chaparral%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chaparral%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAPARRAL       @%%@QR:chaparral@% type of plant community in which shrubs are dominant,%@EH@%
occurring usually in areas drier than forests and wetter than deserts.
The species of shrub vary in different areas. The chaparral in Colorado,
E Utah, and N New Mexico is mostly deciduous, while that of S California,
Nevada, and Arizona is primarily evergreen. Chaparral is well exemplified
in the W and SW U.S., but similar growth is found in many other parts of
the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chapel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chapel%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAPEL          @%%@QR:chapel@% subsidiary place of worship, either an alcove or chamber in a%@EH@%
church, or a room set apart in a secular building. Chapels in churches
became necessary after the early Middle Ages with the increase of relics
and devotions at altars sacred to various saints. At first they were
minor apses flanking the main %@AU@%APSE%@BO:           6d781@%%@AE@%. After the 10th cent. a complex series
of radiating chapels developed behind the high altar. In the 13th cent.
chapels were added to side aisle bays. Peculiar to English cathedrals are
small chantry chapels, built either by individuals for private masses or
to enclose the tombs of bishops and other churchmen. Medieval lords
established private chapels, over which episcopal jurisdiction was
enforced as completely as possible. The two main chapels at the %@AU@%VATICAN%@BO:          9c0ccf@%%@AE@%
are the Pauline Chapel (1540) and the Sistine Chapel (1473).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chaplin, Charlie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chaplin, Charlie%@AE@%%@CR:CHAPLIN         @%%@QR:Chaplin, Charlie@% (Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin), 1889-1977, English film%@EH@%
actor and director. A comic genius, he became famous as the wistful
Little Tramp. His films include %@AI@%The Kid%@AE@% (1920), %@AI@%The Gold Rush%@AE@% (1924),
%@AI@%City Lights%@AE@% (1931), %@AI@%The Great Dictator%@AE@% (1940), and %@AI@%Limelight%@AE@% (1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chapman, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chapman, George%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAPMAN1        @%%@QR:Chapman, George@% 1559?-1634, English dramatist, translator, and poet. A%@EH@%
classical scholar, he translated %@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Iliad%@AE@% (1612) and %@AI@%Odyssey%@AE@%
(1614-15). His works include the tragedy %@AI@%Bussy d'Ambois%@AE@% (1607) and the
comedy %@AI@%Eastward Ho!%@AE@% (1605).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chapman, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chapman, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAPMAN2        @%%@QR:Chapman, John@% 1774-1845, American pioneer popularly known as Johnny%@EH@%
Appleseed; b. Massachusetts. Raggedly dressed, he wandered for 40 years
through Ohio, Indiana, and W Pennsylvania, sowing apple seeds. Chapman
inspired many legends.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chapultepec%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chapultepec%@AE@%%@CR:CHAPULTEPEC     @%%@QR:Chapultepec@%, fortified hill, S of Mexico City. A traditional home of%@EH@%
Spanish viceroys and Mexican rulers, it was the site of a brave defense
to the death by Mexican cadets (the "boy heroes") when it was stormed and
taken (1847) by U.S. forces during the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%. The castle is
maintained as a historical museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%char%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%char%@AE@%:%@CR:CHAR            @%%@QR:char@% see %@AU@%SALMON%@BO:          839d10@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charcas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charcas%@AE@%%@CR:CHARCAS         @%%@QR:Charcas@%, Spanish colonial territory, also known as Upper Peru, roughly%@EH@%
corresponding to present-day %@AU@%BOLIVIA%@BO:          119aec@%%@AE@% but including parts of Argentina,
Chile, Peru, and Paraguay. Established in 1559, the territory was often
disputed and fought over by neighboring colonies or states.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%charcoal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%charcoal%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARCOAL        @%%@QR:charcoal@% nonvolatile residue obtained when organic matter, usually wood,%@EH@%
is heated in the absence of air. Largely pure %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@%, charcoal yields
more heat per volume than wood. Charcoal obtained from bones is called
bone black or animal charcoal. Finely divided charcoal, with its porous
structure, efficiently filters the adsorption of gases and of solids from
solution. Charcoal is used in sugar refining and in water and air
purification.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charcot, Jean Martin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charcot, Jean Martin%@AE@%%@CR:CHARCOT         @%%@QR:Charcot, Jean Martin@%, 1825-93, French neurologist. He developed at the%@EH@%
Salpetriere, Paris, the greatest clinic of his time for diseases of the
nervous system. His insight into the nature of hysteria was credited by
Sigmund Freud, his pupil, as having contributed to early psychoanalytic
formulations on the subject.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon%@AE@%%@CR:CHARDIN         @%%@QR:Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon@%, 1699-1779, French painter. He favored%@EH@%
simple still lifes and unsentimental domestic interiors. His muted tones
and ability to evoke textures are seen in %@AI@%Benediction%@AE@% and %@AI@%Return from
%@AI@%Market%@AE@% (both: Louvre) and %@AI@%Blowing Bubbles%@AE@% and %@AI@%Mme Chardin%@AE@% (both:
Metropolitan Mus.). His unusual abstract compositions had great
influence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%charge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%charge%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARGE          @%%@QR:charge@% in %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%, property of matter that gives rise to all%@EH@%
electrical phenomena. The basic unit of charge, usually denoted by %@AI@%e,%@AE@% is
that on the %@AU@%PROTON%@BO:          7a3d8e@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%ELECTRON%@BO:          2d8f0a@%%@AE@%; that on the proton is designated as
positive (+%@AI@%e%@AE@%) and that on the electron is designated as negative (-%@AI@%e%@AE@%).
All other charged %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLES%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@% have charges equal to +%@AI@%e, -%@AE@%%@AI@%e,%@AE@% or
some whole number times one of these, with the possible exception of the
%@AU@%QUARK%@BO:          7b8f3c@%%@AE@%, a hypothetical particle whose charge could be 1/3%@AI@%e%@AE@% or 2/3%@AI@%e.%@AE@% Every
charged particle is surrounded by an electric %@AU@%FIELD%@BO:          3304db@%%@AE@% of force such that it
attracts any charge of opposite sign brought near it and repels any
charge of like sign. The magnitude of this force is described by
%@AU@%COULOMB'S LAW%@BO:          23e3e0@%%@AE@%. This force is much stronger than the gravitational force
between two particles and is responsible for holding protons and
electrons together in %@AU@%ATOMS%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@% and in chemical bonding. Any physical system
containing equal numbers of positive and negative charges is neutral.
Charge is a conserved quantity; the net electric charge in a closed
physical system is constant. Although charge is conserved, it can be
transferred from one body to another. Electric current is the flow of
charge through a conductor (see %@AU@%CONDUCTION%@BO:          21d297@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%charismatics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%charismatics%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARISMATICS    @%%@QR:charismatics@% neo-Pentecostal Christians whose worship emphasizes the%@EH@%
gifts of the Spirit (charismata) listed by St. Paul in Corinthians,
especially healing and speaking in tongues (glossolalia). Contemporary
charismatics are distinguished from other Pentecostals by their origins
in non-Pentecostal (especially mainline Protestant and Roman Catholic)
churches during the "charismatic renewal" movements of the 1960s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charlemagne (Charles the Great)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charlemagne (Charles the Great)%@AE@%%@CR:CHARLEM.GREAT   @%%@QR:Charlemagne (Charles the Great)@%or %@AB@%Charles I%@AE@%, 742?-814, emperor of the%@EH@%
West (800-814), Carolingian king of the Franks (768-814). The son of
%@AU@%PEPIN THE SHORT%@BO:          73135a@%%@AE@%, he consolidated his rule in his own kingdom, invaded
Italy in support of the pope, and in 774 was crowned king of the
Lombards. He took NE Spain from the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% (778) and annexed Bavaria
(788). After a long struggle (772-804) he subjugated and Christianized
the Saxons. In 800 he restored %@AU@%LEO III%@BO:          53e9f2@%%@AE@% to the papacy and was crowned
emperor by him on Christmas Day, thus laying the basis for the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN
%@AU@%EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@% and finalizing the split between the Byzantine and Roman empires.
Charlemagne ruled through a highly efficient administrative system. He
codified the law in his various dominions, and his court at %@AU@%AACHEN%@BO:              86@%%@AE@% was
the center for an intellectual and artistic renaissance. The end of his
reign was troubled by raids by the %@AU@%NORSEMEN%@BO:          6b3667@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AU@%LOUIS I%@BO:          56ed3b@%%@AE@%, was named
co-emperor in 813 and succeeded on his father's death. Charlemagne's
legend soon enhanced and distorted his actual achievements, and he became
the central figure of a medieval romance cycle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES         @%%@QR:Charles@% emperors (see %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%). %@AB@%Charles II %@AE@%or %@AB@%Charles the%@EH@%
%@AB@%Bald, %@AE@%823-77, emperor of the West (875-77) and king of the West Franks
(843-77), was the son of Emperor %@AU@%LOUIS I%@BO:          56ed3b@%%@AE@% by a second marriage. Louis's
attempts to create a kingdom for Charles were responsible for the almost
constant warfare with Charles's elder brothers, %@AU@%LOTHAIR I%@BO:          56d64c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LOUIS THE
%@AU@%GERMAN%@BO:          5760aa@%%@AE@%. In 843 Charles received what is roughly modern France, and in 870
he divided %@AU@%LOTHARINGIA%@BO:          56daf7@%%@AE@% with Louis. Charles became emperor upon the death
of his nephew %@AU@%LOUIS II%@BO:          56ed3b@%%@AE@%. His brief reign saw the rise of the power of the
nobles and serious threats by the %@AU@%NORSEMEN%@BO:          6b3667@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Charles III %@AE@%or %@AB@%Charles the
%@AB@%Fat, %@AE@%839-88, emperor of the West (881-87), king of the East Franks, or
Germany (882-87), and king of the West Franks, or France (884-87), was
the son of Louis the German. He inherited Swabia (876) and was crowned
king of Italy (881). When he became king of France, he briefly reunited
the empire of Charlemagne. A weak ruler, he was deposed in 887 after he
failed to stop the inroads of the Norsemen. %@AB@%Charles IV, %@AE@%1316-78, Holy
Roman emperor (1355-78), succeeded his father, John of Luxembourg, as
king of %@AU@%BOHEMIA%@BO:          117097@%%@AE@% (1346) and was elected antiking to Emperor Louis IV,
after whose death he made his claim. As emperor he promulgated the Golden
Bull, which strengthened the German %@AU@%ELECTORS%@BO:          2d507b@%%@AE@% at the expense of the
emperor. He founded Charles Univ. at %@AU@%PRAGUE%@BO:          78ff37@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Charles V, %@AE@%1500-58, Holy
Roman emperor (1519-58) and, as Charles I, king of Spain (1516-56), was
the son of %@AU@%PHILIP I%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JOANNA%@BO:          4c4cae@%%@AE@% of Castile, and grandson of Emperor
%@AU@%MAXIMILIAN I%@BO:          5d9116@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARY OF BURGUNDY%@BO:          5c89e7@%%@AE@%. Charles was the greatest of all
%@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% emperors. He inherited a vast empire: the Spanish kingdoms,
Spanish America, Naples, Sicily, the Low Countries, and the hereditary
Austrian lands. The chief problems he faced were the Protestant
%@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@% in Germany; the dynastic conflict with %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353d30@%%@AE@% of France,
particularly for supremacy in Italy; and the Ottoman Turks, then at the
height of their power. He also had difficulties with his Spanish
subjects, who at first regarded him as a foreigner. Initially successful
against the Protestant princes in Germany, he eventually was forced to
compromise with them and to accept (1555) the Peace of Augsburg. He was
more successful in promoting the Catholic %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d87de@%%@AE@%. The imperialist
struggle with France was a Pyrrhic victory for Spain. His efforts to halt
the advance of the Ottomans under %@AU@%SULAYMAN I%@BO:          90638f@%%@AE@% resulted in at best a
standoff. As king of Spain, he was triumphant. The conquest of Mexico and
Peru represented the high point of the Spanish empire. In 1556 Charles
abdicated all his titles and retired to a monastery. His son %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@%
received Spain, America, Naples, and the Netherlands; and his brother
became emperor as %@AU@%FERDINAND I%@BO:          3276fe@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Charles VI, %@AE@%1685-1740, Holy Roman emperor
(1711-40) and, as Charles III, king of Hungary (1712-40), was, before his
accession, involved in both the War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@% and the War
of Polish Succession (1333-35). The %@AU@%PRAGMATIC SANCTION%@BO:          78f6f5@%%@AE@%, whereby he
settled his Hapsburg lands on his daughter %@AU@%MARIA THERESA%@BO:          5bae64@%%@AE@%, was challenged
after his death. %@AB@%Charles VII, %@AE@%1699-1745, Holy Roman emperor (1742-45)
and, as Charles Albert, elector of %@AU@%BAVARIA%@BO:           d2ac8@%%@AE@% (1726-45), refused to
recognize the Pragmatic Sanction, and joined the coalition against Maria
Theresa in the War of the %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%. He was elected emperor,
but lost his own Bavaria to Austrian occupation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles I%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES.I       @%%@QR:Charles I@% 1887-1922, last emperor of Austria and, as Charles IV, king of%@EH@%
Hungary (1916-18). After his accession during %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, he put out
peace feelers, causing friction between Germany and Austria. After
Austria's defeat he was unable to save the %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%, and
he abdicated (Nov. 1918). In 1921 he tried twice to regain the Hungarian
throne, without success.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES1        @%%@QR:Charles@% kings of England, Scotland, and Ireland, of the %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8fe31b@%%@AE@% house.%@EH@%
%@AB@%Charles I, %@AE@%1600-49 (r.1625-49), was the son and successor of %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%.
Upon his accession, he offended his Protestant subjects by marrying
%@AU@%HENRIETTA MARIA%@BO:          41a236@%%@AE@%, a Catholic French princess. Also, the foreign ventures
of his favorite, the duke of %@AU@%BUCKINGHAM%@BO:          14fabf@%%@AE@%, were unsuccessful and expensive.
His reign soon became the bitter struggle between king and Parliament for
supremacy that resulted in the %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@%. Charles supported the
Anglican bishops under %@AU@%LAUD%@BO:          52ba90@%%@AE@%. Parliament, largely Puritan, controlled
money grants and developed the tactic of withholding money until its
grievances were redressed. Charles dismissed Parliament in 1625 and 1626,
but called it again in 1628 and signed the %@AU@%PETITION OF RIGHT%@BO:          742d26@%%@AE@% in return
for a subsidy. After 1629 he ruled without Parliament. Civil and
religious liberties reached a low point, and large emigrations to America
took place. A crisis was reached when Charles's attempt to force
episcopacy upon Scotland resulted in the %@AU@%BISHOPS' WARS%@BO:          102f42@%%@AE@%. Eventually the
Long Parliament (1640) was called. Led by John Hampton, %@AU@%PYM%@BO:          7b4812@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%VANE%@BO:          9bced6@%%@AE@%, it
secured itself against dissolution and effected the death of the earl of
%@AU@%STRAFFORD%@BO:          8f759f@%%@AE@%, the abolition of %@AU@%STAR CHAMBER%@BO:          8e44fd@%%@AE@% courts, and the end of arbitrary
taxation. Fear of the king and of Catholics mounted, and civil war broke
out. Defeated at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby (1645), Charles
surrendered to the Scottish army (1646) and finally fell into the hands
of the English. He was tried by a high court controlled by his enemies,
convicted of treason, and beheaded. Often stupid and obstinate, Charles
brought about his own downfall as much by his weakness of character as by
his religious and political beliefs. His son, %@AB@%Charles II, %@AE@%1630-85
(r.1660-85), fled to France in 1646. On his father's death, he was
proclaimed king of Scotland and, after accepting the terms of the
%@AU@%COVENANTERS%@BO:          241445@%%@AE@%, was crowned therein 1651. He then marched into England but
was defeated by Oliver %@AU@%CROMWELL%@BO:          24d49f@%%@AE@% and escaped to France. In 1660 he issued
the conciliatory Declaration of Breda. Later that year, Gen. %@AU@%MONCK%@BO:          628e6c@%%@AE@%
engineered Charles's %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% to the throne. He made the earl of
%@AU@%CLARENDON%@BO:          1ee24a@%%@AE@% his chief minister. Episcopacy was restored and nonconformity
weakened by the %@AU@%CLARENDON CODE%@BO:          1ee819@%%@AE@%, although the king favored toleration. The
great London plague (1665) and fire (1666) took place during the second
%@AU@%DUTCH WAR%@BO:          2b6fc9@%%@AE@% (1664-67). In 1667 the %@AU@%CABAL%@BO:          167ae1@%%@AE@% ministry replaced Clarendon. As a
result of a secret treaty with %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France, Charles entered the
third Dutch War in 1672. It was unpopular, and he was forced to approve
the %@AU@%TEST ACT%@BO:          943f45@%%@AE@% (1673) and make peace (1674). His French alliance was broken
by the marriage of his niece Mary to William of Orange. He intervened in
the Titus %@AU@%OATES%@BO:          6c7e85@%%@AE@% affair to protect the queen, %@AU@%CATHERINE OF BRAGANZA%@BO:          1a3def@%%@AE@%. In
1681 he dissolved Parliament to block passage of the Exclusion act that
prevented his brother, the duke of York (later %@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%), from succeeding
him, and ruled absolutely thereafter. Although he fathered illegitimate
children by several mistresses (e.g., Nell %@AU@%GWYN%@BO:          3ec056@%%@AE@%), he had no legitimate
children and was succeeded by James II. His reign, the brilliant
Restoration period, was marked by an increase in the power of Parliament,
the rise of political parties, and advances in colonization and trade.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES2        @%%@QR:Charles@% kings of France. %@AB@%Charles I: %@AE@%see %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Charles II %@AE@%and%@EH@%
%@AB@%Charles III %@AE@%(the Fat): see %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CHARLES III%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, emperors of the
West. %@AB@%Charles III %@AE@%(the Simple), 879-929 (r.893-923), was the son of %@AU@%LOUIS
%@AU@%II%@BO:          56ed3b@%%@AE@% and joint king with Eudes, count of Paris, until 898. He ceded (911)
part of Normandy to the Norse leader Rollo and was defeated and
imprisoned (923) by nobles who made Raoul of Burgundy king. %@AB@%Charles IV
%@AB@%%@AE@%(the Fair), 1294-1328 (r.1322-28), succeeded his brother %@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% and was
the last king of the %@AU@%CAPETIAN%@BO:          18783e@%%@AE@% dynasty. %@AB@%Charles V %@AE@%(the Wise), 1338-80
(r.1364-80), the son of %@AU@%JOHN II%@BO:          4c7d80@%%@AE@%, was regent during John's captivity
(1356-60, 1364) in England. As regent Charles dealt with the %@AU@%JACQUERIE%@BO:          4ad903@%%@AE@%
and the reformist movement of Etienne Marcel. During his reign his
general Bertrand %@AU@%DU GUESCLIN%@BO:          2b13f9@%%@AE@% nearly drove the English out of France. With
his ministers, Charles strengthened royal power, founded a standing army,
reformed taxation, and patronized the arts. His son %@AB@%Charles VI %@AE@%(the Mad
or the Well Beloved), 1368-1422 (r. 1380-1422), was intermittently insane
after 1392. France was ruled and plundered by his uncle %@AU@%PHILIP THE BOLD%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@%
and by his brother Louis d'Orleans. Their rivalry led to a civil war that
laid France open to an invasion (1415) by %@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England. By the
Treaty of Troyes (1420) Charles named Henry his successor. His
disinherited son %@AB@%Charles VII %@AE@%(the Victorious or the Well Served), 1403-61
(r. 1422-61), repudiated the treaty. Still called the %@AU@%DAUPHIN%@BO:          26b3dc@%%@AE@%, he ruled
indolently over what parts of France remained to him S of the Loire, but
in 1429 %@AU@%JOAN OF ARC%@BO:          4c4f3a@%%@AE@% spurred him to action and had him crowned king at
Rheims. In 1435 he won the alliance of Burgundy against England, and in
1453 he ended the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@% by expelling the English from most of
France. He reorganized the army and, with the help of Jacques %@AU@%CO
%@AU@%UR%@BO:          20033f@%%@AE@%, restored the finances. The %@AU@%PRAGMATIC SANCTION%@BO:          78f6f5@%%@AE@% of Bourges (1438) and
the suppression of the Praguerie (1440), a revolt of the nobility,
strengthened royal authority. Charles's last years were troubled by the
intrigues of his son, the future %@AU@%LOUIS XI%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Charles VIII, %@AE@%1470-98
(r.1483-98), was the son of Louis XI. His sister Anne de Beaujeu was
regent during his minority and arranged his marriage (1491) to %@AU@%ANNE OF
%@AU@%BRITTANY%@BO:           5d3a9@%%@AE@%. In 1495 Charles began the %@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@% with the short-lived
conquest of Naples. %@AB@%Charles IX, %@AE@%1550-74 (r.1560-74), was at first under
the regency of his mother, %@AU@%CATHERINE DE' MEDICI%@BO:          1a3aee@%%@AE@%. Later he chose Gaspard
de %@AU@%COLIGNY%@BO:          2038d9@%%@AE@% as chief adviser, but was persuaded to take part in the
massacre of %@AU@%SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY%@BO:          8305e7@%%@AE@% (1572). %@AB@%Charles X, %@AE@%1757-1836
(r.1824-30), known as the comte d'Artois before he succeeded his brother,
%@AU@%LOUIS XVIII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%, in 1824, led the powerful ultraroyalist group before his
accession and as sovereign had reactionaries as premiers. Liberal and
capitalist forces joined to bring about the %@AU@%JULY REVOLUTION%@BO:          4dac3c@%%@AE@% of 1830.
Charles abdicated and died in exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES3        @%%@QR:Charles@% kings of Hungary. %@AB@%Charles I, %@AE@%1288-1342 (r.1308-42), was the%@EH@%
grandson of %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% of Naples and son-in-law of Stephen V of Hungary.
In 1308 he was elected king by the Hungarian diet and thus founded the
Angevin dynasty in Hungary. He reorganized the army on a feudal basis and
increased the privileges of the cities. His eldest son became King Louis
I of Poland. %@AB@%Charles II: %@AE@%see %@AU@%CHARLES III%@BO:          1bf48f@%%@AE@%, king of Naples. %@AB@%Charles III%@AE@%:
see %@AU@%CHARLES VI%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, Holy Roman emperor. %@AB@%Charles IV: %@AE@%see %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@%, emperor of
Austria.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES4        @%%@QR:Charles@% rulers of Naples. %@AB@%Charles I %@AE@%(Charles of Anjou), 1227-85, king of%@EH@%
Naples and Sicily (1266-85), was a brother of %@AU@%LOUIS IX%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France. Charles
championed the papal cause against %@AU@%MANFRED%@BO:          5acbc5@%%@AE@% in Naples and Sicily, and as a
reward the pope crowned him (1266) king. He founded the Angevin dynasty
in Naples. Heavy taxes to support his wars against the Byzantine Empire
led to a rebellion (1282) in Sicily (see %@AU@%SICILIAN VESPERS%@BO:          88c05f@%%@AE@%). The ensuing
war with %@AU@%PETER III%@BO:          740d4b@%%@AE@% of Aragon, who was chosen king by the rebels,
continued into the reign of his son, %@AB@%Charles II%@AE@% (the Lame), 1248-1309,
king of Naples (1285-1309). Charles II's great-grandson, %@AB@%Charles III
%@AB@%%@AE@%(Charles of Durazzo), 1345-86, king of Naples (1381-86), was adopted by
Joanna I of Naples, who later repudiated him in favor of Louis of Anjou
(later Louis I of Naples). Charles deposed Joanna, was crowned king
(1381), and repulsed Louis's attacks. In 1385 Charles was elected king of
Hungary over Holy Roman emperor %@AU@%SIGISMUND%@BO:          88f723@%%@AE@%, but he was assassinated soon
afterward.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles II%@AE@%%@CR:CHARLES.II      @%%@QR:Charles II@% (the Bad), 1332-87, king of Navarre (1349-87). He carried on a%@EH@%
long feud with his father-in-law, %@AU@%JOHN II%@BO:          4c7d80@%%@AE@% of France, and allied himself
with %@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of England. Charles helped to suppress the %@AU@%JACQUERIE%@BO:          4ad903@%%@AE@%
(1358) and was chosen by Etienne Marcel to defend Paris against the
%@AU@%DAUPHIN%@BO:          26b3dc@%%@AE@% (later King %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%), but he betrayed this trust.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES7        @%%@QR:Charles@% kings of Spain. %@AB@%Charles I: %@AE@%see %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, Holy Roman emperor.%@EH@%
%@AB@%Charles II, %@AE@%1661-1700, king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily (1665-1700), was
a mentally retarded cripple whose mother, Mariana of Austria, ruled as
regent. During his reign Spain continued to lose influence abroad and to
suffer a decline in its economy and intellectual life. His choice of an
heir provoked the War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Charles III, %@AE@%1716-88,
king of Spain (1759-88) and of Naples and Sicily (1735-59), was Spain's
greatest %@AU@%BOURBON%@BO:          12b977@%%@AE@% king. He conquered and ruled %@AU@%NAPLES%@BO:          664789@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SICILY%@BO:          88c324@%%@AE@% before
becoming king of Spain. By involving Spain in the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@% on the
side of the defeated French, he lost Florida to England. But he fought on
the colonists' side in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and thereby regained
(1783) Florida. His reign was noteworthy for Spain's prosperity and for
his expulsion of the %@AU@%JESUITS%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Charles IV, %@AE@%1748-1819 (r.1788-1808), was an
ineffective ruler who allowed his chief minister, %@AU@%GODOY%@BO:          3af18a@%%@AE@%, to pursue
disastrous policies. Spain suffered major naval defeats by England at
Cape Saint Vincent (1797) and %@AU@%TRAFALGAR%@BO:          972441@%%@AE@% (1805), and it suffered reverses
(1808) in the %@AU@%PENINSULAR WAR%@BO:          72d325@%%@AE@%, which forced his abdication.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES8        @%%@QR:Charles@% kings of Sweden. %@AB@%Charles IX, %@AE@%1550-1611 (r.1604-11), was the%@EH@%
youngest son of %@AU@%GUSTAVUS I%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%. As regent after the death of his brother,
John III, he made Lutheranism the state religion. By his efforts the
Catholic heir, %@AU@%SIGISMUND III%@BO:          88fb65@%%@AE@% of Poland, was deposed (1599). Charles
became king after Sigismund's brother, John, renounced the Swedish crown.
In 1600 he began the Polish-Swedish wars that ended only in 1660. His
son, %@AU@%GUSTAVUS II%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%, succeeded him. %@AB@%Charles X, %@AE@%1622-60 (r.1654-60), was the
nephew of Gustavus II. He succeeded on the abdication of his cousin,
%@AU@%CHRISTINA%@BO:          1e069b@%%@AE@%. He invaded Poland (1655) but soon suffered reverses. After
Denmark and Russia entered the war, Charles forced the Danes (1658) to
cede territory that extended Sweden's southern boundaries to the sea. His
son %@AB@%Charles XI, %@AE@%1655-97 (r.1660-97), succeeded him. A council of regency
ruled until he was 17. In the third of the %@AU@%DUTCH WARS%@BO:          2b6fc9@%%@AE@% he was defeated by
%@AU@%FREDERICK WILLIAM%@BO:          35cc10@%%@AE@% of Brandenburg (1675). Under Charles, royal power was
increased at the nobles' expense. %@AB@%Charles XII, %@AE@%1682-1718 (r.1687-1718),
was the son of Charles XI. Facing (1699) a coalition of Russia, Poland,
and Denmark in the %@AU@%NORTHERN WAR%@BO:          6ba722@%%@AE@%, he forced Denmark to make peace (1700);
invaded Poland and had %@AU@%STANISLAUS I%@BO:          8e2b73@%%@AE@% enthroned (1704); and, with %@AU@%MAZEPA%@BO:          5dc4ad@%%@AE@%,
invaded Russia, where his army was crushingly defeated (1708). He fled to
Turkey and persuaded %@AU@%AHMED III%@BO:           22f4a@%%@AE@% to declare war on Russia (1710). After
Turkey and Russia made peace (1711), Charles refused to leave Turkey and
was imprisoned. At Swedish-occupied Stralsund (1714-15) he fought the
Prussians and Danes. When Stralsund fell, he fled to Sweden and invaded
(1716) Norway, where he was killed in battle. His sister, Ulrica Leonora,
succeeded him under a new constitution that strengthened the nobles and
clergy. %@AB@%Charles XIII, %@AE@%1748-1818, was king of Sweden (1809-18) and Norway
(1814-18). He was regent for his nephew, %@AU@%GUSTAVUS IV%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%, after the
assassination (1792) of his brother %@AU@%GUSTAVUS III%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%. Called to the throne at
the forced abdication of his nephew, Charles accepted a new constitution
limiting royal power, signed treaties with Denmark and France, and ceded
Finland to Russia. %@AB@%Charles XIV%@AE@% (Charles John; Jean Baptiste Jules
Bernadotte), 1763-1844, king of Sweden and Norway (r.1818-44), was a
French Revolutionary general. He served under Napoleon in Italy
(1796-97), was French ambassador at Vienna (1798), and was minister of
war (1799). In 1810 the aging and childless Charles XIII of Sweden
adopted him, and he was elected crown prince by the Riksdag. He allied
Sweden with England and Russia against %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% and took part in his
defeat at Leipzig (1813). In 1814 he forced Denmark to cede Norway, which
was united with Sweden under a single king. He succeeded to the throne in
1818, having held the reins of government since 1810. His son, Oscar I,
succeeded him. %@AB@%Charles XV, %@AE@%1826-72 (r.1859-72), was the son of Oscar I. A
liberal ruler, he agreed to such reforms as a bicameral parliament. He
was succeeded by his brother, Oscar II. %@AB@%Charles XVI Gustavus%@AE@%(Carl
Gustaf), 1946- (r.1973-), is the grandson and successor of %@AU@%GUSTAVUS VI%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%
and the son of Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden. A new Swedish constitution,
passed shortly before his grandfather's death and effective in 1975, made
the king a ceremonial figurehead.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES9        @%%@QR:Charles@% 1948-, prince of Wales, eldest son of %@AU@%ELIZABETH II%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% of Great%@EH@%
Britain and heir apparent to the British throne. He was created prince of
Wales in 1958. In 1981 he married Lady Diana Spencer (see %@AU@%DIANA%@BO:          28ab47@%%@AE@%, princess
of Wales). They have two sons, William and Henry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES10       @%%@QR:Charles@% 1771-1847, archduke of Austria, brother of Holy Roman Emperor%@EH@%
%@AU@%FRANCIS II%@BO:          35371d@%%@AE@%. Despite his epilepsy, he was an able Austrian commander. In
1809 he defeated %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% at Aspern (May) but was beaten at Wagram
(July).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar%@AE@%%@CR:CHARLES5        @%%@QR:Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar@%, 1746-1823, French physicist. He%@EH@%
discovered (1787) Charles's, or Gay-Lussac's, law (see %@AU@%GAS LAWS%@BO:          382cec@%%@AE@%);
invented a thermometric hydrometer; and was the first to use hydrogen gas
in balloons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles, Ray%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles, Ray%@AE@%%@CR:CHARLES6        @%%@QR:Charles, Ray@% (Ray Charles Robinson), 1930-, black American musician and%@EH@%
composer; b. Albany, Ga. Blinded at age seven, he rose to fame in the
1950s singing rhythm-and-blues songs to the accompaniment of his piano
and orchestra. His work, rooted in %@AU@%GOSPEL MUSIC%@BO:          3ba8a2@%%@AE@%, influences, and is
influenced by, %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles Edward Stuart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles Edward Stuart%@AE@%:%@CR:CHARLESSTUART   @%%@QR:Charles Edward Stuart@% see under %@AU@%STUART, JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD%@BO:          8ff707@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles Martel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles Martel%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES.MARTEL  @%%@QR:Charles Martel@% 688?-741, Frankish ruler, illegitimate son of %@AU@%PEPIN%@BO:          73135a@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
Heristal and grandfather of %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%. Although never king, he ruled as
mayor of the palace (714-41). He united all %@AU@%MEROVINGIAN%@BO:          5f00c4@%%@AE@% kingdoms under
his rule and halted the European invasion of the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%. His sons, %@AU@%PEPIN%@BO:          73135a@%%@AE@%
the Short and Carloman, divided the Frankish lands at his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles's law%@AE@%:%@CR:CHARLESS.LAW    @%%@QR:Charles's law@% see %@AU@%GAS LAWS%@BO:          382cec@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles the Bald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles the Bald%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLESD        @%%@QR:Charles the Bald@% French king: see %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% under %@AU@%CHARLES%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, emperors.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles the Bold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles the Bold%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLESD        @%%@QR:Charles the Bold@% 1433-77, duke of %@AU@%BURGUNDY%@BO:          15a228@%%@AE@% (1467-77), son of %@AU@%PHILIP THE%@EH@%
%@AU@%GOOD%@BO:          74cc90@%%@AE@%. He opposed the growing power of %@AU@%LOUIS XI%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France and allied
himself with England. Master of the Low Countries, Charles dreamed of
reestablishing the kingdom of %@AU@%LOTHARINGIA%@BO:          56daf7@%%@AE@%, to which end he tried to
acquire Alsace and Lorraine. The Swiss, roused by his actions, routed him
at Grandson and Morat (1476) and in 1477 defeated and killed Charles at
Nancy. Burgundy then disintegrated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles the Fat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles the Fat%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLES.THE.FAT @%%@QR:Charles the Fat@% French king: see %@AU@%CHARLES III%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% under %@AU@%CHARLES%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, emperors.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charles the Great%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charles the Great%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLESAT       @%%@QR:Charles the Great@% Frankish king, emperor of the West: see %@AU@% CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charleston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charleston%@AE@%.%@CR:CHARLESTON      @%%@QR:Charleston@% %@AB@%1 %@AE@%City (1986 est. pop. 68,900), seat of Charleston co., SE%@EH@%
S.C.; founded 1680, inc. 1783. On a peninsula between the Ashley and
Cooper rivers, it is a major regional port. U.S. naval operations provide
much employment; chemicals, steel, and other products are manufactured.
The oldest city in the state, it was the scene of the first incident of
the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, the firing on %@AU@%FORT SUMTER%@BO:          34a5d9@%%@AE@% (Apr. 12, 1861); it fell to Gen.
%@AU@%SHERMAN'S%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@% army in 1865. A major tourist center, Charleston is famous for
its picturesque streets, houses, and other 18th-cent. monuments,
reminders of its early importance as a prosperous, cosmopolitan port. %@AB@%2
%@AB@%%@AE@%City (1986 est. pop. 57,920), state capital and seat of Kanawha co., W
central W.Va., on the Kanawha R. where it meets the Elk R.; inc. 1794.
The largest city in the state, it is a major chemical, glass, and metal
producer. The region provides salt, coal, natural gas, clay, sand,
timber, and oil for the city's manufactures. The city, which grew around
Fort Lee (1788), was the home (1788-95) of Daniel %@AU@%BOONE%@BO:          1213b5@%%@AE@%. It was state
capital from 1870-75 and after 1885.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charlotte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charlotte%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLOTTE       @%%@QR:Charlotte@% city (1986 est. pop. 352,070), seat of Mecklenburg co., S%@EH@%
N.C.; inc. 1768. It is the largest city in North Carolina, the commercial
and industrial center of the Piedmont region, and a distribution hub for
the Carolina textile manufacturing belt, which utilizes Catawba R.
hydroelectric power. An early center of rebellion against British rule,
it was the site of the signing of the %@AU@%MECKLENBURG DECLARATION OF
%@AU@%INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          5df6be@%%@AE@% (May 1775).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charlotte Amalie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charlotte Amalie%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLOTE        @%%@QR:Charlotte Amalie@% city (1980 pop. 11,585), on St. Thomas, capital of the%@EH@%
U.S. %@AU@%VIRGIN ISLANDS%@BO:          9dda75@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charlottetown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charlottetown%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARLOTTETOWN   @%%@QR:Charlottetown@% city (1986 pop. 15,776), capital, chief port, and only%@EH@%
city of Prince Edward Island, E Canada. Food processing is a major
industry. Charlottetown was laid out by the British in 1768 and named for
George III's queen. It was noted in the mid-1800s for the sailing ships
built there. The Charlottetown Conference (1864) was the first step
toward Canadian confederation. The Charlottetown Festival, held every
summer in the Confederation of the Arts Centre (built 1960s), is a major
cultural event.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charon%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARON          @%%@QR:Charon@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%PLUTO%@BO:          76f58c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chartism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chartism%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARTISM        @%%@QR:Chartism@% workingmen's political reform movement in Great Britain,%@EH@%
1838-48. It derived its name from the People's Charter, drafted by the
London Working Men's Association, which called for such reforms as
universal male suffrage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chartres%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chartres%@AE@%,%@CR:CHARTRES        @%%@QR:Chartres@% city (1975 pop. 41,251), capital of Eure-et-Loir dept., NW%@EH@%
France. The probable site of %@AU@%DRUIDS'%@BO:          2ac9d5@%%@AE@% assemblies, it became a royal
possession (1286) and a duchy (1528). Its magnificent Gothic cathedral
(12th-13th cent.) is renowned for its spires and stained-glass windows;
there the Second Crusade was preached (1146) and Henry IV crowned (1594).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Charybdis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Charybdis%@AE@%:%@CR:CHARYBDIS       @%%@QR:Charybdis@% see %@AU@%SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS%@BO:          86373c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chase, Salmon Portland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chase, Salmon Portland%@AE@%,%@CR:CHASE1          @%%@QR:Chase, Salmon Portland@% 1808-73, 6th chief justice of the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME%@EH@%
%@AU@%COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1864-73); b. Cornish, N.H.; grad. Dartmouth College (1826). A
zealous abolitionist, he served as U.S. senator (1849-55; 1861) and as
governor of Ohio (1855-59). As chief justice he presided over the
impeachment trial of Pres. Andrew %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cc07d@%%@AE@% with scrupulous fairness. His
greatest achievement, however, was as secretary of the treasury
(1861-64), when he created a national bank system.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chase, William Merritt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chase, William Merritt%@AE@%,%@CR:CHASE2          @%%@QR:Chase, William Merritt@% 1849-1916, American painter; b. Williamsburg,%@EH@%
Ind. He is known for his portraits and still lifes in oil, e.g.,
%@AI@%Carmencita%@AE@% and %@AI@%Lady in Black%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.). Chase was also an
important art teacher.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chateau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chateau%@AE@%,%@CR:CHATEAU         @%%@QR:chateau@% royal or seignorial residence and stronghold of medieval France,%@EH@%
counterpart of the English %@AU@%CASTLE%@BO:          19e49e@%%@AE@%. The fortified chateau culminated in
the late 15th cent., e.g., Pierrefonds, near Compiegne. Sixteenth-cent.
chateaux, with gardens and outbuildings, usually had a moat, but were
little fortified. Notable chateaux are those of the Loire, Indre, and
Cher valleys, e.g., Chambord, Amboise, Chenonceaux.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chateaubriand, Francois Rene, vicomte de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chateaubriand, Francois Rene, vicomte de%@AE@%%@CR:CHATEAUBRIAND   @%%@QR:Chateaubriand, Francois Rene, vicomte de@%, 1768-1848, French writer. A%@EH@%
founder of %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% in French literature, he visited the U.S. in 1791
and until 1800 was an emigre in England. A Royalist, he was minister of
foreign affairs (1823-24). He made his mark with %@AI@%The Genius of
%@AI@%Christianity%@AE@% (1802) and two tragic love stories about American Indians,
%@AI@%Atala%@AE@% (1801) and %@AI@%Rene%@AE@% (1805), exemplifying the melancholy, poetic style
that became typical of romantic fiction. He spent his final years with
the celebrated beauty and social figure Mme Recamier, composing his
%@AI@%Memoirs from beyond the Tomb%@AE@% (1849-50).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chattanooga%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chattanooga%@AE@%,%@CR:CHATTANOOGA     @%%@QR:Chattanooga@% city (1986 est. pop. 162,170), seat of Hamilton co., E%@EH@%
Tenn., on both sides of the Tennessee R. near the Ga. line; inc. 1839.
From a trading post (est. 1810) the port city grew into a major shipping
point for salt and cotton. It was of great strategic importance in the
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          1c40ed@%%@AE@%). Textile and metal industries are
important. The city is surrounded by mountains, e.g., Lookout Mt., and is
a tourist center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chattanooga campaign%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chattanooga campaign%@AE@%,%@CR:CHATTANPAIGN    @%%@QR:Chattanooga campaign@% Aug.-Nov. 1863, in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. Union Gen.%@EH@%
William Rosecrans maneuvered (Aug.- Sept.) Confederate Gen. Braxton %@AU@%BRAGG%@BO:          131ec8@%%@AE@%
out of strategic Chattanooga, Tenn., but Bragg routed the Union right
wing at the Battle of Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20). The Union left, under
Gen. George H. %@AU@%THOMAS%@BO:          95206d@%%@AE@%, withdrew to Chattanooga, which Bragg besieged from
Missionary Ridge. Rosecrans, although reinforced by Gen. Joseph %@AU@%HOOKER%@BO:          44386a@%%@AE@%,
needed help, and Gen. U.S. %@AU@%GRANT%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@% took command. Hooker drove the
Confederates from Lookout Mt. in the Battle above the Clouds (Nov. 24).
Grant attacked and carried Missionary Ridge (Nov. 25), and Bragg was
forced to retreat to Georgia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra%@AE@%,%@CR:CHATTERJEE      @%%@QR:Chatterjee, Bankim Chandra@% 1838-94, Indian nationalist writer. His%@EH@%
historical novels, written in Bengali, include %@AI@%Anandamath%@AE@% (1882), from
which India's national anthem was derived, and %@AI@%Krishna Kanta's Will%@AE@% (tr.
1895).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chatterton, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chatterton, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:CHATTERTON      @%%@QR:Chatterton, Thomas@% 1752-70, English poet. At age 12 he was composing the%@EH@%
"Rowley poems" and claiming they were copies of 15th-cent. manuscripts.
He came to London, failed to get his work published, and killed himself
at 17. An original genius as well as an adept imitator, he used
15th-cent. language but a modern approach. He was a hero to the
Romantics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chaucer, Geoffrey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chaucer, Geoffrey%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAUCER         @%%@QR:Chaucer, Geoffrey@% c.1340-1400, English poet. The facts of Chaucer's life%@EH@%
are fragmentary. A London vintner's son, he served as a court page, in
the army, and on frequent diplomatic missions, then held various official
positions in London. His literary activity falls into three periods. In
the first (to 1370), he worked largely from French models, including the
%@AI@%Roman de la rose,%@AE@% which he partially translated. His major work is the
allegorical %@AI@%Book of the Duchess%@AE@% (1369). In the second period (to c.1387)
he used Italian models, primarily %@AU@%DANTE%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BOCCACCIO%@BO:          114347@%%@AE@%. His chief works in
these years include the %@AI@%House of Fame,%@AE@% recounting the adventures of
%@AU@%AENEAS%@BO:           174f4@%%@AE@% after the fall of Troy; %@AI@%The Parliament of Fowls,%@AE@% on the mating of
birds on St. Valentine's Day, thought to celebrate the betrothal of
%@AU@%RICHARD II%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% to Anne of Bohemia; a prose translation of %@AU@%BOETHIUS%@BO:          11650e@%%@AE@%; the
unfinished %@AI@%Legend of Good Women,%@AE@% on classical heroines, in which he
introduced the rhymed heroic couplet; and %@AI@%Troilus and Criseyde,%@AE@% based on
Boccaccio, one of the great love poems in English, in which he perfected
the seven-line stanza later called rhyme royal. Chaucer's final period
was devoted to work on his masterpiece, %@AI@%The Canterbury Tales.%@AE@% This
unfinished work, about 17,000 lines, is one of the major poems of world
literature. In it a group of pilgrims traveling to the shrine of St.
Thomas a Becket decide to pass the time by telling stories. The tales
include a variety of medieval genres, from the humorous %@AU@%FABLIAU%@BO:          31771d@%%@AE@% to the
serious homily, and vividly depict medieval attitudes toward love,
marriage, and religion. Chaucer's brilliantly realized characters-the
earthy Wife of Bath, the gentle Knight, the evil Summoner-are intensely
alive. Chaucer's storytelling and poetic mastery were overlooked for
centuries because of changes in the language after 1400, but in the 18th
cent. he came to be regarded as one of the greatest English poets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chauncy, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chauncy, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAUNCY         @%%@QR:Chauncy, Charles@% 1705-87, American Congregational clergyman; b. Boston.%@EH@%
A minister (1727-87) at the First Church, Boston, he opposed the
revivalist preaching of the %@AU@%GREAT AWAKENING%@BO:          3c92ce@%%@AE@% and led the "Old Lights," or
liberals, in the theological disputes that followed. A believer in the
colonial cause, he clearly set forth the political philosophy of the
American Revolution in both sermons and pamphlets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chautauqua movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chautauqua movement%@AE@%.%@CR:CHAUTAUMENT     @%%@QR:Chautauqua movement@% A development in adult education similar to the%@EH@%
%@AU@%LYCEUM%@BO:          583337@%%@AE@% movement, it was proposed in 1873 at the Methodist Episcopal camp
meeting in Chautauqua, N.Y., by John Heyl Vincent and Lewis Miller.
Eight-week summer programs offered members secular and religious
instruction, and lectures by authors, explorers, musicians, and political
leaders. Somewhere between revival meetings and country fairs in spirit,
Chautauquas were attended by thousands each year. They were organized
commercially in 1912 and persisted until c.1924.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chavannes, Puvis de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chavannes, Puvis de%@AE@%:%@CR:CHAVANNES       @%%@QR:Chavannes, Puvis de@% see %@AU@%PUVIS DE CHAVANNES%@BO:          7b3804@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chavez, Cesar Estrada%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chavez, Cesar Estrada%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAVEZ          @%%@QR:Chavez, Cesar Estrada@% 1927-, American agrarian labor leader; b. near%@EH@%
Yuma, Ariz. A migrant worker, he began (1962) to organize wine-grape
pickers in California and formed the National Farm Workers Association.
Using strikes, fasts, picketing, and marches, he won contracts from
several major growers. He later launched boycotts against the table-grape
and lettuce growers, mobilizing nationwide support. In 1972 the United
Farm Workers (UFW), with Chavez as president, became a member union of
the AFL-CIO. A jurisdictional dispute with the %@AU@%TEAMSTERS%@BO:          935394@%%@AE@% proved a setback
for the UFW, but in 1977 the two unions signed a pact defining the types
of workers each could organize.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chavin de Huantar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chavin de Huantar%@AE@%,%@CR:CHAVIN.AR       @%%@QR:Chavin de Huantar@% archaeological site in NE Peru, probably the center of%@EH@%
the Chavin culture (fl. c.700-c.200 BC), earliest civilization of the
Andes. It is noted for advanced temples, painted sculptures, gold
objects, and textiles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%checkerberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%checkerberry%@AE@%:%@CR:CHECKERBERRY    @%%@QR:checkerberry@% see %@AU@%WINTERGREEN%@BO:          a263d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%checkers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%checkers%@AE@%,%@CR:CHECKERS        @%%@QR:checkers@% game for two players, known in England as draughts. It is%@EH@%
played on a square board composed of 64 small squares, alternately dark
and light in color, with all play conducted on the dark squares. On each
turn, players on opposite sides of the board may move one of their 12
pieces diagonally in a forward direction. Kings (pieces "crowned" by
reaching the last rank of the board) may move either backward or forward
diagonally. The object is to eliminate an opponent's pieces by "jumping"
them (jumping over the squares that they occupy). The game has been
played in Europe since the 16th cent., and a similar game is known to
have been played in ancient times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cheese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cheese%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEESE          @%%@QR:cheese@% food known from ancient times, consisting of the curd of %@AU@%MILK%@BO:          60aebc@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
separated from the whey. Although milk from various animals has been used
for making cheese, today milk from cows, sheep, and goats is most common.
In making cheese, casein, the chief milk protein, is coagulated by enzyme
action, by lactic acid, or by both. The many kinds of cheeses depend for
their distinctive qualities on the kind and condition of the milk, the
processes used in their making, and the method and extent of curing.
There are two main kinds of cheeses: hard cheeses, which improve with
age, and soft cheeses, made for immediate consumption. Hard cheeses
include Cheddar (originally from England), Edam and Gouda (Holland),
Emmental and Gruyere (Switzerland), and Parmesan and Provolone (Italy).
Among the semisoft cheeses are Roquefort (France), American brick, and
Muenster. Soft cheeses may be fresh (unripened), e.g., cream and cottage
cheeses, or may be softened by microorganisms in a ripening process that
develops flavor, e.g., Camembert, Brie, and Limburger. Cheese is a
valuable source of protein, fat, insoluble minerals, and, when made from
whole milk, vitamin A.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cheetah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cheetah%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEETAH         @%%@QR:cheetah@% %@AU@%CAT%@BO:          19fbb3@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Acinonyx jubatus%@AE@%) found in Africa, SW Asia, and India. The%@EH@%
swiftest four-footed animal, it runs down its prey at speeds of over 60
mi (95 km) per hr, the only cat to hunt this way. Cheetahs have tawny
coats with many round, black spots; the average adult weighs 100 lb (45
kg). Cheetahs are unique among cats in having nonretractile claws.
Hunting has greatly reduced their numbers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cheever, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cheever, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEEVER         @%%@QR:Cheever, John@% 1912-82, American author; b. Quincy, Mass. A moralist%@EH@%
whose works are often comic or surreal, he wrote about America's affluent
suburbs, e.g., %@AI@%The Wapshot Chronicle%@AE@% (1957) and %@AI@%Oh What A Paradise It
%@AI@%Seems%@AE@% (1982). Many of his stories are in %@AI@%The Stories of John Cheever%@AE@%
(1978; Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cheka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cheka%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEKA           @%%@QR:Cheka@% in Soviet Russia, the abbreviation of "Extraordinary Commission%@EH@%
for Combatting Counter-Revolution, Speculation, Sabotage, and Misuse of
Authority." The Cheka was the state security service (including the
secret police) established (1917) by the Bolsheviks. Lenin presided
(1922) over its reorganization, renaming it the GPU (State Political
Directorate). It became the OGPU (United State Political Directorate) in
1923 and the NKVD (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs) in 1934.
See also %@AU@%SECRET POLICE%@BO:          86765a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich%@AE@%%@CR:CHEKHOV         @%%@QR:Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich@%, 1860-1904, Russian writer and physician. The%@EH@%
son of a grocer and grandson of a serf, he helped support his family,
while he studied medicine, by writing humorous sketches. His reputation
as a master of the short story was assured when in 1888 "The Steppe," a
story in his third collection, won the Pushkin Prize. %@AI@%The Island of
%@AI@%Sakhalin%@AE@% (1893-94) was a report on his visit to a penal colony in 1890.
Thereafter he lived in Melikhovo, near Moscow, where he ran a free clinic
for peasants, took part in famine and epidemic relief, and was a
volunteer census-taker. His first play, %@AI@%Ivanov%@AE@% (1887), had little
success, but %@AI@%The Seagull%@AE@% (1898), %@AI@%Uncle Vanya%@AE@% (1899), %@AI@%The Three Sisters%@AE@%
(1901), and %@AI@%The Cherry Orchard%@AE@% (1904) were acclaimed when produced by the
Moscow Art Theater. In 1901 Chekov married the actress Olga Knipper, the
interpreter of many of his characters. Three years later he died of
tuberculosis. The style of his stories, novels, and plays, emphasizing
internal drama, characterization, and mood rather than plot and focusing
on the tragicomic aspects of banal events, had great influence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chelyabinsk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chelyabinsk%@AE@%,%@CR:CHELYABINSK     @%%@QR:Chelyabinsk@% city (1987 est. pop. 1,119,000), W Siberian USSR, in the%@EH@%
southern foothills of the Urals and on the Mias R. A major industrial
center, it processes ore and produces steel and farm machinery. Founded
in 1736 as a Russian frontier outpost, it lies on the Trans-Siberian RR.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chemical pollutants%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chemical pollutants%@AE@%:%@CR:CHEMICAANTS     @%%@QR:chemical pollutants@% see %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WASTE DISPOSAL%@BO:          9f7b15@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chemical warfare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chemical warfare%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEMICAE        @%%@QR:chemical warfare@% employment in warfare of toxic substances to damage or%@EH@%
kill plants, animals, or human beings. %@AU@%POISON GAS%@BO:          773ba8@%%@AE@% was effectively used
during %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, when chlorine gas and mustard gas inflicted heavy
casualties on both sides. After the war the major powers continued to
develop and stockpile chemical agents, but lethal types were not employed
during World War II. Thousands of synthetic toxins and naturally
occurring poisons have since been tested. Besides potentially lethal
chemicals that attack the skin, the blood, the nervous system, or the
respiratory system, there are also nonlethal incapacitating agents that
cause temporary physical disability or mental effects such as confusion,
fright, or stupor. Such agents, e.g., tear gas, may be used in riot
control as well as warfare. Various forms of %@AU@%HERBICIDES%@BO:          422b54@%%@AE@% and defoliants
were used during the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% to destroy crops and clear away
vegetation. In the early 1980s there were persistent reports that a
lethal agent, popularly called "yellow rain," was being used in Southeast
Asia. Modern delivery systems-artillery shells, grenades, missiles, and
aircraft and submarine spray systems-have increased the potential
effectiveness of chemical warfare, as they have that of %@AU@%BIOLOGICAL
%@AU@%WARFARE%@BO:           fe8bf@%%@AE@%, in which microorganisms are the toxic agents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chemistry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chemistry%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEMISTRY       @%%@QR:chemistry@% branch of science concerned with the properties, composition,%@EH@%
and structure of substances and the changes they undergo when they
combine or react under specified conditions. Inorganic chemistry deals
mainly with components of mineral origin. %@AU@%ORGANIC CHEMISTRY%@BO:          6eb250@%%@AE@% was first
defined as the study of substances produced by living organisms; it is
now defined as the study of the compounds of %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY%@BO:          7547bb@%%@AE@%
is concerned with the physical properties of materials; its subcategories
are %@AU@%ELECTROCHEMISTRY%@BO:          2d760b@%%@AE@%; thermochemistry, the investigation of the changes
in %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ENTROPY%@BO:          2f38e9@%%@AE@% that occur during chemical reactions and phase
transformations (see %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%); and chemical kinetics, which is
concerned with the details of chemical reactions and of how equilibrium
is reached between the products and reactants. Analytical chemistry is a
collection of techniques that allows exact laboratory determination of
the chemical composition of a given sample of material.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chemnitz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chemnitz%@AE@%:%@CR:CHEMNITZ        @%%@QR:Chemnitz@% see %@AU@%KARL-MARX-STADT%@BO:          4e7279@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chemotherapy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chemotherapy%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEMOTHERAPY    @%%@QR:chemotherapy@% treatment of disease with chemicals or drugs; the term most%@EH@%
often refers to treatment of %@AU@%CANCER%@BO:          182344@%%@AE@%. In current approaches, drugs are
used in combination to create a synergistic effect, and doses are
scheduled to attack rapidly proliferating cells, such as cancer cells,
during their vulnerable phase. These drugs destroy or inhibit infecting
organisms or malignant tissue, but are less toxic to normal tissue.
Chemotherapy is highly individualized, depending on the disease state,
the action of the agents used, and the side effects in the patient.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chengchow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chengchow%@AE@%:%@CR:CHENGCHOW       @%%@QR:Chengchow@% see %@AU@%ZHENGZHOU%@BO:          a52598@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chengdu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chengdu%@AE@%%@CR:CHENGDU         @%%@QR:Chengdu@%or %@AB@%Chengtu%@AE@%, city (1986 est. pop. 2,580,000), capital of Sichuan%@EH@%
prov., SW China, at the confluence of the Nan and Fu rivers. It is an
important regional center for metallurgy, machinery, and electronics. An
ancient walled city, it was the capital of the Shu kingdom (3d cent. AD).
The cultural hub of SW China, it is the site of Sichuan Univ. and a
center of Sichuan opera.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chengtu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chengtu%@AE@%:%@CR:CHENGTU         @%%@QR:Chengtu@% see %@AU@%CHENGDU%@BO:          1c83a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chenier, Andre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chenier, Andre%@AE@%%@CR:CHENIER         @%%@QR:Chenier, Andre@%, 1762-94, French poet; b. Constantinople. His pamphlets%@EH@%
denouncing the excesses of the %@AU@%REIGN OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@% led to his execution. His
poems, perhaps the greatest in 18th-cent. France, range from the lyrical,
e.g., %@AI@%La Jeune Captive%@AE@% (1795) and %@AI@%Elegies%@AE@% (1819), to the satirical.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chennault, Claire Lee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chennault, Claire Lee%@AE@%,%@CR:CHENNAULT       @%%@QR:Chennault, Claire Lee@% 1890-1958, U.S. general; b. Commerce, Tex. In 1941%@EH@%
he organized in China the American Volunteer Group (called the Flying
Tigers). He then headed (1942-45) the U.S. air task force in China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cheops%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cheops%@AE@%:%@CR:CHEOPS          @%%@QR:Cheops@% see %@AU@%KHUFU%@BO:          4f6f87@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich%@AE@%,%@CR:CHERNENKO       @%%@QR:Chernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich@% 1911-85, Soviet political leader. A%@EH@%
protege of Leonid %@AU@%BREZHNEV%@BO:          13c2c2@%%@AE@%, he rose through Communist party ranks in the
1950s, becoming a full member of the Central Committee (1971) and the
Politburo (1974). When Yuri %@AU@%ANDROPOV%@BO:           55c9c@%%@AE@% died (1984), he was elected general
secretary of the Communist party and chairman of the Presidium. His
health was poor and he soon died.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chernobyl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chernobyl%@AE@%,%@CR:CHERNOBYL       @%%@QR:Chernobyl@% Ukrainian town that was the site of the world's most serious%@EH@%
nuclear accident (Apr. 1986). Experts believe that the reactors' cooling
system failed and the core overheated, resulting in fire. The fall-out
produced contamination throughout Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. The
disaster led to increased opposition to the use of nuclear power
throughout the world. The Soviet government was criticized for keeping
the accident secret until radioactivity was discovered in Sweden, and
then failing to provide information on its extent. The Soviets later
accepted help from Western countries in controlling the fire and in
treating the victims. In July 1987, the head of the power station and two
of his aides were sentenced to 10 years in a labor camp.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cherokee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cherokee%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEROKEE        @%%@QR:Cherokee@% language belonging to the Iroquoian branch of the Hokan-Siouan%@EH@%
linguistic family. See %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cherokee Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cherokee Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEROKES        @%%@QR:Cherokee Indians@% once the outstanding %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% group in the%@EH@%
SE U.S. They spoke an Iroquoian language of the Hokan-Siouan stock (see
%@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). By the 16th cent. they had an advanced
agricultural Eastern Woodlands culture. Soon after 1750 half the tribe
died in a smallpox epidemic. In 1827 they established themselves as the
Cherokee Nation, with a constitution providing for an elected, republican
government. The syllabary devised by %@AU@%SEQUOYAH%@BO:          87139b@%%@AE@% contributed to their
progress. When gold was discovered on their lands, a fraudulent treaty
obtained by whites bound the tribe to move West, and they were forcibly
removed in 1838 to land in what is now Oklahoma. In the course of this
"trail of tears," led by Chief John %@AU@%ROSS%@BO:          8147f2@%%@AE@%, thousands of Cherokees died. In
Oklahoma they became the most important of the %@AU@%FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES%@BO:          337eac@%%@AE@%.
Today, nearly 45,000 Cherokees live in Oklahoma, while some 5,000 remain
on a reservation in North Carolina.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cherry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cherry%@AE@%,%@CR:CHERRY          @%%@QR:cherry@% name for various trees and shrubs (genus %@AI@%Prunus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%ROSE%@BO:          811e84@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, and for their fruits. Botanically, the small red-to-black fruits
are drupes, or stone fruits, closely related to the %@AU@%PEACH%@BO:          72658a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%APRICOT%@BO:           6d553@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%PLUM%@BO:          76ef58@%%@AE@%. Hundreds of varieties of sweet (%@AI@%P. avium%@AE@%) and sour (%@AI@%P. cerasus%@AE@%)
cherries, believed to be native to Asia Minor, are widely cultivated.
Sour cherries are mostly self-fertile, and are hardier and more easily
grown than sweet cherries, which must be cross-pollinated. The fruit is
popular eaten raw, and in preserves, pies, ciders, and liqueurs. Species
of %@AI@%flowering cherry%@AE@% are cultivated for their beautiful, usually double
flowers; %@AI@%cherry laurel%@AE@% species are also cultivated as ornamentals, e.g.,
American cherry laurel, or mock orange (%@AI@%P. caroliniana%@AE@%). The wood of the
wild black cherry (%@AI@%P. serotina%@AE@%), fine-grained and usually reddish in
color, is prized for cabinetwork.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chert%@AE@%,%@CR:CHERT           @%%@QR:chert@% cryptocrystalline variety of %@AU@%QUARTZ%@BO:          7b9548@%%@AE@%, commonly occurring in%@EH@%
nodules. Flint-the dark variety of chert-was used by primitive peoples to
make knives and spearheads, because, although it is very hard, it is
easily shaped by flaking off the edges. It was long used with steel for
lighting fires and later for setting off the powder in flintlock
firearms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chesapeake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chesapeake%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESAPEAKE1     @%%@QR:Chesapeake@% city (1986 est. pop. 134,400), SE Va., created (1963) by%@EH@%
merging the city of South Norfolk with all of Norfolk co. Its vast area
includes residential suburbs of Norfolk, commercial farmland, and a
portion of the Great Dismal Swamp. Industries include the manufacture of
plywood and wood products, fertilizers, and cement products.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chesapeake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chesapeake%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESAPEAKE2     @%%@QR:Chesapeake@% U.S. frigate. In June 1807, the %@AI@%Chesapeake%@AE@% sailed for the%@EH@%
Mediterranean under James %@AU@%BARRON%@BO:           c8986@%%@AE@%. H.M.S. %@AI@%Leopard%@AE@% stopped her and demanded
the right to search for British deserters. When Barron refused, the
%@AI@%Leopard%@AE@% opened fire; Barron had to submit, and four of his crew were
impressed. The incident almost precipitated war. In the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%, the
%@AI@%Chesapeake%@AE@% under James %@AU@%LAWRENCE%@BO:          52f055@%%@AE@% fought (1813) H.M.S. %@AI@%Shannon%@AE@% and was
taken; Lawrence's reported last command was "Don't give up the ship!"%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chesapeake Bay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chesapeake Bay%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESAPEAKE.BAY  @%%@QR:Chesapeake Bay@% major inlet on the Atlantic shoreline of the U.S. About%@EH@%
200 mi (320 km) long and up to 30 mi (48 km) wide, it is the drowned
lower course of the Susquehannah R. and separates the %@AU@%DELMARVA%@BO:          27ba41@%%@AE@% Peninsula
from mainland sections of E Maryland and E Virginia. The bay is crossed
by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel. %@AU@%BALTIMORE%@BO:           b986e@%%@AE@%, Md., is the chief port.
Rivers feeding into the bay include the %@AU@%POTOMAC%@BO:          78ae1a@%%@AE@% and the James, on which
%@AU@%JAMESTOWN%@BO:          4b1f2c@%%@AE@%, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas was
founded in 1607. The bay was explored and charted (1608) by Capt. John
%@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a6940@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chess%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chess%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESS           @%%@QR:chess@% game for two players played on a square board composed of 64 small%@EH@%
squares, alternately dark and light in color. Each player is provided
with 16 pieces, or chessmen, either white or black. Various pieces are
set down in a designated order in the two ranks closest to the player.
Each piece is moved according to specific rules and is removed from the
board when it is displaced by the move of one of the opposing pieces into
its square. The objective in chess is to checkmate, or trap, the
opponent's king, a piece whose mobility is limited. Chess probably
originated in India. By the 13th cent. it was played throughout Europe.
The first modern international chess tournament was held in London in
1851. There have been recognized world chess champions since that time,
and recent championship matches, such as those in which Bobby %@AU@%FISCHER%@BO:          335c61@%%@AE@%
took the title from Boris Spassky (1972) and Anatoly %@AU@%KARPOV%@BO:          4e7d92@%%@AE@% defeated
Viktor %@AU@%KORCHNOI%@BO:          5087cd@%%@AE@% (1978, 1981), have received worldwide media coverage.
Soviet players have dominated world chess since the late 1940s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chester%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chester%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESTER         @%%@QR:Chester@% city (1986 est. pop. 43,680), SE Pa., on the Delaware R., a%@EH@%
suburb of %@AU@%PHILADELPHIA%@BO:          74790a@%%@AE@%; settled c.1644 by Swedes, inc. as a city 1866. A
port, it also has steel mills and oil refineries. It is the state's
oldest city. William %@AU@%PENN%@BO:          72d85d@%%@AE@% landed there (1682) and convened the first
provincial assembly. The city contains many 17th- and 18th-cent.
historical sites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESTERFIELD    @%%@QR:Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope@% 4th %@AB@%earl of,%@AE@% 1694-1773, English%@EH@%
statesman and author. He was a noted wit and orator whose literary fame
rests on letters to his illegitimate son Philip Stanhope (pub. 1774),
aimed at educating a young man, and on letters to his godson (pub. 1890).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chesterton, G(ilbert) K(eith)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chesterton, G(ilbert) K(eith)%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESTERTON      @%%@QR:Chesterton, G(ilbert) K(eith)@% 1874-1936, English author, conservative,%@EH@%
and Catholic apologist. A prolific writer, he produced studies of
Browning (1903) and Dickens (1906); novels, including %@AI@%The Napoleon of
%@AI@%Notting Hill%@AE@% (1904); detective fiction featuring Father Brown; poems; and
essays, collected in %@AI@%Tremendous Trifles%@AE@% (1909) and elsewhere. With %@AU@%BELLOC%@BO:           e2b10@%%@AE@%
he propounded the economic theory of Distributism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chestnut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chestnut%@AE@%,%@CR:CHESTNUT        @%%@QR:chestnut@% deciduous tree (genus %@AI@%Castanea%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%BEECH%@BO:           da0c3@%%@AE@% family, with%@EH@%
thin-shelled, sweet, edible nuts borne in bristly burrs, widely
distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. The common American chestnut (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%dentata%@AE@%), native to the E U.S., is nearly extinct from chestnut blight, a
fungal disease, and edible chestnuts are now mostly imported from Italy.
Some old chestnut forests still stand as dead, or "ghost," forests; the
dead and fallen logs are the leading domestic source of tannin. Some
American species are called chinquapin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chevalier, Maurice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chevalier, Maurice%@AE@%%@CR:CHEVALIER       @%%@QR:Chevalier, Maurice@%, 1888-1972, French singer, dancer, and actor. He had%@EH@%
tremendous success as a %@AU@%MUSIC-HALL%@BO:          658eb7@%%@AE@% entertainer and also appeared in such
American films as %@AI@%Gigi%@AE@% (1958) and %@AI@%Fanny%@AE@% (1961).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cheyenne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cheyenne%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEYENNE        @%%@QR:Cheyenne@% city (1986 est. pop. 53,960), alt. 6,062 ft (1,848 m), state%@EH@%
capital and seat of Laramie co., SE Wyo.; inc. 1868. A market and
shipping center for a ranching area, it grew with the arrival (1867) of
the Union Pacific RR and was made territorial capital in 1869. Its annual
Frontier Days celebration (in July; first held 1897) is a famous tourist
attraction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cheyenne Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cheyenne Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:CHEYENNS        @%%@QR:Cheyenne Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Plains, with an%@EH@%
Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). In the 17th cent. they lived in earth-lodge villages along
the Cheyenne R. After acquiring horses (c.1760) they became nomadic
buffalo hunters. The tribe was friendly to whites until prospectors
swarmed into their lands when gold was found in Colorado. Cheyenne raids
against intruders brought punitive actions by the U.S. army. Aroused by
an unprovoked massacre at Sand Creek (1864), the Cheyenne waged bitter
war that culminated in the Battle of the %@AU@%LITTLE BIGHORN%@BO:          55b845@%%@AE@% (1876), where
Cheyenne massacred the cavalry of Gen. George %@AU@%CUSTER%@BO:          258194@%%@AE@%. In 1877, however,
the sick and starving Cheyenne surrendered and were moved first to
Oklahoma, then to Montana. About 3,000 live on reservations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chiang Ch'ing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chiang Ch'ing%@AE@%:%@CR:CHIANG.CHING    @%%@QR:Chiang Ch'ing@% see %@AU@%JIANG QING%@BO:          4c3814@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chiang Ching-kuo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chiang Ching-kuo%@AE@%:%@CR:CHIANG.CHINGKUO @%%@QR:Chiang Ching-kuo@% see under %@AU@%CHIANG KAI-SHEK%@BO:          1cbd12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chiang Kai-shek%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chiang Kai-shek%@AE@%%@CR:CHIANG.KAISHEK  @%%@QR:Chiang Kai-shek@%, 1887-1975, Chinese Nationalist leader. He is also called%@EH@%
Chiang Chung-cheng. Chiang became prominent in the %@AU@%KUOMINTANG%@BO:          51152b@%%@AE@% after the
death (1925) of %@AU@%SUN YAT-SEN%@BO:          90cc8f@%%@AE@% and in 1926 launched the %@AU@%NORTHERN EXPEDITION%@BO:          6b9a18@%%@AE@%,
in which the Nationalists captured Hankou, Shanghai, and Nanjing. He
cooperated at first with Chinese Communists, but in 1927 reversed himself
and began a long civil war with the Communists. He became head of the
Nationalist government at Nanjing in 1928 and resisted the Japanese
invasion of China in the Second %@AU@%SINO-JAPANESE WAR%@BO:          898f03@%%@AE@% (1937-45). In 1949,
however, the Communists drove Chiang and the Nationalists from the
mainland to Taiwan. There he reorganized his military forces with U.S.
aid, became (1950) president of Nationalist China (Taiwan), and
instituted limited democratic political reforms. He continued to promise
reconquest of the mainland, but his position was hurt when Taiwan was
expelled (1972) from the UN in favor of Communist China. His son, %@AB@%Chiang
%@AB@%Ching-kuo %@AE@%(jeang jing-gwo), 1910-88, was Nationalist China's defense
minister (1965-72) and premier (1972-78) before becoming president in
1978.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chicago, Judy (Gerowitz)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chicago, Judy (Gerowitz)%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICAGO1        @%%@QR:Chicago, Judy (Gerowitz)@% 1939-, American artist and founder of the%@EH@%
Women's Art Education collective. She works in a variety of media,
including such traditionally femaleoriented crafts as needlework and
china painting. She is known for her multimedia installation, %@AI@%The Dinner
%@AI@%Party%@AE@% (1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chicago%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chicago%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICAGO2        @%%@QR:Chicago@% city (1986 est. pop. 3,009,530 ), seat of Cook co., NE Ill.,%@EH@%
third largest U.S. city, center of a vast metropolitan area (1986 est.
pop. 6,188,000), on Lake Michigan; inc. 1837. A major %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@% port
and the leading commercial, financial, industrial, and cultural center of
the nation's interior, Chicago is a leader in steel production, printing,
radio and television, and the manufacture of plastics, candy, industrial
and electrical machinery, and musical instruments. It is also a major
financial center with stock, mercantile, and commodity exchanges.
Downtown Chicago ("The Loop") has a dramatic skyline with some of the
world's tallest skyscrapers, e.g., the Sears Tower and the John Hancock
Tower. The North Side, mainly residential, stretches some 20 mi (32 km)
along the lake. The West Side is a mix of European ethnic neighborhoods
that developed in the 19th and early 20th cent. Most of the city's
blacks, nearly 40% of the population, live in the industrialized South
Side. Leading cultural institutions include the Art Institute of Chicago,
Natural History Museum, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, and Univ. of Chicago.
The city's modern development dates from the opening (1825) of the %@AU@%ERIE
%@AU@%CANAL%@BO:          2fcbb9@%%@AE@% and the arrival (1852) of the railroads. A fire destroyed much of
Chicago in 1871. Labor troubles, e.g., the 1886 %@AU@%HAYMARKET SQUARE RIOT%@BO:          40bdc5@%%@AE@% and
the 1894 Pullman strike (see %@AU@%DEBS, EUGENE V.%@BO:          27164b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ALTGELD, JOHN P.%@BO:           42abd@%%@AE@%), followed
rapid industrialization. In the 1920s %@AU@%PROHIBITION%@BO:          79f220@%%@AE@% brought a reputation
for gang warfare. The %@AU@%SAINT LAWRENCE SEAWAY%@BO:          833671@%%@AE@% opened Chicago to ocean
shipping after 1959.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chicago, University of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chicago, University of%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICAGO3        @%%@QR:Chicago, University of@% at Chicago; coeducational; inc. 1890, opened 1892%@EH@%
primarily through the gifts of John D. %@AU@%ROCKEFELLER%@BO:          7fe344@%%@AE@%. Because of its
progressive programs and distinguished faculty, it quickly achieved
prominence. Significant among its facilities are the Pritzker School of
Medicine; the Enrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies; the McDonald
Observatory, at Ford Davis, Texas; the Yerkes Observatory, at Williams
Bay, Wis.; and the department of education.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chicano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chicano%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICANO         @%%@QR:Chicano@% term used to describe Mexican-Americans. Originally pejorative,%@EH@%
it was adopted with a sense of pride by militant Mexican-American youths
in the 1960s and has since been generally accepted by members of the
ethnic group. Chicanos first migrated to the U.S., either legally or
illegally, as seasonal farm laborers, but after World War II large
numbers settled in cities, especially in Los Angeles and in S Texas; 8.7
million Chicanos now live in the U.S., many in Mexican neighborhoods
called %@AI@%barrios.%@AE@% In the 1960s and 70s Chicanos grew politically active,
demanding equal employment opportunities and pressing for voter
registration. Cesar %@AU@%CHAVEZ%@BO:          1c5760@%%@AE@% organized (1962) the United Farm Workers,
scoring victories against large California growers. La Raza Unida, a
party formed in 1970, has won local elections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chichen Itza%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chichen Itza%@AE@%%@CR:CHICHEN.ITZA    @%%@QR:Chichen Itza@%, archaeological site in central %@AU@%YUCATAN%@BO:          a49532@%%@AE@%, Mexico. Probably%@EH@%
founded c.514 by the Itza, it was alternately abandoned and reoccupied
until it was deserted for the last time in 1194. Spanning two great
periods of %@AU@%MAYA%@BO:          5da103@%%@AE@% civilization, it displays Classic and Post-Classic
architectural styles and shows a strong %@AU@%TOLTEC%@BO:          967bd4@%%@AE@% influence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chickadee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chickadee%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICKADEE       @%%@QR:chickadee@% small North American %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%TITMOUSE%@BO:          962738@%%@AE@% family. The lively%@EH@%
black-capped chickadee (%@AI@%Parus atricapillus%@AE@%), with gray back and wings and
light underparts, often swings upside down on branch tips, searching for
insects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chickasaw Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chickasaw Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICKASNS       @%%@QR:Chickasaw Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Eastern Woodlands, who%@EH@%
spoke a Muskogean language of the Hokan-Siouan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). They lived in N Mississippi and warred with the nearby
%@AU@%CHOCTAW%@BO:          1db915@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CREEK%@BO:          247e6b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHEROKEE%@BO:          1c9148@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SHAWNEE%@BO:          881007@%%@AE@%. After 1834 they moved to Oklahoma,
becoming one of the %@AU@%FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES%@BO:          337eac@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chicken%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chicken%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICKEN         @%%@QR:chicken@% chief poultry %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@%, probably domesticated from a SW Asian jungle%@EH@%
fowl. Chickens are raised commercially in highly mechanized indoor
chambers and are classified by their uses. The Leghorn chicken is the
main egg breed in the U.S., while a cross between the fast-growing
Plymouth Rock chicken and deep-breasted Cornish hen is the most important
meat breed. Some varieties are raised for their ornamental appearance, as
pets, or for cockfighting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chicken pox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chicken pox%@AE@%%@CR:CHICKEN.POX     @%%@QR:chicken pox@% or %@AB@%varicella,%@AE@%acute infectious disease caused by the herpes%@EH@%
zoster virus that also causes %@AU@%SHINGLES%@BO:          88611a@%%@AE@%. Usually a disease of childhood,
chicken pox is a highly contagious disorder characterized by an itchy
rash of blisterlike lesions that appear two to three weeks after
infection. When the lesions have crusted over, the disease is no longer
communicable. Topical medication is often given to relieve the itching.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chick-pea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chick-pea%@AE@%,%@CR:CHICKPEA        @%%@QR:chick-pea@% annual plant (%@AI@%Cicer arietinum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family, cultivated%@EH@%
since antiquity for the edible, pealike seed. Chick-peas are used as food
for humans and animals. They are boiled or roasted, and have been used as
a coffee substitute. Other common names are %@AI@%ceci,%@AE@% garbanzo, and gram pea.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chicory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chicory%@AE@%%@CR:CHICORY         @%%@QR:chicory@% or %@AB@%succory, %@AE@%herb (%@AI@%Cichorium intybus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to the Mediterranean and widely grown in North America and Europe.
The roasted and powdered root is used as a coffee substitute and
adulterant. Chicory is also used as a seasoning and in salads. French
endive, or witloof, is the type that is blanched for salad. True endive,
or escarole (%@AI@%C. endivia%@AE@%), a salad vegetable since antiquity, is
cultivated in broad- and curly-leaved varieties.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chigger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chigger%@AE@%:%@CR:CHIGGER         @%%@QR:chigger@% see %@AU@%MITE%@BO:          61c5ca@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chihuahua%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chihuahua%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIHUAHUA       @%%@QR:Chihuahua@% small %@AU@%TOY DOG%@BO:          970e7f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.5 in. (12.7 cm); weight, 1-6%@EH@%
lb (0.5-2.7 kg). There are two varieties: the smooth, with a short,
close-lying, glossy coat, and the long-coated, with soft-textured, flat,
or slightly wavy hair. The coat is usually tan. Probably of Chinese
origin, it was introduced into Mexico by Spanish settlers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chikamatsu Monzaemon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chikamatsu Monzaemon%@AE@%%@CR:CHIKAMAAEMON    @%%@QR:Chikamatsu Monzaemon@%, 1653-1724, Japanese dramatist. Writing primarily%@EH@%
for the puppet stage, he profoundly influenced the development of modern
Japanese theater (see %@AU@%JAPANESE LITERATURE%@BO:          4b6469@%%@AE@%). His work is divided into
historical romances, e.g., %@AI@%Battles of Coxinga,%@AE@% and domestic tragedies of
love and duty, e.g., %@AI@%Love Suicides at Amijima%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%child care%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%child care%@AE@%,%@CR:CHILD.CARE      @%%@QR:child care@% the care or supervision of a child by someone other than the%@EH@%
parents. Such alternatives include individuals and %@AU@%DAY-CARE CENTERS%@BO:          26e7f9@%%@AE@% (some
sponsored by businesses for their employees). The increasing numbers of
single-parent families and working mothers have helped to create a
scarcity of quality child care, particularly for lower- and middle-income
families. In the U.S. in 1986, 9 million pre-schoolers were cared for by
someone other than their parents during the day. There is considerable
controversy concerning the proper legal safeguards and qualifications
that the government should impose on child care providers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Childe, Vere Gordon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Childe, Vere Gordon%@AE@%,%@CR:CHILDE          @%%@QR:Childe, Vere Gordon@% 1892-1957, English archaeologist; b. Australia. His%@EH@%
synthesis of European prehistory is embodied in %@AI@%The Dawn of European
%@AI@%Civilization%@AE@% (1925, 6th ed. 1957) and %@AI@%The Prehistory of European Society%@AE@%
(1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%children's literature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%children's literature%@AE@%.%@CR:CHILDREATURE    @%%@QR:children's literature@% Much early literature for adults, chiefly oral%@EH@%
ballads, sagas, and epics recounting myths and legends, came to be read
as children's literature. The first writing expressly for children,
however, Latin texts by %@AU@%BEDE%@BO:           d9426@%%@AE@% and others, was instructional. More
enjoyable material appeared when William %@AU@%CAXTON%@BO:          1a82aa@%%@AE@% printed (1484-85) %@AU@%AESOP'S%@BO:           18987@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Fables%@AE@% and Sir Thomas %@AU@%MALORY'S%@BO:          5a6142@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Morte d'Arthur.%@AE@% The hornbook and chapbook,
from the same period, taught the alphabet, numbers, and prayers. The
first distinctly juvenile literature in English, for Puritan boys and
girls, consisted of gloomy, pious tales. Later, Daniel %@AU@%DEFOE'S%@BO:          2766d1@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Robinson
%@AI@%Crusoe%@AE@% and Jonathan %@AU@%SWIFT'S%@BO:          918895@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Gulliver's Travels%@AE@% were adapted for children.
In 1729 Charles %@AU@%PERRAULT'S%@BO:          7389ac@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Mother Goose%@AE@% became popular in England. The
bookseller John %@AU@%NEWBERY%@BO:          68aea4@%%@AE@% was the first to publish exclusively for
children. By the end of the 18th cent. didactic works, intellectual and
moralistic, predominated. In contrast, %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% produced a body of
fantasy and adventure genuinely appealing to children. %@AU@%GRIMM'S%@BO:          3dc9d1@%%@AE@% folk tales
appeared in English in 1823, and Hans Christian %@AU@%ANDERSEN'S%@BO:           52ef1@%%@AE@% fairy tales in
1846. During the 19th cent. the poetry of Edward %@AU@%LEAR%@BO:          532f12@%%@AE@% and Robert Louis
%@AU@%STEVENSON%@BO:          8f03c6@%%@AE@%, the inspired lunacy of Lewis %@AU@%CARROLL%@BO:          19494a@%%@AE@%, and the fully developed
characters and interesting plots of novels by Louisa May %@AU@%ALCOTT%@BO:           31e9c@%%@AE@%, Mark
%@AU@%TWAIN%@BO:          9911cd@%%@AE@%, and Stevenson set high standards for juvenile literature-as did
translations of such foreign works as J.D. %@AU@%WYSS'S%@BO:          a3ba79@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Swiss Family Robinson%@AE@%
(tr. from the German, 1814) and Carlo %@AU@%COLLODI'S%@BO:          205d7f@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Pinocchio%@AE@% (tr. from the
Italian, 1892). Fantasy continued to be well-represented in 20th-cent.
children's literature, e.g., L. Frank %@AU@%BAUM'S%@BO:           d271a@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Wonderful Wizard of Oz%@AE@%
(1900), A.A. %@AU@%MILNE'S%@BO:          60dbbe@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Winnie-the-Pooh%@AE@% (1927), P.L. Travers's %@AI@%Mary Poppins%@AE@%
(1934), J.R.R. Tolkien's %@AI@%The Hobbit%@AE@% (1937), E.B. %@AU@%WHITE'S%@BO:          a1316b@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Charlotte's Web%@AE@%
(1952) and %@AI@%The Trumpet of the Swan%@AE@% (1970), and Madeleine L'Engle's work
of science fiction %@AI@%A Wrinkle in Time%@AE@% (1962). The novel for children
became increasingly sophisticated, dealing with "mature" social and
psychological themes. Judy Blume's novels, e.g., %@AI@%Are You There, God? It's
%@AI@%Me, Margaret%@AE@% (1970), treat the emotional and sexual problems of
adolescence. The Newbery Medal (1922) is one of many awards fostering the
growth of children's literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Children's Television Workshop%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Children's Television Workshop%@AE@%,%@CR:CHILDRERKSHOP   @%%@QR:Children's Television Workshop@% a nonprofit organization that produces%@EH@%
high-quality children's programs for U.S. television, including "Sesame
Street," "The Electric Company," "3-2-1 Contact," and "Square One TV,"
employing visual techniques developed for commercials.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chile%@AE@%%@CR:CHILE           @%%@QR:Chile@%, officially Republic of Chile, republic (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
12,070,000), 292,256 sq mi (756,945 sq km), S South America, bordered by
Peru (N), Bolivia (NE), Argentina (E), and the Pacific Ocean (W). Long
and narrow, Chile stretches 2,880 mi (4,630 km) from north to south, but
is only 265 mi (430 km) at its widest point. Major cities include
%@AU@%SANTIAGO%@BO:          844c51@%%@AE@% (the capital), %@AU@%VALPARAISO%@BO:          9b964b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CONCEPCION%@BO:          21ac96@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@% Mts. extend
the entire length of eastern Chile; Ojos del Salado (22,539 ft/6,870 m),
the second highest point in South America, is found here. Chile has three
main natural regions: the arid north, which includes the %@AU@%ATACAMA DESERT%@BO:           93b06@%%@AE@%;
the cold and humid south, with dense forests, snow-covered peaks,
glaciers, and islands; and the fertile central area, Mediterranean in
climate, which is the population, economic, and cultural heart of the
nation. Located along an active zone in the earth's crust, Chile is
subject to devastating earthquakes. With an economy based on its mineral
wealth, Chile is one of the world's leading exporters of copper; other
minerals include nitrates, iron ore, manganese, lead, and zinc.
Manufactures include processed foods, fishmeal, textiles, and iron and
steel. Chief crops are wheat, potatoes, corn, and sugar beets. While
Chile is not self-sufficient in food, fruit accounts for nearly 10% of
its exports. Sheep raising, fishing, and timber production are also
important. The majority of Chile's population is mestizo, but a sizable
number are of European origin. Spanish is the official language. More
than 85% of the people are Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Upon arrival in the area that is now Chile, the Spaniards met
stout resistance from the %@AU@%ARAUCANIAN INDIANS%@BO:           73a1d@%%@AE@% who lived there, but in 1541
Pedro de %@AU@%VALDIVIA%@BO:          9b6b42@%%@AE@% succeeded in establishing the first Spanish settlement
at Santiago. Despite continued Indian hostility, not fully subdued until
the late 19th cent., the colonists established a pastoral society. In
1810 a struggle for independence from Spanish rule was initiated and
finally, in 1818, following a decisive victory at Maipu by Jose de %@AU@%SAN
%@AU@%MARTIN%@BO:          842164@%%@AE@%, independence was proclaimed, and Bernardo %@AU@%O'HIGGINS%@BO:          6d0f38@%%@AE@%, a
revolutionary leader, was established as ruler. In 1879 long-standing
border disputes with Bolivia and Peru led to the War of the Pacific;
Chile, victorious, gained valuable mineral-rich territory. Exploitation
of mineral resources, accompanied by industrialization, brought
prosperity. Politically, Chile was one of the most stable and democratic
nations in South America. In 1970 Salvador %@AU@%ALLENDE GOSSENS%@BO:           3e1e6@%%@AE@%, a Marxist,
was elected president. His attempt to transform Chile into a socialist
state ended in 1973 with a U.S.-supported, bloody military coup, in which
Allende lost his life. A repressive military junta, headed by Gen.
Augusto %@AU@%PINOCHET%@BO:          75e8a5@%%@AE@%, was in control in the late 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chillicothe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chillicothe%@AE@%,%@CR:CHILLICOTHE     @%%@QR:Chillicothe@% city (1980 pop. 23,420), seat of Ross co., south-central%@EH@%
Ohio, on the Scioto R.; founded 1796; inc. 1802. The trading center for a
farm area, it also manufactures paper, shoes, and aluminum products. It
became (1800) capital of the %@AU@%NORTHWEST TERRITORY%@BO:          6bc39d@%%@AE@%, and (1803-10, 1812-16)
capital of Ohio. Mound City National Monument (prehistoric Indian burial
mounds) is nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chime%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chime%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIME           @%%@QR:chime@% in music: see %@AU@%BELL%@BO:           e1879@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chimpanzee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chimpanzee%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIMPANZEE      @%%@QR:chimpanzee@% black-haired %@AU@%APE%@BO:           69885@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Pan%@AE@%) of the equatorial forests of%@EH@%
central and W Africa, including the common chimpanzee (%@AI@%P. troglodytes%@AE@%)
and pygmy chimpanzee (%@AI@%P. paniscus%@AE@%); considered the most intelligent of
apes. The common chimpanzee is covered with long, black hair and may
reach 5 ft. (1.5 m) in height and 150 lb (68 kg) in weight. Captive
chimpanzees have been taught to communicate by using %@AU@%SIGN LANGUAGE%@BO:          8902fb@%%@AE@% or a
computer console.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chimu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chimu%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIMU           @%%@QR:Chimu@% ancient Indian civilization on the desert coast of N Peru (see%@EH@%
%@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%) that flourished after c.1200. The Chimu were
urban people with a powerful military, a complex social system, and
well-planned cities such as Chan Chan, their capital. They influenced the
Cuismancu empire of central Peru, but were absorbed c.1460 by the %@AU@%INCA%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ch'in%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ch'in%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIN            @%%@QR:Ch'in@% dynasty: see %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%China%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%China%@AE@%,%@CR:CHINA1          @%%@QR:China@% Mandarin %@AI@%Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo%@AE@% (People's Republic of China),%@EH@%
people's republic (1988 est. pop. 1,072,200,000), 3,691,502 sq mi
(9,561,000 sq km), E Asia; the most populous country in the world. It is
bounded by the USSR and North Korea (E), the USSR and the Mongolian
People's Republic (N), the USSR and Afghanistan (W), and Pakistan, India,
Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Laos, and Vietnam (S). A coastline c.4,000 mi
(6,440 km) long borders the Yellow and East China seas (E) and the South
China Sea (S). The capital is %@AU@%PEKING%@BO:          729d04@%%@AE@%; other important cities include
%@AU@%SHANGHAI%@BO:          87ef98@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TIANJIN%@BO:          9599f9@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CANTON%@BO:          1855fa@%%@AE@%. China is the world's third-largest country
(after the USSR and Canada). The terrain is generally rugged, with broad
plains along the rivers and the southern coast. The Tibetan plateau
occupies SW China and is separated from the Tarim basin of Xinjiang to
the north by the massive Kunlun Mts. In N China is the vast Inner
Mongolian tableland, as well as the eastern highlands and central plain
of Manchuria. The two main rivers are the %@AU@%HUANG HE%@BO:          44eba4@%%@AE@% (Yellow R.), in the
north, and the %@AU@%YANGTZE%@BO:          a3f3de@%%@AE@% R., in central China. The climate, harsh in the
north and subtropical in the south, is mainly temperate.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% China's economic development is coordinated in five-year plans.
The economic system was formerly centrally planned, but the leaders are
now attempting to reform it into a more modern socialist market economy
in which "the state guides the market and the market guides enterprise."
Although about 75% of the work force lives in rural areas, over 70% of
GNP is industrial or commercial. Only 15% of the land surface is suitable
for farming. Principal crops are food grains, including rice, wheat,
corn, millet, barley, and kaoliang (a form of sorghum); peanuts, sweet
potatoes, soybeans, cotton, tobacco, and tea are also important. Hogs and
poultry are widely raised, and both inland and marine fishing are
important. China is one of the world's major mineral-producing countries.
Reserves of coal, its most abundant mineral and principal energy source,
rank among the world's largest. Once an importer of petroleum, China is
now the world's fifth-ranked oil producer, and oil exports are an
increasingly important source of foreign exchange, used to finance
industrial modernization. China also has extensive deposits of iron,
tungsten, tin, mercury, magnesite, salt, uranium, gold, and zinc. The
country's enormous hydroelectric potential is being rapidly developed;
the largest project, Gezhouba Dam, on the Yangtze R., opened in 1981.
China's manufactures include agriculture-related products, such as farm
machinery, as well as machine tools, iron and steel, and construction
materials. In recent years light industrial and consumer items have
increased greatly in importance. Rivers and canals are important arteries
of transportation.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%People%@AE@% The population is heterogeneous. Although the Han ethnic Chinese
constituting 94% of the total, 56 recognized minority groups exist, some
occupying large and strategically important areas, including Tibet and
Xinjiang. Mandarin dialects, the basis of the national language, are
uniformly spoken in the north, but in the south, many dialects, including
Cantonese, Wu, and Hakka, are spoken; the written language is universal.
Non-Chinese minorities include the Chuangs, Huis, Uigurs, and Mongols.
Traditionally, most Chinese followed a mixture of Confucianism, Buddhism,
and Taoism. Under Mao religious practice was discouraged, but is now
returning. There are substantial communities of Chinese Catholics and
Protestants.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% A protohuman toolmaker known as Peking man (%@AI@%Sinanthropus
%@AI@%pekingensis%@AE@%) lived in N China about 500,000 years ago. Modern man first
appeared in the region around 20,000 years ago, establishing primitive
agricultural villages by 5000 BC The first documented Chinese
civilization was the Shang dynasty (c.1523-c.1027 BC), which had cities,
bronze metallurgy, and a system of writing. It was succeeded by the often
turbulent Chou dynasty (c.1027 BC- 256 BC), which nevertheless gave rise
to China's golden age of philosophy, highlighted by the works of
%@AU@%CONFUCIUS%@BO:          21eaae@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LAO-TZE%@BO:          52529d@%%@AE@%, and Mencius. The Ch'in dynasty (221-207 BC) united
China under a centralized imperial system; construction of the %@AU@%GREAT WALL%@BO:          3cf598@%%@AE@%
was begun during this period. The Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), considered
China's imperial age, was notable for its long, peaceable rule,
territorial expansion, and technological and artistic achievement. There
followed four centuries of warfare among petty states and invasions by
the Huns; however, despite the chaos, the arts and sciences flourished,
and %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TAOISM%@BO:          92c149@%%@AE@% developed as important Chinese religions.
Political reunification, begun under the Sui (581-618), paved the way for
the glorious age of the T'ang dynasty (618-906), which at its height
controlled an empire stretching from Korea to Turkistan. Prosperity
continued under the Sung dynasty (960-1279), a time of scholarly studies
and artistic progress, marked by the invention of movable type. In the
13th cent. N China fell to the %@AU@%MONGOLS%@BO:          62c334@%%@AE@% led by %@AU@%JENGHIZ KHAN%@BO:          4bcac6@%%@AE@%. His grandson
%@AU@%KUBLAI KHAN%@BO:          50f51c@%%@AE@% founded the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368) and subdued (1279) the
Sung. Kublai's vast realm was visited and described by Marco %@AU@%POLO%@BO:          77aff9@%%@AE@%. After
a massive peasant rebellion (14th cent.) native rule was restored with
the establishment of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). However, in 1644
foreigners from the north-the Manchus-once again conquered China,
establishing the Ch'ing (%@AU@%MANCHU%@BO:          5aa5f6@%%@AE@%) dynasty (1644-1912), the last in China's
history.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Foreign Intervention%@AE@% In a relaxation of China's traditional isolationist
policy, Canton was opened to limited overseas trade in 1834. Dissatisfied
with this restricted arrangement, Great Britain provoked the %@AU@%OPIUM WAR%@BO:          6e1c93@%%@AE@%
(1839-42) and easily defeated China. The Treaty of Nanking ceded %@AU@%HONG
%@AU@%KONG%@BO:          4413e4@%%@AE@% to Britain, forced China to open several ports to unrestricted
trade, and established the principle of %@AU@%EXTRATERRITORIALITY%@BO:          314ef0@%%@AE@%, by which
Britons in China were granted immunity from local law enforcement.
France, Germany, and Russia soon won similar concessions. The Ch'ing
regime was further weakened by a series of internal rebellions,
particularly the %@AU@%TAIPING REBELLION%@BO:          92562d@%%@AE@% (1850-64), a radical
military-religious movement; by defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War
(1894-95); and by the subsequent further partitioning of China into
foreign spheres of influence. The %@AU@%BOXER UPRISING%@BO:          12e6bd@%%@AE@% (1898-1900), a final
desperate effort to resist foreign influence, was crushed by an
international force.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Internal Struggles%@AE@% These events added impetus to growing anti-Manchu
sentiment, and despite belated domestic reforms, a revolution (1911)
overthrew the Ch'ing, and a republic, briefly led by %@AU@%SUN YAT-SEN%@BO:          90cc8f@%%@AE@%, was
established in 1912. With the death (1916) of Sun's successor, %@AU@%YUAN
%@AU@%SHIH-KAI%@BO:          a492e8@%%@AE@%, Chinese warlords gained control of the government; they were
finally ousted in 1927, after years of civil war, by the nationalist
%@AU@%KUOMINTANG%@BO:          51152b@%%@AE@%, led by %@AU@%CHIANG KAI-SHEK%@BO:          1cbd12@%%@AE@% and aided by the Communists. In 1927
Chiang inaugurated the long Chinese civil war when he purged his
Communist allies, eventually forcing them on the %@AU@%LONG MARCH%@BO:          56915b@%%@AE@% (1934-35) to
Shaanxi, where they established their base. In 1931 Japan had occupied
Manchuria, and in 1937 it mounted a full-scale attack against China (see
%@AU@%SINO-JAPANESE WAR, SECOND%@BO:          898f03@%%@AE@%). An uneasy coalition of Nationalists and
Communists fought the Japanese, but following victory in 1945, civil war
once again erupted, with the U.S. supporting the Nationalists. Peking,
followed by the other major cities, fell to the Communists in 1949, and
on Oct. 1 the People's Republic of China was proclaimed with %@AU@%MAO TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@%
as chairman and %@AU@%CHOU EN-LAI%@BO:          1dd7ba@%%@AE@% as premier. Chiang Kai-shek fled to %@AU@%TAIWAN%@BO:          9258a0@%%@AE@%,
where he established a new seat for the Republic of China government.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The People's Republic%@AE@% Under the Communists, high inflation was brought
under control, a land reform program introduced, industry nationalized
and expanded with Soviet aid, and agriculture collectivized. The Chinese
People's Volunteers entered the %@AU@%KOREAN WAR%@BO:          50a0f9@%%@AE@% against UN forces in 1950,
participating on a large scale until the armistice of 1953. A liberal
"hundred flowers" period (1957) was followed by a crackdown on
intellectuals and the Great Leap Forward (1958-60), a massive industrial
and agricultural development program that was intended to transform
China's economy overnight but that ended in the largest famine in world
history, with an estimated 20-40 million deaths. At about the same time a
growing ideological rift between China and the USSR led to withdrawal of
Soviet aid and technical assistance. Evidence of internal tension began
to surface in the 1960s, culminating in the %@AU@%CULTURAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          2541f0@%%@AE@% of
1966-69, a massive upheaval launched by Mao to purge the revolution of
liberal elements. Tension increased in the early 1970s with the
revelation that Lin Piao, China's defense minister and Mao's designated
heir, had died (1971) in a plane crash after an attempt to assassinate
Mao. In international affairs, China's progress toward recognition as a
world power was aided by its explosion of an atomic bomb (1964) and the
launching of its first satellite (1970). An easing of relations with the
West led to the admission of China to the UN in 1971 and to a visit to
China by Pres. Richard Nixon in 1972. Chou En-lai and Mao Tse-tung died
in 1976. Following the assumption of power by %@AU@%HUA GUOFENG%@BO:          44e927@%%@AE@%, the country
was shaken by the arrest of Mao's widow, %@AU@%JIANG,> QING%@BO:          4c3814@%%@AE@%, and three
colleagues (the %@AU@%GANG OF FOUR%@BO:          37d69d@%%@AE@%); Jiang was sentenced to death in 1981 but
granted a renewable two-year reprieve. %@AU@%DENG XIAO PING%@BO:          27f443@%%@AE@%, who came to power
in 1977, adopted a program of rapid economic modernization. Liberal
economic and trade policies were instituted, and the U.S. and China
normalized diplomatic relations on Jan. 1, 1979. In 1981 the Communist
party criticized Mao's later policies in a public document, although his
thought was reaffirmed as the nation's guideline in new party and
national constitutions, adopted in 1982. In early 1989 China was the
scene of massive demonstrations, initiated by university students, but
soon joined by millions of other citizens, calling for democratic reforms
and an end to official corruption.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@TH: 102  6790 03 38 38 @%%@AB@%Chinese Dynasties%@AE@%%@AI@%Dynasty%@AE@%                               %@AI@%Characteristics and History%@AE@%%@AB@%────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────%@AE@%%@NL@%Hsiac. 1994--c.1523 B.C.              Semilegendary Emperor Yu built                                       irrigation channels, reclaimed land.                                      Bronze weapons, chariots, domestic                                       animals used. Wheat, millet                                       cultivated. First use of written                                       symbols.Shang or Yinc. 1523--c.1027 B.C.      First historic dynasty. Complex                                       agricultural society with a                                       bureaucracy and defined social                                       classes. Well-developed writing,                                       first Chinese calendar. Great age of                                      bronze casting.Chouc. 1027--256 B.C.                 Classical age (%@AU@%CONFUCIUS%@BO:          21eaae@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LAO-TZE%@BO:          52529d@%%@AE@%,                                       Mencius) despite political disorder.                                      Written laws, money economy. Iron                                       implements and oxdrawn plow in use.                                       Followed by Warring States period,                                       403--221 B.C.Ch'in 221--207 B.C.                   Unification of China under harsh                                       rule of Shih Huang-ti. %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@%                                       replaced by pyramidal bureaucratic                                       government. Written language                                       standardized. Roads, canals, much of                                      %@AU@%GREAT WALL%@BO:          3cf598@%%@AE@% built.Han 202 B.C.--A.D. 220                Unification furthered, but harshness                                      lessened and %@AU@%CONFUCINISM%@BO:          21e3e6@%%@AE@% made basis                                       for bureaucratic state. %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%                                       introduced. Encyclopedic history,                                       dictionary compiled; porcelain                                       produced.Three Kingdoms A. D. 220--265         Division into three states: Wei, Shu,                                      Wu. Wei gradually dominant.                                       Confucianism eclipsed; increased                                       importance of %@AU@%TAOISM%@BO:          92c149@%%@AE@% and Buddhism.                                       Many Indian scientific advances                                       adopted.Tsin or Chin 265--420                 Founded by a Wei general; gradual                                       expansion to the southeast. Series                                       of barbarian dynasties ruled N China.                                      Continued growth of Buddhism.Sui 581--618                          Reunification; centralized                                       government reestablished. Buddhism,                                       Taoism favored. Great Wall                                       refortified; canal system                                       established.T'ang 618--906                        Territorial expansion. Buddhism                                       temporarily suppressed. %@AU@%CIVIL %@AE@%                                      %@AU@%SERVICE%@BO:          1ec203@%%@AE@% examinations based on                                       Confucianism. Age of great                                       achievements in poetry (%@AU@%LI PO%@BO:          55853b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PO %@AE@%                                      %@AU@%CHU-I%@BO:          771217@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TU FU%@BO:          987b0f@%%@AE@%), sculpture, painting.Five Dynasties and Ten                Period of warfare, official Kingdoms 907--960                     corruption, general hardship.                                       Widespread development of printing                                       (see %@AU@%TYPE%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@%); paper money first                                       printed.Sung 960--1279                        Period of great social and                                       intellectual change.                                       Neo-Confucianism attains supremacy                                       over Taoism and Buddhism; central                                       bureaucracy reestablished.                                       Widespread cultivation of tea and                                       cotton; gunpowder first used                                       militarily.Yuan 1260--1368                       %@AU@%MONGOL%@BO:          62c334@%%@AE@% dynasty founded by %@AU@%KUBLAI %@AE@%                                      %@AU@%KHAN%@BO:          50f51c@%%@AE@%. Growing contact with West.                                       Confucian ideals discouraged. Great                                       age of Chinese playwriting. Revolts                                       in Mongolia, S China end dynasty.Ming 1368--1644                       Mongols expelled. Confucianism,                                       civil service examinations                                       reinstated. Contact with European                                       traders, missionaries. Porcelain,                                       architecture (see %@AU@%CHINESE %@AE@%                                      %@AU@%ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          1d5d9b@%%@AE@%), the novel and drama                                       flourish.Ch'ing or Manchu 1644--1912           Established by the %@AU@%MANCHUS%@BO:          5aa5f6@%%@AE@%.                                       Territorial expansion but gradual                                       weakening of Chinese power; decline                                       of central authority. Increasing                                       European trade; foreign powers                                       divide China into spheres of                                       influence. %@AU@%OPIUM WAR%@BO:          6e1c93@%%@AE@% %@AU@%HONG KONG%@BO:          4413e4@%%@AE@%                                       ceded; %@AU@%BOXER UPRISING%@BO:          12e6bd@%%@AE@%. Last Chinese                                       monarchy.%@TE: 102  6790 03 38 38 @%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%China, Great Wall of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%China, Great Wall of%@AE@%:%@CR:CHINA2          @%%@QR:China, Great Wall of@% see %@AU@%GREAT WALL OF CHINA%@BO:          3cf598@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%China, Republic of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%China, Republic of%@AE@%,%@CR:CHINA3          @%%@QR:China, Republic of@% official name of %@AU@%TAIWAN%@BO:          9258a0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chinchilla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chinchilla%@AE@%,%@CR:CHINCHILLA      @%%@QR:chinchilla@% small, burrowing %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% that lives in colonies up to 15,000%@EH@%
ft (4,270 m) high in the Andes of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Its soft gray
pelt is one of the costliest of all furs, and the wild chinchilla was
nearly exterminated before protective laws were passed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chinchona%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chinchona%@AE@%:%@CR:CHINCHONA       @%%@QR:chinchona@% see %@AU@%CINCHONA%@BO:          1e69d3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chinese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chinese%@AE@%,%@CR:CHINESE         @%%@QR:Chinese@% subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chinese architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chinese architecture%@AE@%.%@CR:CHINESECTURE    @%%@QR:Chinese architecture@% Few buildings exist in China predating the Ming%@EH@%
dynasty (1368-1644) because of wars, invasions, and insubstantial
construction (wood and rice-paper). An exception is the Great Wall of
China. Mid-20th-cent. architectural finds have clarified some of the
history of Chinese architecture. As early as the neolithic period, the
basic principle of supporting a roof with spaced columns rather than
walls was established. Walls served merely as enclosing screens. The
typical Chinese roof probably dates from c.1500 BC, but it is known only
from the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), when it appeared in the familiar
form-graceful, overhanging, sometimes in tiers, with upturned eaves. It
rested on brackets resting in turn on columns. Roof tiles were colorfully
glazed and brackets elaborately carved and painted. A characteristic
ground plan has remained constant in Chinese and Japanese palaces and
temples. Inside an external wall, the building complex is arranged along
a central axis and is approached through a series of gates. Next come a
public hall and finally the private quarters. Each residential unit was
built around a central court with a garden, which became an art form in
itself. The coming of %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% did not affect the style. The only
distinctly Buddhist building was the %@AU@%PAGODA%@BO:          7006fa@%%@AE@%, simple and square at first,
later more elaborate. A distinctive pagoda style emerged in the 11th
cent. Built in three stages, it had a base, shaft, and crown, surmounted
by a spire, and was often octagonal. In the Ming period the complex of
courtyards, parks, and palaces became labyrinthian. %@AU@%PEKING'S%@BO:          729d04@%%@AE@% Forbidden
City remains a spectacular achievement of intricacy and decoration. Since
the late 19th cent. the Chinese have adopted European styles,
particularly Soviet, with a trend toward the massive and clearly
functional in public buildings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chinese art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chinese art%@AE@%,%@CR:CHINESE.ART     @%%@QR:Chinese art@% the oldest in the world, has its origins in remote antiquity%@EH@%
(see %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%). Excavations in Gansu and Henan have revealed a Neolithic
culture with pottery painted in dynamic swirling or lozenge-shaped
patterns. Bronze vessels from the Shang dynasty (2d millennium) indicate
an advanced culture as well as a long period of prior experimentation.
Bronzes were decorated with severe abstract as well as naturalistic
representations. The advent of %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% (1st cent. AD) brought works of
sculpture, painting, and architecture of a distinctly religious nature.
Representations of the %@AU@%BUDDHA%@BO:          1512ce@%%@AE@% and the bodhisattvas became great themes in
sculpture. The forms of these figures came from India, but by the 6th
cent. AD Chinese artists had developed their own sculpture style, which
reached its greatest distinction in the T'ang dynasty (618-906). Buddhist
sculpture continued to flourish until the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), at
which time exquisite miniature sculpture in %@AU@%JADE%@BO:          4adaf0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%IVORY%@BO:          4a8d67@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GLASS%@BO:          3a9637@%%@AE@% was
produced in China and Japan. The origins of Chinese painting are largely
lost until the 5th cent. AD The Caves of a Thousand Buddhas, near
Dunhuang, contain frescoes and scrolls dating from the 5th to 8th cent.
Chinese painting achieves its effects through mastery of the line and
silhouette rather than through %@AU@%PERSPECTIVE%@BO:          73cee5@%%@AE@% or the rendering of light and
shadow. The art of figure painting reached its peak in the T'ang dynasty,
which also saw the rise of Chinese %@AU@%LANDSCAPE PAINTING%@BO:          51ea99@%%@AE@%. In the Sung
dynasty (960-1279) landscape painting reached its peak, reflecting
contemporary Taoist and Confucian views. The human figure was diminished
so as not to intrude on the orderly magnitude of nature. The monumental
detail also began to emerge-a single bamboo flower or bird became the
subject for a painting. The Ch'an (Zen) sect of Buddhism used rapid brush
strokes and ink splashes to create intuitive works of great vigor. With
the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368) and Mongol rule, the human figure assumed
greater importance, and %@AU@%STILL-LIFE%@BO:          8f19c7@%%@AE@% painting gained prominence. In the
Ming dynasty (1368-1644) a developing connoisseurship preserved many
great works of art. During the Ch'ing (1644-1912) dynasty a level of
technical competence was developed that lasted until the 19th cent., but
there was little innovation in painting. By the 19th cent. reliance on
calligraphic techniques had produced sterile formulas in painting. The
development of Chinese %@AU@%POTTERY%@BO:          78bb0d@%%@AE@%-making followed that of painting, reaching
perfection in the Sung dynasty and extreme technical elaboration in the
Ming. In the minor arts, e.g., %@AU@%ENAMEL%@BO:          2e9ff6@%%@AE@% ware, lacquer ware, jade, ivory,
and textiles, the world owes an incalculable debt to the influence of
Chinese art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chinese exclusion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chinese exclusion%@AE@%,%@CR:CHINESEON       @%%@QR:Chinese exclusion@% policy initiated in 1882 banning U.S. entry to Chinese%@EH@%
laborers. After the U.S. acquisition (1848) of California, there arose a
need for cheap labor, and Chinese flocked there to work on the railroads.
By 1867 they numbered 50,000; their number increased after the Burlingame
Treaty of 1868, which permitted Chinese immigration but not
naturalization. Anti-Oriental prejudice and the competition with American
workers led to anti-Chinese riots (1877) in San Francisco, then to the
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which banned Chinese immigration for 10
years. In a new treaty of 1894, China accepted another 10-year exclusion,
which Congress unilaterally continued until the 1924 immigration law that
excluded all Asians. In 1943 a new law extended citizenship rights, and
permitted an annual immigration of 105 Chinese. The quota was abolished
in 1965.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chinese literature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chinese literature%@AE@%.%@CR:CHINESEURE      @%%@QR:Chinese literature@% The oldest written records (c.1400 BC) in Chinese are%@EH@%
from the Shang dynasty, but the elaborate system of notation in use then
indicates an earlier origin. Most of the oldest extant works of
literature were written in the late Chou dynasty (c.1207-256 BC),
including much of the %@AI@%Five Classics%@AE@% of %@AU@%CONFUCIANISM%@BO:          21e3e6@%%@AE@%. Traditionally
attributed to %@AU@%CONFUCIUS%@BO:          21eaae@%%@AE@%, the %@AI@%Five Classics%@AE@% consist of the %@AI@%Spring and
%@AI@%Autumn Annals,%@AE@% a chronology of Lu, Confucius's native state; the %@AU@%BOOK OF
%@AU@%CHANGES%@BO:          11f6a7@%%@AE@%, a system of divination; the %@AI@%Book of Rites,%@AE@% which describes
ceremonials and the ideal state; the %@AI@%Book of History,%@AE@% historical records;
and the %@AI@%Book of Songs,%@AE@% a collection of poems on war, love, and peasant
life written in a simple style. Other important early books include the
chief literature of %@AU@%TAOISM%@BO:          92c149@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%The Way and Its Power (Tao-te ching),%@AE@%
traditionally ascribed to %@AU@%LAO-TZE%@BO:          52529d@%%@AE@%, and the work of Chuang-tze. These
books probably achieved their present form in the 2d cent. BC In time the
literary and spoken languages of China diverged sharply. In poetry the
freedom of the Chou dynasty was followed by the development of prescribed
forms, and by the T'ang dynasty (618-906) prosodic rules and
pronunciation no longer reflected the spoken language. Classical Chinese
poems are usually short, unemphatic lyrics, suggesting a mood or scene by
a few touches instead of a detailed picture. Historical and literary
allusions abound, while intellectual themes and narratives are rather
rare. The T'ang dynasty was the great age of %@AU@%WANG WEI%@BO:          9ef6b6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LI PO%@BO:          55853b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TU FU%@BO:          987b0f@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%PO CHU-I%@BO:          771217@%%@AE@%, the masters of Chinese poetry. In the succeeding Sung dynasty
(960-1279), %@AU@%SU TUNG-P'O%@BO:          913f13@%%@AE@% was perhaps the foremost poet. Much learned prose
has also been written in Chinese; particularly notable are the fairly
accurate and objective histories produced since the Han dynasty (202
BC-AD 220). %@AU@%SSU-MA CH'IEN'S%@BO:          8dfaa5@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Records of the Grand Historian of China%@AE@%
(c.100 BC) is the outstanding example and the model for later histories.
During the T'ang and Sung dynasties popular prose and verse written in
the vernacular appeared. Springing from story cycles by professional
storytellers, the vernacular literature first emerged as full-fledged art
in the drama of the Yuan dynasty (1260-1368; see %@AU@%ORIENTAL DRAMA%@BO:          6ec79c@%%@AE@%). The
great novels of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) that followed took shape
gradually before being given their final form, perhaps anonymously by
traditional scholars. An outstanding early novel is %@AI@%Romance of the Three
%@AI@%Kingdoms,%@AE@% which recounts heroic deeds and chivalrous exploits. %@AI@%Journey to
%@AI@%the West,%@AE@% or %@AI@%Monkey,%@AE@% is an allegorical tale of the supernatural
adventures of a Buddhist monk on an Indian pilgrimage. The greatest
Chinese novel is %@AI@%Dream of the Red Chamber,%@AE@% or %@AI@%Story of the Stone,%@AE@% an
18th-cent. work chiefly by Ts'ao Hsueh-ch'in, which recounts the
declining fortunes of an aristocratic family. After the republican
revolution (1912) writers such as Hu shih and %@AU@%LU HSUN%@BO:          57c619@%%@AE@% rejected classical
modes of composition and advocated writing in %@AI@%paihua%@AE@% everyday speech. It
has proved particularly effective in prose. Chinese literature has
suffered from government-sponsored %@AU@%SOCIALIST REALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@%, but recently there
has been some loosening of restrictions. Among the most distinguished
modern Chinese writers are Lu Hsun, Mao Dun (Mao Tun), Lao She, Shen
Congwen (Shen Ts'ung-wen), and Ba Jin (Pa Chin).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chinese music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chinese music%@AE@%%@CR:CHINESE.MUSIC   @%%@QR:Chinese music@% can be traced to the third millennium BC Most of its early%@EH@%
history is lost. In China music and philosophy were always inseparably
bound. Musical theory was symbolic and was stable through the ages. The
single tone was more significant than melody and was an attribute of the
substance producing it. Music had cosmological and ethical connotations
comparable to %@AU@%GREEK MUSIC%@BO:          3d2f82@%%@AE@%. The Chinese %@AU@%SCALE%@BO:          8527cd@%%@AE@% is pentatonic. Vocal melody
is limited by the fact that, in Chinese, inflection affects a word's
meaning, and also because quantitative %@AU@%RHYTHMS%@BO:          7eedb5@%%@AE@% are not easily adaptable
to the language. The ancient hymns were slow and solemn, accompanied by
large orchestras. Opera originated in the 14th cent. In the 20th cent.
Western harmony has been influential. Since 1949 the Peking Opera has
produced numerous new works in traditional performance style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ch'ing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ch'ing%@AE@%%@CR:CHING           @%%@QR:Ch'ing@% or %@AB@%Manchu,%@AE@%dynasty: see %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chinoiserie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chinoiserie%@AE@%,%@CR:CHINOISERIE     @%%@QR:chinoiserie@% decoration influenced by Chinese art. Medieval travelers%@EH@%
brought Eastern art back to Europe. By the 17th cent. Dutch ceramics
showed the influence of Chinese blue-and-white porcelains. In the
mid-18th cent., interiors, furniture, and textiles were decorated with
Chinese-in spired motifs of human figures, scenery, pagodas, and exotic
birds and flowers. In France, chinoiserie blended with the %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@% Louis
XV style. In England, the style influenced furniture made by %@AU@%CHIPPENDALE%@BO:          1d918c@%%@AE@%.
Chinoiserie was popular in the American colonies, especially in wallpaper
designs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chios%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chios%@AE@%:%@CR:CHIOS           @%%@QR:Chios@% see %@AU@%KHIOS%@BO:          4f5796@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chipmunk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chipmunk%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIPMUNK        @%%@QR:chipmunk@% %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%SQUIRREL%@BO:          8decea@%%@AE@% family. The common Eastern chipmunk%@EH@%
(%@AI@%Tamias striatus%@AE@%), about 5 to 6 in. (13 to 15 cm) long, has reddish or
grayish brown upper parts with a median black stripe and two black
stripes separated by a whitish band along each side. Chipmunks eat nuts,
berries, and insects; food is carried in expandable cheek pouches.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chippendale, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chippendale, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIPPENDALE     @%%@QR:Chippendale, Thomas@% 1718-79, English cabinetmaker. His designs were so%@EH@%
widely followed that much 18th-cent. English furniture is grouped under
his name, but only those pieces for which the original bills survive
(e.g., for Harewood House) can be assigned unquestionably to his
workshop. To the sober design and fine construction of the Queen Anne and
Georgian styles he added Chinese (see %@AU@%CHINOISERIE%@BO:          1d8bb0@%%@AE@%), Gothic, and %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@%
motifs. He made chairs of many types, from geometrical to sumptuously
carved; desks; mirror frames; china cabinets and bookcases; and tables
with fretted galleries and cluster-column Gothic legs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chippewa Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chippewa Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:CHIPPEWS        @%%@QR:Chippewa Indians@% see %@AU@%OJIBWA INDIANS%@BO:          6d34fb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chirico, Giorgio de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chirico, Giorgio de%@AE@%%@CR:CHIRICO         @%%@QR:Chirico, Giorgio de@%, 1888-1978, Italian painter; b. Greece. His powerful,%@EH@%
disturbing paintings employ steep %@AU@%PERSPECTIVE%@BO:          73cee5@%%@AE@%, mannequin figures, empty
space, and forms out of context to create an atmosphere of mystery and
loneliness. An influence on early %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, he termed his symbolism
metaphysical painting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chiron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chiron%@AE@%%@CR:CHIRON          @%%@QR:Chiron@%, in Greek mythology, a centaur; son of %@AU@%CRONUS%@BO:          24e007@%%@AE@%. He was a wise%@EH@%
physician and prophet whose pupils included %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ACHILLES%@BO:            b6d3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JASON%@BO:          4b7a26@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%ASCLEPIUS%@BO:           89623@%%@AE@%. After receiving an incurable wound, he gave his
immortality to %@AU@%PROMETHEUS%@BO:          79fb30@%%@AE@% and died. %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% turned him into the
constellation Sagittarius.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chiropractic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chiropractic%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIROPRACTIC    @%%@QR:chiropractic@% medical practice based on the theory that disease results%@EH@%
from a disruption of nerve function. This interference is thought to stem
primarily from displaced vertebrae, which chiropractors massage and
manipulate manually in order to relieve pressure on nerves.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill%@AE@%,%@CR:CHISHOLM        @%%@QR:Chisholm, Shirley Anita St. Hill@% 1924-, U.S. congresswoman from New York%@EH@%
(1969-83); b. Brooklyn, N.Y. An expert in early childhood education, she
was elected (1968) a Democratic member of the U.S. House of
Representatives, and became the first black woman to serve in that body.
She was known for her criticism of the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% and of the House
seniority system, and for advocating the interests of the urban poor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chisholm Trail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chisholm Trail%@AE@%,%@CR:CHISHOLM.TRAIL  @%%@QR:Chisholm Trail@% route over which herds of cattle were driven to railheads%@EH@%
in Kansas after the Civil War. In 1866, Jesse Chisholm, an Indian trader,
cut the trail by carting a heavy load of buffalo hides from Oklahoma to
Kansas. Drovers followed the trail for 20 years with hundreds of
thousands of Texas longhorns; it became celebrated in frontier stories
and ballads. The trail fell into disuse as railroads and wire fencing
developed, but traces of it survive.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chiton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chiton%@AE@%,%@CR:CHITON          @%%@QR:chiton@% marine invertebrate %@AU@%MOLLUSK%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@% (class Amphineura). The chiton has a%@EH@%
low oval body covered dorsally by a slightly convex shell of eight
overlapping plates. It clings tightly to hard surfaces with its broad
flat ventral foot; it crawls by means of muscular undulations of the
foot. The mouth, located in front of the foot, contains a toothed
scraping organ, the radula. Chitons range from 1/2 in. to 12 in. (1.2-30
cm).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chittagong%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chittagong%@AE@%,%@CR:CHITTAGONG      @%%@QR:Chittagong@% city (1981 pop. 1,388,476), capital of Chittagong division,%@EH@%
SE Bangladesh, on the Karnafuli R. near the Bay of Bengal. An important
rail terminus and administrative center, it is the chief port of
Bangladesh, with modern facilities for oceangoing vessels. Oil (offshore
installations and refineries) and cotton- and jute-processing are among
its important industries. A port known since the early centuries AD, it
was controlled successively by the Hindus, Arakans, Moguls, and British.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chivalry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chivalry%@AE@%,%@CR:CHIVALRY        @%%@QR:chivalry@% system of ethical ideals that grew out of %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@% and had its%@EH@%
zenith in the 12th and 13th cent. Chivalric ethics originated chiefly in
France and Spain and spread rapidly. They represented a fusion of
Christian and military concepts of morality, and they still form the
basis of gentlemanly conduct. The chief chivalric virtues were piety,
honor, valor, courtesy, chastity, and loyalty. The knight's loyalty was
due to God, to his suzerain, and to his sworn love. Love in the
chivalrous sense was largely platonic. The ideal of militant knighthood
was greatly enhanced by the %@AU@%CRUSADES%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%, and the monastic orders of knights,
the %@AU@%KNIGHTS TEMPLARS%@BO:          5044ed@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%KNIGHTS HOSPITALERS%@BO:          503aa7@%%@AE@%, produced soldiers sworn to
uphold the Christian ideal. Besides the battlefield, the tournament
became an arena in which the virtues of chivalry could be proved. The
code of %@AU@%COURTLY LOVE%@BO:          23ff63@%%@AE@% was developed in France and Flanders. In practice,
chivalric conduct was never free from corruption, and the outward
trappings of chivalry declined in the 15th cent. Medieval secular
literature, such as the %@AU@%ARTHURIAN LEGEND%@BO:           855f0@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%CHANSONS DE GESTE%@BO:          1b8d0d@%%@AE@%, was
concerned primarily with knighthood and chivalry. In the 19th cent.
%@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% revived chivalrous ideals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chive%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chive%@AE@%:%@CR:CHIVE           @%%@QR:chive@% see %@AU@%ONION%@BO:          6dd595@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chkalov%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chkalov%@AE@%:%@CR:CHKALOV         @%%@QR:Chkalov@% see %@AU@%ORENBURG%@BO:          6ea560@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chlorine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chlorine%@AE@%%@CR:CHLORINE        @%%@QR:chlorine@% (Cl), gaseous element, discovered in 1774 by Karl %@AU@%SCHEELE%@BO:          854e7b@%%@AE@%, who%@EH@%
thought it was an oxygen compound, and identified as an element by Sir
Humphry %@AU@%DAVY%@BO:          26d9c9@%%@AE@% in 1810. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow, poisonous gas with a
disagreeable, suffocating odor. A %@AU@%HALOGEN%@BO:          3f5f77@%%@AE@%, it occurs in nature in
numerous and abundant compounds, e.g., sodium chloride (common salt).
Chlorine is soluble in water; chlorine water has strong oxidizing
properties. Chlorine is used in water purification, and as a disinfectant
and antiseptic. Chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT) are long-lasting
pesticides. Many poison gases contain chlorine. Chlorine compounds used
medically include chloroform and chloral hydrate. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chlorophyll%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chlorophyll%@AE@%,%@CR:CHLOROPHYLL     @%%@QR:chlorophyll@% green pigment in plants that gives most their color and%@EH@%
enables them to carry on the process of %@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@%. Chlorophyll,
found in the %@AU@%CHLOROPLASTS%@BO:          1db46b@%%@AE@% of the plant cell, is the only substance in
nature able to trap and store the energy of sunlight. The light absorbed
by chlorophyll molecules is mainly in the red and blue-violet parts of
the visible spectrum; the green portion is not absorbed but reflected,
and thus chlorophyll appears green.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chlorophyta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chlorophyta%@AE@%,%@CR:CHLOROPHYTA     @%%@QR:Chlorophyta@% division of the plant kingdom consisting of green %@AU@%ALGAE%@BO:           3985a@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
the stoneworts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chloroplast%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chloroplast%@AE@%,%@CR:CHLOROPLAST     @%%@QR:chloroplast@% complex, discrete, lens-shaped structure, or organelle,%@EH@%
contained in the cytoplasm of plant cells. Chloroplasts have
submicroscopic, disklike bodies, called grana, that house %@AU@%CHLOROPHYLL%@BO:          1db0e0@%%@AE@% and
are the central site of the process of %@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chocolate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chocolate%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOCOLATE       @%%@QR:chocolate@% term for products of the seeds of the %@AU@%CACAO%@BO:          16a465@%%@AE@% tree, used for%@EH@%
making beverages or candy. Chocolate is prepared by a complex process of
cleaning, blending, and roasting the beans, which are then ground and
mixed with sugar, cocoa butter, and milk solids. A chocolate drink known
to the Aztecs came to Europe through Spanish explorers c.1500, and was a
fashionable beverage in 17th- and 18th-cent. England. In 1765 chocolate
was first manufactured in the U.S., now the world's leading producer. The
process for making milk chocolate was perfected in Switzerland c.1876.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Choctaw Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Choctaw Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOCTAW.INDIANS @%%@QR:Choctaw Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Eastern Woodlands, who%@EH@%
lived mostly in central and S Mississippi and spoke a Muskogean branch of
the Hokan-Siouan language stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). They had
an agricultural economy and were excellent farmers. After being forced to
cede their lands, they moved in 1832 to Indian Territory and became one
of the %@AU@%FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES%@BO:          337eac@%%@AE@%. Most Choctaws live in Oklahoma, but few
remain on reservations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cholera%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cholera%@AE@%%@CR:CHOLERA         @%%@QR:cholera@% or %@AB@%Asiatic cholera,%@AE@%acute infectious disease caused by the%@EH@%
bacterium %@AI@%Vibrio cholerae.%@AE@% The bacteria, which are found in
fecal-contaminated food and water, produce a %@AU@%TOXIN%@BO:          970bcd@%%@AE@% that affects the
intestines, causing diarrhea, severe fluid and electrolyte loss, and, if
untreated, death. Treatment consists of administration of glucose and
electrolyte solutions. The disease remains prevalent in regions of Africa
and Asia where public sanitation is poor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cholesterol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cholesterol%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOLESTEROL     @%%@QR:cholesterol@% fatty substance found in vertebrates and in foods from%@EH@%
animal sources. A %@AU@%STEROID%@BO:          8ef0b9@%%@AE@%, cholesterol is found in large concentrations
in the brain and spinal cord, as well as in the liver, the major site of
cholesterol biosynthesis. Cholesterol is the major precursor of the
synthesis of vitamin D and the various steroid %@AU@%HORMONES%@BO:          446acb@%%@AE@%. It sometimes
crystallizes in the %@AU@%GALL BLADDER%@BO:          377bdb@%%@AE@% to form gallstones. Atherosclerosis (see
%@AU@%ARTERIOSCLEROSIS%@BO:           83ab8@%%@AE@%) is associated with deposits of cholesterol inside major
blood vessels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chomsky, Noam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chomsky, Noam%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOMSKY         @%%@QR:Chomsky, Noam@% 1928-, American linguist; b. Philadelphia. His theory of%@EH@%
generative grammar, first proposed in %@AI@%Syntactic Structures%@AE@% (1957),
revolutionized the study of language (see %@AU@%LINGUISTICS%@BO:          556886@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE GRAMMAR%@BO:          974aba@%%@AE@%). He posits innate structures, not
minimal sounds, as the basis for speech. He has written numerous
linguistic works, e.g., %@AI@%Reflections on Language%@AE@% (1975), and books on
current politics, e.g., %@AI@%The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism%@AE@%
(1979), with Edward S. Herman.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chongqing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chongqing%@AE@%%@CR:CHONGQING       @%%@QR:Chongqing@% or %@AB@%Chungking%@AE@% , city (1986 est. pop. 2,780,000), SE Sichuan%@EH@%
prov., SW China, at the confluence of the Jialing and Yangtze rivers. An
industrial hub manufacturing steel, machinery, chemicals, and other
products, Chongqing comprises a narrow, densely populated inner city
rising on a mountain between its two rivers, and a planned industrial and
residential district to the west. Long an important regional center,
Chongqing became a %@AU@%TREATY PORT%@BO:          979547@%%@AE@% in 1891 and was the capital of %@AU@%CHIANG
%@AU@%KAI-SHEK'S%@BO:          1cbd12@%%@AE@% Nationalist government during World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chopin, Frederic Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chopin, Frederic Francois%@AE@%%@CR:CHOPIN1         @%%@QR:Chopin, Frederic Francois@%, 1810-49, Franco-Polish composer; b. Poland. He%@EH@%
brought romantic piano music to unprecedented heights of expressiveness.
In the 1830s he settled in Paris; although he remained a Polish
nationalist, he never returned home. He associated with literary and
artistic figures, notably George %@AU@%SAND%@BO:          83e8a7@%%@AE@%, with whom he had a liaison from
1836 to 1847, when a long illness developed into tuberculosis. Chopin
established the %@AU@%PIANO%@BO:          7566bd@%%@AE@% as a solo instrument free from choral or orchestral
influence. In his piano %@AU@%CONCERTOS%@BO:          21ae65@%%@AE@% in E Minor (1833) and F Minor (1836),
the piano dominates the orchestra. Other major works are 24 preludes
(1838-39); %@AU@%SONATAS%@BO:          8b73bf@%%@AE@% in B Flat Minor (1840) and B Minor (1845); many
etudes; and, expressing Polish nationalism, many polonaises and mazurkas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chopin, Kate O'Flaherty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chopin, Kate O'Flaherty%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOPIN2         @%%@QR:Chopin, Kate O'Flaherty@% 1851-1904, American author; b. St. Louis. Her%@EH@%
novel %@AI@%The Awakening%@AE@% (1899) caused great controversy because of her
treatment of female sexuality but is now highly regarded. She also wrote
sketches of Creole life collected in %@AI@%Bayou Folk%@AE@% (1894) and %@AI@%A Night in
%@AI@%Acadie%@AE@% (1897).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chordate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chordate%@AE@%,%@CR:CHORDATE        @%%@QR:chordate@% common name for an animal having three unique features at some%@EH@%
stage of its development: a notochord (dorsal stiffening rod) as the
chief internal support, a tubular nerve cord (spinal cord) above the
notochord, and %@AU@%GILL%@BO:          3a3395@%%@AE@% slits leading into the pharynx (anterior part of the
digestive tract). Grouped in the phylum Chordata, chordates are mainly
vertebrates, animals of the subphylum Vertebrata (the %@AU@%FISHES%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AMPHIBIANS%@BO:           4df7b@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%REPTILES%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BIRDS%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MAMMALS%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@%), in which a backbone of bone or cartilage
forms around the notochord; the rest are small aquatic invertebrates of
the subphyla Urochordata (%@AU@%TUNICATES%@BO:          989636@%%@AE@%) and Cephalochordata (%@AU@%LANCELETS%@BO:          51d96a@%%@AE@%), in
which there are no backbones.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chorea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chorea%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOREA          @%%@QR:chorea@% disease causing involuntary jerky, arrhythmic movements of the%@EH@%
face, limbs, or entire body. The childhood disease %@AB@%Sydenham's chorea, %@AE@%or
%@AB@%St. Vitus' dance, %@AE@%is usually a complication of %@AU@%RHEUMATIC FEVER%@BO:          7eb95d@%%@AE@%. The
condition develops slowly, sometimes up to six months after the acute
infection has occurred, but it resolves completely. In %@AB@%Huntington's
%@AB@%chorea, %@AE@%a hereditary disease of adulthood, the jerky movements
characteristic of the disorder result from progressive degeneration of
the central %@AU@%NERVOUS SYSTEM%@BO:          6854a4@%%@AE@%. The disease is invariably fatal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chorus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chorus%@AE@%,%@CR:CHORUS          @%%@QR:chorus@% in ancient Greek drama, the group that spoke to accent the%@EH@%
action. It seems to have arisen from the singing of the %@AU@%DITHYRAMB%@BO:          2972cd@%%@AE@% and to
have become a true dramatic chorus when %@AU@%THESPIS%@BO:          94f209@%%@AE@% introduced the actor in
the 6th cent. BC As %@AU@%TRAGEDY%@BO:          97260f@%%@AE@% developed, the size and role of the chorus
diminished while that of the actor increased. By the 2d cent. BC it had
ceased to have anything to do with the action, and it eventually
disappeared.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chou%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOU            @%%@QR:Chou@% dynasty: see %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chou En-lai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chou En-lai%@AE@%%@CR:CHOU.ENLAI      @%%@QR:Chou En-lai@%, 1898-1976, Chinese Communist leader. He studied in Europe%@EH@%
and there became a founder of the Chinese Communist party. He returned
(1924) to China and joined %@AU@%SUN YAT-SEN%@BO:          90cc8f@%%@AE@%, who was then cooperating with the
Communists. In 1927 Chou organized a general strike in Shanghai that led
to the city's capture by %@AU@%CHIANG KAI-SHEK%@BO:          1cbd12@%%@AE@% and the Nationalists in the
Northern Expedition. After the break (1927) between Chiang and the
Communists, Chou held prominent Communist military and political posts.
He participated in the %@AU@%LONG MARCH%@BO:          56915b@%%@AE@% (1934-35) of the Communist army, and
after the creation of the People's Republic of China (1949) he was
foreign minister (1949-58) and premier (1949-76). He headed the Chinese
delegation to the Geneva Conference of 1954 and to the Bandung Conference
(1955). He is believed to have been largely responsible for China's
reestablishment of contacts with the West in the 1970s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chouteau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chouteau%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOUTEAU        @%%@QR:Chouteau@% family of American fur traders. %@AB@%Rene Auguste Chouteau,%@EH@%
%@AB@%%@AE@%1749-1829, b. New Orleans, established (1764) a trading post that became
St. Louis. His half brother, %@AB@%Jean Pierre Chouteau, %@AE@%1758-1849, b. New
Orleans, founded (1809) the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company and settled
Salina, Okla. Jean Pierre's son, %@AB@%Auguste Pierre Chouteau, %@AE@%1786-1838, b.
St. Louis, was a member of the company, and another son, %@AB@%Pierre Chouteau,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1789-1865, b. St. Louis, headed the reorganized company until its
dissolution in 1864 and became one of the richest, most powerful men in
the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chow chow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chow chow%@AE@%,%@CR:CHOW.CHOW       @%%@QR:chow chow@% powerful %@AU@%NONSPORTING DOG%@BO:          6b0c62@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 18-20 in.%@EH@%
(45.7-50.8 cm); weight, 50-60 lb (22.7-27.2 kg). Its coat has a soft,
wooly underlayer and a dense, straight topcoat that stands out from the
body. It may be any solid color and is the only breed with a black
tongue. A hunting dog in China 2,000 years ago, it was brought to England
in the 18th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chretien de Troyes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chretien de Troyes%@AE@%%@CR:CHRETIEYES      @%%@QR:Chretien de Troyes@%or %@AB@%Chrestien de Troyes%@AE@%, fl. 1170, French poet, author%@EH@%
of the first great literary treatments of the %@AU@%ARTHURIAN LEGEND%@BO:           855f0@%%@AE@%. His
narrative romances, imbued with the ideals of chivalry, include %@AI@%Erec et
%@AI@%Enide, Cliges,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Perceval.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christchurch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christchurch%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTCHURCH    @%%@QR:Christchurch@% city (1987 est. pop. 333,200), E South Island, New Zealand.%@EH@%
It is the commercial center of the productive Canterbury Plains and the
third largest city in New Zealand. Lyttleton is its port. Perhaps the
most English of New Zealand's cities, it has such landmarks as Hagley
Park and Christchurch Cathedral. It was settled in 1850 and is the site
of the Univ. of Canterbury (est. 1873).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christian%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTIAN       @%%@QR:Christian@% Danish kings. %@AB@%Christian I, %@AE@%1426-81, king of Denmark (1448-81),%@EH@%
Norway (1450-81), and Sweden (1457-64), was the founder of the Oldenburg
dynasty of Danish kings. In 1460 he also succeeded to Schleswig and
Holstein. A weak monarch, he made concessions to the Danish nobles and
lost his authority over Sweden. He was succeeded by his son John, whose
son was %@AB@%Christian II, %@AE@%1481-1559, king of Denmark and Norway (1513-23) and
Sweden (1520-23). His massacre of Swedish nobles led to the accession of
%@AU@%GUSTAVUS I%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@% of Sweden and the end of the %@AU@%KALMAR UNION%@BO:          4e0eb5@%%@AE@%. Christian was
deposed (1523) by the Danish nobles in favor of his uncle, Frederick I,
and imprisoned (1532) until his death. %@AB@%Christian III, %@AE@%1503-59, king of
Denmark and Norway (1534-59), was the son of Frederick I. With Gustavus I
of Sweden he defeated the German city of %@AU@%LUBECK%@BO:          57a090@%%@AE@% (1536), breaking the
power of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. He established (1536) Lutheranism in
Denmark. Never elected king of Norway, he declared it a Danish
dependency. He was succeeded by his son Frederick II. %@AB@%Christian IV,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1577-1648, king of Denmark and Norway (1588-1648), was the son of
Frederick II. He made war (1611-13, 1643-45) on %@AU@%CHARLES IX%@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@% of Sweden and
had a major part in the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR.%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% His son %@AU@%FREDERICK III%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% succeeded
him. Frederick's son was %@AB@%Christian V, %@AE@%1646-99, king of Denmark and Norway
(1670-99). His minister, %@AU@%GRIFFENFELD%@BO:          3dbd52@%%@AE@%, dominated his reign. His son
%@AU@%FREDERICK IV%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% succeeded him. %@AB@%Christian VI, %@AE@%1699-1746, king of Denmark and
Norway (1730-46), was the son of Frederick IV. A Pietist, he carried out
a peaceful foreign policy. In 1733 he established a form of serfdom. His
son %@AU@%FREDERICK V%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% succeeded him. %@AB@%Christian VII, %@AE@%1749-1808, king of Denmark
and Norway (1766-1808), was Frederick V's son. Because he was mentally
ill, power was held first by his ministers and then by his son and
successor, %@AU@%FREDERICK VI%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@%, as regent. Their reforms included the end of
serfdom. %@AB@%Christian VIII, %@AE@%1786-1848, king of Denmark (1839-48) and Norway
(1814), was the cousin and successor of Frederick VI. He accepted a
liberal Norwegian constitution. In 1836 Danish rule of %@AU@%SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN%@BO:          857e77@%%@AE@%
became an issue. His son %@AU@%FREDERICK VII%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% succeeded him. %@AB@%Christian IX,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1818-1906, king of Denmark (1863-1906), succeeded Frederick VII, last of
the Oldenburg line. In war (1864) with Prussia and Austria he lost
Schleswig and Holstein. During his rule there was pressure for a more
democratic constitution. His son %@AU@%FREDERICK VIII%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% succeeded him. A younger
son became %@AU@%GEORGE I%@BO:          393e67@%%@AE@% of Greece. %@AB@%Christian X, %@AE@%1870-1947, king of Denmark
(1912-47) and Iceland (1912-44), was the son of Frederick VIII and the
brother of %@AU@%HAAKON VII%@BO:          3ed43a@%%@AE@% of Norway. He granted (1915) a new constitution
enfranchising women. During the German occupation (1940-45) he was placed
under house arrest (1943). His son %@AU@%FREDERICK IX%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% succeeded him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christianity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christianity%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTIANITY    @%%@QR:Christianity@% all doctrines and religious groups based on the teachings%@EH@%
of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% Christ. Jesus is held by Christians to be the Son of God, the
second person of the %@AU@%TRINITY%@BO:          97db50@%%@AE@%, and the Savior of mankind. This teaching is
embodied in the Bible, particularly in the New Testament. Rooted in
%@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%, Christianity was founded in the 1st cent. in Palestine by
disciples of Jesus. It was spread, despite sporadic persecution, through
the Roman Empire by missionaries, notably St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%, and was recognized
(313) by %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@%. The early church was plagued by heresies
concerning the nature of Christ (e.g., %@AU@%ARIANISM%@BO:           7a0af@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NESTORIANISM%@BO:          685e94@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@%), which were condemned at councils such as the First
Council of %@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@% (325). Monasticism arose in Egypt in the 3d and 4th
cent. and was organized in the East by St. Basil the Great and in the
West by St. %@AU@%BENEDICT%@BO:           e4b6f@%%@AE@%. Christian writers, notably %@AU@%ORIGEN%@BO:          6ed576@%%@AE@%, St. %@AU@%ATHANASIUS%@BO:           945fb@%%@AE@%,
St. %@AU@%JEROME%@BO:          4bdef6@%%@AE@%, and St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@% helped to determine and preserve the text
of the Bible. In the East the church became centered in Constantinople
and was largely subordinate to the emperor; in the West the %@AU@%PAPACY%@BO:          70a3f2@%%@AE@% at
Rome remained an independent force. From both centers Christianity grew
to embrace all Europe, but in the 7th and 8th cent. lost Asia Minor and N
Africa to %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%. Gradually, a break developed between East and West (see
%@AU@%ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH%@BO:          806faa@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH%@BO:          6f08b3@%%@AE@%), and became more or less
permanent after 1054. In the West the growing power and corruption of the
church contributed to the Protestant %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%, which splintered
Christianity into numerous sects (see %@AU@%PROTESTANTISM%@BO:          7a3542@%%@AE@%). In the 20th cent.
the %@AU@%ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT%@BO:          2c4a0d@%%@AE@% was begun to promote Christian unity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christian Science%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christian Science%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTICE       @%%@QR:Christian Science@% religion founded upon principles of divine healing and%@EH@%
laws expressed in the acts and sayings of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% Christ, as discovered and
formulated by Mary Baker %@AU@%EDDY%@BO:          2c52f3@%%@AE@% and practiced by the Church of Christ,
Scientist. The sect denies the reality of the material world, arguing
that sin and illness are illusions to be overcome by the mind; thus, they
refuse medical help in fighting sickness. Mrs. Eddy's %@AI@%Science and Health
%@AI@%with Key to the Scriptures%@AE@% is the textbook of the doctrine. The church
was founded in 1879 and is centered in Boston.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christian socialism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christian socialism%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTILISM     @%%@QR:Christian socialism@% term used in Great Britain and the U.S. for a kind%@EH@%
of socialism growing out of the clash between Christian ideals and the
effects of competitive business. In Europe it usually refers to a party
or trade union directed by religious leaders in contrast to socialist
unions and parties. Begun (1848) in England and led by Frederick Denison
%@AU@%MAURICE%@BO:          5d63d9@%%@AE@% and Charles %@AU@%KINGSLEY%@BO:          4fcaa5@%%@AE@%, it sought to encourage the laboring masses
and the church to cooperate against capitalism. It was influenced by the
Fourierists (see %@AU@%FOURIER, CHARLES%@BO:          34d27b@%%@AE@%), rather than by %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@%. In the U.S. the
movement was organized (1889) with the formation of the Society of
Christian Socialists and was concerned more with the application of the
%@AU@%SOCIAL GOSPEL%@BO:          8ac22b@%%@AE@% to immediate industrial and social problems than with
political socialism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christie, Dame Agatha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christie, Dame Agatha%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTIE        @%%@QR:Christie, Dame Agatha@% 1891-1976, English detective-story writer. Most of%@EH@%
her over 80 books feature one of two detectives-Hercule Poirot or Jane
Marple. Her novels include %@AI@%The Murder of Roger Ackroyd%@AE@% (1926) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Pale Horse%@AE@% (1962). Among her plays is the long-running %@AI@%Mousetrap%@AE@% (1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christina%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTINA       @%%@QR:Christina@% 1626-89, queen of Sweden (1632-54), daughter of %@AU@%GUSTAVUS II%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Until 1644 she was under a regency headed by %@AU@%OXENSTIERNA%@BO:          6fac8e@%%@AE@%. Because of her
zeal for learning, she attracted to her court musicians, poets, and such
scholars as %@AU@%DESCARTES%@BO:          28372d@%%@AE@%. She refused to marry, naming her cousin, later
%@AU@%CHARLES X%@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@%, as her successor. In 1654 she abdicated, becoming a Catholic
and settling in Rome. On the death (1660) of Charles X she returned to
Sweden but failed to regain the throne. She is buried at St. Peter's in
Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christmas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christmas%@AE@%%@CR:CHRISTMAS       @%%@QR:Christmas@% [Christ's Mass], in the Christian calendar, the feast of the%@EH@%
nativity of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% Christ (Dec. 25). It ranks after %@AU@%EASTER%@BO:          2bd5a6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PENTECOST%@BO:          73031a@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%EPIPHANY%@BO:          2f75b9@%%@AE@% in liturgical importance and was not widespread until the 4th
cent. The customs of the yule log, caroling, mistletoe, and gifts at
Christmas are English. Elsewhere, gifts are given at other times, as at
Epiphany in Spain. Christmas cards appeared c.1846. The concept of a
jolly Santa Claus (see %@AU@%NICHOLAS, SAINT%@BO:          69cc95@%%@AE@%) was first made popular in
19th-cent. New York City. The Christmas tree was a medieval German
tradition. Midnight Mass is a familiar religious observance among Roman
Catholics and some Protestants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christmasberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christmasberry%@AE@%%@CR:CHRISTMASBERRY  @%%@QR:Christmasberry@% or %@AB@%toyon, %@AE@%evergreen tree or shrub (%@AI@%Photinia arbutifolia%@AE@%)%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%ROSE%@BO:          811e84@%%@AE@% family, found on the North American Pacific coast. White
flowers precede its bright red berries. Also called California holly, it
is a Christmas green.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christmas Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christmas Island%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTMD        @%%@QR:Christmas Island@% tropical island (1986 est. pop. 2,000), 60 sq mi (155%@EH@%
sq km), external territory of Australia, in the Indian Ocean. Most of the
inhabitants are Chinese and Malays who had come to work the island's
phosphate mine, which closed in 1987. The island was annexed by Great
Britain in 1888 and transferred to Australian rule in 1958.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christo%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTO         @%%@QR:Christo@% 1935-, Bulgarian artist; b. Christo Javacheff. His art involves%@EH@%
wrapping objects, thus transforming the everyday into the ambiguous. In
his large environmental projects he alters urban structures or
landscapes, giving them a temporary, artificial skin that both conceals
and reveals. His work includes %@AI@%Running Fence%@AE@% (1976), a fabric curtain
that ran 24 mi (38.6 km) through the California countryside.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christ of the Andes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christ of the Andes%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRIST.NDES     @%%@QR:Christ of the Andes@% statue of Christ in Uspallata Pass, the %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Dedicated on March 13, 1904, it commemorates a series of peace and
boundary treaties between Argentina and Chile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christophe, Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christophe, Henri%@AE@%%@CR:CHRISTOPHE      @%%@QR:Christophe, Henri@%, 1767-1820, Haitian revolutionary leader. A freed black%@EH@%
slave, he helped %@AU@%TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE%@BO:          96ee3b@%%@AE@% to liberate %@AU@%HAITI%@BO:          3f2c64@%%@AE@% and plotted the
assassination of %@AU@%DESSALINES%@BO:          284d90@%%@AE@%. A tyrant, he ruled (1806-20) N Haiti as King
Henri I. He committed suicide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christopher, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christopher, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTOPHER     @%%@QR:Christopher, Saint@% 3d cent.?, martyr of Asia Minor. In legend he carried%@EH@%
a child across a river and felt the child's weight almost too heavy to
bear; the child was %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%, who was holding the world in his hands.
Christopher is the patron of travelers. His feast, July 25, was dropped
from the Roman Catholic liturgical calendar in 1969.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christus%@AE@%%@CR:CHRISTUS        @%%@QR:Christus@%or %@AB@%Cristus, Petrus%@AE@%, fl. 1444-c.1473, Flemish painter. A follower%@EH@%
and probable pupil of the van %@AU@%EYCKS%@BO:          31564b@%%@AE@%, he was noted for his introspective
treatment of figures and rendering of geometric perspective. Many of his
compositions are simplifications of Jan van Eyck's paintings. They
include %@AI@%Lamentation%@AE@% (Brussels) and %@AI@%Nativity%@AE@% (National Gall., Wash.,
D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Christy, Edwin P.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Christy, Edwin P.%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRISTY         @%%@QR:Christy, Edwin P.@% 1815-62, American showman; b. Philadelphia. In c.1846%@EH@%
he established Christy's Minstrels. The company crystallized the pattern
for %@AU@%MINSTREL SHOWS%@BO:          614780@%%@AE@%, with variety acts and white performers in blackface.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chromatography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chromatography%@AE@%,%@CR:CHROMATOGRAPHY  @%%@QR:chromatography@% resolution of a chemical mixture into its component%@EH@%
compounds by passing it through a system, called a chromatograph, that
retards each compound to a varying degree. The retarding substance is
usually a surface adsorbent, such as %@AU@%ALUMINA%@BO:           4340f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@%, or %@AU@%SILICA%@BO:          891ef4@%%@AE@%. In
column chromatography the adsorbent is packed into a column, and a
solution of the mixture is added at the top and washed, or eluted, down
with an appropriate solvent; each component of the mixture passes through
the column at a different speed. In paper chromatography the mixture to
be separated is allowed to soak along the paper by capillary action, the
cellulose in the paper acting as the adsorbent. The gas chromatograph is
a system in which a liquid with a high boiling point is impregnated on an
inert solid support packed into a thin metal column, and helium gas is
allowed to flow through it. The solution to be analyzed is injected into
the column, immediately volatized, and swept by the helium gas through
the column; at this point the mixture is resolved into its components.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chromium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chromium%@AE@%%@CR:CHROMIUM        @%%@QR:chromium@% (Cr), metallic element, discovered in 1797 by L.N. Vauquelin. A%@EH@%
lustrous, silver-gray metal, it is comparatively rare and occurs only in
compounds; the chief source is the mineral chromite. Hard and
nontarnishing, chromium is used to plate other metals; in alloys (see,
e.g., %@AU@%STEEL%@BO:          8e883b@%%@AE@%) with other metals it contributes hardness, strength, and
heat resistance. Chromium compounds are used as paint pigments, in
tanning, and in dyeing. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chromosome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chromosome%@AE@%,%@CR:CHROMOSOME      @%%@QR:chromosome@% structural carrier of hereditary characteristics, found in%@EH@%
the cell nucleus. The number of chromosomes is characteristic of each
species; in sexually reproducing species, chromosomes generally occur in
pairs. In %@AU@%MITOSIS%@BO:          61d049@%%@AE@%, or ordinary cell division, each individual chromosome
is duplicated and each daughter cell receives all chromosomes, a set
exactly like its parent's. In %@AU@%MEIOSIS%@BO:          5e50f3@%%@AE@%, the process by which sex cells
(%@AU@%OVUM%@BO:          6f97fc@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SPERM%@BO:          8d7783@%%@AE@%) are formed, each daughter cell receives half the number
of chromosomes, one of each pair. A fertilized egg contains two sets of
chromosomes, one set from each parent. Chromosomes are made of protein
and %@AU@%NUCLEIC ACID%@BO:          6c2767@%%@AE@%. They represent the linear arrangement of %@AU@%GENES%@BO:          389794@%%@AE@%, the
units of inheritance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chromosphere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chromosphere%@AE@%:%@CR:CHROMOSPHERE    @%%@QR:chromosphere@% see %@AU@%SUN%@BO:          90aa28@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chronicles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chronicles%@AE@%%@CR:CHRONICLES      @%%@QR:Chronicles@%or %@AB@%Paralipomenon%@AE@% [Gr., = things left out], two books of the %@AU@%OLD%@EH@%
%@AU@%TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 13th and 14th in the Authorized Version, originally a single
work in the Hebrew canon. The books contain a history of the Jewish
kingdom under %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% (1 Chron. 10-29) and %@AU@%SOLOMON%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@% (2 Chron. 1-9), and,
after the division of the kingdom, a history of the southern kingdom of
%@AU@%JUDAH%@BO:          4d7696@%%@AE@%, including the %@AU@%BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY%@BO:           ab332@%%@AE@% (2 Chron. 10-36).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chronometer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chronometer%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRONOMETER     @%%@QR:chronometer@% mechanical instrument for keeping highly accurate time. The%@EH@%
perfection of the chronometer in 1759 by the English clockmaker John
Harrison allowed navigators at sea to determine longitude accurately for
the first time. A marine chronometer is a spring-driven escapement
timekeeper, like a watch, but its parts are more massively built and it
has devices to compensate for changes in the tension of the spring caused
by changes in temperature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chrysanthemum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chrysanthemum%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRYSANTHEMUM   @%%@QR:chrysanthemum@% annual or perennial herb (genus %@AI@%Chrysanthemum%@AE@%) of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family, long grown in the Orient. The chrysanthemum is a
national flower of Japan and the floral emblem of the Japanese imperial
family. The red, white, or yellow flowers range from single daisylike
heads to large rounded or shaggy heads. They are commercially important.
Innumerable horticultural types exist, most varieties of %@AI@%C. morifolium.%@AE@%
The pyrethrum, feverfew, marguerite, and %@AU@%DAISY%@BO:          260443@%%@AE@% belong in the same genus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chrysler, Walter Percy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chrysler, Walter Percy%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRYSLER        @%%@QR:Chrysler, Walter Percy@% 1875-1940, American industrialist, founder of the%@EH@%
Chrysler Corp.; b. Wamego, Kans. Initially a machinist's apprentice, he
became (1916) a vice president of the General Motors Corp. and in 1924
brought out the first Chrysler car. The Chrysler Corp., founded in 1925,
became one of the major U.S. automobile companies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chrysophyta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chrysophyta%@AE@%,%@CR:CHRYSOPHYTA     @%%@QR:Chrysophyta@% division of the plant kingdom consisting of four diverse%@EH@%
classes of %@AU@%ALGAE%@BO:           3985a@%%@AE@%, the largest and best known of which comprises the
%@AU@%DIATOMS%@BO:          28b4ec@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chrysostom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chrysostom%@AE@%:%@CR:CHRYSOSTOM      @%%@QR:Chrysostom@% see %@AU@%JOHN CHRYSOSTOM, SAINT%@BO:          4c9cdd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%chrysotile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%chrysotile%@AE@%:%@CR:CHRYSOTILE      @%%@QR:chrysotile@% see %@AU@%ASBESTOS%@BO:           88c27@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SERPENTINE%@BO:          872d47@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chun Doo-Hwan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chun Doo-Hwan%@AE@%,%@CR:CHUN.DOOHWAN    @%%@QR:Chun Doo-Hwan@% 1931-, Korean military leader, president of South Korea%@EH@%
(1980-). An army officer, Chun rose to power after the murder (1979) of
South Korean Pres. %@AU@%PARK CHUNG HEE%@BO:          715ff8@%%@AE@%. As president, Chun banned many of his
opponents from politics and passed (1980) a new authoritarian
constitution. In 1981 he lifted martial law, in effect since 1979.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chungking%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chungking%@AE@%:%@CR:CHUNGKING       @%%@QR:Chungking@% see %@AU@%CHONGQING%@BO:          1dc432@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Church, Frederick Edwin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Church, Frederick Edwin%@AE@%,%@CR:CHURCH          @%%@QR:Church, Frederick Edwin@% 1826-1900, American painter; b. Hartford, Conn.%@EH@%
A member of the %@AU@%HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL%@BO:          45043d@%%@AE@%, he preferred exotic foreign
landscapes to native views. His large canvases are noted for their
crystalline portrayal of light.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Churches of Christ%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Churches of Christ%@AE@%,%@CR:CHURCHEIST      @%%@QR:Churches of Christ@% conservative body of Protestant Christians, formerly%@EH@%
united with the %@AU@%DISCIPLES OF CHRIST%@BO:          295789@%%@AE@%. Highly evangelistic, they are
congregational in polity and biblical in doctrine, and form one of the
largest American denominations. In 1988 they reported a membership in the
U.S. of 1,106,692.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Churchill, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Churchill, John%@AE@%:%@CR:CHURCHILL1      @%%@QR:Churchill, John@% see %@AU@%MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, 1ST DUKE OF%@BO:          5be6d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Churchill, Sarah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Churchill, Sarah%@AE@%:%@CR:CHURCHILL2      @%%@QR:Churchill, Sarah@% see under %@AU@%MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, 1ST DUKE OF%@BO:          5be6d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer%@AE@%,%@CR:CHURCHILL3      @%%@QR:Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer@% 1874-1965, British statesman,%@EH@%
soldier, and author. A graduate of Sandhurst, he fought in India, the
Sudan, and South Africa. In 1900 he was elected to Parliament. He was the
first lord of the admiralty (1911-15) in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% until discredited by
the failure of the Dardanelles campaign, which he had championed. He
later served in several cabinet positions in the Liberal government of
%@AU@%LLOYD GEORGE%@BO:          55f3eb@%%@AE@%. A Conservative after 1924, he was chancellor of the
exchequer from 1924 to 1929; his revaluation of the pound was a factor
leading to the general strike of 1926. Out of office from 1929 to 1939,
Churchill issued unheeded warnings of the threat of Nazi Germany. In
1940, seven months after the outbreak of %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he replaced
Neville %@AU@%CHAMBERLAIN%@BO:          1b47e8@%%@AE@% as prime minister. His stirring oratory, his energy,
and his refusal to make peace with %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% were crucial to maintaining
British resistance from 1940 to 1942. Before the U.S. entry into the war,
he met Pres. F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% at sea. He twice addressed the U.S. Congress,
twice went to Moscow, and attended a series of international conferences
(e.g., %@AU@%YALTA CONFERENCE%@BO:          a3e5ab@%%@AE@%). After the postwar Labour victory in 1945, he
became leader of the opposition. In 1951 he was again elected prime
minister; he was knighted in 1953 and retired in 1955. Churchill was the
author of many histories, biographies, and memoirs, and in 1953 he was
awarded the Nobel Prize in literature for his writing and his oratory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Churchill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Churchill%@AE@%,%@CR:CHURCHILL4      @%%@QR:Churchill@% river, NE Canada, called the Hamilton R. until renamed (1965)%@EH@%
for Sir Winston Churchill. It flows c.600 mi (970 km) from Ashuanipi Lake
across Labrador (Newfoundland) to the Atlantic. One of the world's
largest hydroelectric installations (5.2 Mw; completed 1971) is located
at Churchill (formerly Grand) Falls.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Church of Christ, Scientist%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Church of Christ, Scientist%@AE@%:%@CR:CHURCH.T        @%%@QR:Church of Christ, Scientist@% see %@AU@%CHRISTIAN SCIENCE%@BO:          1dfd58@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Church of England%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Church of England%@AE@%:%@CR:CHURCH.ND       @%%@QR:Church of England@% see %@AU@%ENGLAND, CHURCH OF%@BO:          2ef54b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Church of Scotland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Church of Scotland%@AE@%:%@CR:CHURCH.AND      @%%@QR:Church of Scotland@% see %@AU@%SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF%@BO:          8609ec@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Church Slavonic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Church Slavonic%@AE@%,%@CR:CHURCH.SLAVONIC @%%@QR:Church Slavonic@% language belonging to the South Slavic group of the%@EH@%
Slavic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. It is the
first Slavic tongue known to be recorded in writing. From the 9th to 11th
cent. AD the language is termed Old Church Slavonic, Old Church Slavic,
or Old Bulgarian. The later Church Slavonic flourished as a literary
language before the 18th cent. It is still the liturgical language of
most branches of the %@AU@%ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH%@BO:          6f08b3@%%@AE@%, but is extinct as a spoken
tongue. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Churriguera, Jose Benito%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Churriguera, Jose Benito%@AE@%%@CR:CHURRIGUERA     @%%@QR:Churriguera, Jose Benito@%, 1665-1725, Spanish architect and sculptor. He%@EH@%
won fame for his design (1689) for the great catafalque for Queen Maria
Luisa and for his ornate retables. Associated with his brothers, he was
architect for the cathedral of Salamanca and built a private palace and
the urban complex Nuevo Baztan in Madrid. The term %@AB@%Churrigueresque
%@AB@%%@AE@%describes late-17th- and early-18th-cent. Spanish architecture, marked by
extravagance of design and capricious use of Renaissance motives. Its
influence was important in the missions of Spanish colonial North
America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Chu Teh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Chu Teh%@AE@%%@CR:CHU.TEH         @%%@QR:Chu Teh@%, 1886-1976, Chinese Communist soldier. In 1922 he went to Europe,%@EH@%
where he joined the Chinese Communist party. He returned to China and in
1927, when %@AU@%CHIANG KAI-SHEK%@BO:          1cbd12@%%@AE@% broke with the Communists, Chu joined %@AU@%MAO
%@AU@%TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@%. Chu led (1934-35) his section of the Red Army on the %@AU@%LONG MARCH%@BO:          56915b@%%@AE@%
to NW China and commanded Communist forces in the Second %@AU@%SINO-JAPANESE
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          898f03@%%@AE@%. He left his military post to become deputy chairman of the People's
Republic of China (1954); he became chairman of the National People's
Congress in 1959.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%CIA%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%CIA%@AE@%:%@CR:CIA             @%%@QR:CIA@% see %@AU@%CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY%@BO:          1afa9c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ciardi, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ciardi, John%@AE@%%@CR:CIARDI          @%%@QR:Ciardi, John@%, 1916-86, American poet; b. Boston. His witty, perceptive%@EH@%
poetry includes %@AI@%Homeward to America%@AE@% (1940), %@AI@%I Marry You%@AE@% (1958), and %@AI@%For
%@AI@%Instance%@AE@% (1979). He has also wrote criticism and translated %@AU@%DANTE%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cibber, Colley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cibber, Colley%@AE@%,%@CR:CIBBER          @%%@QR:Cibber, Colley@% 1671-1757, English dramatist and actor-man ager. After%@EH@%
successes playing %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% comedy, he wrote %@AI@%Love's Last Shift%@AE@% (1696),
the first sentimental %@AU@%COMEDY%@BO:          20dac0@%%@AE@%. He wrote 30 more plays and was made poet
laureate in 1730. An unpopular man, he was attacked by Alexander %@AU@%POPE%@BO:          78246d@%%@AE@% in
%@AI@%The Dunciad.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cicada%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cicada%@AE@%,%@CR:CICADA          @%%@QR:cicada@% large, noise-producing %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% (order Homoptera) with a stout%@EH@%
body, a wide blunt head, protruding eyes, and two pairs of membranous
wings. The males have platelike membranes on the thorax, which they
vibrate, producing a loud, shrill sound; females are mute. The periodical
cicadas (genus %@AI@%Magicicada%@AE@%) have the longest life cycles known of any
insect, 13 years in one species and 17 in another, but winged adults only
live for about one week.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cicero%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cicero%@AE@%%@CR:CICERO          @%%@QR:Cicero@% (Marcus Tullius Cicero) or %@AB@%Tully,%@AE@% 106 BC-43 BC, greatest Roman%@EH@%
orator, also a philosopher. As senatorial party leader he prosecuted
%@AU@%CATILINE%@BO:          1a4e7a@%%@AE@%, but was later exiled himself by %@AU@%CLODIUS%@BO:          1f7bd5@%%@AE@%; recalled by %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@%, he
opposed Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%. He answered Mark %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@% in the senate with his
first and second %@AU@%PHILIPPICS%@BO:          74b753@%%@AE@%, defending the Republic. After Octavian
(%@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%) took Rome, Cicero was executed. To the modern reader, his
letters, to his brother and friends, are perhaps most interesting. His
philosophical works are generally stoical (see %@AU@%STOICISM%@BO:          8f364c@%%@AE@%). He is best
known for his %@AI@%Orations against Catiline, Against Verres, On the Manilian
%@AI@%Law,%@AE@% and others. His mastery of Latin prose is unsurpassed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cid%@AE@%%@CR:CID             @%%@QR:Cid@%or %@AB@%Cid Campeador%@AE@%, d. 1099, Spanish soldier whose exploits were%@EH@%
romanticized in many literary works. He fought against the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% but
%@AU@%ALFONSO VI%@BO:           3830c@%%@AE@% distrusted and banished (1081) him. The Cid then served the
Muslim ruler of Saragosa, fighting against Moors and Christians alike. In
1094 he conquered %@AU@%VALENCIA%@BO:          9b726d@%%@AE@% and ruled there until his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cilicia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cilicia%@AE@%,%@CR:CILICIA         @%%@QR:Cilicia@% ancient region of SE Asia Minor, between the Mediterranean and%@EH@%
the Taurus range. Part of the Assyrian empire and then of the Persian
empire, it was later hellenized. Roman and Byzantine rule followed.
Cilicia was invaded (8th cent. AD) by the Arabs, and in 1080 an Armenian
state (later called Little Armenia) was set up. This lasted until the
area was conquered by the Turks in 1375.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cimabue, Giovanni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cimabue, Giovanni%@AE@%%@CR:CIMABUE         @%%@QR:Cimabue, Giovanni@%, d. c.1302, Florentine painter; b. Cenni di Pepo or%@EH@%
Peppi. His works constitute the transition from formal Byzantine painting
to the freer expression of the 14th cent. Master of %@AU@%MOSAICS%@BO:          641af7@%%@AE@% at the
cathedral at Pisa, he kept many of the old forms while giving his figures
greater naturalism. His attributed works include the %@AI@%Madonna Enthroned%@AE@%
(Uffizi) and a %@AI@%Crucifixion%@AE@% (Santa Croce, Florence).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cimarosa, Domenico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cimarosa, Domenico%@AE@%%@CR:CIMAROSA        @%%@QR:Cimarosa, Domenico@%, 1749-1801, Italian operatic composer. His almost 80%@EH@%
%@AU@%OPERAS%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%The Secret Marriage%@AE@% (1792), include good examples of pure
opera buffa. He also wrote serious operas and church music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cimarron, Territory of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cimarron, Territory of%@AE@%,%@CR:CIMARRON        @%%@QR:Cimarron, Territory of@% now the Oklahoma panhandle. It was settled in the%@EH@%
early 1800s by cattle ranchers, most of them squatters. After several
unsuccessful attempts to create a separate territorial government for the
area, Cimarron became part of Oklahoma Territory in 1890.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cimbri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cimbri%@AE@%:%@CR:CIMBRI          @%%@QR:Cimbri@% see %@AU@%GERMANS%@BO:          39833f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cimmerians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cimmerians%@AE@%,%@CR:CIMMERIANS      @%%@QR:Cimmerians@% ancient and little-known people who were driven (8th cent.%@EH@%
BC) from the %@AU@%CRIMEA%@BO:          24a027@%%@AE@% to the Lake Van region in present E Turkey. They
swept across Asia Minor (late 7th cent.), plundering Lydia and weakening
Phrygia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cinchona%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cinchona%@AE@%%@CR:CINCHONA        @%%@QR:cinchona@% or %@AB@%chinchona, %@AE@%evergreen tree (genus %@AI@%Cinchona%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MADDER%@BO:          592e82@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, native to mountainous areas of South and Central America and
widely cultivated elsewhere for its bark, the source of %@AU@%QUININE%@BO:          7bd799@%%@AE@% and other
antimalarial alkaloids. The tree was named for the Countess of Chinchon,
said to have been cured of a fever in 1638 by a preparation of the bark.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cincinnati%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cincinnati%@AE@%,%@CR:CINCINNATI      @%%@QR:Cincinnati@% city (1986 est. pop. 369,750), seat of Hamilton co., SW Ohio,%@EH@%
on the Ohio R.; founded 1788, inc. as a city 1819. It is the industrial,
commercial, and cultural center of a large area of Ohio and neighboring
Kentucky, and a major river port and transportation center. Machine
tools, automobile and aircraft engines and parts, chemicals, and
cosmetics are among its manufactures. The city was the first seat (1799)
of the legislature of the %@AU@%NORTHWEST TERRITORY%@BO:          6bc39d@%%@AE@%. Attractively situated in
hilly terrain, it has undergone major renovation of its downtown area.
Cultural institutions include its conservatory, opera, museums, and
symphony orchestra. William Howard %@AU@%TAFT%@BO:          92400f@%%@AE@% and Robert A. %@AU@%TAFT%@BO:          92400f@%%@AE@% were born
there, and it is the site of the Taft Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cincinnatus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cincinnatus%@AE@%%@CR:CINCINNATUS     @%%@QR:Cincinnatus@% (Lucius or Titus Quinctius Cincinnatus), fl. 5th cent. BC,%@EH@%
Roman patriot. He was consul (460 BC) and dictator twice (458 and 439).
According to tradition, he was called from his farm to defend Rome twice,
first from foreign invaders, then from the plebeians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cinematography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cinematography%@AE@%:%@CR:CINEMATOGRAPHY  @%%@QR:cinematography@% see %@AU@%MOTION-PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY%@BO:          645ae3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cinema verite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cinema verite%@AE@%,%@CR:CINEMA.VERITE   @%%@QR:cinema verite@% a style of film making, often with hand-held camera, that%@EH@%
attempts to convey candid realism, showing people in everyday situations
with authentic dialogue, a naturalness of action, and a minimum of
rearrangement for the camera. This style was pioneered in the late 1950s
and early 1960s by French and American documentary film makers, including
Richard Leacock, Jean Rouch, and Chris Marker. Many fiction filmmakers,
most notably Jean-Luc %@AU@%GODARD%@BO:          3ae1c2@%%@AE@%, have been influenced by cinema verite.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cinna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cinna%@AE@%%@CR:CINNA           @%%@QR:Cinna@% (Lucius Cornelius Cinna), d. 84 BC, Roman politician. When %@AU@%SULLA%@BO:          9074e8@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
left Italy, Cinna as consul (87-84 BC) opposed him, and slaughtered many
of Sulla's followers. After Sulla set out for Rome, and before the civil
war began, Cinna was murdered in a mutiny at Brundisium. His daughter
Cornelia was the first wife of Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cinnabar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cinnabar%@AE@%,%@CR:CINNABAR        @%%@QR:cinnabar@% deep-red mercury sulfide mineral (HgS). Used as a pigment, it%@EH@%
is principally a source of the metal %@AU@%MERCURY%@BO:          5edfd0@%%@AE@%. Cinnabar is mined in Spain,
Italy, and California.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cinnamon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cinnamon%@AE@%,%@CR:CINNAMON        @%%@QR:cinnamon@% tree or shrub (genus %@AI@%Cinnamomum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%LAUREL%@BO:          52c23c@%%@AE@% family. Cinnamon%@EH@%
spice, obtained by drying the bark of the tropical Ceylon cinnamon (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%zeylanicum%@AE@%), has been used since biblical times. %@AI@%C. camphora%@AE@% is the
source of %@AU@%CAMPHOR%@BO:          17cd9d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%CIO%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%CIO%@AE@%:%@CR:CIO             @%%@QR:CIO@% see %@AU@%AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%ORGANIZATIONS%@BO:           47e73@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cione, Andrea di%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cione, Andrea di%@AE@%:%@CR:CIONE           @%%@QR:Cione, Andrea di@% see %@AU@%ORCAGNA%@BO:          6e5536@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Circe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Circe%@AE@%%@CR:CIRCE           @%%@QR:Circe@%, in Greek mythology, enchantress; daughter of %@AU@%HELIOS%@BO:          415fe3@%%@AE@%. In %@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
%@AI@%Odyssey%@AE@% she turned %@AU@%ODYSSEUS'%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@% men into swine, but was forced to break the
spell.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%circle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%circle%@AE@%,%@CR:CIRCLE          @%%@QR:circle@% closed plane %@AU@%CURVE%@BO:          257966@%%@AE@% consisting of all points at a given distance%@EH@%
from a fixed point, called the center. A radius of a circle is any line
segment connecting the center and the curve; the word %@AI@%radius%@AE@% is also used
for the length %@AI@%r%@AE@% of that line segment. Both the circle itself and its
length %@AI@%C%@AE@% are referred to by the term %@AI@%circumference.%@AE@% A line segment whose
two ends lie on the circumference is a %@AI@%chord;%@AE@% a chord through the center
is a %@AI@%diameter.%@AE@% The circumference of a circle is given by %@AI@%C%@AE@%=2;gp%@AI@%r.%@AE@% The
area %@AI@%A%@AE@% bounded by a circle is given by %@AI@%A%@AE@%=;gp%@AI@%r%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%. In the religion and art
of many cultures the circle frequently symbolizes heaven, eternity, or
the universe. See also %@AU@%CONIC SECTION%@BO:          221550@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%circuit breaker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%circuit breaker%@AE@%,%@CR:CIRCUIT.BREAKER @%%@QR:circuit breaker@% electric device that, like a %@AU@%FUSE%@BO:          370091@%%@AE@%, interrupts a current%@EH@%
in an %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% when the current becomes too high. Unlike a fuse,
which must be replaced after it has been used once, a circuit breaker can
be reset after it has been tripped. When a high current passes through
the circuit breaker, the heat it generates or the magnetic field it
creates causes a trigger to rapidly separate the pair of contacts that
normally conduct the current.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%circuit rider%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%circuit rider%@AE@%,%@CR:CIRCUIT.RIDER   @%%@QR:circuit rider@% itinerant preacher of the Methodist denomination who%@EH@%
served a "circuit" of 20 to 40 "appointments." The system was devised in
the 18th cent. by John %@AU@%WESLEY%@BO:          a08a3c@%%@AE@% for his English societies and was adapted
in America by Francis Asbury, where it aided greatly the spread of
%@AU@%METHODISM%@BO:          5f74f8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%circulatory system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%circulatory system%@AE@%,%@CR:CIRCULATEM      @%%@QR:circulatory system@% a group of organs that transport blood and the%@EH@%
substances it carries to and from all parts of the body. In humans the
circulatory system consists of vessels (arteries and veins) that carry
the blood and a muscular pump, the %@AU@%HEART%@BO:          40ef87@%%@AE@%, that drives the blood. Arteries
carry the blood away from the heart; the main arterial vessel, the aorta,
branches into smaller arteries, which in turn branch into still smaller
vessels that reach all parts of the body. In the smallest blood vessels,
the capillaries, which are located in body tissue, the gas and nutrient
exchange occurs-the blood gives up nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
accepts carbon dioxide, water, and wastes (see %@AU@%RESPIRATION%@BO:          7e6ed3@%%@AE@%). Blood
leaving the tissue capillaries enters converging large vessels, the
veins, to return to the heart. The human heart has four chambers and a
dividing wall, or septum, that separates the heart into a right and a
left heart. Oxygen-poor, carbon dioxide-rich blood from the veins returns
to the right side of the heart. The heart contracts to pump the blood
through pulmonary arteries to the %@AU@%LUNGS%@BO:          57e24d@%%@AE@%, where the blood receives oxygen
and eliminates carbon dioxide. Pulmonary veins return the oxygen-rich
blood to the left side of the heart. The left side then pumps the
oxygenated blood through the branching aorta and arteries to all parts of
the body. The organs most intimately related to the substances carried by
the blood are the %@AU@%KIDNEYS%@BO:          4f8165@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SPLEEN%@BO:          8dafb5@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@%. An auxiliary system, the
%@AU@%LYMPHATIC SYSTEM%@BO:          583eee@%%@AE@%, collects lymph, or tissue fluid, from body tissues and
returns it to the blood. See also %@AU@%ARTERIOSCLEROSIS%@BO:           83ab8@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BLOOD PRESSURE%@BO:          1106b8@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE%@BO:          237d8d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HEART DISEASE%@BO:          40f6eb@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SHOCK%@BO:          8879e3@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%STROKE%@BO:          8fcd44@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%circumcision%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%circumcision%@AE@%,%@CR:CIRCUMCISION    @%%@QR:circumcision@% operation to remove the foreskin covering the glans of the%@EH@%
penis. Dating from prehistoric times, it is performed by Jews as a
sacramental operation eight days after the birth of a male child. It is
also practiced among Muslims and other peoples and is often performed as
a sanitary measure. Female circumcision, e.g., excision of the labia
minora and clitoris, or clitoridectomy, is found in Islam and in certain
tribes of Africa, South America, and elsewhere.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%circumpolar star%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%circumpolar star%@AE@%,%@CR:CIRCUMPR        @%%@QR:circumpolar star@% a star whose apparent daily path on the celestial%@EH@%
sphere lies completely above or below an observer's horizon. A star whose
declination (see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%) is greater than 90 deg
minus an observer's latitude will always remain above the horizon for
that observer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%circus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%circus%@AE@%%@CR:CIRCUS          @%%@QR:circus@% [Lat.,=circle], associated historically with the horse and chariot%@EH@%
races, gladiatorial combats, and brutal athletic contests known in
ancient Rome as the Circensian games. The Roman circus was a round or
oval structure, with tiers of spectators' seats enclosing the area where
the action took place. The modern circus, which originated in
performances of equestrian feats in a horse ring, dates from the late
18th cent. It is a tent show featuring wild and trained animals,
acrobats, freaks, and clowns. The three-ring circus was originated by
James A. Bailey. The most famous U.S. show was P.T. %@AU@%BARNUM'S%@BO:           c6174@%%@AE@%. Barnum and
Bailey merged with Ringling Brothers in 1919.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cire perdue%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cire perdue%@AE@%%@CR:CIRE.PERDUE     @%%@QR:cire perdue@% [Fr.,=lost wax], process of hollow metal casting. A plaster%@EH@%
or clay model is coated with wax and covered with a mold of perforated
plaster or clay. Heat is applied, the wax melts and runs out of the
holes, and molten metal (usually bronze) is poured into the space
formerly occupied by the wax. When the metal is cool, the mold is broken
and the core removed. Probably of Egyptian origin, the method was
introduced into Greece in the 6th cent. BC and was used extensively from
the 5th cent. The process, employed worldwide, was brought to China c.200
BC and was later used in casting the Benin bronzes of Africa. The great
bronze masterpieces of the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% were produced by the cire perdue
method.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cirrhosis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cirrhosis%@AE@%,%@CR:CIRRHOSIS       @%%@QR:cirrhosis@% degeneration of %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@% tissue, resulting in fibrosis and nodule%@EH@%
formation. Laennec's, or alcoholic, cirrhosis is the most prevalent form,
occurring in patients with a history of %@AU@%ALCOHOLISM%@BO:           3168c@%%@AE@%; other causes include
infections, such as %@AU@%HEPATITIS%@BO:          42066b@%%@AE@%, and obstruction of %@AU@%BILE%@BO:           fadc8@%%@AE@% flow. Cirrhosis
can result in gastrointestinal disturbances, emaciation, %@AU@%JAUNDICE%@BO:          4b81e4@%%@AE@%, and
edema. It is irreversible, but supportive treatment includes diet
control, %@AU@%VITAMINS%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%, and diuretics (to remove accumulated fluid). Cirrhosis
is a common cause of death in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cisalpine Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cisalpine Republic%@AE@%,%@CR:CISALPILIC      @%%@QR:Cisalpine Republic@% 1797-1802, Italian state created by Napoleon%@EH@%
Bonaparte, who united the two republics he had established (1796) N and S
of the Po River. A French protectorate, it became the Italian Republic
(1802) and, with the addition of Venetia, the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy
(1805), which was broken up by the Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@% (1815).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ciskei%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ciskei%@AE@%,%@CR:CISKEI          @%%@QR:Ciskei@% black African homeland or %@AU@%BANTUSTAN%@BO:           bf566@%%@AE@%, 3,280 sq mi (8,500 sq km),%@EH@%
declared independent (1981) by the Republic of South Africa, but through
the late 1980s not recognized as independent by any other nation. Bisho
is the capital; the largest city is Mdantsane. Half of the 660,000
Xhosa-speaking black inhabitants were moved to Ciskei from white areas in
Cape Province in the 1970s. The population density is extremely high, and
economic conditions are among the worst in South Africa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cisleithania%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cisleithania%@AE@%:%@CR:CISLEITHANIA    @%%@QR:Cisleithania@% see %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%citizens band radio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%citizens band radio%@AE@%:%@CR:CITIZENADIO     @%%@QR:citizens band radio@% see %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%citric acid cycle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%citric acid cycle%@AE@%%@CR:CITRIC.LE       @%%@QR:citric acid cycle@% or %@AB@%Krebs cycle,%@AE@%series of chemical reactions occurring%@EH@%
in the cells of higher plants, animals, and many microorganisms. It is
essential for the oxidative metabolism of %@AU@%GLUCOSE%@BO:          3abd28@%%@AE@% and other simple
sugars. The reactions take a molecule of citric acid (originating from
glucose) through several intermediate products; additional organic
molecules are incorporated and citric acid is regenerated. Each cycle
releases hydrogen atoms, which are necessary for the next stage of the
metabolic process to generate chemical energy for the organism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%citron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%citron%@AE@%,%@CR:CITRON          @%%@QR:citron@% small evergreen tree (%@AI@%Citrus medica%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%ORANGE%@BO:          6e3b25@%%@AE@% family, and%@EH@%
its fruit, the first of the %@AU@%CITRUS FRUITS%@BO:          1ea893@%%@AE@% introduced to Europe from the
Orient. Citrons are grown in the Mediterranean, West Indies, Florida, and
California. The large yellow-green, thin-rinded, and furrowed fruit
contains a thick, white, and tender inner rind and a small acid pulp. The
juice is used as a beverage and syrup, and the candied, preserved rind is
used in confectionery and cookery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%citrus fruits%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%citrus fruits%@AE@%,%@CR:CITRUS.FRUITS   @%%@QR:citrus fruits@% edible fruits of trees of the orange, or %@AU@%RUE%@BO:          81c863@%%@AE@%, family;%@EH@%
almost all native to Southeast Asia and the East Indies. The fruits are
rich in vitamin C, citric acid, and sugars; the rind and blossoms yield
%@AU@%ESSENTIAL OILS%@BO:          3012eb@%%@AE@%. Citrus fruits include the %@AU@%ORANGE%@BO:          6e3b25@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GRAPEFRUIT%@BO:          3c599e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LEMON%@BO:          53b83c@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%LIME%@BO:          5529b0@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%KUMQUAT%@BO:          51071b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%city planning%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%city planning%@AE@%,%@CR:CITY.PLANNING   @%%@QR:city planning@% planning for the improvement of urban centers in order to%@EH@%
provide healthy and safe living conditions, efficient transport and
communication, adequate public facilities, and aesthetic surroundings.
Renaissance Italian piazzas, Pierre %@AU@%L'ENFANT'S%@BO:          53c42b@%%@AE@% design (1791) for
Washington, D.C., Baron %@AU@%HAUSSMANN'S%@BO:          40799a@%%@AE@% 19th-cent. remodeling of Paris,
Frederick Law %@AU@%OLMSTED'S%@BO:          6d9062@%%@AE@% parks, and 20th-cent. %@AU@%BRASILIA%@BO:          1368f0@%%@AE@% are all examples.
Modern city planners, particularly those involved in slum clearance and
construction of housing projects, must take into account such social and
economic factors as zoning regulations; traffic patterns; employment
opportunities; proximity to transportation, schools, shops, hospitals,
and parks; the availability of police, fire, and sanitation services; and
the preferences of prospective residents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%city-state%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%city-state%@AE@%,%@CR:CITYSTATE       @%%@QR:city-state@% in ancient %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, autonomous political unit consisting of a%@EH@%
city and the surrounding countryside. Greece was organized into several
hundred city-states, with a variety of governments ranging from absolute
monarchy to pure democracy. Only citizens participated in the government
of the city-state, and citizenship was limited to those born of citizen
parents. A large proportion of the population consisted of slaves. The
organization of Greece into separate city-states left it open to foreign
attack by large centralized states, to which it eventually became
subject.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Civil Aeronautics Board%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Civil Aeronautics Board%@AE@%:%@CR:CIVIL.ACS.BOARD @%%@QR:Civil Aeronautics Board@% see under %@AU@%FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION%@BO:          322b10@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%civil defense%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%civil defense%@AE@%,%@CR:CIVIL.DEFENSE   @%%@QR:civil defense@% nonmilitary measures designed to protect civilians in%@EH@%
wartime. In response to the use and destructiveness of military aircraft,
civil defense greatly expanded in World War II. U.S. measures to meet the
threat of long-distance carriers of nuclear weapons have been
controversial and include a warning system, survival planning, shelter
construction, and stockpiling of necessities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Civilian Conservation Corps%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Civilian Conservation Corps%@AE@%%@CR:CIVILIAORPS     @%%@QR:Civilian Conservation Corps@% (CCC), founded in 1933 by the U.S. Congress%@EH@%
to provide work and job training for unemployed young men in conserving
and developing the nation's natural resources. It was abolished in 1942.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%civil law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%civil law%@AE@%,%@CR:CIVIL.LAW       @%%@QR:civil law@% legal system based on %@AU@%ROMAN LAW%@BO:          808b1f@%%@AE@%; also the body of law dealing%@EH@%
with relationships between individuals, as opposed to %@AU@%CRIMINAL LAW%@BO:          24a96c@%%@AE@%, which
deals with offenses against the state. After the collapse of the Roman
Empire, the legal ideas and concepts of Rome were kept alive in the canon
law of the medieval church and the %@AI@%Corpus Juris Civilis%@AE@% (6th cent.) of
%@AU@%JUSTINIAN I%@BO:          4ddb31@%%@AE@%. There are many later codifications of civil law principles.
The most famous is the Code Napoleon (1804), the codification of the
civil law of France, which has strongly influenced the law of continental
Europe and Latin America, where civil law is prevalent. In contrast to
%@AU@%COMMON LAW%@BO:          21060f@%%@AE@%, prevalent in English-speaking countries (including the U.S.,
except Louisiana), civil law judgments are based on codified principles
rather than on precedents, and civil law courts do not generally employ
trial by jury or the law of evidence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%civil rights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%civil rights%@AE@%,%@CR:CIVIL.RIGHTS    @%%@QR:civil rights@% rights protecting a person against arbitrary or%@EH@%
discriminatory treatment. The U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@% guarantees freedom of
religion, speech, and the %@AU@%PRESS%@BO:          7958c6@%%@AE@%, freedom of assembly, and rights to due
process of law (e.g., %@AU@%HABEAS CORPUS%@BO:          3eddec@%%@AE@%) and equal protection under the law.
After the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, efforts to extend civil rights to blacks were only
in part realized by the 14th and 15th constitutional amendments. In the
20th cent. the black civil rights movement, led by the %@AU@%NATIONAL
%@AU@%ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE%@BO:          66beea@%%@AE@%, the National Urban
League, Martin Luther %@AU@%KING%@BO:          4fb6d8@%%@AE@%, Jr., and others, was instrumental in securing
legislation, notably the civil rights acts of 1964 and 1968 and the
voting rights act of 1965, prohibiting discrimination in public
accommodations, schools, employment, and voting for reasons of color,
race, religion, or national origin (see %@AU@%INTEGRATION%@BO:          48a964@%%@AE@%). %@AU@%WOMAN SUFFRAGE%@BO:          a2d595@%%@AE@% was
achieved in the U.S. under the 19th amendment (1920). In 1972 Congress
passed the Equal Rights Amendment, prohibiting discrimination on grounds
of sex, but the amendment failed to obtain the necessary ratification of
38 states by July 1982 (see %@AU@%FEMINISM%@BO:          3261c5@%%@AE@%). See also %@AU@%GAY RIGHTS%@BO:          38678c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%civil service%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%civil service%@AE@%,%@CR:CIVIL.SERVICE   @%%@QR:civil service@% entire body of those employed in civil administration as%@EH@%
distinct from the military, excluding elected officials. While
competitive examinations were used to select officials in ancient China,
a civil service based on merit emerged in the West with the decline of
feudalism and the growth of the nation-state. Prussia (mid-17th cent.)
and, later, France (especially after %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%) developed efficient
civil administrations. The term, first used to designate British
administration in India, was extended to Great Britain in 1854. Civil
service reform in the U.S. was spurred by the scandals of %@AU@%GRANT'S%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@%
administration. The Pendleton Act (1883) reestablished the %@AB@%Civil Service
%@AB@%Commission %@AE@%(first est. 1871), which sets up examinations for all
positions classified as civil service; most federal jobs are so
classified. As a result of reports (1949, 1955) by the Hoover Commission,
the federal civil service was streamlined, and operations and activities
of many agencies became part of the General Services Administration. The
Hatch Act (1940), forbidding political campaign contributions by civil
servants, was an attempt to separate civil service from politics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%civil time%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%civil time%@AE@%:%@CR:CIVIL.TIME      @%%@QR:civil time@% see %@AU@%SOLAR TIME%@BO:          8b25eb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Civil War, English%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Civil War, English%@AE@%:%@CR:CIVIL.WAR1      @%%@QR:Civil War, English@% see %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Civil War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Civil War%@AE@%,%@CR:CIVIL.WAR2      @%%@QR:Civil War@% in U.S. history, conflict (1861-65) between Northern states%@EH@%
(Union) and Southern seceded states (%@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@%). It is known in the
South as the War between the States, and by the official Union
designation of War of the Rebellion. Many causes over a number of years
contributed to what William H. %@AU@%SEWARD%@BO:          877408@%%@AE@% called "the irrepressible
conflict": sectional rivalry, moral indignation aroused by the
%@AU@%ABOLITIONISTS%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@%, the question of the extension of slavery into new
territories, and a fundamental disagreement about the relative supremacy
of federal control or %@AU@%STATES' RIGHTS%@BO:          8e68df@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%MISSOURI COMPROMISE%@BO:          61afda@%%@AE@% (1820) and
the %@AU@%COMPROMISE OF 1850%@BO:          2162e3@%%@AE@% were unsuccessful efforts toward a peaceful
solution. The election of %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% as president and the secession (Dec.
20, 1860) of %@AU@%SOUTH CAROLINA%@BO:          8c031e@%%@AE@%, soon followed by six other Southern states,
precipitated war. When federal troops were moved to %@AU@%FORT SUMTER%@BO:          34a5d9@%%@AE@%, S.C.,
Confederate Gen. P.G.T. %@AU@%BEAUREGARD%@BO:           d7d46@%%@AE@% obeyed orders to fire on the fort
(Apr. 12, 1861). Four more states seceded, making an 11-state
Confederacy. Early battles were Confederate victories. Beauregard
defeated Irvin McDowell (July 21) at the first battle of %@AU@%BULL RUN%@BO:          156760@%%@AE@%. In
1862, G.B. %@AU@%MCCLELLAN'S%@BO:          58811c@%%@AE@% %@AU@%PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN%@BO:          72cf05@%%@AE@% was foiled by Confederate
commander Robert E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@%. In September, however, Lee's %@AU@%ANTIETAM CAMPAIGN%@BO:           6363a@%%@AE@%
was checked by McClellan, and Lincoln drafted the %@AU@%EMANCIPATION
%@AU@%PROCLAMATION%@BO:          2e65d1@%%@AE@%. The year ended with a Union defeat (Dec. 13) at
%@AU@%FREDERICKSBURG%@BO:          35be1c@%%@AE@%, and spring brought a resounding Confederate victory (May
2-4, 1863) at %@AU@%CHANCELLORSVILLE%@BO:          1b71d8@%%@AE@%, where Lee, however, lost his ablest
general, "Stonewall" %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4ab6a8@%%@AE@%. Confederate fortunes turned for the worse
when Lee undertook the disastrous %@AU@%GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN%@BO:          39cc27@%%@AE@% (June-July 1863).
Meanwhile, the Union navy had blockaded the Southern coast, and D.G.
%@AU@%FARRAGUT%@BO:          31d12f@%%@AE@% captured New Orleans (Apr. 1862). The introduction of the
ironclad warship (see %@AU@%MONITOR AND MERRIMAC%@BO:          62d07f@%%@AE@%) had ended the era of the
wooden battleship, but Confederate cruisers, built or bought in England,
were causing great losses to Northern commercial shipping. In the West,
%@AU@%GRANT'S%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@% great victory (Feb. 1862) at Fort Donelson was followed by a
drawn battle (April 6-7) at %@AU@%SHILOH%@BO:          885e93@%%@AE@%. Union gunboats on the Mississippi
opened the way for Grant's successful %@AU@%VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN%@BO:          9d151b@%%@AE@%. Confederate
Gen. Braxton %@AU@%BRAGG%@BO:          131ec8@%%@AE@% was checked at the end of the %@AU@%CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          1c40ed@%%@AE@%
(Aug.-Nov. 1863) and was driven back to Georgia. In the %@AU@%WILDERNESS
%@AU@%CAMPAIGN%@BO:          a18e43@%%@AE@% (May-June 1864), Grant forced Lee toward Richmond, and besieged
%@AU@%PETERSBURG%@BO:          74201b@%%@AE@%. Union Gen. W.T. %@AU@%SHERMAN%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@% won the %@AU@%ATLANTA CAMPAIGN%@BO:           96121@%%@AE@% (May-Sept.
1864) and made a destructive march through Georgia to the sea. The
Confederates evacuated Richmond after P.H. %@AU@%SHERIDAN'S%@BO:          883629@%%@AE@% victory at Five
Forks (Apr. 1, 1865). With his retreat blocked, Lee was forced to
surrender to Grant at %@AU@%APPOMATTOX%@BO:           6d04a@%%@AE@% (Apr. 9, 1865). The Union victory was
saddened by the assassination of Pres. Lincoln (April 14), and by the
deaths of more Americans than in any other war. But the Union was saved,
and slavery was abolished. The seceded states were readmitted to the
Union after %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cl%@AE@%,%@CR:CL              @%%@QR:Cl@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CHLORINE%@BO:          1dace4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Claflin, Tennessee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Claflin, Tennessee%@AE@%:%@CR:CLAFLIN         @%%@QR:Claflin, Tennessee@% see %@AU@%WOODHULL, VICTORIA (CLAFLIN)%@BO:          a2f306@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clair, Rene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clair, Rene%@AE@%%@CR:CLAIR           @%%@QR:Clair, Rene@%, 1898-1981, French film director. His films, noted for wit%@EH@%
and fantastic satire, include %@AI@%Sous le Toits de Paris%@AE@% (1929), %@AI@%The Ghost
%@AI@%Goes West%@AE@% (1936), and %@AI@%Les Belles de nuit%@AE@% (1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clam%@AE@%,%@CR:CLAM            @%%@QR:clam@% name for some %@AU@%BIVALVE%@BO:          104a4a@%%@AE@% mollusks, especially marine species that live%@EH@%
buried in mud or sand and have shells (valves) of equal size. Clams
burrow by means of a muscular foot, which can be extruded through the
valves. Clams are highly valued as food. Some freshwater bivalves are
also called clams. See also %@AU@%MOLLUSK%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clan%@AE@%,%@CR:CLAN            @%%@QR:clan@% social group based on assumed unilateral descent from a common%@EH@%
ancestor. Such groups have existed all over the world, including some
that claim the parentage or special protection of an animal, plant, or
other object (see %@AU@%TOTEM%@BO:          96d632@%%@AE@%) as well as such familiar groups as the Highland
clans of Scotland. Most clans are exogamous and regard marriages among
their members as incest. A clan is distinguished from a lineage in that a
clan merely claims common ancestry and may have several lineages; a
lineage can be traced to a common progenitor. Several clans may combine
into a larger social group called a phratry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of%@AE@%,%@CR:CLARENDON1      @%%@QR:Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of@% 1607-74, English statesman and%@EH@%
historian. A monarchist, he aided %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@% and went into exile with
%@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@%. After the %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@%, he was lord chancellor. Although he
favored religious toleration, he was forced by Parliament to enforce the
%@AU@%CLARENDON CODE%@BO:          1ee819@%%@AE@%. In 1667 Charles made him the scapegoat for various
failures in the second %@AU@%DUTCH WAR%@BO:          2b6fc9@%%@AE@% and removed him from office. He fled
England and died in exile. He wrote %@AI@%History of the Rebellion.%@AE@% His
daughter Anne married %@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clarendon, Constitutions of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clarendon, Constitutions of%@AE@%,%@CR:CLARENDON2      @%%@QR:Clarendon, Constitutions of@% 16 articles issued in 1164 by %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
England at the Council of Clarendon. Important in the development of
English law, the Constitutions extended the jurisdiction of civil over
church courts. After the pope condemned them, %@AU@%THOMAS A BECKET%@BO:          952656@%%@AE@%, the
archbishop of Canterbury, repudiated them, but for the most part they
remained the law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clarendon Code%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clarendon Code%@AE@%,%@CR:CLARENDON.CODE  @%%@QR:Clarendon Code@% 1661-65, four English laws passed after the %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
of %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% to strengthen the position of the Church of %@AU@%ENGLAND%@BO:          2ef54b@%%@AE@%. The
laws decreased the followers of dissenting sects, especially
Presbyterians. They were named for the earl of %@AU@%CLARENDON%@BO:          1ee24a@%%@AE@%, who opposed but
enforced them. Charles tried to court the dissenters by his unsuccessful
declarations of indulgence (1662, 1672). The Code was largely superseded
by the %@AU@%TEST ACT%@BO:          943f45@%%@AE@% (1673).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clarin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clarin%@AE@%:%@CR:CLARIN          @%%@QR:Clarin@% see %@AU@%ALAS, LEOPOLDO%@BO:           2a927@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clarinet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clarinet%@AE@%:%@CR:CLARINET        @%%@QR:clarinet@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clark, Alvan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clark, Alvan%@AE@%,%@CR:CLARK1          @%%@QR:Clark, Alvan@% 1804-87, b. Ashfield, Mass., and his son, %@AB@%Alvan Graham%@EH@%
%@AB@%Clark, %@AE@%1832-97, b. Fall River, Mass., makers of the objective lenses of
the two largest refracting telescopes in the world. These are the 36-in.
(91-cm) lens at the Lick Observatory, Calif., and the 40-in. (102-cm)
lens at the Yerkes Observatory, Wis., which went into operation in,
respectively, 1888 and 1897. The younger Clark discovered a number of
double stars and the companion star of Sirius.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clark, George Rogers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clark, George Rogers%@AE@%,%@CR:CLARK2          @%%@QR:Clark, George Rogers@% 1752-1818, Revolutionary War general, conqueror of%@EH@%
the Old Northwest; b. near Charlottesville, Va. He took Vincennes from
the British (1779) and fought the Indians in Ohio. His brother, %@AB@%William
%@AB@%Clark, %@AE@%1770-1838, b. Caroline co., Va., joined Meriwether Lewis (1803) as
a leader of the %@AU@%LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION%@BO:          547d74@%%@AE@%. Later he was superintendent
of Indian affairs, and governor of Missouri Territory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clark, Joe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clark, Joe%@AE@%%@CR:CLARK3          @%%@QR:Clark, Joe@% (Charles Joseph Clark), 1939-, prime minister of Canada%@EH@%
(1979-80). He entered the Canadian House of Commons from Alberta in 1972
and became leader of the Progressive Conservative party in 1976. In the
1979 elections he led his party to victory and briefly replaced Pierre
%@AU@%TRUDEAU%@BO:          982358@%%@AE@% as prime minister. His election represented the new political
importance of W Canada, especially oil-rich Alberta.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clark, Kenneth Bancroft%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clark, Kenneth Bancroft%@AE@%,%@CR:CLARK4          @%%@QR:Clark, Kenneth Bancroft@%  1914-, American psychologist; b. Canal Zone. He%@EH@%
is best known for his writings on the effects of school segregation on
students. His 1950 report was cited in the U.S. Supreme Court decision,
%@AI@%%@AE@%%@AU@%BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION%@BO:          148ee6@%%@AE@%. He was the first black person to receive a
permanent professorship at the City College of New York, where he taught
(1942-75), and to be a member of the New York State Board of Regents
(1966). His books include %@AI@%Prejudice and Your Child%@AE@% (1955), %@AI@%Dark Ghetto%@AE@%
(1965), and %@AI@%A Possible Reality%@AE@% (1972).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clark, Kenneth MacKenzie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clark, Kenneth MacKenzie%@AE@%%@CR:CLARK5          @%%@QR:Clark, Kenneth MacKenzie@% (Lord Clark of Saltwood), 1903-83, English art%@EH@%
historian. His noted writings include %@AI@%Leonardo da Vinci%@AE@% (2d ed., 1952),
%@AI@%Landscape into Art%@AE@% (1949), %@AI@%Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance%@AE@% (1966),
%@AI@%The Romantic Rebellion%@AE@% (1974), and a popular cultural survey,
%@AI@%Civilisation%@AE@% (1970).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clark, Mark Wayne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clark, Mark Wayne%@AE@%,%@CR:CLARK6          @%%@QR:Clark, Mark Wayne@% 1896-1984, U.S. general; b. Madison Barracks, N.Y. He%@EH@%
was Allied commander in N Africa and Italy in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, supreme
commander (1952-53) of UN forces in Korea, and commander of U.S. forces
in the Far East.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%class action%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%class action%@AE@%,%@CR:CLASS.ACTION    @%%@QR:class action@% lawsuit in which one or more persons represent a group%@EH@%
(class) too large for individual suits to be practical. The decision
binds all members of the group. Class action suits often involve major
social issues, e.g., inmates attempting to improve prison conditions or
women seeking equal pay for equal work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%classicism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%classicism%@AE@%,%@CR:CLASSICISM      @%%@QR:classicism@% term meaning clearness, elegance, symmetry, and repose%@EH@%
produced by attention to traditional forms; absence of emotionalism,
subjectivity, and excess enthusiasm; and, more precisely, admiration of
Greek and Roman models. Renaissance writers, for example, looked to
%@AU@%CICERO%@BO:          1e597e@%%@AE@%. In England, Francis %@AU@%BACON%@BO:           aced4@%%@AE@% in prose and Ben %@AU@%JONSON%@BO:          4d1c39@%%@AE@% in poetry
strove for classical style. The movement reached its apex with Alexander
%@AU@%POPE%@BO:          78246d@%%@AE@% and the Augustans. In France neoclassicism found its highest
expression in the dramas of Pierre %@AU@%CORNEILLE%@BO:          236a4e@%%@AE@% and Jean %@AU@%RACINE%@BO:          7c04ae@%%@AE@%. The works
of %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% painters and of the composers F.J. %@AU@%HAYDN%@BO:          40ade8@%%@AE@% and W.A. %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@%
particularly reveal the classical impulse. Classicism and %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% are
generally contrary tendencies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%classic revival%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%classic revival%@AE@%,%@CR:CLASSIC.REVIVAL @%%@QR:classic revival@% widely diffused phase of taste ("neoclassic")%@EH@%
influencing architecture and the arts in Europe and in the U.S. in the
last years of the 18th and first half of the 19th cent. Enthusiasm for
antiquity and for archaeological knowledge was stimulated by the
excavation of %@AU@%POMPEII%@BO:          77fbbc@%%@AE@% and by investigations in Greece. James Stuart and
Nicholas Revett's %@AI@%Antiquities of Athens%@AE@% (1st vol., 1762) was extremely
influential. In general, Roman influence predominated at first. In
France, the Empire style sponsored by %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% brought imitation of
ancient Rome to a peak. In the U.S. the same spirit was seen in public
buildings, e.g., Thomas %@AU@%JEFFERSON'S%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@% Virginia capitol design (1785).
American Greek revival appeared in B.H. %@AU@%LATROBE'S%@BO:          52b104@%%@AE@% Bank of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia (1799). Eventually a Greco-Roman form emerged. It dominated
in no country as in the U.S., where classic colonnades were seen even on
country farmhouses. Victorian romanticism after the Civil War
extinguished the revival, but many major buildings, e.g., the dome and
wings of the %@AU@%CAPITOL%@BO:          189528@%%@AE@%, remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%classification%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%classification%@AE@%,%@CR:CLASSIFICATION  @%%@QR:classification@% in biology, the systematic categorization of organisms.%@EH@%
One aim of modern classification, or systematics, is to show the
evolutionary relationships among organisms. The broadest division of
organisms is into kingdoms, traditionally two-Animalia (animals) and
Plantae (plants). Fairly widely accepted today are three additional
kingdoms: the Protista, comprising protozoans and some unicellular algae;
the Monera, bacteria and blue-green algae; and the Fungi. From most to
least inclusive, kingdoms are divided into the following categories:
phylum (usually called %@AI@%division%@AE@% in botany), class, order, family, genus,
and species. The species, the fundamental unit of classification,
consists of populations of genetically similar, interbreeding or
potentially interbreeding individuals that share the same gene pool
(collection of inherited characteristics whose combination is unique to
the species).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Claudel, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Claudel, Paul%@AE@%%@CR:CLAUDEL         @%%@QR:Claudel, Paul@%, 1868-1955, French dramatist, poet, and diplomat. He was%@EH@%
ambassador to Japan (1921-27), the U.S. (1927-33), and Belgium (1933-35).
His writings reflect his profound and mystical Catholicism. His finest
works include the play %@AI@%Tidings Brought to Mary%@AE@% (1912) and the rich lyric
verse of %@AI@%Five Great Odes%@AE@% (1910).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Claude Lorrain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Claude Lorrain%@AE@%%@CR:CLAUDE.LORRAIN  @%%@QR:Claude Lorrain@%, whose original name was %@AB@%Claude Gelee%@AE@% or %@AB@%Gellee%@AE@% , 1600-82,%@EH@%
French painter. The foremost landscape painter of his time, he recorded
his poetic compositions in a notebook to protect them from forgeries; it
was later published as %@AI@%Liber Veritatis%@AE@% (1777). In his later landscapes he
opened up unlimited vistas, introducing lyrical variations of light to
dissolve forms and draw the eye into vast panoramas. In %@AI@%The Expulsion of
%@AI@%Hagar%@AE@% (1668; Munich) he defied conventional composition for strong
effect. %@AU@%POUSSIN%@BO:          78ccf6@%%@AE@% was indebted to him, as was J.M.W. %@AU@%TURNER%@BO:          98e55c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Claudius I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Claudius I%@AE@%%@CR:CLAUDIUS.I      @%%@QR:Claudius I@% (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus), 10 BC-AD 54, Roman%@EH@%
emperor (AD 41-54), son of Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (see %@AU@%DRUSUS%@BO:          2ad253@%%@AE@%,
family) and thus nephew of %@AU@%TIBERIUS%@BO:          959cd5@%%@AE@%. When %@AU@%CALIGULA%@BO:          173fa1@%%@AE@% was murdered (AD 41),
Claudius was proclaimed emperor by the %@AU@%PRAETORIANS%@BO:          78f4eb@%%@AE@%. Despite suffering
from a type of paralysis, he consolidated and renewed the empire.
Claudius caused %@AU@%MESSALINA%@BO:          5f1dab@%%@AE@%, his third wife, to be executed. He was in turn
supposedly poisoned by her successor, Agrippina II, after she had
persuaded him to pass over his son Britannicus as heir in favor of %@AU@%NERO%@BO:          68474d@%%@AE@%,
her son by a former husband. Claudius was much reviled by his enemies;
however, he seems to have had considerable administrative ability.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Claudius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Claudius%@AE@%,%@CR:CLAUDIUS        @%%@QR:Claudius@% ancient Roman gens. %@AB@%Appius Claudius Sabinus In regillenis %@AE@%or%@EH@%
%@AB@%Regillensis %@AE@%was a Sabine; he came (c.504 BC) with his tribe to Rome. As
consul (495 BC) he was known for his severity. %@AB@%Appius Claudius Crassus
%@AB@%%@AE@%was decemvir (451-449 BC). Legend says that his attempt to rape %@AU@%VIRGINIA%@BO:          9dd1c4@%%@AE@%
caused a revolt in which he was killed and which led to the fall of the
decemvirs. %@AB@%Appius Claudius Caecus, %@AE@%censor (312-308 BC), constructed the
first Roman aqueduct and began construction of the %@AU@%APPIAN WAY%@BO:           6c982@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Publius
%@AB@%Claudius Pulcher, %@AE@%consul (249 BC), attacked the Carthaginian fleet at
Drepanum and was defeated. %@AB@%Appius Claudis Pulcher, %@AE@%d. c.48 BC, consul (54
BC), joined %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@% in the civil war and died before the battle at
Pharsala (48 BC).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clausewitz, Karl von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clausewitz, Karl von%@AE@%%@CR:CLAUSEWITZ      @%%@QR:Clausewitz, Karl von@%, 1780-1831, Prussian general and writer on military%@EH@%
strategy. After serving in the wars against %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%, he was appointed
(1818) director of the Prussian war college. His masterpiece, %@AI@%On War,%@AE@%
expounded the doctrines of "total war" and war as a political act (a
continuation of diplomacy by other means). Published after his death, it
had a major impact on military strategy and also greatly influenced
political thinking.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel%@AE@%%@CR:CLAUSIUS        @%%@QR:Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel@%, 1822-88, German mathematical physicist.%@EH@%
He introduced the concept of entropy and restated the second law of
%@AU@%THERMODYNAMICS%@BO:          94e3ba@%%@AE@% to say that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a
hotter body. Through investigations of heat, electricity, and molecular
physics, he developed the %@AU@%KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES%@BO:          4fae30@%%@AE@% and
formulated a theory of %@AU@%ELECTROLYSIS%@BO:          2d7e18@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%claustrophobia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%claustrophobia%@AE@%:%@CR:CLAUSTROPHOBIA  @%%@QR:claustrophobia@% see %@AU@%PHOBIA%@BO:          74f0a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clavichord%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clavichord%@AE@%:%@CR:CLAVICHORD      @%%@QR:clavichord@% see %@AU@%PIANO%@BO:          7566bd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clay, Cassius Marcellus, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clay, Cassius Marcellus, Jr.%@AE@%:%@CR:CLAY1           @%%@QR:Clay, Cassius Marcellus, Jr.@% see %@AU@%ALI, MUHAMMAD%@BO:           3b81e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clay, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clay, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:CLAY2           @%%@QR:Clay, Henry@% 1777-1852, American statesman; b. Hanover co., Va. He served%@EH@%
Kentucky as U.S. senator (1806-7, 1810-11, 1831-42, 1849-52) and
representative (1811-14, 1815-21, 1823-25). A leader of the "war hawks,"
Clay helped to bring on the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%. His "American system" was a
national program for federal aid in internal improvements, a protective
tariff, and a rechartering of the %@AU@%BANK OF THE UNITED STATES%@BO:           be57f@%%@AE@%. Secretary of
state (1825-29) under Pres. John Quincy %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:           10887@%%@AE@%, he opposed the succeeding
Jackson administration, especially on the bank issue. He was the
presidential candidate of the National Republican party in 1832 and of
the %@AU@%WHIG PARTY%@BO:          a109c5@%%@AE@% in 1844. Clay pushed the %@AU@%MISSOURI COMPROMISE%@BO:          61afda@%%@AE@% (1820-21)
through the House, and, denouncing extremists in both North and South, he
was the chief shaper of the %@AU@%COMPROMISE OF 1850%@BO:          2162e3@%%@AE@%. He was called the Great
Pacificator and the Great Compromiser.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clay%@AE@%,%@CR:CLAY3           @%%@QR:clay@% common name for a number of fine-grained, earthy materials that are%@EH@%
plastic when wet. They are easily molded into a form they retain when
dry, and become hard and hold their shape when subjected to heat.
Chemically, clay minerals are hydrous aluminum silicates with various
impurities. Clays are most commonly formed by surface weathering. In the
form of %@AU@%BRICKS%@BO:          13ca9e@%%@AE@%, clay has been indispensable to architecture since
prehistoric times. Clays are of great industrial importance, e.g., in the
manufacture of tile and pipe. Clay is one of the three principal types of
soil; the others are %@AU@%SAND%@BO:          83ed2f@%%@AE@% and loam.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clayton Antitrust Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clayton Antitrust Act%@AE@%:%@CR:CLAYTONST.ACT   @%%@QR:Clayton Antitrust Act@% see under %@AU@%ANTITRUST LAWS%@BO:           66ee2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clayton-Bulwer Treaty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clayton-Bulwer Treaty%@AE@%,%@CR:CLAYTONREATY    @%%@QR:Clayton-Bulwer Treaty@% concluded at Washington, D.C., on Apr. 19, 1850,%@EH@%
between the U.S., represented by Secretary of State John M. Clayton, and
Great Britain, represented by Sir Henry Bulwer. U.S.-British rivalries in
%@AU@%CENTRAL AMERICA%@BO:          1aef13@%%@AE@%, particularly over a proposed isthmian canal, led to the
treaty, which checked British expansion in Central America but prevented
the U.S. from building and politically controlling a canal. The unpopular
treaty remained effective until it was superseded by the %@AU@%HAY-PAUNCEFOTE
%@AU@%TREATY%@BO:          40c0fc@%%@AE@% of 1901.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cleisthenes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cleisthenes%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEISTHENES     @%%@QR:Cleisthenes@% fl. 510 BC, Athenian statesman; head of the family%@EH@%
Alcmaeonidae. The undisputed ruler of %@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@% after 506 BC, he instituted
democratic reforms that ended civil strife there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clematis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clematis%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMATIS        @%%@QR:clematis@% herb or vine (genus %@AI@%Clematis%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%BUTTERCUP%@BO:          16271b@%%@AE@% family. The%@EH@%
vines are usually profuse and varied bloomers. The Jackman clematis (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%jackmanii%@AE@%) is a large purple hybrid; the Japanese clematis (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%paniculata%@AE@%) has small white flowers. Other names for clematis are
virgin's bower, traveler's joy, leatherflower, and old-man's-beard.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clemenceau, Georges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clemenceau, Georges%@AE@%%@CR:CLEMENCEAU      @%%@QR:Clemenceau, Georges@%, 1841-1929, French premier (1906-9, 1917-20), called%@EH@%
"the Tiger." As a journalist, he passionately defended Dreyfus in the
%@AU@%DREYFUS AFFAIR%@BO:          2aa834@%%@AE@%. His coalition cabinet in World War I, by reinvigorating
French morale, facilitated the Allied victory. At the Paris Peace
Conference, he opposed Woodrow %@AU@%WILSON%@BO:          a215a5@%%@AE@%, believing that the Treaty of
%@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd7bc@%%@AE@% would not adequately protect France. Ironically, he lost the
1920 presidential election because of his perceived leniency towards
Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clemens, Samuel Langhorne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clemens, Samuel Langhorne%@AE@%:%@CR:CLEMENS         @%%@QR:Clemens, Samuel Langhorne@% see %@AU@%TWAIN, MARK%@BO:          9911cd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement I, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement I, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENT.I       @%%@QR:Clement I, Saint@% or %@AB@%Clement of Rome,%@AE@%d. AD 97?, pope (AD 88?-97?),%@EH@%
martyr. Highly esteemed in his day, he may have known Saints %@AU@%PETER%@BO:          73f868@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%. His letter to the Corinthians was considered canonical by some
until the 4th cent. and is notable for the authority Clement assumes. He
was the first Christian writer to use the phoenix as an allegory of the
Resurrection. Feast: Nov. 23.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement V%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement V%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENT.V       @%%@QR:Clement V@% 1264-1314, pope (1305-14), a Frenchman named Bertrand de Got.%@EH@%
As archbishop of Bordeaux, he gained the favor of the French king %@AU@%PHILIP
%@AU@%IV%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@%, who engineered his election as pope. He settled (1309) in Avignon,
thus beginning the long "captivity" of the %@AU@%PAPACY%@BO:          70a3f2@%%@AE@%. Dominated by Philip,
he did resist attempts to condemn Pope %@AU@%BONIFACE VIII%@BO:          11d759@%%@AE@% posthumously, but he
supported Philip in supressing the %@AU@%KNIGHTS TEMPLARS%@BO:          5044ed@%%@AE@%. He issued an
important collection of canon law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement VI%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement VI%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENT.VI      @%%@QR:Clement VI@% 1291-1352, pope (1342-52), a Frenchman named Pierre Roger.%@EH@%
Completely pro-French, he kept an elegant court at Avignon. When the
%@AU@%PLAGUE%@BO:          76648a@%%@AE@% known as the Black Death struck (1348-50) Europe, he did much to
help the sufferers and tried to stem the subsequent wave of
anti-Semitism. In Roman affairs he at first favored but then opposed Cola
di %@AU@%RIENZI%@BO:          7f3e48@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement VII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement VII%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENT.VII     @%%@QR:Clement VII@% c.1475-1534, pope (1523-34), a Florentine named Giulio de'%@EH@%
Medici, a member of the %@AU@%MEDICI%@BO:          5e071c@%%@AE@% family. Weak and timorous, he seemed
unaware of the threat that the %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@% posed to the church. Allied
with %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@% of France, Clement quarreled with Holy Roman Emperor
%@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% and was captured (1527) when imperial troops sacked Rome. Peace
was restored in 1529, and Clement crowned Charles emperor. Clement
vacillated in the matter of granting an annulment for %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of
England and was unable to stop Henry's break with Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement VIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement VIII%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENT.VIII    @%%@QR:Clement VIII@% 1536-1605, pope (1592-1605), a Florentine named Ippolito%@EH@%
Aldobrandini. Reversing a papal policy, he allied with France instead of
Spain and was friendly with the French king %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@%. He was also known
for piety.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement XI%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement XI%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENT.XI      @%%@QR:Clement XI@% 1649-1721, pope (1700-21), an Italian named Giovanni%@EH@%
Francesco Albani. In the War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@%, he supported
first the claims of %@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% and then those of Charles of Hapsburg.
Clement was known for his great learning and issued (1713) the bull
%@AI@%Unigenitus%@AE@% to combat Jansenism (see under %@AU@%JANSEN, CORNELIS%@BO:          4b2ad0@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement XIV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement XIV%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENT.XIV     @%%@QR:Clement XIV@% 1705-74, pope (1769-74), an Italian named Lorenzo%@EH@%
Ganganelli, a Conventual Franciscan. Bowing to the wishes of the Bourbon
monarchs of France and Spain, Clement issued (1773) a brief suppressing
the %@AU@%JESUITS%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clemente, Roberto (Walker)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clemente, Roberto (Walker)%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEMENTE        @%%@QR:Clemente, Roberto (Walker)@% 1934-72, Puerto Rican baseball player; b.%@EH@%
Carolina, Puerto Rico. A right fielder, he played 18 years (1955-72) with
the Pittsburgh Pirates. He had a lifetime batting average of .317, hit
240 home runs, and was the 11th player to reach 3,000 hits. He died in a
plane crash while aiding earthquake victims in Nicaragua.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clementi, Muzio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clementi, Muzio%@AE@%%@CR:CLEMENTI        @%%@QR:Clementi, Muzio@%, 1752-1832, Italian composer, pianist, and conductor. His%@EH@%
more than 100 piano %@AU@%SONATAS%@BO:          8b73bf@%%@AE@% set the definitive form, and he had a great
influence on all aspects of piano music. He is remembered for his series
of etudes, %@AI@%Gradus ad Parnassum%@AE@% (1817).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement of Alexandria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement of Alexandria%@AE@%%@CR:CLEMENTANDRIA   @%%@QR:Clement of Alexandria@% (Titus Flavius Clemens), d. c.215, Greek%@EH@%
theologian. A convert to Christianity, he was one of the first to attempt
a synthesis of Platonic and Christian thought. He attacked %@AU@%GNOSTICISM%@BO:          3acbaf@%%@AE@%,
but he has himself been called a Christian gnostic for his efforts to
state the faith in terms of contemporary thought. %@AU@%ORIGEN%@BO:          6ed576@%%@AE@% was his pupil.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clement of Rome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clement of Rome%@AE@%:%@CR:CLEMENT.OF.ROME @%%@QR:Clement of Rome@% see %@AU@%CLEMENT I, SAINT%@BO:          1f31e2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cleon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cleon%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEON           @%%@QR:Cleon@% d. 422 BC, Athenian statesman. An antagonist of %@AU@%SPARTA%@BO:          8d347b@%%@AE@%, he won a%@EH@%
great victory at Sphacteria (425 BC) but was killed in the defeat at
Amphipolis. His reputation as a vulgar demagogue is due to accounts by
his enemies %@AU@%THUCYDIDES%@BO:          956f43@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ARISTOPHANES%@BO:           7af56@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cleopatra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cleopatra%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEOPATRA       @%%@QR:Cleopatra@% 69 BC-30 BC, queen of %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%, one of the great romantic%@EH@%
heroines of history. The daughter of %@AU@%PTOLEMY XI%@BO:          7a9a83@%%@AE@%, she was married (as was
the custom) to her younger brother, %@AU@%PTOLEMY XII%@BO:          7a9a83@%%@AE@%. By revolting against
him, with the aid of Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%, she won the kingdom, although it
remained a vassal of Rome. After her husband died, she married another
brother, Ptolemy XIII; but she was the mistress of Caesar, and in Rome
she bore a son, Caesarion (later Ptolemy XIV), said to be his. Returning
to Egypt after the murder of Caesar, she was visited by Marc %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@%, who
fell in love with her. She seems to have hoped to use him to reestablish
her throne's power; they were married in 36 BC But the Romans were
hostile, and Octavian (later %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%) defeated Antony and Cleopatra off
Actium in 31 BC Failing to defend themselves in Egypt, Antony and
Cleopatra killed themselves. %@AU@%PLUTARCH%@BO:          76f2b8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%, and G.B. %@AU@%SHAW%@BO:          8807c3@%%@AE@% are
among the writers who have described Cleopatra's remarkable life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cleopatra's needles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cleopatra's needles%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEOPATLES      @%%@QR:Cleopatra's needles@% popular name for two red granite %@AU@%OBELISKS%@BO:          6c8ad9@%%@AE@% from%@EH@%
Egypt. Originally erected at Heliopolis (c.1475 BC) by %@AU@%THUTMOSE III%@BO:          958949@%%@AE@%, they
were sent separately as gifts of %@AU@%ISMAIL PASHA%@BO:          4a25a5@%%@AE@% to England (1878) and the
U.S. (1880).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clergy Reserves%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clergy Reserves%@AE@%,%@CR:CLERGY.RESERVES @%%@QR:Clergy Reserves@% lands in Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec)%@EH@%
set apart under the Constitutional Act of 1791 "for the support and
maintenance of a Protestant clergy." "Protestant clergy" was interpreted
to mean clergy of the Church of England, a view which dissatisfied other
Protestant denominations and became an issue in the Rebellion of 1837. In
1854 a law provided for secularization of the reserves, but Anglican and
Presbyterian churches retained their endowments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clerk-Maxwell, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clerk-Maxwell, James%@AE@%:%@CR:CLERKMAXWELL    @%%@QR:Clerk-Maxwell, James@% see %@AU@%MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK%@BO:          5d9adc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEVELAND1      @%%@QR:Cleveland, (Stephen) Grover@% 1837-1908, 22d (1885-89) and 24th (1893-97)%@EH@%
president of the U.S.; b. Caldwell, N.J. He was mayor of Buffalo
(1882-83) and governor of New York (1883-85). An enemy of machine
politics, he was named the Democratic "clean government" candidate to
oppose James G. %@AU@%BLAINE%@BO:          10b291@%%@AE@% in 1884, and was elected after a bitter campaign.
As president he pursued his conscientious, independent course, offending
the zealots of his party by his moderate use of the %@AU@%SPOILS SYSTEM%@BO:          8db66d@%%@AE@%. In the
1888 election, Cleveland campaigned on a lower tariff, but in spite of a
popular majority he lost the election to Benjamin %@AU@%HARRISON%@BO:          40367a@%%@AE@%. The panic of
1893 struck a hard blow at his second administration, and he angered
radical Democrats by securing repeal of the %@AU@%SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE ACT%@BO:          8842d4@%%@AE@%.
The party rift widened when he refused to sign his tariff measure as
altered by the protectionist Sen. A.P. Gorman. In the Pullman strike
(1894), he sent in troops and broke the strike on grounds that the
movement of the U.S. mail was being halted. In foreign affairs he took a
strong stand on the %@AU@%VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE%@BO:          9c765c@%%@AE@%, and refused recognition
to a Hawaiian government set up by Americans. Cleveland's independence
marked him as a man of integrity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cleveland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cleveland%@AE@%,%@CR:CLEVELAND2      @%%@QR:Cleveland@% city (1986 est. pop. 535,830), seat of Cuyahoga co., NE Ohio,%@EH@%
on Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga R.; laid out 1796, chartered
1836. Ohio's largest city, it is a major ore port and %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@%
shipping point, one of the nation's leading iron and steel centers, and a
major producer of metal products. It has diverse light and heavy
manufacturing, including the production of machine tools, chemicals, oil
refining, and electrical goods, and houses government and corporate
research facilities. The arrival of the canal (1827) and railroad (1851)
spurred the city's growth; its location between the Pennsylvania coal and
oil fields and the Minnesota iron mines led to industrialization. John D.
%@AU@%ROCKEFELLER%@BO:          7fe344@%%@AE@% began his oil dynasty there. Although the city declined in
the 1970s and early 80s, as indicated by its 1978 loan default, the
construction of new buildings highlighted economic progress. Case Western
Reserve Univ. is among its many educational institutions. The Cleveland
Orchestra, Cleveland Museum of Art, and Cleveland %@AI@%Plain Dealer%@AE@% newspaper
are well known.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cliff dwellers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cliff dwellers%@AE@%,%@CR:CLIFF.DWELLERS  @%%@QR:cliff dwellers@% American Indians of the Anasazi culture who built%@EH@%
(11th-14th cent.) large communal homes on mesas and in canyon walls along
rivers in the SW U.S. Ancient ancestors of the %@AU@%PUEBLO INDIANS%@BO:          7ac21a@%%@AE@%, the cliff
dwellers were agriculturalists who planted and irrigated fields below
their highly defensible houses. Their society was communal, and their
%@AU@%KIVA%@BO:          501cda@%%@AE@% attest to religious ceremonies like those of the Pueblos. Many of
the dwellings (e.g., Mesa Verde) are now part of %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clifford, Clark McAdams%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clifford, Clark McAdams%@AE@%,%@CR:CLIFFORD        @%%@QR:Clifford, Clark McAdams@% 1906-, U.S. government official; b. Fort Scott,%@EH@%
Kans. As special adviser (1946-50) to Pres. Harry S %@AU@%TRUMAN%@BO:          982df7@%%@AE@%, he was
influential in the formulation (1947) of the Truman Doctrine and the
creation of the Dept. of %@AU@%DEFENSE%@BO:          275e26@%%@AE@%. He served (1961-63) as a foreign policy
adviser to Pres. John F. %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@%, and became (1963) chairman of the
Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, supervising U.S. espionage
operations and playing a crucial role in deciding U.S. military policy in
the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%. Clifford served (1968-69) as secretary of state under
Pres. Lyndon B. %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4ccc58@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%climate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%climate%@AE@%,%@CR:CLIMATE         @%%@QR:climate@% average weather conditions in an area over a long period of%@EH@%
time, taking into account temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind,
atmospheric pressure, and other phenomena. The major factor governing
climate is latitude; this is modified by one or more secondary factors
including position relative to land and water masses, altitude, ocean
currents, topography, prevailing winds, and prevalence of cyclonic
storms. The earth is divided into climatic zones based on average yearly
temperature and average yearly precipitation. The study of climate is
called climatology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clinic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clinic%@AE@%,%@CR:CLINIC          @%%@QR:clinic@% an institution providing medical diagnosis and treatment for%@EH@%
ambulatory patients. The forerunner of the modern clinic was the
dispensary, which dispensed free drugs and served only those who could
not afford to pay a fee. Clinics are maintained by private and city
hospitals, by city health departments, by industrial and labor
organizations, and by groups of private physicians. Some clinics
specialize, but those designated as health centers offer all the
essential health services. The service is free to those who cannot afford
private care. Clinics maintained by industrial and labor organizations
are often free for members; in hospital clinics, the fee is usually based
on the individual's ability to pay.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clinton, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clinton, George%@AE@%,%@CR:CLINTON1        @%%@QR:Clinton, George@% 1739-1812, American statesman, vice president of the%@EH@%
U.S. (1805-12); b. Little Britain, N.Y. As New York's first governor
(1777-95) under the new state constitution, he ably managed trade and
public welfare. An advocate of state sovereignty, he opposed the federal
Constitution. His nephew, %@AB@%De Witt Clinton, %@AE@%1769-1828, b. New Windsor,
N.Y., was mayor of New York City for 10 one-year terms (between 1803 and
1815), and was governor of New York (1817-21, 1825-28). He supported
public education and city planning, and sponsored the %@AU@%ERIE CANAL%@BO:          2fcbb9@%%@AE@% and the
Champlain-Hudson Canal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clinton, Sir Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clinton, Sir Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:CLINTON2        @%%@QR:Clinton, Sir Henry@% 1738?-1795, British general in the %@AU@%AMERICAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%; b. Newfoundland. Knighted in 1777, he was (1778-81) supreme
commander in America. He took Charleston (1780) but did not take part in
the %@AU@%YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN%@BO:          a45544@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clio%@AE@%:%@CR:CLIO            @%%@QR:Clio@% see %@AU@%MUSES%@BO:          655f08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clisthenes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clisthenes%@AE@%:%@CR:CLISTHENES      @%%@QR:Clisthenes@% see %@AU@%CLEISTHENES%@BO:          1f2a8d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clive, Robert, Baron Clive of Plassey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clive, Robert, Baron Clive of Plassey%@AE@%,%@CR:CLIVE           @%%@QR:Clive, Robert, Baron Clive of Plassey@% 1725-74, British soldier and%@EH@%
statesman. In the military service of the British %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be578@%%@AE@%, he
won a series of brilliant victories (culminating in Plassey, 1757) that
broke French power in %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@%. He brought %@AU@%BENGAL%@BO:           e5dc9@%%@AE@% under British control and
was its first governor. In his second term as governor (1765-67), he
reduced corruption and inefficiency and reached a settlement with the
states of Bihar and Orissa. On his return to England in 1767, he was
accused by Parliament of having unlawfully enriched himself while in
India. He was acquitted in 1773, but, broken in health, committed
suicide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clock%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOCK           @%%@QR:clock@% mechanical, electrical, or atomic instrument for measuring and%@EH@%
indicating time. Predecessors of the clock were the sundial, the
hourglass, and the clepsydra. The operation of a clock depends on a
stable mechanical oscillator, such as a swinging %@AU@%PENDULUM%@BO:          72c2f8@%%@AE@% or a mass
connected to a spring, by means of which the energy stored in a raised
weight or coiled spring advances a pointer or other indicator at a
controlled rate. The heavy and bulky weight-driven clock may first have
been built in the 9th cent. The introduction (c.1500) of the coiled
spring made possible the construction of smaller, lighter-weight clocks.
The Dutch scientist Christiaan %@AU@%HUYGENS%@BO:          45c52e@%%@AE@% invented (1656 or 1657) a pendulum
clock, probably the first. Electric clocks, first made in the late 19th
cent., are powered by an electric motor synchronized with the frequency
of alternating current. The quartz clock, invented c.1929, uses the
vibrations of a quartz crystal to drive a synchronous motor at a very
precise rate. An atomic clock (invented 1948), even more precise, is
indirectly controlled by atomic or molecular oscillations. Digital clocks
and watches dispense with the hour-marked dial and display time as a
numerical figure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clodius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clodius%@AE@%%@CR:CLODIUS         @%%@QR:Clodius@% (Publius Clodius Pulcher), d. 52 BC, Roman politician. In 62 BC,%@EH@%
disguised as a woman, he took part in the women's mysteries of Bona Dea
in the house of Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%, thus leading Caesar to divorce his wife
Pompeia. In 58 BC he became tribune of the people and proved to be a
demagogue, seeking popularity in every way. His gang of hired ruffians
changed the complexion of Roman politics. He was killed by a rival gang
hired by the tribune Milo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cloisonne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cloisonne%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOISONNE       @%%@QR:cloisonne@% method of decorating metal surfaces with enamel. Filaments of%@EH@%
metal are attached to the surface of the object, outlining the design and
forming compartments that are filled with colored paste enamels. When the
piece is heated the enamels fuse with the metal, forming a glossy,
colored surface. Probably invented in the Middle East, cloisonne was
perfected by the Chinese, Japanese, and French.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cloister%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cloister%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOISTER        @%%@QR:cloister@% unroofed space, part of a religious establishment, surrounded%@EH@%
by buildings or walls. Generally it has on all sides a vaulted passageway
of continuous colonnades or arcades opening onto a court. It is
characteristic of monastic institutions, serving both as sheltered access
to rooms and for recreation. Cloisters were built in some English
colleges and in some churches. Superb Romanesque examples remain in S
France, Italy, and Spain; of the Gothic period, the English are
particularly fine, e.g., %@AU@%WESTMINSTER ABBEY%@BO:          a0bccb@%%@AE@%. Renaissance cloisters are
chiefly Italian and Spanish, while 16th-cent. cloisters exist in
California, Cuba, and Mexico.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cloisters, the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cloisters, the%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOISTERS       @%%@QR:Cloisters, the@% museum of medieval art, in Fort Tryon Park, N.Y.C.;%@EH@%
opened in 1938. A branch of the %@AU@%METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART%@BO:          5f89ae@%%@AE@%, it includes
four French %@AU@%CLOISTERS%@BO:          1f8372@%%@AE@%, a Romanesque chapel, and a chapter house. The core
of the collection-several hundred examples of medieval French art
(gathered by George Gray Barnard)-was purchased (1925) by John D.
Rockefeller, Jr. (see %@AU@%ROCKEFELLER%@BO:          7fe344@%%@AE@%, family), and presented to the museum.
Later additions include the 15th-cent. %@AI@%Unicorn%@AE@% tapestries and %@AU@%CAMPIN'S%@BO:          17d382@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Merode Altarpiece%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clone%@AE@%,%@CR:CLONE           @%%@QR:clone@% group of organisms descended from a single individual through%@EH@%
asexual %@AU@%REPRODUCTION%@BO:          7e3cff@%%@AE@%. Except for changes in hereditary material due to
%@AU@%MUTATION%@BO:          65b679@%%@AE@%, all members of a clone are genetically identical. Experiments
resulting in the development of a frog from a cell of an existing animal
and the laboratory fertilization of human eggs have raised questions
about the eventual possibility of cloning identical humans from cells of
a preexisting individual.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Close, Chuck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Close, Chuck%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOSE           @%%@QR:Close, Chuck@% (Charles Thomas Close), 1940-, American painter; b. Monroe,%@EH@%
Wash. A leading figure in the %@AU@%PHOTOREALISM%@BO:          753559@%%@AE@% movement, he is known for
huge, frontal, and photographically precise portraits.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%closed-end investment company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%closed-end investment company%@AE@%:%@CR:CLOSEDEMPANY    @%%@QR:closed-end investment company@% see %@AU@%MUTUAL FUND%@BO:          65c1e9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%closed shop%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%closed shop%@AE@%:%@CR:CLOSED.SHOP     @%%@QR:closed shop@% see %@AU@%UNION, LABOR%@BO:          99c254@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clotho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clotho%@AE@%:%@CR:CLOTHO          @%%@QR:Clotho@% see %@AU@%FATES%@BO:          31fa25@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cloud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cloud%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOUD           @%%@QR:cloud@% aggregation of minute particles of water or ice suspended in the%@EH@%
air. Clouds form when air containing water vapor is cooled below a
critical temperature called the %@AU@%DEW%@BO:          28790a@%%@AE@% point. The resulting moisture
condenses into droplets on microscopic dust particles (condensation
nuclei) in the atmosphere. The air is normally cooled by expansion during
its upward movement. Clouds are classified by appearance, altitude, or
composition. Each cloud type is formed by specific atmospheric conditions
and is, therefore, indicative of forthcoming weather. %@AI@%Cirrus%@AE@% clouds,
generally white, and delicate and fibrous in appearance, are the highest
clouds and are made of ice crystals. %@AI@%Stratus%@AE@% clouds, layered in
appearance, are the lowest clouds and are associated with stormy weather.
%@AI@%Cumulus%@AE@% clouds, which are vertically developed, usually with a horizontal
base and a dome-shaped upper surface, are intermediate in height and are
associated with fair weather. Combinations of these cloud names are
common. %@AI@%Cirrostratus%@AE@% clouds, for example, are high-altitude layered
clouds that often indicate rain or snow. Prefixes and suffixes are also
used. For example, %@AI@%nimbus%@AE@% means rain, and %@AI@%cumulonimbus%@AE@% clouds, commonly
called thunderheads, indicate rain showers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cloud chamber%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cloud chamber%@AE@%:%@CR:CLOUD.CHAMBER   @%%@QR:cloud chamber@% see %@AU@%PARTICLE DETECTOR%@BO:          71bcdd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clouet, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clouet, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:CLOUET          @%%@QR:Clouet, Jean@%, called %@AB@%Janet %@AE@%or %@AB@%Jehannet, %@AE@%c.1485-1540, court painter to%@EH@%
%@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@% of France. He is thought to have been Flemish. None of the
soft, geometrically simple drawings, portraits, and miniatures attributed
to Jean Clouet can be proved to have been his. His son, %@AB@%Francois Clouet,
%@AB@%%@AE@%c.1510-c.1572, inherited his father's position as court painter. His
clear, precise draftmanship can be seen in his portraits of Francis I and
Elizabeth of Austria (both: Louvre).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clough, Arthur Hugh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clough, Arthur Hugh%@AE@%%@CR:CLOUGH          @%%@QR:Clough, Arthur Hugh@%, 1819-61, English poet. He is best remembered for his%@EH@%
lyric "Say not the struggle naught availeth." Clough is the subject of
"Thyrsis," an elegy written by his close friend Matthew %@AU@%ARNOLD%@BO:           81f0c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clove%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clove%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOVE           @%%@QR:clove@% small tropical evergreen tree (%@AI@%Syzygium aromaticum%@AE@% or %@AI@%Eugenia%@EH@%
%@AI@%caryophyllata%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MYRTLE%@BO:          65dbcc@%%@AE@% family and its unopened flower bud, an
important spice. The buds, whose folded petals are enclosed in four
toothlike lobes of the calyx, are dried and used whole or ground for
cooking. Clove oil is used in flavorings, perfumes, and medicines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%clover%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%clover%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOVER          @%%@QR:clover@% plant (genus %@AI@%Trifolium%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family, mainly native to%@EH@%
north temperate and subtropical areas. The American cultivated varieties
were introduced from Europe. Clovers have been cultivated for hay and are
excellent honey plants. The dried flowers and seed heads of the common
white clover (%@AI@%T. repens%@AE@%) were used to make bread during famines in
Ireland, and the leaves are used for salads in some parts of the U.S.
Sweet clover is a related plant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clovis I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clovis I%@AE@%,%@CR:CLOVIS.I        @%%@QR:Clovis I@% c.466-511, Frankish king (481-511), founder of the %@AU@%MEROVINGIAN%@BO:          5f00c4@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
monarchy. He rose from tribal chief to sole leader of the Salian %@AU@%FRANKS%@BO:          3588b6@%%@AE@%
by dint of patience and murder. He won Gaul and SW Germany by fighting
the Romans, Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths. His wife, St. Clotilda,
encouraged his conversion (496) to Christianity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%club moss%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%club moss%@AE@%,%@CR:CLUB.MOSS       @%%@QR:club moss@% living member of Lycopodiopsida, a class of primitive vascular%@EH@%
plants that reached their zenith in the Carboniferous period and are now
almost extinct. They resemble the more primitive, nonvascular true
mosses. Club mosses are usually creeping or epiphytic; many of them
inhabit moist tropical or subtropical regions. Reproduction is by spores,
which are clustered in small cones or borne in the axils of the scalelike
leaves. Some species of %@AI@%Lycopodium,%@AE@% called ground pine or creeping cedar,
resemble miniature hemlocks with flattened fan-shaped branches. Spores of
%@AI@%L. clavatum%@AE@% are sold as lycopodium powder, or vegetable sulfur, a
flammable yellow powder used in pharmaceuticals and fireworks. Species of
%@AI@%Selaginella%@AE@% are grown as ornamentals, e.g., the resurrection plant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cluj-Napoca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cluj-Napoca%@AE@%,%@CR:CLUJNAPOCA      @%%@QR:Cluj-Napoca@% Hung. %@AI@%Kolozsvar,%@AE@% Ger. %@AI@%Klausenburg,%@AE@% city (1985 pop. 309,843),%@EH@%
W central Rumania, in Transylvania, on the Somesul R. Rumania's second
largest city, it has metallurgical and other industries. The city was
founded (12th cent.) by German colonists, incorporated (1867) in the
Austro-Hungarian empire, and transferred (1920) to Rumania. It has noted
botanical gardens and a 14th-cent. Gothic church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cluny Museum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cluny Museum%@AE@%,%@CR:CLUNY.MUSEUM    @%%@QR:Cluny Museum@% Paris, 14th- and 15th-cent. Gothic and Renaissance%@EH@%
structure built on the site of the Roman baths of Emperor Julian.
Acquired and converted by the antiquarian Du Sommerard, it was left to
the state at his death (1842). Its 24 galleries display medieval works of
carved wood, metalwork, textiles, and stained glass, as well as superb
15th- and 16th-cent. tapestries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cluster, star%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cluster, star%@AE@%,%@CR:CLUSTER         @%%@QR:cluster, star@% group of neighboring stars that resemble each other in%@EH@%
certain characteristics that suggest a common origin. Galactic, or open,
clusters typically contain from a few dozen to about a thousand loosely
scattered stars and exist in regions rich in gas and dust, such as the
spiral arms of the galaxy. More than 1,000 galactic clusters, including
the Hyades and Pleiades in the constellation Taurus, have been catalogued
in the Milky Way. Globular clusters are spherical aggregates of thousands
or millions of densely concentrated stars and exist in the outer halo of
the galaxy. The brightest of the more than 100 globular clusters so far
detected in the galaxy are Omega Centauri and 47 Tucanae, both seen with
the unaided eye in the southern skies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Clytemnestra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Clytemnestra%@AE@%%@CR:CLYTEMNESTRA    @%%@QR:Clytemnestra@%, in Greek mythology, daughter of %@AU@%LEDA%@BO:          535750@%%@AE@% and Tyndareus. The%@EH@%
wife of %@AU@%AGAMEMNON%@BO:           1f531@%%@AE@%, she was the mother of %@AU@%ORESTES%@BO:          6ea70f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ELECTRA%@BO:          2d53f9@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%IPHIGENIA%@BO:          4948d8@%%@AE@%.
She and her lover, %@AU@%AEGISTHUS%@BO:           1717f@%%@AE@%, murdered Agamemnon and, in revenge, were
slain by Orestes. %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% portrayed Clytemnestra as a noble woman, misled
by her lover, but the Greek tragedians, particularly %@AU@%AESCHYLUS%@BO:           18617@%%@AE@%, depicted
her as remorseless and vengeful.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cm%@AE@%,%@CR:CM              @%%@QR:Cm@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CURIUM%@BO:          25688e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cnossus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cnossus%@AE@%%@CR:CNOSSUS         @%%@QR:Cnossus@%or %@AB@%Knossos%@AE@%, ancient city on the N coast of %@AU@%CRETE%@BO:          248b02@%%@AE@%. Occupied long%@EH@%
before 3000 BC, it was the center of %@AU@%MINOAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          613426@%%@AE@%, known mainly
from study of the great palace of Cnossus. In Greek legend, it was the
capital of King %@AU@%MINOS%@BO:          613c5a@%%@AE@% and the site of the labyrinth. Cnossus was
destroyed, probably by invaders, c.1400 BC, but it later flourished as a
Greek city until the 4th cent. AD%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Co%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Co%@AE@%,%@CR:CO              @%%@QR:Co@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%COBALT%@BO:          1fc0d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coal%@AE@%,%@CR:COAL            @%%@QR:coal@% fuel substance of plant origin, composed largely of %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@% with%@EH@%
varying amounts of mineral matter. Coal belongs to a series of
carbonaceous fuels that differ in the relative amounts of moisture,
volatile matter, and fixed carbon they contain; the most useful contain
the largest amounts of carbon and the smallest amounts of moisture and
volatile matter. The highest grade of coal is anthracite, or hard coal,
which is nearly pure carbon and is used as a domestic fuel. Bituminous
coal, or soft coal, with a lower carbon content, is used as an industrial
fuel and in making %@AU@%COKE%@BO:          201906@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%LIGNITE%@BO:          550bbe@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PEAT%@BO:          7284ca@%%@AE@% are the lowest in carbon
content. Large amounts of coal were formed in the Carboniferous period of
geological time (345 to 280 million years ago). It is thought that great
quantities of vegetable matter collected and underwent slow decomposition
in %@AU@%SWAMPS%@BO:          91598a@%%@AE@% similar to present-day peat bogs and in lagoons. The peat that
formed was converted to lignite and coal by %@AU@%METAMORPHISM%@BO:          5f3c5b@%%@AE@%. The pressure of
accumulated layers of overlying sediment and rock forced out much of the
volatile matter, leaving beds or seams of compact coal interstratified
with shales, clays, or sandstones. Higher grades of coal were produced
where the stress was greatest. Major U.S. coal fields are found in
Appalachia, the Midwest, the Rocky Mt. region, and along the Gulf Coast.
The chief coal-producing countries of Europe are Germany, Britain, the
USSR, Poland, France, and Belgium. Valuable coal deposits also exist in
China, India, South Africa, and Australia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coal tar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coal tar%@AE@%:%@CR:COAL.TAR        @%%@QR:coal tar@% see %@AU@%TAR AND PITCH%@BO:          92d8b9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coast guard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coast guard%@AE@%,%@CR:COAST.GUARD     @%%@QR:coast guard@% special naval force assigned to seaboard duties. In%@EH@%
peacetime the U.S. coast guard is under the jurisdiction of the Dept. of
Transportation; in wartime it is under the control of the U.S. navy. In
addition to suppressing contraband trade and aiding vessels in distress,
the service enforces navigation rules; administers regulations governing
ship construction and licensing of merchantmen personnel; and operates
weather ships, an ice patrol, and navigational aids, including
lighthouses, lightships, buoys, and loran stations. The %@AU@%UNITED STATES
%@AU@%COAST GUARD ACADEMY%@BO:          9ac591@%%@AE@%, New London, Conn., provides officer training.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coast Mountains%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coast Mountains%@AE@%,%@CR:COAST.MOUNTAINS @%%@QR:Coast Mountains@% western range of the North American cordillera,%@EH@%
extending c.1000 mi (1,610 km) N from W British Columbia into SE Alaska.
Geologically distinct from the %@AU@%COAST RANGES%@BO:          1fbd3b@%%@AE@%, the range reaches a high
point at Mt. Waddington (13,260 ft/4,042 m).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coast Ranges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coast Ranges%@AE@%,%@CR:COAST.RANGES    @%%@QR:Coast Ranges@% series of geologically related ranges forming the western%@EH@%
edge of the North American cordillera. The highest peaks are in the St.
Elias Mts. (Alaska). Other ranges are the Olympic Mts. and the Coast
Ranges (Oregon), the Klamath Mts. and Coast and Los Angeles ranges
(California), and the mountains of %@AU@%BAJA CALIFORNIA%@BO:           b1fac@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coat of arms%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coat of arms%@AE@%:%@CR:COAT.OF.ARMS    @%%@QR:coat of arms@% see %@AU@%BLAZONRY%@BO:          10d94b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HERALDRY%@BO:          4219e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coaxial cable%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coaxial cable%@AE@%:%@CR:COAXIAL.CABLE   @%%@QR:coaxial cable@% see %@AU@%CABLE%@BO:          1693be@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cobalt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cobalt%@AE@%%@CR:COBALT          @%%@QR:cobalt@% (Co), metallic element, discovered in 1735 by Georg Brandt. It is%@EH@%
silver-white, lustrous, and hard, and can be magnetized. It is combined
with other metals in the ores cobaltite and smaltite. Cobalt alloys are
used in very hard cutting tools, high-strength permanent magnets, and jet
engines. Radioactive cobalt-60 is used in cancer therapy and to detect
flaws in metal parts. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cobb, Ty(rus Raymond)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cobb, Ty(rus Raymond)%@AE@%,%@CR:COBB            @%%@QR:Cobb, Ty(rus Raymond)@% 1886-1961, American baseball player; b. Narrows,%@EH@%
Ga. Cobb was the first player elected (1936) to the National Baseball
Hall of Fame. An outfielder, the "Georgia Peach" is considered by many to
be the greatest player in the history of the game. In a 24-year career
(Detroit Tigers, 1905-26; Philadelphia Athletics, 1927-28) he set
numerous major-league records that still stand, such as his lifetime
batting average of .367, and 12 batting championships. A daring base
runner, he stole 892 bases. He was manager of the Tigers from 1921 to
1926.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cobbett, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cobbett, William%@AE@%,%@CR:COBBETT         @%%@QR:Cobbett, William@% 1763?-1835, British journalist and reformer. After%@EH@%
resigning from the army, he went (1792) to the U.S., where he championed
the Federalists (see %@AU@%FEDERALIST PARTY%@BO:          32412f@%%@AE@%) against the pro-French
Republicans. On his return to England (1799) he became a radical
working-class leader and champion of agrarianism. His %@AI@%Political Register%@AE@%
was an influential reform journal. After another flight to the U.S. to
avoid the Gagging Acts, he returned to become a central figure in the
agitation for Parliamentary reform. He was elected to Parliament after
the Reform Bill of 1832. His most famous book is %@AI@%Rural Rides%@AE@% (1830).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cobden, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cobden, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:COBDEN          @%%@QR:Cobden, Richard@% 1804-65, British politician, a leading spokesman for the%@EH@%
%@AU@%MANCHESTER SCHOOL%@BO:          5aa424@%%@AE@%. After making a fortune as a calico printer, he became
a major influence in the repeal of the %@AU@%CORN LAWS%@BO:          23759f@%%@AE@%. With John %@AU@%BRIGHT%@BO:          13e193@%%@AE@% and
Robert %@AU@%PEEL%@BO:          729103@%%@AE@%, he managed the %@AU@%ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE%@BO:           6329b@%%@AE@%. As a member of
Parliament, Cobden negotiated the "Cobden Treaty" for reciprocal tariffs
with France (1859-60), and favored the Union in the U.S. Civil War.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%COBOL%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%COBOL%@AE@%:%@CR:COBOL           @%%@QR:COBOL@% see %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cobra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cobra%@AE@%,%@CR:COBRA           @%%@QR:cobra@% venomous %@AU@%SNAKE%@BO:          8a8a29@%%@AE@% of the family Elapidae equipped with an inflatable%@EH@%
neck hood, found in Africa and Asia. The king cobra (%@AI@%Ophiophagus hannah%@AE@%),
or hamadryad, the largest poisonous snake, is found in S Asia; it may
reach a length of 18 ft (5.5 m). Other species include the Indian cobra
(%@AI@%Naja naja%@AE@%) and the Egyptian cobra (%@AI@%Naja haja%@AE@%), also called the %@AU@%ASP%@BO:           8bc4c@%%@AE@%. The
family also includes %@AU@%CORAL SNAKES%@BO:          233df0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coca%@AE@%,%@CR:COCA            @%%@QR:coca@% plant (genus %@AI@%Erythroxylon,%@AE@% particularly %@AI@%E. coca%@AE@%) found mainly in%@EH@%
upland regions and on mountain slopes of South America and in Australia,
India, and Africa. Certain South American Indians chew the leaves mixed
with lime, which acts with saliva to release %@AU@%COCAINE%@BO:          1fd1f3@%%@AE@% from the leaves. In
this form and concentration, the %@AU@%DRUG%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@% acts as a stimulant. A cocaine-free
extract of the leaves is used in some soft drinks. Coca is grown
commercially in Sri Lanka, Java, and Taiwan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cocaine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cocaine%@AE@%,%@CR:COCAINE         @%%@QR:cocaine@% %@AU@%ALKALOID%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@% drug derived from %@AU@%COCA%@BO:          1fcf48@%%@AE@% leaves, producing euphoria,%@EH@%
hallucinations, and temporary increases in physical energy. Prolonged use
can cause nervous-system aberrations (including delusions), general
physical deterioration, weight loss, and addiction (see %@AU@%DRUG ADDICTION
%@AU@%AND DRUG ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%). Withdrawal from the drug can produce severe depression.
See also %@AU@%CRACK%@BO:          243c75@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cochabamba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cochabamba%@AE@%,%@CR:COCHABAMBA      @%%@QR:Cochabamba@% city (1982 pop. 281,962), W central Bolivia, c.8,400 ft%@EH@%
(2,560 m) high in the Andes. Center of a productive agricultural region,
it was founded as Villa de Oropeza in 1574 and renamed in 1786.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cochin China%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cochin China%@AE@%,%@CR:COCHIN.CHINA    @%%@QR:Cochin China@% historic region (c.26,500 sq mi/68,600 sq km), S Vietnam,%@EH@%
bounded by Cambodia (NW, N), Annam (NE), the South China Sea (E, S), and
the Gulf of Siam (W). The capital and chief city was Saigon (now %@AU@%HO CHI
%@AU@%MINH CITY%@BO:          434e39@%%@AE@%). Cochin China included the %@AU@%MEKONG%@BO:          5e5fdb@%%@AE@% delta, one of the world's
great rice-growing areas, and, in the northeast, plantations where
rubber, coffee, tea, oil palms, and sugarcane were grown. Originally part
of the %@AU@%KHMER EMPIRE%@BO:          4f5960@%%@AE@%, Cochin China fell to %@AU@%ANNAM%@BO:           5b6f3@%%@AE@% in the 18th cent. and
became (1862-67) a French colony. The Japanese occupied it during %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. In 1954, after an independence struggle against the French,
Cochin China became part of South Vietnam. At the end of the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%
it was incorporated into united Vietnam.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cochise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cochise%@AE@%,%@CR:COCHISE         @%%@QR:Cochise@% c.1815-1874, chief of the Chiricahua %@AU@%APACHE INDIANS%@BO:           68af4@%%@AE@% in Arizona,%@EH@%
noted for courage, integrity, and military skill. From 1861, when
soldiers unjustly hanged some of his relatives, he warred relentlessly
against the U.S. army. Peace talks in 1872 promised him a reservation on
his native territory, but after he died his people were removed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cockaigne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cockaigne%@AE@%%@CR:COCKAIGNE       @%%@QR:Cockaigne@% or %@AB@%Cockayne, Land of,%@AE@%country in medieval tales where delicacies%@EH@%
were to be had for the taking. %@AI@%The Land of Cockaigne%@AE@% is a 13th-cent.
satire on monastic life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cockcroft, Sir John Douglas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cockcroft, Sir John Douglas%@AE@%,%@CR:COCKCROFT       @%%@QR:Cockcroft, Sir John Douglas@% 1897-1967, English physicist. After serving%@EH@%
as fellow and professor of natural philosophy at Cambridge, he directed
(1946-59) the British Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. He
shared with Ernest Walton the 1951 Nobel Prize in physics for their
pioneer work in transmuting atomic nuclei by bombarding elements with
artificially accelerated atomic particles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cocker spaniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cocker spaniel%@AE@%,%@CR:COCKER.SPANIEL  @%%@QR:cocker spaniel@% smallest %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 14-15 in.%@EH@%
(35.6-38.1 cm); weight, c.25 lb (11.3 kg). Its silky, flat, or wavy coat
is moderately long and may be any solid color or combination of colors.
The breed was developed from English cocker spaniels brought to the U.S.
in the 1880s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cockle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cockle%@AE@%,%@CR:COCKLE          @%%@QR:cockle@% heart-shaped marine %@AU@%BIVALVE%@BO:          104a4a@%%@AE@% mollusk (order Eulamel libranchia),%@EH@%
having ribbed, brittle shells and moving with a jumping motion produced
by means of a large, muscular foot. Most species do not exceed 3 in. (7.5
cm) in length. Cockles burrow in sand or mud in shallow water. Several
species are edible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cockroach%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cockroach%@AE@%%@CR:COCKROACH       @%%@QR:cockroach@% or %@AB@%roach,%@AE@%nocturnal, flat-bodied oval %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% (suborder%@EH@%
Blattaria) of the order Orthoptera. Cockroaches have long antennae, long
legs adapted for running, and a flat extension of the upper body that
covers the head; some species fly. In length they range from 1/4 in. to 3
in. (.6-7.6 cm). Cockroaches are not known to be disease carriers. They
were extremely abundant during the Carboniferous period (about 350
million years ago) and probably were the first flying animals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cocoa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cocoa%@AE@%:%@CR:COCOA           @%%@QR:cocoa@% see %@AU@%CACAO%@BO:          16a465@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coconut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coconut%@AE@%,%@CR:COCONUT         @%%@QR:coconut@% edible fruit of the coco palm tree (%@AI@%Cocos nucifera%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PALM%@BO:          70593f@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, widely distributed throughout the tropics. The coco palm, which
grows to a height of 60 to 100 ft (18 to 30 m) and has a crown of
frondlike leaves, is one of the most useful trees in existence. It is a
source of timber, and its leaves are used in baskets and for thatch. The
coconut itself is a single-seeded nut with a hard, woody shell encased in
a thick, fibrous husk. The hollow nut contains coconut milk, a nutritious
drink, and its white kernel, a staple food in the tropics, is eaten raw
and cooked. Commercially valuable coconut oil is extracted from the dried
kernels, called copra, and the residue is used for fodder. Husk fibers
are used in cordage and mats, and nutshells are made into containers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cocos (Keeling) Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cocos (Keeling) Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:COCOS.KSLANDS   @%%@QR:Cocos (Keeling) Islands@% external territory of Australia (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
616), 5.5 sq mi (14.2 sq km), consisting of two separate atolls with 27
coral islets, in the Indian Ocean. The islands were settled (1827) and
developed by the Clunies-Ross family for their copra. They were a
dependency of Britain's %@AU@%SINGAPORE%@BO:          8979ab@%%@AE@% colony from 1946 to 1955, when they
were transferred to Australia. Australia purchased the Clunies-Ross
interests in 1978 and leased the copra plantation to a Cocos Malay-run
cooperative.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cocteau, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cocteau, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:COCTEAU         @%%@QR:Cocteau, Jean@%, 1889-1963, French author and filmmaker. Unrivaled in the%@EH@%
20th cent. for versatility in the arts, he experimented in almost every
artistic medium, producing poetry, fiction, drama, films, ballets,
drawings, and operatic librettos. Surrealistic fantasy suffuses his work.
He is best known for the novel %@AI@%Les Enfants Terribles%@AE@% (1929; film 1950);
the plays %@AI@%Orphee%@AE@% (1926; film 1949) and %@AI@%The Infernal Machine%@AE@% (1934); and
the films %@AI@%The Blood of a Poet%@AE@% (1932) and %@AI@%Beauty and the Beast%@AE@% (1945).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cod%@AE@%,%@CR:COD             @%%@QR:cod@% marine, bottom-feeding %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% (family Gadidae), among the most%@EH@%
important and abundant food fishes. The Atlantic cod (%@AI@%Gadus morrhua%@AE@%)
averages 10 to 25 lb (4.5 to 11 kg), but specimens up to 200 lb (90 kg)
have been reported. The haddock (%@AI@%Melanogrammus aeglefinus%@AE@%), the most
important food fish in the Atlantic, is smaller, reaching a weight of 30
lb (13.6 kg). Finnan haddie is lightly smoked haddock.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%code%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%code%@AE@%,%@CR:CODE            @%%@QR:code@% in communications, set of symbols and rules for their manipulation%@EH@%
by which the symbols convey information. For use in a %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%,
information is encoded as strips of binary digits. For telegraphic work,
codes such as the %@AU@%MORSE CODE%@BO:          6411c5@%%@AE@% are used. All written and spoken languages
are codes of some degree of efficiency. Certain arbitrary codes are used
to ensure diplomatic and military secrecy of communication. The science
of translating messages into cipher or code is termed %@AI@%cryptography%@AE@%
[Gr.,=hidden writing.]%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%codeine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%codeine%@AE@%,%@CR:CODEINE         @%%@QR:codeine@% %@AU@%ALKALOID%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@% drug derived from %@AU@%OPIUM%@BO:          6e1a1d@%%@AE@%. A %@AU@%NARCOTIC%@BO:          6680db@%%@AE@% with effects like%@EH@%
those of %@AU@%MORPHINE%@BO:          63fcb1@%%@AE@%, codeine is prescribed as an %@AU@%ANALGESIC%@BO:           50835@%%@AE@% and cough
suppressant. It is addictive (see %@AU@%DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Code Napoleon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Code Napoleon%@AE@%:%@CR:CODE.NAPOLEON   @%%@QR:Code Napoleon@% see %@AU@%CIVIL LAW%@BO:          1eb6e1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cody, William Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cody, William Frederick%@AE@%:%@CR:CODY            @%%@QR:Cody, William Frederick@% see %@AU@%BUFFALO BILL%@BO:          1530c4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coeducation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coeducation%@AE@%,%@CR:COEDUCATION     @%%@QR:coeducation@% instruction of both sexes in the same institution. Although%@EH@%
there were scattered examples in the late 17th cent. in Scotland and the
American colonies, the trend spread in the U.S. during the reorganization
of public education after the Civil War. Influenced by the economic
benefits of joint classes and the increasing participation of women in
industry and the professions, a number of all-male and all-female
institutions became coeducational late in the 1960s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coelacanth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coelacanth%@AE@%:%@CR:COELACANTH      @%%@QR:coelacanth@% see %@AU@%LOBEFIN%@BO:          55fcd0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coelenterate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coelenterate%@AE@%,%@CR:COELENTERATE    @%%@QR:coelenterate@% radially symmetrical, predominantly marine invertebrate%@EH@%
animal of the phylum Cnidaria (also called Coelenterata), having a
three-layered body wall, tentacles, and specialized stinging cells
(nematocysts). Members of the phylum have a primitive nervous system and
no specialized organs for excretion or respiration. The phylum includes
the %@AU@%SEA ANEMONES%@BO:          86408f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CORALS%@BO:          2334a9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JELLYFISH%@BO:          4bc512@%%@AE@%, and hydroids (see %@AU@%HYDRA%@BO:          45d815@%%@AE@%). See also
%@AU@%POLYP%@BO:          77d531@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MEDUSA%@BO:          5e3f5d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coenzyme%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coenzyme%@AE@%,%@CR:COENZYME        @%%@QR:coenzyme@% any of a group of relatively small organic molecules that%@EH@%
assist certain %@AU@%ENZYMES%@BO:          2f4a84@%%@AE@% in their catalytic functions. Coenzymes
participate in chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes; although often
structurally altered in the course of the reaction, the coenzymes are
always restored to their original form. Important coenzymes include
%@AU@%ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE%@BO:           13245@%%@AE@%, important in the transfer of chemical energy, and
%@AU@%VITAMINS%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%, vital to a variety of biochemical reactions in the body,
including the Krebs cycle (see %@AU@%CITRIC ACID CYCLE%@BO:          1ea319@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coetzee, J.M.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coetzee, J.M.%@AE@%,%@CR:COETZEE         @%%@QR:Coetzee, J.M.@% 1940-, South African writer. A white South African%@EH@%
computer scientist, linguist, and teacher, his novels are about the human
suffering that results from imperialism and %@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%In the Heart
%@AI@%of the Country%@AE@% (1976) and %@AI@%The Life and Times of Michael K.%@AE@% (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cour, Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cour, Jacques%@AE@%%@CR:COEUR           @%%@QR:Cour, Jacques@%, c.1395-1456, French merchant and chief adviser to%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHARLES VII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of France. He amassed a fabulous fortune with which he
financed the last campaigns of the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%. Arrested (1451) on
the concocted charge of having poisoned Agnes Sorel, the king's mistress,
he escaped (1454-55) to Rome and died fighting the Turks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coffee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coffee%@AE@%,%@CR:COFFEE          @%%@QR:coffee@% name for an evergreen shrub or tree (genus %@AI@%Coffea%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MADDER%@BO:          592e82@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, its seeds, and the beverage made from them. The mature, red fruit
(a drupe) typically contains two seeds, or coffee beans. Varieties of
Arabian coffee (%@AI@%C. arabica%@AE@%) supply the bulk of the world's supply;
Liberian coffee (%@AI@%C. liberica%@AE@%) and Congo coffee (%@AI@%C. robusta%@AE@%) are of some
commercial importance. Coffee plants require a hot, moist climate and
rich soil. The harvested seeds are cleaned and roasted; heat acts on the
essential oils to produce the aroma and flavor. Roasts range from light
brown to the very dark Italian roast. Coffee contains %@AU@%CAFFEINE%@BO:          16cdee@%%@AE@%, a
stimulant that can cause irritability, depression, and indigestion if
taken in excess. The coffee plant was known before AD 1000 in Ethiopia,
where its fruit was used for food and wine. A beverage made from ground,
roasted coffee beans was used in Arabia by the 15th cent., and by the
mid-17th cent. it had reached most of Europe and had been introduced into
North America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coffin, Henry Sloane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coffin, Henry Sloane%@AE@%,%@CR:COFFIN          @%%@QR:Coffin, Henry Sloane@% 1877-1954, American Presbyterian clergyman; b.%@EH@%
N.Y.C. He was pastor (1905-26) of the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church,
and president (1926-45) of Union Theological Seminary (both: N.Y.C.). His
nephew %@AB@%William Sloane Coffin, Jr., %@AE@%1924-, b. N.Y.C., was chaplain
(1958-75) at Yale Univ. and was (1977-89) senior minister at Riverside
Church (N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cognac%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cognac%@AE@%:%@CR:COGNAC          @%%@QR:cognac@% see %@AU@%BRANDY%@BO:          135e66@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cohan, George M(ichael)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cohan, George M(ichael)%@AE@%,%@CR:COHAN           @%%@QR:Cohan, George M(ichael)@% 1878-1942, American showman; b. Providence, R.I.%@EH@%
He wrote, directed, produced, and starred in many %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@%, most
exemplifying his favorite themes-Broadway and a flag-waving patriotism.
His first successes were %@AI@%Little Johnny Jones%@AE@% (1904) and %@AI@%Forty-five
%@AI@%Minutes from Broadway%@AE@% (1906). Best remembered for such songs as "The
Yankee Doodle Boy," "Give My Regards to Broadway," and "Over There," he
was also a skillful adapter of others' material, e.g., %@AI@%Seven Keys to
%@AI@%Baldpate%@AE@% (1913).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cohesion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cohesion%@AE@%:%@CR:COHESION        @%%@QR:cohesion@% see %@AU@%ADHESION AND COHESION%@BO:           1351b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cohn, Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cohn, Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:COHN            @%%@QR:Cohn, Ferdinand@% 1828-98, German botanist. Considered a founder of%@EH@%
bacteriology, he developed theories of the bacterial causes of infectious
disease and recognized bacteria as plants. His writings cover such
subjects as fungi, algae, insect epidemics, and plant diseases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coin%@AE@%,%@CR:COIN            @%%@QR:coin@% piece of metal, usually a disk of gold, silver, nickel, bronze,%@EH@%
copper, or a combination of such metals, issued by a government for use
as %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@%. State coinage, said to have originated in Lydia in the 7th
cent. BC, enabled governments to make coins whose nominal value exceeded
their value as metals. The first U.S. %@AU@%MINT%@BO:          614968@%%@AE@% was established in 1792.
Beginning in 1965, the U.S. Treasury stopped putting silver in newly
minted dimes and quarters, and reduced the amount of silver in the
half-dollar. A 1970 act eliminated all silver from the half-dollar and
dollar coins. U.S. law provides, however, that special mintings of both
coins, containing 60% copper and 40% silver, be made for collectors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coke, Sir Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coke, Sir Edward%@AE@%%@CR:COKE1           @%%@QR:Coke, Sir Edward@%, 1552-1634, English jurist and political leader. After a%@EH@%
rapid rise in Parliament he became (1593) attorney general, gained a
reputation as a severe prosecutor, and was favored at the court of %@AU@%JAMES
%@AU@%I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%. As chief justice of common pleas (from 1606) and of the king's bench
(from 1613) he championed the common law against the royal prerogative.
Collisions with the king and political enmities led to his dismissal in
1616. By 1620 he had returned to Parliament, where he led popular
opposition to the Crown. He helped draft the %@AU@%PETITION OF RIGHT%@BO:          742d26@%%@AE@% (1628).
Coke's writings include his %@AI@%Reports%@AE@% (on common law) and the %@AI@%Institutes%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coke%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coke%@AE@%,%@CR:COKE2           @%%@QR:coke@% hard, gray, porous fuel with a high %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@% content. It is the%@EH@%
residue left when bituminous %@AU@%COAL%@BO:          1fb074@%%@AE@% is heated in the absence of air. Coke
is used in extracting metals from ores in the %@AU@%BLAST FURNACE%@BO:          10cfc5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cola%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cola%@AE@%%@CR:COLA            @%%@QR:cola@% or %@AB@%kola,%@AE@%tropical tree (genus %@AI@%Cola%@AE@%) of the sterculia family, native%@EH@%
to Africa but grown in other tropical areas. The fruit is a pod
containing %@AU@%CAFFEINE%@BO:          16cdee@%%@AE@%-yielding seeds. Cola nuts are chewed for this
stimulant. They are also exported for use in soft drinks and medicine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colbert, Jean Baptiste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colbert, Jean Baptiste%@AE@%%@CR:COLBERT         @%%@QR:Colbert, Jean Baptiste@%, 1619-83, French statesman. Appointed (1665)%@EH@%
controller general of finances by %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%, he aimed to make France
economically self-sufficient through the practice of %@AU@%MERCANTILISM%@BO:          5ed231@%%@AE@%. He
encouraged industry by subsidies and tariffs, regulated prices, built
roads, canals, and harbors, and expanded the navy and France's commercial
potential. His power declined with the onset of Louis XIV's wars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cold%@AE@%%@CR:COLD            @%%@QR:cold@% or %@AB@%common cold,%@AE@%viral infection of the mucous membranes of the upper%@EH@%
respiratory tract, especially the nose and throat. There are numerous
viral organisms that may cause the common cold, although there is no
known cure or preventive. Treatment of symptoms includes fluids to
prevent dehydration, %@AU@%ANALGESICS%@BO:           50835@%%@AE@% (e.g., %@AU@%ASPIRIN%@BO:           8c836@%%@AE@%) to lessen fever, and
decongestants to shrink swollen mucous membranes. Some believe that
%@AU@%VITAMINS%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@% in large doses, especially vitamin C, may be helpful in
prevention.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cold sore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cold sore%@AE@%:%@CR:COLD.SORE       @%%@QR:cold sore@% see %@AU@%HERPES SIMPLEX%@BO:          42668f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cold war%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cold war%@AE@%,%@CR:COLD.WAR        @%%@QR:cold war@% term used to describe the political and economic struggle%@EH@%
between the capitalist, democratic Western powers and the Communist bloc
after %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. The cold war period was marked by massive military
buildups (including nuclear weaponry) by both sides and by intensive
economic competition and strained, hostile diplomatic relations. The one
major "hot war" of the period was the %@AU@%KOREAN WAR%@BO:          50a0f9@%%@AE@%. The first important
post-World War II disagreement between East and West was about the
reunification of %@AU@%GERMANY%@BO:          398bcc@%%@AE@%, which proved to be impossible. Communications
between the two sides virtually ceased, and an "iron curtain" descended
between them. The U.S. rallied the other Western powers by sponsoring a
series of strategic actions, including the %@AU@%MARSHALL PLAN%@BO:          5c2681@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%NORTH
%@AU@%ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION%@BO:          6b6d38@%%@AE@% (NATO), and other regional pacts. Within the
Communist bloc the Soviet Union maintained tight political, economic, and
military control over its satellites, for example, by suppressing the
Hungarian Revolution of 1956; by instituting (1955) the %@AU@%WARSAW TREATY
%@AU@%ORGANIZATION%@BO:          9f4187@%%@AE@%; and by supporting Communist takeovers of %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%, parts of
Southeast Asia, and %@AU@%CUBA%@BO:          251e58@%%@AE@%. By the early 1960s tensions had relaxed
somewhat, and a measure of %@AU@%DETENTE%@BO:          28591e@%%@AE@% was apparent. Most observers felt that
East and West were entering into more complex relations to which the term
cold war could no longer apply.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cole, Nat "King"%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cole, Nat "King"%@AE@%%@CR:COLE1           @%%@QR:Cole, Nat "King"@% (Nathaniel Adams Cole), 1919-65, black American singer%@EH@%
and pianist; b. Montgomery, Ala. He became one of the most popular of all
American singers with such hits as "The Christmas Song" and
"Unforgettable." Cole appeared in films and was the first black to have
(1956) his own television series. His daughter %@AB@%Natalie Maria Cole, %@AE@%1950-,
b. Los Angeles, is also a popular singer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cole, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cole, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:COLE2           @%%@QR:Cole, Thomas@% 1801-48, American painter; b. England. He specialized in%@EH@%
painting the spectacular scenery of New York state, becoming a leader of
the %@AU@%HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL%@BO:          45043d@%%@AE@%. A characteristic painting is %@AI@%Catskill Mountains%@AE@%
(Mus. Art, Cleveland). Other works are neoclassical in style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coleman, Ornette%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coleman, Ornette%@AE@%,%@CR:COLEMAN         @%%@QR:Coleman, Ornette@% 1930-, black American musician and composer; b. Fort%@EH@%
Worth, Tex. After playing saxophone in rhythm-and-blues bands, he became
one of the most controversial figure in the %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% avant-garde. His
impassioned, atonal music continues to exert great influence in the
1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coleridge, Samuel Taylor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coleridge, Samuel Taylor%@AE@%,%@CR:COLERIDGE       @%%@QR:Coleridge, Samuel Taylor@% 1772-1834, English poet and man of letters.%@EH@%
After an erratic university career, he planned with Robert %@AU@%SOUTHEY%@BO:          8c331b@%%@AE@% to
found a utopian community in the U.S., but the project did not
materialize. In 1798 he and William %@AU@%WORDSWORTH%@BO:          a31938@%%@AE@% published %@AI@%Lyrical Ballads,%@AE@%
a volume whose experiments in language and subject matter (and the
prefaces to later editions) make it a seminal work of English
%@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%. Coleridge contributed "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," his
best-known work, as well as "Christabel" and "Kubla Khan," all poems on
exotic or supernatural themes. "Dejection: An Ode" (1802) was his last
great poem. A brilliant conversationalist, Coleridge lectured (notably on
%@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%), traveled, and wrote on philosophy, religion, and
literature. From 1816 he lived in London at the home of Dr. James Gilman,
who helped the poet control his long-standing opium addiction. %@AI@%Biographia
%@AI@%Literaria,%@AE@% which includes accounts of his literary life and also critical
essays, appeared in 1817; its borrowings from German idealist
philosophers borders, at times, on plagiarism. This, and his inability to
finish projects, make Coleridge a controversial figure, but he was
unquestionably a major literary influence in his day and, at his best, a
great poet.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colette%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colette%@AE@%%@CR:COLETTE         @%%@QR:Colette@%, 1873-1954, French novelist; b. Sidonie Gabrielle Colette. Her%@EH@%
numerous novels, e.g., %@AI@%Cheri%@AE@% (1920), %@AI@%The Cat%@AE@% (1933), and %@AI@%Gigi%@AE@% (1945), are
famed for their sensitive observations of women, nature, and eroticism.
Colette's early %@AI@%Claudine%@AE@% books were published under the name of her first
husband, Willy (pseud. of Henry Gauthier-Villars).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coleus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coleus%@AE@%,%@CR:COLEUS          @%%@QR:coleus@% tropical plant (genus %@AI@%Coleus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MINT%@BO:          614b8f@%%@AE@% family, native to Asia%@EH@%
and Africa. Some, with large, colorful leaves, are cultivated as
houseplants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coligny, Gaspard de Chatillon, comte de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coligny, Gaspard de Chatillon, comte de%@AE@%%@CR:COLIGNY         @%%@QR:Coligny, Gaspard de Chatillon, comte de@%, 1519-72, French Protestant%@EH@%
leader, admiral of France. With Louis I de %@AU@%CONDE%@BO:          21bece@%%@AE@%, he commanded the
%@AU@%HUGUENOTS%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@% in the Wars of Religion (see %@AU@%RELIGION, WARS OF%@BO:          7ddea5@%%@AE@%) and negotiated
a peace in 1570. He became a favorite adviser of %@AU@%CHARLES IX%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%, thus
arousing the enmity of %@AU@%CATHERINE DE' MEDICI%@BO:          1a3aee@%%@AE@%. Coligny was the first victim
in the massacre of %@AU@%SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY%@BO:          8305e7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coliseum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coliseum%@AE@%:%@CR:COLISEUM        @%%@QR:Coliseum@% see %@AU@%COLOSSEUM%@BO:          20a482@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%collage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%collage%@AE@%%@CR:COLLAGE         @%%@QR:collage@% [Fr.,=pasting], technique in art consisting of cutting natural or%@EH@%
manufactured materials and pasting them to a painted or unpainted
surface-hence, a work of art in this medium. It was initiated in 1912
when %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@% pasted a piece of commercially printed oilcloth to his
cubist %@AI@%Still Life with Chair Caning%@AE@% (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.). Collage
elements appear in works by %@AU@%GRIS%@BO:          3dd199@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BRAQUE%@BO:          13661c@%%@AE@%, and were basic to %@AU@%DADA%@BO:          25ec61@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%. Collage is related to the newer art of assemblage, in which
the traditional painted canvas is abandoned in favor of the assembling of
bits of material.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%collateral%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%collateral%@AE@%:%@CR:COLLATERAL      @%%@QR:collateral@% see %@AU@%CREDIT%@BO:          246b37@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%collective bargaining%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%collective bargaining%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLECTAINING   @%%@QR:collective bargaining@% in labor relations, procedure whereby an employer%@EH@%
agrees to discuss working conditions by bargaining with employee
representatives, usually a labor union. First developed in Britain in the
19th cent., it received an impetus in the U.S. during the 1930s through
such legislation as that which created the %@AU@%NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS
%@AU@%BOARD%@BO:          66df87@%%@AE@%. The process is now accepted in most Western industrialized
countries as the basic method of settling disputes about wages, hours,
job security, and other matters. It may be assisted by labor %@AB@%mediation,
%@AB@%%@AE@%the mediator being a neutral third party who endeavors to bring the two
sides together. Industrial %@AB@%arbitration %@AE@%is a last resort, implying the
need for a third party to resolve the dispute and impose a decision on
both sides. Sometimes called binding arbitration, it may be compelled by
the government, as in Canada, Italy, or Britain, or it may be called for
by voluntary agreement, as is often the case in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%collective farm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%collective farm%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLECTIVE.FARM @%%@QR:collective farm@% an agricultural producers' cooperative. In the USSR,%@EH@%
collectivization of agriculture was initiated by %@AU@%STALIN%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@% in 1929. A
collective farm's land and equipment is owned by the state, which decides
what will be produced. Farm workers share in state-guaranteed profits and
have small private plots where they can grow goods for free-market sale.
In China, the commune (first established 1958) parallels the Soviet
collective farm. Land and equipment are owned by the commune, which
oversees fulfillment of government quotas by production teams (small
groups of workers). There are private plots, and profits are shared. Both
China and the USSR also have state farms, whose workers are paid wages.
The best-known type of Israeli collective farm is the %@AU@%KIBBUTZ%@BO:          4f7303@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%college of arms%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%college of arms%@AE@%:%@CR:COLLEGE.OF.ARMS @%%@QR:college of arms@% see %@AU@%HERALDS' COLLEGE%@BO:          421f98@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colleges and universities%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colleges and universities%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLEGEES       @%%@QR:colleges and universities@% institutions of higher education.%@EH@%
Universities, which usually consist of several faculties or colleges, are
larger than colleges, have wider curricula, are involved in research, and
grant graduate and professional as well as undergraduate degrees.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Universities%@AE@% Universities arose in the Middle Ages to train young men in
law, theology, and medicine. Although they were usually established by
royal or ecclesiastical initiative, some were founded by students. The
medieval university often had thousands of students and played an
important role in contemporary affairs. The most famous European
universities include those at Oxford, Cambridge, and Paris (all founded
in the 12th cent.), Salamanca (c.1230), Prague (1348), Vienna (1365),
Uppsala (1477), Leiden (1575), and Moscow (1755). The oldest universities
in the New World are the Univ. of Santo Domingo (1538), in the Dominican
Republic; the Univ. of Mexico (1551), in Mexico City; and San Marcos
Univ. (1551), in Lima, Peru. In the U.S., the first state university, the
Univ. of North Carolina, opened in 1795. Most modern universities
developed in the late 19th cent., as small private colleges expanded and
tax-supported %@AU@%LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES%@BO:          51e248@%%@AE@% were founded.
Institutions devoted to graduate study and research, such as Johns
Hopkins Univ., were also established at that time. Women were not
admitted to universities until c.1870 (see %@AU@%COEDUCATION%@BO:          1ff827@%%@AE@%); by 1900 most
universities were secularized. During the 20th cent. many universities,
especially in the U.S., have received large grants from government
agencies for scientific and technical research.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Colleges%@AE@% The earliest colleges were founded in 15th-cent. Paris as
endowed residence halls for university students. It was only later, at
Oxford and Cambridge, in England, that the college became the principal
center of learning. Degrees, however, continued to be conferred by the
university with which the college was associated. In America, however,
the liberal arts college arose as a separate institution, with numerous
colleges founded in the 17th and 18th cent. to train young men for the
ministry, e.g., Harvard (1636), William and Mary (1693), Yale (1701),
Princeton (1746), and Columbia (1754). These were joined in the next
century by a number of women's colleges: Mount Holyoke (1837), Elmira
(1853), Vassar (1861), Wellesley (1871), Smith (1871), Bryn Mawr (1881),
and Barnard (1889). Teachers' colleges, or %@AU@%NORMAL SCHOOLS%@BO:          6b1aa8@%%@AE@%, also developed
in the 19th cent. By the 20th cent., many American colleges had grown
into universities; today, the distinction between the two has blurred,
with many colleges granting graduate degrees. A recent development has
been the %@AU@%COMMUNITY COLLEGE%@BO:          2134f3@%%@AE@%, which has greatly expanded opportunities for
higher education in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%collie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%collie%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLIE          @%%@QR:collie@% large, agile %@AU@%WORKING DOG%@BO:          a324a5@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 22-26 in. (55.9-66%@EH@%
cm); weight, 50-75 lb (22.7-34 kg). There are two types: the rough-coated
(long-haired) and the smooth-coated. Both may be sable and white, blue,
tricolored, or white. It was developed (17th-18th cent.) in Scotland as a
sheepdog.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colligative properties%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colligative properties%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLIGAPERTIES  @%%@QR:colligative properties@% properties of a %@AU@%SOLUTION%@BO:          8b52b5@%%@AE@% that depend on the%@EH@%
number of solute particles present, but not on the chemical properties of
the solute. Colligative properties of a solution include its freezing and
boiling points (see %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%) and osmotic pressure (see %@AU@%OSMOSIS%@BO:          6f3438@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Collins, Michael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Collins, Michael%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLINS1        @%%@QR:Collins, Michael@% 1890-1922, Irish revolutionary leader. A member of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%SINN FEIN%@BO:          8989c1@%%@AE@%, he organized the guerrilla warfare that forced the British to
sue for peace. With Arthur %@AU@%GRIFFITH%@BO:          3dc25f@%%@AE@% he set up the Irish Free State. He
was assassinated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Collins, (William) Wilkie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Collins, (William) Wilkie%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLINS2        @%%@QR:Collins, (William) Wilkie@% 1824-89, English novelist. The author of some%@EH@%
30 novels, he is best known for %@AI@%The Woman in White%@AE@% (1860) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Moonstone%@AE@% (1868), considered the first full-length detective novels in
English.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Collodi, Carlo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Collodi, Carlo%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLODI         @%%@QR:Collodi, Carlo@% pseud. of %@AB@%Carlo Lorenzini,%@AE@%1826-90, Italian author. A%@EH@%
journalist, he also wrote didactic tales for children, the most famous of
which is %@AI@%Pinocchio%@AE@% (1883).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colloid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colloid%@AE@%,%@CR:COLLOID         @%%@QR:colloid@% a mixture in which one substance is divided into minute%@EH@%
particles (called colloidal particles) and dispersed throughout a second
substance. Colloidal particles are larger than molecules but too small to
be observed with a microscope; however, their shape and size (usually
between 10%@AH@%-7%@AE@% and 10%@AH@%-5%@AE@% cm) can be determined by electron microscopy. In a
true %@AU@%SOLUTION%@BO:          8b52b5@%%@AE@% the particles of dissolved substance are of molecular size
and thus smaller than colloidal particles. In a coarse mixture (e.g., a
%@AU@%SUSPENSION%@BO:          91351a@%%@AE@%) the particles are much larger than colloidal particles.
Colloids can be classified according to the phase (solid, liquid, or gas)
of the dispersed substance and of the medium of dispersion. A gas may be
dispersed in a liquid to form a foam (e.g., shaving lather) or in a solid
to form a solid foam (e.g., Styrofoam). A liquid may be dispersed in a
gas to form an %@AU@%AEROSOL %@BO:           18156@%%@AE@%(e.g., %@AU@%FOG%@BO:          340c85@%%@AE@%), in another liquid to form an emulsion
(e.g., homogenized milk), or in a solid to form a gel (e.g., jellies). A
solid may be dispersed in a gas to form a solid aerosol (e.g., dust or
smoke in air), in a liquid to form a sol, or in a solid to form a solid
sol (e.g., certain %@AU@%ALLOYS%@BO:           3f294@%%@AE@%). Colloids are distinguished from true
solutions by their inability to diffuse through a semipermeable membrane
(e.g., cellophane) and by their ability to scatter light (the %@AU@%TYNDALL%@BO:          993b23@%%@AE@%
effect).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cologne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cologne%@AE@%,%@CR:COLOGNE         @%%@QR:Cologne@% Ger. %@AI@%Koln,%@AE@% city (1986 est. pop. 914,000), North%@EH@%
Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany, on the Rhine R. It is a river port and
an industrial center producing iron, steel, and other manufactures.
Founded (1st cent. BC) by the Romans, it flourished (4th-13th cent.)
under powerful archbishops. It became a free imperial city (1475) and a
member (15th cent.) of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. The city was badly damaged
in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. However, such buildings as its Gothic cathedral (begun
1248) and Romanesque Church of St. Andreas still stand.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colombia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colombia%@AE@%%@CR:COLOMBIA        @%%@QR:Colombia@%, offically Republic of Colombia, republic (1982 est. pop.%@EH@%
25,676,000), 439,735 sq mi (1,138,914 sq km), NW South America. The only
South American country with both Pacific and Caribbean coastlines,
Colombia is bordered by Panama (NW), Venezuela (NE), Ecuador and Peru
(S), and Brazil (SE). Major cities include %@AU@%BOGOTA%@BO:          116d88@%%@AE@% (the capital),
%@AU@%MEDELLIN%@BO:          5e0072@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CALI%@BO:          171fcd@%%@AE@%. By far the most prominent physical features are the
three great Andean (see %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@%) mountain chains (%@AU@%CORDILLERAS%@BO:          234450@%%@AE@%) that fan
north from Ecuador, reaching their highest point in Pico Cristobal
(18,947 ft/ 5,775 m). The Andean interior is the heart of the country,
containing the largest concentration of population as well as the major
coffee-growing areas. In pre-Columbian days this was the site of the
advanced civilization of the Chibcha Indians. To the east of the Andes
lies more than half of Colombia's territory-a vast undeveloped lowland,
including the tropical rain forests of the %@AU@%AMAZON%@BO:           45a09@%%@AE@% basin and the
grasslands (%@AU@%LLANOS%@BO:          55e9bf@%%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%ORINOCO%@BO:          6ed828@%%@AE@% basin. Agriculture is the chief source
of income: besides coffee, Colombia's leading export, major crops are
bananas, cotton, sugarcane, and tobacco. Rich in minerals, Colombia
produces petroleum and natural gas, iron, coal, gold, nickel, and
emeralds. The growing manufacturing sector is led by processed foods,
textiles, metal products, and chemicals. About two thirds of the
population are mestizos. Spanish is the official language, and most of
the people are Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Conquered by the Spanish in 1530s, the region that is now
Colombia became the core of the Spanish colony of %@AU@%NEW GRANADA%@BO:          68d9dd@%%@AE@%, which
included Panama and most of Venezuela. The struggle for independence from
Spain began in 1810, lasting nine years, and ending with the victory of
Simon %@AU@%BOLIVAR%@BO:          119482@%%@AE@% at Boyaca in 1819. Bolivar set up the new state of Greater
Colombia, which included all of New Granada and (after 1822) Ecuador.
Political differences soon emerged, however, and the union fell apart.
Venezuela and Ecuador became separate nations; the remaining territory
eventually became the Republic of Colombia (1886), from which Panama
seceded in 1903. Through the 19th and into the 20th cent., political
unrest and civil strife racked Colombia. Strong parties developed along
conservative (centrist) and liberal (federalist) lines, and civil war
frequently erupted between the factions. As many as 100,000 people were
killed before the conservatives emerged victorious in a civil war of
unprecedented violence that raged from 1899 to 1902. And again, after a
four-decade hiatus of political peace, in 1948 bloody strife rent the
nation, costing hundreds of thousands of lives. Orderly government was
finally restored as the result of a compromise between liberals and
conservatives in 1958. The situation began to deteriorate in the 1970s,
and unrest and guerrilla activity continued into the early 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colombo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colombo%@AE@%,%@CR:COLOMBO         @%%@QR:Colombo@% largest city (1981 pop. 587,647) and capital of Sri Lanka, on%@EH@%
the Indian Ocean near the mouth of the Kelani R. It has one of the
world's largest man-made harbors, with facilities for containerized
cargo. Noted for its gem-cutting and ivory-carving, Colombo also has
oil-refining and other industries. A port since Greco-Roman times, it was
settled by Muslims in the 8th cent. The Portuguese built (16th cent.) a
fort to protect their spice trade. The city passed (17th cent.) to the
Dutch and then to the British, who made it (1802) the capital of their
colony of Ceylon. The city has several colleges and universities and many
churches, mosques, and temples.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colon%@AE@%,%@CR:COLON           @%%@QR:colon@% in writing: see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colonial Conference, British%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colonial Conference, British%@AE@%:%@CR:COLONIAENCE     @%%@QR:Colonial Conference, British@% see %@AU@%IMPERIAL CONFERENCE%@BO:          46f994@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colonialism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colonialism%@AE@%:%@CR:COLONIALISM     @%%@QR:colonialism@% see %@AU@%COLONIZATION%@BO:          207b4f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%IMPERIALISM%@BO:          46fc47@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colonization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colonization%@AE@%,%@CR:COLONIZATION    @%%@QR:colonization@% extension of political and economic control over an area by%@EH@%
an occupying state that usually has organizational or technological
superiority. The colonizer's nationals may migrate to the colony because
of overpopulation or economic or social distress at home, but %@AU@%IMPERIALISM%@BO:          46fc47@%%@AE@%
has been a major colonizing force. The colony's population must be
subdued or assimilated to the colonizer's way of life, or a modus vivendi
otherwise imposed. Colonization dates back at least to the Phoenicians,
but it is most important historically as the vehicle of European
expansion from the 15th cent. into Africa, the Americas, and Asia. The
Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch established colonies
worldwide that have, for the most part, obtained independence from
imperial systems only in the 20th cent. Today classic colonialism is
widely considered immoral. See also %@AU@%MANDATES%@BO:          5ab6c8@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TRUSTEESHIP, TERRITORIAL%@BO:          9842c3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colonna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colonna%@AE@%,%@CR:COLONNA         @%%@QR:Colonna@% a leading noble Roman family from the 12th to the 16th cent.%@EH@%
%@AB@%Sciarra Colonna, %@AE@%d. 1329, was a bitter enemy of Pope %@AU@%BONIFACE VIII%@BO:          11d759@%%@AE@% and
led, with Chancellor Nogaret, the French expedition that captured (1303)
Boniface. The family also produced Pope %@AU@%MARTIN V%@BO:          5c3f7b@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Fabrizio Colonna, %@AE@%d.
1520, was a general of the %@AU@%HOLY LEAGUE%@BO:          43c115@%%@AE@% against %@AU@%LOUIS XII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France in the
Italian Wars. His cousin %@AB@%Prospero Colonna, %@AE@%1452-1523, defeated the French
at La Biocca (1522). %@AB@%Marcantonio Colonna, %@AE@%1535-84, duke of Paliano, led
the papal forces at %@AU@%LEPANTO%@BO:          54244f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colony%@AE@%:%@CR:COLONY          @%%@QR:colony@% see %@AU@%COLONIZATION%@BO:          207b4f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%color%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%color%@AE@%,%@CR:COLOR           @%%@QR:color@% visual effect resulting from the eye's ability to distinguish the%@EH@%
different wavelengths or frequencies of light. The apparent color of an
object depends on the wavelength of the light that it reflects. In white
light, an opaque object that reflects all wavelengths appears white and
one that absorbs all wavelengths appears black. Any three primary, or
spectral, colors can be combined in various proportions to produce any
other color sensation. Beams of light are combined "additively," and red,
blue, and green are typically chosen as primaries. Pigments, however,
combine by a "subtractive" process, i.e., by absorbing wavelengths, and
artists generally choose red, blue, and yellow as their primaries. Two
colors are called complementary if their light together produces white.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colorado%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colorado%@AE@%,%@CR:COLORADO1       @%%@QR:Colorado@% one of the mountain states of the W U.S.; bordered by Wyoming%@EH@%
(N), Nebraska (N, E), Kansas (E), Oklahoma and New Mexico (S), and Utah
(W).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 104,247 sq mi (270,000 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 3,267,000, a 13.1%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Denver. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Aug. 1, 1876 (38th
state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Mt. Elbert, 14,433 ft (4,402 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@%
Arkansas R., 3,350 ft (1,022 m). %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Centennial State. %@AI@%Motto, Nil
%@AI@%Sine Numine%@AE@% Nothing Without Providence. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% lark bunting. %@AI@%State
%@AI@%flower,%@AE@% Rocky Mountain columbine. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% Colorado blue spruce.
%@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Colo., CO.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Colorado has the highest mean elevation among the states
(c.6,800 ft/2,100 m). The high plains of the east, an extension of the
%@AU@%GREAT PLAINS%@BO:          3ce6c6@%%@AE@%, give way to the foothills of the %@AU@%ROCKY MOUNTAINS%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@% and the
high Front Range. The Rockies, which run north-south across the state and
are traversed by the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL DIVIDE%@BO:          22e092@%%@AE@%, include 51 of the 80 peaks in
North America over 14,000 ft (4,267 m) high. Mt. Elbert (14,433 ft/4,402
m) is the loftiest mountain in the U.S. portion of the range. The
%@AU@%COLORADO PLATEAU%@BO:          209947@%%@AE@% in the west is an arid region with many canyons carved
by the %@AU@%COLORADO%@BO:          2096c3@%%@AE@%, Gunnison, and other rivers. Most of the population lives
in cities among the foothills, principally in %@AU@%DENVER%@BO:          280da5@%%@AE@%-the leading city of
the mountain states-but also in %@AU@%COLORADO SPRINGS%@BO:          209b57@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PUEBLO%@BO:          7ac03d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%FORT
%@AU@%COLLINS%@BO:          3491ae@%%@AE@%. In 1984 the state was 94% white, 6% black and others.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Since the 1950s, manufacturing has contributed the largest share
of Colorado's income. Leading industries are food processing, the
production of nonelectrical machinery and instruments, metal refining,
and printing. Agriculture is dominated by the raising of cattle and
sheep. Grown mostly on irrigated land, corn, wheat, hay, and sugar beets
are the leading crops. Colorado has the world's largest deposits of
molybdenum as well as extensive deposits of petroleum, coal, and uranium.
Gold mining has been revived recently. The state is popular year-round
with tourists, especially skiers and visitors to its spectacular Rocky
Mt. National Park.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution of 1876 provides for a governor elected to a
four-year term. The legislature consists of a senate of 35 members
serving four-year terms and a house with 65 members serving two-year
terms. Colorado is represented in the U.S. Congress by two senators and
six representatives and has eight electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The cliff dwellings of Colorado's early inhabitants are preserved
at Mesa Verde National Park in the southwest. Spain claimed the region
comprising present-day Colorado in 1706. The U.S. acquired much of it
through the %@AU@%LOUISIANA PURCHASE%@BO:          574f09@%%@AE@% (1803) and the rest from Mexico in 1848.
The discovery (1858) of gold brought many settlers, but the gold was soon
extracted, and the mining settlements became ghost towns. Silver and lead
were subsequently discovered, but the collapse (1893) of the U.S. silver
market brought a statewide depression. Rapid urban growth occurred during
and after World War II. The national energy crisis in the 1970s resulted
in a dramatic expansion of Colorado's coal and petroleum industries. See
also %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colorado%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colorado%@AE@%,%@CR:COLORADO2       @%%@QR:Colorado@% chief river of the arid SW U.S. It flows 1,450 mi (2,334 km)%@EH@%
from the Rocky Mts. of N Colorado to the Gulf of Mexico, c.1000 mi (1,610
km) of its course cutting through deep canyons, including the spectacular
%@AU@%GRAND CANYON%@BO:          3c35c2@%%@AE@%. Use of the river, whose flow is controlled by %@AU@%HOOVER%@BO:          444f5a@%%@AE@%,
Davis, Imperial, Parker, %@AU@%GLEN CANYON%@BO:          3aa17c@%%@AE@%, and other dams, is allocated by
treaties with Mexico and by compacts between states.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colorado Plateau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colorado Plateau%@AE@%,%@CR:COLORADU        @%%@QR:Colorado Plateau@% physiographic region of the SW U.S., covering c.150,000%@EH@%
sq mi (388,500 sq km) in Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. The
broad, sparsely vegetated, and semiarid plateau surfaces-one third
located within Indian reservations-are cut by great canyons, including
the %@AU@%GRAND CANYON%@BO:          3c35c2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CANYON DE CHELLY%@BO:          1860a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colorado Springs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colorado Springs%@AE@%,%@CR:COLORADS        @%%@QR:Colorado Springs@% city (1986 est. pop. 272,660), seat of El Paso co.,%@EH@%
central Colo., on Monument and Fountain creeks, at the foot of %@AU@%PIKES
%@AU@%PEAK%@BO:          75b0f1@%%@AE@%; founded 1859, inc. 1886. A year-round vacation and health resort,
it manufactures electronic, mining, and aerospace equipment. Colorado
College is in the city; the U.S. Air Force Academy is nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%color blindness%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%color blindness%@AE@%,%@CR:COLOR.BLINDNESS @%%@QR:color blindness@% inability to distinguish colors, an inherited trait%@EH@%
occurring almost exclusively in males. Individuals with partially
defective color vision (the most common form) have difficulty
distinguishing red from green. Those who are completely red-green
color-blind see both colors as yellow. Totally color-blind persons see
only black, white, and shades of gray.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%color field painting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%color field painting%@AE@%,%@CR:COLOR.FNTING    @%%@QR:color field painting@% abstract art movement begun in the 1960s. Working%@EH@%
toward a more intellectual aesthetic than that of %@AU@%ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:            754d@%%@AE@%,
color field painters dealt with their conception of the fundamental
formal elements of abstract painting: pure areas of untempered color;
flat, two-dimensional space; monumental scale; and the varying shape of
the canvas. Painters associated with the movement include Ellsworth
Kelly, Morris %@AU@%LOUIS%@BO:          573aff@%%@AE@%, Kenneth Noland, and Frank %@AU@%STELLA%@BO:          8eb41e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colorization, motion picture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colorization, motion picture%@AE@%,%@CR:COLORIZATION    @%%@QR:colorization, motion picture@% the electronic process whereby colors are%@EH@%
added to old black-and-white movies. The process became viable in the
late 1980s. Woody %@AU@%ALLEN%@BO:           3dfd2@%%@AE@%, James %@AU@%STEWART%@BO:          8f0aa3@%%@AE@%, and other influential film
artists oppose colorization, considering it a defilement of the original
work. Its proponents argue that it makes old movies more acceptable to
the public.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colosseum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colosseum%@AE@%%@CR:COLOSSEUM       @%%@QR:Colosseum@% or %@AB@%Coliseum,%@AE@%common name for the Flavian Amphitheater in Rome,%@EH@%
built AD c.75-80 under %@AU@%VESPASIAN%@BO:          9cf5b8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TITUS%@BO:          962f85@%%@AE@%. Much of the four-storied
oval, 617 ft (188 m) by 512 ft (156 m), still stands. Tiers of marble
seats accommodated about 45,000 people. In the arena gladiatorial combats
were held until AD 404, and according to tradition, Christians were
thrown to beasts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colossians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colossians%@AE@%,%@CR:COLOSSIANS      @%%@QR:Colossians@% %@AU@%EPISTLE%@BO:          2f8556@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, 12th book in the usual order,%@EH@%
written to Christians of Colossae and Laodicea (Asia Minor) by St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%
(AD c.60), apparently in connection with a gnostic doctrine current in
the churches addressed. Like %@AU@%EPHESIANS%@BO:          2f55d9@%%@AE@%, it emphasizes the doctrine of the
mystical body of Christ.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%colossus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%colossus%@AE@%,%@CR:COLOSSUS        @%%@QR:colossus@% name given in antiquity to a statue of very great size.%@EH@%
Examples include the Athena Parthenos on the %@AU@%ACROPOLIS%@BO:            d98a@%%@AE@% at Athens and the
%@AB@%Colossus of Rhodes, %@AE@%one of the %@AU@%SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD%@BO:          87605b@%%@AE@%. Among
colossuses of later times, the Great Buddha at Kamakura, Japan, and the
Statue of %@AU@%LIBERTY%@BO:          54a95d@%%@AE@% in New York harbor are notable. Two colossal figures of
Christ are in South America, one at Rio de Janeiro and the other, %@AU@%CHRIST
%@AU@%OF THE ANDES%@BO:          1e1316@%%@AE@%, on the boundary of Argentina and Chile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Colt, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Colt, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:COLT            @%%@QR:Colt, Samuel@% 1814-62, American inventor; b. Hartford. His revolving%@EH@%
breech pistol (patented 1835-36) was one of the standard %@AU@%SMALL ARMS%@BO:          8a3da7@%%@AE@% of
the world in the last half of the 19th cent. Colt also invented a
submarine battery used in harbor defense and a submarine telegraph cable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coltrane, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coltrane, John%@AE@%,%@CR:COLTRANE        @%%@QR:Coltrane, John@% 1926-67, black American musician; b. Hamlet, N.C. Rising%@EH@%
to prominence with the Miles %@AU@%DAVIS%@BO:          26d21c@%%@AE@% quintet in the mid-1950s, he was until
his death the dominant tenor and soprano saxophonist of the %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%
avant-garde.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columba, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columba, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBA         @%%@QR:Columba, Saint@% or %@AB@%Saint Columcille,%@AE@%521-97, Irish missionary to Scotland,%@EH@%
called the Apostle of Caledonia. He established a monastic center at %@AU@%IONA%@BO:          492f9a@%%@AE@%
in 563 and eventually Christianized all of N Scotland. Feast: June 9.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columbia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columbia%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBIA1       @%%@QR:Columbia@% city (1986 est. pop. 93,020), state capital and seat of%@EH@%
Richland co., central S.C., on the Congaree R.; inc. 1805. The largest
city in the state, it is the trade center for a farming region, and
manufactures such products as textiles, plastics, and electronic
equipment. Most of the city was burned by Gen. %@AU@%SHERMAN'S%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@% troops in 1865.
The Univ. of South Carolina and several other colleges are located there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columbia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columbia%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBIA2       @%%@QR:Columbia@% chief river of the NW U.S., c.1,210 mi (1,950 km) long,%@EH@%
including 465 mi (748 km) in SW Canada. It flows generally south in
British Columbia and Washington and then west, forming the
Washington-Oregon boundary and entering the Pacific Ocean W of Portland,
Ore. Numerous dams, including the %@AU@%GRAND COULEE DAM%@BO:          3c3989@%%@AE@%, provide
hydroelectricity and irrigation. The Columbia, whose volume is greatly
increased by the %@AU@%SNAKE%@BO:          8a8849@%%@AE@% and other major tributaries, was the early focus
of American settlement in the Oregon country.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columbia Plateau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columbia Plateau%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBIU        @%%@QR:Columbia Plateau@% physiographic region of the NW U.S., covering c.100,000%@EH@%
sq mi (259,000 sq km) in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Most of it is
underlaid by thick, nearly horizontal beds of lava (mainly basalt) and
partly covered with fertile loess. Arid areas south of the %@AU@%GRAND COULEE
%@AU@%DAM%@BO:          3c3989@%%@AE@% are irrigated as part of the Columbia Basin project.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columbia University%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columbia University%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBISITY     @%%@QR:Columbia University@% mainly in New York City; founded 1754 as King's%@EH@%
College by grant of King George II. It was closed during the American
Revolution but reopened as Columbia College in 1784. To reflect the
addition of graduate and professional schools, the name Columbia
University was adopted in 1896; Columbia College and Barnard College (for
women; est. 1889) remained the undergraduate schools. The university also
includes the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Teachers College, the
School of Social Work, and schools of journalism, mining, library
service, and international affairs, as well as research institutes,
botanical and biological field stations, and a geological laboratory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%columbine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%columbine%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBINE       @%%@QR:columbine@% perennial plant (genus %@AI@%Aquilegia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%BUTTERCUP%@BO:          16271b@%%@AE@% family.%@EH@%
Columbines have delicate foliage and red, white, yellow, blue, or purple
flowers with long, nectar-secreting spurs on the petals. Wild columbine,
or rockbell (%@AI@%A. canadensis%@AE@%), is a favorite of hummingbirds. The
blue-and-white-flowered %@AI@%A. coerulea%@AE@% of the Rockies is Colorado's state
flower.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%columbium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%columbium%@AE@%:%@CR:COLUMBIUM       @%%@QR:columbium@% see %@AU@%NIOBIUM%@BO:          6a44c8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columbus, Christopher%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columbus, Christopher%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBUS1       @%%@QR:Columbus, Christopher@% 1451-1506, discoverer of America; b. Genoa, Italy.%@EH@%
In Portugal, he became a master mariner and was determined to reach India
by sailing west. After eight years of supplication, he received the
backing of the Spanish monarchs %@AU@%FERDINAND V%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ISABELLA I%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@%. On Oct. 12,
1492, his ships, the %@AI@%Nina, Pinta,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Santa Maria,%@AE@% reached Watling
Island, in the Bahama group; later they touched %@AU@%CUBA%@BO:          251e58@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HISPANIOLA%@BO:          431c41@%%@AE@%. He
was made an admiral and governor general of all new lands. In 1493 he set
sail with 17 ships, discovering %@AU@%PUERTO RICO%@BO:          7aca5f@%%@AE@% and the Leeward Islands, and
founding a colony in Hispaniola. In 1498 he explored %@AU@%VENEZUELA%@BO:          9c6904@%%@AE@%, realizing
that he had found a continent. Because of disreputable conditions in
Hispaniola, he was replaced as governor in 1500 and returned to Spain in
chains. On his last voyage (1502) he reached Central America. Although he
is considered a master navigator today, he died in neglect, almost
forgotten.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columbus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columbus%@AE@%.%@CR:COLUMBUS2       @%%@QR:Columbus@% %@AB@%1 %@AE@%City (1986 est. pop. 180,180), seat of Muscogee co., W Ga.,%@EH@%
on the Chattahoochee R.; settled and inc. 1828. A port city situated on
the %@AU@%FALL LINE%@BO:          31a40f@%%@AE@%, it has many textile mills, and manufactures iron and food
products. Hydroelectric and canal development have revitalized industry
in the 20th cent. Many of the city's antebellum homes have been preserved
and restored. %@AB@%2 %@AE@%City (1986 est. pop. 566,030), state capital and seat of
Franklin co., central Ohio, on the Scioto R.; founded 1797, inc. as a
city 1834. A major industrial and trade center in a rich farm region, it
took over state government from %@AU@%CHILLICOTHE%@BO:          1d07ae@%%@AE@% in 1816. Transportation has
been key to its development: canals, the %@AU@%NATIONAL ROAD%@BO:          6768cf@%%@AE@% (reaching Columbus
in 1833), and the railroad (1850) all brought growth. The city's
manufactures include appliances, machinery, and auto parts. Ohio State
Univ. and the Columbus Gallery of Fine Arts are located there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columbus Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columbus Day%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMBUS.DAY    @%%@QR:Columbus Day@% holiday (traditionally Oct. 12) commemorating Christopher%@EH@%
%@AU@%COLUMBUS'S%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% discovery of America. Since 1971 it has been celebrated in
most of the U.S. on the Monday nearest Oct. 12.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Columcille, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Columcille, Saint%@AE@%:%@CR:COLUMCILLE      @%%@QR:Columcille, Saint@% see %@AU@%COLUMBA, SAINT%@BO:          20af66@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%column%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%column%@AE@%,%@CR:COLUMN          @%%@QR:column@% vertical architectural support, circular or polygonal in plan. It%@EH@%
is generally at least four times as high as its diameter or width;
stubbier masses are usually called piers or pillars. Shape, proportions,
and materials of columns vary widely. Columns arranged in a row form a
colonnade. The Egyptians used massive columns, closely spaced, for inner
courtyards and halls. Early Greek columns had a cushionlike cap and
tapering shaft. By the 7th cent. BC, the Greek Doric had been
established. In Greek, Roman, and Renaissance architecture, the various
column types, with their entablatures, form the classical %@AU@%ORDERS OF
%@AU@%ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          6e82e2@%%@AE@%. The classical column has three fundamental elements: base,
shaft, and capital. The capital provides a structural and decorative
transition between the circular column and the rectangular entablature.
In Greek buildings columns were usually indispensable, but Roman and
Renaissance architects used them also as a decorative feature, mostly
following fixed rules of proportions. Romanesque, Gothic, and Byzantine
columns were usually structural elements, and were without canons of
proportioning. Chinese and Japanese columns had, instead of capitals,
ornamented brackets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coma%@AE@%,%@CR:COMA            @%%@QR:coma@% deep state of unconsciousness from which a person cannot be aroused%@EH@%
even with the most painful stimuli. It may be caused by severe brain
injury, %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MORPHINE%@BO:          63fcb1@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%BARBITURATE%@BO:           c1fc4@%%@AE@% poisoning, %@AU@%SHOCK%@BO:          8879e3@%%@AE@%, or
hemorrhage. Treatment is directed at the cause of the condition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comanche Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comanche Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:COMANCHS        @%%@QR:Comanche Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of a nomadic Plains culture, who%@EH@%
ranged the Southwest from the 18th cent. They spoke a Shoshonean language
of the Aztec-Tanoan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Excellent
horsemen and warriors, they killed more whites in proportion to their
numbers than any other tribe and kept their territory unsafe for whites
for more than a century. They probably introduced %@AU@%PEYOTE%@BO:          7451f7@%%@AE@% to the Plains
tribes (see %@AU@%NATIVE AMERICAN CHURCH%@BO:          67798e@%%@AE@%). Today some 3,500 live in Oklahoma.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%combination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%combination%@AE@%,%@CR:COMBINATION     @%%@QR:combination@% in business: see %@AU@%TRUST%@BO:          983f69@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%combinations%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%combinations%@AE@%,%@CR:COMBINATIONS    @%%@QR:combinations@% in mathematics: see %@AU@%PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS%@BO:          73773d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%comb jelly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%comb jelly%@AE@%%@CR:COMB.JELLY      @%%@QR:comb jelly@% or %@AB@%sea gooseberry,%@AE@%solitary marine invertebrate (phylum%@EH@%
Ctenophora) having eight radially arranged rows (combs) of ciliated
plates (ctenes) on the spherical body surface and specialized adhesive
cells (colloblasts) used for capturing %@AU@%PLANKTON%@BO:          768385@%%@AE@%. Comb jellies are
carnivorous, bioluminescent, and hermaphroditic. They are weak swimmers
but possess a unique sense organ controlling equilibrium (statocyst).
Usually transparent, comb jellies vary from 1/4 in. (0.6 cm) to more than
1 ft (30.5 cm) in length and look very much like %@AU@%JELLYFISH%@BO:          4bc512@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%COMECON%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%COMECON%@AE@%:%@CR:COMECON         @%%@QR:COMECON@% see %@AU@%COUNCIL FOR MUTUAL ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE%@BO:          23ecde@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comedie Francaise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comedie Francaise%@AE@%:%@CR:COMEDIESE       @%%@QR:Comedie Francaise@% see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%comedy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%comedy%@AE@%,%@CR:COMEDY          @%%@QR:comedy@% literary work, usually dramatic, aiming chiefly to amuse. Whereas%@EH@%
%@AU@%TRAGEDY%@BO:          97260f@%%@AE@% seeks to engage the emotions, comedy strives to entertain through
ridicule of characters, customs, and institutions or through a resolution
of contretemps thrown up by the plot. Dramatic comedy had its origins in
Greek fertility rites. Old Comedy, culminating in %@AU@%ARISTOPHANES%@BO:           7af56@%%@AE@%, was a
series of scenes using %@AU@%FARCE%@BO:          31b828@%%@AE@%, fantasy, parody, and %@AU@%SATIRE%@BO:          84ce7e@%%@AE@%, with a final
lyric celebration of unity. New Comedy (from c.4th cent. BC) was more
realistic and romantic, less satirical and critical. %@AU@%MENANDER%@BO:          5e942c@%%@AE@% in Athens,
%@AU@%PLAUTUS%@BO:          76c54a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TERENCE%@BO:          941b09@%%@AE@% in Rome were its leading practitioners. In the Middle
Ages comedy survived in folk plays and in the Italian %@AU@%COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE%@BO:          20f700@%%@AE@%.
In the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%, Elizabethan comedy drew in part on Latin comedy to
produce the caustic satires of Ben %@AU@%JONSON%@BO:          4d1c39@%%@AE@% and the romantic comedy of
%@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%. Classical and commedia dell'arte elements blended in France
in %@AU@%MOLIERE'S%@BO:          625664@%%@AE@% brilliant work. After the Puritan suppression of the
theater, witty, artificial comedy reappeared during the English
%@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% in the work of William %@AU@%CONGREVE%@BO:          221227@%%@AE@% and William %@AU@%WYCHERLEY%@BO:          a39e1e@%%@AE@%. It
descended into sentiment by the end of the 17th cent. but revived late in
the 18th cent. with Oliver %@AU@%GOLDSMITH%@BO:          3b4239@%%@AE@% and R.B. %@AU@%SHERIDAN%@BO:          883996@%%@AE@%. Oscar %@AU@%WILDE%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@%
typified the late-19th-cent. comedy of manners, G.B. %@AU@%SHAW%@BO:          8807c3@%%@AE@% the comedy of
ideas. Twentieth-century trends include the romantic comic fantasies of
J.M. %@AU@%BARRIE%@BO:           c8784@%%@AE@% and Jean %@AU@%GIRAUDOUX%@BO:          3a617e@%%@AE@%; the native Irish comedy of J.M. %@AU@%SYNGE%@BO:          91e86d@%%@AE@% and
others; the absurdist works of Samuel %@AU@%BECKETT%@BO:           d8aee@%%@AE@% and Eugene %@AU@%IONESCO%@BO:          493172@%%@AE@%; and the
so-called black comedy (the darkly humorous treatment of serious themes)
of Sam %@AU@%SHEPARD%@BO:          883186@%%@AE@% and others. Masters of nondramatic comedy include, among
many, %@AU@%BOCCACCIO%@BO:          114347@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RABELAIS%@BO:          7bee41@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CERVANTES%@BO:          1b152d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@%, and Henry %@AU@%FIELDING%@BO:          3307df@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comenius, John Amos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comenius, John Amos%@AE@%,%@CR:COMENIUS        @%%@QR:Comenius, John Amos@% Czech %@AI@%Jan Amos Komensky,%@AE@% 1592-1670, Moravian%@EH@%
churchman and educator. Relating education to everyday life, he advocated
systematizing all knowledge, teaching in the vernacular rather than
Latin, and establishing a universal system of education with
opportunities for women. One of his major works, %@AI@%Didactica Magna%@AE@%
(1628-32; tr. M.W. Keatinge, 1896), expounds these principles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%comet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%comet%@AE@%,%@CR:COMET           @%%@QR:comet@% mostly gaseous body of small mass and enormous volume that can be%@EH@%
seen from earth for periods ranging from a few days to several months. A
comet head, on the average about 80,000 mi (130,000 km) in diameter,
contains a small, bright nucleus (theorized to be ice and frozen gases
interspersed with particles of heavier sub stances) surrounded by a coma,
or nebulous envelope of luminous gases. As the comet nears the sun, the
particles and gases are driven off, forming a tail as long as 100 million
mi (160 million km). Pushed by the %@AU@%SOLAR WIND%@BO:          8b2c65@%%@AE@%, the tail streams out away
from the sun. J.H. %@AU@%OORT%@BO:          6decda@%%@AE@% hypothesized (1950) a shell of more than 100
billion comets surrounding the solar system and moving very slowly at a
distance of as much as 150,000 times the sun-earth distance; a passing
star, however, may gravitationally perturb a few closer to the sun. Some,
such as %@AU@%HALLEY'S COMET%@BO:          3f5441@%%@AE@%, return periodically.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%comic strip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%comic strip%@AE@%,%@CR:COMIC.STRIP     @%%@QR:comic strip@% a narrative applied to a sequence of cartoons in which human%@EH@%
and/or animal characters usually communicate by means of speech and/or
thought "balloons." It is a predominantly commercial art form, which
became established at the turn-of-the-20th cent. as a syndicated
newspaper feature that boosted circulation. The first modern comic strip
is acknowledged to be Richard Felton Outcault's %@AI@%The Yellow Kid%@AE@% (1896).
While comic strips initially used humorous story lines, giving rise to
their nickname, "the funnies," they later ventured into the realms of
adventure, science fiction, and political satire, as for example in Walt
Kelly's %@AI@%Pogo%@AE@% (1949). The mass appeal of the comic strip was a major
source of inspiration for %@AU@%POP ART%@BO:          7821ef@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%CARTOON%@BO:          197dfd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cominform%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cominform%@AE@%:%@CR:COMINFORM       @%%@QR:Cominform@% see under %@AU@%COMINTERN%@BO:          20f17d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comintern%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comintern%@AE@%,%@CR:COMINTERN       @%%@QR:Comintern@% acronym for Communist International, founded (1919), by V.I.%@EH@%
%@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@% to claim Communist leadership of the world socialist movement. Its
conditions for membership excluded non-Communist socialists. Its efforts
to foment revolution failed, and in 1935 it began to form coalitions, or
popular fronts, with bourgeois parties. The Comintern dissolved (1943) as
a gesture of support for the Allied war effort. The %@AB@%Cominform %@AE@%(Communist
Information Bureau) was organized (1947) by the USSR to coordinate the
exchange of information between E European and some W European Communist
parties, formerly a function of the Comintern. It was disbanded in 1956.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%comma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%comma%@AE@%:%@CR:COMMA           @%%@QR:comma@% see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Commagene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Commagene%@AE@%%@CR:COMMAGENE       @%%@QR:Commagene@%, ancient district of N Syria, on the Euphrates R. and S of the%@EH@%
Taurus range, now in SE Asiatic Turkey. Once part of the Assyrian empire
and later of the Persian Empire, it became independent in 162 BC The
Roman Emperor Vespasian permanently annexed Commagene in AD 72.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commedia dell' arte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commedia dell' arte%@AE@%%@CR:COMMEDIRTE      @%%@QR:commedia dell' arte@%, popular form of comedy in Italy (16th-18th cent.).%@EH@%
Using improvised dialogue and masked actors in satiric song, dance, and
farce, it gave rise to such traditional %@AU@%PANTOMIME%@BO:          709e4e@%%@AE@% characters as Harlequin
and Columbine. Its influence on European theater, particularly French
pantomine and English harlequinade, was great.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commensalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commensalism%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMENSALISM    @%%@QR:commensalism@% relationship between members of two different species of%@EH@%
organisms in which one individual is usually only slightly benefited
while the other is not affected at all. In many cases, commensalism
cannot be distinguished from parasitism (see %@AU@%PARASITE%@BO:          712f90@%%@AE@%). See also
%@AU@%SYMBIOSIS%@BO:          91c880@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commerce%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commerce%@AE@%:%@CR:COMMERCE1       @%%@QR:commerce@% see %@AU@%TRADE%@BO:          971a1e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Commerce, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Commerce, United States Department of%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMERCE2       @%%@QR:Commerce, United States Department of@% federal executive department%@EH@%
charged with promoting economic and technological development.
Established (1903) as the Dept. of Commerce and Labor, it became a
separate department in 1913. Its divisions include the Economic
Development Administration, the Bureau of the Census, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau of Standards,
the Minority Business Development Agency, the Maritime Administration,
the Patent and Trademark Office, and the International Trade
Administration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commercial bank%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commercial bank%@AE@%:%@CR:COMMERCIAL.BANK @%%@QR:commercial bank@% see %@AU@%BANKING%@BO:           bd772@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commercial paper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commercial paper%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMERCR        @%%@QR:commercial paper@% type of short-term negotiable instrument, usually an%@EH@%
unsecured promissory note, that calls for the payment of money at a
specified date. Because it is not backed by collateral, commercial paper
is usually issued by major firms with strong credit ratings. An important
source of cash for the issuing firm, it is usually payable at a lower
rate of interest than the prime discount rate. The commercial paper
market expanded greatly after the mid-1970s, reaching $140 billion by
1981, double the amount of four years earlier. The trend was accompanied
by the rise of %@AU@%MONEY-MARKET FUNDS%@BO:          62ab97@%%@AE@%, a major buyer of commercial paper, and
a resulting loss of corporate loan business by banks (see %@AU@%BANKING%@BO:           bd772@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commodity market%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commodity market%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMODIT        @%%@QR:commodity market@% organized traders' exchange in which contracts for%@EH@%
delivery of certain products are bought and sold. Most trading is done in
futures contracts-agreements to deliver goods at a future date for a
specified price. Such trading allows both hedging against serious losses
in a declining market and speculation for gain in a rising market. Spot
contracts, a less widely used form of trading, call for immediate
delivery. In the U.S., commodity markets deal in a wide range of
products, notably grains and oilseeds, livestock and meat, food and
fiber, metals, petroleum, and lumber. Trading in financial futures, such
as Treasury bills and certificates of deposit, increased greatly in the
1970s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%common law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%common law%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMON.LAW      @%%@QR:common law@% system of law based on custom and precedent established by%@EH@%
court decisions. Developed in medieval England and so called because it
represented common, rather than local, custom, the common law prevails in
most English-speaking nations, including the U.S. (except Louisiana,
which adheres to %@AU@%CIVIL LAW%@BO:          1eb6e1@%%@AE@%). The formality and inflexibility of early
common law often led to injustice, and in 15th-cent. England the
chancellor issued the first of many decrees to restore "equity"
(fairness); this was the beginning of the modern body of %@AU@%EQUITY%@BO:          2fa7e2@%%@AE@% law,
later merged with the common law in many jurisdictions. The slowness of
common-law procedure has led to adoption of numerous statutes that
supersede the common law, notably in the fields of commercial,
administrative, and criminal law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Common Market%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Common Market%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMON.MARKET   @%%@QR:Common Market@% officially the European Economic Community (EEC),%@EH@%
established (1958) to promote the integration of the economies of Western
Europe through gradual elimination of internal tariff and customs
barriers and development of common price levels and a monetary union. An
outgrowth of the European Coal and Steel Community, the Common Market was
an important step toward the creation (1967) of the %@AU@%EUROPEAN COMMUNITY%@BO:          30b165@%%@AE@%.
The original members-Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
and West Germany-were joined by Great Britain, the Republic of Ireland,
and Denmark in 1973, and by Greece in 1981.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Commons, House of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Commons, House of%@AE@%:%@CR:COMMONS         @%%@QR:Commons, House of@% see %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Commonwealth of Nations%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Commonwealth of Nations%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMONW.NATIONS @%%@QR:Commonwealth of Nations@% voluntary association of Great Britain, its%@EH@%
dependencies and associated states, and certain sovereign states (48 in
1989) that were former dependencies. The purpose of the Commonwealth
(founded 1931) is consultation and cooperation. No collective decisions
are binding on member states, and they may withdraw at anytime. They
recognize the British monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth.
Members are linked economically, but the system of preferential tariffs
was abandoned after Britain joined (1973) the %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@%. The
headquarters of the Commonwealth is in London.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%communal settlements%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%communal settlements%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMUNAMENTS    @%%@QR:communal settlements@% communities practicing common ownership of goods.%@EH@%
In the U.S. two types emerged in the 19th cent.: religious communities
established by German pietistic sects, %@AU@%SHAKERS%@BO:          87abaf@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MORMONS%@BO:          63e037@%%@AE@%, and others; and
secular, often utopian communities founded by followers of Robert %@AU@%OWEN%@BO:          6f9d72@%%@AE@%
(e.g., %@AU@%NEW HARMONY%@BO:          68ecd2@%%@AE@%, Ind.) or Charles %@AU@%FOURIER%@BO:          34d27b@%%@AE@% (e.g., %@AU@%BROOK FARM%@BO:          1453b0@%%@AE@%).
Contemporary types include the successful %@AU@%COLLECTIVE FARMS%@BO:          204563@%%@AE@% (or kibbutzim)
of Israel and the generally less-stable rural or urban U.S. communes
inspired by the radical ferment of the 1960s and 70s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Commune of Paris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Commune of Paris%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMUNES        @%%@QR:Commune of Paris@% insurrectionary governments in Paris formed during%@EH@%
(1792) the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@% and at the end (1871) of the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@%. In the French Revolution, the commune was a major radical force in
France until moderates gained control (1794-95) of the National
Convention. After the Franco-Prussian War, the commune opposed the
national government led by Adolphe %@AU@%THIERS%@BO:          94fdfb@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd581@%%@AE@% as too
conservative and ready to accept humiliating peace terms. Versailles
troops laid siege to Paris, against which the %@AI@%communards%@AE@% (whose aims
included economic reforms and whose members comprised radical
republicans, socialists, anarchists, and Marxists) put up a desperate
defense. Before their defeat (May 28) they shot hostages and burned the
%@AU@%TUILERIES%@BO:          987ca4@%%@AE@% and the palace of justice. Severe reprisals followed, with more
than 17,000 people executed, a repression that lastingly embittered
French political life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%communicable diseases%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%communicable diseases%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMUNISEASES   @%%@QR:communicable diseases@% illnesses caused by microorganisms (bacteria,%@EH@%
viruses) and transmitted either directly or indirectly from one infected
person or animal to another. Many diseases are spread by airborne
microorganisms through contact or proximity (e.g., %@AU@%INFLUENZA%@BO:          481e34@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MEASLES%@BO:          5de5d7@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%WHOOPING COUGH%@BO:          a166c9@%%@AE@%). Some are spread through contaminated food or water
(e.g., %@AU@%CHOLERA%@BO:          1dbbc7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TYPHOID%@BO:          99480d@%%@AE@%), while others are transmitted by an animal or
insect carrier (%@AU@%MALARIA%@BO:          5a09f0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RABIES%@BO:          7bf500@%%@AE@%). Still others are transmitted under
special circumstances, such as sexual contact (e.g., %@AU@%SYPHILIS%@BO:          91f742@%%@AE@%) or
infected instruments or blood transfusion (e.g., serum %@AU@%HEPATITIS%@BO:          42066b@%%@AE@%).
Control of communicable disease includes isolation of infected persons,
immunization, personal hygiene, and stringent public health and
sanitation measures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%communications satellite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%communications satellite%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMUNIE        @%%@QR:communications satellite@% artificial %@AU@%SATELLITE%@BO:          84c1ce@%%@AE@% that provides a worldwide%@EH@%
linkup of %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TELEVISION%@BO:          93a2aa@%%@AE@% transmissions and %@AU@%TELEPHONE%@BO:          938749@%%@AE@% service; such
a satellite avoids the curvature-of-the-earth limitation formerly placed
on communications between ground-based facilities. The first
communications satellite was NASA's %@AI@%Echo 1,%@AE@% an uninstrumented inflatable
sphere that passively reflected radio signals back to earth. Later
satellites, starting with NASA's Relay satellites and the American
Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company's Telstar satellites,
carried with them electronic devices for receiving, amplifying, and
rebroadcasting signals to earth. The U.S. launching (1963) of the first
synchronous-orbit satellite (%@AI@%Syncom 1%@AE@%) paved the way for the formation of
the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, whose
successive series of Intelsat geostationary satellites have steadily
lowered the cost of transoceanic communications. Domestic communications
satellite systems, also geostationary, have been developed by Canada; the
USSR; Indonesia; and the U.S. firms Western Union and RCA; and, together,
AT&T and COMSAT. Military satellite systems have been developed by
the U.S. and NATO.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%communion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%communion%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMUNION       @%%@QR:communion@% a %@AU@%SACRAMENT%@BO:          82c65b@%%@AE@% in most of %@AU@%CHRISTIANITY%@BO:          1df35f@%%@AE@%, a partaking of bread and%@EH@%
wine that repeats the actions of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% at the %@AU@%LAST SUPPER%@BO:          528f99@%%@AE@%. Some-among
them all Roman Catholics-believe that the substances actually and
miraculously become the body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation).
Others believe that the sacrament is symbolic; but all believe that the
recipient is united mystically with Christ. The sacrament is called the
Eucharist by some (including Roman Catholics) and the Lord's Supper or
Holy Communion by many Protestants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%communism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%communism%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMUNISM       @%%@QR:communism@% a system of social organization in which property,%@EH@%
particularly real property and the means of production, is held in
common. With an uppercase %@AI@%C,%@AE@% the term refers to the movement that seeks
to overthrow %@AU@%CAPITALISM%@BO:          188a39@%%@AE@% through revolution. Forms of communism existed
among various tribes of native Americans, and it was espoused by early
Christian sects. During the Middle Ages the %@AU@%MANORIAL SYSTEM%@BO:          5b0e18@%%@AE@% provided
communal use of the village commons and cultivation of certain fields,
rights the peasants fought to retain in England (14th cent.) and Germany
(16th cent.). By the early 19th cent. the rise of capitalism, reinforced
by the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%, had created a new industrial class living
and working under appalling conditions. Utopian socialists such as Robert
%@AU@%OWEN%@BO:          6f9d72@%%@AE@% and Charles %@AU@%FOURIER%@BO:          34d27b@%%@AE@%, anarchists such as P.J. %@AU@%PROUDHON%@BO:          7a467d@%%@AE@%, and
revolutionaries such as Auguste Blanqui all favored some kind of communal
solution to this poverty. In Germany Karl %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@% and Friedrich %@AU@%ENGELS%@BO:          2ee0d7@%%@AE@%
published the %@AI@%Communist Manifesto%@AE@% (1848), the primary exposition of the
doctrine that came to be known as %@AU@%MARXISM%@BO:          5c61b3@%%@AE@%. It postulated the
inevitability of communism arising from class war, the overthrow of
capitalism, and the creation of a classless society. Marxism greatly
influenced 19th-cent. %@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@%. The modern Communist political movement
began when the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party split (1903) into
two factions (see %@AU@%BOLSHEVISM AND MENSHEVISM%@BO:          11afd5@%%@AE@%). The Bolsheviks, led by V.I.
%@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@%, called for armed revolution. After their triumph in the 1917
%@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@%, the Bolsheviks formed the Communist party (1918) and
the %@AU@%COMINTERN%@BO:          20f17d@%%@AE@% (1919), which claimed leadership of the world socialist
movement. In the 1930s, Joseph %@AU@%STALIN'S%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@% policy of "socialism in one
country" prevailed in the USSR, but after %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Stalin created
"satellite" Communist states in Eastern Europe. The Chinese Communists
(see %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%), who triumphed in 1949, aided movements in Southeast Asia.
The Communist world has long been beset by internal problems. Economic
difficulties, particularly shortages of food and other consumer goods,
and the resurgence of %@AU@%NATIONALISM%@BO:          66d6e4@%%@AE@% have led to demands for reform in
Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), and Poland (1956, 1981), and to
attempted suppression of such demands. Since the 1960s, relations between
the USSR and China have been deteriorating, and the Communist parties of
Western and %@AU@%THIRD WORLD%@BO:          9504ff@%%@AE@% countries have asserted their independence of
those two powers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Communist party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Communist party%@AE@%:%@CR:COMMUNIST.PARTY @%%@QR:Communist party@% see %@AU@%COMMUNISM%@BO:          212749@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%community college%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%community college%@AE@%%@CR:COMMUNIGE       @%%@QR:community college@% or %@AB@%junior college,%@AE@%U.S. public institution of higher%@EH@%
education characterized by a two-year curriculum leading to an associate
in arts degree or to transfer to a four-year college. It prepares
students for direct entry into an occupation and, because of the low
tuition, local setting, and relatively easy entry requirements, has been
a major force in the expansion of educational opportunities since World
War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commutation of sentence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commutation of sentence%@AE@%:%@CR:COMMUTASENTENCE @%%@QR:commutation of sentence@% see %@AU@%SENTENCE%@BO:          86f98e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commutative law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commutative law%@AE@%,%@CR:COMMUTATIVE.LAW @%%@QR:commutative law@% in mathematics, law holding that for a given operation%@EH@%
combining two quantities, the order of the quantities is arbitrary.
Addition and multiplication are commutative, thus, %@AI@%a%@AE@%+%@AI@%b%@AE@%=%@AI@%b%@AE@%+%@AI@%a%@AE@% and %@AI@%a%@AE@%*%@AI@%b%@AE@%=%@AI@%b%@AE@%*%@AI@%a%@AE@%
for any two numbers %@AI@%a%@AE@% and %@AI@%b.%@AE@% Subtraction and division, however, are not
commutative.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%commutator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%commutator%@AE@%:%@CR:COMMUTATOR      @%%@QR:commutator@% see %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOTOR, ELECTRIC%@BO:          647ad2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comnenus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comnenus%@AE@%%@CR:COMNENUS        @%%@QR:Comnenus@%, dynasty of Byzantine emperors: %@AU@%ISAAC I%@BO:          49dfec@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ALEXIUS I%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JOHN II%@BO:          4c70a4@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
%@AU@%MANUEL I%@BO:          5b348c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ALEXIUS II%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%, and Andronicus I.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comoros, The%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comoros, The%@AE@%,%@CR:COMOROS         @%%@QR:Comoros, The@% officially Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros,%@EH@%
independent nation (1987 est. pop. 422,500), 718 sq mi (1,862 sq km),
occupying most of the Comoro Islands, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean,
between the east African coast and Madagascar. The capital is Moroni. It
consists of three main islands-Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali (formerly
Grand Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli, respectively), as well as numerous
coral reefs and islets. A fourth island, %@AU@%MAYOTTE%@BO:          5dba93@%%@AE@%, is administered by
France. Because of poor soil, lack of natural resources, and
overpopulation, the islands have severe economic problems. Most of the
population is engaged in primitive agriculture, involving subsistence
crops and the production of vanilla, copra, and essential oils for
export. African peoples dominate the population, but there are large Arab
and Indian minorities. French and Arabic are the official languages, but
most people speak a blend of Swahili and Arabic. The state religion is
Islam.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Originally populated by immigrants from Africa, Indonesia, and
Arabia, the islands were ceded to the French between 1841 and 1909. After
occupation by the British in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, they were granted
administrative autonomy within the French Union (1946) and internal
self-government (1968). In 1975 the Comoros unilaterally declared their
independence; the island of Mayotte, however, voted to remain under
French control. In 1978 The Comoros was proclaimed a federal Islamic
republic; shortly thereafter, a one-party state was formed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%compact disc %@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%compact disc %@AE@%,%@CR:COMPACT.DISC    @%%@QR:compact disc @% or %@AB@%CD,%@AE@%a small plastic disc used for sound storage. The%@EH@%
sound is digitally encoded on the disc as a series of microscopic pits on
an otherwise polished surface and covered with a transparent coating, so
that it can be read by a laser beam. Since nothing touches the encoded
portion, the CD has a longer life span and is less subject to distortion
than other recorded media. CDs can also be used to store computer data in
a form known as CD-ROM.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%comparative linguistics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%comparative linguistics%@AE@%:%@CR:COMPARAGUISTICS @%%@QR:comparative linguistics@% see %@AU@%LINGUISTICS%@BO:          556886@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%compass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%compass%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPASS         @%%@QR:compass@% in navigation, an instrument for determining direction. The%@EH@%
mariner's compass, probably first used by European seamen in the 12th
cent., consists of a magnetic needle freely suspended so that it turns to
align itself with the magnetic north and south poles. The %@AB@%gyrocompass %@AE@%is
a more accurate form of navigational compass, unaffected by magnetic
influences, that came into wide use during World War II. It consists
essentially of a rapidly spinning, electrically driven rotor suspended in
such a way that its axis automatically points along the geographical
meridian.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%complex%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%complex%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPLEX         @%%@QR:complex@% term introduced by C.G. %@AU@%JUNG%@BO:          4db507@%%@AE@% to indicate a group of feelings and%@EH@%
memories resulting from early, highly emotional experiences. Although
complexes are not within conscious awareness, they can influence mental
activity and behavior. Two frequently cited complexes are the inferiority
complex-real or imaginary handicaps, often colored by feelings of
discouragement, that produce a striving to compensate; and the Oedipus
complex-named by Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@% after the myth of %@AU@%OEDIPUS%@BO:          6cf262@%%@AE@% and designating
childhood hostility toward the parent of the same sex and attraction
toward the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipus complex arises as part
of the psychosocial development of the personality around ages three to
five.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%composite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%composite%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPOSITE       @%%@QR:composite@% common name for the Compositae or Asteraceae, the daisy%@EH@%
family, which is one of the largest families of plants, consisting of
some 20,000 species, mostly herbs and a few shrubs, trees, and climbing
plants. The family includes many edible salad plants (e.g., %@AU@%LETTUCE%@BO:          544b18@%%@AE@%,
endive, %@AU@%CHICORY%@BO:          1cdfbf@%%@AE@%, salsify, and %@AU@%ARTICHOKES%@BO:           861d5@%%@AE@%), many cultivated species (e.g.,
%@AU@%ASTERS%@BO:           8ee25@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DAISIES%@BO:          260443@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHRYSANTHEMUMS%@BO:          1e2dfb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MARIGOLDS%@BO:          5bc0ab@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ZINNIAS%@BO:          a5474d@%%@AE@%), and many common
weeds and wildflowers. It is often broken down into %@AU@%THISTLE%@BO:          951964@%%@AE@%, chicory, and
%@AU@%RAGWEED%@BO:          7c5915@%%@AE@% tribes. The typical composite flower, e.g., a %@AU@%SUNFLOWER%@BO:          90bdfa@%%@AE@%, is
composed of a multiflowered head. The outer ring consists of the
conspicuous, but sterile, often petallike ray flowers, which serve to
attract insects for pollination. The central part of the head is composed
of minute tubular disk flowers, usually with both stamens and pistils. A
series of modified leaves (bracts) arising from the base of the flower
stalk supports the head. Many composite %@AU@%FRUITS%@BO:          369f0d@%%@AE@% are highly adapted to
dispersal by animals (e.g., the burr plants such as burdock and
cocklebur) or by wind (e.g., the %@AU@%DANDELION%@BO:          2649aa@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GOLDENROD%@BO:          3b340f@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%composite material%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%composite material%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPOSIIAL      @%%@QR:composite material@% any material made from at least two discrete%@EH@%
substances, such as concrete or wood. The term is also used to denote a
more specific category of man-made composites, including fiber-reinforced
plastics. Composite materials allow a blending of properties of the
separate components. In particular, fiber-reinforced plastics combine the
high strength and stiffness of the fiber material with the low weight and
resistance to fracture of the polymeric matrix.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%compost%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%compost%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPOST         @%%@QR:compost@% substance composed mainly of partly decayed organic material,%@EH@%
used to fertilize the %@AU@%SOIL%@BO:          8b105a@%%@AE@% and increase its %@AU@%HUMUS%@BO:          454d2a@%%@AE@% content. Usually made
from plant materials (e.g., grass clippings, leaves, and %@AU@%PEAT%@BO:          7284ca@%%@AE@%), manure,
and soil, compost can include chemical %@AU@%FERTILIZERS%@BO:          32c4ec@%%@AE@% and lime.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%compound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%compound%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPOUND        @%%@QR:compound@% in chemistry, a substance composed of %@AU@%ATOMS%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@% of two or more%@EH@%
%@AU@%ELEMENTS%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% in chemical combination, occurring in fixed, definite proportion
and arranged in fixed, definite structures. A compound has unique
properties that are distinct from the properties of its elemental
constituents and of all other compounds. A compound differs from a
mixture in that the components of a mixture retain their own properties
and may be present in many different proportions. The components of a
mixture are not chemically combined; they can be separated by physical
means. A molecular compound, e.g., %@AU@%WATER%@BO:          9f87a1@%%@AE@%, is made up of electrically
neutral %@AU@%MOLECULES%@BO:          62532b@%%@AE@%, each containing a fixed number of atoms. An ionic
compound, e.g., %@AU@%SODIUM CHLORIDE%@BO:          8b02fb@%%@AE@%, is made up of electrically charged %@AU@%IONS%@BO:          492c3f@%%@AE@%
that are present in fixed proportions and are arranged in a regular,
geometric pattern called crystalline structure (see %@AU@%CRYSTAL%@BO:          251856@%%@AE@%) but are not
grouped into molecules.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comprehensive Employment and Training Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comprehensive Employment and Training Act%@AE@%%@CR:COMPREHT.AND.T  @%%@QR:Comprehensive Employment and Training Act@% (CETA), U.S. government program%@EH@%
designed to assist economically disadvantaged, unemployed, or
underemployed persons. Enacted in 1973, CETA provides block grants to
state and local governments to support public and private job training,
and such youth programs as the Job Corps and Summer Youth Employment.
Federal budget cutbacks in 1981 sharply reduced CETA funding, and the
public-service employment program was eliminated altogether.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%compressor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%compressor%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPRESSOR      @%%@QR:compressor@% machine that decreases the volume of air or gas by the%@EH@%
application of pressure. Compressor types range from the simple hand %@AU@%PUMP%@BO:          7af7a0@%%@AE@%
and the piston-equipped compressor used in gas stations to inflate tires
to machines that use a rotating, bladed element to achieve compression.
Compressed air exerts an expansive force that can be used as a source of
power to operate pneumatic tools or to control such devices as air
%@AU@%BRAKES%@BO:          133faa@%%@AE@%. Air under compression can be stored in closed cylinders.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Compromise of 1850%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Compromise of 1850%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPROM850      @%%@QR:Compromise of 1850@% an attempt at solving North-South tensions over the%@EH@%
extension of slavery, specifically into newly annexed Texas and territory
gained by the U.S. in the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%WILMOT PROVISO%@BO:          a200f5@%%@AE@% of 1846,
prohibiting slavery in land acquired from Mexico, caused contention.
Compromise measures, largely originating with Stephen A. %@AU@%DOUGLAS%@BO:          2a5973@%%@AE@%, were
sponsored in the Senate by Henry %@AU@%CLAY%@BO:          1f1eda@%%@AE@%. The compromise proposed was to
admit California as a free state, use popular sovereignty to decide free
or slave status for New Mexico and Utah, prohibit the slave trade in the
District of Columbia, pass a more stringent fugitive slave law, and
settle Texas boundary claims. Chances for acceptance of these proposals
were enhanced by a famous speech by Daniel %@AU@%WEBSTER%@BO:          a0122f@%%@AE@% (Mar. 17, 1850), and
even more by the succession of Millard %@AU@%FILLMORE%@BO:          332b52@%%@AE@%, a supporter of the
compromise, after the death of Pres. Zachary %@AU@%TAYLOR%@BO:          9336f3@%%@AE@%. The proposals were
passed as separate bills in Sept. 1850. The Compromise of 1850 was not,
as had been hoped, a final solution of the question of slavery in new
territories; that issue arose again in 1854 (see %@AU@%KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT%@BO:          4e49fd@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Compton, Arthur Holly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Compton, Arthur Holly%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPTON         @%%@QR:Compton, Arthur Holly@% 1892-1962, American physicist; b. Wooster, Ohio.%@EH@%
He was professor of physics at the Univ. of Chicago, where he helped to
develop the atomic bomb, and was later professor and chancellor at
Washington Univ., St. Louis. For his discovery of the %@AB@%Compton effect %@AE@%(the
increase in the wavelengths of X rays and gamma rays when they collide
with and are scattered from loosely bound electrons in matter), he shared
the 1927 Nobel Prize in physics with Charles %@AU@%WILSON%@BO:          a2058e@%%@AE@%. Compton also made
valuable studies of cosmic rays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%computer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%computer%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPUTER        @%%@QR:computer@% a device capable of performing a series of arithmetic or%@EH@%
logical operations. A computer is distinguished from a calculating
machine, such as an abacus or electronic %@AU@%CALCULATOR%@BO:          16f03a@%%@AE@%, by being able to
store a computer program (so that it can repeat its operations and make
logical decisions) and to store and retrieve data without human
intervention. Computers are classed as analog or digital. An analog
computer operates on continuously varying data; a digital computer
performs operations on discrete data. An analog computer represents data
as physical quantities and operates on the data by manipulating the
quantities. In a complex analog computer, continuously varying data are
converted into varying electrical quantities and the relationship of the
data is determined by establishing an equivalent relationship, or analog,
among the electrical quantities. Analog computers have been nearly
completely obsoleted by more effective digital computers. Within a
digital computer, data are expressed in binary notation (see %@AU@%NUMERATION%@BO:          6c4b74@%%@AE@%),
i.e., by a series of "on-off" conditions that represent the digits "1"
and "0." A series of eight consecutive binary digits, or bits, is called
a byte and allows 256 "on-off" combinations. Each byte can thus represent
one of up to 256 %@AU@%ALPHANUMERIC%@BO:           41a06@%%@AE@% characters. Arithmetic and comparative
operations can be performed on data represented in this way and the
result stored for later use. Digital computers are used for reservation
systems, scientific investigation, data-processing applications, and
%@AU@%ELECTRONIC GAMES%@BO:          2d95d2@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Hardware%@AE@% The four major physical components, or hardware, of a computer
are the central processing unit (CPU), main storage, auxiliary storage,
and input/output devices. Computer operations are performed in the CPU,
which contains the %@AU@%LOGIC CIRCUITS%@BO:          5642c4@%%@AE@% for arithmetic and logical operations
and for control of the other units that make up a computing system. The
CPU also contains the registers, a relatively small number of storage
locations that can be accessed faster than main storage and are used to
hold the intermediate results of calculations. The main storage is
contained in the storage unit, or memory, of the computer. Main
storage-once made up of vacuum tubes and later of magnetic cores, each
tube or core representing one bit-is now made up of tiny %@AU@%INTEGRATED
%@AU@%CIRCUITS%@BO:          48a52c@%%@AE@%, each of which contains thousands of %@AU@%SEMICONDUCTORS%@BO:          86c028@%%@AE@%. Each
semiconductor represents one bit. Programs and data that are not
currently being used in main storage can be saved on auxiliary storage,
or external storage. Although punched paper tape once served this
purpose, the major materials used today are magnetic tape and magnetic
disks. Two areas of continuing research are bubble memories and laser
storage. A bubble memory has no moving parts, which improves its
reliability; in this technology, a rotating magnetic field moves a
magnetic "bubble" (each bubble representing a bit) along loops made of
small bars of permalloy. Because the bubbles are so minute in size, huge
volumes of data can be stored in tiny spaces. Laser storage involves an
array of small holograms (see %@AU@%HOLOGRAPHY%@BO:          43b33e@%%@AE@%), each capable of representing a
"page" of binary data. When illuminated by laser light, each page
generates a real image of light and dark spots; this falls on a detector
array that converts it into electrical signals. Data are entered into the
computer and the processed data made available via input/output devices.
All auxiliary storage devices are used as input/output devices. For many
years, the most popular input/output medium was the punched card.
Although this is still used, the most popular input device is now the
%@AU@%COMPUTER TERMINAL%@BO:          219321@%%@AE@% and the most popular output device is the high-speed
printer. The CPU, main storage, auxiliary storage, and input/output
devices collectively make up a system. Multiple systems may be tied
together by telecommunications links to form a network.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Software%@AE@% The computer program, or software, controls the functioning of
the hardware and directs its operation. See %@AU@%COMPUTER PROGRAM%@BO:          218aca@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Although the development of digital computers is rooted in the
%@AU@%ABACUS%@BO:             c2a@%%@AE@% and early mechanical calculating devices, Charles %@AU@%BABBAGE%@BO:           a9285@%%@AE@% is
credited with the design of the first modern computer. The first fully
automatic calculator was the Mark I, or Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator, begun in 1939 at Harvard by Howard Aiken, while the first
all-purpose electronic digital computer, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator And Calculator), which used thousands of vacuum tubes, was
completed in 1946 at the Univ. of Pennsylvania. UNIVAC (UNIVersal
Automatic Computer) became (1951) the first computer to handle both
numeric and alphabetic data with equal facility. First-generation
computers were supplanted by the transistorized computers (see
%@AU@%TRANSISTOR%@BO:          97552b@%%@AE@%) of the late 1950s and early 1960s, second-generation machines
that could perform a million operations per second. They, in turn, were
replaced by the third-generation integrated-circuit machines of the
mid-1960s and 1970s. The 1980s have been characterized by the development
of the %@AU@%MICROPROCESSOR%@BO:          603e05@%%@AE@% and the evolution of increasingly smaller but
powerful minicomputers, micro computers, and %@AU@%PERSONAL COMPUTERS%@BO:          73cb8f@%%@AE@%. See also
%@AU@%ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION%@BO:           50d66@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE%@BO:           866e9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BAUD%@BO:           d1c3c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BOOLEAN
%@AU@%ALGEBRA%@BO:          120f87@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION%@BO:          29076e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VIDEOTEX%@BO:          9d465a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%computer-assisted instruction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%computer-assisted instruction%@AE@%:%@CR:COMPUTECTION    @%%@QR:computer-assisted instruction@% see %@AU@%PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION%@BO:          79cf38@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%computer graphics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%computer graphics%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPUTECS       @%%@QR:computer graphics@% the transfer of pictorial data into and out of a%@EH@%
%@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%. Using %@AU@%ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION%@BO:           50d66@%%@AE@% techniques, a variety of
devices-such as curve tracers, digitizers, and light pens-connected to
graphic %@AU@%COMPUTER TERMINALS%@BO:          219321@%%@AE@% can be used to store pictorial data in a
digital computer. By reversing the process through %@AU@%DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG
%@AU@%CONVERSION%@BO:          29076e@%%@AE@% techniques, the stored data can be output on a mechanical
plotting board, or plotter, or on a televisionlike graphic display
terminal. Sophisticated %@AU@%COMPUTER PROGRAMS%@BO:          218aca@%%@AE@% allow the computer to
manipulate the stored graphic image either automatically or under the
control of a designer, engineer, or architect. This last feature, called
computer-aided design (CAD), has enhanced the productivity of those
involved in professions that call for drafting. More recently, as color
display terminals and plotters have become readily available, computer
graphics have become a popular contemporary art form. See also %@AU@%ELECTRONIC
%@AU@%GAME%@BO:          2d95d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%computer program%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%computer program%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPUTEM        @%%@QR:computer program@% a series of actions or instructions that a %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% can%@EH@%
interpret and execute; programs are also called software to distinguish
them from hardware, the physical equipment used in %@AU@%DATA PROCESSING%@BO:          269d21@%%@AE@%. These
programming instructions cause the computer to perform arithmetic
operations or comparisons (and then take some additional action based on
the comparison) or to input or output data in a desired sequence.
Programs are often written as a series of subroutines, which can be used
in more than one program or at more than one point in the same program.
Systems programs are those that control the operation of the computer.
Chief among these is the operating system-also called the control
program, executive, or supervisor-which schedules the execution of other
programs, allocates system resources, and controls input and output
operations. Processing programs are those whose execution is controlled
by the operating system. Language translators decode source programs,
written in a %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%, and produce object programs, which are
in machine language and can be understood by the computer. These include
assemblers, which translate symbolic languages that have a one-to-one
relationship with machine language; compilers, which translate an
algorithmic- or procedural-language program into a machine-language
program to be executed at a later time; and interpreters, which translate
source-language statements into object-language statements for immediate
execution. Other processing programs are service or utility programs,
such as those which "dump" computer memory to external storage for
safekeeping and those which enable the programmer to "trace" program
execution, and application programs, which perform business and
scientific functions such as payroll processing, accounts payable and
receivable posting, and simulation of environmental conditions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%computer terminal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%computer terminal%@AE@%,%@CR:COMPUTEAL       @%%@QR:computer terminal@% a device that enables a %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% to receive or deliver%@EH@%
data. Computer terminals vary greatly depending on the format of the data
they handle. For example, a simple terminal comprises a typewriter
keyboard for input and a typewriter printing element for %@AU@%ALPHANUMERIC%@BO:           41a06@%%@AE@%
output. A similar device includes the keyboard for input and a
televisionlike screen to display the output. The screen can be a
%@AU@%CATHODE-RAY TUBE%@BO:          1a4721@%%@AE@% or a gas plasma panel, the latter involving an ionized
gas (sandwiched between glass layers) that glows to form dots which, in
turn, connect to form lines. Such displays can present a variety of
output, ranging from simple alphanumerics to complex graphic images used
as design tools by architects and engineers. Under program control, these
graphic terminals can rotate the images to show "hidden" parts and even
compile parts lists from the design. Other familiar terminals include
supermarket checkout systems that deliver detailed printed receipts and
use laser scanners to read the vertical stripes of the Universal Product
Code printed on food packages, automatic money-dispensing terminals in
banks, and sorters that read the magnetic-ink numbers printed on bank
checks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comstock, Anthony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comstock, Anthony%@AE@%,%@CR:COMSTOCK        @%%@QR:Comstock, Anthony@% 1844-1915, American morals crusader; b. New Canaan,%@EH@%
Conn. He secured strict New York and federal anti-obscenity legislation.
As an organizer and then the secretary (1873-1915) of the New York
Society for the Suppression of Vice, he was responsible for the
destruction of 160 tons of literature and pictures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comstock Lode%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comstock Lode%@AE@%,%@CR:COMSTOCK.LODE   @%%@QR:Comstock Lode@% on Mt. Davidson, W Nev.; the richest known U.S. silver%@EH@%
deposit, discovered in 1857 by Ethan Allen Grosh and Hosea Ballou Grosh.
They died before recording claims, and in 1859 Henry Tomkins Paige
Comstock laid claim to the lode. When he disposed of his holdings, the
lode became a scene of furious activity, centering on Virginia City.
Wasteful mining methods and the demonetization of silver led to the
lode's decline, and by 1898 it was virtually abandoned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Comte, Auguste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Comte, Auguste%@AE@%,%@CR:COMTE           @%%@QR:Comte, Auguste@% 1798-1857, French philosopher and sociologist, founder of%@EH@%
the school of philosophy known as %@AU@%POSITIVISM%@BO:          7884b2@%%@AE@%. Comte was primarily a
social reformer; his goal, as set forth in %@AI@%The Course of Positive
%@AI@%Philosophy%@AE@% (1830-42), was a society in which both individuals and nations
could live in harmony and comfort. He regarded sociology (a term he
originated) as the method by which this harmony and well-being could be
achieved. Comte formulated a theory of three stages of social
development: theological (belief in the supernatural), metaphysical
(belief in ideas as reality), and positive (phenomena are explained by
observation, hypothesis, and experimentation).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conakry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conakry%@AE@%,%@CR:CONAKRY         @%%@QR:Conakry@% city (1983 pop. 705,280), capital of Guinea, on the Atlantic%@EH@%
Ocean. It is Guinea's largest city and its administrative, economic, and
communications center. Situated on Tombo island, it is connected with the
mainland by a causeway. Conakry's economy is based on its modern port,
which ships alumina, coffee, pineapples, and bananas. The city was
occupied by the French in 1887. Since World War II it has grown into a
modern city with wide boulevards.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conant, James Bryant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conant, James Bryant%@AE@%,%@CR:CONANT          @%%@QR:Conant, James Bryant@% 1893-1978, American educator; b. Dorchester, Mass.%@EH@%
President of Harvard Univ. from 1933 to 1953, he became U.S. high
commissioner for Germany (1953) and ambassador to West Germany (1955-57).
He published widely on American education, including %@AI@%The American High
%@AI@%School Today%@AE@% (1959) and %@AI@%The Education of American Teachers%@AE@% (1963).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%concentration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%concentration%@AE@%,%@CR:CONCENTRATION   @%%@QR:concentration@% in chemistry, measure of the relative proportions of two%@EH@%
or more quantities in a mixture (see %@AU@%COMPOUND%@BO:          21587f@%%@AE@%). Concentrations may be
expressed in a number of ways. The simplest is in terms of a component's
percentage by weight or volume. Mixtures of solids or liquids are
frequently specified by weight-percentage concentrations, whereas
mixtures of gases are usually specified by volume percentages. Very low
concentrations, such as those of various substances in the atmosphere,
are expressed in parts per million (ppm). The %@AI@%molarity%@AE@% of a %@AU@%SOLUTION%@BO:          8b52b5@%%@AE@% is
the number of %@AU@%MOLES%@BO:          624d34@%%@AE@% of solute per liter of solution. The %@AI@%molality%@AE@% of a
solution is the number of moles of solute per 1,000 grams of solvent. The
%@AI@%mole fraction%@AE@% of a solution is the ratio of moles of solute to the total
number of moles in the solution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%concentration camp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%concentration camp%@AE@%,%@CR:CONCENTAMP      @%%@QR:concentration camp@% prison or forced-labor camp outside the normal%@EH@%
criminal system, for political prisoners, minorities, or others declared
undesirable. Under the Nazis (see %@AU@%NATIONAL SOCIALISM%@BO:          6770ca@%%@AE@%), camps were set up
after 1933 to detain (without legal procedure) and later to exterminate
Jews, Communists, and others. In the most notorious extermination
camps-Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek in Poland, Buchenwald and Dachau in
Germany-more than 6 million people, mostly Jews and Poles, were killed in
gas chambers. Millions of others were also interned during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%
and a large proportion died of gross mistreatment, malnutrition, and
disease. The term %@AI@%concentration camp%@AE@% has also been applied to slave-labor
camps in the USSR.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Concepcion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Concepcion%@AE@%,%@CR:CONCEPCION      @%%@QR:Concepcion@% city (1985 est. pop. 217,756), capital of Concepcion prov., S%@EH@%
central Chile, near the mouth of the Bio-Bio R. It is a major industrial
center. Founded in 1550, it was leveled or severely damaged by at least
six major earthquakes in the period from 1570 to 1960. The frequent
rebuilding of the city has given it a modern aspect.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%concerto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%concerto%@AE@%,%@CR:CONCERTO        @%%@QR:concerto@% musical composition usually for orchestra and soloist (most%@EH@%
often piano or violin) or a group of soloists. The %@AI@%concerto grosso,%@AE@% for a
small group of soloists with full orchestra, was developed by Giuseppe
Torelli, %@AU@%VIVALDI%@BO:          9e0992@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CORELLI%@BO:          234ad0@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@% concerto was most fully
developed by J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@% and G.F. %@AU@%HANDEL%@BO:          3faaa8@%%@AE@%. Toward the end of the 18th cent.
the solo concerto displaced the %@AI@%concerto grosso,%@AE@% and was fixed by W.A.
%@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@% in its classical form of three movements. In the 19th cent.
%@AU@%BEETHOVEN%@BO:           db753@%%@AE@% gave greater importance to the orchestra, and %@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@% unified the
concerto form through the use of repeated themes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conch%@AE@%,%@CR:CONCH           @%%@QR:conch@% name for some tropical, marine %@AU@%GASTROPODS%@BO:          383d83@%%@AE@% having heavy, spiral%@EH@%
shells, the whorls of which overlap each other. The typical gastropod
foot is reduced in size and the horny plate (operculum) located at the
end of the foot has the appearance and function of a claw. Their shells
range in color from white to red. Conchs are a valuable food source.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Concord%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Concord%@AE@%.%@CR:CONCORD         @%%@QR:Concord@% %@AB@%1 %@AE@%Residential city (1986 est. pop. 105,980), Contra Costa co., W%@EH@%
Calif.; settled c.1852, inc. 1906. Concord is in an oil and farm region;
electronic equipment is the leading manufacture. The city is part of the
growing San Francisco Bay area. %@AB@%2 %@AE@%Town (1986 est. pop. 16,470), E Mass.,
on the Concord R.; inc. 1635. Electronic and wood products are made. The
site of the 1775 battle (see %@AU@%LEXINGTON AND CONCORD%@BO:          548491@%%@AE@%, battles of) is marked
by Daniel Chester %@AU@%FRENCH'S%@BO:          35fcbe@%%@AE@% bronze %@AI@%Minuteman.%@AE@% Concord's fine old houses
were the homes of %@AU@%EMERSON%@BO:          2e7cc0@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%ALCOTTS, HAWTHORNE%@BO:           31bd2@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%THOREAU%@BO:          954415@%%@AE@%, among
others. %@AB@%3 %@AE@%City (1986 est. pop. 32,770), state capital and seat of
Merrimack co., S central N.H., on the Merrimack R.; settled 1725-27, inc.
1733 as Rumford, Mass., inc. 1765 as Concord, N.H.; became state capital
in 1808. Its granite quarries are famous. The city also produces
electrical and leather goods and foods.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%concordat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%concordat%@AE@%,%@CR:CONCORDAT       @%%@QR:concordat@% formal agreement between the pope in his spiritual capacity%@EH@%
and the temporal authority of a state. The earliest was the Concordat of
Worms (1122) which ended the %@AU@%INVESTITURE%@BO:          491c94@%%@AE@% controversy. The most famous was
the %@AB@%Concordat of 1801, %@AE@%reached between Napoleon and Pope %@AU@%PIUS VII%@BO:          76463d@%%@AE@%. It
reestablished the Roman Catholic Church in France and provided for the
nomination of bishops by the state and the conferral of office by the
pope.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%concrete%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%concrete%@AE@%,%@CR:CONCRETE        @%%@QR:concrete@% structural masonry material made by mixing broken stone or%@EH@%
gravel with sand, %@AU@%CEMENT%@BO:          1aceae@%%@AE@%, and water, and allowing the mixture to harden
into a solid mass. Concrete has great strength under compression, but its
tensile strength must be increased by embedding steel rods (reinforced
concrete) or %@AU@%CABLES%@BO:          1693be@%%@AE@% under tension (prestressed concrete) within the
concrete structural member.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%concrete music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%concrete music%@AE@%:%@CR:CONCRETE.MUSIC  @%%@QR:concrete music@% see %@AU@%ELECTRONIC MUSIC%@BO:          2d9a5c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conde%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conde%@AE@%%@CR:CONDE           @%%@QR:Conde@%, French princely family, cadet branch of the house of %@AU@%BOURBON%@BO:          12b977@%%@AE@%. It%@EH@%
originated with %@AB@%Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Conde, %@AE@%1530-69, Protestant
leader and general. He tried to topple the %@AU@%GUISE%@BO:          3e7bd6@%%@AE@% family from power in the
conspiracy of Amboise (1560) and commanded the %@AU@%HUGUENOTS%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@% in the Wars of
Religion (see %@AU@%RELIGION, WARS OF%@BO:          7ddea5@%%@AE@%). He was slain at the battle of Jarnac.
His great-grandson %@AB@%Louis II de Bourbon, prince de Conde, %@AE@%1621-86, called
the Great Conde, won major victories in the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% at Rocroi
(1643), Freiburg (1644), Nordlingen (1645), and Lens (1648). In the
%@AU@%FRONDE%@BO:          3685a5@%%@AE@% he turned against the government by taking command of the
rebellious army of the princes in 1651 and of the Spanish army in 1653.
Defeated in the battle of the Dunes (1658), he was pardoned (1659) by
%@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%, for whom he fought successfully (1672-78) in the %@AU@%DUTCH WARS%@BO:          2b6fc9@%%@AE@%.
His great-grandson %@AB@%Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince de Conde, %@AE@%1736-1818,
formed the emigre "army of Conde" (dissolved 1801), which fought in
alliance with France's enemies against French Revolutionary forces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%condensation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%condensation%@AE@%:%@CR:CONDENSATION    @%%@QR:condensation@% see %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%condenser%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%condenser%@AE@%:%@CR:CONDENSER       @%%@QR:condenser@% see %@AU@%CAPACITOR%@BO:          1866ad@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%condominium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%condominium%@AE@%,%@CR:CONDOMINIUM     @%%@QR:condominium@% individually owned unit in a building or development with%@EH@%
multiple residential or commercial occupants. Each unit (often an
apartment or duplex) may be financed or sold separately by the owner, as
in private housing, but the care and expense of maintaining common areas
are shared, as in %@AU@%COOPERATIVES%@BO:          2309fe@%%@AE@%. Condominium sales sometimes include
time-sharing, in which a number of people buy into the same condominium
for use at a specified time of year (e.g., a particular month) over a
period of years (e.g., 25 years). The demand for condominium housing
surged in the U.S. in the 1970s and remained strong during the housing
slump of the early 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%condor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%condor%@AE@%,%@CR:CONDOR          @%%@QR:condor@% %@AU@%VULTURE%@BO:          9e6d66@%%@AE@% found in the high peaks of the Coast Range of S%@EH@%
California and the %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@%. Condors are the largest living birds, nearly 50
in. (125 cm) long with wingspans of from 9 to 10 ft (274 to 300 cm).
Voracious eaters, they prefer carrion but will attack living animals as
large as deer. Condors are extremely rare and near extinction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de%@AE@%%@CR:CONDORCET       @%%@QR:Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de@%, 1743-94,%@EH@%
French mathematician, philosopher, and political leader. He did notable
work (1785) on the theory of %@AU@%PROBABILITY%@BO:          79bc5b@%%@AE@%. His best-known work is %@AI@%Sketch
%@AI@%for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind%@AE@% (1795), in
which he traced human development through nine epochs to the French
Revolution and predicted in the tenth epoch the ultimate perfection of
the human race.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conducting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conducting%@AE@%,%@CR:CONDUCTING      @%%@QR:conducting@% in music, the art of unifying the efforts of a number of%@EH@%
musicians simultaneously engaged in musical performance. In the Middle
Ages and Renaissance the conductor was primarily a time beater. During
the %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@% era the harpsichordist and then the first violinist (even
today called the concertmaster) became the leader. The principles of
modern conducting were laid down by Richard %@AU@%WAGNER%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@%; Hans von %@AU@%BULOW%@BO:          156ddd@%%@AE@% was
the first of the virtuoso conductors. Modern conducting requires mastery
of baton and hand gestures, thorough knowledge of the instruments and
repertory, and sensitivity to the needs of the performers. Outstanding
conductors of the 20th cent. include Arturo %@AU@%TOSCANINI%@BO:          96d352@%%@AE@%, Sir Thomas
%@AU@%BEECHAM%@BO:           da446@%%@AE@%, and Leonard %@AU@%BERNSTEIN%@BO:           f0d8d@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%ORCHESTRA%@BO:          6e56f7@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conduction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conduction%@AE@%,%@CR:CONDUCTION      @%%@QR:conduction@% transfer of %@AU@%HEAT%@BO:          40fcdf@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@% through a substance,%@EH@%
resulting from a difference in temperature between different parts of the
substance or from a difference in electric %@AU@%POTENTIAL%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@%. Heat may be
conducted when the motions of energetic (hotter) molecules are passed on
to nearby, less energetic (cooler) molecules, but a more effective method
is the migration of energetic free electrons. Conduction of electricity
consists of the flow of %@AU@%CHARGES%@BO:          1bad43@%%@AE@%. Metals are thus good conductors of both
heat and electricity because they have a high free-electron density.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Confederacy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Confederacy%@AE@%,%@CR:CONFEDERACY     @%%@QR:Confederacy@% name commonly given to the %@AB@%Confederate States of America%@EH@%
%@AB@%%@AE@%(1861-65), the government established by the southern states of the U.S.
after their secession from the Union. When Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% was elected
(Nov. 1860), seven states-South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, and Texas-seceded. A provisional
government was set up at Montgomery, Ala., and a constitution was
drafted; it resembled the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@% but had provisions for
%@AU@%STATES' RIGHTS%@BO:          8e68df@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%. After the firing on %@AU@%FORT SUMTER%@BO:          34a5d9@%%@AE@% and Lincoln's
call for troops, four more states-Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and
Tennessee-joined. Richmond, Va., became the capital, and Jefferson %@AU@%DAVIS%@BO:          26cecd@%%@AE@%
and A.H. %@AU@%STEPHENS%@BO:          8ed666@%%@AE@% were elected president and vice president. The story of
the Confederacy is the story of the loss of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. Its loyal
citizens bore privations and invasion with courage. It was refused
recognition by England and France. Volunteers for its army were
insufficient; conscription was used but opposed. Financial troubles were
heavy, and its paper money became worthless. Mounting Union victories
made defeat inevitable. The Confederacy fell after R.E. %@AU@%LEE'S%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% surrender
in Apr. 1865.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Confederate States of America%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Confederate States of America%@AE@%:%@CR:CONFEDEMERICA   @%%@QR:Confederate States of America@% see %@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Confederation, Articles of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Confederation, Articles of%@AE@%,%@CR:CONFEDERATION   @%%@QR:Confederation, Articles of@% in U.S. history, early form of constitution%@EH@%
ratified in 1781 and superseded (1789) by the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@%. Its
chief faults were a subordinate role for the central government and the
dependence of Congress on the states both for funds and for execution of
its decrees. Because of these inherent weaknesses the government
commanded little respect domestically or abroad. Its most significant
achievement was the %@AU@%ORDINANCE OF 1787%@BO:          6e8a07@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Confessing Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Confessing Church%@AE@%,%@CR:CONFESSCH       @%%@QR:Confessing Church@% German Protestant movement. Founded (1933) by Martin%@EH@%
%@AU@%NIEMOELLER%@BO:          69f873@%%@AE@% in opposition to the Nazi-sponsored German Christian Church,
it was later driven underground. It continues as a separate group within
the German Evangelicals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%confirmation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%confirmation%@AE@%,%@CR:CONFIRMATION    @%%@QR:confirmation@% Christian rite confirming an individual's prior initiation%@EH@%
into the church by %@AU@%BAPTISM%@BO:           bfd05@%%@AE@%. In the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Eastern
Churches, it is a %@AU@%SACRAMENT%@BO:          82c65b@%%@AE@%. In the West it is ordinarily conferred by a
bishop and consists of the laying on of hands and anointing with chrism,
a mixture of oil and balm. Priests confer it in the East. Lutherans and
Anglicans also use confirmation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Confucianism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Confucianism%@AE@%,%@CR:CONFUCIANISM    @%%@QR:Confucianism@% moral and religious system of China. Its origins lie in the%@EH@%
collection of sayings known as the %@AI@%Analects%@AE@% (see %@AU@%CHINESE LITERATURE%@BO:          1d7664@%%@AE@%),
attributed to %@AU@%CONFUCIUS%@BO:          21eaae@%%@AE@%, and in ancient commentaries such as that of
Mencius. Before the 3d cent. BC, Confucianism was a system of ethical
precepts for the management of society, based on the practice of
%@AI@%jen-%@AE@%sympathy or "human-heartedness"-as shown in one's relations with
others and demonstrated through adherence to %@AI@%li,%@AE@% a combination of
etiquette and ritual. A person who wishes to be properly treated when in
a subordinate role must, according to the Confucian Golden Rule, treat
his own inferiors with propriety. Confucianism, with its practical social
precepts, was often challenged by the supernatural religious systems of
%@AU@%TAOISM%@BO:          92c149@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% and was eclipsed by them from the 3d to the 7th cent.
AD, but it revived under the T'ang dynasty (618-906). The Sung dynasty
(960-1279) saw the development of neo-Confucianism, a metaphysical system
that drew on the beliefs of Taoism and especially of %@AU@%ZEN BUDDHISM%@BO:          a50967@%%@AE@%; during
the Ming period (1368-1644) it stressed meditation and intuitive
knowledge. Thereafter the system gradually weakened, and with the
overthrow of the monarchy (1911-12) Confucianism declined, a process
accelerated by the Communist revolution (1949). Traditional Chinese
ethics and culture still stem from Confucian teachings, however.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Confucius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Confucius%@AE@%%@CR:CONFUCIUS       @%%@QR:Confucius@%, Chinese %@AI@%K'ung Fu-tse,%@AE@% c.551-479? BC, Chinese sage. Legend%@EH@%
surrounds his life, but modern scholars base their accounts mainly on the
%@AI@%Analects,%@AE@% a collection of sayings and dialogues apparently recorded by
Confucius' disciples. He was born in the feudal state of Lu, in modern
Shandong province. Probably because of his reformist teachings, he held
only minor governmental posts. In the midst of the warfare and tyranny,
he urged a system of morality and statecraft to bring about peace,
stability, and just government. His supposed doctrines are embodied in
%@AU@%CONFUCIANISM%@BO:          21e3e6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%congenital defect%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%congenital defect%@AE@%,%@CR:CONGENICT       @%%@QR:congenital defect@% an abnormality present at birth that is acquired%@EH@%
during development in the uterus or occurs during the birth process. Some
disorders can be diagnosed during pregnancy by %@AU@%AMNIOCENTESIS%@BO:           4c9b7@%%@AE@% and some can
be corrected surgically before birth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%congestive heart failure%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%congestive heart failure%@AE@%:%@CR:CONGESTE        @%%@QR:congestive heart failure@% see %@AU@%HEART DISEASE%@BO:          40f6eb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conglomerate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conglomerate%@AE@%,%@CR:CONGLOMERATE    @%%@QR:conglomerate@% a large corporation that grows mainly through acquisition%@EH@%
of, or merger with, firms in unrelated fields. Although corporate mergers
and acquisitions were common earlier, the modern conglomerate did not
emerge until the 1960s, when it became popular among investors. By
diversifying, the conglomerate seeks to protect itself against changing
markets and economic conditions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congo, People's Republic of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congo, People's Republic of the%@AE@%,%@CR:CONGO1          @%%@QR:Congo, People's Republic of the@% republic (1987 est. pop. 2,180,000),%@EH@%
132,046 sq mi (342,000 sq km), W central Africa, bordered by Gabon (W),
Cameroon and the Central African Republic (N), Zaire (E and SE), and
Cabinda (an exclave of Angola) and the Atlantic Ocean (SW). Major cities
include %@AU@%BRAZZAVILLE%@BO:          139236@%%@AE@% (the capital) and %@AU@%POINTE-NOIRE%@BO:          772f8e@%%@AE@%. The country is
largely covered by tropical rain forests and stretches of wooded savanna,
and is drained by tributaries of the %@AU@%CONGO%@BO:          21fd86@%%@AE@% and Ubangi rivers. The Congo
serves as the commercial and transport hub of central Africa, with
important road, river, and rail systems connecting inland areas with the
Atlantic. Forestry and agriculture are the chief economic activities,
providing sugarcane, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, and timber for export, and
serving as the basis of most of the country's industry. Mining is
increasingly important, with petroleum and potash the principal exports.
The Bakongo, the major ethnic group, are Bantu-speaking, as are the other
principal tribes, the Bateke, Mbochi, and Sanga. French is the official
language. Most of the people practice animist religions, but about 30%
are Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The region probably was first inhabited by %@AU@%PYGMIES%@BO:          7b3d58@%%@AE@%, followed
(15th cent.) by the Bakongo, Bateke, and Sanga. After the Portuguese
navigator Diego Cao explored the coast in 1482, a slave trade developed
between Europeans and the coastal African states. Portuguese traders
predominated throughout the 17th cent., although French, English, and
Dutch merchants competed for commercial opportunities. From 1889 the area
(called French Congo and later Middle Congo) was administered by French
concessionaires, who exploited the rubber and ivory resources, until it
became a colony in %@AU@%FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA%@BO:          361070@%%@AE@% in 1910. In 1946, after
serving as a bastion for Free French forces in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, the Congo
was granted a territorial assembly. It gained autonomy within the %@AU@%FRENCH
%@AU@%COMMUNITY%@BO:          360495@%%@AE@% in 1958 and full independence in 1960. Its first president,
Fulbert Youlou, was ousted in 1963, and a government with a
Marxist-Leninist ideology was established. This was, in turn, overthrown
in 1968, but the new military regime continued the previous government's
socialist policies. Following a presidential assassination in 1977, a
military council governed until elections in 1979 installed another
military government, with Col. Denis %@AU@%SASSOU-NGUESSO%@BO:          84bc1d@%%@AE@% as president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congo%@AE@%%@CR:CONGO2          @%%@QR:Congo@% or %@AB@%Zaire,%@AE@% great river of Africa, flowing c.2,720 mi (4,380 km)%@EH@%
generally north and west through Zaire to the Atlantic Ocean in NW
Angola. It drains much of central equatorial Africa. Its upper course,
above Boyoma (Stanley) Falls, is known as the Lualaba R. Its lower course
widens near Kinshasa to form lakelike Pool Malebo (Stanley Pool), from
which the river descends 876 ft (267 m) through a series of rapids
(Livingstone Falls) to the port of Matadi. Called the Congo for the
historic %@AU@%KONGO%@BO:          5079ae@%%@AE@% kingdom near its mouth, the river was explored in the 19th
cent. by David %@AU@%LIVINGSTONE%@BO:          55dafe@%%@AE@% and Henry %@AU@%STANLEY%@BO:          8e336f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congregationalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congregationalism%@AE@%,%@CR:CONGREGSM       @%%@QR:Congregationalism@% a type of Protestant church organization in which each%@EH@%
congregation, or local church, has free control of its own affairs, with
Jesus Christ alone as its head. The movement arose (16th-17th cent.) in
England in a %@AU@%SEPARATIST%@BO:          870172@%%@AE@% revolt against formalized worship. Pilgrims
brought Congregationalism to America in 1620, where it later took a
leading part in the %@AU@%GREAT AWAKENING%@BO:          3c92ce@%%@AE@%. There have been several mergers
involving Congregational bodies, the latest (1957) forming the %@AU@%UNITED
%@AU@%CHURCH OF CHRIST%@BO:          9a0607@%%@AE@%. There are no bishops or presbyteries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congressional Black Caucus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congressional Black Caucus%@AE@%,%@CR:CONGRESCUS      @%%@QR:Congressional Black Caucus@% organization of black members of the U.S.%@EH@%
House of Representatives. Founded in 1971, it addresses legislative
concerns of blacks and other minority citizens. It publishes a yearly
agenda of key issues, sponsors seminars and an internship program,
maintains a library, and supports the Congressional Black Caucus
Foundation. In 1989, its membership numbered 17.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congress of Industrial Organizations%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congress of Industrial Organizations%@AE@%:%@CR:CONGRESORGANIZ  @%%@QR:Congress of Industrial Organizations@% see %@AU@%AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR%@EH@%
%@AU@%AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS%@BO:           47e73@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congress of Racial Equality%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congress of Racial Equality%@AE@%%@CR:CONGRESLITY     @%%@QR:Congress of Racial Equality@% (CORE), civil rights organization founded%@EH@%
(1942) in Chicago by James Farmer. It seeks, through nonviolent direct
action, to end discrimination in public accommodations, housing, and
other areas. CORE first gained national recognition with the 1961 Freedom
Rides, in which interracial groups traveled south by bus. It later moved
toward a more separatist policy, calling for black economic independence
within the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congress of the United States%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congress of the United States%@AE@%,%@CR:CONGRESSTATES   @%%@QR:Congress of the United States@% legislative branch of the federal%@EH@%
government, instituted (1789) by Article 1 of the %@AU@%CONSTITUTION OF THE
%@AU@%UNITED STATES%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%. It comprises two houses, the Senate and the House of
Representatives. The Senate consists of two senators from each state, who
serve six-year terms. Senators were elected by state legislatures until
1913, when the 17th amendment to the Constitution required that they be
chosen by popular election. Every two years one third of the Senate is
elected. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members apportioned
among the states according to their population in the federal %@AU@%CENSUS%@BO:          1ad7c8@%%@AE@%.
Representatives are elected from congressional districts drawn up by the
state legislatures and serve two-year terms. The House traditionally
elects its presiding officer, the Speaker, by consensus of the majority
party. The vice president of the U.S. is the presiding officer of the
Senate, but the agenda is set by the majority leader. Most of the work in
both houses is transacted by standing committees in which both majority
and minority members are represented. Each chamber has an equal voice in
legislation, although revenue bills must originate in the House. The
Senate must ratify all treaties by a two-thirds vote; it also confirms
important presidential appointees. A presidential %@AU@%VETO%@BO:          9d0c45@%%@AE@% of congressional
legislation can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in each house.
Whenever an item of legislation is approved in varying forms by the two
houses, the differences are reconciled by a joint (or conference)
committee that includes members of both chambers. See also %@AU@%EXECUTIVE%@BO:          3116ac@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%CABINET%@BO:          168ae6@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COURT SYSTEM IN THE UNITED STATES%@BO:          2402e3@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%UNITED STATES%@BO:          9a7403@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Congreve, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Congreve, William%@AE@%,%@CR:CONGREVE        @%%@QR:Congreve, William@% 1670-1729, English dramatist. After publishing a%@EH@%
novel, %@AI@%Incognita%@AE@% (1692), and translations, he turned to the stage. His
first comedy, %@AI@%The Old Bachelor%@AE@% (1693), was a great success and was
followed by %@AI@%The Double Dealer%@AE@% (1693), %@AI@%Love for Love%@AE@% (1695), and a
tragedy, %@AI@%The Mourning Bride%@AE@% (1697). His masterpiece, %@AI@%The Way of the
%@AI@%World,%@AE@% appeared in 1700. Congreve's plays are considered the apex of
%@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% comedy. With brilliant language and complex plots they
present amused, cynical portraits of people more concerned with manners
than morals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conic section%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conic section%@AE@%%@CR:CONIC.SECTION   @%%@QR:conic section@% or %@AB@%conic,%@AE@%curve formed by the intersection of a plane and a%@EH@%
right circular cone, or conical surface. The ordinary conic sections are
the %@AU@%CIRCLE%@BO:          1e7d32@%%@AE@%, the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola. When the plane
passes through the vertex of the cone, the result is a point, a straight
line, or a pair of intersecting straight lines; these are called
degenerate conic sections. In %@AU@%ANALYTIC GEOMETRY%@BO:           51332@%%@AE@% every conic section is
the graph of an equation of the form %@AI@%ax%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%+%@AI@%bxy%@AE@%+ %@AI@%cy%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%+%@AI@%dx%@AE@%+%@AI@%ey%@AE@%+%@AI@%f%@AE@%=0, where %@AI@%a, b,
%@AI@%c, d, e,%@AE@% and %@AI@%f%@AE@% are constants and %@AI@%a, b,%@AE@% and %@AI@%c%@AE@% are not all zero.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conifer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conifer%@AE@%,%@CR:CONIFER         @%%@QR:conifer@% tree or shrub of Coniferales, an order of mostly cone-bearing%@EH@%
evergreens distributed worldwide. A few, e.g., the %@AU@%LARCH%@BO:          5263d6@%%@AE@%, are deciduous.
Conifers do not have true flowers, but some, e.g., the %@AU@%YEW%@BO:          a438a7@%%@AE@%, have globular
fruits. The %@AU@%PINE%@BO:          75d24e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MONKEY-PUZZLE TREE%@BO:          62dc1b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CYPRESS%@BO:          25b026@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SEQUOIA%@BO:          870eef@%%@AE@% are conifers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conjugation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conjugation%@AE@%:%@CR:CONJUGATION     @%%@QR:conjugation@% see %@AU@%INFLECTION%@BO:          481801@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conjunction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conjunction%@AE@%:%@CR:CONJUNCTION1    @%%@QR:conjunction@% see %@AU@%PART OF SPEECH%@BO:          71c3b9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conjunction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conjunction%@AE@%,%@CR:CONJUNCTION2    @%%@QR:conjunction@% in astronomy: see %@AU@%SYZYGY%@BO:          92159b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conjunctivitis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conjunctivitis%@AE@%,%@CR:CONJUNCTIVITIS  @%%@QR:conjunctivitis@% disorder of the mucosal membrane that covers the eyeball%@EH@%
and lines the eyelid, usually caused by bacteria, virus, or allergy; also
called "pinkeye." Producing redness, discharge, and itching of the eyes,
conjunctivitis is frequently treated with %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@% and sometimes
%@AU@%CORTISONE%@BO:          239fe5@%%@AE@%. Before the use of silver nitrate drops in eyes of newborns,
conjunctivitis was a major cause of blindness in infants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conkling, Roscoe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conkling, Roscoe%@AE@%,%@CR:CONKLING        @%%@QR:Conkling, Roscoe@% 1829-88, American politician; b. Albany, N.Y. He served%@EH@%
New York in the U.S. House of Representatives (1859-63, 1865-67) and the
U.S. Senate (1867-81). The Republican state "boss" and "Old Guard"
leader, He resigned from the Senate when Pres. James A. %@AU@%GARFIELD%@BO:          37fb9b@%%@AE@% ignored
him in appointing a collector of the port of New York.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Connecticut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Connecticut%@AE@%,%@CR:CONNECTICUT     @%%@QR:Connecticut@% one of the New England states of the NE U.S.; bordered by%@EH@%
Massachusetts (N), Rhode Island (E), Long Island Sound (S), and New York
(W).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 5,009 sq mi (12,973 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.), 3,189,000, a 2.6%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Hartford. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Jan. 9, 1788 (fifth
of the original 13 states to ratify the Constitution). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Mt.
Frissell, 2,380 ft (726 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@% sea level. %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Constitution
State. %@AI@%Motto, Qui Transtulit Sustinet%@AE@% [He Who Transplanted Still
Sustains]. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% American robin. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% mountain laurel.
%@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% white oak. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Conn.; CT.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Except for the coastal plain along Long Island Sound,
Connecticut is covered with rolling hills. The western highlands,
including part of the Taconic Mts., are separated from the eastern
highlands by the fertile Connecticut R. valley. Almost 80% of the
population lives in metropolitan areas. The principal cities are
%@AU@%BRIDGEPORT%@BO:          13d644@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HARTFORD%@BO:          404701@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEW HAVEN%@BO:          68eed6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WATERBURY%@BO:          9f9153@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%STAMFORD%@BO:          8e1eff@%%@AE@%. The state's
densely settled southwestern corner is part of the New York City
metropolitan area.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Connecticut is a heavily industrialized state. Chief products are
fabricated metals, machinery, munitions, and transportation equipment,
including submarines manufactured at %@AU@%GROTON%@BO:          3deeaf@%%@AE@%. Hartford has long been one
of the country's leading insurance centers. The small agricultural sector
is dominated by dairying and the cultivation of shade-grown tobacco.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution of 1965 provides for a governor elected to a
four-year term. The General Assembly is composed of a 35-member senate
and 151-seat house, with members of both serving two-year terms.
Connecticut is represented in the U.S. Congress by six representatives
and two senators and has eight electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The Dutch discovered the Connecticut R. in 1614, but settlement
of the region was largely the work of English Puritans from
Massachusetts. In the 1630s they flocked to the Connecticut valley, and
in 1638-39 the towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield adopted the
%@AU@%FUNDAMENTAL ORDERS%@BO:          36e069@%%@AE@%, which set up a government for the colony. It soon
expanded to include other towns and in 1662 acquired the colony of New
Haven, which had been founded in 1638. Connecticut joined the other
colonies in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and was one of the first states to
ratify the Constitution. Its important shipping trade suffered from the
%@AU@%EMBARGO ACT%@BO:          2e6b8f@%%@AE@% (1807) and the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%, and the state gradually turned to
manufacturing. Connecticut abolished slavery in 1848 and supported the
Union in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% with nearly 60,000 troops. Save for the Great
Depression, the state's economy has prospered in the 20th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Connecticut Wits%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Connecticut Wits%@AE@%%@CR:CONNECTS        @%%@QR:Connecticut Wits@% or %@AB@%Hartford Wits,%@AE@%informal association of Yale students%@EH@%
and rectors formed in the late 18th cent. Conservative Federalists, they
attacked their liberal opponents in satirical verses, e.g., %@AI@%The Anarchiad%@AE@%
(1786-87). Members of the group included Timothy %@AU@%DWIGHT%@BO:          2b8056@%%@AE@% and John
%@AU@%TRUMBULL%@BO:          983859@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%connective tissue%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%connective tissue%@AE@%,%@CR:CONNECTUE       @%%@QR:connective tissue@% supportive tissue widely distributed in the body.%@EH@%
Consisting mainly of substances certain cells secrete, it contains
relatively few cells. The connective tissue that forms %@AU@%TENDONS%@BO:          93d877@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%LIGAMENTS%@BO:          54f6e0@%%@AE@% is mainly collagen-white, inelastic protein fibers. Cartilage,
vital to the skeletal system of vertebrates, is fibrous collagen in a
gel; it is firm but flexible. Connective tissue found under the skin and
supporting most organs contains collagen and other fibers as well. %@AU@%BONE%@BO:          11cf33@%%@AE@%
connective tissue is made up largely of collagen fibers and calcium salt
crystals; its structure is strong and rigid. %@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% and lymph have a fluid
connective tissue matrix.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Connolly, Maureen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Connolly, Maureen%@AE@%,%@CR:CONNOLLY        @%%@QR:Connolly, Maureen@% 1934-69, American tennis player; b. San Diego. At 16,%@EH@%
"Little Mo" became the youngest player to win the U.S. national singles.
She twice defended (1952-53) the title successfully, won (1952-54) at
Wimbledon three times, and completed (1953) the grand slam by adding the
French and Australian titles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Connors, Jimmy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Connors, Jimmy%@AE@%%@CR:CONNORS         @%%@QR:Connors, Jimmy@% (James Connors, Jr.), 1952-, American tennis player; b.%@EH@%
East St. Louis, Ill. In 1974, at 22, he won the Australian Open, the U.S.
Open (which he also won in 1976, 1978, 1982, and 1983), and Wimbledon
(which he also won in 1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conquistador%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conquistador%@AE@%,%@CR:CONQUISTADOR    @%%@QR:conquistador@% military leader of the Spanish conquest of the New World in%@EH@%
the 16th cent. Francisco %@AU@%PIZARRO%@BO:          7659a2@%%@AE@% and Hernan %@AU@%CORTES%@BO:          2392aa@%%@AE@% were the greatest
conquistadors. The word can mean any daring, ruthless adventurer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conrad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conrad%@AE@%,%@CR:CONRAD1         @%%@QR:Conrad@% rulers of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@% and its predecessor state. %@AB@%Conrad%@EH@%
%@AB@%I, %@AE@%d. 918, German king (911-18), succeeded Louis the Child, but was
plagued by feuds and rebellions in Lorraine, Swabia, and Bavaria. His
failure to halt the continuing Hungarian invasions and the alienation of
his nobles almost dissolved the kingdom. %@AB@%Conrad II, %@AE@%c.990-1039, emperor
and German king (1024-39), was the first of the Frankish Salian dynasty.
His election as German king was contested by Swabia, Lotharingia, and
Italy; but he was crowned after three years of conflict. His reign was
marked by constant revolts, but he added Burgundy to his dominions and
greatly increased commerce. %@AB@%Conrad III, %@AE@%c.1093-1152, emperor and German
king (1138-52), founder of the %@AU@%HOHENSTAUFEN%@BO:          4375b5@%%@AE@% dynasty, was set up as
antiking to Emperor %@AU@%LOTHAIR II%@BO:          56d64c@%%@AE@% in 1127 but submitted to Lothair in 1135.
He was elected king at Lothair's death by those opposing Henry the Proud
of Bavaria and his brother Guelph, thereby setting in force the struggle
between the %@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%. Conrad was never crowned. %@AB@%Conrad IV,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1228-54, emperor and German king (1237-54), king of Sicily and of
Jerusalem (1250-54), was made king by his father Emperor %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@%,
but the struggle between Frederick and Pope %@AU@%INNOCENT IV%@BO:          485ed5@%%@AE@% kept him from
being crowned. He was excommunicated in 1254 and died shortly thereafter
of fever.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conrad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conrad%@AE@%,%@CR:CONRAD2         @%%@QR:Conrad@% d. 1192, Latin king of %@AU@%JERUSALEM%@BO:          4bf053@%%@AE@% (1192), marquis of Montferrat, a%@EH@%
leader in the Third %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%. He saved %@AU@%TYRE%@BO:          994d12@%%@AE@% from the Saracens and became
(1187) its lord. To gain the throne of Jerusalem he married the daughter
of %@AU@%AMALRIC I%@BO:           44c6f@%%@AE@%, but he was immediately murdered, probably by Muslim
fanatics. The title passed eventually to %@AU@%AMALRIC II%@BO:           44c6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conrad, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conrad, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:CONRAD3         @%%@QR:Conrad, Joseph@% 1857-1924, English novelist; b. Poland, as Josef Teodor%@EH@%
Konrad Walecz Korzeniowski. After a period at sea (during which he became
a British subject), he began (1894) writing novels in English, an
acquired language, and eventually became one of the greatest prose
stylists in English literature. Notable early works include %@AI@%The Nigger of
%@AI@%the "Narcissus"%@AE@% (1897), %@AI@%Lord Jim%@AE@% (1900), and the novellas %@AI@%Youth%@AE@% (1902),
%@AI@%Heart of Darkness%@AE@% (1902), and %@AI@%Typhoon%@AE@% (1903). A master at creating
character and atmosphere, Conrad acutely portrayed individuals suffering
from isolation and moral disintegration, and the clash between primitive
cultures and modern civilization. His best works include %@AI@%Nostromo%@AE@% (1904),
%@AI@%The Secret Agent%@AE@% (1907), %@AI@%Under Western Eyes%@AE@% (1911), %@AI@%Chance%@AE@% (1913), and
%@AI@%Victory%@AE@% (1915).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%consanguinity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%consanguinity%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSANGUINITY   @%%@QR:consanguinity@% see %@AU@%KINSHIP%@BO:          4fdad1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conscientious objector%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conscientious objector%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSCIEBJECTOR  @%%@QR:conscientious objector@% person who, on grounds of conscience, refuses%@EH@%
military service. Resistance based on religious or humanitarian
convictions, as among Quakers (see %@AU@%FRIENDS%@BO:          366a3e@%%@AE@%), is usually distinguished
from political opposition. In World Wars I and II, the U.S. and Britain
allowed objectors who were members of recognized pacifist religious
denominations to substitute nonmilitary service, but imprisoned other
pacifists. In the 1970s the U.S. Supreme Court allowed conscientious
objection based on deeply held ethical as well as religious beliefs, but
refused to accept opposition to the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% as a basis for exemption.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%consciousness raising%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%consciousness raising%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSCIOAISING   @%%@QR:consciousness raising@% a process designed to increase women's awareness%@EH@%
of their situation and experiences. During the 1960s,
consciousness-raising groups were an important aspect of the feminist
movement. In these groups, women discussed their problems, explored the
questions and manifestations of overt and subtle forms of sexual
oppression, and found a basis for political action. See also %@AU@%FEMINISM%@BO:          3261c5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conscription%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conscription%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSCRIPTION    @%%@QR:conscription@% compulsory enrollment, in war or peace, in the armed%@EH@%
forces. The idea of compulsory military service by all of a nation's
able-bodied men was introduced in the late 18th cent. during the French
Revolution and enabled Napoleon to raise huge armies. Other European
countries adopted such a system during the 19th cent. In the U.S. wartime
conscription was used in the Civil War and both world wars, and a
peacetime draft was maintained from 1945 to 1973.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conservation laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conservation laws%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSERVWS       @%%@QR:conservation laws@% in physics, basic laws that maintain that the total%@EH@%
value of certain quantities remains unchanged during a physical process.
Conserved quantities include %@AU@%MASS%@BO:          5ccc02@%%@AE@% (or matter), %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@%, linear %@AU@%MOMENTUM%@BO:          6275c5@%%@AE@%,
angular momentum, and electric %@AU@%CHARGE%@BO:          1bad43@%%@AE@%; the theory of %@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@%, however,
combines the laws of conservation of mass and of energy into a single
law. Additional conservation laws have meaning only on the subatomic
level.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conservation of natural resources%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conservation of natural resources%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSERV.RESOUR  @%%@QR:conservation of natural resources@% informed restraint in the human use of%@EH@%
the earth's resources. The term %@AI@%conservation,%@AE@% which came into use in the
late 19th cent., referred to the management, mainly for economic reasons,
of such valuable natural resources as timber, fish, game, topsoil,
pastureland, and minerals. It referred also to the preservation of
forests, wildlife (see %@AU@%WILDLIFE REFUGE%@BO:          a193aa@%%@AE@%), park land, wilderness, and
%@AU@%WATERSHED%@BO:          9fb85e@%%@AE@% areas. Conservation as part of a total approach to the use of
natural resources was introduced by Pres. Theodore %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80ff43@%%@AE@% and his
chief forester, Gifford %@AU@%PINCHOT%@BO:          75c72c@%%@AE@%. They popularized the philosophy,
inspired a widespread movement, and gave impetus to much legislation. A
Roosevelt-appointed commission published the first inventory of the
country's natural resources. %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@% problems and dwindling %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@%
resources gave rise in the 1960s and 70s to a related
movement-%@AU@%ENVIRONMENTALISM%@BO:          2f3e43@%%@AE@%-and numerous laws were passed to protect the
environment and its resources. In the early 1980s attempts by the %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@%
administration to open some wilderness areas to resource development led
to opposition from both conservationists and environmentalists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conservatism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conservatism%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSERVATISM    @%%@QR:conservatism@% in politics, the desire to maintain or conserve the%@EH@%
existing order. Modern political conservatism emerged in the 19th cent.,
in reaction to the political and social changes of the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%
and the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%. European conservatism, as formulated by
Edmund %@AU@%BURKE%@BO:          15a76f@%%@AE@% and others, emphasized preserving the power of the king and
landowners, limiting suffrage, and continuing the ties between church and
state. Benjamin %@AU@%DISRAELI%@BO:          295ef2@%%@AE@% exemplified the conservative tendency to resort
to moderate reform in order to preserve the foundations of the old order.
By the 20th cent. conservatism was being redirected by erstwhile liberal
manufacturing and professional groups who had achieved their political
aims and had become concerned with preserving them. The new conservatism
advocated economic %@AU@%LAISSEZ FAIRE%@BO:          51a32f@%%@AE@% and opposed the extension of the welfare
state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conservative Judaism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conservative Judaism%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSERVDAISM    @%%@QR:Conservative Judaism@% see %@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Conservative party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Conservative party%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSERVRTY      @%%@QR:Conservative party@% major British political party, the other being the%@EH@%
%@AU@%LABOUR PARTY%@BO:          5154ae@%%@AE@%. The successor of the %@AU@%TORY%@BO:          96cefe@%%@AE@% party, it came into being after
the %@AU@%REFORM BILL%@BO:          7d8dfe@%%@AE@% of 1832 and advocated the Tory policies of defense of the
Church of England and protection of agricultural interests. Later, it
strongly supported imperialism. The repeal of the protectionist %@AU@%CORN LAWS%@BO:          23759f@%%@AE@%
(1846) by the Conservative leader Sir Robert %@AU@%PEEL%@BO:          729103@%%@AE@% caused a split in the
party and its exclusion from power for most of the period 1846-73. Under
Benjamin %@AU@%DISRAELI'S%@BO:          295ef2@%%@AE@% "Tory democracy" (1874-80), the party wooed the
broadening electorate with social legislation. The dominant party under
Stanley %@AU@%BALDWIN%@BO:           b5d0d@%%@AE@%, during the 1920s and 30s, it lost prestige with the
failure of Neville %@AU@%CHAMBERLAIN'S%@BO:          1b47e8@%%@AE@% appeasement of Nazi Germany (1937-40),
but the country rallied to his successor, Sir Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@%, during
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. In the postwar years the Conservatives led Britain into the
European %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@% and generally continued the social programs
initiated by the Labour party. In 1979 Margaret %@AU@%THATCHER%@BO:          948b6f@%%@AE@%, a Conservative,
became Britain's first woman prime minister.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Considerant, Victor Prosper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Considerant, Victor Prosper%@AE@%%@CR:CONSIDERANT     @%%@QR:Considerant, Victor Prosper@%, 1808-93, French socialist. Leader of%@EH@%
Fourierism after the death (1837) of Charles %@AU@%FOURIER%@BO:          34d27b@%%@AE@%, he took part in the
%@AU@%JUNE DAYS%@BO:          4db300@%%@AE@% uprising (1848), was forced to flee to Belgium, and later tried
unsuccessfully to establish (1855-57) a Fourierist colony in Texas. His
books include %@AI@%Principles of Socialism%@AE@% (1847).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%consideration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%consideration%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSIDERATION   @%%@QR:consideration@% see %@AU@%CONTRACT%@BO:          22ea4e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%conspiracy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%conspiracy%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSPIRACY      @%%@QR:conspiracy@% in U.S. law, agreement of two or more persons to commit a%@EH@%
criminal or otherwise unlawful act. At common law, the crime of
conspiracy was committed with the making of the agreement, but
present-day statutes require an overt act by a conspirator to further the
conspiracy. It is not necessary for guilt that the object of the
conspiracy be consummated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constable, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constable, John%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTABLE       @%%@QR:Constable, John@% 1776-1837, leading English landscape painter. The%@EH@%
influence of %@AU@%RUISDAEL%@BO:          81d510@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CLAUDE LORRAIN%@BO:          1f0c07@%%@AE@% is evident in his direct
observation of nature and use of broken color, both extraordinary for his
day. Such works as %@AI@%View on the Stour%@AE@% (1819) and %@AI@%The Hay Wain%@AE@% (1821;
National Gall., London) influenced French romantics (including %@AU@%DELACROIX%@BO:          2786ff@%%@AE@%
and Bonington) and later the %@AU@%BARBIZON SCHOOL%@BO:           c222d@%%@AE@%, as well as the general
course of 19th-cent. French %@AU@%LANDSCAPE PAINTING%@BO:          51ea99@%%@AE@%. His preparatory sketches,
e.g., %@AI@%Weymouth Bay%@AE@% (National Gall., London), are spontaneous and
vigorous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constance, Council of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constance, Council of%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSTANCE       @%%@QR:Constance, Council of@% see %@AU@%SCHISM, GREAT%@BO:          85642a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constant, Benjamin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constant, Benjamin%@AE@%%@CR:CONSTANT        @%%@QR:Constant, Benjamin@%, 1767-1830, French-Swiss political writer and%@EH@%
novelist; b. Switzerland. Through Germaine de %@AU@%STAEL%@BO:          8dfc52@%%@AE@% he became interested
in politics, and his affair with her took him to Paris (1795). He served
(1799-1801) as a tribune under %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% but lived in exile (1802-14)
with de Stael after she was expelled from France. During the Bourbon
restoration he served (1819-22, 1824-30) in the chamber of deputies,
earning a reputation as a liberal. His most important work is the
semiautobiographical novel %@AI@%Adolphe%@AE@% (1816).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constanta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constanta%@AE@%%@CR:CONSTANTA       @%%@QR:Constanta@%, city (1985 pop. 323,236), SE Rumania, on the Black Sea. It is%@EH@%
Rumania's main seaport, with such exports as petroleum and grain; its
chief naval and air base; an industrial city; and a resort. Founded (7th
cent. BC) by the Greeks, it was ruled by the Romans, Byzantines, and
Turks before passing to Rumania in 1878.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constantine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constantine%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTANTINE1    @%%@QR:Constantine@%  Roman emperors. %@AB@%Constantine I %@AE@%or %@AB@%Constantine the Great,%@EH@%
%@AB@%%@AE@%288?-337 (r. 310-337), was born at Naissus (now Nis, Yugoslavia), the son
of Constantius I and St. %@AU@%HELENA%@BO:          4155e5@%%@AE@%. When Constantius died at York in 306,
his soldiers proclaimed Constantine emperor, but much rivalry for the
vacated office ensued. Before the battle at the Milvian or Mulvian Bridge
near Rome in 312, Constantine, who was already sympathetic toward
Christianity, is said to have seen in the sky a flaming cross as the sign
by which he would conquer. He adopted the cross and was victorious. The
battle is regarded as a turning point for Christianity. Constantine ruled
in the West and %@AU@%LICINIUS%@BO:          54d8d8@%%@AE@% in the East as coemperors until they fell out in
324. Licinius lost his life in the struggle, leaving Constantine sole
emperor. In a reign of peace, Constantine rebuilt the empire on a basis
of absolutism. In 325 he convened the epoch-making Council of %@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@%. In
330 he moved the capital to Constantinople, a city dedicated to the
Virgin. As the founder of the Christian empire, Constantine began a new
era. He was baptized on his deathbed. %@AB@%Constantine II, %@AE@%316-40 (r. 337-40),
was the son of Constantine. When the empire was divided at his father's
death (337), he received Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Feeling cheated, he
warred with his brother Constans I; he was killed while invading Italy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constantine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constantine%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTANTINE2    @%%@QR:Constantine@% Byzantine emperors. %@AB@%Constantine I:%@AE@%see under %@AU@% CONSTANTINE,%@EH@%
%@AU@%%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@%Roman emperors. %@AB@%Constantine IV %@AE@%(Pogonatus), c.652-685 (r.668-85),
repelled the Muslims but had to cede land to the Bulgars. He called the
Third Council of Constantinople (680), which condemned %@AU@%MONOTHELETISM%@BO:          62fc7f@%%@AE@%.
%@AB@%Constantine V %@AE@%(Copronymus), 718-75 (r.741-75), was a capable general and
administrator. His support of %@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@% and opposition to %@AU@%MONASTICISM%@BO:          62854c@%%@AE@%
lost him Rome. %@AB@%Constantine VI, %@AE@%b. c.770 (r.780-97), reigned first with
his mother, %@AU@%IRENE%@BO:          4999a3@%%@AE@%, as regent and then as co-ruler (792). In 797 she had
her cruel and unpopular son deposed and blinded. %@AB@%Constantine VII
%@AB@%%@AE@%(Porphyrogenitus), 905-59 (r.913-59), had his reign interrupted by the
usurpation of %@AU@%ROMANUS I%@BO:          80b743@%%@AE@% (919-44). He fostered learning, law reform, and
the fair distribution of land. %@AB@%Constantine XI %@AE@%(Palaeologus), d. 1453, was
the last Byzantine emperor (r.1449-53). He proclaimed the union of the
Eastern and Western churches. After a long siege Constantinople fell
(1453) to Ottoman sultan %@AU@%MUHAMMAD II%@BO:          64e167@%%@AE@%. Constantine died in the battle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constantine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constantine%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTANTINE3    @%%@QR:Constantine@% kings of the Hellenes (Greece). %@AB@%Constantine I, %@AE@%1868-1923%@EH@%
(r.1913-17, 1920-22), opposed the Allies in World War I and was forced to
abdicate in favor of his second son, %@AU@%ALEXANDER%@BO:           3513d@%%@AE@%. He was restored after
Alexander's death, but in 1922 a military rebellion forced him to
abdicate again, this time in favor of his eldest son, %@AU@%GEORGE II%@BO:          393e67@%%@AE@%.
%@AB@%Constantine II, %@AE@%1940- (r.1964-73), succeeded his father, %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          72313b@%%@AE@%, but in
1967 was forced into exile by a military junta. He was formally deposed
in 1973.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constantine the Great%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constantine the Great%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSTAN.GREAT   @%%@QR:Constantine the Great@% see %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constantinople%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constantinople%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTANTINOPLE1 @%%@QR:Constantinople@% former capital of the %@AU@%BYZANTINE EMPIRE%@BO:          165ae5@%%@AE@% and of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%, called %@AU@%ISTANBUL%@BO:          4a4cbf@%%@AE@% since 1930. It was founded (AD 330) at %@AU@%BYZANTIUM%@BO:          1677d0@%%@AE@%
as the new capital of the Roman Empire by %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@% and became the
largest, most splendid medieval European city. Built on seven hills above
the %@AU@%BOSPORUS%@BO:          1267b2@%%@AE@%, it had such magnificent buildings as the church of %@AU@%HAGIA
%@AU@%SOPHIA%@BO:          3efc8f@%%@AE@% and the emperors' palace (a city in itself), and many artistic and
literary treasures. It was conquered in 1204 by Crusaders (see %@AU@%CRUSADES%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%),
in 1261 by %@AU@%MICHAEL VIII%@BO:          5fefb7@%%@AE@%, and in 1453 by %@AU@%MUHAMMAD II%@BO:          64e167@%%@AE@%. Almost depopulated
when it fell to the Turks, the city recovered quickly, and was
embellished by the Ottoman sultans who built palaces and mosques. After
%@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% Constantinople was occupied (1918-23) by the Allies. In 1923
Kemal %@AU@%ATATURK%@BO:           93e66@%%@AE@% made %@AU@%ANKARA%@BO:           5b181@%%@AE@% Turkey's capital.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constantinople, Councils of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constantinople, Councils of%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTANTINOPLE2 @%%@QR:Constantinople, Councils of@% four ecumenical councils of the Roman%@EH@%
Catholic Church. The First Council of Constantinople (381), called to
confirm the victory over %@AU@%ARIANISM%@BO:           7a0af@%%@AE@%, established the orthodox teaching of
the Trinity and condemned the heresy of Apollinarianism. The second
council (553) was called and dominated by Byzantine Emperor %@AU@%JUSTINIAN I%@BO:          4ddb31@%%@AE@%;
it condemned Nestorian writings (see %@AU@%NESTORIANISM%@BO:          685e94@%%@AE@%) and encouraged
%@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@%. The third council (680) condemned %@AU@%MONOTHELETISM%@BO:          62fc7f@%%@AE@% and a
former pope, %@AU@%HONORIUS I%@BO:          4422c2@%%@AE@%. The fourth council (869-70) confirmed the
condemnation of %@AU@%PHOTIUS%@BO:          750d06@%%@AE@%. The third and fourth councils are not accepted
as ecumenical by the Orthodox Church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constantinople, Latin Empire of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constantinople, Latin Empire of%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTANTINOPLE3 @%%@QR:Constantinople, Latin Empire of@% 1204-61, feudal empire in the S Balkans%@EH@%
and Greek archipelago, founded by the leaders of the Fourth %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%. Its
government was divided between the Crusaders and their Venetian
creditors. The rulers were %@AU@%BALDWIN I%@BO:           b4e44@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HENRY OF FLANDERS%@BO:          41f6f6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROBERT OF
%@AU@%COURTENAY%@BO:          7fac17@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BALDWIN II%@BO:           b4e44@%%@AE@%. The empire at once began to decline from
internal strife and attacks by the Bulgars, Turks, and Greek states of
%@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69bcab@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EPIRUS%@BO:          2f7952@%%@AE@%. It was taken (1261) by %@AU@%MICHAEL VIII%@BO:          5fefb7@%%@AE@% of Nicaea, who
restored the Byzantine Empire. However, Venice retained most of the Greek
Isles, the Villehardouin family of France kept Achaia, and Athens came
under Catalan rule.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%constellation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%constellation%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTELLATION   @%%@QR:constellation@% in common usage, group of stars (e.g., %@AU@%URSA MAJOR%@BO:          9b1b5d@%%@AE@%) that%@EH@%
are imagined to form a configuration in the sky; properly speaking, a
constellation is a definite region of the sky in which the configuration
of stars is contained. The entire celestial sphere is divided into 88
such regions, with boundaries fixed by international agreement along
lines of right ascension and declination. The 12 constellations located
along or near the ecliptic, or apparent path of the sun through the
heavens, are known as the constellations of the %@AU@%ZODIAC%@BO:          a55fa2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%constitution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%constitution%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTITUTION    @%%@QR:constitution@% fundamental principles of government of a nation, either%@EH@%
implied in its laws, institutions, and customs, or embodied in one or
more documents. The British constitution, an unwritten, flexible type,
comprises the whole body of common and statutory law, practices, and
customs that have evolved there; it can be modified simply by an act of
%@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%. The U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%, a written, rigid type, has superior
sanction to ordinary laws and can be changed only through an elaborate
process of amendment. It remains abreast of the times, however, through
statutes passed by %@AU@%CONGRESS%@BO:          2209cf@%%@AE@% and interpretations and rulings of the
%@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%. In modern times, countries have tended to operate under
written constitutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constitution Act, 1982%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constitution Act, 1982%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTITT        @%%@QR:Constitution Act, 1982@% Canadian law that superseded the %@AU@%BRITISH NORTH%@EH@%
%@AU@%AMERICA ACT%@BO:          141142@%%@AE@% of 1867 as the basic constitution of Canada. Also known as
the patriation bill, it gives Canadians the power to make their own
constitutional changes, whereas the previous act had required the formal
approval of the British Parliament. Despite protests from Canadian
Indians and from Quebec Prov., the act was signed into law by Queen
%@AU@%ELIZABETH II%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% in Ottawa on Apr. 17, 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constitutional Convention%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constitutional Convention%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSTITON       @%%@QR:Constitutional Convention@% see %@AU@%FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constitutional Union party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constitutional Union party%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTITRTY      @%%@QR:Constitutional Union party@% in U.S. history, formed when the conflict%@EH@%
between North and South broke down older parties. Organized just before
the election of 1860, it recognized "no political principle but the
Constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the enforcement
of laws." Party candidates John Bell and Edward %@AU@%EVERETT%@BO:          30ed27@%%@AE@% carried Kentucky,
Tennessee, and Virginia in the presidential election won by Abraham
Lincoln.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Constitution of the United States%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Constitution of the United States%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTITTED.STA  @%%@QR:Constitution of the United States@% document embodying the principles on%@EH@%
which the American nation is governed. It establishes a federal %@AU@%REPUBLIC%@BO:          7e54f0@%%@AE@%
with sovereignty balanced between the national government and the states.
Within the national government, power is separated among three branches,
the %@AU@%EXECUTIVE%@BO:          3116ac@%%@AE@%, legislative (see %@AU@%CONGRESS%@BO:          2209cf@%%@AE@%), and judicial (see %@AU@%SUPREME
%@AU@%COURT, UNITED STATES%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%). The U.S. Constitution is the supreme law of the
land; no other law, state constitution or statute, federal legislation,
or executive order can operate in conflict with it. Drawn up at the
%@AU@%FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@% of 1787 in Philadelphia and ratified by
the required nine states by June 21, 1788, the Constitution began to
function in 1789, superseding the Articles of Confederation (1781). It is
relatively brief and concise, consisting of a preamble, 7 articles, and
(to 1982) 26 amendments . The %@AB@%Bill of Rights, %@AE@%comprising the first 9
amendments to the constitution, was added in 1791 to provide adequate
guarantees of individual liberties. Amendments 1 through 8 prohibit
certain federal actions, many of them analogous to British actions
complained of in the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%. The 9th amendment
states that the people retain any rights not specified in the
Constitution. After the 10th amendment (also ratified in 1791), which is
the foundation of %@AU@%STATES' RIGHTS%@BO:          8e68df@%%@AE@% doctrine, amendments to the Constitution
were few. The 14th amendment-assuring that the rights of citizens cannot
be abridged by the states-has been the basis for limitation of many state
actions. The brevity and generality of the language of the Constitution
have made it adaptable to changing times, and the mechanics of amendment
are difficult. Since Chief Justice John %@AU@%MARSHALL'S%@BO:          5c1a39@%%@AE@% time, the U.S. Supreme
Court has changed the Constitution more than the amendment process has.
Arguments on the meaning of the document generally proceed from two
bases: the question of the signers' intent and the need to relate the
Constitution to modern conditions. Over time the Constitution has been
held to mean radically different things. Thus in %@AU@%PLESSY V. FERGUSON%@BO:          76dc85@%%@AE@%
(1896), the Court held racial segregation constitutional, while in %@AU@%BROWN
%@AU@%V. BOARD OF EDUCATION%@BO:          148ee6@%%@AE@% (1954), it found the opposite. Among the concepts
long subject to reexamination and reinterpretation are states' rights,
due process of law, and equal protection under the law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES%@AE@% (Summary)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%The Preamble states the general purpose of the Constitution:%@AE@%We, the
people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union,
establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common
defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty
to ourselves and our posterity do ordain and establish this Constitution
for the United States of America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Article I%@AE@% Places all legislative power in a bicameral Congress composed
of Senate and House of Representatives, prescribes method of electing
Congress, and empowers each house to establish its own procedural rules.
Process of legislation from Congress to President is generally described.
Section VIII grants Congress specific powers, e.g., to declare war.
Section IX limits Congressional powers, forbidding, e.g., ex post facto
laws. Section X limits powers of states, and makes some state action
dependent on Congressional consent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Article II%@AE@% Creates %@AU@%EXECUTIVE%@BO:          3116ac@%%@AE@% branch of government, headed by President
and Vice President. Establishes %@AU@%ELECTORAL COLLEGE%@BO:          2d4b2f@%%@AE@%, prescribes election
process, qualifications, and manner of succession when a President is
incapacitated. Section II enumerates President's powers as military
commander-in-chief and in foreign affairs. Section III governs
President's working relations with Congress and grants President
administrative power. Section IV governs impeachment of a President.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Article III%@AE@% Vests all judicial power in a %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%. Congress may
establish inferior courts. Section II defines the extent of federal
jurisdiction, and distinguishes cases in which federal jurisdiction is
original, e.g., cases between states, from those in which federal courts
can hear only appeals. Section III defines, and limits prosecution for
%@AU@%TREASON%@BO:          978d89@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Article IV%@AE@% Governs relations between states, prescribing full faith and
credit for one anothers' laws, equal treatment of citizens of all states,
and extradition procedures. Section III governs admission of states to
the Union and administration of federal territories and property. Section
IV guarantees a republican (see %@AU@%REPUBLIC%@BO:          7e54f0@%%@AE@%) form of government to every
state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Artlcle V%@AE@% Governs the process of amending the Constitution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Article Vl%@AE@% Establishes the Constitution as the supreme law of the land,
regardless of conflicting state laws. Federal and state officeholders
shall be bound to support the Constitution; no religious test may be a
qualification for office.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Article Vll%@AE@% States that the Constitution shall take effect when nine (of
the thirteen) states have ratified it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
AMENDMENTS %@AI@%(with date of ratification)%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment I%@AE@% (1791) First of the Bill of Rights amendments (I--IX);
prohibits government-established religion; guarantees freedom of worship,
of speech, of the press, of assembly and to petition the government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment II%@AE@% (1791) For the purpose of maintaining a well-regulated
militia, preserves the right to keep and bear arms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment III%@AE@% (1791) Prohibits peacetime quartering of troops in private
dwellings without owners' consent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment IV%@AE@% (1791) Guarantees against unreasonable search and seizure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment V%@AE@% (1791) Guarantees against violations of due process in
criminal proceedings. No person may be compelled to testify against
himself. Grand jury process is requlred for criminal %@AU@%INDICTMENT%@BO:          47b1f3@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%DOUBLE
%@AU@%%@AU@%JEPARDY%@BO:          2a5041@%%@AE@% is prohibited. Public taking of private %@AU@%PROPERTY%@BO:          7a0a3d@%%@AE@% without just
compensation is prohibited.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment Vl%@AE@% (1791) Guarantees speedy, fair trial, impartial jury, right
to counsel in all criminal cases. See %@AU@%CRIMINAL LAW%@BO:          24a96c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment Vll%@AE@% (1791) Guarantees jury trial in all major civil
(noncriminal) cases, and prohibits retrial of adjudicated matters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment Vlll%@AE@% (1791) Prohibits excessive bail or fines and cruel and
unusual punishment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment IX%@AE@% (1791) Declares that the enumeration of certain rights in
the Constitution does not imply that the people do not retain all other
rights.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment X%@AE@% (1791) Reserves to the states powers that the Constitution
does not give to the federal government or prohibit to the states.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment Xl%@AE@% (1798) Declares that federal courts may not try any case
brought against a state by a citizen of another state or country.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment Xll%@AE@% (1804) Revises presidential and vice presidential election
rules.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment Xlll%@AE@% (1865) First of three "Civil War" amendments; prohibits
slavery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XIV%@AE@% (1868) Defines U.S. citizenship. Prohibits states from
violating due process (see Amendment V) or equal protection of the law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XV%@AE@% (1870) Guarantees rights of citizens against U.S. or state
infringement based on race, color, or previous servitude.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XVI%@AE@% (1913) Authorizes a federal %@AU@%INCOME TAX%@BO:          472641@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XVII%@AE@% (1913) Provides for direct popular election of Senators.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XVIII%@AE@% (1919) Makes %@AU@%PROHIBITION%@BO:          79f220@%%@AE@% federal law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XIX%@AE@% (1920) Guarantees women the vote in state and U.S.
elections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XX%@AE@% (1933) Changes Congressional terms of office and the
inauguration date of President and Vice President; clarifies succession
to the presidency.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XXI%@AE@% (1933) Repeals Amendment XVIII, ends Prohibition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XXII%@AE@% (1951) Limits presidential tenure to two terms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XXIII%@AE@% (1961) Permits District of Columbia residents to vote for
President and Vice President.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XXIV%@AE@% (1964) Outlaws the %@AU@%POLL TAX%@BO:          77a0e7@%%@AE@% in all federal elections and
primaries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XXV%@AE@% (1967) Provides for procedures to fill vacancies in the
Vice Presidency; further clarifies presidential succession rules.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Amendment XXVI%@AE@% (1971) Lowers voting age in federal and state elections to
18.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%constructivism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%constructivism%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSTRUCTIVISM  @%%@QR:constructivism@% Russian art movement founded c.1913 by Vladimir Tatlin%@EH@%
(1885-1956), related to the movement known as %@AU@%SUPREMATISM%@BO:          90e9a4@%%@AE@%. Naum (Pevsner)
Gabo and Antoine Pevsner gave it new impetus with works derived from
%@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%FUTURISM%@BO:          370ed5@%%@AE@% but related to technological society. In 1921, when
all modern art movements were officially disparaged in the Soviet Union,
Gabo and Pevsner went into exile. Vsevolod %@AU@%MEYERHOLD%@BO:          5fd8cc@%%@AE@% spread
constructivism abroad through stage design.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Consumer Affairs, United States Office of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Consumer Affairs, United States Office of%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSUMES        @%%@QR:Consumer Affairs, United States Office of@% see %@AU@%CONSUMER PROTECTION%@BO:          22ca5b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Consumer Price Index%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Consumer Price Index%@AE@%:%@CR:CONSUMEINDEX    @%%@QR:Consumer Price Index@% see %@AU@%INDEX NUMBER%@BO:          473f17@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%consumer protection%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%consumer protection%@AE@%,%@CR:CONSUMETION     @%%@QR:consumer protection@% actions by government, business and private groups%@EH@%
to safeguard the interests of the buying public. In recent times
consumers' rights have been extended to such broad areas as product
information and safety, satisfaction of grievances, advertising claims,
and a voice in governmental decisions affecting the consumer. Early
legislative action by the U.S. government included the Sherman Antitrust
Act (1890; see %@AU@%ANTITRUST LAWS%@BO:           66ee2@%%@AE@%); the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906); and
the creation of the %@AU@%FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION%@BO:          324e07@%%@AE@% (1914) and the %@AU@%FOOD AND DRUG
%@AU@%ADMINISTRATION%@BO:          343685@%%@AE@% (1931). The consumer movement gained significant impetus
during the 1960s and 70s when consumer activists such as Ralph %@AU@%NADER%@BO:          6604a4@%%@AE@%
succeeded in promoting laws that set safety standards for automobiles,
children's clothing and toys, and a wide range of household products. The
federal Truth in Lending Act was passed (1968) to provide consumers with
full information on the cost of credit. The U.S. Office of Consumer
Affairs (est. 1971) coordinates federal activities in this field,
conducting investigations and surveys, acting on individual consumer
complaints, and disseminating product information. The Consumer Product
Safety Commission (est. 1973), another federal agency, sets national
safety standards and bans hazardous products. State and local governments
also have become involved in consumer protection. The Consumer Federation
of America, comprising about 220 organizations, is the largest consumer
advocacy group in the U.S. Consumer protection on an international scale
is coordinated by the International Organization of Consumers Unions,
based in The Hague, Netherlands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contact lens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contact lens%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTACT.LENS    @%%@QR:contact lens@% thin lens of plastic (originally glass), worn on the%@EH@%
eyeball and used instead of eyeglasses to improve vision or, in certain
cases, to correct or treat disorders. The widely used corneal lenses
cover just the cornea of the eye and float on a film of tears. Those made
of soft plastic can be worn for longer periods of time than the
hard-plastic models. Scleral lenses, covering the entire eye, are
occasionally used to treat eye injuries or infections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contagious diseases%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contagious diseases%@AE@%:%@CR:CONTAGIASES     @%%@QR:contagious diseases@% see %@AU@%COMMUNICABLE DISEASES%@BO:          211972@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contempt of court%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contempt of court%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTEMPRT       @%%@QR:contempt of court@% in law, interference with the functioning of a court,%@EH@%
either direct (occurring before a judge) or constructive (actions
obstructing justice, e.g., disobeying an %@AU@%INJUNCTION%@BO:          484377@%%@AE@%). Contempt is
punished to enforce a party's rights (civil contempt) or to vindicate
authority (criminal contempt). The court may impose a fine or
imprisonment; in the case of direct contempt, no hearing is required.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%continent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%continent%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTINENT       @%%@QR:continent@% largest unit of land on the earth. The continents are %@AU@%EURASIA%@BO:          309e48@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(%@AU@%EUROPE%@BO:          30a49d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ASIA%@BO:           8aa90@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%AFRICA%@BO:           1b67e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NORTH AMERICA%@BO:          6b42c8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICA%@BO:          8beb95@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AUSTRALIA
%@AU@%%@BO:           9f239@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ANTARCTICA%@BO:           5f5e2@%%@AE@%. More than two thirds of the continental regions are in
the Northern Hemisphere. Continental areas bounded by the sea-level
contour comprise about 29% of the earth's surface. All continents contain
interior plains, or %@AU@%PLATEAUS%@BO:          76a31b@%%@AE@%, underlain by the oldest rocks; where
exposed to the surface, these rocks are called continental shields, or
cratons. The oldest of these rocks dated by radioactivity are 3.8 billion
years old, indicating that the cratons formed with the solidification of
the earth's crust. The continents have grown by accretion on their edges,
where huge plates of crust converge, creating %@AU@%MOUNTAIN%@BO:          648998@%%@AE@% belts (see
%@AU@%CONTINENTAL DRIFT%@BO:          22e22c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Continental Congress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Continental Congress%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTINEGRESS    @%%@QR:Continental Congress@% 1774-89, federal legislature of the %@AU@%THIRTEEN%@EH@%
%@AU@%COLONIES%@BO:          95067d@%%@AE@% and later of the U.S. under the Articles of %@AU@%CONFEDERATION%@BO:          21dd53@%%@AE@%. After
England passed the %@AU@%INTOLERABLE ACTS%@BO:          4912e0@%%@AE@%, the First Continental Congress met
(Sept. 5-Oct. 26, 1774) in Philadelphia and petitioned the king. When the
Second Continental Congress met there on May 10, 1775, armed conflict had
begun (see %@AU@%LEXINGTON AND CONCORD, BATTLES OF%@BO:          548491@%%@AE@%), but the Congress moved
gradually toward independence. It finally created the Continental Army,
named George %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% commander in chief, and adopted (July 4, 1776)
the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Continental Divide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Continental Divide%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTINEIDE      @%%@QR:Continental Divide@% the drainage divide separating rivers flowing to%@EH@%
different sides of a continent. In the U.S., where it is also called the
Great Divide, it follows the crest of the Rocky Mts. and separates rivers
draining to the Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%continental drift%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%continental drift%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTINEFT       @%%@QR:continental drift@% the theory that the positions of the earth's%@EH@%
continents have changed considerably through geologic time. The first
comprehensive theory of continental drift was proposed by the German
meteorologist Alfred %@AU@%WEGENER%@BO:          a033c2@%%@AE@% in 1912. On the basis of the jigsaw fit of
the opposing Atlantic coasts and geologic and paleontologic correlations
on both sides of the Atlantic, he advanced the theory that c.200 million
years ago there was one supercontinent, Pangaea, which split into two
vast land masses, Laurasia and Gondwanaland. The present continents
separated in the next geologic era (the Mesozoic). A plastic layer in the
interior of the earth accommodated this process, in which the earth's
rotation caused horizontal alterations in the granitic continents
floating on the "sea" of the basaltic ocean floors. The frictional drag
along the leading edges of the drifting continents created %@AU@%MOUNTAINS%@BO:          648998@%%@AE@%.
Wegener's theory met controversy until 1954, when it was revived by
British geophysicists seeking to explain the phenomenon of polar
wandering (see %@AU@%MAGNETIC POLE%@BO:          5980cb@%%@AE@%). Since then, the modern theory of %@AU@%PLATE
%@AU@%TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@% has evolved from and replaced Wegener's original thesis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%continuing education%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%continuing education%@AE@%:%@CR:CONTINUATION    @%%@QR:continuing education@% see %@AU@%ADULT EDUCATION%@BO:           15b42@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contrabassoon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contrabassoon%@AE@%:%@CR:CONTRABASSOON   @%%@QR:contrabassoon@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contraception%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contraception%@AE@%:%@CR:CONTRACEPTION   @%%@QR:contraception@% see %@AU@%BIRTH CONTROL%@BO:          101f6d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contract%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contract%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTRACT        @%%@QR:contract@% in law, enforceable agreement between two or more persons to%@EH@%
perform, or refrain from performing, a specified act. A contract is made
when one party submits an offer that is accepted by the other. Generally,
the parties must be mentally sound, of legal age, and acting with free
will. A contract must not have an immoral or criminal purpose, or be
against public policy. Certain types of contracts must be in writing. A
contract must involve consideration-something of value (e.g., money or a
promise) given by each party to the other. A contract is terminated when
its terms have been fulfilled or when special circumstances, e.g., the
death of one party, make fulfillment impossible or unlawful. The law
provides several remedies for breach (failure to carry out the terms) of
a contract, most often the award of money damages for losses incurred.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contraction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contraction%@AE@%,%@CR:CONTRACTION     @%%@QR:contraction@% in writing: see %@AU@%ABBREVIATION%@BO:            1c10@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%contralto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%contralto%@AE@%:%@CR:CONTRALTO       @%%@QR:contralto@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%convection%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%convection%@AE@%,%@CR:CONVECTION      @%%@QR:convection@% transfer of heat by the flow of a liquid or gas. A fluid%@EH@%
expands when heated and thus undergoes a decrease in density. The warmer,
less dense regions of a fluid tend to rise, in accordance with
%@AU@%ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE%@BO:           765b4@%%@AE@%, through the surrounding cooler fluid. If the heat
continues to be supplied, the cooler fluid that flows in to replace the
rising fluid will also become heated and will rise, setting up a
convection current.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cook, George Cram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cook, George Cram%@AE@%:%@CR:COOK1           @%%@QR:Cook, George Cram@% see %@AU@%GLASPELL, SUSAN%@BO:          3a9177@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cook, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cook, James%@AE@%,%@CR:COOK2           @%%@QR:Cook, James@% 1728-79, English explorer. An officer in the royal navy, he%@EH@%
set off in 1768 in the %@AI@%Endeavor%@AE@% to chart the transit of Venus. The trip
took him around the world, and he explored the coasts of %@AU@%AUSTRALIA%@BO:           9f239@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%NEW ZEALAND%@BO:          699524@%%@AE@%. In 1776 he rediscovered the Sandwich Islands and searched
the West Coast of %@AU@%NORTH AMERICA%@BO:          6b42c8@%%@AE@% for a passage to the Atlantic. He is
credited with preventing scurvy among his crew through proper diet. Cook
was killed by natives on the Hawaiian Islands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cook, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cook, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:COOK3           @%%@QR:Cook, Thomas@% 1808-92, English travel agent who originated the guided%@EH@%
tour. He founded his travel agency in 1841. In 1884 he transported an
18,000-man expeditionary force up the Nile to try to relieve Gen. Charles
George %@AU@%GORDON%@BO:          3b8ecf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cook Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cook Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:COOK.ISLANDS    @%%@QR:Cook Islands@% self-governing dependency of New Zealand (1981 pop.%@EH@%
17,754), 90 sq mi (234 sq km), consisting of two groups of coral islands
in the South Pacific Ocean. They were proclaimed a British protectorate
in 1888, passed to New Zealand in 1901, and achieved self-government in
1965. The islanders are %@AU@%MAORIS%@BO:          5b421f@%%@AE@% and hold New Zealand citizenship. Major
products include citrus fruits, copra, and handicrafts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coolidge, Calvin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coolidge, Calvin%@AE@%,%@CR:COOLIDGE        @%%@QR:Coolidge, Calvin@% 1872-1933, 30th president of the U.S. (1923-29); b.%@EH@%
Plymouth, Vt. In his first year as governor of Massachusetts (1919-20) he
became nationally known for using the militia to end a Boston police
strike. He was U.S. vice president (1921-23) before becoming president
upon the death of Warren G. %@AU@%HARDING%@BO:          3fe837@%%@AE@%. Coolidge's New England simplicity
and personal honesty were appealing. His faith in laissez-faire business,
economy in government, and tax cuts, and his opposition to agricultural
price fixing all reflected the national mood. Through his public
statements he encouraged the stock market speculation of the late 1920s
and left the nation unprepared for the economic collapse that followed.
He chose not to run again in 1928.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish%@AE@%,%@CR:COOMARASWAMY    @%%@QR:Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish@% 1877-1947, art historian; b. Ceylon (now%@EH@%
Sri Lanka). In 1917 he became keeper of Indian and Islamic arts in the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. His books include %@AI@%The Transformation of
%@AI@%Nature in Art%@AE@% (3d ed., 1956).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cooper, Gary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cooper, Gary%@AE@%,%@CR:COOPER1         @%%@QR:Cooper, Gary@% 1901-61, American film actor; b. Helena, Mont., as Frank%@EH@%
James Cooper. His films include %@AI@%Mr. Deeds Goes to Town%@AE@% (1936), %@AI@%For Whom
%@AI@%the Bell Tolls%@AE@% (1943), and %@AI@%High Noon%@AE@% (1952; Academy Award).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cooper, James Fenimore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cooper, James Fenimore%@AE@%,%@CR:COOPER2         @%%@QR:Cooper, James Fenimore@% 1789-1851, first major American novelist; b.%@EH@%
Burlington, N.J., later associated with Cooperstown, N.Y. His literary
career began in 1820 and covered a period of 30 years, during which he
published more than 50 works. He first achieved success with the American
Revolutionary novel %@AI@%The Spy%@AE@% (1821). Cooper's most important novels
comprise %@AI@%The Leatherstocking Tales,%@AE@% named for their chief character, the
frontiersman Natty Bumppo, nicknamed Leatherstocking. Notable for their
descriptive power, mastery of native background, and idealization of the
American Indian, they are (in narrative order): %@AI@%The Deerslayer%@AE@% (1841),
%@AI@%The Last of the Mohicans%@AE@% (1826), %@AI@%The Pathfinder%@AE@% (1840), %@AI@%The Pioneers%@AE@%
(1823), and %@AI@%The Prairie%@AE@% (1827). Cooper is also known for his romances of
American life on land and sea, e.g., %@AI@%The Pilot%@AE@% (1823), %@AI@%The Red Rover%@AE@%
(1827), and %@AI@%The Water-Witch%@AE@% (1830). An apologist for the U.S. during his
years abroad (1826-33) in works such as %@AI@%Notions of the Americans%@AE@% (1828),
he was repelled by the abuses of democracy on his return and wrote
several critical novels, e.g., %@AI@%Homeward Bound, Home as Found%@AE@% (both:
1838), which earned him violent criticism and many enemies. Cooper's late
novels include the Littlepage trilogy (1845-46), a study of conflict
between the landed and landless in New York state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cooper, Peter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cooper, Peter%@AE@%,%@CR:COOPER3         @%%@QR:Cooper, Peter@% 1791-1883, American inventor and industrialist; b. N.Y.C.%@EH@%
He built the %@AI@%Tom Thumb,%@AE@% one of the earliest locomotives in the U.S., and
invented practical devices and processes in the iron industry (e.g.,
rolling the first iron for fireproof buildings). He invested heavily in
the Atlantic %@AU@%CABLE%@BO:          1693be@%%@AE@% and headed North American Telegraph Co., which
controlled more than half the telegraph lines in the U.S. Interested in
providing education for the working classes, he promoted a public school
system in N.Y.C. and founded Cooper Union (1859), a free institution of
higher learning and a pioneer evening engineering and art school. In 1876
he was the presidential candidate of the %@AU@%GREENBACK PARTY%@BO:          3d4d71@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cooperative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cooperative%@AE@%,%@CR:COOPERATIVE     @%%@QR:cooperative@% nonprofit economic enterprise for the benefit of those using%@EH@%
its services. Cooperatives are common today in such areas as insurance,
food, banking and credit (see %@AU@%CREDIT UNION%@BO:          247645@%%@AE@%), and housing. The cooperative
movement grew out of the philosophy of Robert %@AU@%OWEN%@BO:          6f9d72@%%@AE@%, Charles %@AU@%FOURIER%@BO:          34d27b@%%@AE@%, and
others. The first permanent consumer cooperative was founded (1844) in
Britain, and workers and farmers in the U.S. formed producer cooperatives
soon thereafter (see %@AU@%GRANGER MOVEMENT%@BO:          3c4411@%%@AE@%). Cooperatives of various kinds are
important in Scandinavia, Israel, China, the USSR, and France. See also
%@AU@%COLLECTIVE FARM%@BO:          204563@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COMMUNAL SETTLEMENTS%@BO:          2110e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coornhert, Dirck Volckerszoon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coornhert, Dirck Volckerszoon%@AE@%%@CR:COORNHERT       @%%@QR:Coornhert, Dirck Volckerszoon@%, 1522-90, Dutch humanist. His translation%@EH@%
of the first 12 books of %@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Odyssey%@AE@% (1561) is the first major poetic
work of the Dutch %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%. A supporter of religious tolerance, he
also wrote comedies, morality plays, and a philosophical treatise (1586).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cope, Edward Drinker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cope, Edward Drinker%@AE@%,%@CR:COPE            @%%@QR:Cope, Edward Drinker@% 1840-97, American paleontologist; b. Philadelphia.%@EH@%
He was the first to provide comprehensive descriptions of Eocene
vertebrates. He and rival paleontologist Othniel Marsh, with whom he
quarreled on scientific matters for 20 years, discovered the first
complete dinosaur remains. Cope believed that evolution was caused by an
organism's inner urge to attain a higher state of being.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copenhagen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copenhagen%@AE@%,%@CR:COPENHAGEN      @%%@QR:Copenhagen@% city (1987 est. pop. 622,275), capital of Denmark, E Denmark.%@EH@%
It is a major commercial, fishing, and naval port, and Denmark's chief
commercial and cultural center, with such industries as brewing,
furniture, and the pottery known as Copenhagen Ware. Founded by the 11th
cent., it survived attacks by the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% and Sweden, became
Denmark's capital in 1443, and expanded as a prosperous trade hub in the
16th and 17th cent. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% the city was occupied (1940-45)
by the Germans. Its landmarks include the 17th-cent. Charlottenborg
Palace, the 19th-cent. palaces on Amalienborg Square, the round tower
used by Tycho %@AU@%BRAHE%@BO:          1323dd@%%@AE@% as an observatory, and the statue of Hans Christian
%@AU@%ANDERSEN'S%@BO:           52ef1@%%@AE@% Little Mermaid.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copernican system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copernican system%@AE@%,%@CR:COPERNIEM       @%%@QR:Copernican system@% the first modern European heliocentric theory of%@EH@%
planetary motion; it placed the sun motionless at the center of the solar
system with all the planets, including the earth, revolving around it.
%@AU@%COPERNICUS%@BO:          231879@%%@AE@% developed his theory (which replaced the %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@%) in
the early 16th cent. from a study of ancient astronomical records. His
system explained %@AU@%RETROGRADE MOTION%@BO:          7e8112@%%@AE@% in a natural way.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copernicus, Nicholas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copernicus, Nicholas%@AE@%,%@CR:COPERNICUS      @%%@QR:Copernicus, Nicholas@% 1473-1543, Polish astronomer. After studying law%@EH@%
and medicine at the Univ. of Cracow and at Bologna, Padua, and Ferrara,
he took up (1512) his duties as canon of a cathedral in Frauenberg, East
Prussia. Copernicus laid the foundation for modern astronomy with his
heliocentric theory of planetary motion (see %@AU@%COPERNICAN SYSTEM%@BO:          2315e8@%%@AE@%). This
theory, first presented (1512 or earlier) in a short form in his
unpublished manuscript "Commentariolus," was probably completed by 1530
and was published in his immortal work %@AI@%De revolutionibus orbium
%@AI@%coelestium%@AE@% (1543).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copland, Aaron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copland, Aaron%@AE@%,%@CR:COPLAND         @%%@QR:Copland, Aaron@% 1900-, American composer; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. The American%@EH@%
character of his music is apparent in his use of %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% and folk elements,
as in the short piece for chamber orchestra, %@AI@%John Henry%@AE@% (1940). He has
written ballets, e.g., %@AI@%Billy the Kid%@AE@% (1938) and %@AI@%Appalachian Spring%@AE@%
(1944), and music for films, e.g., %@AI@%Of Mice and Men%@AE@% (1939). His major
orchestral works are %@AI@%El Salon Mexico%@AE@% (1936) and the Third Symphony
(1946). Other works include%@AI@% 12 Poems of Emily Dickinson%@AE@% (1950) and a tone
poem (see %@AU@%SYMPHONIC POEM%@BO:          91d55a@%%@AE@%), %@AI@%Inscape%@AE@% (1967).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copley, John Singleton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copley, John Singleton%@AE@%,%@CR:COPLEY          @%%@QR:Copley, John Singleton@% 1738-1815, American painter, considered the%@EH@%
greatest early American portraitist; b. Boston. He painted in Boston, New
York City, and Philadelphia. In 1774 he settled in London, where his
style gained in subtlety and polish but lost most of the vigor and
individuality of his early work. His modern reputation rests on his early
American portraits, which are treasured for their pictorial qualities and
as powerful records of their time and place. Among his outstanding
portraits are those of Paul Revere, Samuel Adams (both: Mus. Fine Arts,
Boston), and Daniel Hubbard (Art. Inst., Chicago).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%copper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%copper%@AE@%%@CR:COPPER          @%%@QR:copper@% (Cu), metallic element, known to humans since the %@AU@%BRONZE AGE%@BO:          144216@%%@AE@%. The%@EH@%
reddish, malleable, ductile metal is a good conductor of heat and
electricity. It has low chemical reactivity. In moist air it forms a
patina, a protective, greenish surface film. The chief commercial uses
are in electrical apparatus and wire, roofing, utensils, coins,
metalwork, plumbing, and refrigerator and air-conditioner coils. Copper
alloys include %@AU@%BRASS%@BO:          136d90@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BRONZE%@BO:          143e1d@%%@AE@%. Copper compounds are used as
insecticides, fungicides, and paint pigments, and in electroplating.
%@AU@%CHALCOPYRITE%@BO:          1b3fb8@%%@AE@% is the principal ore. Copper is essential for normal
metabolism and hemoglobin synthesis in humans. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copper Age%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copper Age%@AE@%:%@CR:COPPER.AGE      @%%@QR:Copper Age@% see %@AU@%BRONZE AGE%@BO:          144216@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%copperhead%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%copperhead%@AE@%,%@CR:COPPERHEAD      @%%@QR:copperhead@% poisonous %@AU@%SNAKE%@BO:          8a8a29@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Ancistrodon contortrix%@AE@%) of the E U.S. The%@EH@%
copperhead, a %@AU@%PIT VIPER%@BO:          763e42@%%@AE@%, detects its warm-blooded prey by means of a
heat-sensitive organ behind the nostril. The head is a pale copper color;
the banded, brown body may reach a length of 4 ft (120 cm).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copperheads%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copperheads%@AE@%,%@CR:COPPERHEADS     @%%@QR:Copperheads@% in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, reproachful term for Southern%@EH@%
sympathizers in the North. Led by C.L. %@AU@%VALLANDIGHAM%@BO:          9b86fc@%%@AE@%, they were especially
strong in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The term was often used by
Republicans to label all Democratic opponents of the Lincoln
administration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coppola, Francis Ford%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coppola, Francis Ford%@AE@%,%@CR:COPPOLA         @%%@QR:Coppola, Francis Ford@% 1939-, American film director, writer, and%@EH@%
producer; b. Detroit. Among his films are %@AI@%The Godfather,%@AE@% in two parts
(1972, 1974; Academy Awards), a study of an Italian-American crime
family; %@AI@%The Conversation%@AE@% (1974); and %@AI@%Apocalypse Now%@AE@% (1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%copra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%copra%@AE@%:%@CR:COPRA           @%%@QR:copra@% see %@AU@%COCONUT%@BO:          1fe63d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Copt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Copt%@AE@%,%@CR:COPT            @%%@QR:Copt@% member of the native Christian minority (5%-10%) of Egypt that has%@EH@%
resisted conversion to %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%. Most Copts belong to the Coptic Church, an
autonomous sect that adheres to %@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@%. The Coptic language, now
extinct, was the Egyptian language spoken in early Christian times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coptic art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coptic art%@AE@%,%@CR:COPTIC.ART      @%%@QR:Coptic art@% Christian art in the upper Nile Valley of %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%. Reaching its%@EH@%
mature phase in the late 5th and 6th cent., Coptic art was influenced by
Islamic art after the Arab conquest of Egypt between 640 and 642. It
shows a high degree of stylization verging on abstraction. The themes
represent both Roman and Christian sources with flattened-out forms and
decorative motifs. Remains of wall paintings reveal Old and New Testament
scenes and images of the Mother and Child. Representative examples of
Coptic art are found in sculpture, ivory, textiles, and %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%copyright%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%copyright%@AE@%,%@CR:COPYRIGHT       @%%@QR:copyright@% statutory right of the creator to exclusive control of an%@EH@%
original literary or artistic production. The copyright holder may
reproduce the work or license others to do so, and receives payments
(royalties) for each performance or copy. The U.S. law (rewritten in
1978) extends protection for the creator's life plus 50 years. Books,
plays, musical compositions, sound recordings, photographs, works of art,
and other original creations may be copyrighted. Copyright laws first
appeared in the 15th cent., when %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@AE@% began in Europe. The earliest
American statute was passed in 1790. The U.S., with most other nations,
subscribes to the 1952 Universal Copyright Convention.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coral%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coral%@AE@%,%@CR:CORAL           @%%@QR:coral@% small, sedentary marine animal of the class Anthozoa, having a%@EH@%
horny or calcareous skeleton, also called coral. Most corals form
colonies by budding, but solitary corals also exist. In both, the
individual animal (polyp) secretes a cup-shaped skeleton around itself;
in colonial corals, the skeleton and a thin sheet of living tissue are
attached to other individuals. As a colonial coral produces more polyps,
the lower members die, and new layers are built up on the old skeletons,
forming %@AU@%CORAL REEFS%@BO:          233778@%%@AE@%. Precious red and white corals are used for jewelry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coral reef%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coral reef%@AE@%,%@CR:CORAL.REEF      @%%@QR:coral reef@% limestone formation produced by living animals, found in%@EH@%
shallow, tropical marine waters. In most, the predominant animals are
stony %@AU@%CORALS%@BO:          2334a9@%%@AE@%, which secrete skeletons of calcium carbonate (limestone)
that build up into a massive formation. Coral reefs are formed only in
the tropics where the water is warmer than 72 degF (22 degC). Coral reefs
are classified as fringing reefs (platforms continuous with the shore),
barrier reefs (separated from the shore by a wide, deep lagoon), or
atolls (surrounding a lagoon). Reefs formed by other organisms are also
called coral reefs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coral Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coral Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:CORAL.SEA       @%%@QR:Coral Sea@% southwest arm of the Pacific Ocean, between NE Australia, New%@EH@%
Guinea, and Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides). It was the scene of a
U.S. victory (1942) that checked the southward expansion of the Japanese
forces in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coral Sea Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coral Sea Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:CORAL.SDS       @%%@QR:Coral Sea Islands@% external territory of Australia, comprising scattered%@EH@%
small islands and reefs spread over c.400,000 sq mi (1,035,995 sq km) of
the South Pacific Ocean, E of the %@AU@%GREAT BARRIER REEF%@BO:          3c9634@%%@AE@%, off NE Australia.
The islands, uninhabited except for a three-man meteorological station on
Willis Island, became a territory in 1969.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coral snake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coral snake%@AE@%,%@CR:CORAL.SNAKE     @%%@QR:coral snake@% New World poisonous %@AU@%SNAKE%@BO:          8a8a29@%%@AE@% of the same family as the %@AU@%COBRAS%@BO:          1fccbc@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
The venom of coral snakes, like that of cobras, is especially potent, and
the mortality rate among bitten humans is high. Coral snakes are marked
by alternating bands of black, red, and yellow.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corday, Charlotte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corday, Charlotte%@AE@%,%@CR:CORDAY          @%%@QR:Corday, Charlotte@% 1768-93, French assassin of Jean Paul %@AU@%MARAT%@BO:          5b5cee@%%@AE@%. A%@EH@%
sympathizer of the %@AU@%GIRONDISTS%@BO:          3a65ee@%%@AE@%, she gained access to Marat, a critic of
the Girondists, under false pretenses and stabbed him (1793) in his bath.
She was arrested and guillotined.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cordeliers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cordeliers%@AE@%%@CR:CORDELIERS      @%%@QR:Cordeliers@%, French revolutionary club. Instrumental in the fall (1793) of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%GIRONDISTS%@BO:          3a65ee@%%@AE@%, it originally included men like Georges %@AU@%DANTON%@BO:          2664f9@%%@AE@%. Later it
drifted to the extreme left under J.R. %@AU@%HEBERT%@BO:          41125e@%%@AE@%. It dissolved (1794) after
the extremists were executed in the %@AU@%REIGN OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cordial%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cordial%@AE@%:%@CR:CORDIAL         @%%@QR:cordial@% see %@AU@%LIQUEUR%@BO:          559179@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cordilleras%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cordilleras%@AE@%%@CR:CORDILLERAS     @%%@QR:Cordilleras@% [Span., originally=little strings], general name for the%@EH@%
chain of mountains in W North America, from N Alaska to Nicaragua,
including the %@AU@%ROCKY MTS%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@%., the %@AU@%COAST RANGES%@BO:          1fbd3b@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%SIERRA MADRE%@BO:          88efa1@%%@AE@%. Some
geographers use the term for any extensive group of mountain systems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cordoba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cordoba%@AE@%,%@CR:CORDOBA1        @%%@QR:Cordoba@% city (1980 pop. 982,018), central Argentina, on the Rio Primero.%@EH@%
It is a commercial metropolis near a major dam that has transformed the
surrounding area from a ranching center to a land of grain fields,
orchards, and vineyards. Settled in 1573, Cordoba was an early Argentine
cultural center with a university (est. 1613). Many colonial buildings,
e.g., the former city hall, remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cordoba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cordoba%@AE@%%@CR:CORDOBA2        @%%@QR:Cordoba@% or %@AB@%Cordova,%@AE@%city (1981 pop. 284,737), capital of Cordoba prov., S%@EH@%
Spain, in Andalusia, on the Guadalquivir R. Its industries include
brewing and metallurgy. Of Iberian origin, it flourished under Rome. As
the seat (756-1031) of an emirate comprising most of Moorish Spain, it
was a center of Muslim and Jewish culture and was renowned for its
wealth, crafts, and architecture, e.g., the great mosque (begun 8th cent.
and now a cathedral). Cordoba passed to Seville in 1078 and to Castile in
1236.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corelli, Arcangelo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corelli, Arcangelo%@AE@%,%@CR:CORELLI1        @%%@QR:Corelli, Arcangelo@% 1653-1713, Italian composer and violinist. He was a%@EH@%
noted virtuoso whose technique was perpetuated by his students and in his
%@AU@%SONATAS%@BO:          8b73bf@%%@AE@%. He also helped to establish the typical form of the %@AU@%CONCERTO%@BO:          21ae65@%%@AE@%
grosso.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corelli, Marie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corelli, Marie%@AE@%,%@CR:CORELLI2        @%%@QR:Corelli, Marie@% pseud. of %@AB@%Mary Mackay,%@AE@% 1855-1925, English novelist. Queen%@EH@%
%@AU@%VICTORIA'S%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@% favorite novelist, she wrote popular, moralistic books in a
flamboyant, pretentious style, e.g., %@AI@%Thelma%@AE@% (1887) and %@AI@%The Sorrows of
%@AI@%Satan%@AE@% (1895).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corfu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corfu%@AE@%:%@CR:CORFU           @%%@QR:Corfu@% see %@AU@%KERKIRA%@BO:          4f2fe3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coriander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coriander%@AE@%,%@CR:CORIANDER       @%%@QR:coriander@% annual herb (%@AI@%Coriandrum sativum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
cultivated for its fruits. The dried seed is used as a spice, and
contains an aromatic oil used as a flavoring, as a medicine, and in
liqueurs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corinna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corinna%@AE@%,%@CR:CORINNA         @%%@QR:Corinna@% fl. c.500? BC, Greek poet. Her verse, fragments of which remain,%@EH@%
deals with mythological themes and is written in the dialect of %@AU@%BOEOTIA%@BO:          115d64@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corinth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corinth%@AE@%%@CR:CORINTH         @%%@QR:Corinth@% or %@AB@%Korinthos,%@AE@%city (1981 pop. 22,658), S Greece, in the NE%@EH@%
Peloponnesus, on the Gulf of Corinth. Founded after the destruction of
Old Corinth by an earthquake (1858) and rebuilt after another earthquake
in 1928, the modern city is a port and trading center for olives,
raisins, and wine. Ancient Corinth was one of the oldest and most
powerful of the Greek %@AU@%CITY-STATES%@BO:          1eaf77@%%@AE@%, dating from Homeric times. Athenian
assistance to its rebellious colonies was a direct cause of the
%@AU@%PELOPONNESIAN WAR%@BO:          72ae2e@%%@AE@% (431-404 BC). Destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC, it was
restored by Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% in 46 BC Later it passed to the Byzantine
Crusaders, the Venetians, and the Ottoman Turks before being captured
(1822) by Greek insurgents. Ruins at Old Corinth include the Temple of
Apollo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corinthian order%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corinthian order%@AE@%:%@CR:CORINTHR        @%%@QR:Corinthian order@% see %@AU@%ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          6e82e2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corinthians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corinthians%@AE@%,%@CR:CORINTHIANS     @%%@QR:Corinthians@% two %@AU@%EPISTLES%@BO:          2f8556@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, 7th and 8th books in the%@EH@%
usual order, written to the church at %@AU@%CORINTH%@BO:          235182@%%@AE@% by St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%. First
Corinthians (AD 55?) is one of the longest, most important epistles. It
begins with an attack on factionalism and condemns various practices,
e.g., litigation among Christians. The epistle closes with five famous
passages: the institution of the Eucharist (11); the doctrine of the
mystical body of Christ (12); a panegyric on Christian love (13); the
functions of prophecy among Christians (14); and a chapter on Christ's
resurrection (15). The shorter Second Corinthians focuses on Paul's
apostleship, authority, and motives, closing with a defense of his
mission. See also %@AU@%SACRAMENT%@BO:          82c65b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coriolanus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coriolanus%@AE@%%@CR:CORIOLANUS      @%%@QR:Coriolanus@% (Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus), Roman patrician, fl. 5th cent. BC%@EH@%
According to legend he was expelled from Rome because he demanded the
abolition of the people's tribunate in return for distributing state
grain to the starving plebeians. He led (491? BC) the Volscians against
Rome. Only the tears of his wife and his mother caused him to spare the
city. The angry Volscians killed him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coriolis effect%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coriolis effect%@AE@%%@CR:CORIOLIS.EFFECT @%%@QR:Coriolis effect@% (for Gaspard Coriolis), tendency for any moving body on%@EH@%
or above the earth's surface to drift sideways from its course because of
the earth's rotational direction (west to east) and speed, which is
greater for a surface point near the equator than toward the poles. In
the Northern Hemisphere the drift is to the right of the motion; in the
Southern Hemisphere, to the left. In most human-operated vehicles,
continuous course adjustments mask the Coriolis effect. The Coriolis
effect must be considered, however, when plotting ocean currents and wind
patterns (see %@AU@%CYCLONE%@BO:          25a399@%%@AE@%) as well as trajectories of free-moving projectiles
through air or water.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cork%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cork%@AE@%,%@CR:CORK1           @%%@QR:Cork@% city (1981 pop. 149,792), county town of Co. Cork, S Republic of%@EH@%
Ireland, on the Lee R. at Cork Harbour. The second largest city in the
nation, it has such industries as automobile manufacturing and whiskey
distilling. Its exports are largely agricultural. Probably founded in the
7th cent., Cork was occupied by the Danes (9th cent.) and passed to
English control in 1172. It was prominent in the nationalist disturbances
of 1920. University College is located there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cork%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cork%@AE@%,%@CR:CORK2           @%%@QR:cork@% protective, waterproof outer covering of the stems and roots of all%@EH@%
woody plants, produced by the cork %@AU@%CAMBIUM%@BO:          1782c7@%%@AE@%. Cork cells have regularly
arranged walls impregnated with a waxy material, called suberin, that is
resistant to water and gas. Cork is buoyant, resilient, light, and
chemically inert; it is used for bottle stoppers and insulating
materials, and in many household and industrial items. The cork %@AU@%OAK%@BO:          6c6fa3@%%@AE@%
(%@AI@%Quercus suber%@AE@%), which has a thick cork layer, is the source of
commercial cork.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cormorant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cormorant%@AE@%,%@CR:CORMORANT       @%%@QR:cormorant@% large aquatic %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% related to the %@AU@%PELICAN%@BO:          72aa1c@%%@AE@%, found chiefly in%@EH@%
temperate and tropical regions. Cormorants are 2 to 3 ft (61 to 92 cm)
long, with thick, dark plumage, webbed feet, and a large bill with the
upper mandible hooked at the end. Expert swimmers, they pursue fish under
water; in the Orient they are used to fish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%corn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%corn%@AE@%,%@CR:CORN            @%%@QR:corn@% in botany, name given to the leading cereal crop of any major%@EH@%
region. In England, corn means wheat; in Scotland and Ireland, oats. In
America, corn is the grain called maize, or Indian corn (%@AI@%Zea mays%@AE@%), a
%@AU@%GRASS%@BO:          3c64a1@%%@AE@% that was domesticated and cultivated long before Europeans reached
the New World. Native Americans raised many varieties (e.g., sweet corn,
popcorn, colored corn, and corn for cornmeal). Corn is eaten fresh or
ground for meal. It is mainly used as animal fodder. The corn plant
consists of the tassel (male flowers) at the top of the plant; the
kernels (female flowers) on the cob, enclosed by a leafy husk, beyond
which extends the silk (the threadlike stigmas and styles that catch the
pollen); and the supporting pithy, noded stalk with its prop roots.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corneille, Pierre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corneille, Pierre%@AE@%%@CR:CORNEILLE       @%%@QR:Corneille, Pierre@%, 1606-84, French dramatist, a master of classical%@EH@%
%@AU@%TRAGEDY%@BO:          97260f@%%@AE@%. His masterpiece, %@AI@%Le Cid%@AE@% (1637), based on a Spanish play (see
%@AU@%CID%@BO:          1e5ddb@%%@AE@%), took Paris by storm. Among the finest of his other tragedies are
%@AI@%Horace%@AE@% (1640), %@AI@%Cinna%@AE@% (1640), and %@AI@%Polyeucte%@AE@% (1643). The comedy %@AI@%The Liar%@AE@%
(1643) also had great success. A master of the grand style, Corneille
exalted the will, celebrating the subordination of man's passion to duty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cornel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cornel%@AE@%:%@CR:CORNEL          @%%@QR:cornel@% see %@AU@%DOGWOOD%@BO:          29cd1b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cornell, Ezra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cornell, Ezra%@AE@%,%@CR:CORNELL1        @%%@QR:Cornell, Ezra@% 1807-74, American financier, founder of Cornell Univ.; b.%@EH@%
Westchester Landing, N.Y. He devised a method for stringing telegraph
wires on poles and became founder, director, and largest stockholder of
Western Union Telegraph Co. (1855). His interest in agricultural
education led him to secure, with A.D. %@AU@%WHITE%@BO:          a128ee@%%@AE@%, legislation founding
Cornell Univ. (1865). Its charter embraced many of his ideas, and he was
responsible for the financial success of its federal land grant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cornell, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cornell, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:CORNELL2        @%%@QR:Cornell, Joseph@% 1903-73, American artist; b. Nyack, N.Y. He is best%@EH@%
known for his shadow boxes made of found objects, maps, photographs,
engravings, and other materials. Influenced by %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, these
constructions are personally symbolic and evocative.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cornet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cornet%@AE@%:%@CR:CORNET          @%%@QR:cornet@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cornflower%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cornflower%@AE@%,%@CR:CORNFLOWER      @%%@QR:cornflower@% common herb (%@AI@%Centaurea cyanus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family, a%@EH@%
garden flower in the U.S. The long-stemmed, blue flower heads have
radiating vase-shaped florets that yield a juice used as a dye when mixed
with alum. Other names for cornflower include bluebottle, bluebonnet,
ragged robin, and bachelor's button.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cornish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cornish%@AE@%,%@CR:CORNISH         @%%@QR:Cornish@% dead language belonging to the Brythonic group of the Celtic%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%corn laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%corn laws%@AE@%,%@CR:CORN.LAWS       @%%@QR:corn laws@% regulations dating from 1361 restricting the export and import%@EH@%
of grain, notably in England. The corn law of 1815 was designed to
maintain high prices and prevent an agricultural depression after the
Napoleonic Wars. Consumer resentment led to the %@AU@%ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE'S%@BO:           6329b@%%@AE@%
campaign, and to their repeal by Robert %@AU@%PEEL%@BO:          729103@%%@AE@% in 1846.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cornplanter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cornplanter%@AE@%,%@CR:CORNPLANTER     @%%@QR:Cornplanter@% c.1740-1836, half-white chief of the Seneca Indians who%@EH@%
aided the British in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. Friendly to whites, he
signed (1784) the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and was given a grant of land on
the Allegheny R.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess%@AE@%,%@CR:CORNWALLIS      @%%@QR:Cornwallis, Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess@% 1735-1805, English general.%@EH@%
He led British forces in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, and his defeat in the
disastrous %@AU@%YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN%@BO:          a45544@%%@AE@% ended the fighting. Later he was governor
general of India (1786-94, 1805) and viceroy of Ireland (1798-1801).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de%@AE@%%@CR:CORONADO        @%%@QR:Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de@%, c.1510-54, Spanish explorer. In search of%@EH@%
the Seven Cities of Cibola, he was the first to explore %@AU@%ARIZONA%@BO:           7bd15@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NEW
%@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          6911af@%%@AE@%. Though he found no gold, he acquainted the Spanish with the
%@AU@%PUEBLO INDIANS%@BO:          7ac21a@%%@AE@% and opened the Southwest to colonization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coronary artery disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coronary artery disease%@AE@%,%@CR:CORONAR.DISEASE @%%@QR:coronary artery disease@% condition that results when coronary arteries%@EH@%
are narrowed or occluded, usually by fibrous and fatty tissue deposits.
This condition is the most common underlying cause of %@AU@%HEART DISEASE%@BO:          40f6eb@%%@AE@% and
death. Factors contributing to coronary artery disease include
%@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@%, high cholesterol levels, and heavy cigarette smoking.
%@AB@%Angina pectoris, %@AE@%a radiating chest pain that arises from spasm of
coronary vessels, is the primary symptom of coronary artery disease.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corot, Jean-Baptiste Camille%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corot, Jean-Baptiste Camille%@AE@%%@CR:COROT           @%%@QR:Corot, Jean-Baptiste Camille@%, 1796-1875, French landscape painter. One of%@EH@%
the most influential 19th-cent. painters, he celebrated the countryside
without romanticizing farm labor or peasants. His Roman works have
simplicity of form and clarity of lighting, as in the %@AI@%Coliseum%@AE@% and %@AI@%Forum%@AE@%
(both: Louvre). Using sketches made directly from nature, he painted his
later landscapes in shades of gray and green. His delicate lighting is
seen in %@AI@%Femme a la perle%@AE@% (Louvre) and %@AI@%Interrupted Reading%@AE@% (Art Inst.,
Chicago).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corpus Christi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corpus Christi%@AE@%,%@CR:CORPUS.CHRISTI  @%%@QR:Corpus Christi@% city (1986 est. pop. 263,900), seat of Nueces co., S%@EH@%
Tex.; inc. 1852. It is a petroleum and natural-gas center, with heavy
industries, e.g., refineries, smelting plants, and chemical works. Shrimp
and fish processing is important, as is tourism. The first settlers
arrived in the 1760s; a trading post (est. 1839) boomed in the %@AU@%MEXICAN
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%. The fast-growing area has a busy port and military facilities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corpus Juris Civilis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corpus Juris Civilis%@AE@%:%@CR:CORPUS.VILIS    @%%@QR:Corpus Juris Civilis@% see %@AU@%ROMAN LAW%@BO:          808b1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Correggio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Correggio%@AE@%%@CR:CORREGGIO       @%%@QR:Correggio@%, c.1494-1534, Italian %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@% painter; b. Antonio Allegri,%@EH@%
called Correggio after his birthplace. His early works, e.g., the
%@AI@%Marriage of St. Catherine%@AE@% (National Gall., Wash., D.C.), were greatly
influenced by the styles of %@AU@%MANTEGNA%@BO:          5b24e9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LEONARDO DA VINCI%@BO:          540317@%%@AE@%. Among his
many mythological scenes are the sensual %@AI@%Io%@AE@% (Vienna) and %@AI@%Antiope%@AE@%
(Louvre). His most famous project, %@AI@%Assumption of the Virgin%@AE@% (Parma
cathedral), used daring foreshortening. His illusionistic ceiling
decorations, with their sense of grace and tenderness and soft play of
light and color, were widely imitated in the 17th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corregidor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corregidor%@AE@%,%@CR:CORREGIDOR      @%%@QR:Corregidor@% historic fortified island (c.2 sq mi/5 sq km) at the entrance%@EH@%
to Manila Bay, just off %@AU@%BATAAN%@BO:           cfb69@%%@AE@%, the Philippines. It was a fortress from
Spanish times; its defenses were greatly elaborated by the U.S. after the
%@AU@%SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR%@BO:          8d0a1a@%%@AE@% (1898). During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% the Japanese bombarded
Corregidor for five months, finally forcing the surrender (May 1942) of
10,000 U.S. and Filipino troops. The island was retaken by U.S. forces in
1945.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corsica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corsica%@AE@%,%@CR:CORSICA         @%%@QR:Corsica@% island (1986 est. pop. 248,700), 3,367 sq mi (8,721 sq km), a%@EH@%
department of metropolitan France, in the Mediterranean Sea SE of France.
The capital is Ajaccio. Much of the island is wild, mountainous, and
covered with %@AI@%maquis,%@AE@% the flowers which have earned it the name "the
scented isle." The island was granted by the Franks to the papacy in the
late 8th cent., and Pope %@AU@%GREGORY VII%@BO:          3d7af2@%%@AE@% ceded (1077) it to Pisa; it was
taken over by Genoa in the 15th cent. Genoese rule was harsh and
unpopular, and following a rebellion led (1755) by Pasquale %@AU@%PAOLI%@BO:          70a097@%%@AE@% the
island was ceded (1768) to France. With British support Paoli expelled
the French and from 1794 to its recapture in 1796 it was controlled by
the British. French possession was confirmed by the Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@% in
1815. Blood feuds between clans and banditry have persisted into modern
times. Most Corsicans speak a dialect of Italian.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cortazar, Julio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cortazar, Julio%@AE@%%@CR:CORTAZAR        @%%@QR:Cortazar, Julio@%, 1914-84, Argentine writer; b. Belgium. An exponent of%@EH@%
%@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@% who often depicts life as a maze, he is known for the novels
%@AI@%The Winners%@AE@% (1960) and %@AI@%Sixty-Two: A Model Kit%@AE@% (1968), and short-story
collections. ee.g., %@AI@%A Change of Light and Other Stories%@AE@% (tr. 1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cortes, Hernan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cortes, Hernan%@AE@%,%@CR:CORTES1         @%%@QR:Cortes, Hernan@%or %@AB@%Hernando Cortez%@AE@%, 1485-1547, Spanish %@AU@%CONQUISTADOR%@BO:          22387e@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
conquerer of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@%. Under a commission of the Cuban governor, Diego de
%@AU@%VELAZQUEZ%@BO:          9c5474@%%@AE@%, Cortes sailed from Cuba in 1519 to conquer the %@AU@%AZTEC%@BO:           a846a@%%@AE@% empire of
%@AU@%MONTEZUMA%@BO:          635305@%%@AE@%. He founded the city of Vera Cruz, burned his ships to prevent
his men from turning back, and enlisted the help of the defeated
Tlaxcalans. Believing the Spanish to be descendants of the god
%@AU@%QUETZALCOATL%@BO:          7bc27a@%%@AE@%, Montezuma received them. Cortes took him hostage and ruled
through him. Velazquez tried to recall Cortes, who defeated a force sent
to retrieve him. When he returned to the capital, Tenochtitlan, he found
the Aztecs in rebellion. In a famous battle known as %@AI@%noche triste%@AE@% sad
night, he retreated from the city with heavy losses. He returned the next
year; after a three-month siege, the city fell, and with it the empire.
As captain, Cortes extended his conquest to most of Mexico and N Central
America. Though %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bfc56@%%@AE@% of Spain made Cortes a marques, he refused to
make him governor of Mexico. Cortes returned to Spain in 1540, where,
frustrated and neglected by the court, he died.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cortes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cortes%@AE@%,%@CR:CORTES2         @%%@QR:Cortes@% representative assembly of %@AU@%SPAIN%@BO:          8cdb3a@%%@AE@%. From the 12th to the 19th cent.%@EH@%
each region, e.g., %@AU@%LEON%@BO:          53fc90@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@%, had its own cortes. The first
national Cortes met (1810) during the %@AU@%PENINSULAR WAR%@BO:          72d325@%%@AE@% against Napoleonic
rule and voted (1812) a liberal constitution revoked (1814) by the king.
The Cortes was Spain's parliament (1931-39) after the fall of the
monarchy but was stripped of power under Francisco %@AU@%FRANCO%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@%. After his
death (1975) it emerged as an important element in Spanish democracy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%corticosteroid drug%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%corticosteroid drug%@AE@%,%@CR:CORTICODRUG     @%%@QR:corticosteroid drug@% any synthetic or naturally derived substance with%@EH@%
the general chemical structure of %@AU@%STEROIDS%@BO:          8ef0b9@%%@AE@%, used therapeutically to mimic
or augment the effects of the hormones produced naturally in the cortex
of the %@AU@%ADRENAL GLAND%@BO:           14ed3@%%@AE@%. Corticosteroids are used to treat %@AU@%ARTHRITIS%@BO:           846a1@%%@AE@% and
other rheumatoid diseases, %@AU@%ASTHMA%@BO:           8f436@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ADDISON'S DISEASE%@BO:           1240f@%%@AE@%, allergic and
inflammatory eye disorders, systemic lupus erythematosus (see %@AU@%AUTOIMMUNE
%@AU@%DISEASE%@BO:           a39e9@%%@AE@%), and %@AU@%HODGKIN'S DISEASE%@BO:          435f04@%%@AE@% and some other forms of cancer. Their
anti-inflammatory, itch-sup pressing, and vasoconstrictive properties
make corticosteroids useful in relieving eczema, psoriasis, and insect
bites. See also %@AU@%CORTISONE%@BO:          239fe5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cortisone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cortisone%@AE@%,%@CR:CORTISONE       @%%@QR:cortisone@% steroid %@AU@%HORMONE%@BO:          446acb@%%@AE@% whose main physiological effect is on%@EH@%
carbohydrate metabolism. It is synthesized from cholesterol in the outer
layer, or cortex, of the %@AU@%ADRENAL GLAND%@BO:           14ed3@%%@AE@% and is necessary for life. Failure
of the adrenal gland to synthesize cortisone (%@AU@%ADDISON'S DISEASE%@BO:           1240f@%%@AE@%) is fatal
unless cortisone is administered. The anti-inflammatory effect of the
hormone makes it useful in treating asthma and other allergic reactions,
arthritis, and various skin diseases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cortona, Pietro Berrettini da%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cortona, Pietro Berrettini da%@AE@%%@CR:CORTONA         @%%@QR:Cortona, Pietro Berrettini da@%, 1596-1669, Italian %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@% painter and%@EH@%
architect. His %@AU@%FRESCOES%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% and ceilings, e.g., %@AI@%Allegories of the Virtues and
%@AI@%Planets%@AE@% (Pitti Palace, Florence), were influential examples of
Illusionism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%corundum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%corundum%@AE@%,%@CR:CORUNDUM        @%%@QR:corundum@% aluminum oxide mineral (Al%@AH@%2%@AE@%O%@AH@%3%@AE@%) occurring in both %@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@% and common%@EH@%
varieties. The transparent gems, chief of which are %@AU@%RUBY%@BO:          81bffb@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SAPPHIRE%@BO:          846dff@%%@AE@%,
are colorless, pink, red, blue (Oriental %@AU@%AQUAMARINE%@BO:           6e159@%%@AE@%), green (Oriental
%@AU@%EMERALD%@BO:          2e7af0@%%@AE@%), yellow, and violet. Common varieties, used as %@AU@%ABRASIVES%@BO:            6185@%%@AE@% (e.g.,
emery), are blue-gray to brown. Corundum is found in North Carolina,
Georgia, Montana, Burma, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Republic of South
Africa, and Tanzania.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Corvinus, Matthias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Corvinus, Matthias%@AE@%:%@CR:CORVINUS        @%%@QR:Corvinus, Matthias@% see %@AU@%MATTHIAS CORVINUS%@BO:          5d4ac8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cosby, Bill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cosby, Bill%@AE@%,%@CR:COSBY           @%%@QR:Cosby, Bill@% 1937-, American comedian and actor; b. Philadelphia. He was%@EH@%
the first black actor to star in a dramatic series on television ("I
Spy," 1965-68). He has starred in several situation comedies, including
the top-rated "Cosby Show" (1984-). He has won numerous Emmy awards and
written several books, including %@AI@%Fatherhood%@AE@% (1986).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cosimo de' Medici%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cosimo de' Medici%@AE@%:%@CR:COSIMO.I        @%%@QR:Cosimo de' Medici@% see under %@AU@%MEDICI%@BO:          5e071c@%%@AE@%, family.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cosmetics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cosmetics%@AE@%,%@CR:COSMETICS       @%%@QR:cosmetics@% preparations applied to enhance the beauty of skin, lips,%@EH@%
eyes, hair, and nails. Body paint has been used for ornamental and
religious purposes since prehistoric times. Ancient Egyptian tombs have
yielded cosmetic jars (kohl pots) and applicators. Thought to have
originated in the Orient, cosmetics were used in ancient Greece; in
imperial Rome, ladies required the services of slaves adept in applying
them. Medieval Europe also used oils and %@AU@%PERFUMES%@BO:          734f57@%%@AE@% brought from the East
by returning Crusaders. In the Renaissance white-lead powder and
vermilion were used extravagantly. From the 17th cent. cosmetic recipes
abounded, often using dangerous compounds, and professional
cosmetologists began to appear. After the French Revolution cosmetics
virtually disappeared. Since 1900, however, particularly with the growth
of the advertising industry, their manufacture and use have grown to huge
proportions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cosmic rays%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cosmic rays%@AE@%,%@CR:COSMIC.RAYS     @%%@QR:cosmic rays@% high-energy particles bombarding the earth from outer space.%@EH@%
The extraterrestrial origin of cosmic rays was determined (c.1911) by
Victor Hess; they were so named by Robert %@AU@%MILLIKAN%@BO:          60d1f3@%%@AE@% in 1925. Primary
cosmic rays consist mainly of %@AU@%PROTONS%@BO:          7a3d8e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ALPHA PARTICLES%@BO:           41b59@%%@AE@%; and lesser
amounts of nuclei of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and heavier atoms. These
nuclei cause showers of secondary cosmic rays by colliding with other
nuclei in the earth's atmosphere. Some cosmic rays have energies a
billion times greater than those that can be achieved in particle
accelerators; cosmic rays of lower energy, however, predominate. The
origin of cosmic rays is still unknown, as are the processes by which
they are accelerated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cosmology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cosmology%@AE@%,%@CR:COSMOLOGY       @%%@QR:cosmology@% science that aims at a comprehensive theory of the creation,%@EH@%
evolution, and present structure of the entire universe. The %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%COPERNICAN SYSTEM%@BO:          2315e8@%%@AE@% are theories that describe the position
of the earth in the universe. William %@AU@%HERSCHEL%@BO:          42774d@%%@AE@% showed that the %@AU@%MILKY WAY%@BO:          60b7f9@%%@AE@%
is composed of a vast number of %@AU@%STARS%@BO:          8e38c5@%%@AE@% separated by enormous distances. By
studying the distribution of star %@AU@%CLUSTERS%@BO:          1fa5fa@%%@AE@%, Harlow %@AU@%SHAPLEY%@BO:          87f6cd@%%@AE@% gave the first
reliable estimate of the size of our galaxy (c.100,000 %@AU@%LIGHT-YEARS%@BO:          550a76@%%@AE@%) and
of the position of the sun within it (c.30,000 light-years from the
center). By 1924 astronomers had recognized that some of the %@AU@%NEBULAE%@BO:          67f62f@%%@AE@% are
not within our galaxy, but are separate %@AU@%GALAXIES%@BO:          375000@%%@AE@% at great distances from
the Milky Way. After studying the %@AU@%RED SHIFTS%@BO:          7d6541@%%@AE@% in the spectral lines of the
distant galaxies, Edwin %@AU@%HUBBLE%@BO:          44f0dc@%%@AE@% and Milton Humason concluded that the
universe is expanding (see %@AU@%HUBBLE'S LAW%@BO:          44f34a@%%@AE@%), with the galaxies flying away
from one another at great speeds. The big bang theory states that all of
the matter and energy in the universe was concentrated in a very small
volume that exploded between 10 and 20 billion years ago, and that the
resulting expansion continues today. The strongest evidence for the big
bang theory is the feeble radio background radiation, discovered in the
1960s, that is received from every part of the sky. This radiation has a
%@AU@%BLACK BODY%@BO:          107667@%%@AE@% temperature of 3 degK above absolute zero and is interpreted
as the electromagnetic remnants of the primordial fireball, stretched to
long wavelengths by the expansion of the universe. According to another
hypothesis, the steady-state theory, the universe expands, but new matter
is continuously created at all points in space left by the receding
galaxies; this theory now has few adherents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cossa, Baldassare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cossa, Baldassare%@AE@%,%@CR:COSSA           @%%@QR:Cossa, Baldassare@% c.1370-1419, Neapolitan churchman, antipope (1410-15)%@EH@%
as John XXIII. A cardinal, he deserted Pope %@AU@%GREGORY XII%@BO:          3d86d5@%%@AE@% and supported the
Council of Pisa, which was intended to end the schism (see %@AU@%SCHISM, GREAT%@BO:          85642a@%%@AE@%)
between Rome and Avignon. When the antipope Alexander V died, Cossa was
elected (1410). He sought the aid of %@AU@%SIGISMUND%@BO:          88f723@%%@AE@% and helped to elect him
Holy Roman emperor, then allied himself with Louis II of Anjou against
Lancelot of Naples. Pressured by Sigismund, he convened the council of
Constance (1414-18) and promised to abdicate if the rival popes would do
so. Then, secretly, he fled, hoping to keep his position; but he was
forced to return and was deposed (1415).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cossacks%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cossacks%@AE@%,%@CR:COSSACKS        @%%@QR:Cossacks@% peasant-soldiers in the Russian empire who held certain%@EH@%
privileges in return for military service. They were descended from
Russians and Poles, including many runaway serfs, who settled along the
Dnepr and Don rivers in the 15th and 16th cent. For taking part in 17th-
and 18th-cent. peasant revolts they lost much of their early autonomy and
were integrated into the Russian military. Most Cossacks fought against
the Red Army in the 1918-20 civil war. Their communities were
collectivized (1928-33), but many of their traditions survive.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Costa Rica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Costa Rica%@AE@%,%@CR:COSTA.RICA      @%%@QR:Costa Rica@% officially Republic of Costa Rica, republic (1985 est. pop.%@EH@%
2,660,000), 19,575 sq mi (50,700 sq km), Central America; bordered by
Nicaragua (N), the Caribbean Sea (E), Panama (S), and the Pacific Ocean
(W). The capital is %@AU@%SAN JOSE%@BO:          8415fa@%%@AE@%. The coastal areas are hot, humid, heavily
forested, and sparsely populated. A massive chain of volcanic mountains,
rising to over 12,000 ft (3,658 m), traverses the country from NW to SE;
nestled within it lies the %@AI@%meseta central,%@AE@% a broad plateau with a
springlike climate, where most Costa Ricans live. Costa Rica is an
agricultural nation, exporting coffee, sugar, cocoa, and bananas.
Industry is being developed and manufactured goods are becoming an
increasing proportion of its exports. It is one of the most politically
stable of Latin American countries, with a long democratic tradition, a
literacy rate of over 90%, and no army as such. The people are mainly of
Spanish descent, and the language is Spanish.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Conquest of the area by Spain began in 1563, with the founding of
Cartago. The early colonists were mainly small landowners. Gaining
independence in 1821, Costa Rica was successively part of the Mexican
Empire and of the %@AU@%CENTRAL AMERICAN FEDERATION%@BO:          1af48e@%%@AE@% (which also included
%@AU@%GUATEMALA%@BO:          3e2308@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HONDURAS%@BO:          44040e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NICARAGUA%@BO:          69befe@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%EL SALVADOR%@BO:          2e5434@%%@AE@%), before becoming a
sovereign republic in 1838. Coffee growing was initiated on the plateau
in the early 1800s, and banana cultivation was introduced on the coast
(by U.S. interests) in 1874. Costa Rica's history of orderly, democratic
government began in 1889, and has been interrupted only by brief periods
of junta rule, in 1917-19 and in 1948-49, after a disputed election
sparked a six-week civil war. Economically, the nation has had
balance-of-payments problems, e.g., in the early 1980s the cost of
importing manufactured goods and oil far exceeded income received for
agricultural exports. In 1986 Oscar %@AU@%ARIAS SANCHEZ%@BO:           7a579@%%@AE@% was elected president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cost of living%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cost of living%@AE@%,%@CR:COST.OF.LIVING  @%%@QR:cost of living@% amount of money needed to buy the goods and services%@EH@%
necessary to maintain a specified %@AU@%STANDARD OF LIVING%@BO:          8e23f0@%%@AE@%. The figure is based
on the cost of such items as food, clothing, rent, fuel, recreation,
transportation, and medical services. Since World War II many employers
and unions have agreed to use the cost-of-living index (see %@AU@%INDEX NUMBER%@BO:          473f17@%%@AE@%)
as a basis for wage rates and subsequent adjustments. %@AU@%SOCIAL SECURITY%@BO:          8ad2a2@%%@AE@%
payments and some %@AU@%PENSION%@BO:          72f280@%%@AE@% plans are also pegged to the cost-of-living
index. A closely watched cost-of-living measurement is the Consumer Price
Index.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cotonou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cotonou%@AE@%,%@CR:COTONOU         @%%@QR:Cotonou@% city (1982 est. pop. 487,020), S Benin, a seaport on the Gulf of%@EH@%
Guinea. Although %@AU@%PORTO-NOVO%@BO:          7869e1@%%@AE@% is the capital, Cotonou, Benin's largest
city, is the unofficial seat of government and commercial center. Its
air, road, and rail connections also make it the country's communications
hub. The seaport has been expanded to handle increased transit trade for
Niger and Nigeria. Offshore oil-drilling is carried on nearby. Cotonou
was a small state controlled by Dahomey before coming under French rule
(1883-1960).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cotton, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cotton, John%@AE@%,%@CR:COTTON1         @%%@QR:Cotton, John@% 1584-1652, Puritan clergyman in England and Massachusetts;%@EH@%
b. England. When vicar of St. Botolph's Church, Boston, Lincolnshire, he
was summoned (1632) to court for his Puritanism. Fleeing (1633) to
Massachusetts Bay, he became a leading figure. He was chiefly responsible
for expelling Anne %@AU@%HUTCHINSON%@BO:          45b538@%%@AE@% and Roger %@AU@%WILLIAMS%@BO:          a1dd23@%%@AE@% and has been viewed as
an upholder of theocracy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cotton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cotton%@AE@%,%@CR:COTTON2         @%%@QR:cotton@% name for a shrubby plant (genus %@AI@%Gossypium%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MALLOW%@BO:          5a56e4@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
for the fibers surrounding the seeds, and for the cloth woven from the
spun fibers. Each of the seeds, which are contained in capsules, or
bolls, is surrounded by white or cream-colored downy fibers that flatten
and twist naturally as they dry. Cotton is tropical in origin but is now
cultivated worldwide. It has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric
times. Most commercial cotton in the U.S. is from %@AI@%G. hirsutum,%@AE@% but some
is obtained from sea-island and American-Egyptian %@AI@%G. barbadense%@AE@%. The
chief cultivated species in Asia are %@AI@%G. arboreum%@AE@% and %@AI@%G. herbaceum.%@AE@% Cotton
is planted annually by seed. Diseases and insect pests are numerous,
e.g., the boll weevil, responsible for enormous losses, particularly of
the highly susceptible, silky-fibered sea-island cotton, which was the
leading type of cotton before the advent of this pest. Cotton is
separated from its seeds by a %@AU@%COTTON GIN%@BO:          23dbfa@%%@AE@%. Manufacture of cotton into
cloth, %@AU@%TEXTILES%@BO:          946065@%%@AE@%, and yard goods involves carding, combing, and %@AU@%SPINNING%@BO:          8d93cc@%%@AE@%.
Cotton is a source of %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@% products, fertilizer, fuel, plastic
reinforcing, automobile tire cord, pressed paper, cardboard, and
cottonseed oil (used, e.g., in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, candles,
detergents, paints, oilcloth, and artificial leather), which is pressed
from the seeds. Used in Egypt, China, and India before the Christian era,
cotton has long played a significant role in world industry. Britain's
need for imported cotton dictated much of its sea-domination policy as an
imperial nation, and in the U.S., cotton was a principal economic cause
of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cotton gin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cotton gin%@AE@%,%@CR:COTTON.GIN      @%%@QR:cotton gin@% machine for separating %@AU@%COTTON%@BO:          23d404@%%@AE@% fibers from the seeds. American%@EH@%
inventor Eli %@AU@%WHITNEY%@BO:          a15bac@%%@AE@% invented (1793) the saw gin, which was especially
suited to short- and medium-staple cotton. In a modern gin, which still
uses Whitney's basic design, seeds are removed as the fibers are pulled
through a grid by a series of circular saws; an air blast or suction
carries the clean fibers off the saws to a condenser and, finally, to the
baling apparatus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cottonmouth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cottonmouth%@AE@%:%@CR:COTTONMOUTH     @%%@QR:cottonmouth@% see %@AU@%WATER MOCCASIN%@BO:          9fb228@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cottonwood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cottonwood%@AE@%:%@CR:COTTONWOOD      @%%@QR:cottonwood@% see %@AU@%WILLOW%@BO:          a1f6b2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coulomb, Charles Augustin de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coulomb, Charles Augustin de%@AE@%,%@CR:COULOMB1        @%%@QR:Coulomb, Charles Augustin de@% 1736-1806, French physicist. He is known%@EH@%
for his work on electricity, magnetism, and friction, and he invented a
magnetoscope, a magnetometer, and a torsion balance that he employed in
determining torsional elasticity (see %@AU@%STRENGTH OF MATERIALS%@BO:          8fab12@%%@AE@%) and in
establishing %@AU@%COULOMB'S LAW%@BO:          23e3e0@%%@AE@%. The unit of electric charge, the coulomb, is
named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coulomb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coulomb%@AE@%%@CR:COULOMB2        @%%@QR:coulomb@% (coul or C), unit of electric %@AU@%CHARGE%@BO:          1bad43@%%@AE@%. The absolute coulomb, the%@EH@%
current U.S. legal standard, is the amount of charge transferred in 1
second by a current of 1 %@AU@%AMPERE%@BO:           4d9c8@%%@AE@%; i.e., it is 1 ampere-second.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coulomb's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coulomb's law%@AE@%,%@CR:COULOMBS.LAW    @%%@QR:Coulomb's law@% physical law stating that the electrostatic force between%@EH@%
two point charges in free space is proportional to the product of the
amount of %@AU@%CHARGE%@BO:          1bad43@%%@AE@% on the bodies divided by the square of the distance
between them. If the bodies are oppositely charged, one positive and one
negative, they are attracted toward each other; if the bodies are
similarly charged, both positive or both negative, the force between them
is repulsive.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%council, ecumenical%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%council, ecumenical%@AE@%,%@CR:COUNCIL         @%%@QR:council, ecumenical@% council of church authorities accepted by the church%@EH@%
as official. Roman Catholics recognize the following ecumenical councils
(listed with their starting dates): (1) 1 Nicaea, 325, (2) 1
Constantinople, 381; (3) Ephesus, 431; (4) Chalcedon, 451; (5) 2
Constantinople, 553; (6) 3 Constantinople, 680; (7) 2 Nicaea, 787; (8) 4
Constantinople, 869; (9) 1 Lateran, 1123; (10) 2 Lateran, 1139; (11) 3
Lateran, 1179; (12) 4 Lateran, 1215; (13) 1 Lyons, 1245; (14) 2 Lyons,
1274; (15) Vienne, 1311; (16) Constance, 1414; (17) Basel and
Ferrara-Florence, 1431, 1438; (18) 5 Lateran, 1512; (19) Trent, 1545;
(20) 1 Vatican, 1869; (21) 2 Vatican, 1962. The Orthodox Church
recognizes only the first seven councils and the continuation of 3
Constantinople (the Trullan Synod). The purpose of the first eight
councils was to determine whether specific theological concepts were
orthodox or heretical. The remaining councils, all held in Western
Europe, have dealt chiefly with church discipline. Two of them, 2 Lyons
and Ferrara-Florence, attempted to reconcile the Eastern and Western
churches. In the Great %@AU@%SCHISM%@BO:          85642a@%%@AE@% the conciliar theory developed, which held
that an ecumenical council was superior to the pope; this theory was in
its heyday at the Council of Constance. The 21st ecumenical council,
called by Pope %@AU@%JOHN XXIII%@BO:          4c6d68@%%@AE@%, advocated the reunion of all Christians with
the Church of Rome (see %@AU@%VATICAN COUNCILS%@BO:          9c1216@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Council for Mutual Economic Assistance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Council for Mutual Economic Assistance%@AE@%%@CR:COUNCILOMIC.AS  @%%@QR:Council for Mutual Economic Assistance@% (COMECON), international%@EH@%
governmental organization for the coordination of economic policy within
the Communist bloc. Founded in 1949, it adopted a formal charter in 1959
and became active in the 1960s. Its first members were Albania (which did
not participate after 1961), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
Hungary, Poland, Rumania, and the USSR. Joining COMECON later were
Mongolia (1962), Cuba (1972), and Vietnam (1978).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%counseling%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%counseling%@AE@%:%@CR:COUNSELING      @%%@QR:counseling@% see %@AU@%GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING%@BO:          3e54bd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%counterfeiting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%counterfeiting%@AE@%:%@CR:COUNTERFEITING  @%%@QR:counterfeiting@% see %@AU@%FORGERY%@BO:          3481b8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%counterintelligence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%counterintelligence%@AE@%:%@CR:COUNTERENCE     @%%@QR:counterintelligence@% see %@AU@%INTELLIGENCE GATHERING%@BO:          48b995@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%counterpoint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%counterpoint%@AE@%,%@CR:COUNTERPOINT    @%%@QR:counterpoint@% in music, the art of combining melodies each of which is%@EH@%
independent though forming part of a homogenous texture. The academic
study of counterpoint established in the 18th cent. examined five
"species" of counterpoint, or ways in which two lines of music could be
interwoven: note against note; two notes against one; four notes against
one; syncopation (a shifting of metrical accent in one of the lines); and
florid counterpoint, which combined the other species. Early masters of
contrapuntal music include %@AU@%PALESTRINA%@BO:          704def@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LASSO%@BO:          528cc5@%%@AE@%, and William %@AU@%BYRD%@BO:          1640e3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%countertenor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%countertenor%@AE@%:%@CR:COUNTERTENOR    @%%@QR:countertenor@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%country and western music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%country and western music%@AE@%,%@CR:COUNTRYIC       @%%@QR:country and western music@% American popular form originating in the%@EH@%
Southeast (country) and in the West and Southwest (western), coalescing
in the 1920s when recorded material became widely available. It is
directly descended from the %@AU@%FOLK MUSIC%@BO:          342065@%%@AE@% of the English, Scottish, and
Irish settlers of the SE U.S. Country music tends toward simpler forms,
western toward a band style verging on swing. The music, depicting the
life experience of poor rural (and recently urban) whites, has gained a
national audience, largely through the "Grand Old Opry" radio broadcasts
from Nashville. Although black %@AU@%GOSPEL MUSIC%@BO:          3ba8a2@%%@AE@% and blues have been
influential, performers and audiences are almost all white. Noted
performers include Hank Williams, Merle Haggard, Johnny %@AU@%CASH%@BO:          19a4d6@%%@AE@%, and Loretta
Lynn.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Couperin, Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Couperin, Francois%@AE@%%@CR:COUPERIN        @%%@QR:Couperin, Francois@%, 1668-1733, French harpsichordist and composer. His%@EH@%
graceful, delicate music represents the apex of French rococo, the
reaction against %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@% style. He published four books of harpsichord
%@AU@%SUITES%@BO:          905cf1@%%@AE@% (1713-30) and also composed much %@AU@%ORGAN%@BO:          6ead26@%%@AE@% music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Courbet, Gustave%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Courbet, Gustave%@AE@%%@CR:COURBET         @%%@QR:Courbet, Gustave@%, 1819-77, French painter. Always at odds with aesthetic%@EH@%
and political authority, he audaciously chose subjects from ordinary
life, as in %@AI@%Wounded Man%@AE@% (Louvre), which caused his work to be rejected
and considered offensive. He defended his realistic works, e.g., %@AI@%Funeral
%@AI@%at Ornans%@AE@% and %@AI@%Stonebreakers%@AE@% (both: Louvre), and went on to paint the
self-congratulary %@AI@%Painter's Studio%@AE@% (Louvre). Although his aesthetic
theories were not destined to prevail, his influence became enormous.
Today his work is admired for its frankness, vigor, and solid
construction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Courreges, Andre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Courreges, Andre%@AE@%:%@CR:COURREGES       @%%@QR:Courreges, Andre@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%courtly love%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%courtly love%@AE@%,%@CR:COURTLY.LOVE    @%%@QR:courtly love@% aristocratic philosophy of love that flourished in France%@EH@%
and England during the Middle Ages, probably derived from %@AU@%OVID'S%@BO:          6f9514@%%@AE@% works,
various Oriental ideas, and troubador songs. The code required a man to
fall in love with a married woman of equal or higher rank, and, before
consummating this love, to commit daring exploits proving his devotion;
the lovers then pledged themselves to secrecy and fidelity. In reality,
the code was little more than rules governing adultery. More important as
a literary convention, it appears in the works of %@AU@%CHRETIEN DE TROYES%@BO:          1de12e@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%CHAUCER%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%CHIVALRY%@BO:          1da52e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%court system in the United States%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%court system in the United States%@AE@%,%@CR:COURT.STED.STA  @%%@QR:court system in the United States@% the judicial branch of government,%@EH@%
which applies and interprets the law. It is divided into separate federal
and state systems, a division resulting from the fact that each of the 13
original colonies already had its own court system (based on the English
model) when the U.S. Constitution mandated (1789) creation of a federal
judiciary. The federal court system consists of three levels. At the
lowest level there are district courts, which have original jurisdiction
in most cases involving federal law. There are 91 districts, with at
least one in each state. The court of appeals system (est. 1891), on the
second level, consists of 11 judicial circuits, which hear appeals from
district courts and also deal with cases involving federal regulatory
agencies. The U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% is the ultimate arbiter of the law of
the land. There are also special federal courts, such as the court of
claims and the customs court. While individual state court systems vary,
they are also built on a hierarchical principle. At the lowest level are
the inferior courts, which may include magistrate, municipal, traffic,
and other courts that deal with petty civil and criminal cases. Superior
courts, in which jury trials are common, handle more serious cases. The
highest state court, variously called the appellate court, court of
appeals, or supreme court, hears appeals from the lower courts. There are
also special state courts, e.g., juvenile, divorce, probate, and small
claims courts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cousins, Norman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cousins, Norman%@AE@%,%@CR:COUSINS         @%%@QR:Cousins, Norman@% 1915-, American editor; b. Union City, N.J. Under his%@EH@%
direction (1942-71, 1973-77), the %@AI@%Saturday Review%@AE@% expanded from a
literary magazine to a review of all aspects of contemporary life. Also a
citizen-activist, he has campaigned for nuclear disarmament. His books
include %@AI@%Who Speaks for Man?%@AE@% (1953) and %@AI@%Present Tense%@AE@% (1967).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cousteau, Jacques Yves%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cousteau, Jacques Yves%@AE@%,%@CR:COUSTEAU        @%%@QR:Cousteau, Jacques Yves@% 1910-, French oceanographer and inventor. In%@EH@%
1943, with Emil Gagnan, he invented the self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus (scuba). He founded (1945) the French navy's undersea
research group, and since 1951 he has gone on annual oceanographic
expeditions and produced many books and documentary films.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cousy, Bob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cousy, Bob%@AE@%%@CR:COUSY           @%%@QR:Cousy, Bob@% (Robert Joseph Cousy), 1928-, American basketball player; b.%@EH@%
N.Y.C. In 13 seasons (1950-63) with the Boston Celtics of the National
Basketball Association, he was the game's finest playmaker and a leading
scorer (18.4-point average). He coached college and professional
basketball from 1963 to 1973.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%couvade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%couvade%@AE@%,%@CR:COUVADE         @%%@QR:couvade@% custom observed in some societies in which a father acts out the%@EH@%
labor and childbirth that are actually being experienced by his wife.
This may include retiring to bed, observing %@AU@%TABOOS%@BO:          922acd@%%@AE@%, and/or appearing to
feel pain. Couvade has been known since antiquity and practiced, in such
places as Europe and South America, into the 20th cent. It may have begun
as a way of asserting paternity or as an attempt, through magic, to draw
the attention of evil spirits away from the mother and child.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%covenant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%covenant%@AE@%,%@CR:COVENANT        @%%@QR:covenant@% in the Bible and theology, a voluntary agreement of God with%@EH@%
mankind; in law, a contract under seal or an agreement by deed; in
Scottish history, a pact by opponents of episcopacy (see %@AU@%COVENANTERS%@BO:          241445@%%@AE@%).
The Old Testament tells of several covenants between God and Israel,
e.g., that culminating in the delivery of the Law of Moses. In English
common law, covenants follow the same rules as other contracts; variously
classified, all contain an explicit promise by the covenanter to the
covenantee.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Covenanters%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Covenanters%@AE@%,%@CR:COVENANTERS     @%%@QR:Covenanters@% in Scottish history, groups of Presbyterians bound by oath%@EH@%
to sustain one another in the defense of their religion. The first formal
Covenant was signed in 1557, by Protestants trying to seize control of
Scotland, and was later renewed at times of crisis, especially in the
17th cent. The Covenanters particularly opposed the imposition of the
episcopate in Scotland and the use of the English Book of Common Prayer.
The troubles ended with the %@AU@%GLORIOUS REVOLUTION%@BO:          3ab198@%%@AE@% (1688), which restored
the Presbyterian Church in Scotland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Covent Garden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Covent Garden%@AE@%,%@CR:COVENT.GARDEN   @%%@QR:Covent Garden@% area in London containing the city's principal produce%@EH@%
market and the Royal Opera. The market was established (1671) on the site
of a convent garden. In 1974 it was removed to Nine Elms, on the River
Thames. The Royal Opera was erected on the site of the Theatre Royal
built (1732) by John Rich; it was rebuilt after fires in 1808 and 1856.
The Royal Ballet began performances there in 1946.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coventry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coventry%@AE@%,%@CR:COVENTRY        @%%@QR:Coventry@% city (1986 est. pop. 310,400), West Midlands, central England.%@EH@%
It is an industrial center noted for automobile and airplane production.
The city grew around a Benedictine abbey founded by Lady %@AU@%GODIVA%@BO:          3aed3a@%%@AE@% and her
husband in 1043. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% a massive air raid (1940) destroyed
the city's center and its 14th-cent. cathedral. A new cathedral was built
alongside the ruins in 1962.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cover crop%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cover crop%@AE@%,%@CR:COVER.CROP      @%%@QR:cover crop@% green temporary crop grown to prevent or reduce %@AU@%EROSION%@BO:          2fdc1a@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
to build up the soil's organic content. %@AU@%GRAINS%@BO:          3c0fe9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LEGUMES%@BO:          538a02@%%@AE@% (e.g., %@AU@%CLOVER%@BO:          1f998b@%%@AE@%),
and some vegetables are used. Cover crops often are the first means used
to rehabilitate neglected or misused land.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cow%@AE@%:%@CR:COW             @%%@QR:cow@% see %@AU@%CATTLE%@BO:          1a63a4@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DAIRYING%@BO:          25ff56@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coward, Sir Noel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coward, Sir Noel%@AE@%,%@CR:COWARD          @%%@QR:Coward, Sir Noel@% 1899-1973, English playwright, actor, composer,%@EH@%
director, and producer, known for his wit and sophistication. His works
include comedies, e.g., %@AI@%Private Lives%@AE@% (1930) and %@AI@%Blithe Spirit%@AE@% (1941);
musicals, e.g., %@AI@%Bitter Sweet%@AE@% (1929); films, e.g., %@AI@%In Which We Serve%@AE@%
(1942) and %@AI@%Brief Encounter%@AE@% (1946); and many popular songs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cowbird%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cowbird%@AE@%,%@CR:COWBIRD         @%%@QR:cowbird@% New World %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%BLACKBIRD%@BO:          107409@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ORIOLE%@BO:          6eda1b@%%@AE@% family. Most lay eggs%@EH@%
in the nests of smaller birds, especially vireos, %@AU@%SPARROWS%@BO:          8d32ad@%%@AE@%, and
flycatchers; the host bird usually incubates the eggs and feeds the
intruder. Cowbirds feed chiefly on insects, following cattle to capture
the insects they stir up in grazing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cowell, Henry Dixon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cowell, Henry Dixon%@AE@%,%@CR:COWELL          @%%@QR:Cowell, Henry Dixon@% 1897-1965, American composer and pianist; b. Menlo%@EH@%
Park, Calif. Largely self-educated, he experimented with new musical
resources, introducing on the piano the tone cluster, played with fist or
elbow, and the technique of playing directly on the strings. His works
include five %@AI@%Hymns and Fuguing Tunes%@AE@% (1941-45).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cowley, Abraham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cowley, Abraham%@AE@%,%@CR:COWLEY          @%%@QR:Cowley, Abraham@% 1618-67, English %@AU@%METAPHYSICAL POET%@BO:          5f4423@%%@AE@%. In the scriptural%@EH@%
epic %@AI@%Davideis%@AE@% (1656) he developed the use of the couplet as a vehicle for
narrative verse. Among his principal works are the %@AU@%DONNE%@BO:          2a1dff@%%@AE@%-influenced love
cycle %@AI@%The Mistress%@AE@% (1647) and %@AI@%Poems%@AE@% (1656), including Pindaric odes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cowpea, black-eyed pea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cowpea, black-eyed pea%@AE@%,%@CR:COWPEA          @%%@QR:cowpea, black-eyed pea@% or %@AB@%black-eyed bean,%@AE@%annual leguminous plant (%@AI@%Vigna%@EH@%
%@AI@%sinensis%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family, native to the Old World but now cultivated
in the S U.S., where it is used in cooking and, especially, as a catch
crop and major forage plant. It is also grown commercially in India and
China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cowper, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cowper, William%@AE@%%@CR:COWPER1         @%%@QR:Cowper, William@%, 1731-1800, English poet. He led a quiet country life,%@EH@%
interrupted by bouts of insanity. The poems contributed to John Newton's
%@AI@%Olney Hymns%@AE@% (1779) often give way to religious despair and self-distrust.
Cowper wrote on homely subjects, producing in 1785 his famous long poem
%@AI@%The Task,%@AE@% which foreshadowed 19th-cent. %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% in its descriptions
of country life. Playfulness finds its way into many poems, including
"The Diverting History of John Gilpin." His letters are considered among
the most brilliant in English literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cowper, William Cowper, 1st Earl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cowper, William Cowper, 1st Earl%@AE@%%@CR:COWPER2         @%%@QR:Cowper, William Cowper, 1st Earl@%, 1664?-1723, English jurist. He was a%@EH@%
leading negotiator in the union (1707) of England and Scotland. As first
lord chancellor of Great Britain (1707-10, 1714-18) he contributed much
to the modern system of %@AU@%EQUITY%@BO:          2fa7e2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Coxey, Jacob Sechler%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Coxey, Jacob Sechler%@AE@%,%@CR:COXEY           @%%@QR:Coxey, Jacob Sechler@% 1854-1951, American social reformer; b.%@EH@%
Selinsgrove, Pa. After the panic of 1893 he gained fame by leading
%@AB@%Coxey's Army, %@AE@%a band of jobless men who marched across the country from
Ohio to Washington, D.C., to demonstrate for measures to relieve
unemployment. On its arrival (May 1894), the "army" numbered only 500
instead of the threatened 100,000, and it disbanded anticlimactically
when its leaders were arrested for walking on the Capitol lawn. Coxey
later became an advocate of public works financed by fiat money as a
remedy for unemployment and ran for president as the Farmer-Labor party
candidate in 1932 and 1936.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%coyote%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%coyote%@AE@%%@CR:COYOTE          @%%@QR:coyote@% or %@AB@%prairie wolf,%@AE@%small, swift %@AU@%WOLF%@BO:          a2bb2c@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Canis latrans%@AE@%) found in%@EH@%
deserts, prairies, open woodlands, and brush country. Resembling a
medium-sized dog with a pointed face, thick fur, and a black-tipped,
bushy tail, the coyote is common in the central and W U.S. and ranges
from Alaska to Central America and the Great Lakes; it is occasionally
seen in New England. Considered dangerous to livestock, coyotes are
killed each year by the thousands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cozens, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cozens, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:COZENS          @%%@QR:Cozens, Alexander@% c.1717-1786, English draftsman; b. Russia. Probably%@EH@%
the first English master to work entirely with landscape, he explained
his system of making accidental "blot" drawings to suggest subjects in %@AI@%A
%@AI@%New Method of Assisting the Invention in Drawing Original Compositions of
%@AI@%Landscape%@AE@% (c.1785). His son, %@AB@%John Robert Cozens, %@AE@%1752-97, is known for
poetic watercolor landscapes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cozzens, James Gould%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cozzens, James Gould%@AE@%,%@CR:COZZENS         @%%@QR:Cozzens, James Gould@% 1903-78, American novelist; b. Chicago. His%@EH@%
meticulously crafted novels, often concerning idealism and compromise,
include %@AI@%Guard of Honor%@AE@% (1948; Pulitzer), and %@AI@%By Love Possessed%@AE@% (1957).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%CPU%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%CPU%@AE@%:%@CR:CPU             @%%@QR:CPU@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cr%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cr%@AE@%,%@CR:CR              @%%@QR:Cr@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CHROMIUM%@BO:          1e2132@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crab%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crab%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAB            @%%@QR:crab@% chiefly marine animal (a %@AU@%CRUSTACEAN%@BO:          250aa5@%%@AE@%) of the order Decapoda, with an%@EH@%
enlarged cephalothorax covered by a broad, flat shell (carapace).
Extending from the cephalothorax are five pairs of legs, the first pair
bearing claws (pincers). Crabs have a pair of eyes on short, movable
stalks and many mouthparts. They tend to move sideways, but can move in
all directions. The blue crab of the Atlantic coast of the U.S. is a
source of food, marketed after molting as the soft-shell crab. The giant
Japanese spider crab, with a 1-ft-wide (30-cm) carapace and legs about 4
ft (122 cm) long, is the largest arthropod.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crab Nebula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crab Nebula%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAB.NEBULA     @%%@QR:Crab Nebula@% diffuse gaseous %@AU@%NEBULA%@BO:          67f62f@%%@AE@% surrounding an optical %@AU@%PULSAR%@BO:          7ae837@%%@AE@% in the%@EH@%
constellation Taurus. It is the remnant of a %@AU@%SUPERNOVA%@BO:          90da76@%%@AE@% explosion in 1054
and is a strong emitter of radio waves and X rays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crack%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crack%@AE@%,%@CR:CRACK           @%%@QR:crack@% a form of %@AU@%COCAINE%@BO:          1fd1f3@%%@AE@%. A less expensive, more potent, smokable form of%@EH@%
the drug, it is the most addictive of abused substances. The drug's
availabity has greatly increased the number of addicts, resulting in
major law enforcement problems in Western countries. See also %@AU@%DRUG
%@AU@%ADDICTION AND DRUG ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crafts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crafts%@AE@%:%@CR:CRAFTS          @%%@QR:crafts@% see %@AU@%ARTS AND CRAFTS%@BO:           880d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Craig, Edward Gordon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Craig, Edward Gordon%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAIG1          @%%@QR:Craig, Edward Gordon@% 1872-1966, English stage designer and producer; son%@EH@%
of Ellen %@AU@%TERRY%@BO:          94399c@%%@AE@%. His innovative theories and designs (e.g., %@AI@%Hamlet,%@AE@% 1912,
for the Moscow Art Theatre), which strove for the poetic and the
suggestive, were an important influence on modern theater.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Craig, Sir James Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Craig, Sir James Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAIG2          @%%@QR:Craig, Sir James Henry@% 1748-1812, British governor of %@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@% (1807-11).%@EH@%
His lack of sympathy with French Canadians resulted in his dissolution
(1809) of Lower Canada's assembly, but his arbitrary methods served only
to consolidate their position.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Craigie, Sir William A.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Craigie, Sir William A.%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAIGIE         @%%@QR:Craigie, Sir William A.@% 1867-1957, British lexicographer; b. Scotland.%@EH@%
Generally considered the foremost lexicographer of his time, Craigie
worked on the %@AI@%New English Dictionary%@AE@% (commonly called the %@AI@%Oxford English
%@AI@%Dictionary%@AE@%) from 1897 and was joint editor from 1901 to 1933. In the U.S.
he was chief editor of %@AI@%A Dictionary of American English on Historical
%@AI@%Principles%@AE@% (4 vol., 1938-43).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cram, Ralph Adams%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cram, Ralph Adams%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAM            @%%@QR:Cram, Ralph Adams@% 1863-1942, American architect; b. Hampton Falls, N.H.%@EH@%
An ardent exponent of the Gothic, he produced collegiate and
ecclesiastical works in a neo-Gothic style, e.g., part of the Cathedral
of %@AU@%SAINT JOHN THE DIVINE%@BO:          832cfe@%%@AE@%, N.Y.C., and the graduate school and chapel at
Princeton.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cranach%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cranach%@AE@%%@CR:CRANACH         @%%@QR:Cranach@%or %@AB@%Kranach, Lucas%@AE@%, the Elder, 1472-1553, German painter and%@EH@%
engraver. Called the painter of the %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%, he was court painter to
three electors of Saxony. Although his work is often naive and awkward in
draftmanship, it also has freshness, originality, and a warm, rich color.
His paintings include %@AI@%Adam and Eve%@AE@% (Courtauld Inst., London) and such
famous portraits as that of Elector John Frederick and %@AI@%Self-Portrait%@AE@%
(Uffizi). His son %@AB@%Lucas Cranach, %@AE@%the Younger, 1515-86, inherited his
shop, signature, and popularity. Their work is often indistinguishable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cranberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cranberry%@AE@%,%@CR:CRANBERRY       @%%@QR:cranberry@% low, creeping, evergreen bog plant (genus %@AI@%Oxycoccus%@AE@%) of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%HEATH%@BO:          410664@%%@AE@% family. The tart red berries are used for sauces, jellies, pies,
and beverages. The native American, or large, cranberry (%@AI@%O.%@AE@% or %@AI@%V.
%@AI@%macrocarpus%@AE@%) is commercially cultivated. The unrelated high-bush
cranberry, or cranberry tree, is in the %@AU@%HONEYSUCKLE%@BO:          4410c3@%%@AE@% family. Cranberries
are often classified in the blueberry genus %@AI@%Vaccinium%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crane, (Harold) Hart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crane, (Harold) Hart%@AE@%,%@CR:CRANE1          @%%@QR:Crane, (Harold) Hart@% 1899-1932, American poet; b. Garrettsville, Ohio.%@EH@%
Although he published only two volumes, he is considered one of the most
original poets of his time. His first collection, %@AI@%White Buildings%@AE@% (1926),
was inspired by New York City. His most ambitious work, %@AI@%The Bridge%@AE@%
(1930), is a series of long poems on the U.S., in which the Brooklyn
Bridge serves as a mystical unifying symbol. An alcoholic and a
homosexual, plagued by personal problems, Crane jumped overboard while
returning from Mexico to the U.S. and was drowned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crane, Stephen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crane, Stephen%@AE@%,%@CR:CRANE2          @%%@QR:Crane, Stephen@% 1871-1900, often considered the first modern American%@EH@%
writer; b. Newark, N.J. He introduced %@AU@%REALISM%@BO:          7d1c18@%%@AE@% into American fiction with
his grim and unpopular first novel, %@AI@%Maggie: A Girl of the Streets%@AE@% (1893).
Crane achieved fame with his next novel, %@AI@%The Red Badge of Courage%@AE@% (1895),
a remarkable account of a young %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% soldier. Later a war
correspondent in Cuba and Greece, he also wrote superb short stories,
e.g., "The Open Boat" (1898) and "The Monster" (1899), and poetry.
Vilified because of his domestic life, Crane spent his last years in
Europe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crane%@AE@%,%@CR:CRANE3          @%%@QR:crane@% large, wading marsh %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the Northern Hemisphere and Africa,%@EH@%
related to the %@AU@%RAILS%@BO:          7c5b0f@%%@AE@%. Cranes are known for their loud, trumpeting call
and rhythmic mating dances. The North American whooping crane, a white
bird almost 5 ft (152 cm) tall, is nearly extinct; the gray sandhill
crane, which winters W of the Mississippi, is also becoming rare.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cranmer, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cranmer, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:CRANMER         @%%@QR:Cranmer, Thomas@% 1489-1556, English churchman. He came to the attention%@EH@%
of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% in 1529 by suggesting that the king might further his
efforts to divorce %@AU@%KATHARINE OF ARAGON%@BO:          4e9070@%%@AE@% by collecting favorable opinions
from the universities. He was made archbishop of Canterbury in 1533 and
was completely subservient to Henry's will. While serving %@AU@%EDWARD VI%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@%, he
shaped the doctrinal and liturgical transformation of the Church of
England. He placed the English Bible in churches, and in 1552 he revised
the %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@%. Under the Roman Catholic %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%, he was tried
for treason, convicted of heresy, and burned at the stake.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crashaw, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crashaw, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:CRASHAW         @%%@QR:Crashaw, Richard@% 1612?-1649, English %@AU@%METAPHYSICAL POET%@BO:          5f4423@%%@AE@%. The son of an%@EH@%
ardent Puritan minister, he converted to Catholicism and lived on the
Continent. His fame rests on his intense religious verse, which combines
sensuality with mysticism in a manner suggestive of baroque art. %@AI@%Steps to
%@AI@%the Temple%@AE@% (1646), his major volume of poems, was enlarged to include
%@AI@%Delights of the Muses%@AE@% (1648).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crassus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crassus%@AE@%,%@CR:CRASSUS         @%%@QR:Crassus@% ancient Roman family, of the plebeian Licinian gens. %@AB@%Lucius%@EH@%
%@AB@%Licinius Crassus, %@AE@%d. 91 BC, a noted orator and lawyer (much admired by
Cicero), was consul in 95 BC He proposed the Licinian Law to banish from
Rome all who had gained Roman citizenship by illegal means. This helped
bring on the Social War (90-88 BC). %@AB@%Marcus Licinius Crassus, %@AE@%d. 53 BC,
was the best-known member of the family. Charming, avaricious, and
ambitious, he became the principal landowner in Rome by organizing his
private fire brigade, buying burning houses cheaply, and then putting out
the fires. He gained immense prestige-along with %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@%-for suppressing
the uprising of %@AU@%SPARTACUS%@BO:          8d3aff@%%@AE@%. He and Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% drew closer together and,
with Pompey, formed the First %@AU@%TRIUMVIRATE%@BO:          97f4c4@%%@AE@% (60 BC), but Crassus and Pompey
did not get along. Avid for military glory, Crassus undertook a campaign
against the Parthians. His army was routed at Carrhae (modern Haran) in
53 BC, and he was treacherously murdered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crater%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crater%@AE@%:%@CR:CRATER          @%%@QR:crater@% see %@AU@%METEORITE%@BO:          5f5e65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crater Lake National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crater Lake National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:CRATER.RK       @%%@QR:Crater Lake National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crawford, Joan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crawford, Joan%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAWFORD1       @%%@QR:Crawford, Joan@% 1908-77, American film actress; b. San Antonio, Tex., as%@EH@%
Lucille Le Sueur. A major Hollywood star, she made such films as %@AI@%Grand
%@AI@%Hotel%@AE@% (1932), %@AI@%Mildred Pierce%@AE@% (1945; Academy Award), and %@AI@%Humoresque%@AE@%
(1946).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crawford, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crawford, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAWFORD2       @%%@QR:Crawford, Thomas@% 1813-57, American sculptor; b. N.Y.C. An exponent of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%CLASSIC REVIVAL%@BO:          1f0097@%%@AE@%, he won recognition with %@AI@%Armed Freedom,%@AE@% a statue
above the %@AU@%CAPITOL%@BO:          189528@%%@AE@% dome, and with the design of the %@AU@%WASHINGTON MONUMENT%@BO:          9f7111@%%@AE@%,
for which he executed several figures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crayfish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crayfish%@AE@%%@CR:CRAYFISH        @%%@QR:crayfish@% or %@AB@%crawfish,%@AE@%edible freshwater %@AU@%CRUSTACEAN%@BO:          250aa5@%%@AE@% smaller than, but%@EH@%
structurally similar to, the %@AU@%LOBSTER%@BO:          560167@%%@AE@%. Crayfish are found in ponds and
streams in most parts of the world except Africa. They are scavengers and
grow to 3 to 4 in. (7.6-10.2 cm) in length. Crayfish are usually brownish
green; some cave-dwelling forms are colorless.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crazy Horse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crazy Horse%@AE@%,%@CR:CRAZY.HORSE     @%%@QR:Crazy Horse@% d. 1877, revered chief of the Oglala %@AU@%SIOUX INDIANS%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Resisting encroachment of whites in the mineral-rich Black Hills of South
Dakota, he repeatedly defeated U.S. troops. He joined Sitting Bull and
%@AU@%GALL%@BO:          376f96@%%@AE@% to defeat George Armstrong %@AU@%CUSTER%@BO:          258194@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%LITTLE BIGHORN%@BO:          55b845@%%@AE@% (1876), but
finally he and 1,000 starving followers had to surrender. He was stabbed
to death trying to escape from prison.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%creationism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%creationism%@AE@%,%@CR:CREATIONISM     @%%@QR:creationism@% belief in the biblical account of the creation of the world;%@EH@%
also known as creation science. Advocates of creationism have campaigned
to have it taught in U.S. public schools along with the theory of
%@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@%, which they dispute. In 1981 a federal judge ruled
unconstitutional an Arkansas law requiring the teaching of creationism,
holding it to be religious in nature; a similar Louisiana law was
overturned in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%credit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%credit%@AE@%,%@CR:CREDIT          @%%@QR:credit@% granting of goods, services, or money in return for a promise of%@EH@%
future payment, usually accompanied by an %@AU@%INTEREST%@BO:          48bfdb@%%@AE@% charge. The two basic
forms of credit are business and consumer. The chief function of business
credit is the transfer of capital from those who own it to those who can
use it, in the expectation that the profit from its use will exceed the
interest payable on the loan. Consumer credit permits the purchase of
retail goods and services with little or no down payment in cash. In
installment buying and selling, the consumer agrees to make payments at
specific intervals in set amounts. Credit cards are issued by local and
national retailers and by banks. Cardholders usually pay an annual fee
and a monthly interest charge on the unpaid balance. The major bank cards
also provide short-term personal loans. See %@AU@%DEBT%@BO:          27187e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%credit card%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%credit card%@AE@%,%@CR:CREDIT.CARD     @%%@QR:credit card@% a card or document used to obtain consumer credit when%@EH@%
purchasing an article or service. Credit cards may be issued by a local
retailer, a national retailer, or a third party, e.g., a bank. From 1965
to 1970 the number of cards in the U.S. grew from fewer than 5 million to
more than 50 million. Through the revolving charge plan, card holders can
postpone payment by accepting a monthly interest charge. Consumers may
also use the major bank cards to obtain short-term personal loans.
Credit-card issuers get revenue from fees paid by stores that accept
their cards and from interest charged on unpaid credit balances. Concern
has been voiced over widespread, sometimes unsolicited, distribution of
bank credit cards, losses and thefts of cards, and possible excessive
encouragement of consumer debt at high-interest rates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Credit Mobilier of America%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Credit Mobilier of America%@AE@%,%@CR:CREDIT.ICA      @%%@QR:Credit Mobilier of America@% ephemeral construction company, involved in a%@EH@%
major U.S. financial scandal. Oakes Ames, T.C. Durant, and other
stockholders of the Union Pacific RR set up (1867) the Credit Mobilier
and awarded themselves contracts for construction on the Union Pacific
that netted profits estimated at from $7 million to $23 million. To
forestall investigations or interference by Congress, Ames sold or
assigned shares of stock to members of Congress at par, though the shares
were worth twice as much. The scandal broke during the 1872 presidential
campaign and resulted in a Congressional investigation that issued
censures, but there were no prosecutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%credit union%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%credit union%@AE@%,%@CR:CREDIT.UNION    @%%@QR:credit union@% cooperative financial institution that makes low-interest%@EH@%
personal loans to members. It is usually composed of persons from the
same occupational group or local community, such as company employees or
members of labor unions and churches. Funds for lending come from
members' savings deposits through the sale of shares. In the U.S. the
more than 23,000 credit unions are chartered and regulated by the federal
government or the states.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%creed%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%creed%@AE@%,%@CR:CREED           @%%@QR:creed@% summary of basic doctrines of faith. The following are some of the%@EH@%
historically important Christian creeds. %@AB@%1 %@AE@%The %@AB@%Nicene Creed, %@AE@%usually said
to be a revision by the First Council of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          22895d@%%@AE@% (381) of a creed
adopted by the First Council of %@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@% (325). %@AB@%2 %@AE@%The %@AB@%Athanasian Creed, %@AE@%a
6th-cent. statement, no longer ascribed to St. %@AU@%ATHANASIUS%@BO:           945fb@%%@AE@%, on the Trinity
and the Incarnation. %@AB@%3 %@AE@%The %@AB@%Apostles' Creed, %@AE@%similar to the Nicene Creed
and dating in its present form to c.650.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cree Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cree Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:CREE.INDIANS    @%%@QR:Cree Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% from Manitoba, one branch of whom%@EH@%
moved southwest to adopt a buffalo culture as the Plains Cree, while the
other retained their deer culture as the Woodland Cree. They spoke an
Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Although warlike, the Cree were friendly to fur traders, and
their history closely follows that of the Hudson's Bay and North West fur
companies. Today they are one of the larger Canadian tribes; another
group lives in Montana.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Creek Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Creek Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:CREEK.INDIANS   @%%@QR:Creek Indians@% confederacy of 50 North American Indian towns or tribes%@EH@%
mainly in Georgia and Alabama, who spoke a Muskogean tongue of the
Hokan-Siouan linguistic stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Named for
their villages on creeks or rivers, they lived a settled agricultural
life, governing themselves democratically. Although they were friendly to
the British in colonial times, white encroachment later aroused their
hostility. In the Creek War (1813-14), they were subdued by Andrew
%@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% and lost two thirds of their territory. Eventually they were
moved to Indian territory and became one of the %@AU@%FIVE CIVILIZED TRIBES%@BO:          337eac@%%@AE@%.
Today they live largely in Oklahoma.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cremation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cremation%@AE@%,%@CR:CREMATION       @%%@QR:cremation@% disposal of a corpse by fire, widely practiced in some%@EH@%
societies, notably India and ancient Greece and Rome. The rise of
Christianity ended the custom in Europe, but it revived as cities grew
and cemeteries became crowded. Belief in the purifying properties of
fire, a desire to light the way of the dead, and fear of the return of
the dead may have been among early motivations for cremation. The
practice is not sanctioned by the Roman Catholic Church or traditional
Judaism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cremazie, (Joseph) Octave%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cremazie, (Joseph) Octave%@AE@%%@CR:CREMAZIE        @%%@QR:Cremazie, (Joseph) Octave@% (kramaze'), 1822-79, French Canadian poet, "the%@EH@%
father of French Canadian poetry." His poem "Le Vieux Soldat canadien"
(1855) made him famous. His poetry is patriotic and was influenced by
French %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cremin, Lawrence Arthur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cremin, Lawrence Arthur%@AE@%,%@CR:CREMIN          @%%@QR:Cremin, Lawrence Arthur@% 1925-, American educator and historian; b.%@EH@%
N.Y.C. He was president of Teachers College, Columbia Univ. (1974-84) and
is an expert in American educational history. He wrote %@AI@%Transformation of
%@AI@%the School%@AE@% (1961) and a comprehensive history of American education%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%creole language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%creole language%@AE@%:%@CR:CREOLE.LANGUAGE @%%@QR:creole language@% see %@AU@%LINGUA FRANCA%@BO:          556594@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crerar, Henry Duncan Graham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crerar, Henry Duncan Graham%@AE@%,%@CR:CRERAR          @%%@QR:Crerar, Henry Duncan Graham@% 1888-1965, Canadian general. During %@AU@%WORLD%@EH@%
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% he commanded (1941-44) with distinction a Canadian army division
and then (1944-46) the 1st Canadian Corps in the Allied invasion of
Europe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cretaceous period%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cretaceous period%@AE@%:%@CR:CRETACEOD       @%%@QR:Cretaceous period@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crete%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crete%@AE@%,%@CR:CRETE           @%%@QR:Crete@% island (1981 pop. 502,165), c.3,235 sq mi (8,380 sq km), SE%@EH@%
Greece, in the E Mediterranean Sea and marking the southern limit of the
Aegean Sea. It is now a popular tourist region composed mainly of small
farms growing grains, olives, and oranges, and raising livestock. Crete
was the site of the %@AU@%MINOAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          613426@%%@AE@%, which reached its peak c.1600 BC
Invaluable archaeological finds have been made at the ruins of the palace
at the ancient city of %@AU@%CNOSSUS%@BO:          1fad4f@%%@AE@%. Although the island later flourished as a
trading center, it played no important political role in ancient Greece.
It was conquered by the Romans (68-67 BC) and by the Ottoman Turks
(1669), but a series of revolts finally forced (1898) the Turks to
evacuate. The island officially joined modern Greece in 1913, as a result
of the %@AU@%BALKAN WARS%@BO:           b70f4@%%@AE@%. A British military base in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, it was
attacked by Germany in the first and only successful all-air invasion of
the war.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cretinism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cretinism%@AE@%:%@CR:CRETINISM       @%%@QR:cretinism@% see under %@AU@%DWARFISM%@BO:          2b7d7a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crevecoeur, J. Hector St. John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crevecoeur, J. Hector St. John%@AE@%%@CR:CREVECOEUR      @%%@QR:Crevecoeur, J. Hector St. John@%, 1735-1813, American author and%@EH@%
agriculturist; b. France. After settling in Orange co., N.Y., he wrote
%@AI@%Letters from an American Farmer%@AE@% (1782) and other agricultural articles
that described U.S. rural life of the time. He introduced the culture of
the American potato into Normandy and of European crops, notably alfafa,
into the U.S. He returned to France in 1790.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crick, Francis Harry Compton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crick, Francis Harry Compton%@AE@%,%@CR:CRICK           @%%@QR:Crick, Francis Harry Compton@% 1916-, English scientist. He shared with%@EH@%
Maurice %@AU@%WILKINS%@BO:          a1a441@%%@AE@% and James %@AU@%WATSON%@BO:          9fbf1b@%%@AE@% the 1962 Nobel Prize in physiology or
medicine for establishing the function and double-helix structure of %@AU@%DNA%@BO:          29a6bd@%%@AE@%,
the key substance in the transmission of hereditary characteristics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cricket%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cricket%@AE@%,%@CR:CRICKET1        @%%@QR:cricket@% slender, chirping, hopping %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% of the family Gryllidae. Most%@EH@%
have long antennae, muscular hindlegs, and two pairs of fully developed
wings. The males produce the characteristic song by rubbing specialized
structures of their front wings together; both sexes have auditory organs
on their forelegs. Common field crickets of the U.S. are brown to black
and about 1 in. (2.5 cm) long.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cricket%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cricket%@AE@%,%@CR:CRICKET2        @%%@QR:cricket@% ball and bat game played chiefly in Great Britain and the%@EH@%
Commonwealth countries. It is played by two opposing teams of 11
contestants on a level turf, measuring about 525 ft (160 m) by about 550
ft (170 m). Two wickets are placed 66 ft (20.12 m) apart near the middle
of the field, each consisting of two wooden crosspieces (bails) resting
on three stumps. Batsmen of the same team defend each wicket with a
paddle-shaped bat against opposing bowlers, who try to knock down the
bails of the wicket. If a batsman hits the ball far enough so that he and
his partner can run to exchange places, a run is scored. Batsmen are
retired if the ball is caught on the fly or if the bails are knocked
down. A game may require several days to complete. Cricket probably was
developed in medieval England before 1400. Australia and Britain compete
in a famous series.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crime%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crime%@AE@%,%@CR:CRIME           @%%@QR:crime@% the recorded violation of major rules of social behavior codified%@EH@%
in %@AU@%CRIMINAL LAW%@BO:          24a96c@%%@AE@%. Such law varies from one culture to the next, reflecting
differences in social norms. Crime, its causes, and its prevention are
the subject of criminology, a subdivision of sociology that also draws on
psychology, economics, and other disciplines. One of its branches is
penology, which deals with %@AU@%PRISON%@BO:          79b083@%%@AE@% management and the rehabilitation of
convicted offenders. The causes of crime may include psychological
predisposition, emotional disorders, environment, or other factors. Crime
tends to rise during periods of economic %@AU@%DEPRESSION%@BO:          28177a@%%@AE@% and social upheaval
and is most common in poverty areas, often as juvenile delinquency;
so-called white-collar crime is committed by those of higher economic
status. In the U.S. %@AU@%ORGANIZED CRIME%@BO:          6ec2cb@%%@AE@% developed during %@AU@%PROHIBITION%@BO:          79f220@%%@AE@%. Crimes
of violence traditionally draw the heaviest penalties, whereas
"victimless crimes" (such as %@AU@%PROSTITUTION%@BO:          7a1ecc@%%@AE@%) are often virtually
decriminalized through the failure of the authorities to prosecute.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crimea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crimea%@AE@%,%@CR:CRIMEA          @%%@QR:Crimea@% peninsula and oblast, c.10,000 sq mi (25,900 sq km), Ukrainian%@EH@%
Soviet Socialist Republic, linked with the mainland by the Perekop
Isthmus and bounded by the Black Sea (S, W) and the Sea of Azov (NE).
Major cities include Simferopol (capital of the oblast), %@AU@%SEVASTOPOL%@BO:          8750d0@%%@AE@%,
Kerch, and Yalta. The north is a semiarid steppe that supports wheat,
corn, and cotton crops; in the south rises the Crimean or Yaila range.
The subtropical shore along the Black Sea, the "Soviet Riviera," is famed
for its resorts. Heavy industry in the Crimea includes ironworks and
plants producing machinery and chemicals. In ancient times the peninsula
was inhabited by a %@AU@%CIMMERIAN%@BO:          1e6857@%%@AE@% people called Tauri, who were expelled (8th
cent. BC) by the Scythians. In the 5th cent. BC the kingdom of the
Cimmerian Bosporus emerged, later coming under Greek, then Roman,
influence. The area, overrun between the 3d and 13th cent. by the Goths,
Huns, Khazars, Cumans, and Mongols, became an independent %@AU@%TATAR%@BO:          930c06@%%@AE@% khanate
in the 15th cent. It was annexed by Russia in 1783. The peninsula was a
battleground in the %@AU@%CRIMEAN WAR%@BO:          24a5c9@%%@AE@% (1853-56), the %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@%, and
both world wars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crimean War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crimean War%@AE@%,%@CR:CRIMEAN.WAR     @%%@QR:Crimean War@% 1853-56, between Russia and the allied powers of Turkey,%@EH@%
England, France, and Sardinia. Its cause was inherent in the %@AU@%EASTERN
%@AU@%QUESTION%@BO:          2bde64@%%@AE@%; its pretext was a quarrel between Russia and France over
guardianship of Palestinian holy places. Turkey declared war on Russia
after the latter occupied Moldavia and Walachia; England, France, and
Sardinia joined later. The fighting centered on %@AU@%SEVASTOPOL%@BO:          8750d0@%%@AE@%, the heavily
fortified base of the Russian fleet. After a long, bloody siege, the city
fell and the war ended, thus checking Russian influence in the area. The
war is particularly remembered for the futile battle of Balaklava and for
the heroic nursing reforms of Florence %@AU@%NIGHTINGALE%@BO:          6a2156@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%criminal law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%criminal law%@AE@%,%@CR:CRIMINAL.LAW    @%%@QR:criminal law@% body of law that defines offenses against the state and%@EH@%
regulates their prosecution and punishment. It is distinguished from
%@AU@%CIVIL LAW%@BO:          1eb6e1@%%@AE@%, which is concerned with relations between private parties. In
the U.S., power to define crime rests with the states and with the
federal government. U.S. criminal law is based on English %@AU@%COMMON LAW%@BO:          21060f@%%@AE@%, but
a number of states have enacted penal or criminal codes, and since World
War II the trend is increasingly toward codification. The procedure in
criminal cases is essentially the same throughout the U.S. A grand jury
usually examines the evidence against a suspect and either dismisses the
case or draws up an %@AU@%INDICTMENT%@BO:          47b1f3@%%@AE@%. Trial is by %@AU@%JURY%@BO:          4dd121@%%@AE@% or before a judge alone.
The public prosecutor (usually called the district attorney) presents the
government's case, and counsel represents the accused. There is a legal
presumption of innocence, and the burden of proving guilt beyond a
reasonable doubt is on the prosecution. If the accused is found innocent,
he or she is discharged; if guilty, the judge pronounces %@AU@%SENTENCE%@BO:          86f98e@%%@AE@%. If
convicted, the defendant may %@AU@%APPEAL%@BO:           6c44f@%%@AE@%; the prosecution, however, under the
prohibition against %@AU@%DOUBLE JEOPARDY%@BO:          2a5041@%%@AE@%, generally cannot appeal an
acquittal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%criminology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%criminology%@AE@%:%@CR:CRIMINOLOGY     @%%@QR:criminology@% see %@AU@%CRIME%@BO:          249ac7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crinoid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crinoid%@AE@%,%@CR:CRINOID         @%%@QR:crinoid@% member of the class (Crinoidea) of marine invertebrate animals%@EH@%
(%@AU@%ECHINODERMS%@BO:          2c0d95@%%@AE@%) that includes the sea lilies and feather stars. Most sea
lilies remain stalked and sessile for their entire lives, while feather
stars break off the stalk and become mobile as adults. All crinoids live
with their oral side upward with a ring of arms encircling the mouth.
Most have 10 arms, but some sea lilies have up to 40 and some feather
stars up to 200.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cripple Creek%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cripple Creek%@AE@%,%@CR:CRIPPLE.CREEK   @%%@QR:Cripple Creek@% city (1980 pop. 655), alt. 9,375 ft (2,858 m), seat of%@EH@%
Teller co., central Colo.; inc. 1892. Once a great gold boom town (1901
est. pop. 50,000), it is now a summer resort. There were violent mine
strikes in 1893 and 1904.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cripps, Sir Stafford%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cripps, Sir Stafford%@AE@%,%@CR:CRIPPS          @%%@QR:Cripps, Sir Stafford@% 1889-1952, British statesman. A successful lawyer,%@EH@%
he was knighted in 1930 and became solicitor general in the Labour
government (1930-31). In 1939 he was expelled from the Labour party for
urging a united front with the Communists. Under Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@% he
served as ambassador to the USSR (1940-42) and lord privy seal and leader
of the House of Commons (1942). In 1945 he was readmitted into the Labour
party and appointed president of the board of trade in the new Labour
government. He initiated Britain's postwar austerity program. As minister
of economic affairs and chancellor of the exchequer (1947-50), he
virtually controlled Britain's economy until ill health forced his
resignation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cristus, Petrus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cristus, Petrus%@AE@%:%@CR:CRISTUS         @%%@QR:Cristus, Petrus@% see %@AU@%CHRISTUS, PETRUS%@BO:          1e1864@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crittenden Compromise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crittenden Compromise%@AE@%,%@CR:CRITTENROMISE   @%%@QR:Crittenden Compromise@% unsuccessful last-minute effort to avert the U.S.%@EH@%
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. It was proposed in Dec. 1860 by Sen. John J. Crittenden of
Kentucky as a constitutional amendment mandating the use of the %@AU@%MISSOURI
%@AU@%COMPROMISE%@BO:          61afda@%%@AE@% line, extended to California, to divide free and slave states.
It was defeated (Jan. and Mar. 1861) in Congress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%croaker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%croaker%@AE@%,%@CR:CROAKER         @%%@QR:croaker@% carnivorous, elongate, spiny-finned %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% of the family%@EH@%
Sciaenidae, including the drum and weakfish (sea trout), so called
because of their croaking or grunting noises. Croakers are found in the
sandy shallows of temperate and warm seas. The drums are the largest and
noisiest croak ers-up to 150 lb (68 kg) in the common drum-and include
the commercially important red drum, or channel bass. The weakfish, named
for their easily torn flesh, include the common weakfish, or squeteague,
of the Atlantic coast and the spotted weakfish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Croatia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Croatia%@AE@%%@CR:CROATIA         @%%@QR:Croatia@%, Croatian %@AI@%Hrvatska,%@AE@% constituent republic of Yugoslavia (1981 pop.%@EH@%
4,428,005), 21,824 sq mi (56,524 sq km), NW Yugoslavia. %@AU@%ZAGREB%@BO:          a4be6c@%%@AE@% is the
capital. The second largest Yugoslav republic, Croatia supplies most of
the country's coal and such other resources as timber and petroleum.
Tourism is important, especially on the %@AU@%ADRIATIC SEA%@BO:           15799@%%@AE@% coast. Formerly part
of the Roman province of Pannonia, Croatia was a kingdom from the 10th
cent. and united with Hungary in 1102. The Turks held most of Croatia
from the 16th to 18th cent. and were replaced by the %@AU@%HAPSBURGS%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%, who ruled
the area until 1918. After World War I it became part of Yugoslavia, but
in World War II the Germans dismantled Yugoslavia and set up a fascist
puppet state in Croatia. In 1945 the area again became part of
Yugoslavia; however, a Croatian separatist movement has persisted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Croce, Benedetto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Croce, Benedetto%@AE@%,%@CR:CROCE           @%%@QR:Croce, Benedetto@% 1866-1952, Italian philosopher, historian, and literary%@EH@%
critic. His %@AI@%Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic%@AE@%
(1902), the first part of his major work %@AI@%Philosophy of the Spirit%@AE@%
(1902-17), was a landmark of modern %@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@%. Croce was renowned for his
works of literary criticism and %@AU@%AESTHETICS%@BO:           18ae5@%%@AE@%, cultural history, and
historical methodology. A staunch anti-Fascist, he became a Liberal party
leader in 1943.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crochet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crochet%@AE@%,%@CR:CROCHET         @%%@QR:crochet@% construction of fabric by interlocking loops of thread or yarn%@EH@%
using a hook. The chain stitch is used to cast on a foundation chain of
the desired length, into which successive rows of stitches are worked.
All stitches and patterns derive from single and double crochet. Like
%@AU@%KNITTING%@BO:          504896@%%@AE@%, crochet produces a fabric that stretches. When a fine hook and
thread are used, crochet can be used to produce a form of %@AU@%LACE%@BO:          515e89@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crockett, Davy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crockett, Davy%@AE@%%@CR:CROCKETT        @%%@QR:Crockett, Davy@% (David Crockett), 1786-1836, American frontiersman; b.%@EH@%
near Greeneville, Tenn. He was a U.S. representative from Tennessee
(1827-31, 1833-35) and died defending the %@AU@%ALAMO%@BO:           2a0ae@%%@AE@%. Known for his backwoods
humor, he is the supposed author of several autobiographical works,
although their idiom does not match that of his own letters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crocodile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crocodile%@AE@%,%@CR:CROCODILE       @%%@QR:crocodile@% carnivorous %@AU@%REPTILE%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@% (order Crocodilia) found in tropical and%@EH@%
subtropical regions, distinguished from the %@AU@%ALLIGATOR%@BO:           3ec3a@%%@AE@% by greater
aggressiveness, a narrower snout, and a long, lower fourth tooth, which
protrudes when the mouth is closed. Crocodiles have flattened bodies,
short legs, and powerful jaws. The saltwater crocodile is often 14 ft
(4.3 m) long, while the Nile, American, and Orinoco crocodiles are
commonly 12 ft (3.7 m) long.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crocus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crocus%@AE@%,%@CR:CROCUS          @%%@QR:crocus@% perennial herb (genus %@AI@%Crocus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%IRIS%@BO:          499e03@%%@AE@% family, native to the%@EH@%
Mediterranean and SW Asia. Crocuses usually bear a single yellow, purple,
or white flower and have small, grasslike leaves. One species, %@AU@%SAFFRON%@BO:          82db28@%%@AE@%,
is cultivated commercially as a yellow dye. The unrelated meadow saffron,
or autumn crocus, is in the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% family, and the wild crocus, or
pasqueflower, is in the %@AU@%BUTTERCUP%@BO:          16271b@%%@AE@% family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Croesus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Croesus%@AE@%%@CR:CROESUS         @%%@QR:Croesus@%, d. c.547 BC, last king of Lydia (560-c.546 BC), noted for his%@EH@%
great wealth. He allied himself with Egypt and Babylonia against %@AU@%CYRUS
%@AU@%THE GREAT%@BO:          25c4e2@%%@AE@% of Persia, but he was defeated and captured.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cro-Magnon man%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cro-Magnon man%@AE@%,%@CR:CROMAGNON.MAN   @%%@QR:Cro-Magnon man@% biologically modern human being (species %@AI@%Homo sapiens%@AE@%),%@EH@%
existing 40,000-35,000 years ago (see %@AU@%MAN, PREHISTORIC%@BO:          5a8e87@%%@AE@%). Skeletal remains
were first found (1868) in France and then in other parts of Europe. Like
%@AU@%NEANDERTHAL MAN%@BO:          67ddbc@%%@AE@%, whom he superseded, Cro-Magnon man stood erect (6 ft/180
cm); he had a high forehead, developed chin, and large brain. His
advanced upper Paleolithic %@AU@%CULTURE%@BO:          254507@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%STONE AGE%@BO:          8f4c47@%%@AE@%) produced flint and
bone tools, shell and ivory jewelry, and elegant polychrome cave
paintings of great vitality (see %@AU@%PALEOLITHIC ART%@BO:          70383c@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crompton, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crompton, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:CROMPTON        @%%@QR:Crompton, Samuel@% 1753-1827, English inventor (1779) of a %@AU@%SPINNING%@BO:          8d93cc@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
machine that for the first time allowed the production of fine strong
cotton yarns. Crompton's mule spinner, or muslin wheel, combined the best
features of Richard %@AU@%ARKWRIGHT'S%@BO:           7e3c0@%%@AE@% water frame and James %@AU@%HARGREAVES'S%@BO:          3ff92c@%%@AE@%
spinning jenny.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cromwell, Oliver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cromwell, Oliver%@AE@%,%@CR:CROMWELL        @%%@QR:Cromwell, Oliver@% 1599-1658, lord protector of England. A Puritan, he%@EH@%
entered Parliament in 1628, standing firmly with the opposition to
%@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@%. During the first civil war (see %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@%), he rose
rapidly to leadership because of his military ability and genius for
organization. His own regiment, the Ironsides, distinguished itself at
Marston Moor (1644). In 1645 he became second in command to Sir Thomas
Fairfax in the New Model Army, which defeated the king at Naseby (1645).
After Charles's flight to Carisbrooke (1647), Cromwell lost hope of
dealing moderately with him. In the second civil war, he repelled the
Scottish royalist invasion at Preston (1648). His was the leading voice
demanding execution at the king's trial in 1649. After the republican
Commonwealth was proclaimed, Cromwell led a cruelly punitive expedition
into Ireland, where he initiated a policy of dispossessing the Irish. He
defeated the Scottish royalists at Dunbar (1650) and %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@% at
Worcester (1651). In 1653 Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament and
replaced it with the feeble Nominated (Barebone's) Parliament, which he
himself appointed. That same year the Protectorate was established and
Cromwell was named lord protector. In 1657 he declined the crown.
Cromwell's foreign policy was governed by the need to expand English
trade and prevent the restoration of the Stuarts. He approved the
Navigation Act of 1651, which led to the first (1652-54) of the %@AU@%DUTCH
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:          2b6fc9@%%@AE@%; his war with Spain (1655-58) was over trade rights. Opinions of
Cromwell have always varied. Although he favored religious toleration, he
tolerated only Jews and non-Anglican Protestants. His military genius and
force of character are recognized, but the necessities of government
forced him into cruelty and intolerance. His son %@AB@%Richard Cromwell,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1626-1712, succeeded him. The army and Parliament struggled for power
until the Protectorate collapsed and the Commonwealth was reestablished
in 1659. He lived abroad (1660-80) and later in England under an assumed
name. A man of virtue and dignity, he was forced into a situation beyond
his talents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cronaca, Il%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cronaca, Il%@AE@%:%@CR:CRONACA         @%%@QR:Cronaca, Il@% see %@AU@%POLLAIUOLO%@BO:          779137@%%@AE@%, family.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cronkite, Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cronkite, Walter%@AE@%,%@CR:CRONKITE        @%%@QR:Cronkite, Walter@% 1916-, American journalist; b. St. Joseph, Mo. From%@EH@%
1962 to 1981 he was anchorman of the Columbia Broadcasting System's
evening television news program.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cronus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cronus%@AE@%,%@CR:CRONUS          @%%@QR:Cronus@% in Greek myth, the youngest %@AU@%TITAN%@BO:          960a77@%%@AE@%; son of %@AU@%URANUS%@BO:          9b05a7@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GAEA%@BO:          373730@%%@AE@%. He led%@EH@%
the Titans in a revolt against Uranus and ruled the world. By his sister
%@AU@%RHEA%@BO:          7eafae@%%@AE@%, he fathered the great gods-%@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%POSEIDON%@BO:          78820f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DEMETER%@BO:          27c701@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HERA%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HADES
%@AU@%%@BO:          3ee5a7@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HESTIA%@BO:          429c62@%%@AE@%. Fated to be overthrown by one of his children, he tried
unsuccessfully to destroy them. Zeus later led the %@AU@%OLYMPIAN%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@% gods in
defeating him in a battle, described by %@AU@%HESIOD%@BO:          42918d@%%@AE@%, called the Titanomachy.
Cronus is equated with the Roman god %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84ddfa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crookes, Sir William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crookes, Sir William%@AE@%,%@CR:CROOKES         @%%@QR:Crookes, Sir William@% 1832-1919, English chemist and physicist. Noted for%@EH@%
his work on radioactivity, he invented the spinthariscope (used to make
visible the flashes produced by bombarding a screen with the alpha rays
of a particle of radium), the radiometer (used to measure the intensity
of radiant energy), and the Crookes tube (a highly evacuated tube through
which is passed an electrical discharge). He founded (1859) %@AI@%Chemical News%@AE@%
and discovered the element %@AU@%THALLIUM%@BO:          948063@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%croquet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%croquet%@AE@%,%@CR:CROQUET         @%%@QR:croquet@% lawn game in which players hit wooden balls with wooden mallets%@EH@%
through a series of 9 or 10 wire arches (wickets). The first player to
hit the posts at both ends of the field wins. Developed in France in the
17th cent., the game is popular, with varying rules, in Britain and the
U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crosby, Bing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crosby, Bing%@AE@%,%@CR:CROSBY          @%%@QR:Crosby, Bing@% 1904-77, American singer and film actor; b. Tacoma, Wash.,%@EH@%
as Harry Lillis Crosby. His crooning voice was heard on radio and
records. His many films include %@AI@%Going My Way%@AE@% (1944; Academy Award).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cross%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cross%@AE@%,%@CR:CROSS           @%%@QR:cross@% widely used symbol found in such diverse cultures as those of%@EH@%
ancient India, Egypt, and the American Indians. Its most important use is
among Christians, to whom it recalls the crucifixion of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% and
humanity's redemption thereby. The oldest Christian remains contain
drawings of crosses. Their use was attacked by Byzantine %@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@%, but
was vindicated at the Second Council of %@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@% (787). There are many
types of crosses. The Latin cross, the commonest, has its upright longer
than its transom. With two transoms it is called a patriarchal or
archiepiscopal cross; with three, it is a papal cross. The Greek cross
has equal arms. A crucifix is a cross with the figure of Christ upon it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%croup%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%croup%@AE@%,%@CR:CROUP           @%%@QR:croup@% acute obstructive inflammation of the larynx in young children,%@EH@%
usually ages three to six. Symptoms include difficulty in breathing and a
high-pitched, barking cough due to swelling or spasm. The cause may be an
infection, %@AU@%ALLERGY%@BO:           3e65e@%%@AE@%, or obstruction by a swallowed object. Treatment is
directed at the cause.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crow%@AE@%,%@CR:CROW            @%%@QR:crow@% black %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (family Corvidae) related to the %@AU@%RAVEN%@BO:          7ceb3b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MAGPIE%@BO:          59ab38@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JAY%@EH@%
%@AU@%%@BO:          4b8f86@%%@AE@% and among the most intelligent of birds. Known for its throaty "caw," the
American, or common, crow, about 19 in. (49 cm) long with a wingspan of
over 3 ft (92 cm), destroys harmful insects and rodents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crow Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crow Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:CROW.INDIANS    @%%@QR:Crow Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Plains, who ranged the%@EH@%
Yellowstone R. region and spoke a Siouan language of the Hokan-Siouan
stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). A hunting tribe, they cultivated
only tobacco. Their highly complex social system stressed care of
children. They helped the white men in the %@AU@%SIOUX%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@% wars. Today most Crows
live in Montana, near the %@AU@%LITTLE BIGHORN%@BO:          55b845@%%@AE@%, where tourism, ranching, and
mineral leases provide tribal income.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crown%@AE@%,%@CR:CROWN           @%%@QR:crown@% circular head ornament worn by sovereigns. (The coronet is worn by%@EH@%
nobles.) In ancient Greece and Rome crowns were merely wreaths, sometimes
made of leaves, awarded in athletic or poetic contests, or in recognition
of public service. The use of the crown as a symbol of royal rank is of
ancient tradition in Egypt and the Orient. The medieval and modern crown,
an elaboration of the diadem, is usually made of metal, often gold,
inlaid with gems. Famous historic crowns include the Lombard iron crown
(Monza, Italy), the crown of Charlemagne (Vienna, Austria), and the crown
of St. Stephen of Hungary. The triple crown of the pope, known as a
tiara, dates from the 14th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crozet Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crozet Islands%@AE@%:%@CR:CROZET.ISLANDS  @%%@QR:Crozet Islands@% see %@AU@%FRENCH SOUTHERN AND ANTARCTIC LANDS%@BO:          363b53@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crucifix%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crucifix%@AE@%:%@CR:CRUCIFIX        @%%@QR:crucifix@% see %@AU@%CROSS%@BO:          24e9b4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crucifixion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crucifixion%@AE@%,%@CR:CRUCIFIXION     @%%@QR:crucifixion@% hanging on a cross, an ancient method of execution. It was%@EH@%
used in the Middle East, but not by the Greeks. The Romans may have
borrowed it from Carthage and reserved it for slaves and despised
criminals. A prisoner was either nailed or tied to the cross, and, to
induce more rapid death, his legs were often broken. %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% died by
crucifixion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crude oil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crude oil%@AE@%:%@CR:CRUDE.OIL       @%%@QR:crude oil@% see %@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cruikshank, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cruikshank, George%@AE@%,%@CR:CRUIKSHANK      @%%@QR:Cruikshank, George@% 1792-1878, English caricaturist, illustrator, and%@EH@%
etcher. The most popular caricaturist of his day, he illustrated more
than 850 books and contributed to the %@AI@%Meteor,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Scourge,%@AE@% and the
%@AI@%Satirist.%@AE@% Among his best works are illustrations for %@AI@%Life in London,%@AE@%
etchings for Grimm's %@AI@%German Popular Stories,%@AE@% and his drawings %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Drunkard's Children%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Gin Trap%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cruise missile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cruise missile%@AE@%:%@CR:CRUISE.MISSILE  @%%@QR:cruise missile@% see: %@AU@%MISSILE, GUIDED%@BO:          61768c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crumb, George (Henry)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crumb, George (Henry)%@AE@%,%@CR:CRUMB           @%%@QR:Crumb, George (Henry)@% 1929-, American composer; b. Charleston, W.Va.%@EH@%
Crumb, whose music often incorporates mysterious voices and the sounds of
unconventional instruments like thumb pianos, has composed such works as
%@AI@%Echoes of Time and the River%@AE@% (1967; Pulitzer) and %@AI@%Cosmic Dances for
%@AI@%Amplified Piano%@AE@% (1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crusades%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crusades%@AE@%,%@CR:CRUSADES        @%%@QR:Crusades@% wars undertaken by European Christians between the 11th and%@EH@%
13th cent. to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. At the Council of
Clermont (1095) Pope %@AU@%URBAN II%@BO:          9b081d@%%@AE@% exhorted Christendom to war, and the
Crusaders took their name from the crosses distributed there. Religious
motives dominated the Crusades at first, but worldly aims were never
absent: The nobles hoped to capture land and loot; the Italian cities
looked to expand trade with the Near East. The %@AB@%First Crusade, %@AE@%1095-99,
was led by Raymond IV, count of Toulouse, %@AU@%GODFREY OF BOUILLON%@BO:          3aea19@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BOHEMOND
%@AU@%I%@BO:          117760@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TANCRED%@BO:          929154@%%@AE@%. Their victorious campaign was crowned by the conquest of
Jerusalem (1099). The establishment of the Latin Kingdom of %@AU@%JERUSALEM%@BO:          4bf053@%%@AE@% and
the orders of the %@AU@%KNIGHTS HOSPITALERS%@BO:          503aa7@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%KNIGHTS TEMPLARS%@BO:          5044ed@%%@AE@% followed.
The %@AB@%Second Crusade, %@AE@%1147-49, preached by St. %@AU@%BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX%@BO:           efc37@%%@AE@% after
the Christians lost %@AU@%EDESSA%@BO:          2c5f9c@%%@AE@% (1144) to the %@AU@%TURKS%@BO:          98db81@%%@AE@%, ended in dismal failure.
After %@AU@%SALADIN%@BO:          8376ff@%%@AE@% captured (1187) Jerusalem for Islam, the %@AB@%Third Crusade,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1189-92, led by Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FREDERICK I%@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% of France, and
%@AU@%RICHARD I%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% of England, failed to recapture the city. A three-year truce,
however, gave Christians access to Jerusalem. The %@AB@%Fourth Crusade,
%@AB@%%@AE@%1202-04, was diverted for the benefit of Venice, and the Crusaders seized
Constantinople (see %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE, LATIN EMPIRE OF%@BO:          228d8b@%%@AE@%). In the pathetic
%@AB@%Children's Crusade%@AE@% (1212), thousands of children set out for the Holy
Land, only to be sold as slaves or to die of hunger or disease. The %@AB@%Fifth
%@AB@%Crusade, %@AE@%1217-21, was aimed at Egypt, but failed. The truce arranged with
the Muslims by Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% in the Sixth Crusade,
1228-29, was short-lived. Three later crusades in the 13th cent. failed
to reverse the Muslim gains. In 1291 the last Christian stronghold of
Akko (Acre) fell.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crustacean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crustacean%@AE@%,%@CR:CRUSTACEAN      @%%@QR:crustacean@% invertebrate animal (class Crustacea), an %@AU@%ARTHROPOD%@BO:           84a10@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Primarily aquatic, they have bilaterally symmetrical segmented bodies
covered by a chitinous exoskeleton that is periodically shed. In most,
the head and thorax are fused as a cephalothorax and protected by a
shield-like carapace. The head typically has two pairs of antennae, three
pairs of biting mouthparts, and usually one medial and two lateral eyes.
Thoracic appendages are often modified into claws and pincers with gills
at their bases. Crustaceans include %@AU@%SHRIMP%@BO:          88a25e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRAYFISH%@BO:          24643d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LOBSTERS%@BO:          560167@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRABS%@BO:          2437cf@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%BARNACLES%@BO:           c4eb4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cruz, Juana Ines de la%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cruz, Juana Ines de la%@AE@%:%@CR:CRUZ1           @%%@QR:Cruz, Juana Ines de la@% see %@AU@%JUANA INES DE LA CRUZ%@BO:          4d68cb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cruz, Ramon de la%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cruz, Ramon de la%@AE@%%@CR:CRUZ2           @%%@QR:Cruz, Ramon de la@%, 1731-94, Spanish dramatist. His %@AI@%sainetes,%@AE@% 450 one-act%@EH@%
comedies of middle- and lower-class life, freed Spanish drama from
foreign influence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cryogenics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cryogenics%@AE@%:%@CR:CRYOGENICS      @%%@QR:cryogenics@% see %@AU@%LOW-TEMPERATURE PHYSICS%@BO:          57939a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cryolite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cryolite%@AE@%%@CR:CRYOLITE        @%%@QR:cryolite@% or %@AB@%kryolite,%@AE@%sodium and aluminum fluoride mineral (Na%@AH@%3%@AE@%AlF%@AH@%6%@AE@%),%@EH@%
usually pure white or colorless but sometimes tinted pink, brown, or even
black and having a waxy luster. Cryolite is used principally as a flux in
the smelting of %@AU@%ALUMINUM%@BO:           436c3@%%@AE@%, but it is also a source of soda, aluminum
salts, fluorides, and hydrofluoric acid. Discovered (1794) in Greenland,
it occurs almost nowhere else.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cryptography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cryptography%@AE@%,%@CR:CRYPTOGRAPHY    @%%@QR:cryptography@% science of translating messages into ciphers or codes. The%@EH@%
science of breaking codes and ciphers without the key is called
cryptanalysis. Cryptology is the science embracing both cryptography and
cryptanalysis. The beginnings of cryptography can be traced to the
%@AU@%HIEROGLYPHICS%@BO:          42bd93@%%@AE@% of early Egyptian civilization (c.1900 BC). Ciphering has
always been considered vital for diplomatic and military secrecy. The
widespread use of computers and data transmission in commerce and finance
is making cryptography very important in these fields as well. Recent
successes in applying certain aspects of computer science to cryptography
have stimulated progress in this area, and seem to be leading to more
versatile and more secure systems in which the ciphering or coding is
implemented with sophisticated digital electronics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cryptophyta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cryptophyta%@AE@%,%@CR:CRYPTOPHYTA     @%%@QR:Cryptophyta@% small division of the plant kingdom, consisting of%@EH@%
photosynthetic, unicellular, flagellate %@AU@%ALGAE%@BO:           3985a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%crystal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%crystal%@AE@%,%@CR:CRYSTAL         @%%@QR:crystal@% solid body bounded by natural plane faces that are the external%@EH@%
expression of a regular internal arrangement of constituent atoms,
molecules, or ions. The particles in a crystal occupy positions with
definite geometrical relationships to each other, forming a kind of
scaffolding called a crystalline lattice. On the basis of its chemistry
and the arrangement of its atoms, a crystal falls into one of 32 classes;
these in turn are grouped into seven systems according to the
relationships of their axes. Differences in the physical properties of
crystals sometimes determine the use to which they can be put in
industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Crystal Palace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Crystal Palace%@AE@%,%@CR:CRYSTAL.PALACE  @%%@QR:Crystal Palace@% building designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, erected at Hyde%@EH@%
Park, London, for the Great Exhibition in 1851. It was removed to
Sydenham and used as a museum until damaged by fire in 1936. The iron,
glass, and wood structure greatly influenced late 19th-cent.
architecture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cs%@AE@%,%@CR:CS              @%%@QR:Cs@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%CESIUM%@BO:          1b1df2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cu%@AE@%,%@CR:CU              @%%@QR:Cu@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cuba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cuba%@AE@%,%@CR:CUBA            @%%@QR:Cuba@% officially Republic of Cuba, republic (1988 est. pop. 10,368,000),%@EH@%
44,218 sq mi (114,524 sq km), in the Caribbean Sea, 90 mi (145 km) S of
Florida. It consists of Cuba, the largest island in the %@AU@%WEST INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%, and
many small adjacent islands. Principal cities are %@AU@%HAVANA%@BO:          407b7d@%%@AE@% (the capital),
%@AU@%CAMAGUEY%@BO:          1780f5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SANTIAGO DE CUBA%@BO:          845196@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GUANTANAMO%@BO:          3e195d@%%@AE@%. The main island has three
mountain regions, including the rugged Sierra Maestra in the east, but is
predominantly level or gently rolling. The climate is subtropical.
Coffee, rice, corn, citrus fruits, and an excellent tobacco are grown;
nickel is mined; and there is a fishing industry. However, despite all
efforts to diversify the base, Cuba's economy remains overwhelmingly
dependent on the growth and refining of sugar. The people are of Spanish,
African, and mixed Spanish-African descent, and their language is
Spanish. Roman Catholicism, the major religion, is tolerated by the
regime, a one-party Marxist government dominated by its founder, Fidel
%@AU@%CASTRO%@BO:          19f33d@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Christopher %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% discovered the island of Cuba in 1492, and
Spain colonized it from 1511, using it as a base for New World
exploration and as an assembly-point for its treasure fleets. Called the
"Pearl of the Antilles," Cuba prospered in the 1600s and 1700s, its
population swelled by immigrants from Spain and African slave laborers.
When most of Spain's American possessions became independent republics in
the early 1800s, Cuba remained a colony. Slavery, a major prop of the
sugar-based economy, was not abolished until 1886. A %@AU@%TEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          940a3b@%%@AE@% for
independence (1868-78) was inconclusive. In 1895 a new struggle, led by
Jose marti, culminated in the %@AU@%SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR%@BO:          8d0a1a@%%@AE@% and establishment of a
Cuban republic in 1898. The new nation suffered recurrent periods of
dictatorship during which reformist zeal gave way to corruption and
repression, notably under Gerardo %@AU@%MACHADO%@BO:          58bdbc@%%@AE@% (1925-33) and his successor,
Fulgencio %@AU@%BATISTA Y ZALDIVAR%@BO:           d0ef6@%%@AE@%. After a long guerrilla campaign, Batista
was supplanted by Fidel Castro on Jan. 1, 1959. Castro promised agrarian
reform, and under his leadership the nation soon became the only
Communist state in Latin America and a firm ally of the USSR. An
unsuccessful U.S.-supported attempt by anti-Castro exiles to invade Cuba
at the %@AU@%BAY OF PIGS%@BO:           d3bc8@%%@AE@% in 1961 was followed in 1962 by a U.S.-Soviet
confrontation sparked by Soviet introduction of offensive weapons onto
the island (see %@AU@%CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS%@BO:          252bdd@%%@AE@%). The U.S. maintained a trade
embargo against Cuba into the 1980s, provoked by Cuban support of
revolutionary movements in Latin America and, later, in Africa.
Domestically, Castro virtually wiped out illiteracy but the economy still
requires massive Soviet aid. Experiments in privatization, begun in the
1980s, solved some production problems, but resulted in high profits for
entrepreneuers and Castro disallowed them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cuban Missile Crisis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cuban Missile Crisis%@AE@%,%@CR:CUBAN.MRISIS    @%%@QR:Cuban Missile Crisis@% 1962, major %@AU@%COLD WAR%@BO:          202276@%%@AE@% confrontation between the U.S.%@EH@%
and the Soviet Union. Following the %@AU@%BAY OF PIGS INVASION%@BO:           d3bc8@%%@AE@%, the USSR
secretly began building missile launching sites in Cuba. After the
construction was detected by U.S. reconnaissance flights, U.S. Pres.
%@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@% demanded (Oct. 22) the withdrawal of the missiles, and imposed a
naval blockade on Cuba. The Soviets agreed (Oct. 28) to dismantle the
missile sites, and the crisis ended as suddenly as it had begun.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cubism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cubism%@AE@%,%@CR:CUBISM          @%%@QR:cubism@% art movement, primarily in painting, that originated in Paris%@EH@%
c.1907. In intellectual revolt against the sensual, emotional art of
previous eras, the cubists used an analytical system in which
three-dimensional subjects were fragmented and redefined from several
different points of view simultaneously. Work from this analytic phase
(1907-12), as by Pablo %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@% and Georges %@AU@%BRAQUE%@BO:          13661c@%%@AE@%, appealed to the
intellect and has been termed conceptual realism because it shows objects
as the mind, not the eye, perceives them. During the synthetic phase
(1913 through the 1920s) works were composed of fewer and simpler forms,
in brighter colors, and many artists introduced the %@AI@%trompe l'oeil%@AE@% effect
of %@AU@%COLLAGE%@BO:          203c7f@%%@AE@%, as in the works of Juan %@AU@%GRIS%@BO:          3dd199@%%@AE@%. Other major exponents of cubism
included Jean %@AU@%METZINGER%@BO:          5f99bd@%%@AE@%, Marcel %@AU@%DUCHAMP%@BO:          2b05b7@%%@AE@%, and Fernand %@AU@%LEGER%@BO:          537e01@%%@AE@%. Influenced
also by African masks, Picasso's %@AI@%Demoiselles d'Avignon%@AE@% (1907; Mus. Mod.
Art, N.Y.C.) contains much of the basic material of cubism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cuckoo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cuckoo%@AE@%,%@CR:CUCKOO          @%%@QR:cuckoo@% %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Cuculidae, widely distributed in temperate and%@EH@%
tropical regions. Cuckoos are slender-bodied, long-tailed birds with
down-curved bills, pointed wings, and dull plumage. Typical American
cuckoos are the black-billed and yellow-billed cuckoos (%@AI@%Coccyzus
%@AI@%americanus%@AE@%), known for their low, chuckling call notes. The roadrunner
(%@AI@%Geococcyx californianus%@AE@%), a ground cuckoo of the southwest deserts,
speeds over the ground at up to 15 mi (24.1 km) per hr.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cucumber%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cucumber%@AE@%,%@CR:CUCUMBER        @%%@QR:cucumber@% herbaceous vine (%@AI@%Cucumis sativus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%GOURD%@BO:          3bdf96@%%@AE@% family. Its%@EH@%
greenish, generally cylindrical fruit is eaten fresh and pickled.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cueva, Juan de la%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cueva, Juan de la%@AE@%%@CR:CUEVA           @%%@QR:Cueva, Juan de la@%, 1550?-1610?, Spanish dramatist. Of his 14 plays, the%@EH@%
most famous is the comedy %@AI@%The Scoundrel%@AE@% (1581). By introducing national
themes he laid the foundation for the drama of Spain's %@AU@%GOLDEN AGE%@BO:          3b20f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Culbertson, Ely%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Culbertson, Ely%@AE@%,%@CR:CULBERTSON      @%%@QR:Culbertson, Ely@% 1893-1955, American authority on contract %@AU@%BRIDGE%@BO:          13d191@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
Rumania. A champion bridge player himself, he introduced the first
successful system of bidding, wrote many books and a syndicated newspaper
column on the game, and edited %@AI@%Bridge World%@AE@% magazine. After World War II,
he wrote and lectured widely on world peace.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cullen, Countee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cullen, Countee%@AE@%,%@CR:CULLEN          @%%@QR:Cullen, Countee@% 1903-46, black American poet; b. N.Y.C. A major figure%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%HARLEM RENAISSANCE%@BO:          3fff4c@%%@AE@% of the 1920s, he applied traditional verse
forms to black American themes. His books of poetry include %@AI@%Color%@AE@% (1925)
and %@AI@%Copper Sun%@AE@% (1927).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cult%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cult%@AE@%,%@CR:CULT            @%%@QR:cult@% ritual worship of the supernatural or its symbolic representations.%@EH@%
It is often associated with a particular deity; for example, a cult of
the ancient Middle East was that of the %@AU@%GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS%@BO:          3ce313@%%@AE@%. The
term is now often used to refer to contemporary religious groups whose
beliefs and practices depart from the conventional norms of society.
These groups vary widely in doctrine, leadership, and ritual, but most
stress direct experience of the divine and duties to the cult community.
Cults tend to proliferate during periods of social unrest; most are
transient and peripheral. Many of those emerging in the U.S. since the
late 1960s have been marked by renewed interest in %@AU@%MYSTICISM%@BO:          65e341@%%@AE@% and Oriental
religions. Such major U.S. cults as the Rev. Sun Myung %@AU@%MOON'S%@BO:          63871b@%%@AE@% Unification
Church and %@AU@%HARE KRISHNA%@BO:          3ff662@%%@AE@%, a movement derived from Hinduism, have stirred
wide controversy. Popular hostility toward religious cults was aroused by
the mass suicide in 1978 of more than 900 cultists in Jonestown, Guyana.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cultural Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cultural Revolution%@AE@%%@CR:CULTURATION     @%%@QR:Cultural Revolution@% (1966-69), mass campaign in %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@% begun by %@AU@%MAO%@EH@%
%@AU@%TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@% to revitalize the nation's revolutionary fervor and renew its
basic institutions. Allied with the army, revolutionary Red Guards
recruited from the youth attacked so-called bourgeois elements in
cultural circles and in the bureaucracy. Lin Piao and %@AU@%JIANG QING%@BO:          4c3814@%%@AE@% were
other leaders of the movement, which resulted in widespread disorder and
violence. The revolution led to the fall of %@AU@%LIU SHAO-CH'I%@BO:          55c860@%%@AE@% and many other
Communist party officials.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%culture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%culture%@AE@%,%@CR:CULTURE         @%%@QR:culture@% in anthropology, the way of life of a human society, transmitted%@EH@%
from one generation to the next by learning (of language and other
symbolic media) and by experience. Cultural universals include social
organization, religion, structure, economic organization, and material
culture (tools, weapons, clothing). The spread of culture traits
(customs, ideas, attitudes) among groups by direct or indirect contact is
called diffusion. The general stages in cultural evolution are nomadic
food gathering (as in the Old and Middle %@AU@%STONE AGE%@BO:          8f4c47@%%@AE@%); settled food
producing (New Stone Age); and urban dwelling, as in all the great
civilizations of the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cumans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cumans%@AE@%%@CR:CUMANS          @%%@QR:Cumans@% or %@AB@%Kumans,%@AE@%nomadic East Turkic people. Coming from NW Russia, they%@EH@%
conquered S Russia and Walachia in the 11th cent. From their state along
the Black Sea they traded with the Orient and Venice. After their defeat
by the %@AU@%MONGOLS%@BO:          62c334@%%@AE@% (13th cent.) many Cumans fled to Bulgaria and Hungary, and
others joined the Empire of the %@AU@%GOLDEN HORDE%@BO:          3b2d72@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cumberland Gap%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cumberland Gap%@AE@%,%@CR:CUMBERLAND.GAP  @%%@QR:Cumberland Gap@% mountain pass through the Cumberland Mts. of the%@EH@%
Appalachians, near Middlesboro, Ky., discovered in 1750 by Dr. Thomas
Walker. Daniel %@AU@%BOONE'S%@BO:          1213b5@%%@AE@% %@AU@%WILDERNESS ROAD%@BO:          a1917b@%%@AE@% to the "Old West" ran through the
gap, and it was an important military objective of both sides in the
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. The pass was designated a national historical park in 1940.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cumin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cumin%@AE@%%@CR:CUMIN           @%%@QR:cumin@% or %@AB@%cummin,%@AE@%low annual herb (%@AI@%Cuminum cyminum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
long cultivated in the Old World for the aromatic, seedlike fruits. Cumin
is an ingredient of curry powder. It yields an oil used in liqueurs and
veterinary medicines. Related to the %@AU@%CARAWAY%@BO:          18b049@%%@AE@%, cumin has similar uses in
cooking.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cummings, e e%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cummings, e e%@AE@%%@CR:CUMMINGS        @%%@QR:cummings, e e@% (Edward Estlin Cummings), 1894-1962; b. Cambridge, Mass.%@EH@%
His lyrical verse, eccentric in typography and language, is included in
such volumes as %@AI@%Tulips and Chimneys%@AE@% (1923), %@AI@%Is 5%@AE@% (1926), and %@AI@%95 Poems%@AE@%
(1958). %@AI@%The Enormous Room%@AE@% (1922) is an exceptional prose account of his
World War I internment in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cuneiform%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cuneiform%@AE@%%@CR:CUNEIFORM       @%%@QR:cuneiform@% [Lat.,=wedge-shaped], system of %@AU@%WRITING%@BO:          a380cf@%%@AE@% developed before the%@EH@%
last centuries of the 4th millennium BC in the lower Tigris and Euphrates
valley, probably by the Sumerians. The characters consist of arrangements
of wedge-like strokes, generally on clay tablets. The history of the
script is strikingly like that of the Egyptian %@AU@%HIEROGLYPHIC%@BO:          42bd93@%%@AE@% (see also
%@AU@%ALPHABET%@BO:           41402@%%@AE@%). Normal Babylonian and Assyrian writing used from 300 to 600
arbitrary cuneiform symbols for words and syllables, some originally
pictographic. There was also an alphabetic system that made it possible
to spell out a word, but because of the adaptation from Sumerian, a
different language, there were many ambiguities. Cuneiform writing was
used outside Mesopotamia, notably in %@AU@%ELAM%@BO:          2d378e@%%@AE@% and by the %@AU@%HITTITES%@BO:          43399d@%%@AE@%, but was
not common after the Persian conquest of Babylonia (539 BC). A late use
was that of the %@AU@%ACHAEMENIDS%@BO:            b142@%%@AE@% of Persia (mid-6th-4th cent. BC). H.C.
%@AU@%RAWLINSON%@BO:          7cf40b@%%@AE@% and G.F. %@AU@%GROTEFEND%@BO:          3deaf4@%%@AE@% were noted cuneiform scholars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cunningham, Merce%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cunningham, Merce%@AE@%,%@CR:CUNNINGHAM      @%%@QR:Cunningham, Merce@% 1919-, American dancer and choreographer; b.%@EH@%
Centralia, Wash. He studied and performed (1940-55) with Martha %@AU@%GRAHAM%@BO:          3c0a98@%%@AE@%
before forming (1953) his own company. He creates dances to the music of
such avant-garde composers as John %@AU@%CAGE%@BO:          16d01b@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%Sixteen Dances for Soloist
%@AI@%and Company of Three%@AE@% (1951) and %@AI@%Squaregame%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cunobelinus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cunobelinus%@AE@%:%@CR:CUNOBELINUS     @%%@QR:Cunobelinus@% see %@AU@%CYMBELINE%@BO:          25ad67@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cuomo, Mario Matthew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cuomo, Mario Matthew%@AE@%,%@CR:CUOMO           @%%@QR:Cuomo, Mario Matthew@% 1932-, U.S. politician; b. N.Y.C. Admitted (1956)%@EH@%
to the New York bar, he successfully mediated (1972) a local housing
dispute. A Democrat, he was the state's secretary of state (1975-79),
lieutenant governor (1979-83), and governor (1982-). He attracted
national attention as the keynote speaker at the 1984 Democratic National
Convention.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cupid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cupid%@AE@%:%@CR:CUPID           @%%@QR:Cupid@% see %@AU@%EROS%@BO:          2fd997@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curacao%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curacao%@AE@%%@CR:CURACAO         @%%@QR:Curacao@%, island (1981 pop. 147,338), 178 sq mi (461 sq km), in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%NETHERLANDS ANTILLES%@BO:          687424@%%@AE@%. Willemstad is the capital of the island group. Its
refineries, among the world's largest, process oil from nearby Venezuela.
Discovered in 1499, it was settled (1527) by the Spanish and captured
(1634) by the Dutch. Many African slaves were imported.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%curare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%curare%@AE@%,%@CR:CURARE          @%%@QR:curare@% any of several %@AU@%ALKALOID%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@% plant extracts originally used as arrow%@EH@%
poisons by South American Indians. Curare produces paralysis by
interfering with the transmission of nerve impulses in skeletal muscle.
In recent years curare has been used medically as an adjunct to general
anesthesia and in diagnosing myasthenia gravis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curia Regis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curia Regis%@AE@%:%@CR:CURIA.REGIS     @%%@QR:Curia Regis@% see %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curie%@AE@%,%@CR:CURIE           @%%@QR:Curie@% family of French scientists. %@AB@%Pierre Curie, %@AE@%1859-1906, scientist,%@EH@%
and his wife, %@AB@%Marie Sklodowska Curie, %@AE@%1867-1934, chemist and physicist,
b. Poland, married 1895, are known for their work on radioactivity and on
radium. Pierre discovered (1883) and, with his brother Jacques,
investigated piezoelectricity (a form of electric polarity) in crystals.
Following Antoine %@AU@%BECQUEREL'S%@BO:           d8f0d@%%@AE@% discovery of %@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@%, Marie began to
study %@AU@%URANIUM%@BO:          9afbf2@%%@AE@%, a radioactive element found in pitchblende. Together, the
Curies discovered %@AU@%POLONIUM%@BO:          77b560@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RADIUM%@BO:          7c4d4f@%%@AE@% and determined their atomic weights
and properties. For their work on radioactivity, they shared with
Becquerel the 1903 Nobel Prize in physics. Marie Curie became the first
person to be awarded a second Nobel Prize when she received the 1911
chemistry prize for the discovery of polonium and radium. The French
scientists %@AB@%Frederic Joliot-Curie, %@AE@%1900-1958, formerly Frederic Joliot,
and %@AB@%Irene Joliot-Curie, %@AE@%1897-1956, daughter of Pierre and Marie Curie,
were married in 1926. They received the 1935 Nobel Prize in chemistry for
artificially producing radioactive substances by bombarding elements with
alpha particles. The Joliot-Curies investigated (1940) the chain reaction
in nuclear fission. In 1946 they helped to organize the French atomic
energy commission, of which Frederic was the first chairman (1946-50).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curitiba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curitiba%@AE@%,%@CR:CURITIBA        @%%@QR:Curitiba@% city (1980 pop. 843,733) SE Brazil, capital of Parana state. It%@EH@%
handles the products of an expanding agricultural and ranching area
through the Atlantic port of Paranagua, c.70 mi (110 km) away. Founded in
1654, the city became important when immigrants developed the Parana
hinterland from the late 19th cent. The city has grown rapidly since
1950.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%curium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%curium%@AE@%%@CR:CURIUM          @%%@QR:curium@% (Cm), synthetic element, first produced by alpha-particle%@EH@%
bombardment of plutonium-239 by Glenn %@AU@%SEABORG%@BO:          8642d4@%%@AE@% and colleagues in 1944. It
is a silvery metal and a very radioactive element in the %@AU@%ACTINIDE SERIES%@BO:            ddd8@%%@AE@%.
Curium accumulates in bones and disrupts red blood cells. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ;
%@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%curlew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%curlew%@AE@%,%@CR:CURLEW          @%%@QR:curlew@% large shore %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Numenius%@AE@%) of both hemispheres, usually%@EH@%
brown and buff in color with a downcurved bill. The long-billed curlew
(%@AI@%N. americanus%@AE@%) is found in the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%currant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%currant%@AE@%,%@CR:CURRANT         @%%@QR:currant@% northern shrub (genus %@AI@%Ribes%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%SAXIFRAGE%@BO:          85121b@%%@AE@% family. The%@EH@%
gooseberry bush belongs to the same genus. The tart black, white, or red
currant berries and the purple gooseberries are both eaten fresh or used
in preserves, sauces, and pies. Dried currants were used by native
Americans in making pemmican, a travel food. Today's commercial "dried
currant" is a raisin. Because gooseberries and currants are a host to
blister %@AU@%RUST%@BO:          826c89@%%@AE@%, their cultivation is discouraged.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%currency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%currency%@AE@%:%@CR:CURRENCY        @%%@QR:currency@% see %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Currier & Ives%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Currier & Ives%@AE@%,%@CR:CURRIER.IVES    @%%@QR:Currier & Ives@% American lithographers and publishers who produced highly%@EH@%
popular hand-colored prints of 19th-cent. scenes and events in American
life. %@AB@%Nathaniel Currier, %@AE@%1813-88, b. Roxbury, Mass., founded the business
(1835) in New York City and formed (1857) a partnership with the artist
and businessman %@AB@%James Merritt Ives, %@AE@%1824-95, b. N.Y.C. The business
closed in 1907.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curry, John Steuart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curry, John Steuart%@AE@%,%@CR:CURRY           @%%@QR:Curry, John Steuart@% 1897-1946, American painter; b. Dunavant, Kans. He%@EH@%
is known for his dramatic paintings of typically American subjects,
especially involving his native state, e.g., %@AI@%Baptism in Kansas.%@AE@% Curry was
also a muralist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curtis, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curtis, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:CURTIS1         @%%@QR:Curtis, Charles@% 1860-1936, vice president of the U.S. (1929-33); b. near%@EH@%
North Topeka, Kans. Of part Indian ancestry, Curtis was a U.S.
congressman from Kansas (1892-1906). A Republican, he championed Indian
rights and supported farm and veterans' benefits. He was a U.S. senator
(1907-13, 1915-29) before serving as Herbert %@AU@%HOOVER'S%@BO:          4444ca@%%@AE@% vice president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curtis, Cyrus Hermann Kotzschmar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curtis, Cyrus Hermann Kotzschmar%@AE@%,%@CR:CURTIS2         @%%@QR:Curtis, Cyrus Hermann Kotzschmar@% 1850-1933, American publisher; b.%@EH@%
Portland, Me. After starting the %@AI@%Ladies' Home Journal%@AE@% (1883), he founded
(1890) the Curtis Publishing Company and built up a national reputation
with the %@AI@%Saturday Evening Post%@AE@% and %@AI@%Country Gentleman.%@AE@% He also owned
several newspapers and was a great philanthropist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Curtiss, Glenn Hammond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Curtiss, Glenn Hammond%@AE@%,%@CR:CURTISS         @%%@QR:Curtiss, Glenn Hammond@% 1878-1930, American inventor and aviation%@EH@%
pioneer; b. Hammondsport, N.Y. He made (1908) the first public flights in
the U.S., established (1909) the first U.S. flying school, and made
(1910) a spectacular flight from Albany to New York City. He invented
(1911) ailerons (see %@AU@%AIRFOIL%@BO:           25258@%%@AE@%) and after World War I made radical
improvements in the design of planes and motors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%curve%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%curve%@AE@%,%@CR:CURVE           @%%@QR:curve@% in mathematics, the path of a point moving in space. In %@AU@%ANALYTIC%@EH@%
%@AU@%GEOMETRY%@BO:           51332@%%@AE@% a plane curve, i.e., a curve that lies in one plane, is usually
considered as the graph of an equation or function (for some examples,
see %@AU@%CONIC SECTION%@BO:          221550@%%@AE@%). A skew, twisted, or space curve is one that does not
lie all in one plane, e.g., the helix, a curve having the shape of a wire
spring.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cush%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cush%@AE@%,%@CR:CUSH            @%%@QR:Cush@% ancient kingdom of %@AU@%NUBIA%@BO:          6c066b@%%@AE@%, in what is now %@AU@%SUDAN%@BO:          902eda@%%@AE@%. It flourished from%@EH@%
the 11th cent. BC to the 4th cent. AD and in the 8th cent. BC included
Egypt in its domain. Meroe, its capital, was overrun by the Ethiopians in
the 4th cent., and the kingdom came to an end.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cushing, Harvey Williams%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cushing, Harvey Williams%@AE@%,%@CR:CUSHING         @%%@QR:Cushing, Harvey Williams@% 1869-1939, American neurosurgeon; b. Cleveland.%@EH@%
A noted brain surgeon and a teacher at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Yale,
he won a 1925 Pulitzer Prize for his biography of Sir William %@AU@%OSLER%@BO:          6f2bfd@%%@AE@%.
%@AB@%Cushing's disease, %@AE@%first described by him, is caused by hyperactivity of
the cortex of the adrenal glands and affects more women than men.
Symptoms include obesity, hypertension, hirsutism, and easy bruisability.
Treatment is by removal of one or both adrenal glands, or, if the
pituitary body is involved, by X-ray therapy or surgery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cushitic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cushitic%@AE@%%@CR:CUSHITIC        @%%@QR:Cushitic@%, group of languages belonging to the Hamitic subfamily of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%HAMITO-SEMITIC%@BO:          3f8845@%%@AE@% family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Custer, George Armstrong%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Custer, George Armstrong%@AE@%,%@CR:CUSTER          @%%@QR:Custer, George Armstrong@% 1839-76, U.S. Army officer; b. New Rumley,%@EH@%
Ohio. He compiled an extraordinary record in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% and became
(1863) the youngest general in the Union army. Later he commanded the 7th
Cavalry. During a campaign against the %@AU@%SIOUX INDIANS%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@% in 1876, Custer and
an entire detachment of over 200 men were killed by Indians on the %@AU@%LITTLE
%@AU@%BIGHORN%@BO:          55b845@%%@AE@% R. His spectacular death made him a popular but controversial
hero.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%customs duty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%customs duty%@AE@%:%@CR:CUSTOMS.DUTY    @%%@QR:customs duty@% see %@AU@%TARIFF%@BO:          92e61c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cuttlefish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cuttlefish%@AE@%,%@CR:CUTTLEFISH      @%%@QR:cuttlefish@% mollusk (order Sepioidea) that has 10 tentacles, 8 bearing%@EH@%
muscular suction cups on their inner surface and 2 longer ones for
grasping prey. A %@AU@%CEPHALOPOD%@BO:          1b0547@%%@AE@%, the cuttlefish has a reduced internal shell
embedded in the mantle; in some there is a degenerate internal shell of
lime called cuttlebone. The body is short, broad, and flattened with
lateral fins, similar to the %@AU@%SQUID%@BO:          8de86d@%%@AE@%. When disturbed, cuttlefish eject a
dark ink, which hides them from predators.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, Baron%@AE@%%@CR:CUVIER          @%%@QR:Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, Baron@%, 1769-1832,%@EH@%
French naturalist. A pioneer in comparative anatomy, he originated a
system of zoological classification based on structural differences of
the skeleton and organs. His reconstruction of the soft parts of fossils
deduced from their skeletal remains greatly advanced paleontology, and he
identified and named the flying reptile pterodactyl. He rejected
evolutionary theory in favor of %@AU@%CATASTROPHISM%@BO:          1a1948@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cuyp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cuyp%@AE@%%@CR:CUYP            @%%@QR:Cuyp@%or %@AB@%Kuyp%@AE@%, family of Dutch painters. %@AB@%Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp,%@EH@%
%@AB@%%@AE@%1594-c.1651, was a portrait and landscape painter. His stepbrother,
%@AB@%Benjamin Cuyp, %@AE@%1616-52, painted figures and peasant scenes in the style
of %@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@%. Jacob's son, %@AB@%Aelbert Cuyp, %@AE@%1620-91, was one of the foremost
Dutch landscapists. He is famous for his simple but richly colored
pastoral scenes; among the best are %@AI@%Piper with Cows%@AE@% and %@AI@%Promenade%@AE@% (both:
Louvre), and %@AI@%Horseman and Cows in a Meadow%@AE@% (National Gall., London).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cuza, Alexander John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cuza, Alexander John%@AE@%,%@CR:CUZA            @%%@QR:Cuza, Alexander John@% or %@AB@%Alexander John I,%@AE@%1820-73, first prince of%@EH@%
%@AU@%RUMANIA%@BO:          81dbb9@%%@AE@% (1859-66). He integrated Moldavia and Walachia, thereby creating
Rumania. He emancipated the serfs (1864) and instituted other important
reforms. He was forced to abdicate in 1866.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cuzco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cuzco%@AE@%%@CR:CUZCO           @%%@QR:Cuzco@% or %@AB@%Cusco,%@AE@%city (1981 pop. 181,604), S Peru, capital of Cuzco dept.%@EH@%
It is an agricultural trading center and has woolen mills. Said to have
been founded by %@AU@%MANCO CAPAC%@BO:          5aacf4@%%@AE@%, it was the capital of the %@AU@%INCA%@BO:          471223@%%@AE@% empire, with
massive, gold-decorated palaces and temples. After it was plundered by
Francisco %@AU@%PIZARRO%@BO:          7659a2@%%@AE@% in 1533, the Spaniards raised a colonial city within
the old walls, many of which remain visible. The city was devastated by
an earthquake in 1950, but most of the historic buildings have been
restored. The ruins of an Inca fortress are nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cyanide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cyanide%@AE@%,%@CR:CYANIDE         @%%@QR:cyanide@% salt or ester of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) formed by replacing the%@EH@%
hydrogen with a metal or a radical. The most common and widely used
(those of sodium and potassium) are employed as insecticides, in making
pigments, in metallurgy, and in gold and silver refining. Most cyanides
are deadly poisons that cause respiratory failure. Symptoms include a
breath odor of bitter almonds, dizziness, convulsions, collapse, and,
often, froth on the mouth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyaxares%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyaxares%@AE@%%@CR:CYAXARES        @%%@QR:Cyaxares@%, d. 585 BC, king of %@AU@%MEDIA%@BO:          5e029b@%%@AE@% (c.625-585 BC). He made the kingdom of%@EH@%
the Medes a major power in the Middle East. In 612 BC Cyaxares took
%@AU@%NINEVEH%@BO:          6a4294@%%@AE@% and completely defeated the Assyrians by 605 BC%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cybele%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cybele%@AE@%,%@CR:CYBELE          @%%@QR:Cybele@% in ancient Asiatic religion, %@AU@%GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS%@BO:          3ce313@%%@AE@%. The chief%@EH@%
centers of her early worship were Phrygia and Lydia. In the 5th cent. BC
her cult spread to Greece and later to Rome. She was primarily a nature
goddess, responsible for maintaining and reproducing the wild things of
the earth. Her annual spring festival celebrated the death and
resurrection of her beloved Attis, a vegetation god.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cybernetics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cybernetics%@AE@%,%@CR:CYBERNETICS     @%%@QR:cybernetics@% term coined by Norbert %@AU@%WIENER%@BO:          a17609@%%@AE@% to refer to the general%@EH@%
analysis of control systems and communication systems in living organisms
and machines. Analogies are drawn between the functioning of the brain
and nervous system and that of the %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% and other electronic systems.
Cybernetics overlaps the fields of %@AU@%AUTOMATION%@BO:           a3ca8@%%@AE@%, computing machinery,
%@AU@%INFORMATION THEORY%@BO:          4827d9@%%@AE@%, and neurophysiology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cycad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cycad%@AE@%,%@CR:CYCAD           @%%@QR:cycad@% palmlike plant of the Cycadales, an order of mostly tropical and%@EH@%
subtropical cone-bearing evergreens. Cycads, known from the Permian
period, are the most primitive of the living %@AU@%SEED%@BO:          868ba1@%%@AE@%-bearing plants. Some
have tuberous, underground stems and crowns of leathery, glossy, fernlike
leaves arising from ground level; others have high, columnar stems. Some
cycads, e.g., the fern palm of the Old World tropics and the Australian
nut palm, bear edible, nutlike fruits. Florida %@AU@%ARROWROOT%@BO:           82abe@%%@AE@%, or sago, is a
starch from the pith of the coontie, or sago palm (%@AI@%Zamia floridens%@AE@%). The
order comprises nine genera with fewer than a hundred species.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyclades%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyclades%@AE@%,%@CR:CYCLADES        @%%@QR:Cyclades@% island group (1981 pop. 88,458), c.1,000 sq mi (2,590 sq km),%@EH@%
SE Greece, in the Aegean Sea. It includes about 220 islands, the most
important of which are Tinos, Andros, Milos, Naxos, Kea, and Paros.
Largely mountainous, the islands are agricultural areas and tourist
centers. In 1829 they passed from the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% to Greece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cycladic art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cycladic art%@AE@%%@CR:CYCLADIC.ART    @%%@QR:Cycladic art@%, %@AU@%BRONZE AGE%@BO:          144216@%%@AE@% art of the central Aegean Cycladic islands.%@EH@%
Early tomb remains include jugs, pots, and bowls decorated in geometric
designs, as well as marble female fertility figures. These are frontal
and geometric in style. Figures of musicians have also been found.
Considerable Minoan (see %@AU@%MINOAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          613426@%%@AE@%) influence is seen in the
pottery of the 17th cent. BC found at Phylakopi in Melos.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cyclamate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cyclamate%@AE@%:%@CR:CYCLAMATE       @%%@QR:cyclamate@% see %@AU@%SWEETENERS, ARTIFICIAL%@BO:          918001@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cyclamen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cyclamen%@AE@%:%@CR:CYCLAMEN        @%%@QR:cyclamen@% see %@AU@%PRIMROSE%@BO:          798e64@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cyclone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cyclone%@AE@%,%@CR:CYCLONE         @%%@QR:cyclone@% region, often called a "low," of low central atmospheric%@EH@%
pressure relative to the surrounding pressure. The resulting pressure
gradient, combined with the %@AU@%CORIOLIS EFFECT%@BO:          235c5b@%%@AE@%, causes air to circulate
about the center, or core, in a counterclockwise direction north of the
equator and a clockwise direction south of it. The frictional drag on
near-surface air moving over land or water causes it to spiral inward
toward lower pressures; this movement is compensated for near the center
by rising currents, which are cooled by expansion when they reach the
lower pressures of higher altitudes. The cooling, in turn,
characteristically increases the relative %@AU@%HUMIDITY%@BO:          45414f@%%@AE@% greatly and produces
cloudiness. An %@AB@%anticyclone %@AE@%has the opposite characteristics: a "high," or
region of high central pressure relative to the surrounding pressure;
clockwise circulation north of the equator and counterclockwise
circulation south of it; descending and diverging air that is warmed by
compression as it encounters higher pressure at lower altitudes; and
characteristic low humidity and little cloudiness. Both cyclones and
anticyclones move across the land at speeds of 500 to 1,000 mi/day (800
to 1,600 km/day).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyclops%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyclops%@AE@%,%@CR:CYCLOPS         @%%@QR:Cyclops@%plural %@AB@%Cyclopes%@AE@% , in Greek mythology, immense one-eyed beings.%@EH@%
According to %@AU@%HESIOD%@BO:          42918d@%%@AE@%, they were smiths, sons of %@AU@%URANUS%@BO:          9b05a7@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GAEA%@BO:          373730@%%@AE@%, who gave
%@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% the lightning bolts that helped him defeat %@AU@%CRONUS%@BO:          24e007@%%@AE@%. In %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@%, they
were a barbarous people, one of whom (%@AU@%POLYPHEMUS%@BO:          77da4e@%%@AE@%) was encountered by
%@AU@%ODYSSEUS%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@% in his wanderings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cyclotron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cyclotron%@AE@%:%@CR:CYCLOTRON       @%%@QR:cyclotron@% see %@AU@%PARTICLE ACCELERATOR%@BO:          71b454@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cymbals%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cymbals%@AE@%:%@CR:CYMBALS         @%%@QR:cymbals@% see %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cymbeline%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cymbeline%@AE@%%@CR:CYMBELINE       @%%@QR:Cymbeline@% or %@AB@%Cunobelinus,%@AE@%d. AD c.40, British king. His conquest of the%@EH@%
Trinovantes (of Essex) made him the wealthiest and most powerful ruler in
SE England. Cymbeline gives his name, and little else, to %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE'S%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%
play.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cynewulf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cynewulf%@AE@%%@CR:CYNEWULF        @%%@QR:Cynewulf@%, fl. early 9th cent. Anglo-Saxon religious poet to whom are%@EH@%
ascribed four didactic poems: %@AI@%Juliana, The Ascension, Elene,%@AE@% and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Fates of the Apostles.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cypress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cypress%@AE@%,%@CR:CYPRESS         @%%@QR:cypress@% common name for the Cupressaceae, a widely distributed family of%@EH@%
coniferous shrubs and trees, some yielding valuable timber. Chief among
them are the %@AU@%JUNIPER%@BO:          4dbd30@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%ARBORVITAE%@BO:           74042@%%@AE@%, and the true cypresses. The latter,
found in S Europe, the Far East, and W North America, are resinous
evergreens with a fragrant, durable wood and scalelike leaves and include
the Monterey cypress (%@AI@%Cupressus macrocarpa%@AE@%), native to the region around
Monterey Bay, Calif., but widely cultivated. American trees of the genus
%@AI@%Chamaecyparis,%@AE@% also called cypresses, comprise some important timber
trees, e.g., the Lawson cypress, or Port Oxford cedar (%@AI@%C. lawsoniana%@AE@%).
The lumber called cypress in the S U.S. is mainly from %@AU@%BALD CYPRESS%@BO:           b47a8@%%@AE@%
trees.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyprian, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyprian, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:CYPRIAN         @%%@QR:Cyprian, Saint@% 200?-258, Father of the Church, bishop of %@AU@%CARTHAGE%@BO:          197101@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(c.248). He supported the papal view that Christians who had apostasized
under persecution should be readmitted to the church. He was martyred in
the persecution of the Roman emperor Valerian. Feast: Sept. 16.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyprus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyprus%@AE@%,%@CR:CYPRUS          @%%@QR:Cyprus@% Gr. %@AI@%Kypros,%@AE@% officially the Republic of Cyprus, republic (1986%@EH@%
est. pop. 673,000), 3,578 sq mi (9,267 sq km), an island in the E
Mediterranean Sea, c.40 mi (60 km) S of Turkey. The capital is %@AU@%NICOSIA%@BO:          69edba@%%@AE@%.
Two mountain ranges traverse the island from east to west; the highest
peak is Mt. Olympus (6,406 ft/1,953 m), in the southwest. Between the
ranges lies a wide plain, where grapes (used for wine), cereals, olives,
tobacco, and cotton are grown. Fishing, tourism, and the raising of
livestock are also important. Copper is the chief mineral resource.
Nearly 80% of the population is Greek, and about 18% is Turkish.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Excavations have revealed the existence of a Neolithic culture on
Cyprus from 4000 to 3000 BC Influenced by the Middle East and, after 1500
BC, by Greece, Cyprus fell to a succession of rulers, including Assyria,
Egypt, Persia, and Rome. After eight centuries (from AD 395) of Byzantine
control, it was conquered (1191) by %@AU@%RICHARD I%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% of England, who bestowed it
on the French Lusignan dynasty. Annexed (1489) by %@AU@%VENICE%@BO:          9c7c5c@%%@AE@% and conquered
(1571) by the Turks (see %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%), it came under British
administration in 1878 and was annexed outright by Britain in 1914. The
movements among Greek Cypriots for self-rule and union %@AI@%(enosis)%@AE@% with
%@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@% were a source of constant tension, erupting in 1955 into violence
that was tantamount to civil war. The conflict was aggravated by Turkish
support of Turkish Cypriot demands for partition of the island. In 1959,
a settlement, precluding both %@AI@%enosis%@AE@% and partition, provided for
independence in 1960, and %@AU@%MAKARIOS III%@BO:          59f956@%%@AE@%, leader of the Greek Cypriot
nationalists, was elected president. The British retained two sovereign
military enclaves, Akrotiri and Dhekelia. Large-scale fighting continued,
however, and a UN peacekeeping force was sent to Cyprus in 1965. In 1974
the national guard, dominated by Greek army officers, overthrew the
Makarios regime. Citing its responsibility to protect the Turkish Cypriot
community, Turkey invaded Cyprus and established a "Turkish Federated
State of Cyprus" in the northern third of the island. Since that time
Cyprus has been a divided state, with a self-governing Turkish community
in the north and a Greek community in the south.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyrene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyrene%@AE@%%@CR:CYRENE          @%%@QR:Cyrene@%, ancient city near the northern coast of Africa, in Cyrenaica (now%@EH@%
E Libya). A Greek colony (7th cent. BC), it was a city-state with much
commerce with Greece and some development of art. Cyrene became powerful
over other cities and held nominal independence until the marriage of
Berenice (d. 221? BC) to %@AU@%PTOLEMY III%@BO:          7a9a83@%%@AE@% of Egypt. It was later the center of
a Roman province. The Roman emperor %@AU@%TRAJAN'S%@BO:          973856@%%@AE@% punishment of Cyrene because
of Jewish uprisings led to its decline.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyril and Methodius, Saints%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyril and Methodius, Saints%@AE@%,%@CR:CYRIL.ADIUS     @%%@QR:Cyril and Methodius, Saints@% d. 869 and 884 respectively, Greek%@EH@%
missionaries, brothers, called Apostles to the Slavs and fathers of
Slavonic literature. Sent (863) to %@AU@%MORAVIA%@BO:          63b27a@%%@AE@%, they won papal approval for
the use of Slavonic in church liturgy. The %@AB@%Cyrillic alphabet, %@AE@%used in
Russia and elsewhere, is named for St. Cyril but was probably the work of
his followers. Feast: Feb. 14.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyrus the Great%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyrus the Great%@AE@%,%@CR:CYRUS.THE.GREAT @%%@QR:Cyrus the Great@% d. 529 BC, king of Persia, founder of %@AU@%ACHAEMENID%@BO:            b142@%%@AE@% power%@EH@%
and the Persian empire. He conquered %@AU@%MEDIA%@BO:          5e029b@%%@AE@% between 559 and 549 BC, Lydia
(see %@AU@%CROESUS%@BO:          24cdb7@%%@AE@%) in 546, and %@AU@%BABYLONIA%@BO:           aad2b@%%@AE@% in 538. In %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@% he laid the basis
for future Persian victories. Because he placed Jews in power in
%@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@%, creating a buffer state between Persia and Egypt, he is spoken
of approvingly in the Old Testament, e.g., Dan. 6.28. He respected the
religion and customs of each part of his empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Cyrus the Younger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Cyrus the Younger%@AE@%,%@CR:CYRUS.TER       @%%@QR:Cyrus the Younger@% d. 401 BC, Persian prince, younger son of %@AU@%DARIUS II%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and Parysatis. His mother obtained several satrapies for him in Asia
Minor when he was very young. In the %@AU@%PELOPONNESIAN WAR%@BO:          72ae2e@%%@AE@% he helped %@AU@%LYSANDER%@BO:          5858f2@%%@AE@%
to build a victorious fleet. When Darius died (404 BC) Cyrus was accused
of a plot to kill his elder brother, the heir, %@AU@%ARTAXERXES II%@BO:           8334b@%%@AE@%. Saved by
his mother, he raised an army to overthrow Artaxerxes but died in battle.
%@AU@%XENOPHON'S%@BO:          a3c145@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Anabasis%@AE@% describes the revolt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cystic fibrosis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cystic fibrosis%@AE@%,%@CR:CYSTIC.FIBROSIS @%%@QR:cystic fibrosis@% inherited disorder of the exocrine %@AU@%GLANDS%@BO:          3a8805@%%@AE@%, affecting%@EH@%
infants and children. It is characterized by secretion of a thick, sticky
mucus from the exocrine glands, which blocks the ducts of these glands
(especially pancreas, lungs, and liver). Symptoms include a distended
abdomen, diarrhea, malnutrition, and repeated incidence of respiratory
infections. Treatment consists of a low-fat, high-protein diet, %@AU@%VITAMINS%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%,
pancreatin, and %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@% to ward off infection.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%cytochrome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%cytochrome%@AE@%,%@CR:CYTOCHROME      @%%@QR:cytochrome@% class of heme-containing protein, discovered in 1886.%@EH@%
Cytochromes play a vital role in %@AU@%RESPIRATION%@BO:          7e6ed3@%%@AE@%, transporting electrons (as
hydride ions) generated by oxidative biochemical reactions, and in the
%@AU@%CITRIC ACID CYCLE%@BO:          1ea319@%%@AE@%. An oxygen molecule is the ultimate electron acceptor.
Various oxidized %@AU@%COENZYMES%@BO:          1ffe44@%%@AE@% are involved in the electron transport
process.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Czech language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Czech language%@AE@%%@CR:CZECH.LANGUAGE  @%%@QR:Czech language@%, in the past sometimes also called Bohemian, member of the%@EH@%
West Slavic group of the Slavic subfamily of the Indo-European family of
languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Czech Legion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Czech Legion%@AE@%,%@CR:CZECH.LEGION    @%%@QR:Czech Legion@% in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, a military force of c.40,000 to 50,000 men,%@EH@%
mostly Czechs and Slovak Russians, who fought for Russia. After Russia
left the war, the legion was evacuated via the Trans-Siberian RR. They
did some fighting for the anti-Bolsheviks in the Russian civil war.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Czechoslovakia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Czechoslovakia%@AE@%,%@CR:CZECHOSLOVAKIA  @%%@QR:Czechoslovakia@% Czech %@AI@%Ceskoslovensko,%@AE@% officially the Czechoslovak%@EH@%
Socialist Republic, federal republic (1986 est. pop. 15,573,000), 49,370
sq mi (127,869 sq km), central Europe; bordered by East Germany and
Poland (N), West Germany (W), Austria and Hungary (S), and the USSR (E).
Major cities include %@AU@%PRAGUE%@BO:          78ff37@%%@AE@% (the capital), %@AU@%BRNO%@BO:          141ef6@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BRATISLAVA%@BO:          1372ac@%%@AE@%. The
three main geographic regions are the Bohemian plateau, the Moravian
lowland, and mountainous Slovakia. The country is landlocked, and the
chief rivers-the %@AU@%DANUBE%@BO:          266955@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ELBE%@BO:          2d3ee9@%%@AE@%, Vltava (Moldau), and Oder-are economically
important. The republic comprises Slovakia and the traditional Czech
lands of Bohemia, Moravia, and Czech %@AU@%SILESIA%@BO:          8917f9@%%@AE@%. The population is largely
Slavic, consisting chiefly of Czechs (64%) and Slovaks (30%). Czech and
Slovak are the official languages. Roman Catholicism is the majority
religion, but there are sizable Protestant (notably %@AU@%HUSSITE%@BO:          45ace1@%%@AE@%), Eastern
Orthodox, and Uniate groups. Czechoslovakia is highly industrialized;
major manufactures include machinery and machine tools, metal-working and
transportation equipment, iron and steel, chemicals, food products,
textiles, and footwear. The country has large reserves of bituminous coal
and lignite and some iron ore. Agriculture is collectivized; major crops
include sugar beets, potatoes, wheat, and barley.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Czechoslovakia emerged in 1918 from the ruins of the
%@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@% as an independent republic. It was largely the
creation of its first and second presidents, Thomas Garrigue %@AU@%MASARYK%@BO:          5ca3d7@%%@AE@% and
Eduard %@AU@%BENEs%@BO:           e58a7@%%@AE@%. Economically the most favored of the Hapsburg successor
states, it also benefited from a liberal, democratic constitution (1920)
and able leadership. Its weakness lay in the disaffection of the German
and Magyar minorities and agitation for autonomy in Slovakia. Vehemently
backed by %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@%, the German nationalist minority demanded union with
Germany. Faced with the threat of war, the West pursued a policy of
appeasement and signed (1938) the %@AU@%MUNICH PACT%@BO:          652305@%%@AE@%, by which Germany obtained
the Bohemian borderlands (Sudetenland). The truncated state was dissolved
in 1939, when Germany made Bohemia and Moravia a "protectorate," Slovakia
gained nominal independence, and Ruthenia was awarded to %@AU@%HUNGARY%@BO:          455f06@%%@AE@%. After
liberation by U.S. and Soviet forces at the end of %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%,
Czechoslovakia was restored to its pre-Munich status (except for
Ruthenia, which was ceded to the USSR) and the German population was
expelled. A Communist-dominated coalition government ruled until 1949,
when the Communists gained control and established a Soviet-style state.
A trend toward liberalization, begun in 1963, reached its climax in 1968
with the installation of reformers Alexander %@AU@%DUBcEK%@BO:          2af0ae@%%@AE@% as party leader and
Ludvik Svoboda as president. In August the USSR with its Warsaw Pact
allies invaded Czechoslovakia, forcing the repeal of most of the reforms
and replacing Dubcek with the staunchly pro-Soviet Gustav %@AU@%HUSAK%@BO:          459b31@%%@AE@%. (For
history prior to 1918, as well as more detailed geographic and economic
information, see %@AU@%BOHEMIA%@BO:          117097@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MORAVIA%@BO:          63b27a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SLOVAKIA%@BO:          8a3193@%%@AE@%.)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Czerny, Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Czerny, Karl%@AE@%%@CR:CZERNY          @%%@QR:Czerny, Karl@%, 1791-1857, Austrian pianist. The teacher of %@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@%, he is%@EH@%
known for his technical studies for the piano.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dacca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dacca%@AE@%:%@CR:DACCA           @%%@QR:Dacca@% see %@AU@%DHAKA%@BO:          288d30@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dachau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dachau%@AE@%,%@CR:DACHAU          @%%@QR:Dachau@% West Germany: see %@AU@%CONCENTRATION CAMPS%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dachshund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dachshund%@AE@%,%@CR:DACHSHUND       @%%@QR:dachshund@% small, short-legged %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 5-9 in. (13-25%@EH@%
cm); weight, 5-20 lb (2-9 kg). It is black or chocolate with tan, or
solid red. There are six varieties: smooth-haired, longhaired,
wirehaired, and miniatures of each. The breed was developed in Germany
over hundreds of years to hunt badgers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dacia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dacia%@AE@%,%@CR:DACIA           @%%@QR:Dacia@% ancient region roughly corresponding to Rumania, whose people were%@EH@%
called Getae by the Greeks, Daci by the Romans. They had an advanced
material culture. %@AU@%DOMITIAN%@BO:          2a0c81@%%@AE@% tried to subdue them but ended by paying them
tribute (AD 90). Under %@AU@%TRAJAN%@BO:          973856@%%@AE@%, Dacia became (AD 105) a Roman province,
but %@AU@%AURELIAN%@BO:           9da51@%%@AE@% lost it to the invading Goths (250-70). The Roman legacy to
Dacia was the Romance tongue Rumanian.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dacko, David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dacko, David%@AE@%,%@CR:DACKO           @%%@QR:Dacko, David@% 1930-, president of the %@AU@%CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC%@BO:          1ae521@%%@AE@% (1960-66,%@EH@%
1979-81). A leader in the independence movement in French Equatorial
Africa, he became the first president of the newly independent Central
African Republic. He was toppled from power in 1966 by J.B. %@AU@%BOKASSA%@BO:          118bac@%%@AE@% but
reinstated in a 1979 coup. Reelected president, he was overthrown by a
military junta in 1981.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dacron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dacron%@AE@%:%@CR:DACRON          @%%@QR:Dacron@% see %@AU@%SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS%@BO:          91f393@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dada%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dada%@AE@%%@CR:DADA            @%%@QR:Dada@% or %@AB@%Dadaism,%@AE@%international nihilistic movement among European artists%@EH@%
and writers, 1916-22. It originated in Zurich with the French poet
Tristan Tzara and stressed absurdity and the role of the unpredictable in
artistic creation. Carried to New York by Jean %@AU@%ARP%@BO:           82768@%%@AE@%, Max %@AU@%ERNST%@BO:          2fd761@%%@AE@%, and Marcel
%@AU@%DUCHAMP%@BO:          2b05b7@%%@AE@%, these principles were eventually modified to become the basis of
%@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%. Duchamp's celebrated %@AI@%Mona Lisa%@AE@% adorned with mustache and
goatee and George %@AU@%GROSZ'S%@BO:          3de8b0@%%@AE@% caricatures are characteristic Dadaist works.
The literary manifestations of Dada were mostly nonsense
poems-meaningless and random word combinations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daddi, Bernardo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daddi, Bernardo%@AE@%,%@CR:DADDI           @%%@QR:Daddi, Bernardo@% fl. 1312-48, Italian painter of the Florentine school.%@EH@%
First influenced by %@AU@%GIOTTO%@BO:          3a515a@%%@AE@%, he later adopted the delicate line of the
Sienese painters. Among his works is the %@AI@%Madonna and Child%@AE@% (National
Gall., Wash., D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%daddy longlegs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%daddy longlegs%@AE@%%@CR:DADDY.LONGLEGS  @%%@QR:daddy longlegs@% or %@AB@%harvestman,%@AE@%an %@AU@%ARACHNID%@BO:           71d92@%%@AE@% with long slender legs, related%@EH@%
to the %@AU@%SPIDERS%@BO:          8d8568@%%@AE@%. It has eight legs extending from a rounded or oval body.
The daddy longlegs is omnivorous, feeding on plant fluids, animal tissue,
and other daddy longlegs. The unrelated long-legged crane fly (an %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@%)
is also called daddy longlegs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daedalus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daedalus%@AE@%%@CR:DAEDALUS        @%%@QR:Daedalus@%, in Greek mythology, craftsman and inventor. He built the%@EH@%
%@AU@%MINOTAUR'S%@BO:          613eb2@%%@AE@% labyrinth in Crete. When King %@AU@%MINOS%@BO:          613c5a@%%@AE@% refused to let him leave,
Daedalus built wax and feather wings for himself and his son Icarus. They
flew away, but when Icarus came too close to the sun his wings melted and
he fell to his death. Daedalus escaped to Sicily.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%daffodil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%daffodil%@AE@%:%@CR:DAFFODIL        @%%@QR:daffodil@% see %@AU@%NARCISSUS%@BO:          667ddb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande%@AE@%%@CR:DAGUERRE        @%%@QR:Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande@%, 1789-1851, French scene painter and%@EH@%
physicist, inventor of the daguerreotype. Known first for his
illusionistic stage sets, he was also the inventor, with C.M. Bouton, of
the diorama (pictorial views seen with changing lighting). The
daguerreotype, a photograph produced on a silver-coated copperplate
treated with iodine vapor, was developed with J. Nicephore %@AU@%NIEPCE%@BO:          69facb@%%@AE@% and
ceded to the Academy of Sciences in 1839.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dahlberg, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dahlberg, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:DAHLBERG        @%%@QR:Dahlberg, Edward@% 1900-77, American author; b. Boston. His works include%@EH@%
the proletarian novels, e.g., %@AI@%Bottom Dogs%@AE@% (1930), mystical literary
criticism, e.g., %@AI@%Do These Bones Live?%@AE@% (1941), and the autobiographical
%@AI@%Because I Was Flesh%@AE@% (1964).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dahlia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dahlia%@AE@%,%@CR:DAHLIA          @%%@QR:dahlia@% tuberous-rooted, perennial plant (genus %@AI@%Dahlia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, native to Guatemala and Mexico, and widely cultivated. Most of
the thousands of horticultural varieties are developed from one species
(%@AI@%D. pinnata%@AE@%), the garden dahlia. Dahlias are stout, woody plants with
colorful, late-blooming flowers. The tubers of the garden dahlia are a
source of fructose used by diabetics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dahomey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dahomey%@AE@%:%@CR:DAHOMEY         @%%@QR:Dahomey@% see %@AU@%BENIN%@BO:           e6e49@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daimler, Gottlieb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daimler, Gottlieb%@AE@%%@CR:DAIMLER         @%%@QR:Daimler, Gottlieb@%, 1834-1900, German engineer, inventor, and pioneer%@EH@%
%@AU@%AUTOMOBILE%@BO:           a3f3e@%%@AE@% manufacturer. His construction (1885) of the first high-speed
%@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@% led to the development of the automobile
industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dairying%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dairying%@AE@%,%@CR:DAIRYING        @%%@QR:dairying@% industry concerned with producing, processing, and distributing%@EH@%
%@AU@%MILK%@BO:          60aebc@%%@AE@% and milk products. Ninety percent of the world's milk comes from
%@AU@%CATTLE%@BO:          1a63a4@%%@AE@%; the rest comes from %@AU@%GOATS%@BO:          3ad286@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BUFFALO%@BO:          152e56@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SHEEP%@BO:          881850@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%REINDEER%@BO:          7dc15e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%YAKS
%@AU@%%@BO:          a3de87@%%@AE@%, and other ruminants. About one third of the milk is used for %@AU@%BUTTER%@BO:          1620d7@%%@AE@%, an
almost equal amount for market milk, and the rest for farm uses and the
making of %@AU@%CHEESE%@BO:          1c5ff8@%%@AE@%, concentrated milks, ice cream, and such by-products as
dried milk solids (e.g., %@AU@%LACTOSE%@BO:          516a52@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CASEIN%@BO:          19a30c@%%@AE@%). The rise of modern,
large-scale dairying paralleled the growth of urban populations and was
stimulated by the invention of the cream separator and other specialized
machines, the discovery of %@AU@%PASTEURIZATION%@BO:          71efb3@%%@AE@%, and the study of cattle
breeding.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%daisy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%daisy%@AE@%,%@CR:DAISY           @%%@QR:daisy@% name for several common wild flowers of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family. The%@EH@%
true, or English, daisy (%@AI@%Bellis perennis%@AE@%) is cultivated in the U.S.; its
white, pink, or red flowers close at night. Other species include the
purple Western daisy (%@AI@%Astranthum%@AE@% or %@AI@%B. integrifolium%@AE@%); and the common,
white, or oxeye, daisy of the U.S. (%@AI@%Chrysanthemum leucanthemum%@AE@%). Other
plants called daisy include the yellow daisy, or %@AU@%BLACK-EYED SUSAN%@BO:          107e10@%%@AE@%; the
Michaelmas daisy, an %@AU@%ASTER%@BO:           8ee25@%%@AE@%; the Paris daisy, one of the plants also
called marguerite; and the seaside daisy and daisy fleabane of the
fleabane genus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dakar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dakar%@AE@%,%@CR:DAKAR           @%%@QR:Dakar@% largest city (1976 pop. 798,792) and capital of Senegal, on Cape%@EH@%
Verde Peninsula, on the Atlantic Ocean. It is an economic center for a
market-gardening region, and its expanding industries produce refined
sugar, peanut oil, fertilizers, cement, and textiles. The city is the
busiest port in W Africa, also serving Mali and Mauritania, and is linked
by rail and air with other Senegalese cities. Dakar became the capital of
%@AU@%FRENCH WEST AFRICA%@BO:          363f73@%%@AE@% in 1902 and was occupied by U.S. forces in World War
II. The modern city is an educational and cultural center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dakota Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dakota Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:DAKOTA.INDIANS  @%%@QR:Dakota Indians@% see %@AU@%SIOUX INDIANS%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daladier, Edouard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daladier, Edouard%@AE@%%@CR:DALADIER        @%%@QR:Daladier, Edouard@%, 1884-1970, French premier (1934, 1938-40). A leading%@EH@%
radical Socialist in the 1930s, Daladier signed the %@AU@%MUNICH PACT%@BO:          652305@%%@AE@% with
%@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% in 1938 and presided over France in the early months of %@AU@%WORLD WAR
%@AU@%II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, until overthrown by his failure to aid Finland. After France's fall
(1940) he was arrested by the %@AU@%VICHY%@BO:          9d11e0@%%@AE@% government and was tried (1942) in
the war-guilt trials at Riom. In the Fourth Republic he served (1946-58)
in the national assembly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dalai Lama%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dalai Lama%@AE@%,%@CR:DALAI.LAMA      @%%@QR:Dalai Lama@% "oceanic teacher," title of the leader of %@AU@%TIBETAN BUDDHISM%@BO:          95ad0e@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Believed like his predecessor to be the incarnation of the Bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara, the fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, 1935-, gave up
cooperation with the Chinese and fled into exile (1959). He has traveled
widely, pleading the Tibetan cause.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dale, Sir Henry Hallett%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dale, Sir Henry Hallett%@AE@%,%@CR:DALE            @%%@QR:Dale, Sir Henry Hallett@% 1875-1968, English scientist. For his study of%@EH@%
%@AU@%ACETYLCHOLINE%@BO:            a84d@%%@AE@% as agent in the chemical transmission of nerve impulses, he
shared with Otto %@AU@%LOEWI%@BO:          562d33@%%@AE@% the 1936 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.
Dale also investigated the pharmacology of ergot and histamine shock. He
was knighted in 1932.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%d'Alembert, Jean le Rond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%d'Alembert, Jean le Rond%@AE@%:%@CR:DALEMBERT       @%%@QR:d'Alembert, Jean le Rond@% see %@AU@%ALEMBERT%@BO:           33722@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daley, Richard Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daley, Richard Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:DALEY           @%%@QR:Daley, Richard Joseph@% 1902-76, U.S. political leader; b. Chicago. A%@EH@%
former (1939-46) Illinois state senator, he was elected Cook co.
Democratic chairman in 1953. As mayor (1955-76) of %@AU@%CHICAGO%@BO:          1cc46b@%%@AE@%, he was one of
the last big city bosses; his support was often sought by state and
national leaders. Daley gained national notoriety in 1968 when Chicago
police brutally subdued demonstrators at the Democratic National
Convention.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dali, Salvador%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dali, Salvador%@AE@%,%@CR:DALI            @%%@QR:Dali, Salvador@% 1904-89, Spanish painter. Influenced by %@AU@%FUTURISM%@BO:          370ed5@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHIRICO%@BO:          1d959e@%%@AE@%, he became a leader of %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%. His precise style enhances the
dreamlike effect of his works, e.g., %@AI@%Persistence of Memory%@AE@% (1931; Mus.
Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dalin, Olof von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dalin, Olof von%@AE@%%@CR:DALIN           @%%@QR:Dalin, Olof von@%, 1708-63, Swedish historian, poet, and journalist, the%@EH@%
foremost figure of the Swedish %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@%. His prose masterpiece, the
allegorical %@AI@%Tale of the Horse%@AE@% (1740), uses folk material to satirize the
relations between the Swedish people and the monarchy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dallapiccola, Luigi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dallapiccola, Luigi%@AE@%,%@CR:DALLAPICCOLA    @%%@QR:Dallapiccola, Luigi@% 1904-75, Italian composer. The first Italian to use%@EH@%
%@AU@%ATONALITY%@BO:           99916@%%@AE@%, he is noted for his operas %@AI@%The Prisoner%@AE@% (1944-48) and %@AI@%Odysseus%@AE@%
(1968); the %@AU@%ORATORIO%@BO:          6e4380@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Job%@AE@% (1950); and the Christmas %@AU@%CONCERTO%@BO:          21ae65@%%@AE@% (1956).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dallas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dallas%@AE@%,%@CR:DALLAS          @%%@QR:Dallas@% city (1986 est. pop. 1,003,520), seat of Dallas co., N Tex., on%@EH@%
the Trinity R.; inc. 1871. A French settlement c.1841 and a cotton market
in the 1870s, it later developed into the financial and commercial center
of the Southwest. Oil refineries; diverse manufactures, particularly
aircraft and electronics; meat-packing plants; corporate headquarters for
oil, gas, insurance, and banking companies; and governmental offices are
of major importance in its economy. The city is also a tourist and
convention center. Dallas is noted as a hub of fashion and of cultural
and educational institutions. The expanding Dallas-Fort Worth area had a
1986 estimated metropolitan population of 3,655,300.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dalmatia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dalmatia%@AE@%%@CR:DALMATIA        @%%@QR:Dalmatia@%, historic region of Yugoslavia and province of %@AU@%CROATIA%@BO:          24bd64@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
extending along the %@AU@%ADRIATIC SEA%@BO:           15799@%%@AE@% from Rijeka to the Gulf of Kotor. Split
is the capital. Dalmatia is mountainous, except for a coastal lowland
whose scenic beauty attracts many tourists. Other economic activities
include agriculture and fishing. A Roman province, Dalmatia was divided
by the 10th cent. between the kingdoms of Croatia and Serbia. By 1420
Venice held most of the region. Various parts of Dalmatia passed
(16th-20th cent.) to Hungary, the Turks, France, and Austria. After 1918
the region became part of %@AU@%YUGOSLAVIA%@BO:          a49b0f@%%@AE@%. Most of Dalmatia was occupied by
Italy during World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dalmatian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dalmatian%@AE@%,%@CR:DALMATIAN       @%%@QR:Dalmatian@% hardy %@AU@%NONSPORTING DOG%@BO:          6b0c62@%%@AE@%, known for speed and endurance; shoulder%@EH@%
height, 19-23 in. (48.3-58.4 cm); weight, 35-50 lb (15.9-22.7 kg). It has
a short, glossy coat, white with black or dark-brown spots. Probably
developed in %@AU@%DALMATIA%@BO:          261e18@%%@AE@% several hundred years ago, it was associated with
horses and with horse-drawn coaches and fire engines; it remains a
firemen's mascot.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dalton, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dalton, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DALTON          @%%@QR:Dalton, John@% 1766-1844, English scientist. He taught mathematics and%@EH@%
physical sciences at New College, Manchester. Dalton revived the atomic
theory of matter (see %@AU@%ATOM%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@%), which he applied to a table of atomic
weights and used in developing his law of partial pressures (Dalton's
law). He was color-blind and studied that affliction, also known as
Daltonism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dam%@AE@%,%@CR:DAM             @%%@QR:dam@% barrier, commonly across a watercourse, to hold back water, often%@EH@%
forming a reservoir or lake. Modern dams maybe built for multiple
purposes: to provide water for irrigation, aid flood control, furnish
hydroelectric power, and improve the navigability of waterways. Rock-fill
and earth dams are built with a central core-usually clay or cement,
respectively-that is impervious to water. Gravity dams, usually made of
concrete, use their own weight to provide resistance to the pressure of
water. Single-arch concrete dams are curved upstream and are usually
constructed in narrow canyons where the rocky side walls are strong
enough to withstand the tremendous thrust of the dam, caused by the
pressure of the water. Multiple-arch dams consist of a number of single
arches supported by buttresses. See also %@AU@%ASWAN HIGH DAM%@BO:           93696@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GRAND COULEE
%@AU@%DAM%@BO:          3c3989@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HOOVER DAM%@BO:          444f5a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY%@BO:          93f121@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Damascene, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Damascene, John%@AE@%:%@CR:DAMASCENE       @%%@QR:Damascene, John@% see %@AU@%JOHN OF DAMASCUS, SAINT%@BO:          4ca9d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Damascus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Damascus%@AE@%,%@CR:DAMASCUS        @%%@QR:Damascus@% city (1981 pop. 1,112,214), capital of Syria, SW Syria. The%@EH@%
largest city in Syria, it stands in an oasis between mountains and desert
and is bisected by the Barada R. Manufactures include textiles, sugar,
and glass. Inhabited before 2000 BC, it may be the oldest continuously
occupied city in the world. From the 2nd millennium BC to AD 395 it was
ruled by the Egyptians, the Israelites, the Assyrians, the Persians,
Alexander the Great, the Seleucids, and the Romans. A thriving commercial
city, it early adopted Christianity. St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@% was converted on the road
to Damascus. A provincial Byzantine capital, it fell to the Arabs in 635
and became Islamic. After 750 it was held by many conquerors, including
the Saracens (12th-13th cent.) and the Ottoman Turks (1516-1918). Arab
troops working with T.E. %@AU@%LAWRENCE%@BO:          52f50d@%%@AE@% helped the British take it in 1918. The
French then ruled it as part of a League of Nations mandate until Syria
became independent (1941). Landmarks include the Great Mosque, one of the
world's largest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%d'Amboise, Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%d'Amboise, Jacques%@AE@%,%@CR:DAMBOISE        @%%@QR:d'Amboise, Jacques@% 1934-, American dancer and choreographer; b. Dedham,%@EH@%
Mass. He became (1953) a soloist with the %@AU@%NEW YORK CITY BALLET%@BO:          698c62@%%@AE@%. He is
known for American-theme works, e.g., %@AI@%Filling Station,%@AE@% %@AI@%Western Symphony,%@AE@%
films, e.g., %@AI@%Carousel%@AE@% (1956), and his own ballets, e.g., %@AI@%Irish Fantasy%@AE@%
(1964).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Damien, Father%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Damien, Father%@AE@%,%@CR:DAMIEN          @%%@QR:Damien, Father@% 1840-89, Belgian missionary priest; b. Joseph de Veuster.%@EH@%
After working as a missionary (1864-73) among the natives of Hawaii, he
was transferred to the leper colony on Molokai, where he labored until he
himself died from leprosy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Damocles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Damocles%@AE@%%@CR:DAMOCLES        @%%@QR:Damocles@%, in classical literature, courtier of %@AU@%DIONYSIUS THE ELDER%@BO:          292f35@%%@AE@% at%@EH@%
%@AU@%SYRACUSE%@BO:          91fae6@%%@AE@%. To show the precariousness of power and rank, Dionysius gave a
banquet at which a sword was suspended over Damocles' head by a hair.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Damon and Pythias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Damon and Pythias%@AE@%,%@CR:DAMON.AAS       @%%@QR:Damon and Pythias@% two youths whose loyalty to each other symbolizes true%@EH@%
friendship. When Pythias, condemned to death by the Syracusan tyrant
%@AU@%DIONYSIUS THE ELDER%@BO:          292f35@%%@AE@%, was released to arrange his affairs, Damon stayed on
as pledge. On Pythias' return, Dionysius freed them both.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dampier, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dampier, William%@AE@%,%@CR:DAMPIER         @%%@QR:Dampier, William@% 1651?-1715, English explorer. After a buccaneering%@EH@%
expedition against the Spanish (1679-81), he sailed around the world and
was marooned on the Nicobar Islands. His %@AI@%Voyages and Discoveries%@AE@% (1699)
includes a masterly treatise on hydrography. He later commanded an
expedition to the Pacific (1703-7), and discovered Dampier Island and
Dampier Strait.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dan%@AE@%:%@CR:DAN             @%%@QR:Dan@% see %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dana, Richard Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dana, Richard Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:DANA            @%%@QR:Dana, Richard Henry@% 1787-1879, American author; b. Cambridge, Mass. A%@EH@%
lawyer, poet, critic, and essayist, he was a founder of the %@AI@%North
%@AI@%American Review%@AE@% and is best known for his poem %@AI@%The Buccaneer%@AE@% (1827). His
son, %@AB@%Richard Henry Dana,%@AE@% 1815-82, was a writer and lawyer who wrote a
classic of the days of sailing ships in %@AI@%Two Years before the Mast%@AE@% (1840),
based on his experiences as a common sailor. %@AI@%The Seaman's Friend%@AE@% (1841),
a manual of maritime law, grew out of his legal practice.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Da Nang%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Da Nang%@AE@%,%@CR:DA.NANG         @%%@QR:Da Nang@% formerly Tourane, city (1971 est. pop. 437,700), E Vietnam, a%@EH@%
port on the %@AU@%SOUTH CHINA SEA%@BO:          8c1399@%%@AE@%. It has an excellent deepwater harbor.
Copper, coal, and gold are mined nearby. The scene (1535) of the first
European landing in Vietnam, it was ceded to France by %@AU@%ANNAM%@BO:           5b6f3@%%@AE@% in 1787.
During the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% it was the site of a huge U.S. military base.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dance%@AE@%,%@CR:DANCE           @%%@QR:dance@% art of precise, expressive, and graceful human movement, usually%@EH@%
performed in accord with musical accompaniment. Many primitive dances
have survived in the %@AU@%FOLK DANCE%@BO:          341aaa@%%@AE@% of modern times. American Indian dances,
usually of a ritualistic and ceremonial nature, illustrate many of the
purposes of primitive dancing. The dance of religious ecstasy, in which
hypnotic and trancelike states are induced (characteristic of Africa and
the Orient), was represented in America by the remarkable Indian %@AU@%GHOST
%@AU@%DANCE%@BO:          39fbe1@%%@AE@%. American Indian dancing is always performed on the feet, but in
islands of the Pacific and the Orient, dances are performed in a sitting
posture, with only the hands, arms, and upper parts of the body being
used. In Japan, the early dances became institutionalized with a national
school of dancing in the 14th cent. Soon dance became associated with the
famous No drama (see %@AU@%ORIENTAL DRAMA%@BO:          6ec79c@%%@AE@%). In medieval Europe, the repeated
outbreaks of dance mania, associated with epidemics of bubonic plague,
are reflected in the %@AU@%ALLEGORY%@BO:           3da28@%%@AE@% of the Dance of Death. Dancing as a social
activity and a form of entertainment is of relatively recent origin. In
the Middle Ages, social dancing was a feature of the more enlightened
courts. The %@AU@%BALLET%@BO:           b7ae9@%%@AE@% first appeared at the French court in the 16th cent.
Among formal social dances of the 17th cent. were the minuet and the
%@AU@%GAVOTTE%@BO:          386047@%%@AE@%. Popular national dances include the mazurka and polonaise, from
Poland; the fandango and bolero, from Spain; and the waltz, from Germany.
The U.S. initiated such dances as the cake walk, the Virginia reel, the
fox trot, and the Charleston. Since the 1920s the U.S. has seen a number
of dance crazes, e.g., the Lindy Hop of the 1930s, the jitterbug of the
1940s, the rock `n' roll of the 1950s, the go-go dances of the 1960s, and
the disco dances of the 1970s. See articles on major dance companies and
individual dancers; see also %@AU@%MODERN DANCE%@BO:          620430@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dance Theater of Harlem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dance Theater of Harlem%@AE@%,%@CR:DANCE.TF.HARLEM @%%@QR:Dance Theater of Harlem@% established (1968) as an open-door school. It%@EH@%
was founded by Arthur Mitchell of the %@AU@%NEW YORK CITY BALLET%@BO:          698c62@%%@AE@% and is the
first black classical dance company. Its repertoire includes mainly
classics choreographed by Mitchell, Jerome %@AU@%ROBBINS%@BO:          7f9802@%%@AE@%, Antony %@AU@%TUDOR%@BO:          987479@%%@AE@% and
others. The company tours extensively and offers community dance courses
at home.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dandelion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dandelion%@AE@%,%@CR:DANDELION       @%%@QR:dandelion@% perennial herb (genus %@AI@%Taraxacum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
widely distributed in temperate regions. It has a rosette of deep-toothed
leaves and a bright yellow head followed in fruit by a round head of
white down for wind distribution. The common dandelion (%@AI@%T. officinale%@AE@%) is
considered a lawn pest in the U.S. but is cultivated for food and
medicine elsewhere. The leaves are used in salads and as a seasoning; the
roots are used as a coffee substitute, as a bitter tonic, and as a
laxative; the flower heads are used for making dandelion wine and as
forage for bees. The dandelion plant contains a white latex-a
hydrocarbon-that can be converted into a combustible fuel. One species is
grown commercially for latex in the USSR and Argentina.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Danegeld%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Danegeld%@AE@%%@CR:DANEGELD        @%%@QR:Danegeld@%, medieval land tax originally raised to buy off raiding Danes%@EH@%
and later used for military expenditures. In England the tribute was
first levied in 868 and then in 871 by %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@%. Under %@AU@%AETHELRED%@BO:           19421@%%@AE@% (978-1016)
it became a regular tax, and was collected by later rulers until the 12th
cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Danelaw%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Danelaw%@AE@%%@CR:DANELAW         @%%@QR:Danelaw@%, originally the body of law that prevailed in the part of England%@EH@%
occupied by the Danes after the treaty of King %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@% with Guthrum in
886. It soon came to mean also the area in which Danish law obtained. The
Danelaw had four main regions: %@AU@%NORTHUMBRIA%@BO:          6bb06e@%%@AE@%; the areas around and
including Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford; %@AU@%EAST
%@AU@%ANGLIA%@BO:          2bd119@%%@AE@%; and the SE Midlands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daniel, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daniel, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:DANIEL1         @%%@QR:Daniel, Samuel@% 1562?-1619, English poet and historian. Best known for%@EH@%
his %@AU@%SONNET%@BO:          8b8f60@%%@AE@% sequence %@AI@%Delia%@AE@% (1592), he also wrote court %@AU@%MASQUES%@BO:          5cc2fc@%%@AE@%, narrative
poems, Senecan tragedies, and history, including a %@AI@%History of England%@AE@%
(1631).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daniel%@AE@%,%@CR:DANIEL2         @%%@QR:Daniel@% book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 27th in the Authorized Version. It%@EH@%
relates events and visions from the life of Daniel, a Jew of the 6th
cent. BC Daniel and his friends, taken to %@AU@%BABYLON%@BO:           aaa14@%%@AE@%, remain faithful to the
%@AU@%TORAH%@BO:          96ab91@%%@AE@% (1); Daniel interprets a dream of %@AU@%NEBUCHADNEZZAR%@BO:          67f311@%%@AE@% (2);
Nebuchadnezzar tries to punish three recalcitrant Jews (the Three Holy
Children) in the fiery furnace (3); Daniel interprets a second dream of
Nebuchadnezzar to foretell the latter's madness (4); Daniel interprets
the handwriting on the wall at %@AU@%BELSHAZZAR'S%@BO:           e3ce8@%%@AE@% feast (5); he escapes from
the lion's den (6); he has four apocalyptic visions (7-12). The story of
Susanna and the elders, and also the stories of Daniel's revelation of
the fraud connected with the Babylonian idol Bel and of his killing a
dragon and subsequent miraculous escape after being thrown to lions, are
in the version of Daniel in the %@AU@%APOCRYPHA%@BO:           6a905@%%@AE@%. The book as a whole presents
many critical problems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Danilova, Alexandra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Danilova, Alexandra%@AE@%%@CR:DANILOVA        @%%@QR:Danilova, Alexandra@% (dane'luva), 1904-. Russian-American ballerina; b.%@EH@%
St. Petersburg. She trained (1924-29) in St. Petersburg with %@AU@%DIAGHILEV%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@%,
and was (1938-52) prima ballerina of the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo.
After her retirement, she taught.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Danish language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Danish language%@AE@%,%@CR:DANISH.LANGUAGE @%%@QR:Danish language@% member of the North Germanic, or Scandinavian, group of%@EH@%
the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%D'Annunzio, Gabriele%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%D'Annunzio, Gabriele%@AE@%,%@CR:DANNUNZIO       @%%@QR:D'Annunzio, Gabriele@% 1863-1938, Italian poet, novelist, dramatist, and%@EH@%
soldier. The sensuous imagery of his early poetry, from %@AI@%Canto nuovo%@AE@%
(1882) to %@AI@%Alcione%@AE@% (1904), displayed unrivaled craftsmanship. His novels,
e.g., %@AI@%The Child of Pleasure%@AE@% (1889) and %@AI@%The Triumph of Death (1894),%@AE@% show
the same control of language but are shallow and theatrical. Two of his
plays, %@AI@%La Gioconda%@AE@% (1899) and %@AI@%Francesca%@AE@% (1902), were written for Eleonora
%@AU@%DUSE%@BO:          2b66a1@%%@AE@%; their affair he described in the novel %@AI@%The Flame of Life%@AE@% (1900). In
World War I, D'Annunzio's oratory had much to do with Italy's entrance on
the Allied side. In Sept. 1919 he led a march on Fiume, where he
established an illegal government. He was an early exponent of fascism.
See also %@AU@%IRREDENTISM%@BO:          49ca59@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dante Alighieri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dante Alighieri%@AE@%%@CR:DANTE.ALIGHIERI @%%@QR:Dante Alighieri@%, 1265-1321, Italian poet, author of the %@AI@%Divine Comedy.%@AE@% A%@EH@%
Florentine patrician, he fought on the side of the %@AU@%GUELPHS%@BO:          3e3505@%%@AE@% but later
supported the imperial party. In 1290, after the death of his exalted
Beatrice (see %@AU@%BEATRICE PORTINARI%@BO:           d66a7@%%@AE@%), he plunged into the study of
philosophy and Provencal poetry. Politically active in Florence from
1295, he was banished in 1302 and became a citizen of all Italy, dying in
Ravenna. The %@AI@%Divine Comedy,%@AE@% a vernacular poem in 100 cantos (more than
14,000 lines), was composed in exile. It is the tale of the poet's
journey through Hell and Purgatory (guided by %@AU@%VERGIL%@BO:          9ca1fb@%%@AE@%) and through Heaven
(guided by Beatrice, to whom the poem is a memorial.) Written in a
complex %@AU@%PENTAMETER%@BO:          72fb69@%%@AE@% form, %@AI@%terza rima,%@AE@% it is a magnificent synthesis of the
medieval outlook, picturing a changeless universe ordered by God. Through
it Dante established Tuscan as the literary language of Italy and gave
rise to a vast literature. His works also include %@AI@%La vita nuova%@AE@% (c.1292),
a collection of prose and lyrics celebrating Beatrice and ideal love;
treatises on language and politics; eclogues; and epistles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Danton, Georges Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Danton, Georges Jacques%@AE@%%@CR:DANTON          @%%@QR:Danton, Georges Jacques@%, 1759-94, French Revolutionary leader. A lawyer%@EH@%
who won immense popularity through his powerful oratory, he exercised
power as a member of the Legislative Assembly (1791-92), the %@AU@%COMMUNE OF
%@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          21148f@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%CORDELIERS%@BO:          234185@%%@AE@%, and through his participation in the overthrow
(1792) of the monarchy. In the new republic he was virtual head of the
Provisional Executive Council and came to dominate the first Committee of
Public Safety (1793) created by the Convention. Although initially Danton
had sought foreign wars in order to spread French institutions, with
France's military reverses he advocated a conciliatory foreign policy and
the relaxation of the %@AU@%REIGN OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@% at home. Eclipsed by %@AU@%ROBESPIERRE%@BO:          7fb6dc@%%@AE@%
and the extremists, he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy in 1794,
subjected to a mock trial, and guillotined.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Danube%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Danube%@AE@%,%@CR:DANUBE          @%%@QR:Danube@% chief river of central and SE Europe, c.1,770 mi (2,850 km) long,%@EH@%
second-longest European river after the Volga. It rises in the Brege and
Brigach rivers in the %@AU@%BLACK FOREST%@BO:          1083c4@%%@AE@% of SW West Germany and crosses or
forms part of the borders of Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Yugoslavia, Rumania, Bulgaria, and the USSR before entering the %@AU@%BLACK SEA%@BO:          10a43e@%%@AE@%
through a large (c.1,000 sq mi/2,590 sq km), swampy delta. The river is
navigable by barges to Ulm (West Germany) and is connected to N Europe by
the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. The Sip Canal bypasses the rapids at Iron
Gate gorge in the Rumanian-Yugoslavian section.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Danzig%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Danzig%@AE@%:%@CR:DANZIG          @%%@QR:Danzig@% see %@AU@%GDAnSK%@BO:          387115@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daphne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daphne%@AE@%,%@CR:DAPHNE          @%%@QR:Daphne@% in Greek mythology, a nymph loved by %@AU@%APOLLO%@BO:           6b067@%%@AE@%. When she was pursued%@EH@%
by him, she prayed for rescue and was transformed by %@AU@%GAEA%@BO:          373730@%%@AE@% into a laurel
tree.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daphnis and Chloe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daphnis and Chloe%@AE@%:%@CR:DAPHNISOE       @%%@QR:Daphnis and Chloe@% see %@AU@%LONGUS%@BO:          569a8b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Da Ponte, Lorenzo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Da Ponte, Lorenzo%@AE@%,%@CR:DA.PONTE        @%%@QR:Da Ponte, Lorenzo@% 1749-1838, Italian poet, librettist, and teacher. He%@EH@%
wrote the librettos to %@AU@%MOZART'S%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Marriage of Figaro%@AE@% (1786), %@AI@%Don Giovanni%@AE@%
(1787), and %@AI@%Cosi fan tutte%@AE@% (1790). In America after 1805, he taught
Italian language and culture. In 1833 he helped establish the Italian
Opera House, N.Y.C.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%DAR%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%DAR%@AE@%:%@CR:DAR             @%%@QR:DAR@% see %@AU@%DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          26af86@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%D'Arblay, Madame%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%D'Arblay, Madame%@AE@%:%@CR:DARBLAY         @%%@QR:D'Arblay, Madame@% see %@AU@%BURNEY, FANNY%@BO:          15d6c8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dardanelles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dardanelles%@AE@%,%@CR:DARDANELLES     @%%@QR:Dardanelles@% narrow strait, known as the Hellespont in ancient times,%@EH@%
c.40 mi (60 km) long and 1-4 mi (1.6-6.4 km) wide, linking the Sea of
Marmara and the Mediterranean Sea, and separating European and Asian
Turkey. It forms, with the Sea of Marmara and the %@AU@%BOSPORUS%@BO:          1267b2@%%@AE@%, the only
outlet of the %@AU@%BLACK SEA%@BO:          10a43e@%%@AE@%, controlling access of Soviet ships to the great
%@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN SEA%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@%-%@AU@%SUEZ CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@%-%@AU@%INDIAN OCEAN%@BO:          47934f@%%@AE@% sea lane. International access
by all merchant ships and by warships in peacetime was guaranteed by the
Montreux Convention (1936), which also recognized Turkey's right to
fortify the strait.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dardic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dardic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:DARDIC.S        @%%@QR:Dardic languages@% group of languages belonging to the Indo-Iranian%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dare, Virginia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dare, Virginia%@AE@%,%@CR:DARE            @%%@QR:Dare, Virginia@% b. 1587, first child born of English parents in America.%@EH@%
She was a member of the "lost colony" of Roanoke Island that disappeared
c.1591.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dar-es-Salaam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dar-es-Salaam%@AE@%,%@CR:DARESSALAAM     @%%@QR:Dar-es-Salaam@% largest city (1978 pop. 757,346) and capital of Tanzania,%@EH@%
on an arm of the Indian Ocean. It is the country's chief port and
economic center, connected by rail to Kigoma, in the west, and (since
1975) to %@AU@%LUSAKA%@BO:          57eec6@%%@AE@%, Zambia. The city has a variety of industries and a major
oil refinery. Founded in 1866 by the sultan of %@AU@%ZANZIBAR%@BO:          a4eab3@%%@AE@%, it became the
capital of German East Africa in 1891 and grew rapidly after World War
II. Today it has a university and several colleges.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dario, Ruben%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dario, Ruben%@AE@%%@CR:DARIO           @%%@QR:Dario, Ruben@%, 1867-1916, Nicaraguan poet and diplomat; b. Felix Ruben%@EH@%
Garcia Sarmiento. His first book, %@AI@%Blue%@AE@% (1888), heralded the founding of
%@AU@%MODERNISMO%@BO:          620e80@%%@AE@%. Other works include %@AI@%Prosas profanas%@AE@% (1896) and %@AI@%Autumn Poem%@AE@%
(1910), perhaps his masterpiece. His influence on all Spanish-language
writers was enormous. He served as a diplomat in many European and Latin
American countries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darius%@AE@%,%@CR:DARIUS          @%%@QR:Darius@% several kings of ancient %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Darius I%@AE@% (the Great), d. 486 BC%@EH@%
(r.521-486 BC), was one of the most able of the %@AU@%ACHAEMENIDS%@BO:            b142@%%@AE@%. He perfected
a highly efficient system of administration. Around 500 BC, when the
Ionian cities rebelled against Persian rule, Darius put down the rebels
and set out to punish the Greek city-states that had aided the
insurrection. He met defeat in the memorable battle of %@AU@%MARATHON%@BO:          5b617b@%%@AE@% (490 BC);
however, he consolidated Persian power in the East. He also continued
Cyrus the Great's policy of restoring the Jewish state. %@AB@%Darius II,%@AE@% d. 404
BC (r.423?-404 BC), was not popular or successful, and he spent much time
in quelling revolts. He lost Egypt (410) but secured influence in Greece.
%@AB@%Darius III,%@AE@% d. 330 BC (r.336-330 BC), seriously underestimated %@AU@%ALEXANDER
%@AU@%THE GREAT'S%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% strength when the Macedonians invaded Persia. He was defeated
by Alexander in several major battles and was forced to flee to Bactria,
where the satrap had him murdered. These events ended the Persian empire
and marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in the E
Mediterranean.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dark Ages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dark Ages%@AE@%:%@CR:DARK.AGES       @%%@QR:Dark Ages@% see %@AU@%MIDDLE AGES%@BO:          604e32@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darlan, Jean Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darlan, Jean Francois%@AE@%%@CR:DARLAN          @%%@QR:Darlan, Jean Francois@%, 1881-1942, French admiral and politician. The%@EH@%
leading member of Marshal %@AU@%PETAIN'S%@BO:          73f3d2@%%@AE@% Vichy government in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he
strengthened France's collaborationist ties with Germany. Later, as
commander of all French forces, he was in N Africa during the Nov. 1942
Allied landings and brought French N and W Africa over to the Allied
side. He was assassinated on Dec. 28.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darling%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darling%@AE@%,%@CR:DARLING         @%%@QR:Darling@% longest river in Australia, flowing 1,702 mi (2,739 km)%@EH@%
generally southwest across the semiarid plains of %@AU@%NEW SOUTH WALES%@BO:          6936b0@%%@AE@% to join
the %@AU@%MURRAY%@BO:          654ee3@%%@AE@% R. at Wentworth. An important source of irrigation water, it
rises in the rainy %@AU@%EASTERN HIGHLANDS%@BO:          2bdaf3@%%@AE@% and receives many tributaries;
occasionally it runs dry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darnley, Henry Stuart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darnley, Henry Stuart%@AE@%%@CR:DARNLEY         @%%@QR:Darnley, Henry Stuart@% or %@AB@%Stewart, Lord,%@AE@%1545-67, second husband of %@AU@%MARY%@EH@%
%@AU@%QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@% and father of %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%. Son of the powerful earl of Lennox,
he claimed succession to the English throne through his grandmother
Margaret %@AU@%TUDOR%@BO:          986ea3@%%@AE@%. His Catholic sympathies, his claim on the throne, and
perhaps his handsome appearance induced Mary to marry him in 1565. He
proved to be vicious and dissipated, and she did not make him royal
consort. Jealous of David %@AU@%RIZZIO%@BO:          7f8a2f@%%@AE@%, Darnley and others murdered him. Soon
Darnley was without friends. A plot was formed to murder him, probably
under the earl of %@AU@%BOTHWELL%@BO:          128883@%%@AE@%. On Feb. 9, 1567, the house near Edinburgh
where he was staying was blown up; he was found strangled in an adjoining
garden the next day.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darrow, Clarence Seward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darrow, Clarence Seward%@AE@%,%@CR:DARROW          @%%@QR:Darrow, Clarence Seward@% 1857-1938, American lawyer; b. Kinsman, Ohio. He%@EH@%
had an early lucrative career in private and corporate law, but with his
defense of Eugene V. %@AU@%DEBS%@BO:          27164b@%%@AE@% and others in connection with the 1894 Pullman
strike he turned to representing the underdog. He became famous as an
opponent of capital punishment; none of his more than 100 clients was
sentenced to death. In the %@AU@%SCOPES TRIAL%@BO:          85f562@%%@AE@% (1925) on the teaching of
evolution in public schools, he opposed fundamentalist religious tenets,
arguing against William Jennings %@AU@%BRYAN%@BO:          14ce74@%%@AE@%. Darrow's writings include %@AI@%Crime:
%@AI@%Its Cause and Treatment%@AE@% (1922).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darwin, Charles Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darwin, Charles Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:DARWIN1         @%%@QR:Darwin, Charles Robert@% 1809-82, English naturalist, grandson of Erasmus%@EH@%
%@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          2693e3@%%@AE@%. He firmly established the theory of organic %@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@%. His
position as official naturalist aboard the H.M.S. %@AI@%Beagle%@AE@% during its world
voyage (1831-36) started Darwin on a career of accumulating and
assimilating data that resulted in the formulation of his concept of
evolution. In 1858 he and Alfred Russel %@AU@%WALLACE%@BO:          9ec09f@%%@AE@% simultaneously published
summaries of their independently conceived notions of %@AU@%NATURAL SELECTION%@BO:          679366@%%@AE@%;
a year later Darwin set forth the structure of his theory and massive
support for it in his %@AI@%Origin of Species.%@AE@% This was supplemented by later
works, notably %@AI@%The Descent of Man%@AE@% (1871). Darwin also formulated a theory
of the origin of coral reefs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darwin, Erasmus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darwin, Erasmus%@AE@%,%@CR:DARWIN2         @%%@QR:Darwin, Erasmus@% 1731-1802, English physician and poet; grandfather of%@EH@%
Charles %@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@%. His long poem %@AI@%Botanic Garden%@AE@% (1789-91) expounded the
Linnaean system. %@AI@%Zoonomia%@AE@% (1794-96) explained organic life in
evolutionary terms, anticipating later theories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darwin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darwin%@AE@%,%@CR:DARWIN3         @%%@QR:Darwin@% city (1986 est. pop. 68,500), capital of the Northern Territory,%@EH@%
N Australia, on an inlet of the Timor Sea. It is the chief port and
administrative center for the sparsely settled tropical north coast.
Called Palmerston until 1911, it was renamed for Charles %@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@%, who
discovered its site in 1839. It has been largely rebuilt since a
devastating typhoon in 1974.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Darwinism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Darwinism%@AE@%:%@CR:DARWINISM       @%%@QR:Darwinism@% see %@AU@%NATURAL SELECTION%@BO:          679366@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dash%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dash%@AE@%:%@CR:DASH            @%%@QR:dash@% see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%data base%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%data base%@AE@%:%@CR:DATA.BASE       @%%@QR:data base@% see %@AU@%INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL%@BO:          4820c8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%data communications%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%data communications%@AE@%,%@CR:DATA.COIONS     @%%@QR:data communications@% application of telecommunications technology to the%@EH@%
problem of transmitting data, especially to, from, or between computers.
Although telephone circuits are often used, their relatively limited
frequency range makes them rather slow paths for data, a limitation
offset by their availability and relatively low cost. Generally, however,
%@AU@%MODEMS%@BO:          61edca@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%FACSIMILE MACHINES%@BO:          317a6c@%%@AE@% are used to coordinate the computer and the
telephone circuit. Where cost can be justified, high speed data links are
constructed; these are often coaxial cables designed for wide frequency
range, or microwave, radio systems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%data processing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%data processing%@AE@%%@CR:DATA.PROCESSING @%%@QR:data processing@% or %@AB@%information processing,%@AE@%the operations of handling,%@EH@%
merging, sorting, and computing performed upon data in accordance with
strictly defined procedures, e.g., recording and summarizing the
financial transactions of a business. In automatic data processing the
operations are performed by a %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%. In distributed data processing
some or all of the computer facilities are located in different places
and connected by telecommunications links.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%date%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%date%@AE@%,%@CR:DATE            @%%@QR:date@% name for a %@AU@%PALM%@BO:          70593f@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Phoenix dactylifera%@AE@%) and for its edible fruit,%@EH@%
probably native to Arabia and North Africa and long a major food source
in desert and tropical regions. The sweet, nutritious fruits grow in
heavy clusters; a tree may produce up to 200 lb (90 kg) annually. Sugar
and a fermented drink are made from the sap of the tree, and the seeds
are sometimes used as a coffee substitute. The wood of the trunk is used
in construction, and mats and baskets are woven from the leaves.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dating%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dating%@AE@%,%@CR:DATING          @%%@QR:dating@% in geology, archaeology, paleontology, and physics, the%@EH@%
determination of the actual or relative age of an object, of a natural
phenomenon, or of a series of events. The most common and accepted method
of absolute geologic dating (establishment of actual age) is based on the
natural %@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@% of certain minerals found in rocks; because the
rate of radioactive decay of any particular %@AU@%ISOTOPE%@BO:          4a2f0d@%%@AE@% is known, the age of
a specimen can be computed from the ratio of the remaining isotope and
its decay product. Relative geological dating (determination of the
sequence of geological events) is accomplished by marking out the
succession in which rocks were deposited, using various surface criteria.
The identification of %@AU@%FOSSILS%@BO:          34b3a3@%%@AE@% in a geological sample is very useful,
because certain assemblages of species are characteristic of specific
geologic time periods. Pollen analysis, or palynology, can also establish
the succession of deposits as well as the climate prevalent at the time
of deposition. In archaeology and recent geology, the carbon-14 method,
which measures the remaining amount of this radioactive isotope in
organic matter, can date specimens as old as 35,000 years. The death of
an organism terminates the previous incorporation of this isotope
(created by %@AU@%COSMIC-RAY%@BO:          23af5d@%%@AE@% bombardment) at a rate equal to the isotope's
known decay rate. This method's accuracy has been improved by
cross-checking with dendrochronology, in which the age of a piece of
ancient wood can be determined by examining the ring pattern in its cross
section. The pattern of individual ring widths in a sample reflects local
climatic conditions occurring at the time when the piece of wood was a
growing tree. By the use of overlapping patterns found in different wood
samples, dating by this method has been carried back over 8,000 years.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dative%@AE@%:%@CR:DATIVE          @%%@QR:dative@% see %@AU@%CASE%@BO:          199b65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daubigny, Charles-Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daubigny, Charles-Francois%@AE@%%@CR:DAUBIGNY        @%%@QR:Daubigny, Charles-Francois@%, 1817-78, French landscape painter. Best known%@EH@%
for his paintings of the banks of the Seine and the Oise, he was
particularly successful in his atmospheric depiction of dawn, twilight,
and moonlight, e.g., %@AI@%Moonlight.%@AE@% His son, %@AB@%Karl Pierre Daubigny,%@AE@% 1846-86,
painted in his father's manner.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daudet, Alphonse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daudet, Alphonse%@AE@%%@CR:DAUDET          @%%@QR:Daudet, Alphonse@%, 1840-97, French author. He is noted for his gently%@EH@%
naturalistic portrayals of French life, as in the Provence-inspired
collection of short stories, %@AI@%Letters from My Mill%@AE@% (1869). His
semiautobiographical novel, %@AI@%Le Petit Chose%@AE@% (1868), touchingly describes
his life at boarding school. His son, %@AB@%Leon Daudet,%@AE@% 1867-1942, editor of
the right-wing Catholic paper %@AI@%Action francaise,%@AE@% was the author of an
extensive and valuable series of memoirs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daughters of the American Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daughters of the American Revolution%@AE@%%@CR:DAUGHTEAN.REVO  @%%@QR:Daughters of the American Revolution@% (DAR), patriotic society founded%@EH@%
1890 in Washington, D.C., and open to women with ancestors who aided the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. It has over 208,000 members and has done much to
preserve and mark historic places. The DAR has been criticized for its
conservative political policies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Daumier, Honore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Daumier, Honore%@AE@%%@CR:DAUMIER         @%%@QR:Daumier, Honore@%, 1808-79, French caricaturist, painter, and sculptor.%@EH@%
Daumier was the greatest social satirist of his day. His bitterly ironic
approach mercilessly ridiculed bourgeois society in realistic graphic
style. He produced almost 4,000 lithographs now considered masterpieces.
His stylistically similar small canvases, e.g., %@AI@%Third-Class Carriage%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.), have the same dramatic intensity. His sculpture
includes over 30 small, painted busts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dauphin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dauphin%@AE@%%@CR:DAUPHIN         @%%@QR:dauphin@% [Fr.,=dolphin], French title. It was borne first by the counts of%@EH@%
Vienne and after 1350 by the eldest son of the king of France. If the
dauphin died before the king, the title went to the dauphin's eldest son.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davenport%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davenport%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVENPORT       @%%@QR:Davenport@% city (1986 est. pop. 98,750), seat of Scott co., E central%@EH@%
Iowa, on the Mississippi R.; inc. 1836. With the Illinois cities of Rock
Island, Moline, and East Moline, it forms the Quad Cities. It prospered
with the arrival (1856) of the first railroad to bridge the river. Today
it produces heavy industrial and agricultural equipment, and is a rail
and commercial center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%David, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%David, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVID1          @%%@QR:David, Saint@% d. 588?, patron saint of %@AU@%WALES%@BO:          9eabfb@%%@AE@%, first abbot of Menevia (now%@EH@%
Saint David's) in Wales. His shrine was an important place of pilgrimage
in the Middle Ages, and the national Welsh festival is still celebrated
on his feast, Mar. 1.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%David%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVID2          @%%@QR:David@% d. c.972 BC, king of the ancient Hebrews (c.1012-c.972 BC),%@EH@%
successor of %@AU@%SAUL%@BO:          84f091@%%@AE@% and one of the greatest of Hebrew national heroes. To
him were ascribed many of the %@AU@%PSALMS%@BO:          7a6dc1@%%@AE@%. Many of the interesting and
beautiful narratives in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@% deal with the story of David, e.g., the
fight of David and %@AU@%GOLIATH%@BO:          3b5872@%%@AE@%; the friendship of David and Saul's son,
Jonathan; David's love for %@AU@%BATH-SHEBA%@BO:           d0a48@%%@AE@%; and the revolt of %@AU@%ABSALOM%@BO:            66e9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%David%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVID3          @%%@QR:David@% kings of Scotland. %@AB@%David I,%@AE@% 1804-1153 (r.1124-53), fought without%@EH@%
success for %@AU@%MATILDA%@BO:          5d30cc@%%@AE@%, his niece, in the struggle for the English crown
between %@AU@%STEPHEN%@BO:          8ecb7e@%%@AE@% and Matilda. He did realize his main aim, securing
Northumberland. His rule of Scotland was felicitous. %@AB@%David II%@AE@% (David
Bruce), 1324-71 (r.1329-71), went to France after %@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% and Edward
de %@AU@%BALIOL%@BO:           b6953@%%@AE@% invaded Scotland in 1332. He invaded England in 1346, was
captured, and held until ransomed in 1357.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%David, Jacques-Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%David, Jacques-Louis%@AE@%%@CR:DAVID4          @%%@QR:David, Jacques-Louis@%, 1748-1825, French painter. The virtual art dictator%@EH@%
of France for a generation, he made a break with tradition that marks the
beginning of "modern art." He borrowed classical forms and motifs,
primarily from sculpture, to illustrate his sense of virtue. Inspired by
the ideals of the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%, he eschewed sentiment. His %@AI@%Death of
%@AI@%Socrates%@AE@% (1787; Metropolitan Mus.) and %@AI@%The Oath of the Horatii%@AE@% (Louvre)
are major works. David's iron control was softened in his portraits,
e.g., %@AI@%Marat%@AE@% (1793; Brussels). As First Painter to %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% he produced
paintings that are static and deadened in feeling, e.g., %@AI@%The Distribution
%@AI@%of the Eagles%@AE@% (1810).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davidson, Jo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davidson, Jo%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIDSON        @%%@QR:Davidson, Jo@% 1883-1952, American sculptor; b. N.Y.C. He is best known%@EH@%
for his insightful, vigorously modeled portrait busts of such leading
figures as Woodrow Wilson, Mahatma Gandhi, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and
Albert Einstein.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davies, Arthur Bowen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davies, Arthur Bowen%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIES1         @%%@QR:Davies, Arthur Bowen@% 1862-1928, American painter; b. Utica, N.Y. A%@EH@%
member of the %@AU@%EIGHT%@BO:          2d0fec@%%@AE@%, he favored symbolic, romantic pictures of the female
nude in idyllic landscapes. Davies was the chief organizer of the 1913
%@AU@%ARMORY SHOW%@BO:           8057a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davies, Robertson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davies, Robertson%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIES2         @%%@QR:Davies, Robertson@% 1913-, Canadian novelist. He came to international%@EH@%
attention with the Deptford trilogy of novels (1970-75), a richly plotted
study of three people's journey to self-discovery, replete with humor,
mystery, magic, Jungian ideas, and grotesque characters. His other novels
include %@AI@%The Rebel Angels%@AE@% (1982) and %@AI@%The Lyre of Opheus%@AE@% (1988).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Da Vinci, Leonardo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Da Vinci, Leonardo%@AE@%:%@CR:DA.VINCI        @%%@QR:Da Vinci, Leonardo@% see %@AU@%LEONARDO DA VINCI%@BO:          540317@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Angela Yvonne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Angela Yvonne%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS1          @%%@QR:Davis, Angela Yvonne@% 1944-, American black activist; b. Birmingham, Ala.%@EH@%
She taught (1969-70) at UCLA despite state efforts to oust her for being
a Communist. In 1970 she went into hiding after being accused of aiding
an attempted courtroom escape that killed four persons. Apprehended,
tried (1972), and acquitted, she became the vice-presidential candidate
of the Communist party in 1980.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Benjamin Oliver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Benjamin Oliver%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS2          @%%@QR:Davis, Benjamin Oliver@% 1877-1970, U.S. general; b. Washington, D.C.%@EH@%
Davis was (1940-48) the first black general in the U.S. Army. His son,
%@AB@%Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr.,%@AE@% 1912-, was the first black to become (1954)
an air force general.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Bette%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Bette%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS3          @%%@QR:Davis, Bette@% 1908-, American film actress; b. Lowell, Mass., as Ruth%@EH@%
Elizabeth Davis. An enduring Hollywood star, she has made such films as
%@AI@%Jezebel%@AE@% (1938; Academy Award), %@AI@%Dark Victory%@AE@% (1939), and %@AI@%All About Eve%@AE@%
(1950).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Colin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Colin%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS4          @%%@QR:Davis, Colin@% 1927-, English conductor. A clarinetist, he is self-taught%@EH@%
as a conductor. He led the BBC Symphony (1967- 71) and the Royal Opera,
Covent Garden (1971-) and has appeared often with the Boston Symphony
Orchestra (1975-).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Jefferson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Jefferson%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS5          @%%@QR:Davis, Jefferson@% 1808-89, American statesman, president of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@% (1861-65); b. near Elkton, Ky. A U.S. senator from
Mississippi (1847-51, 1857-61) and U.S. secretary of war (1853-57), Davis
left Washington after the secession (Jan. 1861) of Mississippi. As
president of the Confederacy, he assumed strong centralized power,
weakening the %@AU@%STATES' RIGHTS%@BO:          8e68df@%%@AE@% policy for which the South had seceded. He
had many disputes with Confederate generals, and R.E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% surrendered
without his approval. Captured (1865) by Union forces, he was imprisoned
for two years but was released (1867) without prosecution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Miles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Miles%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS6          @%%@QR:Davis, Miles@% 1926-, black American musician; b. Alton, Ill. He worked%@EH@%
with Charlie %@AU@%PARKER%@BO:          7161e2@%%@AE@% in the 1940s, was a catalyst of "cool" %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% around
1950, led influential small bands through the 1960s, and produced a
jazz-rock blend in the 1970s. His warm, often muted trumpet style is
famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Richard Harding%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Richard Harding%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS7          @%%@QR:Davis, Richard Harding@% 1864-1916, American writer; b. Philadelphia. A%@EH@%
leading journalist and foreign correspondent, he specialized in books
about his wartime experiences. His also wrote novels, e.g., %@AI@%Soldiers of
%@AI@%Fortune%@AE@% (1897) and %@AI@%The Bar Sinister%@AE@% (1903); short stories; and plays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, Stuart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, Stuart%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS8          @%%@QR:Davis, Stuart@% 1894-1964, American painter; b. Philadelphia. A jazz%@EH@%
enthusiast, he often incorporated jazz tempos into the vibrant patterns
of his paintings. In the 1920s Davis came under the influence of %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%
and created, in such works as %@AI@%Colonial Cubism%@AE@% (Walker Art Center,
Minneapolis), a brightly colored, distinctly American interpretation of
the movement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davis, William Morris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davis, William Morris%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVIS9          @%%@QR:Davis, William Morris@% 1850-1934, American geographer and geologist; b.%@EH@%
Philadelphia. He systematized the study of geography and enlarged its
scope; his methods of description and analysis and use of maps and block
diagrams revolutionized its teaching. He founded (1904) and headed the
Association of American Geographers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Davy, Sir Humphry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Davy, Sir Humphry%@AE@%,%@CR:DAVY            @%%@QR:Davy, Sir Humphry@% 1778-1829, English chemist and physicist. He was%@EH@%
professor (1802-13) at the Royal Inst., London, where his electrochemical
researches led to his isolation of %@AU@%SODIUM%@BO:          8af9be@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%POTASSIUM%@BO:          7897c3@%%@AE@% (1807) and
%@AU@%BARIUM%@BO:           c3c73@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BORON%@BO:          1253ca@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CALCIUM%@BO:          16e8ab@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MAGNESIUM%@BO:          597c14@%%@AE@% (1808). He showed chlorine to be an
element, theorized that acids characteristically contain hydrogen, and
classed chemical affinity as an electric phenomenon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dawes, Charles Gates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dawes, Charles Gates%@AE@%,%@CR:DAWES           @%%@QR:Dawes, Charles Gates@% 1865-1951, vice president of the U.S. (1925-29); b.%@EH@%
Marietta, Ohio. He shared the 1925 Nobel Peace Prize for proposing the
%@AU@%DAWES PLAN%@BO:          26dea5@%%@AE@% that reduced defeated Germany's %@AU@%REPARATIONS%@BO:          7e312b@%%@AE@%. He was vice
president under Pres. %@AU@%COOLIDGE%@BO:          22f96d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dawes Plan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dawes Plan%@AE@%,%@CR:DAWES.PLAN      @%%@QR:Dawes Plan@% presented (1924) by the committee headed by C.G. %@AU@%DAWES%@BO:          26dcc0@%%@AE@% to the%@EH@%
Allied Reparations Commission and accepted that year. It provided for the
reduction of Germany's %@AU@%REPARATIONS%@BO:          7e312b@%%@AE@% after %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% and the
stabilization of German finances.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dawson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dawson%@AE@%%@CR:DAWSON          @%%@QR:Dawson@% or %@AB@%Dawson City,%@AE@%city (1986 est. pop. 1,553), W Yukon, N Canada, at%@EH@%
the confluence of the Yukon and Klondike rivers. A famous gold rush town
whose population reached c.20,000 in 1898, it was the territorial capital
until replaced by %@AU@%WHITEHORSE%@BO:          a14777@%%@AE@% in 1952.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Day, Clarence Shepard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Day, Clarence Shepard%@AE@%,%@CR:DAY1            @%%@QR:Day, Clarence Shepard@% 1874-1935, American essayist; b. N.Y.C. He is best%@EH@%
known for sketches of his parents, e.g., %@AI@%Life with Father%@AE@% (1935) and %@AI@%Life
%@AI@%with Mother%@AE@% (1937).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Day, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Day, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DAY2            @%%@QR:Day, John@% 1522-84, English printer. His types included musical notes and%@EH@%
the first Anglo-Saxon type. He printed the first English book of church
music (1560) and the first English edition of %@AU@%FOXE'S%@BO:          34eba0@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Book of Martyrs%@AE@%
(1563).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%day%@AE@%:%@CR:DAY3            @%%@QR:day@% see %@AU@%SIDEREAL TIME%@BO:          88cef4@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SOLAR TIME%@BO:          8b25eb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dayan, Moshe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dayan, Moshe%@AE@%%@CR:DAYAN           @%%@QR:Dayan, Moshe@%, 1915-81, Israeli military leader; b. Palestine. He directed%@EH@%
the 1956 Sinai campaign as chief of staff and the 1967 Six-Day War as
defense minister. Blamed for Israeli unpreparedness in the 1973 October
War, he resigned (1974) with Golda %@AU@%MEIR%@BO:          5e53c4@%%@AE@%. Later (1977-79) he was Israeli
foreign minister. See also %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS.%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%day-care center%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%day-care center%@AE@%,%@CR:DAYCARE.CENTER  @%%@QR:day-care center@% institution for the care of children of working mothers;%@EH@%
also called day nursery, but not to be confused with %@AU@%NURSERY SCHOOL%@BO:          6c5ad3@%%@AE@%.
Originating in Europe in the late 18th cent., day-care facilities were
first established in the U.S. by private charities in the 1850s. The
women's movement and other social developments during the 20th cent. have
spurred the growth of day-care centers and encouraged businesses to
establish them. See also %@AU@%HEAD START%@BO:          40d4a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Day Lewis, C(ecil)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Day Lewis, C(ecil)%@AE@%,%@CR:DAY.LEWIS       @%%@QR:Day Lewis, C(ecil)@% 1904-72, English author. His verse was at first%@EH@%
didactic and social, reflecting his leftist leanings, later more personal
and metaphysical. His works include %@AI@%Collected Poems%@AE@% (1954); a translation
of Vergil's %@AI@%Aeneid%@AE@% (1952); and detective stories written under the
pseudonym Nicholas Blake. He was %@AU@%POET LAUREATE%@BO:          772031@%%@AE@% (1967-72).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%daylight saving time%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%daylight saving time%@AE@%%@CR:DAYLIGH.TIME    @%%@QR:daylight saving time@% (DST), time observed when clocks and other%@EH@%
timepieces are set ahead, usually by 1 hr, so that the sun will rise and
set later in the day as measured by civil time (see %@AU@%SOLAR TIME%@BO:          8b25eb@%%@AE@%). DST
conserves lighting power and provides more usable daylight hours for
afternoon and evening activities. First adopted during World War I by the
U.S. and other countries, DST in the U.S. currently extends from the last
Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October, the interval when daylight
periods are longest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dayton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dayton%@AE@%,%@CR:DAYTON          @%%@QR:Dayton@% city (1986 est. pop. 178,920), seat of Montgomery co., SW Ohio,%@EH@%
on the Great Miami R.; inc. 1805. It is a port and trading hub for a
fertile farm area, and an aviation center. Chief manufactures are cash
registers, appliances, and automobile parts. The city grew with the
extension of canals (1830s-40s) and railroads, and with the industrial
demands of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%WRIGHT%@BO:          a37a2c@%%@AE@% brothers, Dayton natives, returned
there after their historic first flight and established a research
aircraft plant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dazai Osamu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dazai Osamu%@AE@%%@CR:DAZAI.OSAMU     @%%@QR:Dazai Osamu@%, pseudonym of %@AB@%Tsushima Shuji%@AE@% (shoo'ji), 1909-48, Japanese%@EH@%
novelist. He was noted for his obsession with suicide, his ironic and
gloomy wit, and his brilliant fantasy. His masterpiece, %@AI@%Setting Sun%@AE@%
(1947), depicts the decline of Japan's nobility after World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%DC%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%DC%@AE@%:%@CR:DC              @%%@QR:DC@% see %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOTOR, ELECTRIC%@BO:          647ad2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%D Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%D Day%@AE@%:%@CR:D.DAY           @%%@QR:D Day@% see %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%DDT%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%DDT%@AE@%:%@CR:DDT             @%%@QR:DDT@% see %@AU@%INSECTICIDES%@BO:          487fae@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deadly nightshade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deadly nightshade%@AE@%:%@CR:DEADLY.DE       @%%@QR:deadly nightshade@% see %@AU@%BELLADONNA%@BO:           e1c35@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NIGHTSHADE%@BO:          6a257f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dead Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dead Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:DEAD.SEA        @%%@QR:Dead Sea@% salt lake, c.390 sq mi (1,010 sq km), in the arid Jordan trough%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@%, on the Israel-Jordan border. At 1,292 ft (394
m) below sea level, it is the lowest point on earth. The lake, which has
no life and owes its high salinity to rapid evaporation, derives most of
its inflow (now diminished because of irrigation) from the %@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d3d82@%%@AE@% R.
Potash and bromine are commercially extracted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dead Sea Scrolls%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dead Sea Scrolls%@AE@%,%@CR:DEAD.SES        @%%@QR:Dead Sea Scrolls@% documents of great historical and scholarly value,%@EH@%
found in 1947 and later in caves above the NW Dead Sea. Archaeologists
have shown that the scrolls stored in jars in the first cave at %@AU@%QUMRAN%@BO:          7be179@%%@AE@%
were written or copied between the 1st cent. BC and the first half of the
1st cent. AD Chief among the scrolls are two copies of the Book of
Isaiah, almost 1,000 years older than any Hebrew biblical manuscript
previously known. Another important scroll was a %@AI@%Manual of Discipline%@AE@% for
the ascetic community of Qumran, which has been closely identified with
the Essenes, a Jewish religious sect living an ascetic communal
agricultural life in that region between the 2d cent. BC and 2d cent. AD
Startling parallels between the Qumran scrolls and the New Testament
suggest a tie between the Essenes and the early Christians, and have led
to the much-disputed suggestion that Jesus and John the Baptist may have
been Essenes. More biblical and other manuscripts have been found
elsewhere in the Dead Sea area, some even more ancient than those at
Qumran.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deadwood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deadwood%@AE@%,%@CR:DEADWOOD        @%%@QR:Deadwood@% city (1980 pop. 2,035), seat of Lawrence co., W S.D., in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%BLACK HILLS%@BO:          108bbd@%%@AE@%; settled 1876. It was a gold and silver boom town; today
tourism, lumbering, and ore smelting provide employment. So named because
its trees had been killed by fire, Deadwood is noted for its colorful
early history and for the graves of Wild Bill %@AU@%HICKOK%@BO:          42b202@%%@AE@%, calamity jane, and
Deadwood Dick.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deafness%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deafness%@AE@%,%@CR:DEAFNESS        @%%@QR:deafness@% partial or total loss of hearing. It may be present at birth%@EH@%
(congenital) or acquired any time thereafter. Conductive deafness, one of
the two major types of deafness, involves a disturbance in the
transmission of sound to the nerve receptors of the inner ear. This type
of deafness may be caused by infection, impacted wax, perforation of the
eardrum, or otosclerosis, a chronic condition, especially in older
people, that restricts the vibration of the bone leading to the inner
ear. These conditions can usually be treated with %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%, surgery,
hearing aids, and other techniques. The other major type of
deafness-perceptive, or nerve, deafness-involves damage to neural
receptors in the inner ear, to nerve pathways to the brain, or to the
area of the brain concerned with hearing. Usually permanent, it can be
caused by infection, senility, tumors, or excessive noise, or it may be
congenital. Those who cannot be helped to hear may communicate through
lip reading and %@AU@%SIGN LANGUAGE%@BO:          8902fb@%%@AE@%. The first U.S. public school for the deaf
was founded in 1817 by T.H. %@AU@%GALLAUDET%@BO:          377798@%%@AE@%. See %@AU@%EAR%@BO:          2bae06@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deakin, Alfred%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deakin, Alfred%@AE@%,%@CR:DEAKIN          @%%@QR:Deakin, Alfred@% 1856-1919, Australian politician. He aided the fight for%@EH@%
Australian federation and was prime minister (1903-4, 1905-8, 1909-10) in
three fusion governments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dean, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dean, James%@AE@%,%@CR:DEAN            @%%@QR:Dean, James@% 1931-55, American film actor, b. Fairmount, Ind. Dean was%@EH@%
identified with restless, inarticulate youth in %@AI@%East of Eden%@AE@% (1953) and
%@AI@%Rebel without a Cause%@AE@% (1954). He was killed when his racing car crashed,
and his death set off a worldwide wave of cultist mourning.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deane, Silas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deane, Silas%@AE@%,%@CR:DEANE           @%%@QR:Deane, Silas@% 1737-89, American Revolutionary diplomat; b. Groton, Conn.%@EH@%
A delegate (1774-76) to the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@%, Deane was sent (1776)
to France, where he obtained commercial and military aid and recruited
foreign officers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dearborn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dearborn%@AE@%,%@CR:DEARBORN        @%%@QR:Dearborn@% city (1986 est. pop. 86,420), SE Mich., on the Rouge R.,%@EH@%
adjoining %@AU@%DETROIT%@BO:          285c4b@%%@AE@%; settled 1795, inc. as a city 1929. The home of the
Ford Motor Co., it is a warehousing and distribution center, and produces
metal goods. Largely residential despite its industry, it is famous for
the Edison Inst. of Technology, which includes Greenfield Village,
birthplace of Henry %@AU@%FORD%@BO:          3461fa@%%@AE@%, and the Henry Ford Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%death%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%death%@AE@%,%@CR:DEATH           @%%@QR:death@% cessation of all life (metabolic) processes. Death may involve the%@EH@%
organism as a whole (somatic death) or may be confined to cells and
tissues within the organism. Somatic death has been traditionally defined
as the discontinuance of cardiac activity and %@AU@%RESPIRATION%@BO:          7e6ed3@%%@AE@%. However, with
advances in organ %@AU@%TRANSPLANTATION%@BO:          976ffa@%%@AE@% techniques, the need has arisen for a
more precise definition of medical death, since the death of a donor must
be established before transfer of an organ can be undertaken. Somatic
death is followed by a number of irreversible changes of legal
importance, especially in estimating time of death (e.g., rigor mortis,
rigidity of the body caused by changes in muscle tissue, occurring 10 min
to several hours after death). The criterion used to establish somatic
death is still controversial, although a U.S. presidential commission in
1981 recommended that death be defined as "irreversible cessation of all
functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%death angel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%death angel%@AE@%:%@CR:DEATH.ANGEL     @%%@QR:death angel@% see %@AU@%MUSHROOM%@BO:          656c63@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Death Valley National Monument%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Death Valley National Monument%@AE@%,%@CR:DEATH.VONUMENT  @%%@QR:Death Valley National Monument@% protected desert region, 2,067,628 acres%@EH@%
(836,757 hectares), S California and S Nevada, location of the lowest
point (282 ft/86 m below sea level) in the Americas. It receives less
than 2 in. (5 cm) of rain a year and has recorded some of the world's
highest air temperatures (134 degF/57 degC) and ground temperatures (165
degF/74 degC). The unusual plants and animals found there are of
considerable scientific interest. Death Valley was a major source of
borax in the late 19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%debenture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%debenture%@AE@%:%@CR:DEBENTURE       @%%@QR:debenture@% see %@AU@%BOND%@BO:          11cc92@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%de Broglie, Louis Victor, prince%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%de Broglie, Louis Victor, prince%@AE@%:%@CR:DE.BROGLIE      @%%@QR:de Broglie, Louis Victor, prince@% see %@AU@%BROGLIE%@BO:          142c29@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Debs, Eugene Victor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Debs, Eugene Victor%@AE@%,%@CR:DEBS            @%%@QR:Debs, Eugene Victor@% 1855-1926, American Socialist leader; b. Terre%@EH@%
Haute, Ind. An advocate of industrial unions and a pacifist, Debs was
imprisoned in 1895 for breaking an injunction during the Pullman railroad
strike. Later, he was jailed (1918-21) for violating the Espionage Act.
He helped to form the Socialist party and was its presidential candidate
five times after 1900. Debs was widely revered as a martyr to his
principles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%debt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%debt%@AE@%,%@CR:DEBT1           @%%@QR:debt@% obligation in services, money, or goods owed by one party (the%@EH@%
debtor) to another (the creditor). A debt usually involves the payment of
%@AU@%INTEREST%@BO:          48bfdb@%%@AE@%. If a debtor fails to pay, a court may assign payment out of the
debtor's property. In ancient times debt was associated with slavery,
because the insolvent debtor and his household were often turned over to
the creditor to perform compulsory services. Imprisonment for debt, which
once filled prisons, was ended as such in England and the U.S. by laws
enacted in the 19th cent., although imprisonment on related charges, such
as concealment of assets, may still occur. The laws of %@AU@%BANKRUPTCY%@BO:           be8ec@%%@AE@% are
designed to distribute a debtor's assets to the creditors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%debt, public%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%debt, public%@AE@%,%@CR:DEBT2           @%%@QR:debt, public@% indebtedness of a government expressed in money terms; also%@EH@%
known as the national debt. The public debt increases whenever public
spending exceeds public revenues, producing budget deficits. To finance
such deficits, the government borrows from private or institutional
investors or from other governments. Public loans may be in the form of
short-term instruments, such as treasury certificates, long-term
government bonds, or various other notes. Governments may incur debts for
several reasons, most notably the financing of wars and the combating of
the effects of recessions. Heavy government borrowings exert upward
pressures on %@AU@%INTEREST%@BO:          48bfdb@%%@AE@% rates and may be harmful to the general economy.
The rate of increase in the U.S. public debt accelerated in the 1970s,
reaching $533 billion in 1975 and $826 billion in 1979. In 1981 Congress
raised the debt ceiling to over $1 trillion. During that period, however,
the debt as a percentage of the %@AU@%GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT%@BO:          3de3d2@%%@AE@% remained steady,
at less than 40%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Debussy, Claude Achille%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Debussy, Claude Achille%@AE@%%@CR:DEBUSSY         @%%@QR:Debussy, Claude Achille@%, 1862-1918, French composer, exponent of musical%@EH@%
%@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          4709aa@%%@AE@%. He employed the whole-tone %@AU@%SCALE%@BO:          8527cd@%%@AE@% to create nuances of mood
and expression, exploring unusual harmonies and dissonances. He is best
known for the tone poem (see %@AU@%SYMPHONIC POEM%@BO:          91d55a@%%@AE@%) %@AI@%Prelude to the Afternoon of
%@AI@%a Faun%@AE@% (1894), inspired by a poem of %@AU@%MALLARME%@BO:          5a50f1@%%@AE@%. Other orchestral works
include %@AI@%Nocturnes%@AE@% (1899) and %@AI@%La Mer%@AE@% (1905). His piano works include %@AI@%Suite
%@AI@%Bergamasque%@AE@% (1905), including %@AI@%Clair de lune; Estampes%@AE@% (1903); preludes;
and etudes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%decadents%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%decadents%@AE@%,%@CR:DECADENTS       @%%@QR:decadents@% name loosely applied to the late-19th-cent. artists and%@EH@%
writers who strove to express the morbid and macabre elements of human
emotion. They claimed art should exist for its own sake. Often confused
with the French %@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%, who influenced them, they were most evident
in England, where they included %@AU@%WILDE%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DOWSON%@BO:          2a7533@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BEARDSLEY%@BO:           d558d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Decameron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Decameron%@AE@%:%@CR:DECAMERON       @%%@QR:Decameron@% see %@AU@%BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI%@BO:          114347@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%decathlon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%decathlon%@AE@%,%@CR:DECATHLON       @%%@QR:decathlon@% a contest comprising 10 track-and-field events: broad jump;%@EH@%
high jump; discus; shot put; javelin; 100-meter, 400-meter, and
1,500-meter races; 110-meter hurdles; and pole vault. An Olympic event
since 1912, it has been dominated by Americans. The winner gains the
traditional title "world's greatest athlete." See %@AU@%PENTATHLON%@BO:          730184@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Decatur, Stephen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Decatur, Stephen%@AE@%,%@CR:DECATUR1        @%%@QR:Decatur, Stephen@% 1779-1820, American naval officer; b. near Berlin, Md.%@EH@%
During the %@AU@%TRIPOLITAN WAR%@BO:          97ea18@%%@AE@%, he led (1804) a daring raid into Tripoli
harbor to burn the captured U.S. frigate %@AI@%Philadelphia.%@AE@% In the %@AU@%WAR OF
%@AU@%1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%, Decatur commanded the %@AI@%United States%@AE@% and captured (1812) the British
frigate %@AI@%Macedonian.%@AE@% Known for his reckless bravery and stubborn
patriotism, he was mortally wounded in a duel with James %@AU@%BARRON%@BO:           c8986@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Decatur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Decatur%@AE@%,%@CR:DECATUR2        @%%@QR:Decatur@% city (1986 est. pop. 90,360), seat of Macon co., central Ill.,%@EH@%
on the Sangamon R., inc. 1839. A railroad and industrial center in a rich
farm area, Decatur processes soybeans and corn, repairs railway cars, and
manufactures tires, tractors, machinery, and automobile equipment.
Historic sites associated with Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% are in and around the
city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deccan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deccan%@AE@%,%@CR:DECCAN          @%%@QR:Deccan@% region of India. It is sometimes used in a wide sense for all of%@EH@%
India S of the Narbada R. and sometimes, more specifically, for the area
of rich volcanic soils and lava-covered plateaus in the northern part of
the peninsula between the Narbada and Krishna rivers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%December%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%December%@AE@%:%@CR:DECEMBER        @%%@QR:December@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Decembrists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Decembrists%@AE@%,%@CR:DECEMBRISTS     @%%@QR:Decembrists@% Russian officers who rose against Czar %@AU@%NICHOLAS I%@BO:          69d0d5@%%@AE@% in Dec.%@EH@%
1825. Influenced by liberal ideals while serving in W Europe during the
Napoleonic Wars (see %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%), they advocated representative democracy
but disagreed on its form. Their poorly organized rebellion was crushed,
but it led to increased revolutionary activity among the educated classes
and an accompanying rise in police terrorism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Chirico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Chirico%@AE@%:%@CR:DE.CHIRICO      @%%@QR:De Chirico@% see %@AU@%CHIRICO, GIORGIO DE%@BO:          1d959e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%decibel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%decibel%@AE@%%@CR:DECIBEL         @%%@QR:decibel@% (dB), unit of sound intensity. The faintest audible sound is%@EH@%
arbitrarily assigned a value of 0 dB, and the loudest sounds that the
human ear can tolerate are about 120 dB. The difference in decibels
between any two sounds is equal to 10 log%@AH@%10%@AE@% (%@AI@%P%@AE@%%@AH@%1%@AE@%/%@AI@%P%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%), where %@AI@%P%@AE@%%@AH@%1%@AE@% and %@AI@%P%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@% are
the two power levels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%decimal system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%decimal system%@AE@%%@CR:DECIMAL.SYSTEM  @%%@QR:decimal system@% [Lat.,=of tenths], %@AU@%NUMERATION%@BO:          6c4b74@%%@AE@% system based on powers of 10%@EH@%
and using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. A %@AU@%NUMERAL%@BO:          6c4855@%%@AE@% in the
decimal system is written as a row of digits, with each position in the
row corresponding to a specific power of 10 (see %@AU@%EXPONENT%@BO:          3137eb@%%@AE@%). A decimal
point in the row divides it into increasing positive powers of 10 for
positions to the left, and increasing negative powers of 10 for positions
to the right. For example, 103 represents (1*10%@AH@%2%@AE@%)+ (0*10%@AH@%1%@AE@%)+ (3*10%@AH@%0%@AE@%), or
100+0+3; and 1.03 corresponds to (1*10%@AH@%0%@AE@%)+ (0*10%@AH@%-1%@AE@%)+ (3*10%@AH@%-2%@AE@%), or
1+0+3/100. The decimal system was introduced into Europe c.1300. Its
positional system made it an improvement over Roman numerals and
simplified arithmetic computation. The %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@% of weights and
measures is based on the decimal system, as are most systems of national
currency.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Declaration of Independence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Declaration of Independence%@AE@%,%@CR:DECLARAENCE     @%%@QR:Declaration of Independence@% adopted July 4, 1776, by delegates of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%THIRTEEN COLONIES%@BO:          95067d@%%@AE@%, announcing their separation from Great Britain and the
creation of the U.S. It was written almost totally by Thomas %@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%.
The opening paragraphs state the American ideal of government, based on
the theory of natural rights. Its combination of general principles and
an abstract theory of government with a detailed enumeration of specific
grievances and injustices makes it one of the great political documents
of history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Declaration of London%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Declaration of London%@AE@%:%@CR:DECLARALONDON   @%%@QR:Declaration of London@% see %@AU@%LONDON, DECLARATION OF%@BO:          56714d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Declaration of Rights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Declaration of Rights%@AE@%:%@CR:DECLARARIGHTS   @%%@QR:Declaration of Rights@% see %@AU@%BILL OF RIGHTS%@BO:           fbc47@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen%@AE@%,%@CR:DECLARATS.OF.M  @%%@QR:Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen@% historic French document.%@EH@%
It was drafted (1789) by Emmanuel %@AU@%SIEYES%@BO:          88f405@%%@AE@% and embodied as the preamble in
the French constitution of 1791. Influenced by the U.S. %@AU@%DECLARATION OF
%@AU@%INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@%, it asserted the equality of all men,
the sovereignty of the people, and the inalienable rights of the
individual to liberty, property, and security.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%declension%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%declension%@AE@%:%@CR:DECLENSION      @%%@QR:declension@% see %@AU@%INFLECTION%@BO:          481801@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%declination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%declination%@AE@%:%@CR:DECLINATION     @%%@QR:declination@% see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%decompression sickness%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%decompression sickness%@AE@%,%@CR:DECOMPRICKNESS  @%%@QR:decompression sickness@% physiological disorder caused by rapid decrease%@EH@%
in atmospheric pressure that results in the release of nitrogen bubbles
into body tissues. The bubbles cut off the oxygen supply, causing nausea,
pain in the joints and abdomen, and, in severe cases, shock, paralysis,
and even death. Also known as the bends, or altitude sickness, it affects
divers, airplane pilots, and others working under compressed air. Use of
a %@AB@%decompression chamber%@AE@% allows for a gradual reduction of pressure,
preventing the accumulation of nitrogen in body tissues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Decoration Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Decoration Day%@AE@%:%@CR:DECORATION.DAY  @%%@QR:Decoration Day@% see %@AU@%MEMORIAL DAY%@BO:          5e8cb0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%decorations, civil and military%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%decorations, civil and military%@AE@%,%@CR:DECORATIONS     @%%@QR:decorations, civil and military@% honors bestowed by a government to%@EH@%
reward services or achievements, particularly those implying valor. The
practice, which dates back at least to the laurel wreaths of the ancient
Greeks and Romans, gained prevalence with the medieval custom of
conferring knighthood. Among these chivalric orders are the Order of the
Garter (created 1348) and the Order of the Bath (1399; revived 1725),
which still exist in Great Britain. The Legion of Honor, in France, was
created by Napoleon I in 1802 as a reward for civil and military service.
In the late 19th cent., countries throughout the world adopted the
European system of honors, and new African nations have done so in recent
decades. Major European military decorations include the Croix de Guerre
(Belgium and France, 1915), the Iron Cross (Germany, 1813; revived 1939),
and the Victoria Cross (Great Britain, 1856). In the U.S., the highest
decoration for exceptional heroism is the Medal of Honor (1861), followed
in importance by the Distinguished Service Cross (Army; 1918), the Navy
Cross (1919), and the Air Force Cross (1960). The Purple Heart (1782;
revived 1932) is awarded for wounds received in action, and the Silver
Star (1932) and Bronze Star (1944) are awarded for, respectively, heroism
and outstanding service. Campaign ribbons and battle stars are awarded
automatically for presence in certain battles and theaters of operation.
The highest U.S. award to civilians in peacetime is the Presidential
Medal of Freedom (1963), given for achievement in various fields,
including the arts. The two leading Soviet awards, the Gold Star Medal
(1939) and the Hammer and Sickle Gold Medal (1940), afford automatic
membership in the Order of Lenin (1930).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%decorative arts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%decorative arts%@AE@%,%@CR:DECORATIVE.ARTS @%%@QR:decorative arts@% a term that embraces all areas of material culture not%@EH@%
covered by the traditional fine arts categories of painting, sculpture,
and architecture. It includes handicrafts by skilled artisans, such as
ornamental work in metal, stone, wood, and glass as well as textiles,
pottery, and bookbinding. The term also refers to those aspects of
interior design subordinate to architecture, including molded plasterwork
and stuccowork, wallpaper, furniture, draperies, and eating and drinking
implements. Personal objects such as jewelry, weaponry, tools, and
costumes are considered to be part of the decorative arts as well. The
definition may be extended to include mechanical appliances and other
products of industrial design.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:DEDEKIND        @%%@QR:Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard@% 1831-1916, German mathematician,%@EH@%
perhaps best known for the "Dedekind cut," whereby real numbers can be
defined in terms of rational numbers. A student of Carl %@AU@%GAUSS%@BO:          3855ee@%%@AE@%, he led the
effort to formulate rigorous definitions of basic mathematical concepts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deduction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deduction%@AE@%.%@CR:DEDUCTION       @%%@QR:deduction@% %@AB@%1%@AE@% In traditional %@AU@%LOGIC%@BO:          5634cd@%%@AE@%, the process of drawing, by reasoning,%@EH@%
particular conclusions from more general principles assumed to be true.
The Aristotelian %@AU@%SYLLOGISM%@BO:          91c168@%%@AE@% is the classic example of deductive logic in
the tradition. %@AB@%2%@AE@% In contemporary logic, any statement derived by a
transformed rule upon an axiom; more generally, the term now refers to a
process of deriving theorems from axioms, or conclusions from premises,
by formal rules (transformation rules). See also %@AU@%INDUCTION%@BO:          47db24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dee, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dee, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DEE             @%%@QR:Dee, John@% 1527-1608, English mathematician, astrologer, and occultist.%@EH@%
Acquitted of a charge of sorcery against Queen Mary I, he became a
favorite of Queen Elizabeth I for whom he drew up valuable scientific
studies about newly discovered lands. His occult studies led to his claim
of having discovered the secret of %@AU@%ALCHEMY%@BO:           309bc@%%@AE@%, which he practiced abroad.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deep Sea Drilling Project%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deep Sea Drilling Project%@AE@%,%@CR:DEEP.SECT       @%%@QR:Deep Sea Drilling Project@% U.S. program, begun in 1964, to investigate%@EH@%
the evolution of ocean basins by drilling and studying cores of ocean
sediments and underlying oceanic crust. It uses the %@AI@%Glomar Challenger,%@AE@% an
elaborately equipped ship capable of drilling through great water depths.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deer%@AE@%,%@CR:DEER            @%%@QR:deer@% ruminant %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the family Cervidae, found worldwide except for%@EH@%
Australia. Deer range in size from the %@AU@%MOOSE%@BO:          63a729@%%@AE@%, which may be c.7 ft (2.1 m)
high at the shoulder, to the pudu of South America, which is c.12 in. (30
cm) high. Antlers, bony outgrowths of the skull used as weapons during
the breeding season, develop in males of most species and are shed and
renewed annually. In deer lacking antlers, long, upper canine teeth are
used for fighting. The white-tailed deer, a source of food and buckskin
for native Americans and white settlers, was nearly exterminated by over
hunting; it is now restored in the E U.S. Other North American deer
include the mule deer of the W U.S. and the closely related black-tailed
deer of the Pacific Coast. Old World deer include the red deer and fallow
deer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Defense, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Defense, United States Department of%@AE@%,%@CR:DEFENSE         @%%@QR:Defense, United States Department of@% federal executive department%@EH@%
charged with coordinating and supervising all activities relating to the
national security. It was organized (1949) to replace the National
Military Establishment (1947), which in turn had replaced the %@AU@%WAR
%@AU@%DEPARTMENT%@BO:          9f1621@%%@AE@%. It is the largest federal department. The secretary of
defense, a civilian, oversees all policies having to do with U.S.
military affairs. He is assisted by the secretaries of the army, navy,
and air force, who are also civilians appointed by the president. His
principal military advisers are the %@AB@%Joint Chiefs of Staff,%@AE@% a statutory
agency within the department whose members include a chairman, the chiefs
of staff of the army and air force, the chief of naval operations, and
the commandant of the Marine Corps.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%defense mechanism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%defense mechanism%@AE@%,%@CR:DEFENSESM       @%%@QR:defense mechanism@% in %@AU@%PSYCHOANALYSIS%@BO:          7a7b44@%%@AE@%, any of a variety of unconscious%@EH@%
reactions used by individuals to satisfy emotional needs: e.g., to
establish harmony among conflicting goals, to reduce feelings of %@AU@%ANXIETY%@BO:           68750@%%@AE@%
that result from unacceptable wishes, or to modify reality to make it
more tolerable. Common defense mechanisms are repression, the prevention
of unacceptable ideas from entering the conscious mind; displacement, the
release of dangerous impulses in a substitute situation or through
disguised activity; and sublimation (a constructive mechanism), the
redirection of instinctive sexual energy toward socially valuable ends.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deferent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deferent%@AE@%:%@CR:DEFERENT        @%%@QR:deferent@% see %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deflation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deflation%@AE@%:%@CR:DEFLATION       @%%@QR:deflation@% see under %@AU@%INFLATION%@BO:          481204@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Defoe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Defoe%@AE@%%@CR:DEFOE           @%%@QR:Defoe@% or %@AB@%De Foe, Daniel,%@AE@%1660?-1731, English writer. His poem %@AI@%The%@EH@%
%@AI@%True-born Englishman%@AE@% (1701), a defense of William III, brought fame, but
an ironic satire, %@AI@%The Shortest Way with Dissenters%@AE@% (1702), brought a
prison term. Called the father of modern journalism, he was associated
with 26 periodicals, and he wrote and published (1704-13) %@AI@%The Review,%@AE@% a
journal, singlehandedly. His three great novels-%@AI@%The Life and Strange
%@AI@%Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe%@AE@% (1719), based in part on the
experience of Alexander %@AU@%SELKIRK%@BO:          86b158@%%@AE@%, and often considered the first true
%@AU@%NOVEL%@BO:          6bed67@%%@AE@% in English; the picaresque %@AI@%Moll Flanders%@AE@% (1722); and %@AI@%A Journal of
%@AI@%the Plague Year%@AE@% (1722)-all appeared as memoirs, intended to be taken as
true. Defoe's writing is straightforward and vivid, with a remarkable
concern for detail.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%defoliant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%defoliant%@AE@%:%@CR:DEFOLIANT       @%%@QR:defoliant@% see %@AU@%HERBICIDE%@BO:          422b54@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Forest, Lee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Forest, Lee%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.FOREST       @%%@QR:De Forest, Lee@% 1873-1961, American inventor; b. Council Bluffs, Iowa. A%@EH@%
pioneer in the development of wireless telegraphy, sound pictures, and
television, he invented the triode (1906), which made transcontinental
telephony practicable and led to the foundation of the radio industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Degas, Edgar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Degas, Edgar%@AE@%%@CR:DEGAS           @%%@QR:Degas, Edgar@%(Hilaire Germain Edgar Degas) , 1834-1917, French painter and%@EH@%
sculptor. Degas united the discipline of classical art with the immediacy
of %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%. His favorite subjects were ballet dancers, women at
their toilette, cafe life, and the racetrack. He combined his portrayal
of contemporary life with such daring compositional innovations as
accidental cutoff views, off-center subjects, and unusual angles. His
innovative achievement of balance is seen in %@AI@%Woman with Chrysanthemums%@AE@%
(1865; Metropolitan Mus.) and %@AI@%Foyer of the Dance%@AE@% (1872; Louvre). Degas
turned from oils to pastels and charcoal, perhaps because of failing
eyesight. His works in sculpture include dancers and horses. He
profoundly influenced such later artists as %@AU@%TOULOUSE-LAUTREC%@BO:          96e15a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@%.
Many of his most celebrated works, e.g., %@AI@%The Bellelli Family%@AE@% (1859), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Rehearsal%@AE@% (1882), and %@AI@%Two Laundresses%@AE@% (1882), are in the Louvre.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Gasperi, Alcide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Gasperi, Alcide%@AE@%%@CR:DE.GASPERI      @%%@QR:De Gasperi, Alcide@%, 1881-1954, Italian premier, founder of the Christian%@EH@%
Democratic party. From 1945 to 1953 he was premier of eight successive
coalition cabinets dominated by the Christian Democrats. He championed
close cooperation with the U.S. and led Italy into %@AU@%NATO%@BO:          677dd8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Gaulle, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Gaulle, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.GAULLE       @%%@QR:De Gaulle, Charles@% 1890-1970, French general and statesman, first%@EH@%
president (1959-69) of the Fifth Republic. Opposing the Franco-German
armistice in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he fled (1940) to London and there organized
the Free French forces and rallied several French colonies to his
movement. In 1943 he became co-president (with Henri Honore Giraud) of
the French Committee of National Liberation at Algiers, and in 1945 he
was elected provisional president of France. He resigned (1946) when it
became apparent that the Fourth Republic's constitution would not provide
for a strong executive. He become (1947) head of a new party, Rally for
the French People (RFP), but dissolved it in 1953 and retired. In 1958,
during the political crisis created by the civil war in %@AU@%ALGERIA%@BO:           3a47c@%%@AE@%, De
Gaulle became premier with the power to rule by decree for six months. A
new constitution that strengthened the presidency was drawn up, and in
1959 De Gaulle became president of the new republic. As president, he
reached (1962) a settlement for Algerian independence, developed France's
atomic potential, and withdrew (1966) from NATO. He supported French
participation in the Common Market, but opposed British participation.
Nearly toppled (1968) by worker-student demonstrations, he resigned in
1969 after a defeat on constitutional reform.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte%@AE@%:%@CR:DE.GRASSE       @%%@QR:De Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte@% see %@AU@%GRASSE, FRANCOIS%@EH@%
%@AU@%JOSEPH PAUL, COMTE DE%@BO:          3c6ab1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Hooch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Hooch%@AE@%%@CR:DE.HOOCH        @%%@QR:De Hooch@% or %@AB@%De Hoogh, Pieter:%@AE@%see %@AU@%HOOCH, PIETER DE%@BO:          442aab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dehydrated food%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dehydrated food%@AE@%:%@CR:DEHYDRATED.FOOD @%%@QR:dehydrated food@% see %@AU@%FOOD PRESERVATION%@BO:          343986@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deimos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deimos%@AE@%,%@CR:DEIMOS          @%%@QR:Deimos@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%MARS%@BO:          5c0625@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deirdre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deirdre%@AE@%%@CR:DEIRDRE         @%%@QR:Deirdre@%, heroine of Irish legend. Intended as the wife of Conchobar, king%@EH@%
of Ulster, she fell in love with Naoise and fled to Scotland with him and
his brothers. On their return home Conchobar killed Naoise, and Deirdre
died on his grave. The story was popular with writers of the Irish
literary renaissance, e.g., W.B. %@AU@%YEATS%@BO:          a40602@%%@AE@% and J.M. %@AU@%SYNGE%@BO:          91e86d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deists%@AE@%,%@CR:DEISTS          @%%@QR:deists@% rationalist thinkers of the 17th and 18th cent., who held that%@EH@%
the course of nature demonstrates the existence of God, while they
rejected formal religion and claims of supernatural revelation. %@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@%,
J.J. %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@%, Benjamin %@AU@%FRANKLIN%@BO:          357a50@%%@AE@%, and Thomas %@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@% were deists. See
also %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deken, Agatha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deken, Agatha%@AE@%:%@CR:DEKEN           @%%@QR:Deken, Agatha@% see %@AU@%WOLFF, ELISABETH%@BO:          a2c3b2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dekker, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dekker, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:DEKKER          @%%@QR:Dekker, Thomas@% 1572?-1632?, English dramatist and pamphleteer. His most%@EH@%
famous play, %@AI@%The Shoemaker's Holiday%@AE@% (1600), is notable for its realistic
depiction of London life. He collaborated with John %@AU@%WEBSTER%@BO:          a016f2@%%@AE@%, Thomas
%@AU@%MIDDLETON%@BO:          606301@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Honest Whore,%@AE@% Pt. I, 1604), Philip %@AU@%MASSINGER%@BO:          5ceedc@%%@AE@%, and others. Most
of his works have been lost.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%de Kooning, Willem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%de Kooning, Willem%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.KOONING      @%%@QR:de Kooning, Willem@% 1904-, American painter and leader of %@AU@%ABSTRACT%@EH@%
%@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:            754d@%%@AE@%; b. Netherlands. He painted huge canvases slashed with
color and charged with great energy. He is particularly known for his
monumental 1950s series entitled %@AI@%Woman,%@AE@% e.g., the ferocious %@AI@%Woman I%@AE@% (Mus.
Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delacroix, Eugene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delacroix, Eugene%@AE@%%@CR:DELACROIX       @%%@QR:Delacroix, Eugene@%(Ferdinand-Victor-Eugene Delacroix) , 1798-1863, French%@EH@%
painter. He was the foremost painter of the romantic movement in France
(see %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%) and was particularly influential as a colorist. His
first major work, %@AI@%The Bark of Dante%@AE@% (Louvre), brought him recognition as
the leader of the opposition to the neoclassical school of %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26be8f@%%@AE@%. His
dramatic interpretation of scenes from mythology, literature, political,
religious, and literary history was lavish and exuberant. He was
influenced by English painting and a trip to Morocco that provided him
with much exotic material, e.g., %@AI@%Women of Algiers%@AE@% (1834; Louvre). He did
many portraits of notable contemporaries, e.g., George %@AU@%SAND%@BO:          83e8a7@%%@AE@% (Copenhagen),
and his animals in motion, e.g., %@AI@%Tiger Attacking a Horse%@AE@% (Louvre), are
compelling.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%de la Madrid Hurtado, Miguel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%de la Madrid Hurtado, Miguel%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.LA.MRTADO    @%%@QR:de la Madrid Hurtado, Miguel@% 1934-, Mexican public official, president%@EH@%
of Mexico (1982-). As minister of planning and budget in the cabinet of
Jose %@AU@%LOPEZ PORTILLO%@BO:          56ae96@%%@AE@%, he was influential in planning the utilization of
Mexico's oil wealth to promote economic growth. Known as a conservative
technocrat, he was chosen (1981) as the candidate of the ruling
Institutional Revolutionary party and was served from 1982 to 1988.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%de la Mare, Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%de la Mare, Walter%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.LA.MARE      @%%@QR:de la Mare, Walter@% 1873-1956, English poet and novelist. His writing%@EH@%
often delights in the shadowy world between the real and unreal. His
poetry includes %@AI@%The Listeners%@AE@% (1912); among his novels are %@AI@%Henry Brocken%@AE@%
(1904) and %@AI@%The Return%@AE@% (1910).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De la Ramee, Louise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De la Ramee, Louise%@AE@%:%@CR:DE.LA.RAMEE     @%%@QR:De la Ramee, Louise@% see %@AU@%OUIDA%@BO:          6f8c1e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%de La Renta, Oscar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%de La Renta, Oscar%@AE@%:%@CR:DE.LA.RENTA     @%%@QR:de La Renta, Oscar@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delaunay, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delaunay, Robert%@AE@%%@CR:DELAUNAY        @%%@QR:Delaunay, Robert@%, 1885-1941, French painter. He was a major figure in the%@EH@%
movement that %@AU@%APOLLINAIRE%@BO:           6ae03@%%@AE@% termed orphism. His amalgam of fauve color (see
%@AU@%FAUVISM%@BO:          32182e@%%@AE@%), futurist dynamism (see %@AU@%FUTURISM%@BO:          370ed5@%%@AE@%), and analytical %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@% is best
seen in his series of paintings of the %@AU@%EIFFEL TOWER%@BO:          2d0e50@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delaware%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delaware%@AE@%,%@CR:DELAWARE1       @%%@QR:Delaware@% one of the mid-Atlantic states of the U.S., the country's%@EH@%
second-smallest state (after Rhode Island). Delaware occupies the
low-lying northeastern portion of the peninsula it shares with Maryland
and Virginia. It is bordered by Maryland (W, S), and there is a short
border with Pennsylvania (N). Along its entire eastern edge the state is
bounded by Delaware Bay and the mouth of the %@AU@%DELAWARE%@BO:          27a01a@%%@AE@% R., across which
lies New Jersey. The climate is equable. %@AU@%WILMINGTON%@BO:          a1fd5d@%%@AE@%, in the north, is the
only large city and dominates the state.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 2,057 sq mi (5,328 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 633,000, an 6.5%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Dover. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Dec. 7, 1787 (first of
the original 13 states to ratify the Constitution). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% 442 ft
(135 m), New Castle co.; %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@% sea level. %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% First State.
%@AI@%Motto,%@AE@% Liberty and Independence. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% blue hen chicken. %@AI@%State
%@AI@%flower,%@AE@% peach blossom. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% American holly. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Del.; DE.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Delaware has a heavily industrialized economy dominated by the Du
Pont chemical industry, in the Wilmington area. Other major industries
are food-processing, petroleum-refining, the manufacturing of metals and
plastics, and banking. More than half the agricultural income is earned
from broiler chickens, followed in value by corn, soybeans, and dairy
products. Although fishing is declining, crabs, oysters, clams, and
finfish are caught offshore.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution of 1897 provides for a governor elected to a
four-year term. The general assembly consists of a senate whose 21
members serve four-year terms, and a house whose 41 members are elected
to two-year terms. Delaware is represented in the U.S. Congress by two
senators and one representative and has three electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The area was the home of the %@AU@%DELAWARE INDIANS%@BO:          27a20c@%%@AE@% when Henry %@AU@%HUDSON%@BO:          44f9ef@%%@AE@%
sailed up the Delaware R. in 1609. He was followed by a British explorer
the following year, and control of Delaware was subsequently contested by
the Dutch and the English-and later by the Swedes-until 1674, when
British authority was solidified. The residents were later linked to
William %@AU@%PENN'S%@BO:          72d85d@%%@AE@% colony of Pennsylvania. In 1776 Delaware was one of the 13
colonies to sign the Declaration of Independence. When Eleuthere Irenee
%@AU@%DU PONT%@BO:          2b4564@%%@AE@% started a gunpowder mill in 1802, the state's industrial base was
established. Delaware remained loyal to the Union during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%,
but strong pro-Southern sentiment reflected the split between the rural
south and urban north, a division that still persists. Industry expanded
during both world wars and immediately after World War II. In the late
1970s Delaware experienced a marked movement of the state's population
and industry from the cities to the suburbs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delaware%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delaware%@AE@%,%@CR:DELAWARE2       @%%@QR:Delaware@% a major river of the E U.S., flowing c.280 mi (450 km) from%@EH@%
sources in the Catskill Mts., SE New York, past Trenton, N.J. (the head
of navigation), Philadelphia, Pa., and Wilmington, Del., into Delaware
Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. The Delaware River Basin Compact (1961)
regulates water use by the heavily industrialized states through which
the river flows.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delaware Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delaware Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:DELAWARS        @%%@QR:Delaware Indians@% the English name for a group of North American Indian%@EH@%
tribes with an Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see
%@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Calling themselves the Lenni-Lenape, they
claimed ancient occupation of the Delaware R. region, where most
Algonquian tribes had originated. In 1682 they made a treaty of
friendship with William %@AU@%PENN%@BO:          72d85d@%%@AE@%, but in 1720 the Iroquois forced them into
Ohio. The Delaware sided with the British in the American Revolution;
afterward they moved successively to Kansas, Texas, and %@AU@%INDIAN TERRITORY%@BO:          47a31c@%%@AE@%.
A few still live on reservations, mainly in Oklahoma.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De la Warr, Thomas West, 12th Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De la Warr, Thomas West, 12th Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.LA.WARR      @%%@QR:De la Warr, Thomas West, 12th Baron@% 1577-1618, 1st governor of the%@EH@%
English colony of %@AU@%VIRGINIA%@BO:          9dc140@%%@AE@%. He arrived in the colony in 1610 and
dissuaded the colonists, who were in dire need, from returning to
England. Delaware is named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delhi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delhi%@AE@%%@CR:DELHI           @%%@QR:Delhi@%, union territory and city, N central India. It is located on a hot,%@EH@%
arid plain, but irrigation supports agriculture. From ancient times the
region, a crossroads, was the key to empire, and the remains of many
dynasties survive. %@AU@%SHAH JAHAN%@BO:          87a62a@%%@AE@% made Old Delhi the %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% capital in 1638.
It was the chief center of the Delhi sultantate (1192-1526). In 1638, the
Mogul emperor built a new capital there, known as Shahjahanabad (the area
now known as "Old Delhi." The Mahrattas held the city from 1771 to 1803,
when the British took it. Points of interest include Shah Jahan's Red
Fort. It became the site of the capital of British India in 1912, when
the modern administrative city of New Delhi was built.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delhi Sultanate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delhi Sultanate%@AE@%,%@CR:DELHI.SULTANATE @%%@QR:Delhi Sultanate@% also known as the Slave Dynasty, first Muslim empire%@EH@%
(1192-1398) of %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@%, which at its height (c.1315) encompassed almost the
entire subcontinent. It was founded by Qutb ud-Din, a general in the
service of Muhammad of Ghor, ruler of Afghanistan, who proclaimed himself
sultan in 1192. Under constant challenge, particularly by Hindu forces,
it was finally destroyed in 1398 by %@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delian League%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delian League%@AE@%,%@CR:DELIAN.LEAGUE   @%%@QR:Delian League@% confederation of Greek states under the leadership of%@EH@%
%@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@%. The first Delian League (478-404 BC) was formed by Athens and a
number of Ionian states to oppose Persia, an object accomplished in the
%@AU@%PERSIAN WARS%@BO:          73c21f@%%@AE@%. Dissent arose within the league, but by a mixture of force
and persuasion Athens established supremacy, and the league in effect
became an Athenian empire. The alliance was unstable, however, and with
Athens' defeat (404 BC) in the %@AU@%PELOPONNESIAN WAR%@BO:          72ae2e@%%@AE@% it came to an end. After
Conan reestablished Athenian mastery of the sea, the second Delian League
was formed (378 BC). It lasted, despite Athenian-Theban quarrels, until
utterly destroyed by the victory of %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@% of Macedon at Chaerona (338
BC).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delibes, Leo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delibes, Leo%@AE@%%@CR:DELIBES         @%%@QR:Delibes, Leo@%, 1836-91, French composer. He wrote melodic, vividly%@EH@%
orchestrated works, e.g., the ballets %@AI@%Coppelia%@AE@% (1870) and %@AI@%Sylvia%@AE@% (1876)
and the opera %@AI@%Lakme%@AE@% (1883).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delilah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delilah%@AE@%:%@CR:DELILAH         @%%@QR:Delilah@% see %@AU@%SAMSON%@BO:          83d254@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%delirium tremens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%delirium tremens%@AE@%:%@CR:DELIRIUS        @%%@QR:delirium tremens@% see %@AU@%ALCOHOLISM%@BO:           3168c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delius, Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delius, Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:DELIUS          @%%@QR:Delius, Frederick@% 1862-1934, English composer, of German parentage.%@EH@%
Influenced by %@AU@%GRIEG%@BO:          3db9ec@%%@AE@%, he combined %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          4709aa@%%@AE@% in music
characterized by free structure and rich chromatic %@AU@%HARMONY%@BO:          4009d5@%%@AE@%. His
best-known works include %@AI@%Brigg Fair%@AE@% (1907), %@AI@%On Hearing the First Cuckoo
%@AI@%in Spring%@AE@% (1912), and %@AI@%North Country Sketches%@AE@% (1914). His operas include %@AI@%A
%@AI@%Village Romeo and Juliet%@AE@% (1907).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Della Robbia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Della Robbia%@AE@%%@CR:DELLA.ROBBIA    @%%@QR:Della Robbia@%, Florentine family of sculptors and ceramists famous for%@EH@%
their enameled terra-cotta or fai ence. %@AB@%Luca della Robbia,%@AE@% 1400?-1482,
founder of the workshop, perfected a method of making clay reliefs and
sculptures permanent by coating them with a glaze made of tin, antimony,
and other substances. His %@AI@%Madonna and Child%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.) is
typical of his blue-and-white panels with touches of gold. The family
tradition was continued by his nephew %@AB@%Andrea della Robbia,%@AE@% 1435-1525?,
and Andrea's sons %@AB@%Luca II della Robbia,%@AE@% c.1480-c.1550, %@AB@%Giovanni della
%@AB@%Robbia,%@AE@% 1469-c.1529, and %@AB@%Girolamo della Robbia,%@AE@% c.1488-1566. Andrea did
the famous medallions on the Foundling Hospital, Florence, showing simple
baby forms (%@AI@%bambini%@AE@%) on a blue background.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delmarva%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delmarva%@AE@%,%@CR:DELMARVA        @%%@QR:Delmarva@% peninsula, E U.S., c.180 mi (290 km) long, between Chesapeake%@EH@%
and Delaware bays. A fertile farming area, it is divided among (and named
for) three states-Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delorme%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delorme%@AE@%%@CR:DELORME         @%%@QR:Delorme@%or %@AB@%de l'Orme, Philibert%@AE@%, c.1510-70, French architect, one of the%@EH@%
greatest Renaissance architects. Most of his work has been destroyed.
After Italian travels he introduced into France a classical style that
endured to the mid-18th cent. Among his works were the tomb of %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@%
at Saint-Denis, the %@AU@%TUILERIES%@BO:          987ca4@%%@AE@%, and the gallery at Chenonceaux.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delphi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delphi%@AE@%%@CR:DELPHI          @%%@QR:Delphi@%, town in Phocis, %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, near the foot of Mt. Parnassus. It was%@EH@%
the seat of the Delphic %@AU@%ORACLE%@BO:          6e2e68@%%@AE@%, the most famous and powerful oracle of
ancient Greece. The oracle, which originated in the worship of an
earth-goddess, possibly %@AU@%GAEA%@BO:          373730@%%@AE@%, was the principal shrine of %@AU@%APOLLO%@BO:           6b067@%%@AE@%. It was
housed in a temple built in the 6th cent. BC The oracular messages were
spoken by a priestess in a frenzied trance and interpreted by a priest,
who usually spoke in verse. The oracle's influence prevailed throughout
Greece until Hellenistic times. Delphi was the meeting place of the
Amphictyonic League and the site of the Pythian games. It was later
pillaged by the Romans, and the sanctuary fell into decay.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%delta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%delta%@AE@%,%@CR:DELTA           @%%@QR:delta@% the alluvial plain formed at the mouth of a river where the stream%@EH@%
loses velocity and drops part of its sediment load. No delta is formed if
the coast is sinking or if ocean or tidal currents prevent sediment
deposition. A deltaic plain is usually very fertile but subject to
floods. The three main varieties of delta are the arcuate (e.g., that of
the Nile), the bird's-foot (e.g., that of the Mississippi), and the
cuspate (e.g., that of the Tiber).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Delta Plan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Delta Plan%@AE@%,%@CR:DELTA.PLAN      @%%@QR:Delta Plan@% flood control and reclamation project, S Netherlands, in the%@EH@%
Rhine R. delta. Built in 1957-81, it involved construction of four major
dikes (up to 131 ft/40 m high) across the Rhine's four estuaries on the
North Sea, three auxiliary dams, and a storm-tide barrage 38 ft (11.5 m)
high and 262 ft (80 m) wide across the IJssel R. The project shortened
the Dutch coastline by c.440 mi (700 km), reclaimed 6,100 acres (15,000
hectares), and created a freshwater lake (33 sq mi/85 sq km). Two
navigable waterways to Antwerp and to Rotterdam and Europoort were left
open.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deluge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deluge%@AE@%:%@CR:DELUGE          @%%@QR:Deluge@% see %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Demeter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Demeter%@AE@%%@CR:DEMETER         @%%@QR:Demeter@%, in Greek mythology, goddess of harvest and fertility; daughter%@EH@%
of %@AU@%CRONUS%@BO:          24e007@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RHEA%@BO:          7eafae@%%@AE@%; mother of %@AU@%PERSEPHONE%@BO:          739443@%%@AE@% by %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%. She and her daughter
were the chief figures in the %@AU@%ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES%@BO:          2df8ef@%%@AE@%, and her primary
festival was the Athenian Thesmophoria. The Romans identified her with
%@AU@%CERES%@BO:          1b10b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Demetrius I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Demetrius I%@AE@%%@CR:DEMETRIUS.I     @%%@QR:Demetrius I@% (Demetrius Poliorcetes), c.337-283 BC, king of %@AU@%MACEDON%@BO:          58a317@%%@AE@%. He%@EH@%
aided his father, Antigonus I, in the wars of the %@AU@%DIADOCHI%@BO:          28955b@%%@AE@% until their
defeat (and Antigonus's death) at Ipsus (301 BC). He recovered %@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@%
(295) and, after murdering his competitors, seized the throne of Macedon
(294). Driven out by %@AU@%PYRRHUS%@BO:          7b5ecf@%%@AE@%, he took refuge (285) with King Seleucis I
of Syria. His son, Antigonus II, made good his claim to the throne of
Macedon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Demetrius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Demetrius%@AE@%,%@CR:DEMETRIUS       @%%@QR:Demetrius@% in Russian history: see %@AU@%DMITRI%@BO:          29a354@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Mille, Agnes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Mille, Agnes%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.MILLE1       @%%@QR:De Mille, Agnes@% 1908?-, American choreographer and dancer; b. N.Y.C.;%@EH@%
niece of Cecil B. %@AU@%DE MILLE%@BO:          27cf7a@%%@AE@%. She created the first major American %@AU@%BALLET%@BO:           b7ae9@%%@AE@%,
%@AI@%Rodeo%@AE@% (1942), and brought ballet techniques to %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@% such as %@AI@%Oklahoma!%@AE@%
(1943). She created %@AI@%Fall River Legend%@AE@% (1948) for the American Ballet
Theatre. De Mille has written books on dance and autobiographical works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Mille, Cecil B.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Mille, Cecil B.%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.MILLE2       @%%@QR:De Mille, Cecil B.@% 1881-1959, American film director; b. Ashfield, Mass.%@EH@%
His many "spectacle" films include %@AI@%The Ten Commandments%@AE@% (1923; 1956), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Crusades%@AE@% (1935), %@AI@%Union Pacific%@AE@% (1939), and %@AI@%The Greatest Show on Earth%@AE@%
(1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%democracy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%democracy%@AE@%,%@CR:DEMOCRACY       @%%@QR:democracy@% system of government in which the people-not one class, an%@EH@%
autocrat, or a select group-share in directing the state's activities. It
flourished in such Greek %@AU@%CITY-STATES%@BO:          1eaf77@%%@AE@% as Athens before giving way to
%@AU@%IMPERIALISM%@BO:          46fc47@%%@AE@%. The philosophy and practice of modern democracy emerged
slowly in the West. Basic to it is the concept of representation of the
people by elected agents. The idea that natural rights could not be taken
from the people is also fundamental (see %@AU@%NATURAL LAW%@BO:          678e6a@%%@AE@%). John %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@%, J.J.
%@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@%, and others developed the concept of a social contract in which
%@AU@%SOVEREIGNTY%@BO:          8c3f4b@%%@AE@% rests with the people, who undertake reciprocal obligations
with a ruler; rulers violating this contract may be removed. These ideas
greatly influenced British government, the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, and the
%@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. Since the 19th cent., when political democracy was
established in most Western countries, emphasis has been placed on
increasing the portion of the population participating in political
decisions. Theorists of %@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@% and other doctrines have criticized
this emphasis, maintaining that true democracy is not merely political
but rests on economic equality and, according to some, on public
ownership of wealth. In the 20th cent. most political systems describe
themselves as democracies, although only a few outside of Western Europe
and North America (e.g., Japan) encourage competing political parties and
stress individual rights and other elements typical of classic Western
democracy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Democratic party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Democratic party%@AE@%,%@CR:DEMOCRAY        @%%@QR:Democratic party@% American political party. Founded around Thomas%@EH@%
%@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@% and opposed to Alexander %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f7530@%%@AE@% and the Federalists, the
party emphasized personal liberty and the limitation of federal
government. Originally called Democratic Republicans, they were called
Democrats by 1828. Backed by a coalition of Southern agrarians and
Northern city dwellers. Jefferson was elected president in 1800, and the
Democrats retained the presidency until 1825. A radical group of
Democrats led by Andrew %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% won the elections of 1828 and 1832, but
arguments over slavery created or deepened splits within the party, and
the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% all but destroyed it. The party revived after the disputed
election of 1876, and the end of %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% brought the "solid South"
into the Democratic fold. With the nomination (1896) of W.J. %@AU@%BRYAN%@BO:          14ce74@%%@AE@% on a
%@AU@%FREE SILVER%@BO:          35e107@%%@AE@% platform, the radicals again gained control, but Bryan's
defeat pointed out the difficulty of reconciling the party's diverse
elements. The Democrats regained (1913-21) the presidency under the
liberal Woodrow %@AU@%WILSON%@BO:          a215a5@%%@AE@%, and during the Depression they swept into office
with Franklin D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% and initiated the %@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@%. When Roosevelt
died in his fourth term, he was succeeded (1945) by Harry S %@AU@%TRUMAN%@BO:          982df7@%%@AE@%, who
was elected (1948) in his own right. Following the presidential victories
(1952, 1956) of Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, Democrat John F. %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@%
narrowly won the 1960 election. After his assassination (1963) he was
succeeded by Lyndon %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4ccc58@%%@AE@%, whose administration was marked by civil
rights legislation and the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%. The modern Democratic party had
by then become an uneasy alliance of labor, minorities, middle-class
reformers, and Southern Democrats. Hubert H. %@AU@%HUMPHREY%@BO:          454afa@%%@AE@% and George %@AU@%MCGOVERN%@BO:          58b03b@%%@AE@%
were the Democratic presidential nominees in 1968 and 1972 respectively,
but serious Southern disaffection contributed to their defeats by
Republican Richard M. Nixon. Following the %@AU@%WATERGATE AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@%, the
Democrats elected (1976) the hitherto unknown Jimmy %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% as president.
Carter's inability to cope with economic problems and to free (1979-81)
U.S. hostages in Iran led to his defeat (1980) by Republican Ronald
Reagan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Democritus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Democritus%@AE@%,%@CR:DEMOCRITUS      @%%@QR:Democritus@% c.460-c.370 BC, Greek philosopher. His atomic theory of the%@EH@%
nature of the physical world, known to us through %@AU@%ARISTOTLE'S%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@% writings,
was the most scientific theory proposed up to his time. He held that all
living things are composed of tiny indivisible particles, called atoms,
and that their constant motion explains the creation of the universe: the
heavier atoms clustered together to form the earth, while the lighter
ones formed the heavenly bodies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%demography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%demography%@AE@%,%@CR:DEMOGRAPHY      @%%@QR:demography@% science of human %@AU@%POPULATION%@BO:          783976@%%@AE@%, especially of human numbers and%@EH@%
their changes over time. By studying birth and death rates, marital and
migration patterns, and population distribution, demography ascertains
trends and predicts probabilities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Demosthenes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Demosthenes%@AE@%,%@CR:DEMOSTHENES     @%%@QR:Demosthenes@% 384-322 BC, Greek orator. His reputation as the greatest of%@EH@%
the Greek orators rests mainly on his orations arousing %@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@% against
%@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@% of Macedon-three %@AI@%Philippics%@AE@% (351-341 BC) and three %@AI@%Olynthiacs%@AE@%
(349). Philip triumphed (338), and Demosthenes' cause was lost. His other
orations include %@AI@%On the Peace%@AE@% (346), %@AI@%On the False Legation%@AE@% (343), and %@AI@%On
%@AI@%the Crown%@AE@% (330). In 324 BC Demosthenes was exiled for his involvement in
an obscure affair involving money taken by a lieutenant of %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE
%@AU@%GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%. Recalled after Alexander's death (323), he failed in his attempt
to free Greece from Macedon, fled, and took poison to avoid capture by
%@AU@%ANTIPATER%@BO:           65fcf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%demotic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%demotic%@AE@%:%@CR:DEMOTIC         @%%@QR:demotic@% see %@AU@%HIEROGLYPHIC%@BO:          42bd93@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dempsey, Jack%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dempsey, Jack%@AE@%%@CR:DEMPSEY         @%%@QR:Dempsey, Jack@% (William Harrison Dempsey), 1895-1983, American boxer; b.%@EH@%
Manassa, Colo. The "Manassa Mauler" won the heavyweight title by knocking
out Jess Willard in 1919 and lost it to Gene %@AU@%TUNNEY%@BO:          98abf9@%%@AE@% in 1926. In a
controversial rematch (1927) Dempsey knocked Tunney down in the seventh
round, but the count (now known as the "long count") was delayed by
Dempsey's failure to go to his corner and Tunney won a 10-round decision.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Demuth, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Demuth, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:DEMUTH          @%%@QR:Demuth, Charles@% 1883-1935, American painter; b. Lancaster, Pa. Known for%@EH@%
his translucent %@AU@%WATERCOLORS%@BO:          9f938d@%%@AE@% of fruits and flowers, Demuth was one of the
first painters to draw inspiration from the geometric shapes of
technology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Denali National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Denali National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:DENALI..PARK    @%%@QR:Denali National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dendrochronology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dendrochronology%@AE@%:%@CR:DENDROCY        @%%@QR:dendrochronology@% see %@AU@%DATING%@BO:          26a228@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dengue fever%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dengue fever%@AE@%,%@CR:DENGUE.FEVER    @%%@QR:dengue fever@% acute infectious disease caused by a virus and transmitted%@EH@%
by the %@AI@%Aedes%@AE@% mosquito. It occurs in warm climates. Symptoms include
headache, fever, and intense joint pain, followed by a generalized rash.
There is no specific treatment, but the disease can be controlled by
eradicating the mosquitoes and their breeding grounds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deng Xiaoping%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deng Xiaoping%@AE@%%@CR:DENG.XIAOPING   @%%@QR:Deng Xiaoping@%, 1904-, Chinese Communist leader. Twice purged from power%@EH@%
(1967, 1976) and twice rehabilitated (1973, 1977), Deng was deputy
premier under %@AU@%HUA GUOFENG%@BO:          44e927@%%@AE@%. He soon became (1977) powerful as Communist
party deputy chairman, and in 1979 visited the U.S. to seek closer
U.S.-Chinese ties. In 1981 Deng strengthened his position in China by
replacing Hua as Communist party chairman with his own protege, %@AU@%HU
%@AU@%YAOBANG%@BO:          45c39c@%%@AE@%. At the 1982 Communist Party Congress he was named to lead the
newly created Central Advisory Commission.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Niro, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Niro, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.NIRO         @%%@QR:De Niro, Robert@%  1943-, American film actor; b. N.Y.C. After studying%@EH@%
for the stage, he acted in films directed by Brian De Palma. In 1973, he
made his first major movies, %@AI@%Bang the Drum Slowly%@AE@% and %@AI@%Mean Streets%@AE@%. Other
films include %@AI@%The Godfather Part II%@AE@% (1974), %@AI@%The Deer Hunter%@AE@% (1979),
%@AI@%Raging Bull%@AE@% (1981; Academy Award), and %@AI@%Falling in Love%@AE@% (1984).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Denis, Maurice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Denis, Maurice%@AE@%%@CR:DENIS           @%%@QR:Denis, Maurice@%, 1870-1943, French painter and writer. His paintings,%@EH@%
often on religious themes, were not as influential as his art theories.
His writings include %@AI@%Theories%@AE@% (2 vol., 1920, 1922) and %@AI@%History of
%@AI@%Religious Art%@AE@% (1939).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Denmark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Denmark%@AE@%,%@CR:DENMARK         @%%@QR:Denmark@% Dan. %@AI@%Danmark,%@AE@% officially the Kingdom of Denmark, country (1988%@EH@%
est. pop. 5,125,676), 16,629 sq mi (43,069 sq km), N Europe; bordered by
West Germany (S), the North Sea (W), the Skagerrak (N), and the Kattegat
and the Oresund (E). The southernmost of the Scandinavian countries,
Denmark includes most of the %@AU@%JUTLAND%@BO:          4de524@%%@AE@% peninsula as well as more than 450
islands. The %@AU@%FAEROE ISLANDS%@BO:          317c8c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GREENLAND%@BO:          3d5d00@%%@AE@%, which are semiautonomous, lie
to the northwest. %@AU@%COPENHAGEN%@BO:          2311f9@%%@AE@% is the capital and chief industrial center;
other important cities are %@AU@%ARHUS%@BO:           79a0b@%%@AE@%, Odense, and Aalborg. Denmark, which is
almost entirely low-lying, has traditionally been an agricultural
country; after 1945, however, it greatly expanded its industrial base.
The main commodities raised are livestock and poultry, root crops, and
cereals. The leading manufactures include meat and dairy products,
chemicals, and ships. Fishing and shipping are also important. Nearly all
the inhabitants speak Danish, and most belong to the established Lutheran
Church. Denmark is a constitutional monarchy, governed under the 1953
constitution. Legislative power is vested in the unicameral, 179-member
Folketing (parliament); executive authority rests with the monarch and
the appointed prime minister and cabinet. The reigning monarch is Queen
%@AU@%MARGARET.II%@BO:          5b889b@%%@AE@%, who succeeded her father, Frederick IX, upon his death in
1972.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The Danes probably settled Jutland by c.10,000 BC, but little is
known of Danish history before the 9th to 11th cent. AD, when the Danes
had an important role in the %@AU@%VIKING%@BO:          9d7e0c@%%@AE@% raids on W Europe. Harold Bluetooth
(d. c.985) was the first Christian king of Denmark, and his son, Sweyn,
conquered England. Danish hegemony over N Europe was first established
(12th-13th cent.) by %@AU@%WALDEMAR I%@BO:          9ea1be@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WALDEMAR II%@BO:          9ea1be@%%@AE@%. Queen %@AU@%MARGARET I%@BO:          5b889b@%%@AE@%
achieved (1397) the %@AU@%KALMAR UNION%@BO:          4e0eb5@%%@AE@% of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; the
union with Sweden was largely ineffective and ended in 1523, but that
with Norway lasted until 1814. The house of Oldenburg, from which the
present dynasty is descended, acceded in 1448 with %@AU@%CHRISTIAN I%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@%, who also
united Schleswig and Holstein with the Danish crown. Participation in the
%@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% (1618-48) and the wars (1657-1660) of %@AU@%FREDERICK III%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% with
Sweden caused Denmark to lose prestige. Under the Treaty of Kiel (1814)
Denmark lost Norway to Sweden, and following its defeat (1864) by Prussia
and Austria it was deprived of %@AU@%SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN%@BO:          857e77@%%@AE@%. Of more lasting
importance was the internal reform of the 19th cent. that transformed
Denmark's poor peasantry into the most prosperous small farmers in
Europe. Denmark was occupied (1940-45) by German forces in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.
In 1949 it broke a long tradition of neutrality and joined NATO, and in
1972 it joined the %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@%. The Social Democratic party has been
dominant in the postwar era, although at times ruling in a coalition or
as a minority government. A center-right coalition government, however,
was formed in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%density%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%density%@AE@%,%@CR:DENSITY         @%%@QR:density@% ratio of the %@AU@%MASS%@BO:          5ccc02@%%@AE@% of a substance to its volume. Because many%@EH@%
substances, especially gases, can be compressed into a smaller volume by
increasing the pressure on them, the temperature and pressure at which
the density is measured are usually specified. See %@AU@%SPECIFIC GRAVITY%@BO:          8d4907@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dentistry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dentistry%@AE@%,%@CR:DENTISTRY       @%%@QR:dentistry@% treatment and care of the %@AU@%TEETH%@BO:          9364f3@%%@AE@% and associated oral%@EH@%
structures. Dentists are concerned with tooth decay, diseases of the
supporting structures (such as the gums), faulty positioning of the
teeth, and tooth replacements, as well as prevention of these problems.
Specialized fields of dentistry include orthodontics (corrective
dentistry) and periodontics (treatment of gum diseases; see %@AU@%GINGIVITIS%@BO:          3a4183@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%PERIODONTITIS%@BO:          736b02@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Denver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Denver%@AE@%,%@CR:DENVER          @%%@QR:Denver@% city (1986 est. pop. 505,000; met. area 1,633,000), state%@EH@%
capital, coextensive with Denver co., N central Colo., on the South
Platte R.; inc. 1861. Colorado's largest city, Denver is a processing,
shipping, and distributing point for a large agricultural area. It is the
financial and administrative center of the %@AU@%ROCKY MOUNTAIN%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@% region, and a
hub for energy resource development. Numerous federal agencies have
offices there. Denver has stockyards, canneries, mills, and many
diversified industries, including electronics. Tourism is also important.
In the 1870s and 80s it was the center of a gold and silver boom. Its
development into a major modern city began in the 1890s. Points of
interest include a large park system, the state capitol, and the Denver
Art Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Patinir, De Patenier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Patinir, De Patenier%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.PATINIR      @%%@QR:De Patinir, De Patenier@% or %@AB@%De Patiner, Joachim:%@AE@%see %@AU@%PATINIR, JOACHIM DE%@BO:          7209be@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%depletion allowance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%depletion allowance%@AE@%,%@CR:DEPLETIANCE     @%%@QR:depletion allowance@% a tax exemption given to companies that extract oil,%@EH@%
gas, coal, and other natural resources for depletion of the product that
reduces the company's taxable income. U.S. law has sometimes permitted
certain industries a flat percentage depletion allowance. Such a law is
intended to encourage the growth of these industries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%depreciation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%depreciation%@AE@%,%@CR:DEPRECIATION    @%%@QR:depreciation@% in %@AU@%ACCOUNTING%@BO:            9bfa@%%@AE@%, reduction in the value of fixed assets as a%@EH@%
result of use, damage, or obsolescence. It can be estimated in several
ways. In the straight-line method, annual depreciation is simply the cost
of the asset (minus its value, if any, as scrap) divided equally over its
estimated lifetime. Decreasing-charge methods assign higher depreciation
costs to the early years. Depreciation allows companies to cut costs of
capital investment through tax savings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%depressant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%depressant%@AE@%:%@CR:DEPRESSANT      @%%@QR:depressant@% see %@AU@%DRUGS%@BO:          2abe28@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%depression%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%depression%@AE@%,%@CR:DEPRESSION1     @%%@QR:depression@% in economics, a period of economic crisis in commerce,%@EH@%
finance, and industry, characterized by falling prices, restriction of
credit, reduced production, numerous bankruptcies, and high unemployment.
A less severe crisis is usually known as a downturn, or %@AB@%recession;%@AE@% in the
U.S. a recession is technically defined as two consecutive quarterly
declines in the %@AU@%GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT%@BO:          3de3d2@%%@AE@%. A short period in which fear
takes hold of the minds of businessmen is more properly called a %@AU@%PANIC%@BO:          708a86@%%@AE@%.
Depressions now tend to become worldwide in scope because of the
international nature of trade and credit. Such was the case in the most
severe economic reversal of the 20th cent., the %@AU@%GREAT DEPRESSION%@BO:          3cd5ed@%%@AE@% of the
1930s, which began in the U.S. and spread abroad. Since that time,
governments have acted to stabilize economic conditions in an effort to
prevent depressions, using tax and fiscal measures as well as tighter
controls over %@AU@%BANKING%@BO:           bd772@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%STOCK EXCHANGES%@BO:          8f28bc@%%@AE@%. Job-training programs and
increased public welfare are other steps taken to alleviate economic
slumps.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%depression%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%depression%@AE@%,%@CR:DEPRESSION2     @%%@QR:depression@% in %@AU@%PSYCHIATRY%@BO:          7a7866@%%@AE@%, a disproportionately intense reaction to%@EH@%
difficult situations, characterized by strong feelings of loss, sadness,
worthlessness, or rejection. It may involve such physiological symptoms
as tense posture, persistent frowning, slowing of activity, fatigue, lack
of appetite, and insomnia. The depressed individual's tendency toward
self-recrimination, self-punishment, and guilt may ultimately lead to
%@AU@%SUICIDE%@BO:          90571e@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%MANIC-DEPRESSIVE PSYCHOSIS%@BO:          5ade0d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%depth charge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%depth charge%@AE@%,%@CR:DEPTH.CHARGE    @%%@QR:depth charge@% explosive device used against submarines and other%@EH@%
underwater targets. Delivered from surface ships, it is either rolled
into the water or propelled by special throwers. The charge is detonated
by water pressure at a predetermined depth and, if it explodes near
enough, can destroy the target by concussion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Quincey, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Quincey, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.QUINCEY      @%%@QR:De Quincey, Thomas@% 1785-1859, English essayist. The autobiographical%@EH@%
%@AI@%Confessions of an English Opium-Eater%@AE@% (1822) brought him literary
eminence. A prolific contributor to various journals, he is remembered
for "On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth" and %@AI@%Autobiographic Sketches%@AE@%
(1853).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Derain, Andre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Derain, Andre%@AE@%%@CR:DERAIN          @%%@QR:Derain, Andre@%, 1880-1954, French painter. He was an exponent of %@AU@%FAUVISM%@BO:          32182e@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
as in his portrait of %@AU@%MATISSE%@BO:          5d33c7@%%@AE@% (1905; Philadelphia Mus. Art). Gradually
his art grew more conservative.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%derivation, in grammar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%derivation, in grammar%@AE@%:%@CR:DERIVATION      @%%@QR:derivation, in grammar@% see %@AU@%INFLECTION%@BO:          481801@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%derivative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%derivative%@AE@%:%@CR:DERIVATIVE      @%%@QR:derivative@% see %@AU@%CALCULUS%@BO:          16f391@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Derrida, Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Derrida, Jacques%@AE@%,%@CR:DERRIDA         @%%@QR:Derrida, Jacques@% 1930-, French philosopher. He is concerned with the%@EH@%
"deconstruction" of Western rationalist thought. In %@AI@%Writing and
%@AI@%Difference%@AE@% (1967) and %@AI@%On Grammatology%@AE@% (1967) he set forth his theories,
based on a broad reading of the Western tradition. In opposition to the
theory of %@AU@%SAUSSURE%@BO:          84f5b4@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%SEMIOTICS%@BO:          86c9e8@%%@AE@%), Derrida challenges the primacy of
spoken language, emphasizing the written language's ability to alter
speech and thought, creating rather than merely transmitting meaning. His
writings have analyzed the work of %@AU@%HUSSERL%@BO:          45a95a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@%, and other major
philosophers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dervish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dervish%@AE@%%@CR:DERVISH         @%%@QR:dervish@% [Pers.,=beggar], the friar or monk of %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%. There are numerous%@EH@%
societies of dervishes, many quite similar to the religious orders of
Western Christendom; however, dervishes do not take final vows and are
never cloistered. Certain groups are characterized by the form of their
mystical practice, e.g., the howling dervishes and whirling dervishes.
Some form of %@AU@%SUFISM%@BO:          9049cf@%%@AE@% is the theological basis of most of the dervish
sects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Derzhavin, Gavril Romanovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Derzhavin, Gavril Romanovich%@AE@%%@CR:DERZHAVIN       @%%@QR:Derzhavin, Gavril Romanovich@%, 1743-1816, Russian poet. An innovator in%@EH@%
the age of classicism, he dedicated %@AI@%Felitsa%@AE@% (1783) to Catherine II,
leading to his appointments as poet laureate and then minister of
justice. His most famous lyric is the %@AI@%Ode to God%@AE@% (1784).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%DES%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%DES%@AE@%%@CR:DES             @%%@QR:DES@% or %@AB@%diethylstilbestrol,%@AE@%synthetic nonsteroid female sex hormone having%@EH@%
the same physiological effects as %@AU@%ESTROGEN%@BO:          303881@%%@AE@%. Effective even when taken
orally, DES was formerly used in pregnant women to prevent miscarriage.
During the 1970s the drug was linked to vaginal cancer in some women
whose mothers had taken DES during pregnancy. The use of DES in a
"morning after" contraceptive pill and as a growth accelerator in beef
cattle is controversial because it may be a carcinogen.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Desai, Morarji Ranchhodji%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Desai, Morarji Ranchhodji%@AE@%%@CR:DESAI           @%%@QR:Desai, Morarji Ranchhodji@%, 1896-, prime minister (1977-79) of %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@%. As%@EH@%
leader of the Janata people's party, he became prime minister after
Indira %@AU@%GANDHI'S%@BO:          37c57e@%%@AE@% fall from power. He was unable to maintain a working
majority, however, and resigned in 1979, thereby clearing the way for
Mrs. Gandhi's return to power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%desalination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%desalination%@AE@%,%@CR:DESALINATION    @%%@QR:desalination@% process of removing soluble salts from water to render it%@EH@%
suitable for drinking, irrigation, or industrial uses. In %@AI@%distillation,%@AE@%
salt water is heated in one container to make the water evaporate,
leaving the salt behind. The desalinated vapor is then condensed to form
water in a separate container. Although long known, distillation has
found limited application in water supply because of the fuel costs
involved in vaporizing salt water. Other desalination techniques include
%@AI@%electrodialysis,%@AE@% the use of porous membranes to filter out negatively and
positively charged salt ions; %@AI@%freezing,%@AE@% based on the principle that water
excludes salt when it crystallizes to ice; %@AI@%ion-exchange,%@AE@% in which water
passes through a bed of specially treated synthetic resins that are
capable of extracting ions of the salt from the solution and replacing
them with ions that form water; and %@AI@%reverse osmosis,%@AE@% in which pressure,
generated by the presence of salt in the water, forces water through a
membrane permeable only by pure water.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Descartes, Rene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Descartes, Rene%@AE@%,%@CR:DESCARTES       @%%@QR:Descartes, Rene@% 1596-1650, French philosopher, mathematician, and%@EH@%
scientist. His philosophy is called Cartesianism (from %@AI@%Cartesius,%@AE@% the
Latin form of his name). Often called the father of modern philosophy, he
is regarded as the bridge between %@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@% and all philosophy that
followed him. Primarily interested in mathematics, he founded %@AU@%ANALYTIC
%@AU@%GEOMETRY%@BO:           51332@%%@AE@% and originated the %@AU@%CARTESIAN COORDINATES%@BO:          196b6e@%%@AE@% and Cartesian curves.
To algebra he contributed the treatment of negative roots and the
convention of exponent notation. Descartes also contributed to optics,
physiology, and psychology. His %@AI@%Discourse on Method%@AE@% (1637) and
%@AI@%Meditations%@AE@% (1641) contain his important philosophical theories.
Intending to extend mathematical method to all areas of human knowledge,
Descartes discarded the authoritarian systems of the scholastic
philosophers and began with universal doubt. Only one thing cannot be
doubted: doubt itself. Therefore, the doubter must exist. This is the
kernel of his famous assertion %@AI@%Cogito, ergo sum%@AE@% [I think, therefore I
am]. From this certainty Descartes expanded knowledge, step by step, to
admit the existence of God (as the first cause) and the reality of the
physical world, which he held to be mechanistic and entirely divorced
from the mind; the only connection between the two is the intervention of
God. This is almost complete %@AU@%DUALISM%@BO:          2ae7a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%descent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%descent%@AE@%:%@CR:DESCENT         @%%@QR:descent@% see %@AU@%KINSHIP%@BO:          4fdad1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%desegregation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%desegregation%@AE@%:%@CR:DESEGREGATION   @%%@QR:desegregation@% see %@AU@%INTEGRATION%@BO:          48a964@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%desert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%desert%@AE@%,%@CR:DESERT          @%%@QR:desert@% arid region, usually partly covered by sand, supporting a limited%@EH@%
and specially adapted plant and animal population. So-called cold
deserts, caused by extreme cold and often covered perpetually by snow or
ice, form about one sixth of the earth's surface. Warm deserts form about
one fifth of it. The world's largest desert areas lie between 20 deg and
30 deg north and south of the equator in regions where mountains
intercept the paths of the trade winds or where atmospheric conditions
limit precipitation. An area with an annual rainfall of 10 in. (25 cm) or
less is considered a desert, although some deserts and semideserts exist
in areas of higher precipitation where moisture is lost by runoff or
evaporation. The two largest deserts are the %@AU@%SAHARA%@BO:          82ec0a@%%@AE@% in Africa and the
great desert of central and W Australia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Sica, Vittorio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Sica, Vittorio%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.SICA         @%%@QR:De Sica, Vittorio@% 1901-74, Italian film director and actor. His%@EH@%
%@AI@%Shoeshine%@AE@% (1946), %@AI@%The Bicycle Thief%@AE@% (1948), and %@AI@%Umberto D.%@AE@% (1952) are
classics of postwar Italian neo-realism. Among his later works is %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Garden of the Finzi-Continis%@AE@% (1971). He starred in %@AU@%ROSSELLINI'S%@BO:          814cb5@%%@AE@% %@AI@%General
%@AI@%Della Rovere%@AE@% (1959) and many other films.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%desktop publishing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%desktop publishing%@AE@%,%@CR:DESKTOPING      @%%@QR:desktop publishing@% a system for producing printed materials that%@EH@%
consists of a %@AU@%PERSONAL COMPUTER%@BO:          73cb8f@%%@AE@%, high-resolution printer (usually a %@AU@%LASER
%@AU@%PRINTER%@BO:          528178@%%@AE@%), and software. It enables a small business or an individual to
publish professional quality materials on the premises inexpensively and
quickly without traditional publishing industry suppliers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Des Moines%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Des Moines%@AE@%,%@CR:DES.MOINES      @%%@QR:Des Moines@% city (1986 est. pop. 192,060), state capital and seat of Polk%@EH@%
co., S central Iowa, on the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers; chartered
1857. Iowa's largest city, it is a major Corn Belt industrial and
transportation center. Publishing and printing, food processing,
insurance, and diverse manufactures are important. Drake Univ. and
various state buildings are notable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Soto, Hernando%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Soto, Hernando%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.SOTO         @%%@QR:De Soto, Hernando@% c.1500-42, Spanish explorer. After serving with%@EH@%
Francisco %@AU@%PIZARRO%@BO:          7659a2@%%@AE@% in %@AU@%PERU%@BO:          73d93e@%%@AE@%, he was named governor of %@AU@%CUBA%@BO:          251e58@%%@AE@%. In 1539 he set
out to conquer Florida. In search of treasure, his group explored much of
%@AU@%GEORGIA%@BO:          394bc9@%%@AE@%, the Carolinas, %@AU@%TENNESSEE%@BO:          93de8e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ALABAMA%@BO:           28944@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%OKLAHOMA%@BO:          6d45bd@%%@AE@%. They were
probably the first white men to see (1541) the %@AU@%MISSISSIPPI%@BO:          619330@%%@AE@% R. De Soto
died on the adventurous journey and was buried in the Mississippi.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Des Pres, Josquin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Des Pres, Josquin%@AE@%:%@CR:DES.PRES        @%%@QR:Des Pres, Josquin@% see %@AU@%JOSQUIN DESPREZ%@BO:          4d5643@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dessalines, Jean Jacques%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dessalines, Jean Jacques%@AE@%%@CR:DESSALINES      @%%@QR:Dessalines, Jean Jacques@%, c.1758-1806, emperor of %@AU@%HAITI%@BO:          3f2c64@%%@AE@% (1804-6). Born a%@EH@%
black slave, he became a shrewd general. He defeated (1803) French forces
and, upon Haiti's independence (1804), ruled as a despot until he was
assassinated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%detective story%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%detective story%@AE@%,%@CR:DETECTIVE.STORY @%%@QR:detective story@% type of popular fiction in which a crime, usually a%@EH@%
murder, is solved by a detective-professional or amateur-who logically
interprets the evidence. The modern detective story, complete with its
conventions, is considered to have emerged in E.A. %@AU@%POE'S%@BO:          771ab5@%%@AE@% "Murders in the
Rue Morgue" (1841). Wilkie %@AU@%COLLINS'S%@BO:          205bf6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%The Moonstone%@AE@% (1868) is probably the
first full-length detective novel. In 1887 Arthur Conan %@AU@%DOYLE%@BO:          2a76cf@%%@AE@%, in "A
Study in Scarlet," introduced Sherlock Holmes, the most famous of all
sleuths. Subsequent writers, too, have often used one detective in a
series of works. Especially famous are G.K. %@AU@%CHESTERTON'S%@BO:          1cae6c@%%@AE@% Father Brown,
Earl Derr Biggers's Charlie Chan, Rex Stout's Nero Wolfe, Dorothy
Sayers's Lord Peter Wimsey, and Agatha %@AU@%CHRISTIE'S%@BO:          1e04ca@%%@AE@% Hercule Poirot. Many
writers incorporate the conventions of the detective story into the
%@AU@%NOVEL%@BO:          6bed67@%%@AE@%, producing works that are witty, erudite, and filled with
interesting characters. Such writers include Ngaio %@AU@%MARSH%@BO:          5c117a@%%@AE@%, C. %@AU@%DAY LEWIS%@BO:          26ea97@%%@AE@%,
Josephine Tey, P.D. James, Arthur W. Upfield, and Ruth Rendell. More
specialized types of detective fiction include the "police procedural,"
by such writers as Freeman Wills Crofts, Ed McBain, and Maj Sjowall and
Per Wahloo, which focus on the technical aspects of crime-solving; the
"hard-boiled" story, such as those of Dashiell %@AU@%HAMMETT%@BO:          3f919b@%%@AE@%, Raymond %@AU@%CHANDLER%@BO:          1b77ab@%%@AE@%,
and Ross %@AU@%MACDONALD%@BO:          589cbb@%%@AE@%, featuring tough but honorable "private eyes"; and the
psychological, like the novels of Georges Simenon, in which motivation
and ambience are more important than the solution to the crime. Espionage
novels involving international intrigue share many conventions of
detective fiction. Masters of this genre include Eric %@AU@%AMBLER%@BO:           462e8@%%@AE@%, Graham
%@AU@%GREENE%@BO:          3d5667@%%@AE@%, Ian Fleming, and John %@AU@%LE CARRE%@BO:          534ef5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%detector%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%detector%@AE@%:%@CR:DETECTOR        @%%@QR:detector@% see %@AU@%PARTICLE DETECTOR%@BO:          71bcdd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%detente%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%detente%@AE@%,%@CR:DETENTE         @%%@QR:detente@% relaxation of tensions between nations, applied particularly to%@EH@%
a phase of improved relations between the U.S. and USSR that began in the
1960s. Following the period of hostility known as the %@AU@%COLD WAR%@BO:          202276@%%@AE@%, detente
reached its height in such agreements as the Nuclear Nonproliferation
Treaty (1968), Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I; 1972), and the
Helsinki accords (1975). After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979),
relations between the two superpowers worsened. The crisis in Poland, an
escalation of the arms race, and Pres. %@AU@%REAGAN'S%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@% anti-Soviet stance left
detente in abeyance during the early 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Detroit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Detroit%@AE@%,%@CR:DETROIT         @%%@QR:Detroit@% city (1986 est. pop. 1,086,220; met. area 4,334,800), seat of%@EH@%
Wayne co., SE Mich., on the Detroit R., between Lakes St. Clair and Erie;
inc. as a city 1815. It is Michigan's largest city, the nation's sixth
largest, and a major %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@% shipping and rail center. Its early
carriage industry helped Henry %@AU@%FORD%@BO:          3461fa@%%@AE@% and others to make it the "automobile
capital of the world." It continues to be the headquarters of major auto
manufacturers, but declines in the field have caused severe unemployment
in the city and its environs. Other industries include steel,
pharmaceuticals, and food processing. A producer of foundry products and
machine tools, tires, paint, and chemicals, it also has extensive salt
mines. Detroit is the oldest city in the Midwest. A French fort and
fur-trading settlement founded in 1701 by %@AU@%CADILLAC%@BO:          16abee@%%@AE@%, it was captured
(1760) by the British. U.S. control, resulting from %@AU@%JAY'S TREATY%@BO:          4b91f0@%%@AE@% (1794),
dates from 1796. After a devastating 1805 fire, the city was rebuilt to a
plan by %@AU@%L'ENFANT%@BO:          53c42b@%%@AE@% and grew to great commercial importance in the
mid-1800s. In July 1967 race riots caused several deaths and many
injuries, as well as some $150 million in property damages. The city is
the site of many ambitious modern building projects, e.g., the
Renaissance Center. The city's educational and cultural institutions
include Wayne State Univ., the Univ. of Detroit, the Detroit Inst. of the
Arts, and the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. An international bridge and a
vehicular tunnel link Detroit with %@AU@%WINDSOR%@BO:          a24b3c@%%@AE@%, Ontario.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deucalion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deucalion%@AE@%%@CR:DEUCALION       @%%@QR:Deucalion@%, in Greek mythology, son of %@AU@%PROMETHEUS%@BO:          79fb30@%%@AE@%; father of %@AU@%HELLEN%@BO:          416b9d@%%@AE@%. Only%@EH@%
he and his wife Pyrrha survived the flood that %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% caused in anger at
mankind's irreverence. Later an oracle told them to cast behind them the
stones of the earth. These stones became human and repopulated the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%deuterium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%deuterium%@AE@%:%@CR:DEUTERIUM       @%%@QR:deuterium@% see %@AU@%HYDROGEN%@BO:          45f01f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Deuteronomy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Deuteronomy%@AE@%,%@CR:DEUTERONOMY     @%%@QR:Deuteronomy@%  book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, fifth and last of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%PENTATEUCH%@BO:          730045@%%@AE@%, ascribed by tradition to %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@%. According to the text it
gives the final words of Moses to his people, and includes a review of
the history of Israel since the exodus from Egypt and a number of general
and particular moral principles. The book concludes with a blessing by,
and the death of, Moses. Its main theme is absolute monotheism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Valera, Eamon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Valera, Eamon%@AE@%%@CR:DE.VALERA       @%%@QR:De Valera, Eamon@%, 1882-1975, Irish statesman; b. N.Y.C. He took part in%@EH@%
the Easter Rebellion of 1916; sentenced to life imprisonment, he was
released under an amnesty in 1917 and elected president of %@AU@%SINN FEIN%@BO:          8989c1@%%@AE@%.
Again imprisoned in 1918, he escaped to the U.S., where he raised funds
for Irish independence. While away, he was elected president of the
revolutionary assembly, Dail Eireann; he returned in 1920. In 1922, De
Valera repudiated the treaty between Britain and Ireland that established
the Irish Free State because it did not give Ireland absolute freedom,
and left the Dail. In 1927 he reentered the Dail with his party, %@AU@%FIANNA
%@AU@%FAIL%@BO:          32e1fb@%%@AE@%. As prime minister (1932-48, 1951-54, 1957-58), he made Ireland a
sovereign state and maintained neutrality in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. He was also
president of Ireland (1959-73).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%devaluation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%devaluation%@AE@%,%@CR:DEVALUATION     @%%@QR:devaluation@% decreasing the value of one nation's currency relative to%@EH@%
gold or the currencies of other nations. It is usually undertaken as a
means of correcting a deficit in the %@AU@%BALANCE OF PAYMENTS%@BO:           b3669@%%@AE@%. Although
devaluation occurs in terms of all currencies, it is best illustrated in
relation to one other currency. For example, if the U.S. is losing money
in its trade with France, it may decide to devalue the dollar by 10%. If
one dollar had been worth about 5.5 francs, a 10% devaluation causes it
to be worth only 5 francs. Such a move causes French products to become
more expensive for Americans (thus reducing U.S. imports) and American
products to become cheaper for Frenchmen (increasing U.S. exports). The
U.S. devalued the dollar by 8.57% in 1971 and by 10% in 1973.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Devereux, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Devereux, Robert%@AE@%:%@CR:DEVEREUX        @%%@QR:Devereux, Robert@% see %@AU@%ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2D EARL OF%@BO:          301780@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Devils Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Devils Island%@AE@%,%@CR:DEVILS.ISLAND   @%%@QR:Devils Island@% most southerly of the Iles du Salut, in the%@EH@%
Caribbean Sea, off %@AU@%FRENCH GUIANA%@BO:          360a5e@%%@AE@%. It was the site of a penal colony
(1852-1951) used mostly for political prisoners, such as Capt. Alfred
Dreyfus (see %@AU@%DREYFUS AFFAIR%@BO:          2aa834@%%@AE@%). Its name was synonymous with the system's
horrors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Devolution, War of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Devolution, War of%@AE@%,%@CR:DEVOLUTION      @%%@QR:Devolution, War of@% 1667-68, between France and Spain over the Spanish%@EH@%
Netherlands. On the basis of a complicated legal claim, %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of
France overran the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte. The United
Provinces, in alarm, formed the Triple Alliance with England and Sweden,
and France was forced to make peace.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Devonian period%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Devonian period%@AE@%:%@CR:DEVONIAN.PERIOD @%%@QR:Devonian period@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%de Vries, Hugo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%de Vries, Hugo%@AE@%,%@CR:DE.VRIES        @%%@QR:de Vries, Hugo@% 1848-1935, Dutch botanist. He rediscovered (1900) Gregor%@EH@%
%@AU@%MENDEL'S%@BO:          5e9ae1@%%@AE@% laws of heredity and developed the theory of %@AU@%MUTATION%@BO:          65b679@%%@AE@%, expounded
in %@AI@%The Mutation Theory%@AE@% (1901-3) and in %@AI@%Plant-Breeding%@AE@% (1907). De Vries
introduced the experimental method to the study of evolution, and
maintained that new species develop via mutations and that each quality
subject to change is represented by a single physical unit (which he
called a pangen). His work on osmosis is also important; he coined the
term %@AI@%isotonic%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dew%@AE@%,%@CR:DEW             @%%@QR:dew@% thin film of water that has condensed on the surface of objects near%@EH@%
the ground. Dew forms when objects cool during the night, causing the
layer of air in contact with them to cool, and then causing the
condensation of the water vapor in that layer of air. Condensation occurs
because the capacity of air to hold water vapor decreases as the air is
cooled. %@AU@%FROST%@BO:          3696fe@%%@AE@% forms if the dew point, or temperature at which
condensation begins, is below 32 degF (0 degC).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dewar, Sir James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dewar, Sir James%@AE@%,%@CR:DEWAR           @%%@QR:Dewar, Sir James@% 1842-1923, British chemist and physicist; b. Scotland.%@EH@%
Professor at the Royal Inst., London, and later director of the
Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory there, he was knighted in 1904. Best
known for his work on the properties of matter at very low temperatures
and the liquefaction of gases, he liquefied and solidified hydrogen and
invented the %@AU@%DEWAR FLASK%@BO:          287d99@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dewar flask%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dewar flask%@AE@%%@CR:DEWAR.FLASK     @%%@QR:Dewar flask@% for Sir James Dewar, container for storing hot or cold%@EH@%
substances, e.g., liquid air. It consists of two flasks, one inside the
other, separated by a vacuum. The vacuum greatly reduces the transfer of
heat. The common thermos bottle is an adaptation of the Dewar flask.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dewey, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dewey, George%@AE@%,%@CR:DEWEY1          @%%@QR:Dewey, George@% 1837-1917, American admiral; b. Montpelier, Vt.; grad.%@EH@%
Annapolis, 1858. During the %@AU@%SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR%@BO:          8d0a1a@%%@AE@%, he directed (1898) the
spectacular victory over the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in the
Philippines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dewey, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dewey, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DEWEY2          @%%@QR:Dewey, John@% 1859-1952, American philosopher and educator; b. Burlington,%@EH@%
Vt. He rejected authoritarian teaching methods, regarding education in a
democracy as a tool to enable the citizen to integrate his or her culture
and vocation usefully. To accomplish those aims, both pedagogical methods
and curricula needed radical reform. Dewey's philosophy, called
instrumentalism and related to %@AU@%PRAGMATISM%@BO:          78fcd0@%%@AE@%, holds that truth is an
instrument used by human beings to solve their problems, and that it must
change as their problems change. Thus it partakes of no transcendental or
eternal reality. Dewey's view of democracy as a primary ethical value
permeated his educational theories. He had a profound impact on
%@AU@%PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION%@BO:          79e5ce@%%@AE@% and was regarded as the foremost educator of his
day. He lectured all over the world and prepared educational surveys for
Turkey, Mexico, and the Soviet Union. Among his works are %@AI@%Democracy and
%@AI@%Education%@AE@% (1916) and %@AI@%Logic%@AE@% (1938).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dewey, Melvil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dewey, Melvil%@AE@%,%@CR:DEWEY3          @%%@QR:Dewey, Melvil@% 1851-1931, American library pioneer, originator of the%@EH@%
Dewey decimal system; b. Adams Center, N.Y. As acting librarian of
Amherst College (1874) he evolved his system of book classification,
using the numbers 000 to 999 to cover the general fields of knowledge and
narrowing the system to fit special subjects by the use of decimals.
While at Columbia Univ. he established the first %@AU@%LIBRARY SCHOOL%@BO:          54babd@%%@AE@%. Dewey
was also librarian of the New York State Library at Albany, where he
founded another important library school. He was a founder of the
American Library Association.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dewey, Thomas Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dewey, Thomas Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:DEWEY4          @%%@QR:Dewey, Thomas Edmund@% 1902-71, U.S. politician, governor (1943-55) of New%@EH@%
York; b. Owosso, Mich. Twice a Republican presidential candidate, Dewey
lost in 1944 to F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%, and in 1948, quite unexpectedly, to Harry
S %@AU@%TRUMAN%@BO:          982df7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%De Witt, Jan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%De Witt, Jan%@AE@%:%@CR:DE.WITT         @%%@QR:De Witt, Jan@% see %@AU@%WITT, JAN DE%@BO:          a29d2d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dextrose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dextrose%@AE@%:%@CR:DEXTROSE        @%%@QR:dextrose@% see %@AU@%GLUCOSE%@BO:          3abd28@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dhahran%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dhahran%@AE@%,%@CR:DHAHRAN         @%%@QR:Dhahran@% city (1980 est. pop. 15,000), NE Saudi Arabia, near the Persian%@EH@%
Gulf. Since the discovery (1938) of oil nearby, it has grown rapidly into
a modern city. In Dhahran are the headquarters of the Arabian American
Oil Co. (ARAMCO), the office of the Saudi petroleum ministry, and the
Univ. of Petroleum and Minerals (1964).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dhaka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dhaka%@AE@%,%@CR:DHAKA           @%%@QR:Dhaka@% city (1981 pop. 3,458,602), capital of Bangladesh, on the Burhi%@EH@%
Ganga R. It is the nation's industrial, commercial, and administrative
center, with an active trade in jute, rice, and tea. Among its
manufactures are textiles, jute products, and paper, and in cottage
industries, confectionaries, jewelry, and other handicrafts. It was the
capital (1660-1704) of the Mogul province of Bengal. It passed under
British rule in 1765, and became capital of the newly formed Bangladesh
in 1971. Historic buildings include the Bara Katra palace (1644) and Lal
Bagh fort (1678).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dharma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dharma%@AE@%.%@CR:DHARMA          @%%@QR:dharma@% %@AB@%1%@AE@% In Hinduism, the religious and ethical duties of the%@EH@%
individual; virtue, right conduct. %@AB@%2%@AE@% In Buddhism, religious truth,
namely, Buddhist teaching. The plural, %@AI@%dharmas,%@AE@% refers to the constituent
qualities and phenomena of the empirical world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diabetes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diabetes%@AE@%%@CR:DIABETES        @%%@QR:diabetes@% or %@AB@%diabetes mellitus,%@AE@%chronic disorder involving abnormal %@AU@%INSULIN%@BO:          48925b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
secretion, associated with high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) and altered
fat and protein metabolism. Diabetics are predisposed to developing
vascular disease (e.g., %@AU@%ARTERIOSCLEROSIS%@BO:           83ab8@%%@AE@%), kidney disease, %@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%BLINDNESS%@BO:          10e446@%%@AE@%. Diabetics who secrete insufficient amounts of insulin are
known as non-insulin-dependent diabetics. This type of diabetes, most
commonly seen in overweight adults, can often be managed by weight loss
and diet regulation, although sometimes insulin or oral hypoglycemic
drugs maybe needed. Diabetics unable to produce their own insulin are
known as insulin-dependent and must receive injections of the hormone
daily.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diadochi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diadochi%@AE@%%@CR:DIADOCHI        @%%@QR:Diadochi@% [Gr.,=successors], subordinates of %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% who,%@EH@%
after his death (323 BC), struggled for control of his empire. Chief
among them were Antipater, Perdiccas, Eumenes, Craterus, Antigonus,
Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. The major events of the wars of the
Diadochi were the victory of Antipater over Perdiccas for the regency
(321 BC), the defeat of Antigonus by Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus at
Ipsus (301), and the victory of Seleucus over Lysimachus at Corupedion
(281). At the end of the period Alexander's empire was irrevocably split,
with power divided among the descendants of Ptolemy, Seleucus, and
Antigonus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diaghilev, Sergei Pavlovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diaghilev, Sergei Pavlovich%@AE@%,%@CR:DIAGHILEV       @%%@QR:Diaghilev, Sergei Pavlovich@% 1872-1929, Russian Ballet impresario and art%@EH@%
critic. With Michel %@AU@%FOKINE%@BO:          340eb5@%%@AE@% and others, he founded (1909) the Ballets
Russes in Paris. His lavish productions, incorporating asymmetry and
perpetual motion, revolutionized %@AU@%BALLET%@BO:           b7ae9@%%@AE@%, and attracted dancers,
choreographers, designers, and composers of the first rank.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dialect%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dialect%@AE@%,%@CR:DIALECT         @%%@QR:dialect@% variety of a %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% used by a group of speakers within a%@EH@%
particular speech community. Every individual speaks a variety of his
language called an idiolect. Dialects are groups of idiolects with a
common core of similarities in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
Adjacent dialects are mutually intelligible, yet with increasing distance
differences may accumulate to the point of mutual unintelligibility. For
example, in the Dutch-German speech community, there is a continuum of
intelligibility from Flanders to Schleswig and from there to Styria, but
Flemish and Styrian dialects are mutually unintelligible. The methods of
comparative linguistics, using written texts, and of modern linguistic
geography, using informants, have been used to study dialects. In recent
years linguists have focused on social dialects that reflect occupations
or life-styles. In the U.S. much work has been done in the area of %@AU@%BLACK
%@AU@%ENGLISH%@BO:          107904@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dialectical materialism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dialectical materialism%@AE@%,%@CR:DIALECTERIALISM @%%@QR:dialectical materialism@% official philosophy of Communism, based on the%@EH@%
works of Karl %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@% and his followers. A reversal of %@AU@%HEGEL'S%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@% dialectical
%@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@%, it holds that everything is material and that human beings
create social life solely in response to economic needs. Thus all aspects
of society are considered to reflect the economic structure, and classes
in society are determined by their relationship to the means of
production. Growth, change, and development take place through a
naturally occurring "struggle of opposites," a process that individuals
cannot influence. Application of these principles to the study of history
and sociology is called historical materialism, an approach having many
non-Communist advocates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dialysis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dialysis%@AE@%,%@CR:DIALYSIS        @%%@QR:dialysis@% in chemistry, transfer of dissolved solids (solute) across a%@EH@%
semipermeable membrane, which permits or hinders diffusion of molecules
according to their size. Dialysis is frequently used to separate
different components of a solution. For example, in artificial kidney
machines dialysis is used to purify the blood of persons whose %@AU@%KIDNEYS%@BO:          4f8165@%%@AE@%
have ceased to function. In the machine, blood is circulated on one side
of a semipermeable membrane, while dialysis fluid-containing substances
necessary to the body and closely matching the chemical composition of
the blood-is circulated on the other side. Metabolic waste products, such
as urea, diffuse through the membrane into the dialysis fluid and are
discarded, while the diffusion of substances necessary to the body is
prevented. See also %@AU@%OSMOSIS%@BO:          6f3438@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diamond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diamond%@AE@%,%@CR:DIAMOND         @%%@QR:diamond@% mineral, one of two crystalline forms of the element %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@%. It%@EH@%
is the hardest substance known, and inferior stones are used as
%@AU@%ABRASIVES%@BO:            6185@%%@AE@%, in certain types of cutting tools, and as phonograph needles.
%@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@% diamonds were first found in streambeds in India and Borneo; most now
come from volcanic pipes in South Africa. Famous diamonds include the
Koh-i-noor, now among the English crown jewels; the Cullinan, from which
105 stones were cut; and the blue Hope diamond. Synthetic diamonds,
produced since 1955, are now widely used in industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diamond Head%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diamond Head%@AE@%,%@CR:DIAMOND.HEAD    @%%@QR:Diamond Head@% peak, 761 ft (232 m) high, SE Oahu, Hawaii, prominent%@EH@%
landmark of the Honolulu waterfront. It is located on the rim of an
extinct volcanic crater near Waikiki Beach and is protected from
commercial development.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diana%@AE@%,%@CR:DIANA1          @%%@QR:Diana@% 1961-, princess of Wales, wife of %@AU@%CHARLES%@BO:          1c12e1@%%@AE@%, prince of Wales, heir%@EH@%
to the British throne. Daughter of the 8th Earl Spencer, she worked as a
kindergarten teacher in London before her marriage in 1981. She and
Prince Charles have two sons, William and Henry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diana%@AE@%,%@CR:DIANA2          @%%@QR:Diana@% in Roman mythology, goddess of the moon, forests, animals, and%@EH@%
women in childbirth. Both a virgin goddess and an earth goddess, she was
identified with the Greek %@AU@%ARTEMIS%@BO:           838b4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diane de Poitiers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diane de Poitiers%@AE@%%@CR:DIANE.DRS       @%%@QR:Diane de Poitiers@%, 1499-1566, mistress of %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% of France. She%@EH@%
maintained friendly relations with the queen, %@AU@%CATHERINE DE' MEDICI%@BO:          1a3aee@%%@AE@%, while
completely eclipsing her. She supported the king's anti-Protestant
policy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diaphragm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diaphragm%@AE@%:%@CR:DIAPHRAGM       @%%@QR:diaphragm@% see %@AU@%RESPIRATION%@BO:          7e6ed3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diary%@AE@%%@CR:DIARY           @%%@QR:diary@% [Lat.,=day], a daily record of events and observations. It derives%@EH@%
its impact from its immediacy, unlike the retrospective memoir. Diaries
interest historians because they depict everyday lives in a given time
and place. Three of the most famous are those by Samuel %@AU@%PEPYS%@BO:          7323bf@%%@AE@%, who bore
witness to the plague (1665) and great fire (1666) then sweeping London;
Mary Chesnut, who chronicled in personal terms the fate of the
%@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@% in the American %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; and Anne Frank, a young
German-Jewish girl who, before she died in a World War II %@AU@%CONCENTRATION
%@AU@%CAMP%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@%, recorded her experiences while hiding in Holland. Important
literary diaries include those of John %@AU@%EVELYN%@BO:          30e60f@%%@AE@%, Andre %@AU@%GIDE%@BO:          3a1620@%%@AE@%, Franz %@AU@%KAFKA%@BO:          4df9b9@%%@AE@%,
and Virginia %@AU@%WOOLF%@BO:          a30b84@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diatom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diatom%@AE@%,%@CR:DIATOM          @%%@QR:diatom@% single-celled, microscopic plant that secretes and is enclosed by%@EH@%
an often intricate, round-to-elongated silica shell. Golden-brown %@AU@%ALGAE%@BO:           3985a@%%@AE@%,
diatoms are found in fresh and salt water, in moist soil, and on the
moist surfaces of other plants; they are the principal constitutent of
%@AU@%PLANKTON%@BO:          768385@%%@AE@%, an important food source for aquatic animals. Most exist
singly, but some form colonies. When the aquatic forms die, their shells
collect in the ooze on the bottom, eventually forming the material called
diatomaceous earth (kieselguhr) or the more compact, chalky, light-weight
rock called diatomite, used in sound and heat insulation, in making
explosives, and for filters and abrasives. Most %@AU@%LIMESTONE%@BO:          552e39@%%@AE@% and much
%@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@% is of diatom origin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diaz, Porfirio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diaz, Porfirio%@AE@%,%@CR:DIAZ            @%%@QR:Diaz, Porfirio@% 1830-1915, Mexican dictator. In 1876 he lost the%@EH@%
presidential election, revolted, and seized power. He ruled %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@%
ruthlessly for 35 years in the interest of the few and at the expense of
the peons. He promoted prosperity by encouraging foreign investments.
Growing popular discontent culminated in the 1910 revolution led by
%@AU@%MADERO%@BO:          5934e1@%%@AE@%. Diaz fled and died in exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dice%@AE@%%@CR:DICE            @%%@QR:dice@% plural of %@AI@%die%@AE@%, small cubes used in games, usually made of ivory,%@EH@%
plastic, or similar materials. The six sides are numbered by dots from 1
to 6, placed in such a way that the sum of the dots on opposite sides
equals 7. Dice games have been popular since ancient times. In the
simplest form of play, each player throws, or shoots, for the highest
sum. In craps, a popular gambling game in the U.S., the "shooter" rolls
two dice, winning on the first roll if 7 or 11 is thrown and losing if
the sum is 2, 3, or 12. If any other number is thrown, the player
continues to shoot until that number is duplicated, for a win, or a 7 is
rolled, for a loss.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dickens, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dickens, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:DICKENS         @%%@QR:Dickens, Charles@% 1812-70, English novelist, one of the great fiction%@EH@%
writers in English. After a childhood of poverty, during which he had to
work for a time in a blacking warehouse (a humiliation he never forgot),
Dickens became a court stenographer and parliamentary reporter. His early
sketches of London life were collected in %@AI@%Sketches by Boz%@AE@% (1836). %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club%@AE@% (1836-37), a series of connected
humorous sketches, promptly made Dickens famous, and the major novels
that followed established him as the most popular writer of his time.
They include %@AI@%Oliver Twist%@AE@% (1838), %@AI@%Nicholas Nickleby%@AE@% (1839), %@AI@%The Old
%@AI@%Curiosity Shop%@AE@% (1841), %@AI@%Barnaby Rudge%@AE@% (1841), %@AI@%Dombey and Son%@AE@% (1848), %@AI@%David
%@AI@%Copperfield%@AE@% (1850), %@AI@%Bleak House%@AE@% (1853), %@AI@%Hard Times%@AE@% (1854), %@AI@%Little Dorrit%@AE@%
(1857), %@AI@%A Tale of Two Cities%@AE@% (1859), %@AI@%Great Expectations%@AE@% (1861), %@AI@%Our
%@AI@%Mutual Friend%@AE@% (1865), and %@AI@%The Mystery of Edwin Drood%@AE@% (1870; unfinished).
After an American tour in 1842, he wrote sharply about the U.S. in
%@AI@%American Notes%@AE@% (1842) and in the novel %@AI@%Martin Chuzzlewit%@AE@% (1843). Working
ceaselessly, Dickens gave highly successful readings from his works,
edited two magazines, wrote Christmas stories, e.g., %@AI@%A Christmas Carol%@AE@%
(1843), and managed amateur theatricals. He married Catherine Hogarth in
1836, but despite their 10 children, it was not a happy union, and they
separated in 1858. Although sometimes marred by sentimentality, Dickens's
novels are remarkable for their rich portraits of all aspects of society,
their crusades against abuses (imprisonment for debt, legal delays, bad
education), and their sharply drawn, eccentric characters, whose
names-Mr. Micawber, Uriah Heep, Ebenezer Scrooge-have become household
words for generations of readers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dickey, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dickey, James%@AE@%,%@CR:DICKEY          @%%@QR:Dickey, James@% 1923-, American poet; b. Atlanta. He makes use of the%@EH@%
ordinary in his poems, joining the natural and mechanical on such topics
as war and nature. His poetry volumes include %@AI@%Buckdancer's Choice%@AE@% (1965)
and %@AI@%The Zodiac%@AE@% (1976). He also wrote a novel, %@AI@%Deliverance%@AE@% (1969).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dickinson, Emily%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dickinson, Emily%@AE@%,%@CR:DICKINSON1      @%%@QR:Dickinson, Emily@% 1830-86, one of the greatest poets in American%@EH@%
literature; b. Amherst, Mass. The daughter of a prominent lawyer, she
spent almost all of her life in her birthplace, gradually withdrawing
from local activities, and spending her later years as a virtual recluse
in her father's house. She composed over 1,000 unique lyrics dealing with
religion, love, nature, death, and immortality, only seven of which were
published during her lifetime. Her verse, noted for its aphoristic style,
its wit, its delicate metrical variation, and its bold and startling
imagery, has had great influence on 20th-cent. poetry. Her posthumous
fame began with the first editions of her poems (1890, 1891) and her
correspondence (2 vol., 1894). While her work has gone through many
editions, a definitive edition of Dickinson did not appear until the
1950s, when T.H. Johnson published her poems (3 vol., 1955) and her
letters (3 vol., 1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dickinson, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dickinson, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DICKINSON2      @%%@QR:Dickinson, John@% 1732-1808, American Revolutionary statesman; b. Talbot%@EH@%
co., Md. He wrote %@AI@%Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania%@AE@% (1767-68) to
protest the %@AU@%TOWNSHEND ACTS%@BO:          970451@%%@AE@%. A conservative member of the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL
%@AU@%CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@%, he championed the rights of the small states at the %@AU@%FEDERAL
%@AU@%CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dicotyledon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dicotyledon%@AE@%:%@CR:DICOTYLEDON     @%%@QR:dicotyledon@% see %@AU@%ANGIOSPERM%@BO:           576a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dictionary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dictionary%@AE@%,%@CR:DICTIONARY      @%%@QR:dictionary@% published list, in alphabetical order, of the words of a%@EH@%
language, explaining and defining them, or, in the case of a bilingual
dictionary, translating them into another language. Modern dictionaries
usually also provide hyphenation, synonyms, derived forms, and etymology.
The modern dictionary is often prescriptive, attempting to establish
certain forms as preferable. In the 20th cent. American dictionary makers
began to adopt criteria of use rather than of etymological purity,
somewhat in advance of similar developments in %@AU@%GRAMMAR%@BO:          3c157f@%%@AE@%. Dictionaries were
produced in China, Greece, Islam, and other complex early cultures. The
first modern examples of lexicography are thought to be Nathan Bailey's
%@AI@%Universal Etymological English Dictionary%@AE@% (1721) and his larger
%@AI@%Dictionarium Britannicum%@AE@% (1730), which served Samuel %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cd852@%%@AE@% in preparing
his %@AI@%Dictionary of the English Language%@AE@% (1755), a standard work. The next
great lexicographer was an American, Noah %@AU@%WEBSTER%@BO:          a01a09@%%@AE@%, whose immensely
popular %@AI@%Spelling Book%@AE@% first appeared in 1783, followed by his %@AI@%Compendious
%@AI@%Dictionary of the English Language%@AE@% (1806). Webster's %@AI@%American Dictionary
%@AI@%of the English Language%@AE@% (1828) has been skillfully revised and abridged
over the years, thereby retaining its popularity. A six-volume American
encyclopedic dictionary, %@AI@%The Century Dictionary,%@AE@% was completed in 1891.
British lexicographers from the 19th cent. on began to collect and
organize examples of usage. In 1857 the Philological Society began
collecting dated examples of usage, culminating in the publication (1928;
2d ed., 1989) of the unrivaled lexicon known as the %@AI@%New English
%@AI@%Dictionary,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Oxford English Dictionary (OED),%@AE@% or %@AI@%Murray's Dictionary%@AE@%
(for Sir James A.H. %@AU@%MURRAY%@BO:          6549dd@%%@AE@%, one of the editors). Two major shorter
editions exist: %@AI@%The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English%@AE@% and the
%@AI@%Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.%@AE@% Other advances in lexicography are
reflected in the frequently revised collegiate or desk dictionary, an
up-to-date abridgment of a larger work, such as the %@AI@%Webster's New
%@AI@%Collegiate Dictionary,%@AE@% based on %@AI@%Webster's Third New International
%@AI@%Dictionary%@AE@% (1966).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diderot, Denis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diderot, Denis%@AE@%%@CR:DIDEROT         @%%@QR:Diderot, Denis@%, 1713-84, French encyclopedist and materialist%@EH@%
philosopher. He was enormously influential in shaping the rationalist
thought of the 18th cent. His lifework, the %@AU@%ENCYCLOPEDIE%@BO:          2eb459@%%@AE@%, for which he
enlisted the leading French talents of the time, epitomized the spirit of
the %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@%. Also a novelist, satirist, and playwright, he produced
%@AI@%The Father of the Family%@AE@% (1758) the first "bourgeois drama." He authored
many philosophical works and in his %@AI@%Salons%@AE@% pioneered in modern art
criticism. In his later years, he enjoyed the patronage of %@AU@%CATHERINE III%@BO:          1a329e@%%@AE@%
of Russia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Didion, Joan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Didion, Joan%@AE@%,%@CR:DIDION          @%%@QR:Didion, Joan@% 1934-, American writer; b. Sacramento, Calif. Exploring the%@EH@%
emptiness of contemporary American life, her work includes novels, e.g.,
%@AI@%Play It As It Lays%@AE@% (1970), and essay collections, e.g., %@AI@%The White Album%@AE@%
(1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dido%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dido%@AE@%%@CR:DIDO            @%%@QR:Dido@%, in Roman mythology, founder and queen of %@AU@%CARTHAGE%@BO:          197101@%%@AE@%. Of the several%@EH@%
versions of her story the most famous is in %@AU@%VERGIL'S%@BO:          9ca1fb@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Aeneid,%@AE@% in which she
loves %@AU@%AENEAS%@BO:           174f4@%%@AE@%. When he leaves her to continue his journey to Italy, she
destroys herself on a burning pyre.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Didot, Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Didot, Francois%@AE@%,%@CR:DIDOT           @%%@QR:Didot, Francois@% 1689-1757, French printer, the first of his family to%@EH@%
win fame in his craft. His son %@AB@%Francois Ambroise Didot,%@AE@% 1730-1804,
influenced by %@AU@%BASKERVILLE%@BO:           cd686@%%@AE@%, designed pseudoclassical type and in turn
influenced %@AU@%BODONI%@BO:          115388@%%@AE@%. He improved and established the point system of
measuring and naming type sizes. His sons, %@AB@%Pierre Didot,%@AE@% 1761-1853, and
%@AB@%Firmin Didot,%@AE@% 1764-1836, continued the family tradition, producing
conscientiously edited texts that met the general reader's requirement
for good but inexpensive books. Firmin Didot was the first in France to
print from stereotype plates, reducing costs. He improved and named the
process.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Didrikson, Babe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Didrikson, Babe%@AE@%%@CR:DIDRIKSON       @%%@QR:Didrikson, Babe@% (Mildred Didrikson), 1913-56, American athlete, perhaps%@EH@%
the greatest woman athlete of modern times; b. Port Arthur, Tex. She
excelled in basketball, baseball, and track, and she won (1932) two
Olympic events, the javelin and the 80-meter hurdles. As a golfer she won
the U.S. (1946) and British (1947) amateur titles and the U.S. Open
(1948, 1950, 1954). She married George Zaharias, a wrestler, in 1938.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Didymus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Didymus%@AE@%:%@CR:DIDYMUS         @%%@QR:Didymus@% see %@AU@%THOMAS, SAINT%@BO:          951b84@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diefenbaker, John George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diefenbaker, John George%@AE@%,%@CR:DIEFENBAKER     @%%@QR:Diefenbaker, John George@% 1895-1979, prime minister of %@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@% (1957-63).%@EH@%
He was leader of the Progressive Conservatives and led them to their
greatest election victory in 1958. He instituted agricultural reforms,
but a recession contributed to his party's losses to the Liberals in
1962; his government fell the following year.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diego Garcia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diego Garcia%@AE@%,%@CR:DIEGO.GARCIA    @%%@QR:Diego Garcia@% coral island, Indian Ocean, largest island of the Chagos%@EH@%
Archipelago, SW of Sri Lanka. Part of the British Indian Ocean Territory,
it is also claimed by Mauritius. The 11-sq-mi (28-sq-km) island, leased
(1970) to the U.S., was later developed as a major U.S. naval base to
guard the %@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@% oil routes and to counter increased Soviet
military activities in S Asia and Africa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dielectric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dielectric%@AE@%,%@CR:DIELECTRIC      @%%@QR:dielectric@% material that does not readily conduct electricity, i.e., an%@EH@%
insulator (see %@AU@%INSULATION%@BO:          488d62@%%@AE@%). A good dielectric resists breakdown under
high voltages, does not draw appreciable power from the circuit, and has
reasonable physical stability. Dielectrics are used to separate the
plates of a %@AU@%CAPACITOR%@BO:          1866ad@%%@AE@%. The dielectric strength is a measure of the
maximum voltage (see %@AU@%POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@%) that a dielectric can sustain
without significant %@AU@%CONDUCTION%@BO:          21d297@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diem, Ngo Dinh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diem, Ngo Dinh%@AE@%%@CR:DIEM            @%%@QR:Diem, Ngo Dinh@%, 1901-63, president (1955-63) of South %@AU@%VIETNAM%@BO:          9d6182@%%@AE@%. Named%@EH@%
(1954) premier, he ousted (1955) %@AU@%BAO DAI%@BO:           bfb04@%%@AE@% as head of state and emerged as
president. His rule grew authoritarian, and he was murdered in a military
coup that was apparently backed by the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dienbienphu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dienbienphu%@AE@%%@CR:DIENBIENPHU     @%%@QR:Dienbienphu@%, former French military base, NW Vietnam, near the Laos%@EH@%
border. It was the scene (May 1954) of the last great battle between the
French and the %@AU@%VIET MINH%@BO:          9d5f2e@%%@AE@%, whose victory after a 56-day siege marked the
end of French power in %@AU@%INDOCHINA%@BO:          47ba63@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diesel engine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diesel engine%@AE@%,%@CR:DIESEL.ENGINE   @%%@QR:diesel engine@% type of %@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@% patented (1892) by the%@EH@%
German engineer Rudolph Diesel. It is heavier and more powerful than the
gasoline engine and burns fuel oil instead of gasoline. It differs from
the gasoline engine in that the ignition of fuel is caused by compression
of air in its cylinders instead of by a spark. The speed and power of the
diesel are controlled by varying the amount of fuel injected into the
cylinder-not the amount of air admitted, as in the gasoline engine.
Diesels are widely used to power industrial and municipal electric
generators, continuously operating pumps such as those used in oil
pipelines, and ships, trucks, locomotives, and some automobiles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diethylstilbestrol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diethylstilbestrol%@AE@%:%@CR:DIETHYLROL      @%%@QR:diethylstilbestrol@% see %@AU@%DES%@BO:          282dc7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dietrich, Marlene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dietrich, Marlene%@AE@%%@CR:DIETRICH        @%%@QR:Dietrich, Marlene@%, 1901-, German-American film actress. She played the%@EH@%
sultry, ageless femme fatale. Her films include %@AI@%The Blue Angel%@AE@% (1930),
%@AI@%The Scarlet Empress%@AE@% (1934), %@AI@%A Foreign Affair%@AE@% (1948), and %@AI@%Witness for the
%@AI@%Prosecution%@AE@% (1957).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diffraction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diffraction%@AE@%,%@CR:DIFFRACTION     @%%@QR:diffraction@% bending of radiation (such as light) around the edge of an%@EH@%
obstacle or by a narrow aperture. Diffraction results from the
%@AU@%INTERFERENCE%@BO:          48c4ca@%%@AE@% of light waves that pass an opaque body, producing a fuzzy
region between the shadow area and the lighted area that, upon close
examination, is actually a series of light and dark lines. A %@AB@%diffraction
%@AB@%grating%@AE@% contains many fine, parallel slits or scratches (about 12,000 per
cm or 30,000 per in.) and disperses light into its colors. These gratings
are used in diffracting %@AU@%SPECTROSCOPES%@BO:          8d551a@%%@AE@%. The atomic and molecular structure
of crystals is examined by X-ray diffraction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%digestive system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%digestive system%@AE@%,%@CR:DIGESTIM        @%%@QR:digestive system@% in animals, a group of organs that digest food and%@EH@%
eliminate wastes. Digestion converts food into a form that can be
absorbed into the %@AU@%CIRCULATORY SYSTEM%@BO:          1e85bb@%%@AE@% and distributed to tissues
throughout the body. Digestion begins at the mouth, where chewing reduces
the food to a fine texture, saliva moistens it, and an enzyme (amylase)
in saliva begins the conversion of starch into simple sugars. The
swallowed food passes through the %@AU@%PHARYNX%@BO:          746626@%%@AE@% and through a long tube, the
esophagus, into the %@AU@%STOMACH%@BO:          8f414e@%%@AE@%. The food is pushed through the digestive
system by peristalsis (contractions of the muscles forming the outer
walls of the digestive tract). In the stomach, where digestive %@AU@%ENZYMES%@BO:          2f4a84@%%@AE@%
and gastric juices are secreted, sugars and alcohol are absorbed directly
through the stomach wall into the bloodstream, and the remainder, in the
form of a thick liquid (chyme), passes into the first section of the
small %@AU@%INTESTINE%@BO:          490f25@%%@AE@% (the duodenum). There digestive enzymes from the %@AU@%PANCREAS%@BO:          708218@%%@AE@%
break down fats into glycerol and fatty acids, starches into sugars, and
proteins into amino acids. The %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@% supplies bile, which makes fat
globules smaller and more easily digested. Small glands in the intestinal
wall (crypts of Lieberkuhn) also secrete enzymes that continue digestion.
Digested food is absorbed through small projections of the intestinal
wall (villi) into the blood and lymph. Undigested material passes into
the large intestine and is excreted through the anus (see %@AU@%EXCRETION%@BO:          3112a9@%%@AE@%). See
also %@AU@%GALL BLADDER%@BO:          377bdb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Digger Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Digger Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:DIGGER.INDIANS  @%%@QR:Digger Indians@% see %@AU@%PAIUTE INDIANS%@BO:          701487@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%digital circuit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%digital circuit%@AE@%,%@CR:DIGITAL.CIRCUIT @%%@QR:digital circuit@% %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% in which the output currents or%@EH@%
voltages are interpreted as having one of several (often two) values,
depending on which of a corresponding number of ranges they fall into.
Such circuits implement logical operations or operations on
representations of discrete numbers, often in binary form. See also
%@AU@%ANALOG CIRCUIT%@BO:           50aca@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%digital computer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%digital computer%@AE@%:%@CR:DIGITALR        @%%@QR:digital computer@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%digitalis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%digitalis%@AE@%,%@CR:DIGITALIS       @%%@QR:digitalis@% any of several chemically similar drugs, including digitoxin,%@EH@%
digoxin, and ouabain, used to treat heart failure and cardiac
arrhythmias. Digitalis slows the pulse and increases the force of heart
contractions and the amount of blood pumped per heartbeat. The chief
source of the drug is the foxglove plant, %@AI@%Digitalis purpurea%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%digital-to-analog conversion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%digital-to-analog conversion%@AE@%,%@CR:DIGITALION      @%%@QR:digital-to-analog conversion@% the process of changing discrete data into%@EH@%
a continuously varying signal. The most common use is to present the
output of a digital %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% as a graphic display (see %@AU@%COMPUTER GRAPHICS%@BO:          21858e@%%@AE@%)
or as audio output, as in computer-generated music. See also
%@AU@%ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION%@BO:           50d66@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dill%@AE@%,%@CR:DILL            @%%@QR:dill@% annual or biennial plant (%@AI@%Anethum graveolens%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to Europe. Its pungent, aromatic leaves and seeds are used for
pickling and for flavoring sauces, salads, and soups.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dillinger, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dillinger, John%@AE@%%@CR:DILLINGER       @%%@QR:Dillinger, John@% (1902?-34), American bank robber and murderer; b.%@EH@%
Indianapolis (?). After his second jailbreak, he and his gang terrorized
the Midwest with hit-and-run bank robberies in 1933. He was held
responsible for 16 killings and was declared "public enemy number one" by
the FBI, whose agents gunned him down on a Chicago street (July 1934).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%DiMaggio, Joe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%DiMaggio, Joe%@AE@%%@CR:DIMAGGIO        @%%@QR:DiMaggio, Joe@% (Joseph Paul DiMaggio), 1914-, American baseball player; b.%@EH@%
Martinez, Calif. A center fielder, he played his entire career (1936-51)
with the New York Yankees. In 1941 "Joltin' Joe" set a major-league
record by hitting safely in 56 straight games. He compiled a lifetime
average of .325, hit 361 home runs, and was a superb fielder.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dime novels%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dime novels%@AE@%,%@CR:DIME.NOVELS     @%%@QR:dime novels@% swift-moving thrillers, mainly about the %@AU@%AMERICAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, the frontier period, and the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. First sold in 1860
for 10 cents, the books featured such real life adventurers as %@AU@%BUFFALO
%@AU@%BILL%@BO:          1530c4@%%@AE@%, Ned Buntline, and Deadwood Dick and such fictional characters as
Nick Carter. The quality of the novels dropped in the 1880s, and they
were eclipsed by other series, pulp magazines, and comic strips in the
1890s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dimension%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dimension%@AE@%,%@CR:DIMENSION       @%%@QR:dimension@% in mathematics, number of parameters or coordinates required%@EH@%
to describe points in a mathematical object (usually geometric). The
space we inhabit, having height, width, and depth, is three-dimensional;
a plane or surface is two-dimensional; a line or curve is
one-dimensional; and a point is zero-dimensional. By means of a
coordinate system, e.g., %@AU@%CARTESIAN COORDINATES%@BO:          196b6e@%%@AE@%, one can specify any point
with respect to a chosen origin (and coordinate axes through the origin,
in the case of two or three dimensions). By analogy, an ordered set of
four, five, or more numbers is defined as representing a point in a space
of four, five, or more dimensions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dimitrov, Georgi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dimitrov, Georgi%@AE@%%@CR:DIMITROV        @%%@QR:Dimitrov, Georgi@%, 1882-1949, Bulgarian Communist leader and premier%@EH@%
(1946-49). In 1933 the %@AU@%NAZIS%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% charged him with setting the %@AU@%REICHSTAG%@BO:          7db76b@%%@AE@% fire.
He was acquitted and moved to the USSR, where he became a citizen. He
returned to Bulgaria toward the end of World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dinesen, Isak%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dinesen, Isak%@AE@%%@CR:DINESEN         @%%@QR:Dinesen, Isak@%, pseud. of %@AB@%Baroness Karen Blixen,%@AE@% 1885-1962, Danish author%@EH@%
who wrote primarily in English. She is best known for her imaginative
tales, which contain romantic and supernatural elements. Collections
include %@AI@%Winter's Tales%@AE@% (1942) and %@AI@%Last Tales%@AE@% (1957). %@AI@%Out of Africa%@AE@%
(1937) is an autobiographical account of her years on a coffee plantation
in Kenya.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dingo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dingo%@AE@%,%@CR:DINGO           @%%@QR:dingo@% wild %@AU@%DOG%@BO:          29c45c@%%@AE@% of Australia; shoulder height, c.24 in. (61 cm). Probably%@EH@%
introduced by aboriginal settlers thousands of years ago, it was the only
large carnivorous mammal found in Australia by the first European
colonists. It has large, erect ears, a wolflike head, and long legs, and
is usually yellowish red, with white markings. A nocturnal hunter, it
preys on small animals and often kills livestock.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diniz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diniz%@AE@%,%@CR:DINIZ           @%%@QR:Diniz@%Port. %@AI@%Dinis%@AE@% , 1261-1325, king of Portugal (1279-1325). He%@EH@%
stimulated farming and commerce and restricted the Roman Catholic
Church's acquisition of land. A poet and patron of literature, he founded
(1290) a university at Lisbon during his relatively peaceful reign.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dinoflagellates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dinoflagellates%@AE@%:%@CR:DINOFLAGELLATES @%%@QR:dinoflagellates@% see %@AU@%PYRROPHYTA%@BO:          7b6175@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dinosaur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dinosaur%@AE@%,%@CR:DINOSAUR        @%%@QR:dinosaur@% any of a large group of extinct %@AU@%REPTILES%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@% (subclass Archosauria)%@EH@%
that dominated the earth for nearly 150 million years in the Mesozoic
era. Dinosaurs ranged in length from the 2-ft (60-cm) %@AI@%Compsognathus%@AE@% to
the nearly 90-ft (27-m) %@AI@%Diplodocus,%@AE@% and in weight up to the 75-ton
%@AI@%Brachiosaurus.%@AE@% They are traditionally classified as cold-blooded
reptiles, but recent evidence on posture, skeleton, and eating habits
suggests some may have been warm-blooded. They are all thought to have
been egg-layers. Saurischian (order Saurischia), or lizard-hipped,
dinosaurs included meat-eating bipeds, e.g., %@AI@%Allosaurus%@AE@% and
%@AI@%Tyrannosaurus,%@AE@% and plant-eating quadrupeds, e.g., %@AI@%Brontosaurus%@AE@% and
%@AI@%Diplodocus.%@AE@% Ornithischian (order Ornithischia), or bird-hipped, dinosaurs
included plant-eating bipeds, e.g., %@AI@%Iguanodon%@AE@% and the duckbills, and
armored dinosaurs, e.g., the plated %@AI@%Stegosaurus%@AE@% and horned %@AI@%Triceratops.%@AE@%
It is not known why dinosaurs died out. Most theories postulate that
changes in geography, climate, and sea level were responsible, and one
recent theory suggests that an asteroid impact caused the changes that
led to their extinction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diocletian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diocletian%@AE@%%@CR:DIOCLETIAN      @%%@QR:Diocletian@% (Caius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus), 245-313, Roman emperor%@EH@%
(284-305); b. Salona (now Split, Yugoslavia). An army commander of humble
birth, he was chosen to succeed Numerian as emperor and became sole ruler
after his coemperor, Carinus, was killed (285). Diocletian appointed
Maximian as his coemperor and Constantius I and Galerius as caesars
(subemperors). Each of the four men was given a district of the empire to
rule. Under this reorganization the empire throve; Britain was restored
(296), and the Persians were subjugated (298). Diocletian's unsuccessful
economic policies and his persecution of Christians were the only black
marks on his splendid reign. In 305 he retired to his castle at Salona.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diode%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diode%@AE@%,%@CR:DIODE           @%%@QR:diode@% two-terminal device having a low %@AU@%RESISTANCE%@BO:          7e6737@%%@AE@% to electric current in%@EH@%
one direction and a high resistance in the reverse direction. Diodes are
thus useful as %@AU@%RECTIFIERS%@BO:          7d4499@%%@AE@%, converting alternating current (AC) into
direct current (DC). Although %@AU@%ELECTRON-TUBE%@BO:          2da8a0@%%@AE@% diodes were once common,
almost all diodes today are %@AU@%SEMICONDUCTOR%@BO:          86c028@%%@AE@% devices. In general, current
flowing through a diode is not proportional to the voltage between its
terminals. When the voltage applied in the reverse direction exceeds a
certain value, a semiconductor diode breaks down and conducts heavily in
the direction of normally high resistance. This effect can be exploited
to regulate voltage. Some diodes are sensitive to light (see
%@AU@%PHOTOELECTRIC CELL%@BO:          751691@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL%@BO:          753df7@%%@AE@%). A light-emitting diode (LED)
produces light as current passes through it; some LEDs can act as lasers.
A thermistor is a special semiconductor diode whose conductivity
increases with the diode temperature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diogenes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diogenes%@AE@%,%@CR:DIOGENES        @%%@QR:Diogenes@% c.412-323 BC, Greek philosopher. He taught that the virtuous%@EH@%
life is the simple life, a maxim he dramatized by living in a tub.
Condemning the corruption of his contemporaries, he went about the
streets looking for "an honest man." None of his writings survives.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dione%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dione%@AE@%,%@CR:DIONE           @%%@QR:Dione@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84d488@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dion of Syracuse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dion of Syracuse%@AE@%%@CR:DION.OFE        @%%@QR:Dion of Syracuse@%, 409?-354? BC, Greek political leader in Syracuse,%@EH@%
brother-in-law of %@AU@%DIONYSIUS THE ELDER%@BO:          292f35@%%@AE@%. A friend of %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@%, he opposed
tyranny. Leading a force from Athens, he overthrew (357 BC) %@AU@%DIONYSIUS THE
%@AU@%YOUNGER%@BO:          292f35@%%@AE@% and ruled Syracuse until he was assassinated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dionysius the Elder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dionysius the Elder%@AE@%,%@CR:DIONYSILDER     @%%@QR:Dionysius the Elder@% c.430-367 BC, tyrant of %@AU@%SYRACUSE%@BO:          91fae6@%%@AE@%. Gaining influence%@EH@%
by supporting the poorer classes, he became (405 BC) tyrant. He
maintained power by exploiting Syracusan fear of the Carthaginians,
leading expeditions against them in Sicily, and against Italian cities.
He was succeeded by his son, %@AB@%Dionysius the Younger,%@AE@% fl. 368-344 BC
Unsuited for the position by both training and temperament, he was
overthrown by %@AU@%DION OF SYRACUSE%@BO:          292d31@%%@AE@% (357). The murder of Dion permitted his
return, but he was finally expelled in 344.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dionysus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dionysus%@AE@%%@CR:DIONYSUS        @%%@QR:Dionysus@%, in Greek mythology, god of fertility and wine, later considered%@EH@%
a patron of the arts. Probably of Thracian origin, Dionysus was one of
the most important Greek gods and the subject of profuse and
contradictory legends. He was thought to be the son of either %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%PERSEPHONE%@BO:          739443@%%@AE@% or of Zeus and Semele. Dionysus was attended by a carousing
band of %@AU@%SATYRS%@BO:          84e0fd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MAENADS%@BO:          594f23@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%NYMPHS%@BO:          6c6b8e@%%@AE@%. He taught mankind viticulture but
was capable of dreadful revenge upon those (e.g., %@AU@%ORPHEUS%@BO:          6efb00@%%@AE@% and Pentheus)
who denied his divinity. His worship was characteristically drunken and
orgiastic. The chief figure in the %@AU@%ORPHIC MYSTERIES%@BO:          6efe8c@%%@AE@% and other cults,
Dionysus had many festivals in his honor. From the music, singing, and
dancing of the Greater Dionysia in Athens developed the dithyramb and,
ultimately, Greek drama. The Romans identified him with Liber and
%@AU@%BACCHUS%@BO:           ab896@%%@AE@%, who was more properly the wine god.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Diophantus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Diophantus%@AE@%,%@CR:DIOPHANTUS      @%%@QR:Diophantus@% fl. c.250, Greek mathematician known as the "father of%@EH@%
algebra." He developed the use of symbols instead of words in algebraic
reasoning as well as methods for solving determinate and indeterminate
equations. His chief work is the %@AI@%Arithmetica.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dior, Christian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dior, Christian%@AE@%:%@CR:DIOR            @%%@QR:Dior, Christian@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dioscuri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dioscuri%@AE@%:%@CR:DIOSCURI        @%%@QR:Dioscuri@% see %@AU@%CASTOR AND POLLUX%@BO:          19ee7f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diphtheria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diphtheria%@AE@%,%@CR:DIPHTHERIA      @%%@QR:diphtheria@% acute, contagious disease caused by the %@AI@%Corynebacterium%@EH@%
%@AI@%diphtheriae.%@AE@% It is spread through respiratory droplets of infected
individuals. The bacteria, lodging in the mucous membranes of the throat,
secrete a potent toxin, which causes tissue destruction and the formation
of a gray membrane in the upper respiratory tract that can loosen and
cause asphyxiation. The toxin may also spread via the blood and damage
tissues elsewhere in the body. Diphtheria can be prevented by
vaccination.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice%@AE@%,%@CR:DIRAC           @%%@QR:Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice@% 1902-84, English physicist. He formulated%@EH@%
(1928) a version of quantum mechanics (see %@AU@%QUANTUM THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@%) that took into
account the theory of %@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@%. This theory implied the existence of an
antiparticle (see %@AU@%ANTIMATTER%@BO:           64b78@%%@AE@%) to the electron; it was discovered later
and named the positron. His equation of a particle's motion is a
relativistic modification of Erwin %@AU@%SCHRODINGER'S%@BO:          85b1d1@%%@AE@% basic equation of
quantum mechanics. Dirac and Schrodinger shared the 1933 Nobel Prize in
physics. Dirac also helped to formulate the Fermi-Dirac statistics and
contributed to the quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%direct current%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%direct current%@AE@%:%@CR:DIRECT.CURRENT  @%%@QR:direct current@% see %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOTOR, ELECTRIC%@BO:          647ad2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Directoire style%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Directoire style%@AE@%,%@CR:DIRECTOE        @%%@QR:Directoire style@% in French interior decoration and costume, the manner%@EH@%
prevailing at the time of the %@AU@%DIRECTORY%@BO:          29442d@%%@AE@% (1795-99). Influenced by
Greco-Roman design, it departed from the sumptuous %@AU@%LOUIS PERIOD STYLES%@BO:          5753f8@%%@AE@%
and forecast the %@AU@%EMPIRE STYLE%@BO:          2e931a@%%@AE@%. Furniture became more angular and severe;
painted and waxed wood replaced marquetry. Women adopted the chemise
gown, with low neckline and high waistline, and men wore tight breeches
and coats with wide lapels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Directory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Directory%@AE@%,%@CR:DIRECTORY       @%%@QR:Directory@% five men who held (1795-99) executive power in France during%@EH@%
the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. They were chosen by the legislature and each year
one director was replaced. The Directory was riddled by corruption and
torn by internal squabbles. After the military reverses of 1799, the Abbe
%@AU@%SIEYES%@BO:          88f405@%%@AE@%, who became a director that year, helped %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% stage the coup
of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), which replaced the Directory with the
Consulate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dirigible%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dirigible%@AE@%:%@CR:DIRIGIBLE       @%%@QR:dirigible@% see %@AU@%AIRSHIP%@BO:           26d33@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%disarmament, nuclear%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%disarmament, nuclear%@AE@%.%@CR:DISARMAMENT     @%%@QR:disarmament, nuclear@% The first %@AU@%ATOMIC BOMBS%@BO:           98960@%%@AE@% dropped (1945) on Japan by%@EH@%
the U.S. in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% demonstrated the terrible threat to humanity
posed by the possibility of nuclear war. Therefore the first resolution
(1946) of the General Assembly of the %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@% set up the UN Atomic
Energy Commission to make proposals for control of atomic energy. The
U.S.-sponsored Baruch Plan proposed an international agency to control
all destructive uses of atomic power. Intensification of the %@AU@%COLD WAR%@BO:          202276@%%@AE@%
made agreement impossible, and the Soviet Union became the second nuclear
power (1949). After both the U.S. (1952) and the USSR (1953) exploded
%@AU@%HYDROGEN BOMBS%@BO:          45f604@%%@AE@%, UN disarmament talks were revived, and a subcommittee of
the commission was established. Its Western members-the U.S., Canada,
Great Britain, and France-advocated an international control system with
on-site inspection. The USSR called for an immediate ban on nuclear
weapons with possible later controls. The U.S., Great Britain, and the
USSR began discussions on the formulation of a nuclear test-ban treaty in
1958 and agreed to suspend nuclear testing for one year. These talks,
continued under U.S. Pres. John F. %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@% and Soviet Premier Nikita
%@AU@%KHRUSHCHEV%@BO:          4f69f0@%%@AE@%, led to the first test-ban treaty (1963), the Moscow
Agreement, which banned testing in the atmosphere, in outer space, and
under water. The two countries proposed a nonproliferation agreement that
was approved (1968) by the UN General Assembly but was not binding on the
increasing number of nations developing nuclear weapons in the 1970s. The
U.S. and USSR began holding Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), which
resulted in the signing (1972) of the SALT I treaty: the two powers
agreed to limit antiballistic missiles and reached an interim accord on
limiting offensive nuclear weapons. The SALT II talks led to an agreement
tentatively approved by U.S. Pres. Jimmy %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% and Soviet Premier Leonid
%@AU@%BREZHNEV%@BO:          13c2c2@%%@AE@%. Ratification of the plan by the U.S. Senate, however, was
shelved (1980) after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In 1982 the U.S.
and USSR began a new set of talks, called START (STrategic Arms Reduction
Talks), and a worldwide movement for nuclear disarmament, which had
reemerged early in the 1980s, continued to be active. On Dec. 8, 1987
Pres. %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@% and Soviet Premier Mikhail %@AU@%GORBACHEV%@BO:          3b81d6@%%@AE@% signed a treaty to
eliminate intermediate-range nuclear forces. The U.S. Senate and the
Soviet Presidium both ratified the treaty in May 1988.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Disarmament Conference%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Disarmament Conference%@AE@%,%@CR:DISARMAFERENCE  @%%@QR:Disarmament Conference@% 1923-37, series of international meetings for the%@EH@%
discussion of general disarmament. Participants were the members of the
%@AU@%LEAGUE OF NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@%, the U.S., and the USSR. The first meeting (Feb.
1932-June 1933), at Geneva, was marked by disagreement over definitions
of the categories of war materials, the reluctance of France to agree to
any arms limitations, and Germany's insistence on a military parity with
the other powers. The session ended in deadlock. The second session (Oct.
1933) met in Germany, but when Adolf %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% withdrew Germany from the
League of Nations, the Conference again adjourned. Thereafter, it met
only sporadically until it went out of existence in 1937. By then a
general military buildup preparatory to %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% was already
underway, and all hopes of disarmament had vanished.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Disciples of Christ%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Disciples of Christ%@AE@%%@CR:DISCIPLRIST     @%%@QR:Disciples of Christ@% or %@AB@%The Christian Church,%@AE@%a Protestant religious body%@EH@%
founded early in the 19th cent. in the U.S. It held that the Bible alone
should form the basis for faith and conduct and that individuals should
interpret the Bible for themselves. The church was begun by Thomas
Campbell (see under %@AU@%CAMPBELL%@BO:          17bda3@%%@AE@%, Alexander), who gathered together several
dissident groups. In 1906 the group split into the %@AU@%CHURCHES OF CHRIST%@BO:          1e3a22@%%@AE@% and
the more liberal Disciples of Christ, which is formally known as The
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). The latter reported (1988) a U.S.
membership of 1,623,754.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Disney, Walt(er Elias)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Disney, Walt(er Elias)%@AE@%,%@CR:DISNEY          @%%@QR:Disney, Walt(er Elias)@% 1901-66, American film producer, a pioneer in%@EH@%
animated cartoons; b. Chicago. He began his career as a cartoonist in
1920. In 1928 he created the character of Mickey Mouse in the cartoon
short %@AI@%Steamboat Willie.%@AE@% His %@AI@%Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs%@AE@% (1938) was
the first full-length animated cartoon. Others include %@AI@%Fantasia%@AE@% (1940)
and %@AI@%Alice in Wonderland%@AE@% (1951). After 1950 he also produced adventure
stories and semidocumentary nature films. Disneyland, a gargantuan
amusement park in Anaheim, Calif., opened in 1955; Walt Disney World
opened near Orlando, Fla., in 1971 and Epcot Center, on adjoining
grounds, opened in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%displaced person%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%displaced person%@AE@%:%@CR:DISPLACN        @%%@QR:displaced person@% see %@AU@%REFUGEE%@BO:          7d9f84@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Disraeli, Benjamin, 1st earl of Beaconsfield%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Disraeli, Benjamin, 1st earl of Beaconsfield%@AE@%%@CR:DISRAELI        @%%@QR:Disraeli, Benjamin, 1st earl of Beaconsfield@%, 1804-81, British statesman%@EH@%
and author. Of Jewish descent, he was baptized a Christian in 1817. His
political essays and novels earned him a permanent place in English
literature. Elected to Parliament in 1837, he developed into an
outstanding, realistic, and caustically witty politician. In 1848 he
became leader of the Tory protectionists. Disraeli favored a political
partnership with the working classes, and as chancellor of the exchequer
(1852, 1858-59, 1866-68), he "educated his party" (now the Conservative
party) to pass the fairly radical %@AU@%REFORM BILL%@BO:          7d8dfe@%%@AE@% of 1867, which enfranchised
some 2 million men, largely of the working class, and greatly benefited
his party. He became prime minister in 1868 but lost the office to
%@AU@%GLADSTONE%@BO:          3a840b@%%@AE@% that same year. His second ministry (1874-80) produced many
domestic reforms but is noted for its aggressive foreign policy. The
annexation of the Fiji islands (1874) and the Transvaal (1877), and the
wars against the Afghans (1878-79) and the %@AU@%ZULUS%@BO:          a586fe@%%@AE@% (1879), proclaimed
England an imperial world power. Disraeli's purchase of controlling
shares of the Suez Canal strengthened British interests in the
Mediterranean. After the Russo-Turkish War, he induced Turkey to cede
Cyprus to Great Britain, and through the Congress of Berlin he reduced
Russian power in the Balkans. A favorite of Queen %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@%, he had her
crowned empress of India in 1876. His policy of democracy and imperialism
revitalized his party. His father, %@AB@%Isaac D'Israeli,%@AE@% 1766-1848, was an
author, best known for %@AI@%Curiosities of Literature%@AE@% (6 vol., 1791-1834).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dissenters%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dissenters%@AE@%:%@CR:DISSENTERS      @%%@QR:dissenters@% see %@AU@%NONCONFORMISTS%@BO:          6b0305@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%distaff%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%distaff%@AE@%:%@CR:DISTAFF         @%%@QR:distaff@% see %@AU@%SPINNING%@BO:          8d93cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%distillation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%distillation%@AE@%,%@CR:DISTILLATION    @%%@QR:distillation@% process used to separate the substances composing a%@EH@%
mixture; it involves a change of state, e.g., liquid to gas, and
subsequent condensation (see %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%). A simple distillation
apparatus consists of three parts: a flask in which the mixture is
heated, a condenser in which the vapor is cooled, and a vessel in which
the condensed vapor, called distillate, is collected. Upon heating, the
substances with a higher boiling point remain in the flask and constitute
the residue. When the substance with the lowest boiling point has been
removed, the temperature can be raised and the process repeated with the
substance having the next lowest boiling point. The process of obtaining
portions (or fractions) in this way is called fractional distillation. In
destructive distillation various solid substances, such as wood, coal,
and oil shale, are heated out of free contact with air, and the portions
driven off are collected separately. Distillation is used in refining
%@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@% and in preparing alcoholic beverages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%distributive law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%distributive law%@AE@%,%@CR:DISTRIBW        @%%@QR:distributive law@% in mathematics, a law governing the interaction of%@EH@%
certain pairs of operations. The distributive law of multiplication over
addition states that the equation %@AI@%a%@AE@%* (%@AI@%b%@AE@%+%@AI@%c%@AE@%)=(%@AI@%a%@AE@%*%@AI@%b%@AE@%)+(%@AI@%a%@AE@%*%@AI@%c%@AE@% ) holds for all
numbers %@AI@%a, b, c%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%District of Columbia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%District of Columbia%@AE@%,%@CR:DISTRICUMBIA    @%%@QR:District of Columbia@% federal district, c.70 sq mi (180 sq km) 1986 est.%@EH@%
pop. 626,100, on the E bank of the Potomac R., coextensive with
%@AU@%WASHINGTON, D.C.%@BO:          9f65c5@%%@AE@%, established by congressional acts of 1790 and 1791. A
10-mi (16.1-km) square carved from Maryland and Virginia, it was reduced
in 1847 when the Virginia grant was retroceded (see %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36f41@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%ARLINGTON%@BO:           7e85d@%%@AE@%). District residents were disenfranchised until the 23d
amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1961) was passed, allowing them to
vote in presidential elections. In 1970 the District was allowed a
nonvoting delegate to Congress. A constitutional amendment giving full
congressional representation passed Congress in 1978, but few states have
ratified it. District government, under a 1974 act, is by mayor and city
council, but all District legislation is reviewed by Congress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dithyramb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dithyramb%@AE@%,%@CR:DITHYRAMB       @%%@QR:dithyramb@% in ancient Greece, hymn to the god %@AU@%DIONYSUS%@BO:          293219@%%@AE@%, an antiphonal%@EH@%
choral %@AU@%LYRIC%@BO:          585494@%%@AE@% out of which %@AU@%TRAGEDY%@BO:          97260f@%%@AE@% grew. It developed into the form used
by poets such as %@AU@%BACCHYLIDES%@BO:           ab9a6@%%@AE@%. Later it became freer in meter and more
musical.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von%@AE@%,%@CR:DITTERSDORF     @%%@QR:Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von@% 1739-99, Austrian composer and violinist.%@EH@%
An important precursor of %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@% in operatic and symphonic forms, he also
wrote the comic opera %@AI@%Doktor und Apotheker%@AE@% (1786), his best-remembered
work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diuretic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diuretic%@AE@%,%@CR:DIURETIC        @%%@QR:diuretic@% a drug that increases the rate of urine formation by the%@EH@%
kidney, thus eliminating excess sodium and water from the body. Diuretics
are given to treat such diseases as high blood pressure, glaucoma, and
heart insufficiencies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diurnal circle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diurnal circle%@AE@%,%@CR:DIURNAL.CIRCLE  @%%@QR:diurnal circle@% apparent path followed by a star due to the earth's%@EH@%
rotation on its axis. The stars appear to move from east to west on the
celestial sphere in concentric circular paths centered at the celestial
poles (see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dividend%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dividend%@AE@%,%@CR:DIVIDEND        @%%@QR:dividend@% the part of the net earnings, or profits, of a corporation that%@EH@%
is distributed to its stockholders. Dividends are declared by the board
of directors, usually at regular intervals. In the U.S., they may be paid
in bonds or stocks of a company, in notes, or in cash. Holders of
preferred stock must be paid their dividends before anything is paid on
common stock. Businesses being terminated may issue liquidation
dividends.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%divination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%divination%@AE@%,%@CR:DIVINATION      @%%@QR:divination@% foreseeing future events or obtaining secret knowledge%@EH@%
through divine sources, omens, or oracles. It is based on the belief that
revelations are offered to humans in extrarational forms of knowledge:
ancient Chaldeans studied birds' flight and patterns in water or
entrails; the Greeks put their trust in the %@AU@%ORACLE%@BO:          6e2e68@%%@AE@%. Present-day forms of
divination include crystal gazing, palmistry, and astrology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Divine, Father%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Divine, Father%@AE@%,%@CR:DIVINE          @%%@QR:Divine, Father@% c.1882-1965, black American religious leader, founder of%@EH@%
the Peace Mission movement; b. Georgia as George Baker. He moved (c.1915)
to the North and later called himself Father Divine. Many accepted him as
the personification of God. Although he was black, the movement was
interracial and nonsectarian. It spread from Harlem (N.Y.C.), but
faltered after his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Divine Comedy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Divine Comedy%@AE@%:%@CR:DIVINE.COMEDY   @%%@QR:Divine Comedy@% see %@AU@%DANTE ALIGHIERI%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%divine right%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%divine right%@AE@%:%@CR:DIVINE.RIGHT    @%%@QR:divine right@% see under %@AU@%MONARCHY%@BO:          62808e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diving, deep-sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diving, deep-sea%@AE@%,%@CR:DIVING1         @%%@QR:diving, deep-sea@% descent into deep water for extended periods, used in a%@EH@%
variety of commercial, scientific, and military activities. Helmeted
diving suits were first devised in England in the 17th cent., and
improved versions are still in use today. The scuba (acronym for
Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus), invented by J.Y.
%@AU@%COUSTEAU%@BO:          240b98@%%@AE@%, which enables divers to carry their own air supply, allows much
greater mobility. The bathyscaphe, developed by Auguste %@AU@%PICCARD%@BO:          757e5d@%%@AE@%, was the
first self-contained diving craft. Skin diving, a popular sport, is done
with a face mask and snorkel (plastic tube) just below the surface, or
with a scuba at greater depths.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%diving, springboard and platform%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%diving, springboard and platform%@AE@%,%@CR:DIVING2         @%%@QR:diving, springboard and platform@% sport of entering the water from a%@EH@%
raised position, often while executing tumbles and other acrobatic
maneuvers. Springboard diving is done from a flexible plank either 1 or 3
m (about 3 ft 3 in. or 9 ft 10 in.) above the water. Platform diving (or
high diving) is usually done from a rigid platform projecting from a
tower 10 m (32 ft 10 in.) high. Both types are scored on the basis of
form, execution, and difficulty of the dive. Competitive diving, a part
of most aquatic sports meets, is an Olympic event for men (since 1904)
and women (since 1912).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%divisionism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%divisionism%@AE@%:%@CR:DIVISIONISM     @%%@QR:divisionism@% see %@AU@%POSTIMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          788fc8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%division of labor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%division of labor%@AE@%,%@CR:DIVISIOOR       @%%@QR:division of labor@% in economics, the specialization of the functions and%@EH@%
roles involved in making the separate parts of a product. It is closely
tied to the standardization of production, the introduction and
perfection of machinery, and the development of large-scale industry. As
a result of mass-production techniques, total production is many times
what it would be had each worker made the complete product. Problems
created by the division of labor include job monotony, technological
unemployment, and eventually chronic unemployment if the economy does not
expand quickly enough to reabsorb the displaced labor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%divorce%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%divorce%@AE@%,%@CR:DIVORCE         @%%@QR:divorce@% in law, dissolution of a marriage by court judgment. Partial%@EH@%
dissolution, leaving the parties married but allowing noncohabitation, is
judicial separation. In the U.S., divorce is regulated by the states, and
laws vary widely. However, generally accepted grounds are adultery,
desertion, and cruelty. The trend is toward fewer and broader grounds,
such as irreconcilable differences and irretrievable breakdown of the
marriage. The issues of child custody, the award of alimony to one of the
parties (usually the wife), and %@AU@%PROPERTY%@BO:          7a0a3d@%%@AE@% distribution are determined by
the court. After the decree is final, both parties are free to remarry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dix, Dorothea Lynde%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dix, Dorothea Lynde%@AE@%,%@CR:DIX1            @%%@QR:Dix, Dorothea Lynde@% 1802-87, American social reformer; b. Hampden, Me. A%@EH@%
pioneer in the movement for specialized treatment of the insane, she
influenced the founding of state hospitals for the insane in the U.S.,
Canada, and Europe. Dix also did notable work in penology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dix, Otto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dix, Otto%@AE@%,%@CR:DIX2            @%%@QR:Dix, Otto@% 1891-1969, German painter and draftsman. Associated with%@EH@%
German %@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:          313c02@%%@AE@%, he depicted the sordid world of prostitutes and
swindlers. %@AI@%War%@AE@% (1924) is a series of 50 etchings, fantastic visions
executed with great clarity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Djakarta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Djakarta%@AE@%%@CR:DJAKARTA        @%%@QR:Djakarta@% or %@AB@%Jakarta,%@AE@%city (1983 est. pop. 7,636,000), capital and largest%@EH@%
city of Indonesia, NW %@AU@%JAVA%@BO:          4b8536@%%@AE@%. It is the administrative, commercial,
industrial, and transportation center of the country; industries include
food-processing, ironworks, automobile assembly, textiles, and chemicals.
Resembling a Dutch town, with its many canals and drawbridges, Djakarta
has an old quarter and a new suburb. Its port, largest in Indonesia,
handles most of the country's export-import trade. Founded (c.1619) as
the Dutch %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be8d0@%%@AE@% fort of Batavia, it became capital of the
newly established nation in 1949 and was renamed Djakarta. It is the site
of the Univ. of Indonesia. Notable museums include the National Museum
with its superb collection of Asian porcelain and the Djakarta Museum
(the former Batavia City Hall).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Djibouti%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Djibouti%@AE@%%@CR:DJIBOUTI1       @%%@QR:Djibouti@%, officially Republic of Djibouti, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
470,000), c.8,500 sq mi (22,020 sq km), E Africa, formerly the French
Territory of the Afars and Issas (1967-77), and French Somaliland
(1896-1946), bordered by Ethiopia (N and W), the Somali Republic (S), and
the Gulf of Aden (E). %@AU@%DJIBOUTI%@BO:          299d5d@%%@AE@% is the capital. Largely a stony desert,
the country is economically underdeveloped. Nomadic animal-herding is the
chief occupation, but the government is attempting to develop agriculture
and fisheries. Exports include hides, cattle, and coffee (transshipped
from Ethiopia), and some revenue is derived from the port of Djibouti.
The small-scale industry includes the building and repairing of ships,
production of compressed or liquid gas, and food processing. The
population is almost equally divided between Somali (including Issas) and
Afars (of Ethiopian origin), the former being slightly preponderant. Both
groups are Muslim and speak Cushitic languages.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Djibouti is important for its strategic situation on the strait
between the Gulf of %@AU@%ADEN%@BO:           12cdf@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%RED SEA%@BO:          7d62c7@%%@AE@%. France obtained a foothold in
the area in 1862 and organized it as a colony, French Somaliland, in
1896. The colony gained territorial status in 1946. In a 1967 referendum
the Afars voted to continue ties with France, while the Somali voted for
independence and eventual reunion with the %@AU@%SOMALI DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC%@BO:          8b5d94@%%@AE@%.
Djibouti became independent in 1977 under Pres. Hassan Gouled Aptidon.
Friction between the two ethnic groups created immediate problems, and
cabinet shuffles to give the Afars greater voice in the government failed
to end their claims of discrimination.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Djibouti%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Djibouti%@AE@%,%@CR:DJIBOUTI2       @%%@QR:Djibouti@% town, (1987 est. pop. 250,000), capital of the Republic of%@EH@%
Djibouti. A strategically located port on the Gulf of %@AU@%ADEN%@BO:           12cdf@%%@AE@%, it is the
country's only large town and the mainstay of the economy. The port,
linked by railroad to %@AU@%ADDIS ABABA%@BO:           11cfe@%%@AE@%, derives most of its revenue from the
Ethiopian transit trade. Founded (c.1888) by the French, it was the
capital of French Somaliland (1892-1945) and later of the French
territory of the Afars and Issas (1945-77).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Djilas, Milovan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Djilas, Milovan%@AE@%%@CR:DJILAS          @%%@QR:Djilas, Milovan@%, 1911-, Yugoslav political leader and writer. A leading%@EH@%
adviser to %@AU@%TITO%@BO:          962952@%%@AE@% in the resistance movement during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he held
high government and Communist party posts after the war but was dismissed
in 1954 for criticizing the regime. He was jailed in 1956 for supporting
the Hungarian revolution, and his term was extended in 1957, when %@AI@%The New
%@AI@%Class,%@AE@% his critique of the Communist oligarchy, was published in the
West. Released in 1961, he was arrested again in 1962 and freed in 1966.
His other works include %@AI@%Conversations with Stalin%@AE@% (1962), %@AI@%Memoir of a
%@AI@%Revolutionary%@AE@% (1973), and %@AI@%Tito%@AE@% (1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dmitri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dmitri%@AE@%%@CR:DMITRI          @%%@QR:Dmitri@% or %@AB@%Demetrius,%@AE@%1582-91, czarevich, son of %@AU@%IVAN IV%@BO:          4a7fe6@%%@AE@% of Russia (Ivan%@EH@%
the Terrible). Dmitri's brother, Feodor I, succeeded Ivan, but Boris
%@AU@%GODUNOV%@BO:          3af456@%%@AE@% ruled in actuality. Dmitri was killed in 1591, possibly by
Boris's order. Boris became czar when Feodor died in 1598. Four
pretenders later assumed Dmitri's name. The first invaded Russia with
Polish help in 1604, was crowned when Boris died suddenly, but was killed
in 1606. The second invaded in 1607 and was killed in 1610. Two men
claiming to be Dmitri's son were executed in 1612 and 1613. The
coronation of Michael %@AU@%ROMANOV%@BO:          8095a4@%%@AE@% in 1613 ended the chaotic period, known as
the Time of Troubles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%DNA%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%DNA%@AE@%%@CR:DNA             @%%@QR:DNA@% or %@AB@%deoxyribonucleic acid,%@AE@%%@AU@%NUCLEIC ACID%@BO:          6c2767@%%@AE@% found in the nuclei of %@AU@%CELLS%@BO:          1aac34@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
It is the principal constituent of %@AU@%CHROMOSOMES%@BO:          1e23ec@%%@AE@%, the structures that
transmit hereditary characteristics. The amount of DNA is constant for
all typical cells of any given species of plant or animal, regardless of
the size or function of that cell. Each DNA molecule is a long,
two-stranded chain made up of subunits, called nucleotides, containing a
sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous
bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). In 1953
J.D. %@AU@%WATSON%@BO:          9fbf1b@%%@AE@% and F.H. %@AU@%CRICK%@BO:          2492bb@%%@AE@% proposed that the strands, connected by
hydrogen bonds between the bases, were coiled in a double helix. Adenine
bonds only with thymine (A-T or T-A) and guanine only with cytosine (G-C
or C-G). The complementarity of this bonding insures that DNA can be
replicated, i.e., that identical copies can be made in order to transmit
genetic information to the next generation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dnepr%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dnepr%@AE@%%@CR:DNEPR           @%%@QR:Dnepr@% or %@AB@%Dnieper,%@AE@%major river of the W USSR, flowing generally S c.1,430%@EH@%
mi (2,300 km) into the Black Sea. The river, which rises W of Moscow and
is the chief river of the %@AU@%UKRAINE%@BO:          997591@%%@AE@%, was made navigable for virtually its
entire length by construction (1932) of the Dneproges Dam at Zaporozhye.
Known to the ancients as Borysthenes, the river was (9th-11th cent.) an
important commercial link between the Slavs and Byzantines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dnepropetrovsk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dnepropetrovsk%@AE@%%@CR:DNEPROPETROVSK  @%%@QR:Dnepropetrovsk@%, city (1987 est. pop. 1,182,000), S European USSR, in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%UKRAINE%@BO:          997591@%%@AE@%, on the Dnepr R. A hub of rail and water transport, it is a
leading producer of iron, steel, heavy machinery, chemicals, and rolling
stock. Nearby is the Dneproges hydroelectric station. Founded as
Ekaterinoslav in 1787, the city was occupied (1941-43) by German forces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dnestr%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dnestr%@AE@%,%@CR:DNESTR          @%%@QR:Dnestr@% river, c.850 (1,370 km) long, SW USSR. It rises in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%CARPATHIANS%@BO:          19339d@%%@AE@% and flows generally southeast through the Ukraine and the
Moldavian SSR to an estuary on the %@AU@%BLACK SEA%@BO:          10a43e@%%@AE@% SW of Odessa. The Dnestr
formed the Rumanian-Soviet border from 1918 to 1940, when the USSR
recovered Bessarabia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doberman pinscher%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doberman pinscher%@AE@%,%@CR:DOBERMAER       @%%@QR:Doberman pinscher@% large %@AU@%WORKING DOG%@BO:          a324a5@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 24-28 in. (61-71%@EH@%
cm); weight, 60-75 lb (27-34 kg). Its short, smooth coat is black, brown,
or blue, with rust markings. Named for Louis Dobermann, who developed the
breed in Germany c.1890, it has been used as a guard, police, and war
dog.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dobzhansky, Theodosius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dobzhansky, Theodosius%@AE@%%@CR:DOBZHANSKY      @%%@QR:Dobzhansky, Theodosius@%, 1900-75, American geneticist; b. Russia. After%@EH@%
his emigration to the United States in 1927, he taught at Columbia
(1940-62) and at Rockefeller Univ. (1962-71). He was known for his
research in genetics and for his work with the fruit fly %@AI@%Drosophila.%@AE@% His
most important writings were %@AI@%Genetics and the Origin of Species%@AE@% (1937)
and %@AI@%Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species%@AE@% (1962).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doctorow, E(dgar) L(aurence)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doctorow, E(dgar) L(aurence)%@AE@%,%@CR:DOCTOROW        @%%@QR:Doctorow, E(dgar) L(aurence)@% 1931-, American novelist; b. N.Y.C.%@EH@%
Blending fiction and fact into reconstructions of eras in American
history, he has been acclaimed for %@AI@%The Book of Daniel%@AE@% (1971), based on
the %@AU@%ROSENBERG CASE%@BO:          812a83@%%@AE@%; %@AI@%Ragtime%@AE@% (1975), recreating pre-World War I America;
%@AI@%Loon Lake%@AE@% (1980), portraying American life during the Great Depression;
and %@AI@%Billy Bathgate%@AE@% (1989).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dodecanese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dodecanese%@AE@%,%@CR:DODECANESE      @%%@QR:Dodecanese@% island group (1981 pop. 145,071), SE Greece, in the Aegean%@EH@%
Sea between Asia Minor and Crete, c.1,035 sq mi (2,580 sq km). Despite
its name ("twelve islands"), the Dodecanese group consists of some 20
islands, notably %@AU@%RHODES%@BO:          7edb32@%%@AE@% (site of the administrative center), Kos,
Karpathos, Kalimnos, and Patmos. Part of ancient Greece, the islands were
occupied by the Ottoman Turks (1522-1912) and by Italy before being
captured by the Allies in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. In 1947 they were ceded to
Greece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dodge, Mary Mapes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dodge, Mary Mapes%@AE@%,%@CR:DODGE           @%%@QR:Dodge, Mary Mapes@% 1831-1905, American writer; b. N.Y.C. She edited %@AI@%St.%@EH@%
%@AI@%Nicholas%@AE@% magazine for children from 1873 and wrote the classic children's
tale %@AI@%Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates%@AE@% (1865).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dodge City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dodge City%@AE@%,%@CR:DODGE.CITY      @%%@QR:Dodge City@% city (1986 est. pop. 19,710), seat of Ford co., SW Kans., on%@EH@%
the Arkansas R.; inc. 1875. It is the distributing center for a wheat and
livestock area. Laid out (1872) near Fort Dodge on the %@AU@%SANTA FE TRAIL%@BO:          844358@%%@AE@%, it
was a railhead and became a rowdy cow town noted for its Boot Hill
cemetery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge%@AE@%:%@CR:DODGSON         @%%@QR:Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge@% see %@AU@%CARROLL, LEWIS%@BO:          19494a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dodoma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dodoma%@AE@%,%@CR:DODOMA          @%%@QR:Dodoma@% city (1978 pop. 45,703) and capital of Tanzania. A centrally%@EH@%
situated transportation hub, it was designated (1975) the administrative
capital to replace %@AU@%DAR-ES-SALAAM%@BO:          2678a7@%%@AE@%, but development of the new capital has
since been deferred. Dodoma is linked by road and rail to other cities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doenitz, Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doenitz, Karl%@AE@%%@CR:DOENITZ         @%%@QR:Doenitz, Karl@%, 1891?-1980, German admiral. He was chief naval commander%@EH@%
during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. After %@AU@%HITLER'S%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% death (1945) he headed the German
government that negotiated the unconditional surrender to the Allies. He
was imprisoned (1946-56) as a war criminal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doesburg, Theo van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doesburg, Theo van%@AE@%,%@CR:DOESBURG        @%%@QR:Doesburg, Theo van@% 1883-1931, Dutch painter and writer. With %@AU@%MONDRIAN%@BO:          6297d5@%%@AE@% he%@EH@%
founded the magazine %@AI@%De Stijl%@AE@% (see %@AU@%STIJL, DE%@BO:          8f13a6@%%@AE@%), and stated a version of
its principles, called "elementarism."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dog%@AE@%,%@CR:DOG             @%%@QR:dog@% carnivorous, domesticated %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Canis familiaris%@AE@%) of the family%@EH@%
Canidae. It is distinguished from other canines, e.g., %@AU@%WOLVES%@BO:          a2bb2c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FOXES%@BO:          34e798@%%@AE@%, by
its worldwide distribution in close association with humans and by the
enormous genetic variability within the species. It is probable that the
dog was the first animal to be domesticated over 10,000 years ago and
that the earliest dogs resembled the wild Australian %@AU@%DINGO%@BO:          291883@%%@AE@%. For centuries
dogs have been selectively bred for special purposes, notably to pursue
and retrieve game, as draft animals, as guides, and as companions. There
are systems for classifying and breeding dogs throughout the world, many
using a variation of the British system. In the U.S. the American Kennel
Club recognizes 125 of the more than 200 known breeds. The breeds are
grouped into six classes: %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TERRIER%@BO:          942cc2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WORKING DOG%@BO:          a324a5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TOY
%@AU@%DOG%@BO:          970e7f@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%NONSPORTING DOG%@BO:          6b0c62@%%@AE@%. A purebred dog is one that conforms to the
standards of a certain breed and whose pedigree has been recorded for a
certain period of time. Dogs of mixed origin are called mongrels. Dogs
mate about every six months; their gestation period is about nine weeks,
and litters vary from 2 to 10 puppies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dogtooth violet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dogtooth violet%@AE@%,%@CR:DOGTOOTH.VIOLET @%%@QR:dogtooth violet@% originally a name for the Old World plant %@AI@%Erythronium%@EH@%
%@AI@%denscansis,%@AE@% now used also for several North American species of the same
genus of the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% family. The most common American species is the
lilylike, yellow-flowered %@AI@%E. americanum,%@AE@% also called adder's tongue.
Dogtooth violets are unrelated to the true %@AU@%VIOLETS%@BO:          9dab2a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dogwood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dogwood%@AE@%%@CR:DOGWOOD         @%%@QR:dogwood@% or %@AB@%cornel,%@AE@%common name for some members of the family Cornaceae,%@EH@%
trees or shrubs (genus %@AI@%Cornus%@AE@%) chiefly of north temperate and tropical
mountain regions. Dogwoods have inconspicuous flowers surrounded by
large, showy bracts, often mistaken for petals. The flowering dogwood (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%florida%@AE@%) and the Pacific dogwood (%@AI@%C. nutallii%@AE@%) are cultivated as
ornamentals. Their bark, rich in tannin, is used as a %@AU@%QUININE%@BO:          7bd799@%%@AE@% substitute.
The bunchberry, or dwarf cornel (%@AI@%C. canadensis%@AE@%), is a low, herbaceous
wild flower of North America. The %@AU@%BLACK GUM%@BO:          1087d6@%%@AE@% is sometimes included in the
dogwood family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doha%@AE@%,%@CR:DOHA            @%%@QR:Doha@% city (1982 est. pop. 190,000), capital of Qatar, SE Arabia, on the%@EH@%
Persian Gulf. A fishing village before oil production began (1949) in
Qatar, it has become a modern city containing almost three quarters of
Qatar's population.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dohnanyi, Ernst von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dohnanyi, Ernst von%@AE@%%@CR:DOHNANYI        @%%@QR:Dohnanyi, Ernst von@%, 1877-1960, Hungarian composer, pianist, and%@EH@%
conductor. He led the Budapest Philharmonic Orchestra (1919-44). His
compositions, influenced by %@AU@%BRAHMS%@BO:          132ca7@%%@AE@%, include the suite %@AI@%Ruralia Hungarica%@AE@%
(1924), operas, and piano music. He came to the U.S. in 1949.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%doldrums%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%doldrums%@AE@%%@CR:DOLDRUMS        @%%@QR:doldrums@% or %@AB@%equatorial belt of calms,%@AE@%area around the earth, centered%@EH@%
slightly north of the equator between the two belts of trade winds. The
large amount of solar radiation at these latitudes results in various
forms of severe weather, e.g., %@AU@%HURRICANES%@BO:          4593c6@%%@AE@%, as well as calms (periods of
no wind) that can strand sailing vessels for weeks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dole, Sanford Ballard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dole, Sanford Ballard%@AE@%,%@CR:DOLE            @%%@QR:Dole, Sanford Ballard@% 1844-1921, Hawaiian statesman; b. Honolulu. He%@EH@%
became (1894) the first president of the republic of %@AU@%HAWAII%@BO:          407f77@%%@AE@%; after
Hawaii's annexation (1898) by the U.S., he served (1900-03) as its first
territorial governor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dolin, Anton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dolin, Anton%@AE@%%@CR:DOLIN           @%%@QR:Dolin, Anton@% (du'lin), 1904-83, English ballet dancer and choreographer.%@EH@%
He studied (1921) with %@AU@%DIAGHILEV%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@% and became (1924) principal danseur. He
formed (1925) his own company with Vera Nemtchimova. He joined the
Vic-Wells Ballet, often dancing with Alicia %@AU@%MARKOVA%@BO:          5be3de@%%@AE@%, with whom he formed
(1935, 1949) two dance companies. He danced principal roles at the Ballet
Theater (N.Y.C.) and wrote several books on dance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%doll%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%doll%@AE@%,%@CR:DOLL            @%%@QR:doll@% small figure of a human being, usually a child's toy. In ancient%@EH@%
Egypt, Greece, and Rome, dolls were used symbolically and probably also
as children's playthings. In Europe, from the 15th cent., fashion dolls
given as gifts by monarchs and courtiers helped spread costume styles. By
the 17th cent. both boys and girls played with dolls. Sonneberg, Germany,
was noted for the manufacture of wooden dolls (17th cent.) and of dolls'
china heads (19th cent.). In Paris, dolls were made that could speak and
close their eyes. In the 19th cent. dolls were made of papier-mache,
china, wax, hard rubber, or bisque; by the 20th cent. doll manufacturing
was an important U.S. industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dollfuss, Engelbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dollfuss, Engelbert%@AE@%%@CR:DOLLFUSS        @%%@QR:Dollfuss, Engelbert@%, 1892-1934, Austrian chancellor (1932-34). He opposed%@EH@%
the National Socialists and the Social Democrats, and sought support from
Austrian Fascists and from Italy. In Apr. 1934 Austria became a
corporative state with a one-party, authoritarian system. He was
assassinated (July 25) by Austrian Nazis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von%@AE@%%@CR:DOLLINGER       @%%@QR:Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von@%, 1799-1890, German theologian,%@EH@%
historian, leader of the %@AU@%OLD CATHOLICS%@BO:          6d6166@%%@AE@%. Ordained (1822) a Roman Catholic
priest, he was long associated with the Univ. of Munich and was a leading
member of the Catholic party in the Frankfurt Parliament (1848-49). He
spurned the dogma of papal infallibility pronounced by the First %@AU@%VATICAN
%@AU@%COUNCIL%@BO:          9c1216@%%@AE@% (1870) and was excommunicated (1871). While sympathetic with the
Old Catholics, he never intended a separate sect to grow from the
movement and never became a member of the Old Catholic Church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dolomite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dolomite%@AE@%.%@CR:DOLOMITE        @%%@QR:dolomite@% %@AB@%1%@AE@% White, gray, brown, or reddish calcium magnesium carbonate%@EH@%
mineral CaMg(CO%@AH@%3%@AE@%)%@AH@%2%@AE@%, commonly crystalline. %@AB@%2%@AE@% Carbonate rock composed
chiefly of the mineral dolomite, similar to %@AU@%LIMESTONE%@BO:          552e39@%%@AE@% but harder and
heavier. Dolomite formations are widespread and are notable in the region
of the Alps called the Dolomites, where the rock was first studied.
Dolomite is used chiefly as a building stone, for the manufacture of
refractory furnace linings, and as basic magnesium carbonate for pipe
coverings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dolphin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dolphin%@AE@%,%@CR:DOLPHIN         @%%@QR:dolphin@% aquatic %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@%, any of the small, toothed, gregarious %@AU@%WHALES%@BO:          a0e6fb@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
the family Delphinidae. They include the beaked dolphin, the killer
whale, the pilot whale, and 12 freshwater species in South America and S
Asia. Fishlike inform, dolphins breathe through a dorsal blowhole. They
propel themselves by means of powerful flukes, steering with a dorsal fin
and navigating with the aid of echolocation. Dolphins are exceptionally
friendly toward humans, and their high order of intelligence and their
complex language have long been the subject of study.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Domagk, Gerhard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Domagk, Gerhard%@AE@%%@CR:DOMAGK          @%%@QR:Domagk, Gerhard@%, 1895-1964, German chemist and pathologist. Because of a%@EH@%
Nazi decree, he had to decline the 1939 Nobel Prize in physiology or
medicine, awarded for his discovery of the efficacy of prontosil, the
forerunner of the %@AU@%SULFA DRUGS%@BO:          906a33@%%@AE@%, in treating streptococcal infections. He
received the Nobel Prize medal (but not the prize money) in 1947.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dome%@AE@%,%@CR:DOME            @%%@QR:dome@% a roof circular or (rarely) elliptical in plan, usually%@EH@%
hemispherical in form, placed over a square, circular, or other space.
Ancient examples are found at Mycenae and in Sicily, but the Romans were
the first developers of the form. Their constructions culminated in the
%@AU@%PANTHEON%@BO:          709a85@%%@AE@% (2d cent. AD). The use of the pendentive, however-essential to
placing a dome over a square-was discovered by the Byzantine builders of
%@AU@%HAGIA SOPHIA%@BO:          3efc8f@%%@AE@% at Constantinople (AD 532-37). Islamic architects, under
Byzantine influence, built many domes. The Persian or onion dome is best
seen at the %@AU@%TAJ MAHAL%@BO:          926365@%%@AE@%. Roman and Byzantine influences converged in the
designers of the Italian %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%. A circular drum was usually
interposed between pendentive and dome, to give greater elevation; the
dome was then topped with a lantern. Noted domes include %@AU@%BRUNELLESCHI'S%@BO:          14b271@%%@AE@%
for the Cathedral at Florence (1420-36) and %@AU@%MICHELANGELO'S%@BO:          5ffcb6@%%@AE@% for St.
Peter's, Rome (completed 1590). In the U.S. C. %@AU@%BULFINCH'S%@BO:          1545df@%%@AE@% dome for the
Massachusetts state capitol, Boston, established the style. Modern domes
employ a wide variety of materials and designs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Domenichino%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Domenichino%@AE@%%@CR:DOMENICHINO     @%%@QR:Domenichino@%, or %@AB@%Domenico Zampieri,%@AE@% 1581-1641, Italian painter. An%@EH@%
adherent of classical doctrine and a landscape painter, he produced many
%@AU@%FRESCOES%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@%, e.g., the %@AI@%Martyrdom of St. Andrew%@AE@% (San Gregorio Magno, Rome).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Domenico Veneziano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Domenico Veneziano%@AE@%%@CR:DOMENICANO      @%%@QR:Domenico Veneziano@%, c.1400-1461, Italian painter. His work, with rich%@EH@%
coloring and detailed landscape settings, and his name suggest that he
came from Venice. His masterpiece, the %@AI@%St. Lucy Altarpiece%@AE@% (central
panel, Uffizi), reveals an innovative use of space; in it, he disposed of
the Gothic hierarchical order and introduced figures (deity and saints)
in a harmonious group.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dome of the Rock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dome of the Rock%@AE@%:%@CR:DOME.OFK        @%%@QR:Dome of the Rock@% see %@AU@%MOSQUE%@BO:          64310e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Domesday Book%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Domesday Book%@AE@%,%@CR:DOMESDAY.BOOK   @%%@QR:Domesday Book@% the surviving record of a census of England made (1085-86)%@EH@%
by order of %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%. It contains extensive information on English land
division and its use and inhabitants and also on economic resources in
the country. It is a major source for study of the Middle Ages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Domingo, Placido%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Domingo, Placido%@AE@%,%@CR:DOMINGO         @%%@QR:Domingo, Placido@% 1941-, Spanish operatic tenor. He is best noted for his%@EH@%
warm voice and his interpretation of lyric roles in Italian opera,
although he has also sung in Wagnerian operas. Among his most famous
roles are Don Jose in %@AI@%Carmen%@AE@%, Canio in %@AI@%Pagliacci,%@AE@% and Pinkerton in %@AI@%Madama
%@AI@%Butterfly%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dominic, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dominic, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:DOMINIC         @%%@QR:Dominic, Saint@% 1170?-1221, Castilian churchman, founder of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%DOMINICANS%@BO:          2a066d@%%@AE@%. Dominic successfully preached to the %@AU@% ALBIGENSES%@BO:           2f40e@%%@AE@% in S France.
In 1216 he was given a house at Toulouse for his growing band of
preachers and won the consent of Pope Honorius III to form a new order.
Tradition says that the rosary was given to him by the Virgin Mary in a
vision. Feast: Aug. 8.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dominica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dominica%@AE@%,%@CR:DOMINICA        @%%@QR:Dominica@% officially Commonwealth of Dominica, island nation (1987 pop.%@EH@%
94,191), c.290 sq mi (750 sq km), West Indies, between Guadeloupe and
Martinique, largest of the Windward Islands. Dominica is mountainous and
forested; of volcanic origin, it has fertile soil, a mild climate, and
plentiful rainfall. The capital and chief port is Roseau. The nation
exports bananas, coconuts, and citrus fruits and is a tourist resort.
English is the official language, but a French patois is widely spoken.
Most of the people are descendants of black slaves brought in to work
plantations in the 18th cent. There are also a few Carib Indians, whose
ancestors delayed European settlement of the island. It became a British
colony in the early 1800s, after a long struggle for control between
Britain and France. It has been a fully independent member of the
Commonwealth since 1978. Dominica is subject to frequent hurricanes, one
of the worst of which, in 1979, left some 60,000 people homeless.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dominican Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dominican Republic%@AE@%,%@CR:DOMINICLIC      @%%@QR:Dominican Republic@% Span. %@AI@%Republica Dominicana,%@AE@% republic (1985 pop.%@EH@%
6.600,000), 18,816 sq mi (48,734 sq km), West Indies, on the eastern two
thirds of the island of %@AU@%HISPANIOLA%@BO:          431c41@%%@AE@%, which it shares with %@AU@%HAITI%@BO:          3f2c64@%%@AE@%. The land
ranges from mountainous to gently rolling, with fertile river valleys;
the climate is subtropical. The capital and chief port is Santo Domingo.
The economy has long been dominated by sugar, which still produces up to
50% of the country's foreign exchange, despite recent establishment of
varied light industries and vigorous promotion of nickel mining and
tourism. Cocoa, coffee, bananas, and tobacco are also exported. About two
thirds of the population is mulatto, and one quarter is black. Spanish is
spoken, and Roman Catholicism is the state religion.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Part of the Spanish colony of %@AU@%SANTO DOMINGO%@BO:          845846@%%@AE@% during the 16th and
17th cent., and then under Haitian rule after 1821, the Dominican
Republic was proclaimed in 1844. Its history has been unusually
turbulent, with recurrent dictatorships and rebellions. Bankrupted by
civil strife after the murder of the dictator Ulises Heureaux in 1899,
the republic came under U.S. domination; U.S. marines occupied the
country in 1916-24 and the U.S. exerted fiscal control until 1941. In
1930 Rafael %@AU@%TRUJILLO MOLINA%@BO:          982be4@%%@AE@% began 30 years of corrupt dictatorship, which
ended with his assassination in 1961. Democratic elections in 1962
brought to power a reform president, Juan Bosch, but right-wing
opposition led to his ouster a year later. In 1965 civil war between pro-
and anti-Bosch forces broke out, and U.S. troops intervened again. In
1966, elections supervised by the Organization of American States
restored a degree of normality; Joaquin %@AU@%BALAGUER%@BO:           b31c7@%%@AE@% defeated Bosch, and
under his regime (1966-78) considerable progress was made toward
stabilizing the economy. Economic stability was also pursued by his
successors, Antonio Guzman Fernandez and Jorge Blanco.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dominicans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dominicans%@AE@%,%@CR:DOMINICANS      @%%@QR:Dominicans@% Roman Catholic religious order, officially named the Order of%@EH@%
Preachers (O.P.). Founded (1216) by St. %@AU@%DOMINIC%@BO:          29f703@%%@AE@%, the order preached
against the heresy of the %@AU@%ALBIGENSES%@BO:           2f40e@%%@AE@% and produced many eminent
theologians, notably St. %@AU@%THOMAS AQUINAS%@BO:          952e01@%%@AE@%. Members are accepted not into a
specific house, but into the whole order, and wear a white habit with a
black mantle (worn when preaching). There is a contemplative order of
nuns and a widespread third order, including many teachers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dominion Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dominion Day%@AE@%%@CR:DOMINION.DAY    @%%@QR:Dominion Day@% (July 1), Canadian national holiday. It commemorates the%@EH@%
creation (1867) of the Dominion of Canada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%domino theory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%domino theory%@AE@%,%@CR:DOMINO.THEORY   @%%@QR:domino theory@% notion that if one country becomes Communist, other states%@EH@%
in the region will probably follow, like falling dominoes in a line. The
analogy, first applied (1954) to Southeast Asia by Pres. %@AU@%EISENHOWER%@BO:          2d24e8@%%@AE@%, was
adopted in the 1960s by supporters of the U.S. role in the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%.
The theory was revived in the 1980s to characterize the threat perceived
from leftist unrest in Central America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Domitian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Domitian%@AE@%%@CR:DOMITIAN        @%%@QR:Domitian@% (Titus Flavius Domitianus), AD 51-96, Roman emperor (AD 81-96).%@EH@%
On the death of his brother %@AU@%TITUS%@BO:          962f85@%%@AE@%, he succeeded to the throne. His rule
became increasingly despotic and plots were formed against him. Finally
his wife Domitia had him murdered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Don%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Don%@AE@%,%@CR:DON             @%%@QR:Don@% river, c.1,200 mi (1,930 km) long, SW USSR. It rises near Tula and%@EH@%
flows southeast to within 65 mi (105 km) of the %@AU@%VOLGA%@BO:          9e2e1e@%%@AE@% R., to which it is
connected by canal, then southwest into the Sea of Azov. It is an
important artery for grain, lumber, and coal shipments and is the outlet
for the industrial Donets Basin. The Don is navigable for c.850 mi (1,370
km) from Rostov-na-Donu, its chief city and port.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Donatello%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Donatello%@AE@%%@CR:DONATELLO       @%%@QR:Donatello@%, c.1386-1466, Italian sculptor, a major innovator in%@EH@%
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% art; b. Florence as Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi. He
assisted %@AU@%GHIBERTI%@BO:          39f2dd@%%@AE@% in Florence and worked on the cathedral. His sculptures
developed from Gothic forms, e.g., the marble %@AI@%David%@AE@% (Bargello, Florence)
to strong, humanistic expression, e.g., %@AI@%St. Mark%@AE@% (Orsanmichele,
Florence). He developed a shallow relief technique %@AI@%(schiacciato)%@AE@% with
which he achieved effects of spatial depth. In Rome he studied ancient
monuments that influenced his sculpture. Donatello headed a vast workshop
in Padua (1443-53). His late Florentine masterworks include the %@AI@%Magdalen%@AE@%
(%@AU@%BAPTISTERY%@BO:           bff80@%%@AE@%) and the pulpits of San Lorenzo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Donetsk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Donetsk%@AE@%%@CR:DONETSK         @%%@QR:Donetsk@%, city (1987 est. pop. 1,090,000), S European USSR, in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%UKRAINE%@BO:          997591@%%@AE@%, on the Kalmius R. The hub of the Donets Basin industrial region,
it has coal mines, iron and steel mills, machinery works, and chemical
plants. It was founded (1870) as Yuzovka and renamed in 1961.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dong, Pham Van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dong, Pham Van%@AE@%,%@CR:DONG            @%%@QR:Dong, Pham Van@% 1906-, premier (1976-) of the Socialist Republic of%@EH@%
%@AU@%VIETNAM%@BO:          9d6182@%%@AE@%. A close associate of %@AU@%HO CHI MINH%@BO:          434a9b@%%@AE@%, he was premier of North
Vietnam (1954-76) during the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% and afterward helped unify the
country, serving as premier (1976-81) and chairman of the council of
ministers (1981-86).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Don Giovanni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Don Giovanni%@AE@%:%@CR:DON.GIOVANNI    @%%@QR:Don Giovanni@% see %@AU@%DON JUAN%@BO:          2a1a67@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Donizetti, Gaetano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Donizetti, Gaetano%@AE@%,%@CR:DONIZETTI       @%%@QR:Donizetti, Gaetano@% 1797-1848, Italian composer. Influenced early by%@EH@%
%@AU@%ROSSINI%@BO:          8152a3@%%@AE@%, he later developed his own melodic, often sentimental style. His
best-known operas include %@AI@%Lucrezia Borgia%@AE@% (1833) and %@AI@%Lucia di Lammermoor%@AE@%
(1835). %@AI@%The Daughter of the Regiment%@AE@% (1840) is a comic opera.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Don Juan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Don Juan%@AE@%,%@CR:DON.JUAN        @%%@QR:Don Juan@% legendary profligate. There are many versions of his story, but%@EH@%
the Spanish is the most widespread. In it, Don Juan seduces the daughter
of the commander of Seville and kills her father in a duel. When he
jeeringly invites a statue of his victim to a feast, it comes to life and
drags Don Juan to hell. The earliest-known dramatization of the story is
by %@AU@%TIRSO DE MOLINA%@BO:          9603ea@%%@AE@%. Other famous treatments are by %@AU@%MOLIERE%@BO:          625664@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%BYRON%@BO:          16477d@%%@AE@%, and G.B. %@AU@%SHAW%@BO:          8807c3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%donkey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%donkey%@AE@%:%@CR:DONKEY          @%%@QR:donkey@% see %@AU@%ASS%@BO:           8cb48@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Donne, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Donne, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DONNE           @%%@QR:Donne, John@% 1572-1631, English divine and greatest of the %@AU@%METAPHYSICAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%POETS%@BO:          5f4423@%%@AE@%. A courtier, Donne in his first period (before 1601) wrote cynical,
realistic, and sensuous lyrics, essays, and satires, including some of
his %@AI@%Songs and Sonnets%@AE@% and the prose work %@AI@%Problems and Paradoxes.%@AE@% With his
marriage and the end of his court career in 1601, his writing became more
serious. The two %@AI@%Anniversaries%@AE@% (1611, 1612) reveal that his faith in the
medieval order was shaken by growing scientific and philosophic doubt. In
1615 Donne took holy orders in the Anglican church. Two years later his
wife died. Thereafter the tone of his poetry, e.g., %@AI@%Holy Sonnets,%@AE@%
deepened. He wrote religious poetry, e.g., %@AI@%Devotions%@AE@% (1624), and became
one of the great preachers of his day. From 1621 to his death he was dean
of St. Paul's, London. All of Donne's poetry-love sonnets, and religious
and philosophical verse-is marked by a striking blend of passion and
reason. His love poetry treats the breadth, physical and spiritual, of
the experience. The devotional poems are deeply concerned with death and
the possibility of the soul's union with God. Original, witty, and
erudite, his style is characterized by a brilliant use of paradox,
hyperbole, and image. Neglected for 200 years, Donne was rediscovered in
the 20th cent. and greatly influenced such poets as W.B. %@AU@%YEATS%@BO:          a40602@%%@AE@%, T.S.
%@AU@%ELIOT%@BO:          2e17ee@%%@AE@%, and W.H. %@AU@%AUDEN%@BO:           9b0fc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Donner Party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Donner Party%@AE@%,%@CR:DONNER.PARTY    @%%@QR:Donner Party@% group of emigrants to California who in 1846-47 met with%@EH@%
tragedy. The party, named for its two Donner families, was trapped by
snow in Oct. 1846 in the Sierra Nevada near what is today called the
Donner Pass. The survivors resorted to cannibalism before their rescue,
and only about half of the original party of 87 reached California.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Donoso, Jose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Donoso, Jose%@AE@%,%@CR:DONOSO          @%%@QR:Donoso, Jose@% 1925-, Chilean novelist and short-story writer. His work%@EH@%
ranges from ironically realistic studies of decadent Chilean life, e.g.,
%@AI@%Coronation%@AE@% (1957), to surrealistic portrayals of bizarre subjects,
written in a dense and powerful style, e.g., %@AI@%The Obscene Bird of Night%@AE@%
(1970).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Don Quixote de la Mancha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Don Quixote de la Mancha%@AE@%:%@CR:DON.QUIA        @%%@QR:Don Quixote de la Mancha@% see %@AU@%CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE%@BO:          1b152d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dooley, Thomas Anthony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dooley, Thomas Anthony%@AE@%,%@CR:DOOLEY          @%%@QR:Dooley, Thomas Anthony@% 1927-61, American physician and author; b. St.%@EH@%
Louis. He supervised (1954) the treatment of thousands of refugees from
North Vietnam, an experience he described in %@AI@%Deliver Us from Evil%@AE@% (1956).
To provide medical care in remote areas, he then helped organize the
Medical International Corp., a part of CARE since 1962.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doolittle, Hilda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doolittle, Hilda%@AE@%,%@CR:DOOLITTLE       @%%@QR:Doolittle, Hilda@% pseud. %@AB@%H.D.,%@AE@% 1886-1961, American poet; b. Bethlehem,%@EH@%
Pa. She lived abroad after 1911 and was married to Richard %@AU@%ALDINGTON%@BO:           32888@%%@AE@%. One
of the most original of the %@AU@%IMAGISTS%@BO:          46d50a@%%@AE@%, she wrote such volumes of verse as
%@AI@%Sea Garden%@AE@% (1916) and %@AI@%Bid Me to Live%@AE@% (1960).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doomsday Book%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doomsday Book%@AE@%:%@CR:DOOMSDAY.BOOK   @%%@QR:Doomsday Book@% see %@AU@%DOMESDAY BOOK%@BO:          29f368@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doppler effect%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doppler effect%@AE@%,%@CR:DOPPLER.EFFECT  @%%@QR:Doppler effect@% change in the wavelength (and frequency) of a wave as a%@EH@%
result of the motion of either the source or receiver of the waves. If
the source and the receiver are approaching each other, the frequency of
the wave will increase and the wavelength will be shortened-sounds will
be higher in pitch and light will be bluer. If the source and receiver
are moving apart, sounds will become lower-pitched, and light will appear
redder (see %@AU@%RED SHIFT%@BO:          7d6541@%%@AE@%). Astronomers analyze Doppler shifts of light and
radio waves to measure the velocities and (indirectly) distances of
remote objects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dorchester, Guy Carleton, 1st Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dorchester, Guy Carleton, 1st Baron%@AE@%:%@CR:DORCHESTER      @%%@QR:Dorchester, Guy Carleton, 1st Baron@% see %@AU@%CARLETON, GUY%@BO:          18ee08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dore, Gustave%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dore, Gustave%@AE@%,%@CR:DORE            @%%@QR:Dore, Gustave@% 1832-83, French illustrator, engraver, painter, and%@EH@%
sculptor. He is best known for his fantastic, imaginative, engraved
illustrations for some 120 books, including %@AI@%Don Quixote%@AE@% (1862) and
%@AU@%MILTON'S%@BO:          60e6b0@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Paradise Lost%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doria, Andrea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doria, Andrea%@AE@%,%@CR:DORIA           @%%@QR:Doria, Andrea@% b. 1466 or 1468, d. 1560, Italian admiral and statesman.%@EH@%
He fought for France in the %@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@% until 1528, when he went over to
Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%. Doria became (1528) virtual dictator of
Genoa but retained many republican institutions. He aided Charles in
taking Tunis (1535), and with French aid, he recovered Corsica for Genoa
(1559).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dorians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dorians%@AE@%,%@CR:DORIANS         @%%@QR:Dorians@% people of ancient %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%. They arrived in the %@AU@%PELOPONNESUS%@BO:          72b660@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
between 1100 and 950 BC, drove out the %@AU@%ACHAEANS%@BO:            ad69@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%ACHAEA%@BO:            ad69@%%@AE@%), and rapidly
extended their influence. %@AU@%SPARTA%@BO:          8d347b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CRETE%@BO:          248b02@%%@AE@% were Dorian centers. The
Dorians' arrival inaugurated a period of Greek decline, but they did
contribute to Greek culture, particularly in the Doric style of
architecture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doric order%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doric order%@AE@%:%@CR:DORIC.ORDER     @%%@QR:Doric order@% see %@AU@%ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          6e82e2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dormouse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dormouse%@AE@%,%@CR:DORMOUSE        @%%@QR:dormouse@% Old World nocturnal %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% of the family Gliridae. European%@EH@%
species hibernate for nearly six months. The common dormouse (%@AI@%Muscardinus
%@AI@%avellanarius%@AE@%) of Europe and W Asia is up to 4 in. (10 cm) long with
rounded ears, large eyes, and thick, reddish brown fur; it eats insects,
nuts, and berries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dortmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dortmund%@AE@%,%@CR:DORTMUND        @%%@QR:Dortmund@% city (1986 est. pop. 569,800), North Rhine-Westphalia, W West%@EH@%
Germany, a port on the Dortmund-Ems Canal. An industrial center with such
manufactures as iron and steel, it is located in the %@AU@%RUHR%@BO:          81d29b@%%@AE@% industrial
district. It flourished (13th-17th cent.) as a member of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC
%@AU@%LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. The city was badly damaged during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, but such
buildings as the Reinold church (begun in the 13th cent.) remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dos Passos, John Roderigo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dos Passos, John Roderigo%@AE@%,%@CR:DOS.PASSOS      @%%@QR:Dos Passos, John Roderigo@% 1896-1970, American novelist; b. Chicago. In%@EH@%
works such as %@AI@%Manhattan Transfer%@AE@% (1925) and his major opus, the trilogy
%@AI@%U.S.A.%@AE@% (1937)-%@AI@%The 42nd Parallel%@AE@% (1930), %@AI@%1919%@AE@% (1932), and %@AI@%The Big Money%@AE@%
(1936)-he developed a kaleidoscopic technique to portray American life,
combining narration, %@AU@%STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS%@BO:          8fa6a0@%%@AE@%, biographies, and quotations
from newspapers and magazines. The left-wing views that colored his early
works gave way to a conservatism that is evident in his less powerful
later novels, e.g., his second trilogy, %@AI@%District of Columbia%@AE@% (1952).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dostoyevsky%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dostoyevsky%@AE@%%@CR:DOSTOYEVSKY     @%%@QR:Dostoyevsky@%or %@AB@%Dostoevsky, Feodor Mikhailovich%@AE@% , 1821-81, Russian%@EH@%
novelist, one of the towering figures of world literature. Shortly after
completing an engineering education, he published his first novel, %@AI@%Poor
%@AI@%Folk%@AE@% (1846), to wide acclaim. Though less successful, his next novels,
%@AI@%The Double%@AE@% (1846) and %@AI@%White Nights%@AE@% (1848), nevertheless showed the
profound insight into character that marks his greatest works. Arrested
in 1849 for membership in a secret political group, he was exiled to
Siberia, and there served four years at hard labor and five as a soldier.
His harsh experiences (recorded in %@AI@%The House of the Dead,%@AE@% 1862)
transformed his youthful liberalism into a fervent religious orthodoxy.
The existentialist %@AI@%Notes from the Underground%@AE@% (1864), the first major
work following his return to St. Petersburg in 1859, inaugurated his most
fruitful literary period. It coincided with the death of his first wife
and increasing financial burdens. %@AI@%Crime and Punishment%@AE@% (1866), a
brilliant portrait of sin, remorse, and redemption through sacrifice, was
followed by %@AI@%The Idiot%@AE@% (1868), the story of a failed Christ figure. It was
written in Germany, where Dostoyevsky had gone with his new wife, Anna
Grigoryevna Snitkina, whose love and practicality enriched his later
years. In %@AI@%The Possessed%@AE@% (1871-72) he denounced the alienated radicalism
that characterized contemporary Russia. %@AI@%A Raw Youth%@AE@% (1875) described
decay within family relationships and the inability of science to answer
man's deepest needs. These themes were central to his masterpiece, %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Brothers Karamazov%@AE@% (1880), in which with rare psychological and
philosophical insight Dostoyevsky plumbed the depths and complexities of
the human soul. His last work, it ranks as one of the finest novels ever
written and is a synthesis of the author's mature vision.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dou, Dow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dou, Dow%@AE@%,%@CR:DOU             @%%@QR:Dou, Dow@% or %@AB@%Douw, Gerard%@AE@%or %@AB@%Gerrit,%@AE@%1613-75, Dutch %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% and portrait%@EH@%
painter. An apprentice of %@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@%, he executed detailed scenes of
domestic life that were very popular, e.g., %@AI@%The Cook%@AE@% (Louvre).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douala%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douala%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUALA          @%%@QR:Douala@% city (1986 pop. 636,980), United Republic of Cameroon, on the%@EH@%
Wuori R. estuary. Cameroon's largest city and major port, it is a
commercial and transportation center handling most of the country's
exports (chiefly cocoa and coffee) as well as transit trade from Chad.
Douala developed as a center of the slave trade after the Portuguese
arrived in 1472. It later became part of a German protectorate (1884) and
of the French %@AU@%CAMEROONS%@BO:          17b580@%%@AE@% (1919).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%double bass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%double bass%@AE@%:%@CR:DOUBLE.BASS     @%%@QR:double bass@% see %@AU@%VIOL%@BO:          9da575@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VIOLIN%@BO:          9daf0b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doubleday, Abner%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doubleday, Abner%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUBLEDAY       @%%@QR:Doubleday, Abner@% 1819-93, alleged originator of %@AU@%BASEBALL%@BO:           cb9fa@%%@AE@% and Union%@EH@%
general in the U.S. Civil War; b. Saratoga co., N.Y. A friend, A.G.
Mills, heading a commission (1907), reported that Doubleday invented
(1839) the game at Cooperstown, N.Y. The report has been generally
discredited and it is now known that a children's game similar to
baseball had existed long before Doubleday's time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%double jeopardy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%double jeopardy%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUBLE.JEOPARDY @%%@QR:double jeopardy@% in law, prosecution twice for the same criminal offense.%@EH@%
Jeopardy exists when a %@AU@%JURY%@BO:          4dd121@%%@AE@% is sworn in, or when %@AU@%EVIDENCE%@BO:          30f678@%%@AE@% is introduced.
The U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@% prohibits double jeopardy; a second trial is not
precluded, however, if there were procedural errors in the first trial or
if the jury could not reach a verdict.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%double star%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%double star%@AE@%:%@CR:DOUBLE.STAR     @%%@QR:double star@% see %@AU@%BINARY STAR%@BO:           fc804@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doughty, Charles Montagu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doughty, Charles Montagu%@AE@%%@CR:DOUGHTY         @%%@QR:Doughty, Charles Montagu@%, 1843-1926, English author and traveler. He is%@EH@%
best known for %@AI@%Travels in Arabia Deserta%@AE@% (1888), about his life with the
Bedouins.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douglas, Sir James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douglas, Sir James%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUGLAS1        @%%@QR:Douglas, Sir James@% 1803-77, Canadian governor of %@AU@%BRITISH COLUMBIA%@BO:          13ed8a@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1858-64). He commanded (1846-58) the %@AU@%HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY%@BO:          45078d@%%@AE@% territory W of
the Rockies after he founded (1843) a fort at the site of %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2daa@%%@AE@%.
Douglas served (1851-58) as governor of %@AU@%VANCOUVER ISLAND%@BO:          9bb2e0@%%@AE@% and was the
first governor of the new crown colony of British Columbia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douglas, Sir James de, lord of Douglas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douglas, Sir James de, lord of Douglas%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUGLAS2        @%%@QR:Douglas, Sir James de, lord of Douglas@% 1286?-1330, Scottish nobleman,%@EH@%
called the Black Douglas and Douglas the Good. In the war of independence
against England, he joined %@AU@%ROBERT I%@BO:          7f9d75@%%@AE@% and made himself the terror of the
border. He led a force at Bannockburn (1314) and in 1327 succeeded in
ending the English campaign. After Robert died, Douglas started to
Palestine to bury the king's heart but was killed fighting Moors in
Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douglas, Stephen Arnold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douglas, Stephen Arnold%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUGLAS3        @%%@QR:Douglas, Stephen Arnold@% 1813-61, American statesman; b. Brandon, Vt. A%@EH@%
Democratic congressman (1843-47) and senator (1847-61) from Illinois, he
thought disputes between North and South could be solved by %@AU@%SQUATTER
%@AU@%SOVEREIGNTY%@BO:          8de59f@%%@AE@% and incorporated that concept into the %@AU@%COMPROMISE OF 1850%@BO:          2162e3@%%@AE@% and
the %@AU@%KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT%@BO:          4e49fd@%%@AE@%. Seeking Senate reelection in 1858, he engaged
his opponent, Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@%, in the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates. At
the Freeport (Ill.) debate, Douglas asserted that territories could
exclude slavery-a doctrine that made him anathema to the South. The
Democrats nominated him for president in 1860, but he ran second to
Lincoln in the popular vote. A great orator, Douglas was long in the
shadow of the Lincoln legend but is now held to have had a truly national
vision.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douglas, William Orville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douglas, William Orville%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUGLAS4        @%%@QR:Douglas, William Orville@% 1898-1980, associate justice of the U.S.%@EH@%
%@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1939-75), with the longest tenure in Court history; b.
Maine, Minn.; LL.B., Columbia Univ. (1925). He was a member (1934-37) and
chairman (1937-39) of the Securities and Exchange Commission, where he
inititated a policy of reform. On the Court, he was known for his fervent
support of civil rights, conservation, and free speech.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douglas fir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douglas fir%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUGLAS.FIR     @%%@QR:Douglas fir@% tree (%@AI@%Pseudotsuga menziesii%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PINE%@BO:          75d24e@%%@AE@% family, native to W%@EH@%
North America. One of the tallest trees known (up to 385 ft/117 m), it is
the leading timber-producing tree of the continent. Its usually hard,
strong wood is of great commercial importance in construction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douglas-Home, Sir Alec%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douglas-Home, Sir Alec%@AE@%%@CR:DOUGLASHOME     @%%@QR:Douglas-Home, Sir Alec@% (Alexander Frederick), 1903-, British politician.%@EH@%
A Conservative, he entered Parliament in 1931 and served in government
and cabinet posts, including that of foreign secretary (1960-63,
1970-74). He was prime minister from Oct. 1963 to Oct. 1964. In 1974 he
was made a life peer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Douglass, Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Douglass, Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:DOUGLASS        @%%@QR:Douglass, Frederick@% c.1817-1895, American %@AU@%ABOLITIONIST%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@%; b. near Easton,%@EH@%
Md. Escaping from slavery in 1838, he took the name Douglass from Sir
Walter Scott's %@AI@%Lady of the Lake.%@AE@% In 1845 he published his %@AI@%Narrative of
%@AI@%the Life of Frederick Douglass,%@AE@% and in 1847, after English friends had
purchased his freedom, he established the %@AI@%North Star%@AE@% (Rochester, N.Y.),
which he edited for 17 years, advocating abolition through political
activism. During the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% he urged blacks to join the Union ranks,
and during and after %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% he held several government posts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doukhobors%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doukhobors%@AE@%:%@CR:DOUKHOBORS      @%%@QR:Doukhobors@% see %@AU@%DUKHOBORS%@BO:          2b1bbe@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dove, Arthur Garfield%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dove, Arthur Garfield%@AE@%,%@CR:DOVE1           @%%@QR:Dove, Arthur Garfield@% 1880-1946, American painter; b. Canandaigua, N.Y.%@EH@%
His abstract style flowered in the 1930s in fluid, poetic canvases based
on natural forms. Dove is recognized as a precursor of %@AU@%ABSTRACT
%@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:            754d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dove%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dove%@AE@%:%@CR:DOVE2           @%%@QR:dove@% see %@AU@%PIGEON%@BO:          75a003@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dover%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dover%@AE@%,%@CR:DOVER           @%%@QR:Dover@% city (1986 est. pop. 22,660), state capital and seat of Kent co.,%@EH@%
Del., on the St. Jones R.; founded 1683, inc. 1929. In a farming and
fruit-growing area, it is a shipping and canning center with varied
industries. Dover Air Force Base, a huge cargo facility, is a major
factor in the local economy. The old statehouse (begun 1722) is notable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dovzhenko, Aleksandr%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dovzhenko, Aleksandr%@AE@%%@CR:DOVZHENKO       @%%@QR:Dovzhenko, Aleksandr@%, 1894-1956, Ukrainian film director. Ranked with%@EH@%
%@AU@%EISENSTEIN%@BO:          2d2fd5@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PUDOVKIN%@BO:          7abc76@%%@AE@%, he used %@AU@%MONTAGE%@BO:          631510@%%@AE@% and surreal images in such films
as %@AI@%Zvenigora%@AE@% (1928), %@AI@%Arsenal%@AE@% (1929), and %@AI@%Earth%@AE@% (1930).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dow-Jones Average%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dow-Jones Average%@AE@%,%@CR:DOWJONEE        @%%@QR:Dow-Jones Average@% indicators used to measure and report value changes in%@EH@%
representative stock groupings on the New York %@AU@%STOCK EXCHANGE%@BO:          8f28bc@%%@AE@%. It
consists of four different averages-industrial stocks, transportation
stocks, utility stocks, and a composite average of all three. Although
the industrial average is the most frequently cited, it has been
criticized for consisting of only blue chip stocks and for its inability
to accurately adjust, in spite of a sophisticated mathematical formula,
for dividends and stock splits. The average is quoted in points, not in
dollars. Other averages include the Dow Jones 20 Bond Average and the Dow
Jones Municipal Bond Yield Average.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dowland, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dowland, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DOWLAND         @%%@QR:Dowland, John@% 1562-1626, English composer and lutanist. His books of%@EH@%
%@AI@%Songs or Ayres%@AE@% (1597-1603) made him the foremost %@AU@%SONG%@BO:          8b7f8c@%%@AE@% composer of his
time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Down's syndrome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Down's syndrome%@AE@%,%@CR:DOWNS.SYNDROME  @%%@QR:Down's syndrome@% congenital disorder characterized by moderate to severe%@EH@%
%@AU@%MENTAL RETARDATION%@BO:          5ecae4@%%@AE@%, slow physical development, and flattish skull and
facial features, giving an "Oriental" appearance (hence the alternate
name for the condition, Mongolism). The syndrome is caused by genetic
transmittance of an extra chromosome. It can occur at anytime, but the
risk increases significantly with parental age, particularly if the
mother is over 35. %@AU@%AMNIOCENTESIS%@BO:           4c9b7@%%@AE@% can be used to detect the disorder in
the fetus. Few people with Down's syndrome survive beyond age 35.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dowson, Ernest Christopher%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dowson, Ernest Christopher%@AE@%,%@CR:DOWSON          @%%@QR:Dowson, Ernest Christopher@% 1867-1900, English poet. One of the best%@EH@%
known of the %@AU@%DECADENTS%@BO:          27242f@%%@AE@%, he wrote delicate, musical poems, the most famous
of which has the refrain "I have been faithful to thee, Cynara! in my
fashion."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan%@AE@%,%@CR:DOYLE           @%%@QR:Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan@% 1859-1930, English author and creator of%@EH@%
Sherlock Holmes, best known of all fictional detectives. The brilliantly
deductive Holmes and his stolid companion, Dr. Watson, appear in %@AI@%A Study
%@AI@%in Scarlet%@AE@% (1887), %@AI@%The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes%@AE@% (1894), %@AI@%The Hound of
%@AI@%the Baskervilles%@AE@% (1902), and others. Doyle also wrote historical
romances, e.g., %@AI@%The White Company%@AE@% (1891), and a %@AI@%History of Spiritualism%@AE@%
(1926).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drabble, Margaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drabble, Margaret%@AE@%,%@CR:DRABBLE         @%%@QR:Drabble, Margaret@% 1939-, English novelist. An old-fashioned novelist,%@EH@%
she has been compared to Henry %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4b0ffa@%%@AE@% and George %@AU@%ELIOT%@BO:          2e1363@%%@AE@% for the subtle
insight she brings to the dilemmas of modern women. Her novels include
%@AI@%Jerusalem the Golden%@AE@% (1967), %@AI@%The Needle's Eye%@AE@% (1972), %@AI@%The Realms of Gold%@AE@%
(1975), and %@AI@%The Middle Ground%@AE@% (1980). She has also published scholarly
studies, e.g., %@AI@%Arnold Bennett%@AE@% (1974).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Draco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Draco%@AE@%%@CR:DRACO           @%%@QR:Draco@% or %@AB@%Dracon,%@AE@%fl. 621 BC, Athenian politician and law codifier. Draco's%@EH@%
code appears to have prescribed the death penalty for even trivial
offenses, and Draconian has become a synonym for harshness in
legislation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dracula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dracula%@AE@%:%@CR:DRACULA         @%%@QR:Dracula@% see %@AU@%STOKER, BRAM%@BO:          8f3a0c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drago, Luis Maria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drago, Luis Maria%@AE@%%@CR:DRAGO           @%%@QR:Drago, Luis Maria@%, 1859-1921, Argentine statesman and jurist. His protest%@EH@%
against coercion of Venezuela by Great Britain, Italy, and Germany (1902)
became known as the %@AB@%Drago Doctrine;%@AE@% it stated that no public debt could
be collected from a sovereign American state by armed force or through
occupation of American territory by a foreign power. It was adopted in
modified form at the %@AU@%HAGUE CONFERENCE%@BO:          3f0531@%%@AE@% (1907).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dragon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dragon%@AE@%,%@CR:DRAGON          @%%@QR:dragon@% mythical beast, usually represented as a huge, winged,%@EH@%
fire-breathing reptile; prominent in the folklore of many peoples. The
highest achievement of a hero in medieval legend, e.g., Saint %@AU@%GEORGE%@BO:          392ef2@%%@AE@%, was
slaying a dragon. The beast is usually associated with evil; the dragon
of the Book of %@AU@%REVELATION%@BO:          7e89bd@%%@AE@% gave rise to its use as a symbol of %@AU@%SATAN%@BO:          84bfa4@%%@AE@%.
However, it can also be benevolent, as in ancient China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dragonfly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dragonfly%@AE@%,%@CR:DRAGONFLY       @%%@QR:dragonfly@% large predatory %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% of the order Odonata. They have chewing%@EH@%
mouthparts, and four membranous, net-veined wings. Dragonflies are found
primarily in the tropics, but occur worldwide except in polar regions.
They are strong fliers with elongated bodies that may reach 5 in. (12.7
cm) in length. They prey on mosquitoes and other insects. In the Permian
period one species had a wingspan of 21/2 ft (76 cm).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drainage basin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drainage basin%@AE@%:%@CR:DRAINAGE.BASIN  @%%@QR:drainage basin@% see %@AU@%CATCHMENT AREA%@BO:          1a1d84@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drake, Sir Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drake, Sir Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:DRAKE1          @%%@QR:Drake, Sir Francis@% 1540-96, English navigator, the first Englishman to%@EH@%
circumnavigate the globe (1577-80). He was a leader of the marauding
campaign against Spanish vessels and settlements. On one such voyage in
1577, he navigated the Strait of %@AU@%MAGELLAN%@BO:          5961ca@%%@AE@% in his ship the %@AI@%Golden Hind,%@AE@%
and pillaged the coasts of South and North America. He sailed across the
Pacific and reached England in 1580, bearing treasure of great value. He
was knighted by %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%. Drake was an admiral in the fleet that
defeated the Spanish %@AU@%ARMADA%@BO:           7ed3f@%%@AE@%. He was defeated by the Spanish in the %@AU@%WEST
%@AU@%INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@% (1595) and died off Portobello.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dravidian languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dravidian languages%@AE@%,%@CR:DRAVIDIAGES     @%%@QR:Dravidian languages@% family of about 20 languages that appears to be%@EH@%
unrelated to any other known language family. They are spoken by people
living in S India and N Sri Lanka. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drawing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drawing%@AE@%,%@CR:DRAWING         @%%@QR:drawing@% art of the draftsman, commonly used to denote works in pen,%@EH@%
pencil, crayon, charcoal, pastel, or similar media in which line and
form, rather than color, are emphasized. Often vigorous and spontaneous,
drawings are made as preparatory studies (see %@AU@%CARTOON%@BO:          197dfd@%%@AE@%) or as finished
works. Among the many artists known for their drawings are %@AU@%LEONARDO DA
%@AU@%VINCI%@BO:          540317@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MICHELANGELO%@BO:          5ffcb6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DURER%@BO:          2b530d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RUBENS%@BO:          81af8d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HOGARTH%@BO:          43706f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GOYA%@BO:          3beccc@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%DAUMIER%@BO:          26b182@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KLEE%@BO:          5020b4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MATISSE%@BO:          5d33c7@%%@AE@%. (See also %@AU@%ILLUSTRATION%@BO:          46c888@%%@AE@%.)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drayton, Michael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drayton, Michael%@AE@%,%@CR:DRAYTON         @%%@QR:Drayton, Michael@% 1563-1631, English poet. Reflecting the poetic fashions%@EH@%
of the day, he wrote pastorals, e.g., %@AI@%The Shepherd's Garland%@AE@% (1593); a
sonnet sequence, %@AI@%Idea's Mirror%@AE@% (1594-1619); poems in the form of love
letters (1597); topographical poetry, e.g., %@AI@%Poly-Olbion%@AE@% (1612-22); and
many other types.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dream%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dream%@AE@%,%@CR:DREAM           @%%@QR:dream@% mental activity associated with the rapid-eye-movement (REM)%@EH@%
period of sleep. It generally consists of visual images and may reflect
somatic disturbances (e.g., indigestion) or external stimuli (e.g., the
ringing of an alarm clock). REM sleep accounts for about half of the
newborn's total sleeping time, but the proportion decreases with age to
about two hours for every eight-hour period of the adult's sleep. In
primitive and ancient cultures, dreams played an extensive role in myth
and religion. %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@% emphasized dreams as keys to the makeup of the
individual. He distinguished between the experienced content of a dream
and the actual meaning of the dream, which is largely concealed from the
dreamer. %@AU@%JUNG%@BO:          4db507@%%@AE@% held that dreams are not limited to the personal
%@AU@%UNCONSCIOUS%@BO:          99a49e@%%@AE@% but may also be shaped by innate mental structures, called
archetypes, that originate in the collective unconscious of the human
species.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drebbel, Cornelis Jacobszoon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drebbel, Cornelis Jacobszoon%@AE@%,%@CR:DREBBEL         @%%@QR:Drebbel, Cornelis Jacobszoon@% 1572-1634, Dutch inventor, physicist, and%@EH@%
mechanician. Among his many inventions were the first navigable
%@AU@%SUBMARINE%@BO:          901967@%%@AE@%, a scarlet dye, and a thermostat for a self-regulating oven.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dred Scott Case%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dred Scott Case%@AE@%,%@CR:DRED.SCOTT.CASE @%%@QR:Dred Scott Case@% case argued before the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% in 1856-57%@EH@%
involving the status of %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@% in the federal territories. Scott, a
slave, had been taken to Illinois and the Wisconsin territory, where
slavery was prohibited by the %@AU@%MISSOURI COMPROMISE%@BO:          61afda@%%@AE@%. Later, in Missouri, he
sued for his freedom on the basis of his residence in a free state and
territory. The Supreme Court's Southern majority declared that the
Compromise was unconstitutional and that Congress had no power to limit
slavery in the territories. Three justices also held that a Negro
descended from slaves had no rights as an American citizen and therefore
no standing in court. The decision further inflamed the sectional
controversy leading to the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dreiser, Theodore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dreiser, Theodore%@AE@%%@CR:DREISER         @%%@QR:Dreiser, Theodore@%, 1871-1945, American novelist. A pioneer of %@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
in American literature, Dreiser wrote novels reflecting his mechanistic
view of life, which held man as the victim of such ungovernable forces as
economics, biology, society, and even chance. Among his novels are %@AI@%Sister
%@AI@%Carrie%@AE@% (1900) and %@AI@%Jennie Gerhardt%@AE@% (1911), both about "fallen women"; %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Financier%@AE@% (1912), %@AI@%The Titan%@AE@% (1914), and %@AI@%The Stoic%@AE@% (1947), a trilogy
concerning a ruthless industrialist; and %@AI@%The Genius%@AE@% (1915) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Bulwark%@AE@% (1946), both about an American artist. %@AI@%An American Tragedy%@AE@%
(1925), considered his greatest work, tells of a poor young man's futile
attempts to achieve social and financial success. Dreiser also wrote
short stories, autobiographical works, and nonfiction commentaries on the
USSR and the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dresden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dresden%@AE@%,%@CR:DRESDEN         @%%@QR:Dresden@% city (1986 pop. 552,113), capital of Dresden district, SE East%@EH@%
Germany, on the Elbe R. It is an industrial and cultural center and an
inland port. Originally a Slavic settlement, it was settled (13th cent.)
by Germans and later occupied by Prussia. From the 17th cent. until it
was heavily bombed by the Allies in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, Dresden was a showplace
of art and of %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@% architecture. It has been extensively
rebuilt since 1945.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drew, Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drew, Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:DREW1           @%%@QR:Drew, Elizabeth@% 1935-, American journalist; b. Cincinnati. An analyst of%@EH@%
national politics, she has been the Washington correspondent of the
%@AI@%Atlantic%@AE@% (1967-73) and %@AI@%The New Yorker%@AE@% (1973-). Her account of the
%@AU@%WATERGATE AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@% was published as %@AI@%Washington Journal%@AE@% (1975).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drew, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drew, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DREW2           @%%@QR:Drew, John@% 1827-62, American actor; b. Ireland. Having established a%@EH@%
reputation as an Irish comedian, he maintained a stock company at the
Arch Street Theatre, Philadelphia. After his death, his wife and co-star,
%@AB@%Louisa Lane Drew,%@AE@% 1820-97, b. England, managed the theater until 1892.
Her best role was as Mrs. Malaprop in %@AI@%The Rivals.%@AE@% Her eldest son, %@AB@%John
%@AB@%Drew,%@AE@% 1853-1927, b. Philadelphia, joined August in Daly's company in 1875
and became one of the producer Charles Frohman's first stars. He
distinguished himself in both Shakespearean and modern comedies. His
sister Georgiana married Maurice Barrymore (see %@AU@%BARRYMORE%@BO:           c92da@%%@AE@%, family).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dreyer, Carl Theodor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dreyer, Carl Theodor%@AE@%%@CR:DREYER          @%%@QR:Dreyer, Carl Theodor@%, 1889-1968, Danish film director. %@AI@%The Passion of%@EH@%
%@AI@%Joan of Arc%@AE@% (1928) typifies his austere style. Among his other films are
%@AI@%Vampyr%@AE@% (1932), %@AI@%Day of Wrath%@AE@% (1943), %@AI@%Ordet%@AE@% (1955), and %@AI@%Gertrud%@AE@% (1964).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dreyfus Affair%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dreyfus Affair%@AE@%.%@CR:DREYFUS.AFFAIR  @%%@QR:Dreyfus Affair@% In 1894 Capt. Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935), a French%@EH@%
officer, was convicted of treason by a court-martial, sentenced to life
imprisonment, and sent to Devil's Island. The case had arisen with the
discovery in the German embassy of a handwritten %@AI@%bordereau%@AE@% (schedule)
that listed secret French documents and was addressed to Maj. Max von
Schwartzkoppen, German military attache in Paris. The French army was at
the time permeated by anti-Semitism, and suspicion fell on Dreyfus, an
Alsatian Jew. Although Dreyfus protested his innocence, interest in the
case lapsed until 1896, when evidence was discovered pointing to Maj.
Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy as the real author of the %@AI@%bordereau.%@AE@% After the
army's attempt to suppress this information failed, Esterhazy was tried
(Jan. 1898) by court-martial, but was acquitted within minutes. Emile
%@AU@%ZOLA%@BO:          a56907@%%@AE@%, a leading supporter of Dreyfus, published an open letter accusing
the judges of following orders from the military. Zola was sentenced to
jail for libel, but fled to England. Meanwhile, the case had become a
major political issue. Royalist, militarist, nationalist, and Roman
Catholic elements joined the anti-Dreyfus group, while republican,
socialist, and anticlerical forces allied to defend Dreyfus and to
discredit the rightist government. In 1898 it was learned that much of
the evidence against Dreyfus had been forged by Col. Henry of army
intelligence. After Henry's suicide (Aug. 1898) and Esterhazy's flight to
England, a revision of Dreyfus's sentence became imperative. A new
court-martial was ordered, but the military court, unable to admit error,
found Dreyfus guilty and sentenced him to 10 years in prison. However, a
pardon was issued by Pres. Emile Loubet, and in 1906 the supreme court of
appeals exonerated Dreyfus. In 1930 his innocence was reaffirmed by the
publication of Schwartzkoppen's papers. The immediate result of the
affair was to unite and bring to power the French left wing. Widespread
antimilitarism and rabid anticlericalism ensued, leading in 1905 to the
separation of church and state in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drift%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drift%@AE@%,%@CR:DRIFT           @%%@QR:drift@% deposit of clay, gravel, sand, and boulders, transported and laid%@EH@%
down by glaciers. Some drift is stratified, or sorted by size, with
coarser particles nearer the point of origin. Till, the greater part of
drift, consists of unstratified heaps of rocks. Drifts can take many
forms (e.g., %@AU@%DRUMLINS%@BO:          2acfeb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ESKERS%@BO:          2ffc07@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MORAINES%@BO:          63aa81@%%@AE@%). Large sections of North America
and continental Europe are covered by drift.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dromedary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dromedary%@AE@%:%@CR:DROMEDARY       @%%@QR:dromedary@% see %@AU@%CAMEL%@BO:          179da1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Droste-Hulshoff, Annette Elisabeth, Freiin von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Droste-Hulshoff, Annette Elisabeth, Freiin von%@AE@%%@CR:DROSTEHULSHOFF  @%%@QR:Droste-Hulshoff, Annette Elisabeth, Freiin von@%, 1797-1848, German poet.%@EH@%
She wrote a fine short novel, %@AI@%The Jew's Beech Tree%@AE@% (1842); masterful
religious verse, %@AI@%The Spiritual Year%@AE@% (1850); and nature poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drug addiction and drug abuse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drug addiction and drug abuse%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUG.AD.ABUSE   @%%@QR:drug addiction and drug abuse@% chronic or habitual use of any chemical%@EH@%
substance to alter states of body or mind for other than medically
warranted purposes. Among the drugs with potential for abuse are
%@AU@%NARCOTICS%@BO:          6680db@%%@AE@%, including morphine, opium, heroin, and methadone; depressants
such as %@AU@%ALCOHOL%@BO:           310a9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BARBITURATES%@BO:           c1fc4@%%@AE@%, and sedatives; stimulants such as %@AU@%COCAINE%@BO:          1fd1f3@%%@AE@%
(see also %@AU@%CRACK%@BO:          243c75@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%AMPHETAMINES%@BO:           4dbc1@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS%@BO:          3f570a@%%@AE@%; and %@AU@%MARIJUANA%@BO:          5bc2ca@%%@AE@%.
Nicotine and %@AU@%CAFFEINE%@BO:          16cdee@%%@AE@% can also be abused. An individual is said to be
addicted if a physical dependence on a given drug develops and if
withdrawal symptoms are experienced when the drug is discontinued or its
dose decreased. True physical addiction is known to occur with the
narcotics and depressants; psychological dependence, with or without
physical symptoms, can develop with many other drugs, such as
%@AU@%TRANQUILIZERS%@BO:          973a56@%%@AE@%. The hallucinogens can also cause traumatic experiences and
trigger psychotic reactions, including paranoia. Treatment for drug
addiction includes %@AU@%METHADONE%@BO:          5f6b9c@%%@AE@% programs and participation in therapeutic
communities (e.g., Synanon and Phoenix House) with other addicts who are
giving up drugs (see also %@AU@%ALCOHOLISM%@BO:           3168c@%%@AE@%). The question of what constitutes
drug abuse depends on the cultural and social context. In some countries,
narcotic use in the form of opium smoking is common and not considered a
serious drug problem; in others, hashish or related compounds are widely
used. In most industrialized nations, however, the use of many of these
drugs is illegal and associated with criminal behavior.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drugs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drugs%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUGS           @%%@QR:drugs@% substances used to cure, alleviate, diagnose, or prevent disease.%@EH@%
Before 1900 only a few drugs were used scientifically, among them
alcohol, ether, %@AU@%MORPHINE%@BO:          63fcb1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DIGITALIS%@BO:          290582@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%QUININE%@BO:          7bd799@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%IRON%@BO:          49b3ab@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%IODINE%@BO:          4928e6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MERCURY
%@AU@%%@BO:          5edfd0@%%@AE@%, diphtheria antitoxin, and smallpox vaccine. Since then, and particularly
since World War II, many new drugs and classes of drugs have been
developed, making %@AU@%CHEMOTHERAPY%@BO:          1c801a@%%@AE@% an essential part of medical practice.
Such drugs include %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SULFA DRUGS%@BO:          906a33@%%@AE@%; cardiovascular drugs,
including propanolol and other %@AU@%BETA BLOCKERS%@BO:           f2bcf@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DIURETICS%@BO:          297662@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ANTICOAGULANTS%@BO:           63085@%%@AE@%;
whole blood, plasma, and blood derivatives; various smooth muscle
relaxants and smooth muscle stimulants; %@AU@%IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS%@BO:          46eaab@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%HORMONES%@BO:          446acb@%%@AE@%, such as thyroxine, %@AU@%INSULIN%@BO:          48925b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ESTROGEN%@BO:          303881@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CORTISONE%@BO:          239fe5@%%@AE@% and other
%@AU@%CORTICOSTEROIDS%@BO:          239ba9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES%@BO:          6e30b5@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VITAMINS%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ANALGESICS%@BO:           50835@%%@AE@%; poison
antidotes; and various stimulants and depressants, among them %@AU@%NARCOTICS%@BO:          6680db@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%AMPHETAMINES%@BO:           4dbc1@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BARBITURATES%@BO:           c1fc4@%%@AE@% (see also %@AU@%ANESTHESIA%@BO:           56524@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HALLUCINOGENIC
%@AU@%DRUGS%@BO:          3f570a@%%@AE@%). Drugs are derived from many sources, organic and inorganic.
%@AU@%ALKALOIDS%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@%, hormones, vaccines, and antibiotics come from plants and
animals; other drugs are synthesized in the laboratory or extracted from
inorganic compounds. There are two marketing classes of drugs; ethical
drugs, for which prescriptions are needed, and %@AU@%PATENT MEDICINES%@BO:          7200a6@%%@AE@%, which
are sold over the counter without prescription. The publication in the
U.S. giving drug properties, actions, uses, dosages, and standards of
strength and purity is the %@AI@%United States Pharmacopoeia-National
%@AI@%Formulary.%@AE@% The %@AI@%Physician's Desk Reference%@AE@% compiles information supplied
by drug companies about their products. The Food and Drug Administration
regulates the testing and marketing of new drugs in the United States.
The scientific study of drugs, their actions, and effects is
%@AU@%PHARMACOLOGY%@BO:          745e7f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%druids%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%druids%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUIDS          @%%@QR:druids@% priests of ancient Celtic Britain, Ireland, and Gaul and probably%@EH@%
of all ancient Celtic peoples. The druids constituted a priestly upper
class in command of a highly ritualistic religion centering on the
worship of a pantheon of nature deities. Religious ceremonies, held
chiefly in oak groves and at river sources and lakes, included animal,
and sometimes human, sacrifices and various forms of magic. Druids also
educated the young and oversaw the community's intellectual life. They
were an important cohesive force among the Celtic tribes; in Gaul they
led rebellions against the Romans. Their power, although broken by the
Romans, finally yielded only to Christianity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drum%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUM            @%%@QR:drum@% in music, %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@% consisting of a frame over which%@EH@%
one or more membranes or skins are stretched, and which acts as a
resonator when the membrane is struck. The kettledrum, a metal bowl with
a membrane stretched over the open side, can be tuned to a definite pitch
by adjusting the tension of the head. In the snare drum, wire-covered gut
strings are stretched across the head; these rattle when the drum is
struck. The tom-tom is a high-pitched, tunable hand drum. The tambourine
is a single-headed, small drum, usually with jingles attached to the
frame, that is shaken or struck by hand.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drumlin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drumlin%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUMLIN         @%%@QR:drumlin@% smooth, oval hill of glacial %@AU@%DRIFT%@BO:          2ab119@%%@AE@%, elongated in the direction%@EH@%
of the movement of the ice that deposited it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drummond, William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drummond, William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUMMOND        @%%@QR:Drummond, William Henry@% 1854-1907, Canadian poet; b. Ireland. His verse,%@EH@%
collected in such volumes as %@AI@%Poetical Works%@AE@% (1912), portrays French
Canadians in their own English dialect.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Drusus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Drusus%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUSUS          @%%@QR:Drusus@% Roman family of the gens Livius. An early distinguished member%@EH@%
was %@AB@%Marcus Livius Drusus,%@AE@% d. 109? BC, tribune of the people (122) with
Caius Sempronius Gracchus (see %@AU@%GRACCHI%@BO:          3bf6e3@%%@AE@%). He successfully attacked
Gracchus in the senate and became consul in 112. His son, %@AB@%Marcus Livius
%@AB@%Drusus,%@AE@% d. 91 BC, was also a leader of the senatorial party. By an
increase in the franchise he won the support of the Romans and Italians,
but the senate annulled Drusus' laws and brought on the Social War (90-88
BC) between Rome and the Italians. Drusus was assassinated. %@AB@%Nero Claudius
%@AB@%Drusus Germanicus,%@AE@% 38 BC-9 BC, was the stepson of %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@% and father of
%@AU@%CLAUDIUS I%@BO:          1f0f37@%%@AE@%. He ravaged Germany E and N of the Rhine, but failed to subdue
the Germans permanently. He died in Germany. His brother was the emperor
%@AU@%TIBERIUS%@BO:          959cd5@%%@AE@%. Tiberius' son, %@AB@%Drusus Caesar,%@AE@% d. AD 23, earned the jealousy of
Sejanus, Tiberius' minister, who tried to turn Tiberius against his son.
Drusus died, perhaps of poisoning by Sejanus or by his wife under
Sejanus' influence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Druze%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Druze%@AE@%,%@CR:DRUZE           @%%@QR:Druze@% religious community of some 370,000 hill people in Syria, Lebanon,%@EH@%
Israel, and Jordan who believe that Hakim, the sixth Fatimite caliph (see
%@AU@%FATIMID%@BO:          31ffbf@%%@AE@%), is God; they permit no religious conversion or intermarriage.
Warring against the Ottoman Turks and the Christian Maronites, they
helped prepare the way for French control of the E Mediterranean
countries known as the Levant. Their defiance of the French mandate and
occupation (1925-27) of Damascus led to protracted hostilities. After
Syria became independent in 1944, the Druze surrendered their autonomy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dryads%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dryads%@AE@%:%@CR:DRYADS          @%%@QR:dryads@% see %@AU@%NYMPH%@BO:          6c6b8e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dry cell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dry cell%@AE@%:%@CR:DRY.CELL        @%%@QR:dry cell@% see %@AU@%CELL%@BO:          1ab1a5@%%@AE@%, in electricity.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dryden, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dryden, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DRYDEN          @%%@QR:Dryden, John@% 1631-1700, English poet, dramatist, and critic. He first%@EH@%
came to notice with %@AI@%Heroic Stanzas%@AE@% (1659), commemorating the death of
Oliver %@AU@%CROMWELL%@BO:          24d49f@%%@AE@%, but in 1660 he celebrated the restoration of %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@%
with %@AI@%Astraea Redux. Annus Mirabilis,%@AE@% a long poem on the Dutch war,
appeared in 1667, and in 1668 he became poet laureate. His plays include
the heroic %@AI@%Conquest of Granada%@AE@% (1670-71); the comedy %@AI@%Marriage a la Mode%@AE@%
(1672); and his blank-verse masterpiece, %@AI@%All for Love%@AE@% (1677). His great
political %@AU@%SATIRE%@BO:          84ce7e@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%Absalom and Achitophel,%@AE@% appeared in two parts (1681,
1682), and his attack on Thomas Shadwell, %@AI@%MacFlecknoe,%@AE@% in 1682. Five
years after publishing %@AI@%Religio Laici%@AE@% (1682), a poetical exposition of the
Protestant layman's creed, he announced his conversion to Roman
Catholicism in %@AI@%The Hind and the Panther.%@AE@% Dryden lost his laureateship
with the accession of William III. Throughout his life, he wrote
brilliant critical prefaces and discourses, notably the %@AI@%Essay of Dramatic
%@AI@%Poesy%@AE@% (1668). His last years were occupied chiefly with translating
Juvenal, Vergil, and others.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dry ice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dry ice%@AE@%:%@CR:DRY.ICE         @%%@QR:dry ice@% see %@AU@%CARBON DIOXIDE%@BO:          18bf7d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%drypoint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%drypoint%@AE@%,%@CR:DRYPOINT        @%%@QR:drypoint@% %@AU@%INTAGLIO%@BO:          48a193@%%@AE@% printing process in which lines are scratched directly%@EH@%
into a metal plate with a needle; also, the print made from such a plate.
The method is often used with %@AU@%ETCHING%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@%. In drypoint, the burr raised by
the needle produces a rich, velvety effect and allows relatively few good
prints to be made. Among the greatest masters of the technique are %@AU@%DURER%@BO:          2b530d@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WHISTLER%@BO:          a1231a@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dry rot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dry rot%@AE@%,%@CR:DRY.ROT         @%%@QR:dry rot@% fungus disease of timber, typified by the destruction of%@EH@%
%@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@%, with discoloration and eventual crumbling of the wood. Dry rot
requires moisture for growth and occurs in improperly seasoned wood or
where ventilation is poor or humidity high. See also %@AU@%FUNGI%@BO:          36e36c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dual Alliance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dual Alliance%@AE@%:%@CR:DUAL.ALLIANCE   @%%@QR:Dual Alliance@% see %@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dualism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dualism%@AE@%,%@CR:DUALISM         @%%@QR:dualism@% in philosophy and theology, system that explains all phenomena%@EH@%
in terms of two distinct and irreducible principles, e.g., ideas and
matter (as in %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%, and modern %@AU@%METAPHYSICS%@BO:          5f4705@%%@AE@%) or mind and
matter (as in psychology). In theology the term refers to a concept of
opposing principles, e.g., good and evil. See also %@AU@%MONISM%@BO:          62cb9a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dual Monarchy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dual Monarchy%@AE@%:%@CR:DUAL.MONARCHY   @%%@QR:Dual Monarchy@% see %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duarte, Jose Napoleon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duarte, Jose Napoleon%@AE@%,%@CR:DUARTE          @%%@QR:Duarte, Jose Napoleon@% 1925-, president of El Salvador (1980-82,%@EH@%
1984-88). A Christian Democrat, he was mayor of San Salvador (1964-70).
In 1972 Duarte was elected president, but was exiled by the army. He was
allowed to return (1979) and in 1980 was named to the ruling military
junta, which later named him president. Duarte ruled, jointly with the
junta, during a period of civil war when the government was seriously
opposed by leftist rebels. He was forced from office (1982) by a
coalition of right-wing parties (Alvaro Alfredo Magana succeeded him),
but became president again (1984) in a controversial election that was
boycotted by the left.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dubai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dubai%@AE@%:%@CR:DUBAI           @%%@QR:Dubai@% see %@AU@%UNITED ARAB EMIRATES%@BO:          99fd48@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Du Barry, Jeanne Becu, comtesse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Du Barry, Jeanne Becu, comtesse%@AE@%,%@CR:DU.BARRY        @%%@QR:Du Barry, Jeanne Becu, comtesse@%  1743-93, mistress of %@AU@%LOUIS XV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
France. A courtesan of illegitimate birth, she was installed (1769) at
court and retained her influence until the king's death (1774). During
the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@% she was arrested for treason and guillotined.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dubcek, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dubcek, Alexander%@AE@%%@CR:DUBCEK          @%%@QR:Dubcek, Alexander@%, 1921-, Czechoslovakian Communist leader. In 1968 he%@EH@%
replaced %@AU@%NOVOTNY%@BO:          6bffa2@%%@AE@% as party first secretary and instituted liberal policies
that promised a gradual democratization. In Aug. 1968 Soviet forces
invaded and a pro-Soviet government was installed. Dubcek was removed
from office in 1969.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Du Bellay, Joachim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Du Bellay, Joachim%@AE@%,%@CR:DU.BELLAY       @%%@QR:Du Bellay, Joachim@% 1522?-1560, French poet of the Pleiade (see under%@EH@%
%@AU@%PLEIAD%@BO:          76d1b9@%%@AE@%), author of their manifesto. Some of his finest poems, in %@AI@%Regrets%@AE@%
(1558) and %@AI@%Antiquities of Rome%@AE@% (1558), written while he was in Rome,
convey his impressions of that city and his nostalgia for France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dubinsky, David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dubinsky, David%@AE@%,%@CR:DUBINSKY        @%%@QR:Dubinsky, David@% 1892-1982, American labor leader; b. Russian Poland.%@EH@%
Sent to a Siberian prison (1908) for union activity, he escaped and
reached the U.S. in 1911. He worked as a cloak cutter and rose rapidly in
the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union, becoming its president
(1932-66). In 1936 he took the union out of the American Federation of
Labor (AFL), of which he was a vice president, and into the Congress of
Industrial Organizations (CIO), but he broke with the CIO in 1938 and
rejoined the AFL in 1940. Dubinsky helped organize the Liberal party in
1944.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dublin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dublin%@AE@%,%@CR:DUBLIN          @%%@QR:Dublin@% city (1986 pop. 502,337), capital of the Republic of Ireland and%@EH@%
county town of Co. Dublin, on Dublin Bay at the mouth of the Liffey R. It
is Ireland's chief commercial, cultural, and administrative center. Its
major industries include brewing, textile manufacturing, distilling, and
shipbuilding. Dublin's turbulent early history was marked by the rule of
the Danes, Irish, and English, who held the city from 1170 until 1800. It
prospered in the late 18th cent., but declined after the Act of Union of
1800. In the 19th and early 20th cent. the city saw bloodshed in
connection with nationalist efforts to free Ireland from British control.
It also became the center of a Gaelic renaissance; the Gaelic League was
founded (1893) there and the Abbey Theatre (see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@%, ) began
producing Irish plays. Dublin is the seat of the Irish legislature, the
Dail Eireann. Its institutions include the Univ. of Dublin (Trinity
College), University College, and a national museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Du Bois, W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Du Bois, W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt)%@AE@%,%@CR:DU.BOIS         @%%@QR:Du Bois, W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt)@% 1868-1963, black American civil%@EH@%
rights leader and author; b. Great Barrington, Mass. Earning a Ph.D. from
Harvard (1895), he taught economics and history at Atlanta Univ.
(1897-1910; 1932-44) and was one of the first exponents of full and
immediate racial equality. He cofounded (1909) the National Negro
Committee, which became (1910) the %@AU@%NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE
%@AU@%ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE%@BO:          66beea@%%@AE@%, and edited the NAACP magazine, %@AI@%The Crisis,%@AE@%
until 1932. Late in life he promoted worldwide black liberation and
pan-Africanism and, in 1961, joined the Communist party and moved to
Ghana. His many writings include an autobiography (1968).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dubos, Rene Jules%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dubos, Rene Jules%@AE@%%@CR:DUBOS           @%%@QR:Dubos, Rene Jules@%, 1901-82, American bacteriologist and author; b.%@EH@%
France. Associated with Rockefeller Univ. from 1927, he isolated in
crystalline form the agent gramicidin, an antibiotic that destroys the
so-called Gram-positive germs. This laid the basis for a new field of
chemotherapy. His works include %@AI@%So Human an Animal%@AE@% (1969; Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dubuffet, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dubuffet, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:DUBUFFET        @%%@QR:Dubuffet, Jean@%, 1901-85, French painter and sculptor. His primitive,%@EH@%
childlike, humorous paintings are often done in thick impastoes of
asphalt, pebbles, and glass to enrich the surface texture. %@AI@%Cow with the
%@AI@%Subtile Nose%@AE@% is in the Museum of Modern Art (N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ducas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ducas%@AE@%,%@CR:DUCAS           @%%@QR:Ducas@% dynasty of Byzantine emperors: Constantine X, Michael VIII,%@EH@%
%@AU@%ALEXIUS V%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JOHN III%@BO:          4c70a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duccio de Buoninsegna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duccio de Buoninsegna%@AE@%%@CR:DUCCIO.NSEGNA   @%%@QR:Duccio de Buoninsegna@%, fl. 1278-1319, the first great Sienese painter. He%@EH@%
enlivened the Byzantine traditional forms by the expressive use of
outline in paintings both lyrical and majestic. His only authenticated
work is a large altar called %@AI@%Maesta%@AE@% (1311) in the Siena cathedral. His
influence on Sienese painting was enormous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duchamp, Marcel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duchamp, Marcel%@AE@%%@CR:DUCHAMP         @%%@QR:Duchamp, Marcel@%, 1887-1968, French painter; brother of Raymond%@EH@%
%@AU@%DUCHAMP-VILLON%@BO:          2b08f0@%%@AE@%, half-brother of Jacques %@AU@%VILLON%@BO:          9d955e@%%@AE@%. He is particularly noted
for his cubist-futurist work %@AI@%Nude Descending a Staircase,%@AE@% depicting
continuous action with a series of overlapping figures (see %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%FUTURISM%@BO:          370ed5@%%@AE@%). A cofounder of the %@AU@%DADA%@BO:          25ec61@%%@AE@% group, he invented ready-mades
(commonplace objects), e.g., the urinal entitled %@AI@%Fountain,%@AE@% which he
exhibited as works of art. He also invented complex, nonfunctional
machines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duchamp-Villon, Raymond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duchamp-Villon, Raymond%@AE@%%@CR:DUCHAMPVILLON   @%%@QR:Duchamp-Villon, Raymond@%, 1876-1918, French sculptor; brother of Marcel%@EH@%
%@AU@%DUCHAMP%@BO:          2b05b7@%%@AE@% and Jacques %@AU@%VILLON%@BO:          9d955e@%%@AE@%. He turned from the tradition of %@AU@%RODIN%@BO:          802c08@%%@AE@% to
%@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%, assembling such machinelike forms as %@AI@%Horse%@AE@% (Paris).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%duck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%duck%@AE@%,%@CR:DUCK            @%%@QR:duck@% wild and domestic waterfowl of the family Anatidae, which also%@EH@%
includes the %@AU@%GOOSE%@BO:          3b7c07@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SWAN%@BO:          915c73@%%@AE@%. It is hunted and bred for its meat, eggs,
and feathers. Strictly speaking, %@AI@%duck%@AE@% refers to the female; the male is a
%@AI@%drake.%@AE@% Ducks range from 16 to 22 in. (36 to 56 cm) in length and have
waterproof feathers, with a thick layer of down underneath, and webbed
feet. They are usually divided into three groups: surface-feeding-such as
the mallard, wood duck, and teal, which frequent ponds and quiet waters;
diving-such as the canvasback and eider, found on bays, rivers, and
lakes; and fish-eating, or mergansers, which also prefer open water.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%duckbill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%duckbill%@AE@%,%@CR:DUCKBILL        @%%@QR:duckbill@% marsupial: see %@AU@%PLATYPUS%@BO:          76c2a9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dudley, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dudley, Robert%@AE@%:%@CR:DUDLEY          @%%@QR:Dudley, Robert@% see %@AU@%LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF%@BO:          539b1b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dufay, Guillaume%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dufay, Guillaume%@AE@%%@CR:DUFAY           @%%@QR:Dufay, Guillaume@%, c.1400-74, founder and leading composer of the%@EH@%
Burgundian school of music. A singer in the papal chapel in Rome and
elsewhere, he wrote chansons, %@AU@%MASSES%@BO:          5cc4ab@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MOTETS%@BO:          6446b5@%%@AE@% in the northern French
tradition, with English and Italian elements.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dufy, Raoul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dufy, Raoul%@AE@%%@CR:DUFY            @%%@QR:Dufy, Raoul@%, 1877-1953, French painter, illustrator, and decorator.%@EH@%
Turning to %@AU@%FAUVISM%@BO:          32182e@%%@AE@% c.1905, he executed glittering landscapes, seascapes,
and witty views of society, painted with swift, stenographic brush
strokes, e.g., %@AI@%The Palm%@AE@% (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dugong%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dugong%@AE@%:%@CR:DUGONG          @%%@QR:dugong@% see %@AU@%SIRENIAN%@BO:          89a72d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Du Guesclin, Bertrand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Du Guesclin, Bertrand%@AE@%%@CR:DU.GUESCLIN     @%%@QR:Du Guesclin, Bertrand@%, c.1320-80, French soldier, constable of France%@EH@%
(1370-80). In the service of %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of France, he defeated %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@%
of Navarre, and in the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@% reconquered much of France from
the English. He was the greatest French soldier of his time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duisburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duisburg%@AE@%%@CR:DUISBURG        @%%@QR:Duisburg@%, city (1986 est. pop. 516,600), North Rhine-Westphalia, W West%@EH@%
Germany, at the confluence of the Rhine and Ruhr rivers. It is Europe's
largest inland port and a steel-making center. Founded in Roman times, it
passed to the duchy of Cleves (1290) and to Brandenburg (1614). During
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% it was an armaments center and was heavily bombed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dukakis, Michael S.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dukakis, Michael S.%@AE@%%@CR:DUKAKIS         @%%@QR:Dukakis, Michael S.@% 1933-, U.S. politician; b. Brookline, Mass. He was a%@EH@%
member of the House of Representatives (1963-70) and governor of
Massachusetts (1974-79; 1982-). His policies included the nation's first
no-fault auto insurance bill, the first major state tax amnesty, and his
Employment and Training Program. In 1988, he ran unsuccessfully as the
Democratic candidate for president of the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dukas, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dukas, Paul%@AE@%%@CR:DUKAS           @%%@QR:Dukas, Paul@%, 1865-1935, French composer and critic. Influenced by Richard%@EH@%
%@AU@%WAGNER%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%DEBUSSY%@BO:          2720ca@%%@AE@%, he is best known for his %@AU@%SYMPHONIC POEM%@BO:          91d55a@%%@AE@% %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Sorcerer's Apprentice%@AE@% (1897).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dukhobors%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dukhobors%@AE@%%@CR:DUKHOBORS       @%%@QR:Dukhobors@% or %@AB@%Doukhobors%@AE@%[Russ.,=spirit wrestlers], religious sect,%@EH@%
prominent in Russia from the 18th to the 19th cent., originally called
Christians of the Universal Brotherhood. Doctrinally somewhat like the
Quakers, they rejected outward symbols of Christianity, promoted a
communal, absolutely democratic attitude, and preached equality.
Persecuted in Russia, many eventually moved (1898-99) to W Canada. There
they prospered, but had difficulties with the Canadian government on
several occasions. In 1945 they formed two groups, the Union of the
Dukhobors of Canada and the Sons of Freedom.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dulcimer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dulcimer%@AE@%:%@CR:DULCIMER        @%%@QR:dulcimer@% see %@AU@%STRINGED INSTRUMENT%@BO:          8fbf78@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon, sieur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon, sieur%@AE@%:%@CR:DU.LHUT         @%%@QR:Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon, sieur@% see %@AU@%DULUTH%@BO:          2b2324@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dulles, John Foster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dulles, John Foster%@AE@%,%@CR:DULLES          @%%@QR:Dulles, John Foster@% 1888-1959, U.S. secretary of state (1953-59); b.%@EH@%
Washington, D.C. After serving (1945-49) as U.S. delegate to the UN, he
negotiated (1951) the Japanese peace treaty formally ending World War II.
As secretary of state under Pres. %@AU@%EISENHOWER%@BO:          2d24e8@%%@AE@%, Dulles emphasized the
collective security of the U.S. and its allies through foreign economic
and military aid. He encouraged the development of nuclear weapons
capable of "massive retaliation." His brother, %@AB@%Allen Welsh Dulles,%@AE@%
1893-1969, was director (1953-61) of the CIA.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duluth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duluth%@AE@%,%@CR:DULUTH1         @%%@QR:Duluth@%or %@AB@%Du Lhut, Daniel Greysolon, sieur%@AE@%, 1636-1710, French explorer.%@EH@%
His explorations won the Lake %@AU@%SUPERIOR%@BO:          90d84a@%%@AE@% and upper %@AU@%MISSISSIPPI%@BO:          619330@%%@AE@% R. regions
for France. He is remembered for his just treatment of the Indians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duluth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duluth%@AE@%,%@CR:DULUTH2         @%%@QR:Duluth@% city (1986 est. pop. 82,380), seat of St. Louis co., NE Minn., at%@EH@%
the W end of Lake %@AU@%SUPERIOR%@BO:          90d84a@%%@AE@%; settled c.1852, inc. 1870. The second-largest
port on the %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@%, Duluth ships grain, iron ore, and bulk cargo all
over the world. The discovery of iron ore (1865) in the nearby Mesabi
Range transformed the former timber-shipping port. Duluth is the
commercial, industrial, and cultural center of N Minnesota.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%duma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%duma%@AE@%,%@CR:DUMA            @%%@QR:duma@% Russian representative body established (1905) after the %@AU@%RUSSIAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@%. The first (1906) and second (1907) dumas were dissolved by
%@AU@%NICHOLAS II%@BO:          69d0d5@%%@AE@% after a few months, because of their political hostility. The
third (1907-12) and fourth (1912-17) were the last before the 1917
Revolution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dumas, Alexandre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dumas, Alexandre%@AE@%%@CR:DUMAS           @%%@QR:Dumas, Alexandre@%, known as %@AB@%Dumas pere%@AE@% (per), 1802-70, French author.%@EH@%
After several successful historical dramas, he produced his great
triumphs, %@AI@%The Three Musketeers%@AE@% (1844) and %@AI@%The Count of Monte Cristo%@AE@%
(1845). Although these highly romantic novels, written with the aid of
collaborators, are sometimes scorned by critics, they have delighted
generations of readers and have been translated into nearly every
language. His illegitimate son, %@AB@%Alexandre Dumas,%@AE@% known as %@AB@%Dumas fils%@AE@%
(fes), 1824-95, is famed for his play %@AI@%La Dame aux camelias%@AE@% (1852), known
in English as %@AI@%Camille,%@AE@% which became the vehicle for many famous actresses
and was the basis of %@AU@%VERDI'S%@BO:          9c9742@%%@AE@% opera %@AI@%La Traviata.%@AE@% Dumas fils was the chief
creator of the 19th-cent. comedy of manners.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson%@AE@%,%@CR:DU.MAURIER      @%%@QR:Du Maurier, George Louis Palmella Busson@% 1834-96, English artist and%@EH@%
novelist. A noted %@AI@%Punch%@AE@% illustrator, he also wrote the novels %@AI@%Peter
%@AI@%Ibbetson%@AE@% (1892) and %@AI@%Trilby%@AE@% (1894). His granddaughter %@AB@%Daphne Du Maurier,%@AE@%
1907-89, is the author of %@AI@%Rebecca%@AE@% (1938), %@AI@%The Scapegoat%@AE@% (1957), and other
novels, as well as a family history, %@AI@%The Du Mauriers%@AE@% (1937).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dumouriez, Charles Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dumouriez, Charles Francois%@AE@%%@CR:DUMOURIEZ       @%%@QR:Dumouriez, Charles Francois@%, 1739-1823, French general in the %@AU@%FRENCH%@EH@%
%@AU@%REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%. He won victories at Valmy and Jemappes in 1792.
Defeated at Neerwinden (1793), he opened negotiations with the Austrians.
After turning over to them the French commissioners sent to investigate
his defeat, he deserted to the Austrian lines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dunant, Jean Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dunant, Jean Henri%@AE@%%@CR:DUNANT          @%%@QR:Dunant, Jean Henri@%, 1828-1910, Swiss philanthropist. His published%@EH@%
description (1862) of the suffering of wartime wounded and his plea for
organizations to care for them led to the establishment (1864) of the
International %@AU@%RED CROSS%@BO:          7d4b19@%%@AE@%. Dunant shared the first Nobel Peace Prize (1901)
with Frederick %@AU@%PASSY%@BO:          71e423@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dunbar, Paul Laurence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dunbar, Paul Laurence%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNBAR1         @%%@QR:Dunbar, Paul Laurence@% 1872-1906, black American author; b. Dayton, Ohio.%@EH@%
His poetry, e.g., %@AI@%Lyrics of Lowly Life%@AE@% (1896), uses black American folk
materials and dialects. Dunbar also wrote of Southern black life in
novels and stories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dunbar, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dunbar, William%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNBAR2         @%%@QR:Dunbar, William@% c.1460-c.1520, Scottish poet. Writing in the tradition%@EH@%
of %@AU@%CHAUCER%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@% and the medieval Scottish poets, he is notable for his lively
verse, metrical form, and caustic satire. "Lament for the Makers" is a
well-known poem.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duncan, Isadora%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duncan, Isadora%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNCAN1         @%%@QR:Duncan, Isadora@% 1878-1927, American dancer; b. San Francisco. Her dances%@EH@%
based on Greek classical art had great success in Budapest (1903), Berlin
(1904), and New York City (1908). She danced barefoot in a revealing
modified Greek tunic with flowing scarves, to complex music. Duncan's
concerts, schools, and dynamic personality greatly influenced %@AU@%MODERN
%@AU@%DANCE%@BO:          620430@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duncan, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duncan, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNCAN2         @%%@QR:Duncan, Robert@% 1919-88, American poet; b. Oakland, Calif. His lyric%@EH@%
poems are contained in such volumes as %@AI@%Wine%@AE@% (1964), %@AI@%Bending the Bow%@AE@%
(1968), and %@AI@%Derivations%@AE@% (1970).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dunkers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dunkers%@AE@%:%@CR:DUNKERS         @%%@QR:Dunkers@% see %@AU@%BRETHREN%@BO:          13b8e1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dunkirk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dunkirk%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNKIRK         @%%@QR:Dunkirk@% town (1982 pop. 73,618), N France, on the North Sea. It is a%@EH@%
major port and an important center for iron, steel, and other industry.
Fought over for centuries, ruled by many, it was bought (1662) from
England by Louis XIV and restored to France. In 1940, during %@AU@%WORLD WAR
%@AU@%II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, over 300,000 Allied troops, cut off from land retreat by the Germans,
were rescued there by British ships and boats.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dunlap, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dunlap, William%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNLAP          @%%@QR:Dunlap, William@% 1766-1839, American dramatist; b. Perth Amboy, N.J. He%@EH@%
was a prolific writer of Gothic romances, and his tragedy %@AI@%Andre%@AE@% (1798)
was the first American play based on native material. Dunlap, who adapted
many French and German plays for the American stage, was also a theater
manager (1796-1805) and a founder of the National Academy of Design.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dunmore, John Murray%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dunmore, John Murray%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNMORE         @%%@QR:Dunmore, John Murray@% 4th %@AB@%earl of,%@AE@% 1732-1809, British colonial governor%@EH@%
of Virginia. He led (1774) an expedition against the Indians known as
Lord Dunmore's War. He opposed the colonists, and they forced (1776) his
return to England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duns Scotus, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duns Scotus, John%@AE@%,%@CR:DUNS.SCOTUS     @%%@QR:Duns Scotus, John@% c.1266-1308, Scottish scholastic philosopher, known as%@EH@%
the Subtle Doctor. A Franciscan, he adapted Aristotelian thought to
Christian theology and founded the school of %@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@% known as
Scotism, which opposed the Thomism of the followers of %@AU@%THOMAS AQUINAS%@BO:          952e01@%%@AE@%.
Duns Scotus denied that individuality comes from matter. Modifying St.
%@AU@%ANSELM'S%@BO:           5e8da@%%@AE@% ontological proof of the existence of God, he argued that God's
possible existence must be demonstrable from sense experience. His
best-known works are %@AI@%On the First Principle%@AE@% and two commentaries on the
%@AI@%Sentences%@AE@% of the Italian theologian Peter Lombard.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duplessis, Maurice Le Noblet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duplessis, Maurice Le Noblet%@AE@%%@CR:DUPLESSIS       @%%@QR:Duplessis, Maurice Le Noblet@%, 1890-1959, Canadian provincial premier. He%@EH@%
founded (1936) the Union Nationale, a French Canadian nationalist party,
and twice served (1936-39, 1944-59) as premier of %@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7ba00e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Du Pont%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Du Pont%@AE@%,%@CR:DU.PONT         @%%@QR:Du Pont@% French-American family. %@AB@%Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours,%@AE@%%@EH@%
1739-1817, a French economist, was one of the %@AU@%PHYSIOCRATS%@BO:          755aac@%%@AE@%. He was active
in politics and diplomacy, taking part in negotiations (1783) after the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and for the %@AU@%LOUISIANA PURCHASE%@BO:          574f09@%%@AE@%. He emigrated to the
U.S. in 1799. His son, %@AB@%Eleuthere Irenee Du Pont,%@AE@% 1771-1834, b. Paris, set
up a powder works near Wilmington, Del., in 1802. Within a few years he
developed an extensive business (now E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.) and
was appointed (1822) a director of the Bank of the United States. %@AB@%Samuel
%@AB@%Francis Du Pont,%@AE@% 1803-65, b. Bergen Point, N.J., American naval officer,
was a grandson of Pierre Samuel. In the Civil War he directed (1861) the
naval victory at Port Royal, S.C., and against his own wishes led (1863)
the unsuccessful attack on Charleston. %@AB@%Pierre Samuel Du Pont,%@AE@% 1870-1954,
b. Wilmington, Del., became (1915) president of the family business.
Under him the company developed scores of chemical manufactures and
acquired many other industries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%duralumin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%duralumin%@AE@%,%@CR:DURALUMIN       @%%@QR:duralumin@% %@AU@%ALLOY%@BO:           3f294@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%ALUMINUM%@BO:           436c3@%%@AE@% with %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MAGNESIUM%@BO:          597c14@%%@AE@%, and %@EH@%
%@AU@%MANGANESE%@BO:          5acf28@%%@AE@%. A heat treatment causes a reaction between the aluminum and
magnesium, increasing hardness and tensile strength. Because of its
lightness and other properties, duralumin is widely used in the aircraft
industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durand, Asher Brown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durand, Asher Brown%@AE@%,%@CR:DURAND          @%%@QR:Durand, Asher Brown@% 1796-1886, American painter; b. near Newark, N.J. An%@EH@%
engraver early in his career, he became a leader of the %@AU@%HUDSON RIVER
%@AU@%SCHOOL%@BO:          45043d@%%@AE@%. His landscapes include %@AI@%Franconia Notch%@AE@% (N.Y. Public Lib., N.Y.C.)
and %@AI@%Mountain Forest%@AE@% (Corcoran Gall., Wash., D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duras, Marguerite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duras, Marguerite%@AE@%%@CR:DURAS           @%%@QR:Duras, Marguerite@%, 1914-, French novelist; b. Indochina (now Vietnam).%@EH@%
Her experimental novels include %@AI@%The Sea Wall%@AE@% (1950), %@AI@%Destroy, She Said%@AE@%
(1969), and %@AI@%Love%@AE@% (1972). More sensual novels include %@AI@%The Lover%@AE@% (1985) and
%@AI@%Emily L.%@AE@% (1989). She has also written plays and screenplays, e.g.,
%@AI@%Hiroshima mon amour%@AE@% (1959), and has directed films.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durban%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durban%@AE@%,%@CR:DURBAN          @%%@QR:Durban@% city (1980 pop. 505,963), Natal prov., E South Africa, on Durban%@EH@%
Bay, an arm of the Indian Ocean. It is an industrial center, a major
seaport, and a year-round resort. Industries include shipbuilding,
petroleum refining, and automobile assembly. About 40% of the population
is of Anglo-Indian descent. The city was settled as Port Natal by the
British in 1824 and was renamed in 1835. It is the site of several
educational and cultural institutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durer, Albrecht%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durer, Albrecht%@AE@%%@CR:DURER           @%%@QR:Durer, Albrecht@%, 1471-1528, German painter, engraver, and theoretician,%@EH@%
the most influential artist of the German school; b. Nuremberg. The son
of a goldsmith, he was apprenticed to his father and the painter Michael
Wolgemut. After travel in Switzerland and Italy he settled in Nuremberg.
He became the first German artist to achieve renown outside Germany.
Durer's foremost achievement was to adapt the principles of the Italian
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% to Northern taste. A gifted draftsman, he produced a vast
number of woodcuts (see %@AU@%WOODCUT AND WOOD ENGRAVING%@BO:          a2eb1f@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%ENGRAVINGS%@BO:          2f1ed9@%%@AE@%,
achieving an unsurpassed technical mastery and expressive power in
graphic media. His highly rational system of perspective and proportion
served equally well his penchant for both realistic detail and visionary
fantasy. His series of woodcuts of the %@AI@%Apocalypse%@AE@% was issued in 1498,
followed by two cycles of the %@AI@%Passion of Christ%@AE@% and %@AI@%Life of the Virgin.%@AE@%
After 1500 he developed as an art theoretician and produced greatly
detailed engravings. From 1510 on he concentrated on the translation of
lighting and tonal effects into graphic works. His humanistic
inclinations were revealed in such works as %@AI@%St. Jerome in his Cell%@AE@% and
%@AI@%Melencolia I%@AE@% (both: 1514). Durer usually signed his works, and his many
self-portraits reveal a self-awareness rare for his time. He produced
some important altarpieces, many sensitive watercolors of wildlife and
landscapes, several decorative projects, and treatises on human
proportions, applied geometry, and fortifications.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durham, John George Lambton, 1st earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durham, John George Lambton, 1st earl of%@AE@%,%@CR:DURHAM1         @%%@QR:Durham, John George Lambton, 1st earl of@% 1792-1840, British statesman. A%@EH@%
Liberal member of Parliament (1813-32), he promoted the %@AU@%REFORM BILL%@BO:          7d8dfe@%%@AE@% of
1832. As governor general of Canada, he prepared the masterly %@AI@%Report on
%@AI@%the Affairs of British North America%@AE@% (1839), supporting Canadian
self-government and reforms but opposing French Canadian nationalism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durham%@AE@%,%@CR:DURHAM2         @%%@QR:Durham@% city (1986 est. pop. 113,890), seat of Durham co., N central%@EH@%
N.C., in the Piedmont area; inc. 1867. It is a tobacco marketing and
processing and cigarette-making center. Textiles and insurance are also
important. The tobacco industry, led by James B. Duke, developed after
the Civil War. Duke Univ. is in Durham.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durkheim, Emile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durkheim, Emile%@AE@%,%@CR:DURKHEIM        @%%@QR:Durkheim, Emile@% 1858-1917, French sociologist, considered a founder of%@EH@%
modern %@AU@%SOCIOLOGY%@BO:          8ae688@%%@AE@%. Influenced by the %@AU@%POSITIVISM%@BO:          7884b2@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%COMTE%@BO:          219cf9@%%@AE@%, Durkheim applied
the methods of natural science (particularly empirical evidence and
statistics) to the study of society. He held that the collective social
mind is the source of religion and morality, that common values are the
bonds of social order, and that the loss of such values leads to social
and individual instability and %@AU@%SUICIDE%@BO:          90571e@%%@AE@%. His important works include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Rules of Sociological Method%@AE@% (1895), %@AI@%Suicide%@AE@% (1897), and %@AI@%The Elementary
%@AI@%Forms of Religious Life%@AE@% (1912).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durrell, Lawrence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durrell, Lawrence%@AE@%,%@CR:DURRELL         @%%@QR:Durrell, Lawrence@% 1912-, English author; b. India. His travels have lent%@EH@%
exotic background to many of his novels. His masterpiece is the
%@AI@%Alexandria Quartet%@AE@% (%@AI@%Justine,%@AE@% 1957; %@AI@%Balthazar,%@AE@% 1958; %@AI@%Mountolive,%@AE@% 1958; and
%@AI@%Clea,%@AE@% 1960). The quartet's excellence lies in its rich, ornamental
language and in its evocation of the city of Alexandria, Egypt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Durrenmatt, Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Durrenmatt, Friedrich%@AE@%,%@CR:DURRENMATT      @%%@QR:Durrenmatt, Friedrich@% 1921-, Swiss playwright and novelist. One of the%@EH@%
most famous German-language dramatists of his generation, he wrote of a
comic, grotesque world in %@AI@%The Visit%@AE@% (1956) and %@AI@%The Physicists%@AE@% (1962).
Irony also informs his novels, e.g., %@AI@%The Quarry%@AE@% (1953) and %@AI@%The Pledge%@AE@%
(1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dusan, Stephen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dusan, Stephen%@AE@%:%@CR:DUSAN           @%%@QR:Dusan, Stephen@% see %@AU@%STEPHEN DUsAN%@BO:          8ed4a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duse, Eleonora%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duse, Eleonora%@AE@%%@CR:DUSE            @%%@QR:Duse, Eleonora@%, 1859-1924, Italian actress. From her Juliet at age 14 to%@EH@%
her farewell appearance (1923) in %@AU@%IBSEN'S%@BO:          4651f3@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Lady from the Sea,%@AE@% she
projected tremendous emotional power; she was %@AU@%BERNHARDT'S%@BO:           eff4d@%%@AE@% only rival. For
years a romantic attachment existed between her and %@AU@%D'ANNUNZIO%@BO:          265b45@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dusseldorf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dusseldorf%@AE@%,%@CR:DUSSELDORF      @%%@QR:Dusseldorf@% city (1986 est pop. 561,200), capital of North%@EH@%
Rhine-Westphalia, W West Germany, at the confluence of the Rhine and
Dussel rivers. It is an inland port and an industrial center producing
iron and steel, machinery, and other manufactures. Chartered in 1288, it
was (14th-16th cent.) a ducal residence. %@AU@%HEINE%@BO:          414964@%%@AE@% was born in Dusseldorf.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dust Bowl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dust Bowl%@AE@%,%@CR:DUST.BOWL       @%%@QR:Dust Bowl@% collectively, those areas of the U.S. prairie states subject%@EH@%
to dust storms or the removal of unprotected topsoil by strong winds. It
covered 25,000 sq mi (64,750 sq km) at its greatest extent in the 1930s,
when grasslands that had been plowed for wheat in the 1920s were
abandoned or returned to grazing. Irrigation, regrassing, contour
farming, and other conservation measures are now widely used.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dutch East India Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dutch East India Company%@AE@%:%@CR:DUTCH.EY        @%%@QR:Dutch East India Company@% see %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY, DUTCH%@BO:          2be8d0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dutch language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dutch language%@AE@%,%@CR:DUTCH.LANGUAGE  @%%@QR:Dutch language@% member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% ().%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dutch Reformed Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dutch Reformed Church%@AE@%:%@CR:DUTCH.RCHURCH   @%%@QR:Dutch Reformed Church@% see %@AU@%REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA%@BO:          7d92cf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dutch Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dutch Wars%@AE@%.%@CR:DUTCH.WARS      @%%@QR:Dutch Wars@% %@AB@%1%@AE@% 1652-54, war between the English and the Dutch. The%@EH@%
long-standing rivalry between the two nations as competitors in world
trade erupted into war after the British closed their possessions to
Dutch traders. After a sea fight (Nov. 1652) the Dutch gained control of
the English Channel, but in 1653 the English broke the control and
blockaded the Dutch coast. The Dutch were defeated (July 31, 1653) and
were forced to accept a humbling peace treaty. %@AB@%2%@AE@% 1664-67, another war
between the English and the Dutch. Despite defeat, the Dutch continued to
challenge English trade. The English took various Dutch colonies,
including New Netherlands (later New York and New Jersey). Despite some
English advances, domestic problems-the plague, the great fire, and
Scottish disaffection-made them eager for peace. The resulting Treaty of
Breda was a blow to English prestige. %@AB@%3%@AE@% 1672-78, the first of the great
wars of %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France. Louis was determined to crush Holland and
end Dutch commercial rivalry; with secret support from %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@% of
England, he invaded the Netherlands but was unable to take Amsterdam.
After five years of fighting-with Spain, the Holy Roman emperor, and
various other powers coming to Holland's aid-Louis was unable to crush
Holland. France did gain some territory, including Franche-Comte, but
ended up with a severely depleted treasury.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dutch West India Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dutch West India Company%@AE@%%@CR:DUTCH.WY        @%%@QR:Dutch West India Company@% (1621-1791), trading and colonizing company%@EH@%
chartered by the States-General of the Dutch republic in 1621 and
organized in 1623. Given jurisdiction over a wide range of coast in
Africa and the Western Hemisphere, it battled (1624-54) Portugal
unsuccessfully for control of NE Brazil. The company founded (1626) Fort
Amsterdam, which grew to be called New Amsterdam (now New York City).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Duvalier, Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Duvalier, Francois%@AE@%%@CR:DUVALIER        @%%@QR:Duvalier, Francois@%, 1907-71, dictator of %@AU@%HAITI%@BO:          3f2c64@%%@AE@% (1957-71). A physician, he%@EH@%
served in the government and was elected president (1957) with army
backing. After his reelection (1961), "Papa Doc," declared himself (1964)
president for life. His long regime was a reign of terror. When he died,
his son, %@AB@%Jean-Claude Duvalier,%@AE@% 1951-, became (1971) "president-for-life."
Known as "Baby Doc," he pursued somewhat more enlightened policies but
was forced (1986) to flee the country by increasing protests. France
granted him asylum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dvorak, Antonin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dvorak, Antonin%@AE@%%@CR:DVORAK          @%%@QR:Dvorak, Antonin@%, 1841-1904, Czech composer. Much of his music is%@EH@%
nationalistic. He is best known for his Symphony in E Minor, %@AI@%From the New
%@AI@%World%@AE@% (1893), written while he was in the U.S. It conveys with great
exuberance Dvorak's impressions of American scenes and folk music and at
the same time evokes nostalgia for his native land. He also wrote eight
other symphonies, chamber works, a violin concerto, a cello concerto, and
%@AU@%OVERTURES%@BO:          6f925e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dwarfism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dwarfism%@AE@%,%@CR:DWARFISM        @%%@QR:dwarfism@% condition in which an animal or plant is smaller than normal%@EH@%
size; in humans, it usually results from a combination of genetic factors
and endocrine malfunction. Pituitary dwarfism is caused by a deficiency
of pituitary growth hormone. Typically, the pituitary dwarf, or midget,
has normal body proportions, mental capacity, and sexual development. The
most famous dwarf of recent times was "General" %@AU@%TOM THUMB%@BO:          96844e@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Cretinism,%@AE@% a
type of dwarfism accompanied by mental retardation and body distortion,
results from an insufficiency of thyroid hormone.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dwight, Timothy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dwight, Timothy%@AE@%,%@CR:DWIGHT          @%%@QR:Dwight, Timothy@% 1752-1817, American clergyman, author, and educator,%@EH@%
grandson of Jonathan %@AU@%EDWARDS%@BO:          2c9bf9@%%@AE@%; b. Northampton, Mass. He became (1783) a
Congregational minister in Greenfield, Conn., and was a leader of the
%@AU@%CONNECTICUT WITS%@BO:          222f83@%%@AE@%, who tried to modernize the curriculum at Yale. Dwight
was a believer in theocracy and Federalism, and strongly opposed
Republicanism. He was a president of Yale (1795-1817).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dy%@AE@%,%@CR:DY              @%%@QR:Dy@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%DYSPROSIUM%@BO:          2b9938@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dyak%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dyak%@AE@%%@CR:DYAK            @%%@QR:Dyak@% or %@AB@%Dayak,%@AE@%indigenous people of %@AU@%BORNEO%@BO:          124e00@%%@AE@%, numbering over 1 million.%@EH@%
Modern civilization has made little change in their customs and mode of
life, including intertribal warfare and %@AU@%HEAD-HUNTING%@BO:          40d228@%%@AE@%. A whole village
lives in a few enormous longhouses, and crops of rice, yams, and
sugarcane are grown communally. The Dyak also fish and hunt, using
blowguns and poison darts. Their religious cults are animistic and
shamanistic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dyck, Sir Anthony van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dyck, Sir Anthony van%@AE@%:%@CR:DYCK            @%%@QR:Dyck, Sir Anthony van@% see %@AU@%VAN DYCK, SIR ANTHONY%@BO:          9bc84f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dye%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dye%@AE@%,%@CR:DYE             @%%@QR:dye@% natural or synthetic substance used to color various materials,%@EH@%
especially textiles, leather, and food. Natural dyes are obtained from
plants (e.g., indigo), from animals (e.g., cochineal), and from minerals
(e.g., ocher). Used since ancient times, natural dyes have been largely
replaced by synthetic dyes, first made in the 19th cent. Most of these
are made from coal tar (see %@AU@%TAR AND PITCH%@BO:          92d8b9@%%@AE@%). Although some materials,
e.g., silk and wool, can be colored simply by being dipped in the dye,
others, including cotton, require a mordant. The process by which dyes
become "attached" to the material they color is not well understood. It
is thought either that a chemical reaction takes place between the dye
and the fiber or that the dye is absorbed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dylan, Bob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dylan, Bob%@AE@%,%@CR:DYLAN           @%%@QR:Dylan, Bob@% 1941-, American singer and composer; b. Duluth, Minn., as%@EH@%
Robert Zimmerman. In the 1960s he gained recognition through his lyrics,
capturing the alienation of American youth, and his harsh, insistent
delivery. Influenced by Woody %@AU@%GUTHRIE%@BO:          3eb751@%%@AE@%, among others, Dylan exercised a
profound influence on folk and %@AU@%ROCK MUSIC%@BO:          800289@%%@AE@%, his style evolving from folk
to folk-rock to country. Enigmatic and reclusive, he became a cult
figure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dynamics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dynamics%@AE@%,%@CR:DYNAMICS        @%%@QR:dynamics@% branch of mechanics that deals with the %@AU@%MOTION%@BO:          64539b@%%@AE@% of objects; it%@EH@%
may be further divided into kinematics, the study of motion without
regard to the forces producing it, and kinetics, the study of the %@AU@%FORCES%@BO:          34505b@%%@AE@%
that produce or change motion. The principles of dynamics are used to
solve problems involving work and energy, and to explain the pressure and
expansion of gases, the motion of planets, and the behavior of flowing
fluids (gases and liquids). Special branches of dynamics treat the
particular effects of forces and motions in fluids (see %@AU@%FLUID MECHANICS%@BO:          33eed5@%%@AE@%);
these include %@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%, the study of gases in motion, and
hydrodynamics, the study of liquids in motion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dynamite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dynamite%@AE@%,%@CR:DYNAMITE        @%%@QR:dynamite@% %@AU@%EXPLOSIVE%@BO:          313262@%%@AE@% made from %@AU@%NITROGLYCERIN%@BO:          6a54e4@%%@AE@% and various amounts of an%@EH@%
inert, absorbent filler, e.g., sawdust. Often ammonium nitrate or sodium
nitrate is added. Invented in 1866 by Alfred B. %@AU@%NOBEL%@BO:          6a6b14@%%@AE@%, dynamite is
usually pressed in cylindrical forms and wrapped in an appropriate
material, e.g., paper or plastic. The charge is set off with a detonator.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dyne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dyne%@AE@%:%@CR:DYNE            @%%@QR:dyne@% see %@AU@%FORCE%@BO:          34505b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dysentery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dysentery%@AE@%,%@CR:DYSENTERY       @%%@QR:dysentery@% inflammation of the intestines, characterized by frequent%@EH@%
passage of feces, usually with blood and mucus. Amoebic dysentery is
caused by infestation by the amoeba %@AI@%Entamoeba histolytica.%@AE@% Bacillary
dysentery is most often caused by the %@AI@%Shigella%@AE@% bacillus. Spread by fecal
contamination of food and water, both forms are common where sanitation
is poor. Treatment of bacillary dysentery is with a broad-spectrum
%@AU@%ANTIBIOTIC%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%; a combination of an antibiotic and an amoebicide is necessary
for successful treatment of amoebic dysentery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dyslexia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dyslexia%@AE@%,%@CR:DYSLEXIA        @%%@QR:dyslexia@% severe and persistent difficulty in learning to read despite%@EH@%
average or above-average intelligence, normal vision, and appropriate
reading instruction. The cause is unknown. Some common disabilities
associated with dyslexia are the reversal of letters, as %@AI@%b%@AE@% for %@AI@%d,%@AE@% also
called mirror writing; word reversals, as %@AI@%saw%@AE@% for %@AI@%was%@AE@%; and defects in the
visual and auditory perception and memory considered necessary for
reading. Dyslexia, a type of %@AU@%LEARNING DISABILITY%@BO:          533057@%%@AE@%, was first described
(1896) by W.P. Morgan, an English ophthalmologist, who called the
condition %@AI@%word blindness%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%dysprosium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%dysprosium%@AE@%%@CR:DYSPROSIUM      @%%@QR:dysprosium@% (Dy), metallic element, discovered (but not isolated) in 1886%@EH@%
by P.E. Lecoq de Boisbaudran. A lustrous, silvery, soft %@AU@%RARE-EARTH METAL%@BO:          7cc65d@%%@AE@%
in the %@AU@%LANTHANIDE%@BO:          523c36@%%@AE@% series, it is used in magnetic alloys and in
nuclear-reactor control rods. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% (); %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dzerzhinsky, Feliks Edmundovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dzerzhinsky, Feliks Edmundovich%@AE@%,%@CR:DZERZHINSKY     @%%@QR:Dzerzhinsky, Feliks Edmundovich@% 1877-1926, Soviet political leader. As a%@EH@%
follower of %@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@%, he participated in the Bolshevik revolution (Oct.
1917). He served (1917-22) as first chief of the %@AU@%CHEKA%@BO:          1c6927@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%SECRET
%@AU@%POLICE%@BO:          86765a@%%@AE@%, and its successors the GPU and OGPU (1922-26), and was head of
the commissariat of internal affairs (NKVD). He oversaw repressions known
as the "Red Terror." Later, he was chairman of the Supreme Economic
Council (1924-26), a supporter of the New Economic Policy (NEP), and a
member of the Politburo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Dzungaria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Dzungaria%@AE@%,%@CR:DZUNGARIA       @%%@QR:Dzungaria@% also spelled Jungaria, Sungaria, or Zungaria, steppe and%@EH@%
desert region, NW China, in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Since 1953
large numbers of Chinese have moved there to work the deposits of coal,
iron ore, and oil. The Dzungarian Gate, used for centuries by Central
Asian conquerors as an invasion route to China, is a pass at the eastern
end of the Ala-Tau, a mountain chain that marks part of the USSR-China
border.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%e%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%e%@AE@%,%@CR:E               @%%@QR:e@% irrational %@AU@%NUMBER%@BO:          6c3800@%%@AE@% occurring widely in mathematics and science,%@EH@%
approximately equal to the value 2.71828; it is the base of natural, or
Naperian, %@AU@%LOGARITHMS%@BO:          5632d0@%%@AE@%. Like p (see %@AU@%PI%@BO:          755ff1@%%@AE@%), %@AI@%e%@AE@% is transcendental, i.e., not a
%@AU@%ROOT%@BO:          810f61@%%@AE@% of any algebraic equation. It is defined as the %@AU@%LIMIT%@BO:          55320b@%%@AE@% of the
expression (1 + 1/%@AI@%n%@AE@%)%@AH@%n%@AE@% as %@AI@%n%@AE@% becomes infinitely large. Expressions of the
form %@AI@%e%@AE@%%@AH@%x%@AE@%, known as the exponential function, occur in applications ranging
from statistics to nuclear physics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ead-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ead-%@AE@%.%@CR:EAD             @%%@QR:Ead-@% For Anglo-Saxon names beginning thus, ed-; e.g., for Eadgar, see%@EH@%
%@AU@%EDGAR%@BO:          2c616d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eagle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eagle%@AE@%,%@CR:EAGLE           @%%@QR:eagle@% large, predatory %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%HAWK%@BO:          408efa@%%@AE@% family, found worldwide. Similar%@EH@%
to but larger than the %@AU@%BUZZARDS%@BO:          1633ad@%%@AE@%, eagles are solitary and believed to mate
for life. Their beaks are nearly as long as their heads, and their
wingspan may reach 7 1/2 ft (228 cm). The American bald eagle (%@AI@%Haliaetus
%@AI@%leucocephalus%@AE@%), an endangered species, is brown with white head, neck,
and tail plumage. The golden, or mountain, eagle (genus %@AI@%Aquila%@AE@%), is sooty
brown with tawny head and neck feathers. Unlike the bald eagle, its legs
are feathered to the toes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eakins, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eakins, Thomas%@AE@%%@CR:EAKINS          @%%@QR:Eakins, Thomas@%, 1844-1916, American painter, photographer, and sculptor;%@EH@%
b. Philadelphia. Eakins is considered the foremost American portraitist
and one of the greatest 19th-cent. artists. He sought to describe reality
with absolute honesty, his study of anatomy and perspective providing a
means of painting exterior reality. Eakins revived U.S. portraiture with
his extraordinarily penetrating paintings and, as a teacher of artists
such as %@AU@%HENRI, SLOAN%@BO:          419f87@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GLACKENS%@BO:          3a7d12@%%@AE@%, founded a school of native American
art. Also a photographer, he used the medium as an art form, as an aid in
painting, and to study motion. His paintings include %@AI@%The Chess Players%@AE@%
(1876; Metropolitan Mus.), %@AI@%The Clinic of Professor Agnew%@AE@% (1889; Univ.
Penn.), and portraits of Mrs. Frishmuth (1900; Philadelphia Mus.) and
Miss Van Buren (1891; Phillips Coll., Wash., D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eanes, Antonio dos Santos Ramalho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eanes, Antonio dos Santos Ramalho%@AE@%,%@CR:EANES           @%%@QR:Eanes, Antonio dos Santos Ramalho@% 1935-, Portuguese army officer and%@EH@%
president of Portugal (1976-). In 1975 Eanes, then a colonel, headed the
army group that crushed an attempted left-wing coup. A centrist, he was
elected (1976) president with the support of all the major parties except
the Communists. He carried out democratic and economic reforms and was
reelected in 1980.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ear%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ear%@AE@%,%@CR:EAR             @%%@QR:ear@% organ of hearing and equilibrium. The human ear consists of outer,%@EH@%
middle, and inner parts. The outer ear, the visible portion, includes the
skin-covered flap of cartilage (auricle) and the auditory canal, which
leads to the eardrum. The middle ear contains three small bones, or
ossicles, known because of their shapes as the hammer, anvil, and
stirrup. The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the throat. The
inner ear contains the cochlea, which houses the sound-analyzing cells,
and the vestibule, with the organs of balance. In the course of hearing,
sound waves enter the auditory canal and strike the eardrum, causing it
to vibrate. The waves are concentrated as they pass through the ossicles
to a small opening leading to the inner ear. The vibration sets in motion
fluid within the cochlea. This agitates a delicate membrane, stimulating
thousands of sensory hair cells, which in turn stimulate the auditory
nerve to send impulses to the brain. Three fluid-filled semicircular
canals and two saclike organs, the utriculus and the sacculus, are the
chief organs of balance and orientation; as with hearing, stimulation of
sensory hair cells in these organs stimulates nerve impulses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Earhart, Amelia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Earhart, Amelia%@AE@%%@CR:EARHART         @%%@QR:Earhart, Amelia@%, 1897-1937, American aviator; b. Atchison, Kans. She was%@EH@%
the first woman to fly across the Atlantic (1928) and to fly it alone
(1932) and the first person to fly alone from Hawaii to California
(1935). In 1937 she and Frederick J. Noonan set out to fly around the
world, but they disappeared mysteriously between New Guinea and Howland
Island.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Early, Jubal Anderson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Early, Jubal Anderson%@AE@%,%@CR:EARLY           @%%@QR:Early, Jubal Anderson@% 1816-94, Confederate general; b. Franklin co.,%@EH@%
Va.; grad. West Point, 1837. Prominent in the battle of %@AU@%CHANCELLORSVILLE%@BO:          1b71d8@%%@AE@%
and in the %@AU@%GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN%@BO:          39cc27@%%@AE@%, he led (1864) a raid that reached the
outskirts of Washington, D.C. Early was defeated (1864-65) by P.H.
%@AU@%SHERIDAN%@BO:          883629@%%@AE@% in the Shenandoah valley and was relieved of command.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Early Christian art and architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Early Christian art and architecture%@AE@%.%@CR:EARLY.C.ARCHIT  @%%@QR:Early Christian art and architecture@% Among the earliest extant%@EH@%
manifestations of Christian art are the early 3rd-cent. paintings of
biblical figures on %@AU@%CATACOMB%@BO:          1a0492@%%@AE@% walls in Rome. Among the main themes
portrayed are the hope of resurrection and immortality, symbolized by
fish and peacock motifs. After the Edict of Toleration (313) the scope of
Christian art was radically enlarged. %@AU@%BASILICAS%@BO:           cd380@%%@AE@% were covered with
elaborate %@AU@%MOSAIC%@BO:          641af7@%%@AE@% narrative cycles, e.g., Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa
Pudenziana in Rome and Sant'Appollinare Nuovo in Ravenna. In Christian
art the %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@% of sacred texts assumed great importance. Fragments
of silver and gold biblical text on purple vellum with sumptuous
illuminations are still preserved, e.g., the Vienna Genesis from the
first half of the 6th century. The elaborate sculpture of the stone
sarcophagus was extensively practiced, often depicting the life of
Christ. Ivory carvers decorated book covers and reliquaries and such
large objects as the throne of Maximianus in Ravenna (6th cent.). After
legal recognition of the faith, imposing cult edifices were erected
throughout the Roman Empire. As with other art forms, Christian
architecture adapted and modified existing structures from the pagan
world. Church structure became centralized, emphasizing round, polygonal,
or cruciform shapes. %@AU@%BAPTISTERIES%@BO:           bff80@%%@AE@% and memorial shrines (martyria)
followed the Roman style. A distinct type of Christian art and
architecture was evolved in Egypt (see %@AU@%COPTIC ART%@BO:          232e62@%%@AE@%). In the East the
Byzantine emperors supported the developments of the Early Christian
artistic tradition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%early man%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%early man%@AE@%:%@CR:EARLY.MAN       @%%@QR:early man@% see %@AU@%MAN, PREHISTORIC%@BO:          5a8e87@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Earp, Wyatt Berry Stapp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Earp, Wyatt Berry Stapp%@AE@%,%@CR:EARP            @%%@QR:Earp, Wyatt Berry Stapp@% 1848-1929, lawman and gunfighter of the American%@EH@%
West; b. Monmouth, Ill. After serving as a policeman in Kansas, Earp was
involved (1881) in the controversial gunfight at the O.K. Corral in
Tombstone, Ariz.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%earth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%earth%@AE@%,%@CR:EARTH           @%%@QR:earth@% fifth largest %@AU@%PLANET%@BO:          76779a@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%SOLAR SYSTEM%@BO:          8b1fa4@%%@AE@% and the only one known to%@EH@%
support life. Its mean distance from the %@AU@%SUN%@BO:          90aa28@%%@AE@% is c.93 million mi (150
million km). The change of seasons is caused by the tilt (23.5 deg) of
the earth's %@AU@%EQUATOR%@BO:          2f987c@%%@AE@% to the plane of the orbit. The earth is surrounded by
an envelope of gases, mostly oxygen and nitrogen, called the %@AU@%ATMOSPHERE%@BO:           9710e@%%@AE@%.
Gravitational forces have molded the earth into a spherical shape that
bulges slightly at the equator (equatorial diameter: c.7,926 mi/12,760
km; polar diameter: 7,900 mi/12,720 km). Studies indicate that the earth
consists of concentric layers that differ in size, chemistry, and
density. The outer shell, or crust, consists of the %@AU@%CONTINENTS%@BO:          22d76b@%%@AE@% and the
%@AU@%OCEAN%@BO:          6caf5e@%%@AE@% basins. The crust is broken into vast plates that slide around on a
plastic zone, or asthenosphere, within the middle shell, or mantle (see
%@AU@%CONTINENTAL DRIFT%@BO:          22e22c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%). At the center of the earth is an
outer core, believed to be liquid, and an inner, solid core. The earth is
estimated to be 4.55 billion years old, and its origin is a controversial
subject. The earth has one natural satellite, the %@AU@%MOON%@BO:          638a0e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%earthquake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%earthquake%@AE@%,%@CR:EARTHQUAKE      @%%@QR:earthquake@% trembling or shaking movement of the earth's surface. Great%@EH@%
earthquakes usually begin with slight tremors, rapidly increase to one or
more violent shocks, and diminish gradually. The immediate cause of most
shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a %@AU@%FAULT%@BO:          320db3@%%@AE@%, or
fracture, in the earth's crust, resulting in the movement of opposing
blocks of rock past one another. This causes vibrations to pass through
and around the earth in wave form (see %@AU@%TSUNAMI%@BO:          985535@%%@AE@%). The subterranean origin
of an earthquake is its focus; the point on the surface directly above
the focus is the epicenter. Waves generated by earthquakes are of three
types. Both P, or primary, waves, which are compressional and are the
fastest, and S, or secondary, waves, which cause vibrations perpendicular
to their motion, are body waves that pass through the earth. L, or long,
waves travel along the surface and cause damage near the epicenter.
Seismologists (see %@AU@%SEISMOLOGY%@BO:          869892@%%@AE@%) have deduced the internal structure of the
earth by analyzing changes in P and S waves. The magnitude and intensity
of earthquakes are determined by the use of scales, e.g., the Richter
scale, which describes the amount of energy released at the focus of an
earthquake.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%earthworks%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%earthworks%@AE@%,%@CR:EARTHWORKS      @%%@QR:earthworks@% art form of the late 1960s and early 70s using elements of%@EH@%
nature in situ. Often vast in scale, the works are subject to changes in
temperature and light. Robert Smithson's %@AI@%Spiral Jetty%@AE@% (1970), a huge
spiral of rock and salt crystal in the middle of the Great Salt Lake,
Utah, is a characteristic example of the earthwork form.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%earthworm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%earthworm%@AE@%,%@CR:EARTHWORM       @%%@QR:earthworm@% cylindrical, segmented worm (see %@AU@%ANNELID WORM%@BO:           5cea8@%%@AE@%) of the class%@EH@%
Oligochaeta. Ranging from 1 in. (2.5 cm) to 11 ft (330 cm) in length,
earthworms burrow in the ground and swallow soil from which organic
matter is extracted in the gizzard. They are important to agriculture in
aerating and mixing the soil.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%East Anglia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%East Anglia%@AE@%,%@CR:EAST.ANGLIA     @%%@QR:East Anglia@%  kingdom of Anglo-Saxon England, comprising the modern%@EH@%
counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Settled in the late 5th cent. by Angles,
it was one of the most powerful English kingdoms of the late 6th cent. It
became an under kingdom of %@AU@%MERCIA%@BO:          5edd6a@%%@AE@%, against which it later rebelled (825),
only to become a dependency of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@%. The Danish invading army,
quartered in East Anglia (865-66), later (869) conquered the state
entirely. The treaty of 886 confirmed the region as part of the %@AU@%DANELAW%@BO:          264f35@%%@AE@%.
After 917 East Anglia was an earldom of England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%East China Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%East China Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:EAST.CHINA.SEA  @%%@QR:East China Sea@% arm of the Pacific Ocean, c.480,000 sq mi (1,243,200 sq%@EH@%
km), bounded by China (W), Japan and the Senkaku and Ryukyu islands (E),
and Taiwan (S). Vast oil deposits, first indicated in 1980, are believed
to underlie much of the shallow sea floor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Easter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Easter%@AE@%%@CR:EASTER          @%%@QR:Easter@% [from Old Eng. %@AI@%Eastre,%@AE@% name of a spring goddess], chief Christian%@EH@%
feast, commemorating the resurrection of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% Christ after his
crucifixion. In the West it falls on a Sunday between Mar. 22 and Apr. 25
inclusive (see %@AU@%CALENDAR%@BO:          170f32@%%@AE@%). Preceded by the penitential season of %@AU@%LENT%@BO:          53e193@%%@AE@%,
Easter is a day of rejoicing. The date of Easter is calculated
differently in the Orthodox Eastern Church and usually falls several
weeks after the Western date.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Easter Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Easter Island%@AE@%,%@CR:EASTER.ISLAND   @%%@QR:Easter Island@% 46 sq mi (119 sq km), in the South Pacific Ocean, W of%@EH@%
Chile, which annexed it in 1888. The origin of the island's unusual
hieroglyphs and gigantic carved heads, some weighing more than 50 tons,
has been the subject of much speculation by the American psychologist
Werner Wolff, the French ethnologist Alfred Metraux, and others. Thor
%@AU@%HEYERDAHL%@BO:          429e24@%%@AE@% theorized that the heads were carved by fair-skinned invaders
from the East prior to the arrival (c.1680) of the island's present
Polynesians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eastern Highlands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eastern Highlands%@AE@%,%@CR:EASTERNDS       @%%@QR:Eastern Highlands@% mountains and plateaus in E Australia that extend%@EH@%
roughly parallel to the east and southeast coasts and into %@AU@%TASMANIA%@BO:          92ffef@%%@AE@% for
c.2,400 mi (3,860 km). They form the continental divide and are sometimes
referred to as the Great Dividing Range. Mt. %@AU@%KOSCIUSKO%@BO:          50ac0b@%%@AE@% (7,316 ft/2,230
m), in the southeast is Australia's highest peak. Sections of the
highlands are widely known by local names, including the %@AU@%SNOWY MOUNTAINS%@BO:          8aa19c@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%AUSTRALIAN ALPS%@BO:           a0837@%%@AE@%, Blue Mts., and New England Range. Generally rugged, with
few gaps and many gorges, the Eastern Highlands long hindered westward
expansion across the continent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eastern Question%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eastern Question%@AE@%,%@CR:EASTERNN        @%%@QR:Eastern Question@% problem of the fate of the European territory,%@EH@%
especially the Balkans, controlled by the decaying %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%
(Turkey) in the 18th, 19th, and early 20th cent. For much of that time
the Great Powers (Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia, and France) were
involved in either diplomatic intrigue or actual armed warfare to protect
their national interests there. %@AU@%RUSSIA%@BO:          8228d5@%%@AE@%, in particular, was eager to
expand into the area, looking for warm-water ports accessible to the
Mediterranean. The other powers, especially Great Britain, were chiefly
involved in thwarting Russia's ambitions. However, there were
considerable shifts in alliances. The %@AU@%RUSSO-TURKISH WARS%@BO:          8263a1@%%@AE@%, in particular,
resulted from the Eastern Question. In the 19th cent. the problem was
exacerbated by the national aspirations of the individual Balkan peoples,
who were aided or discouraged by the Great Powers, depending on what
their own national interests were deemed to be. In the %@AU@%CRIMEAN WAR%@BO:          24a5c9@%%@AE@%,
Britain and France successfully aided Turkey in warding off Russian
advances. Turkey's position, however, continued to decline. The %@AU@%BALKAN
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:           b70f4@%%@AE@% (1912-13) set the stage for the final dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eastern Woodlands Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eastern Woodlands Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:EASTERNNS       @%%@QR:Eastern Woodlands Indians@% see %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%East India Company, British%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%East India Company, British%@AE@%,%@CR:EAST.INANY1     @%%@QR:East India Company, British@% 1600-1858, company chartered by the Crown%@EH@%
for trade with Asia. It acquired unequaled trade privileges from the
Mogul emperors in India, and began to reap large profits by exporting
textiles and tea. As Mogul power declined, the company intervened in
Indian political affairs. Its agent, Robert %@AU@%CLIVE%@BO:          1f72e8@%%@AE@%, defeated (1751-60) the
rival French East India Company, and Warren %@AU@%HASTINGS%@BO:          406a00@%%@AE@%, the first governor
general of British India, assumed more control of the company. Britain
took over India's administration after the %@AU@%INDIAN MUTINY%@BO:          4789af@%%@AE@% of 1857, and the
company was dissolved.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%East India Company, Dutch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%East India Company, Dutch%@AE@%,%@CR:EAST.INANY2     @%%@QR:East India Company, Dutch@% 1602-1798, chartered by the States-General of%@EH@%
the Netherlands. Granted a monopoly on Dutch trade E of the Cape of Good
Hope and W of the Strait of Magellan, the company subdued local rulers;
drove the British and Portuguese from Indonesia, Malaya, and Ceylon (now
Sri Lanka); and dominated trade with the Spice Islands (Moluccas). When
it was dissolved its possessions became part of the Dutch empire in the
Far East.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%East India Company, French%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%East India Company, French%@AE@%,%@CR:EAST.INANY3     @%%@QR:East India Company, French@% 1664-1769, commercial enterprise chartered by%@EH@%
%@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% to trade in the Eastern Hemisphere. It was merged (1719-23)
into the Compagnie des Indes as part of John %@AU@%LAW'S%@BO:          52dfba@%%@AE@% Mississippi Scheme.
From 1741 the company was active in India, but it was dissolved after the
French defeat by the British under Robert %@AU@%CLIVE%@BO:          1f72e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%East Indies%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%East Indies%@AE@%,%@CR:EAST.INDIES     @%%@QR:East Indies@% name, now seldom used, first applied to India, then to SE%@EH@%
Asia, and finally to the islands of Indonesia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eastman, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eastman, George%@AE@%,%@CR:EASTMAN1        @%%@QR:Eastman, George@% 1854-1932, American inventor and industrialist; b.%@EH@%
Waterville, N.Y. He invented a dry-plate photographic process, roll film,
and the Kodak camera (1888), as well as a process for color photography
(1928). The Eastman Kodak Co. (founded 1892) was one of the first U.S.
firms to mass-produce a standardized product, greatly stimulating the
development of photography as a popular hobby. Eastman's philanthropies
exceeded $100 million.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eastman, Max%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eastman, Max%@AE@%,%@CR:EASTMAN2        @%%@QR:Eastman, Max@% 1883-1969, American author; b. Canandaigua, N.Y. The editor%@EH@%
of radical periodicals (%@AI@%The Masses, Liberator%@AE@%) until 1923, he later
rejected Communism and wrote several books attacking it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%East Prussia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%East Prussia%@AE@%,%@CR:EAST.PRUSSIA    @%%@QR:East Prussia@% former province of Prussia, NE Germany. Konigsberg (now%@EH@%
%@AU@%KALININGRAD%@BO:          4e0bab@%%@AE@%) was the capital. The area was conquered (13th cent.) by the
%@AU@%TEUTONIC KNIGHTS%@BO:          944c30@%%@AE@% from the Borussi, or Prussians. It passed (1618) to an
elector of %@AU@%BRANDENBURG%@BO:          13551b@%%@AE@%, whose son became (1701) king of %@AU@%PRUSSIA%@BO:          7a630c@%%@AE@%. From
1701 to 1945 East Prussia shared the history of Prussia. In 1945 East
Prussia was divided between the USSR and Poland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eastwood, Clint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eastwood, Clint%@AE@%,%@CR:EASTWOOD        @%%@QR:Eastwood, Clint@%  1930-, American actor and director; b. San Francisco.%@EH@%
He is best known for roles in action films, where he portrays a strong,
silent, often violent hero. He has starred in over thirty movies,
including %@AI@%Dirty Harry%@AE@% (1972) and %@AI@%Magnum Force%@AE@% (1973). He directed and
acted in %@AI@%Play Misty for Me%@AE@% (1971) and %@AI@%Heartbreak Ridge%@AE@% (1986). He served
one term as mayor of Carmel, Calif.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eating disorders%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eating disorders%@AE@%,%@CR:EATING.S        @%%@QR:eating disorders@% either of two psychological disorders, bulimia and%@EH@%
anorexia nervosa, characterized by an abnormal fear of obesity and
subsequent abnormal eating patterns. Anorexia is marked by obsessive
fasting; bulimia by eating binges followed by self-induced vomiting or
the use of laxatives. The effects of the disorders range from mild weight
loss to delayed sexual development, heart problems, depression, and even
death. Both conditions have their roots in social pressures; most cases
occur among middle- and upper-class adolescent girls.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ebla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ebla%@AE@%,%@CR:EBLA            @%%@QR:Ebla@% ancient city near Aleppo, Syria. The palace archive excavated%@EH@%
(1975) there revealed that Ebla had been a major commercial center
trading with much of the Middle East. The texts, written in a Canaanite
language (Eblaite), date from c.2500 BC%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ebony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ebony%@AE@%,%@CR:EBONY           @%%@QR:ebony@% common name for the Ebenaceae, a family of trees and shrubs widely%@EH@%
distributed in warm climates. The genus %@AI@%Diospyros%@AE@% includes the ebony and
persimmon trees. Ebony wood, valued since ancient times, is dark and
hard; it is used extensively in cabinetmaking. Some species (e.g., %@AI@%D.
%@AI@%hirsuta%@AE@%) have wood striped with black or shades of brown (called
calamander wood or variegated ebony). The persimmons bear edible fruit
that when unripe is astringent and when ripe is soft and pulpy, making it
difficult to market. Persimmon wood has a limited use in the manufacture
of objects (e.g., golf club heads) requiring hardwood.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eboue, Felix Adolphe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eboue, Felix Adolphe%@AE@%%@CR:EBOUE           @%%@QR:Eboue, Felix Adolphe@%, 1884-1944, French colonial governor of %@AU@%CHAD%@BO:          1b2ab1@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1938-40) and of %@AU@%FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA%@BO:          361070@%%@AE@% (1940-44). As France's first
black colonial governor, he attempted to develop the region's economy
while retaining the society and customs of the Africans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eccentricity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eccentricity%@AE@%,%@CR:ECCENTRICITY    @%%@QR:eccentricity@% in astronomy: see %@AU@%ORBIT%@BO:          6e4e7f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ecclesiastes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ecclesiastes%@AE@%%@CR:ECCLESIASTES    @%%@QR:Ecclesiastes@% , book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 21st in the Authorized Version,%@EH@%
traditionally ascribed to %@AU@%SOLOMON%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@% but clearly written much later (3d
cent. BC or as late as 160 BC). A philosophical essay, it opens with the
theme that since "all is vanity," life should be enjoyed. This is
followed by praise of wisdom and mercy, an emphasis on the universality
of death, and a brief epilogue on the fear of God's judgment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ecclesiasticus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ecclesiasticus%@AE@%,%@CR:ECCLESIASTICUS  @%%@QR:Ecclesiasticus@% book included in the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@% of the Western canon%@EH@%
and the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible, and placed in the
%@AU@%APOCRYPHA%@BO:           6a905@%%@AE@% in the Authorized Version. It is also called the Wisdom of
Jesus the Son of Sirach. The original Hebrew text dates from 200-180 BC
and was translated perhaps in 132-131 BC Its theme is the excellence of
wisdom, and it contains several eloquent passages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Echegaray, Jose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Echegaray, Jose%@AE@%%@CR:ECHEGARAY       @%%@QR:Echegaray, Jose@%, 1832-1916, Spanish dramatist, mathematician, economist,%@EH@%
and cabinet minister. His 68 plays range from romances to melodramatic
problem plays like %@AI@%The Great Galeoto%@AE@% (1881). He shared the 1904 Nobel
Prize in literature with Frederic %@AU@%MISTRAL%@BO:          61b4c9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Echeverria, Esteban%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Echeverria, Esteban%@AE@%%@CR:ECHEVERRIA      @%%@QR:Echeverria, Esteban@%, 1805-51, Argentine poet, novelist, and%@EH@%
revolutionary. He introduced %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% into Argentina with his poem
%@AI@%Elvira%@AE@% (1832). %@AI@%The Captive%@AE@% (1837), extolling the %@AU@%PAMPAS%@BO:          706b0f@%%@AE@%, was his most
successful poem. An opponent of Juan Manuelde %@AU@%ROSAS%@BO:          8118c8@%%@AE@%, he spent his late
years in Uruguay, where he attacked the dictator in his short novel %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Abattoir%@AE@% (1871).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Echeverria Alvarez, Luis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Echeverria Alvarez, Luis%@AE@%%@CR:ECHEVERREZ      @%%@QR:Echeverria Alvarez, Luis@%, 1922-, president of Mexico (1970-76). A member%@EH@%
of the Institutional Revolutionary party, he held numerous government
posts, including secretary of the interior (1964-69). As president he
attempted reforms but was faced with inflation, unemployment, and
political violence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%echidna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%echidna%@AE@%%@CR:ECHIDNA         @%%@QR:echidna@% or %@AB@%spiny anteater,%@AE@%primitive, egg-laying %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@%, or %@AU@%MONOTREME%@BO:          62fe9e@%%@AE@%, of%@EH@%
New Guinea, E Australia, and Tasmania. Covered with sharp quills, the
grayish-brown echidna protects itself by rolling into a ball. It may
reach 18 in. (46 cm) in length. A rapid burrower, the echidna probes for
ants and termites with its sensitive muzzle and long, sticky tongue.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%echinoderm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%echinoderm%@AE@%,%@CR:ECHINODERM      @%%@QR:echinoderm@% marine invertebrate animal of the phylum Echinodermata,%@EH@%
having external skeletons of calcareous plates just under the skin, no
head, and a unique water-vascular (ambulacral) system with tube-feet.
Echinoderms are radially symmetrical and lack specialized excretory
organs and reproduce sexually. Echinoderms have extensive powers of
regeneration of lost or injured parts. All members of the phylum live on
the sea floor. The phylum includes the %@AU@%STARFISH%@BO:          8e484f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BRITTLE STARS%@BO:          141cfd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SEA
%@AU@%URCHINS%@BO:          866a30@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SAND DOLLARS%@BO:          83f5eb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SEA CUCUMBERS%@BO:          864934@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CRINOIDS%@BO:          24b05c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Echo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Echo%@AE@%,%@CR:ECHO1           @%%@QR:Echo@% in Greek mythology, mountain %@AU@%NYMPH%@BO:          6c6b8e@%%@AE@%. She incurred %@AU@%HERA'S%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@% wrath with%@EH@%
her chatter and, as punishment, could only repeat the last words said by
others. In unrequited love for %@AU@%NARCISSUS%@BO:          667c55@%%@AE@%, she pined away until her voice
alone remained.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%echo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%echo%@AE@%,%@CR:ECHO2           @%%@QR:echo@% reflection of a sound wave back to its source in sufficient%@EH@%
strength and with a sufficient time lag (at least 0.1 sec) to be
separately distinguished by the human ear.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eck, Johann Maier von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eck, Johann Maier von%@AE@%,%@CR:ECK             @%%@QR:Eck, Johann Maier von@% 1486-1543, German Roman Catholic theologian.%@EH@%
Although he held humanistic ideas, he is known as the theologian who
forced %@AU@%LUTHER%@BO:          57f60a@%%@AE@%, whom he disputed publicly at Leipzig (1519), into a
position of open opposition to the Roman Catholic Church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eckhart, Meister%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eckhart, Meister%@AE@%%@CR:ECKHART         @%%@QR:Eckhart, Meister@%, c.1260-c.1328, German mystical theologian. A %@AU@%DOMINICAN%@BO:          2a066d@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
he communicated his burning sense of God's nearness to men and began a
popular mystical movement in 14th-cent. Germany. Eckhart was wrongly
accused of connection with the Beghards (a group with semiheretical
beliefs), and 17 of his propositions were condemned (1329) as heretical
by Pope John XXII. He was perhaps the first writer of speculative prose
in German, which became the language of popular tracts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eclampsia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eclampsia%@AE@%:%@CR:ECLAMPSIA       @%%@QR:eclampsia@% see %@AU@%TOXEMIA%@BO:          97065e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eclipse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eclipse%@AE@%,%@CR:ECLIPSE         @%%@QR:eclipse@% partial or total obscuring of one celestial body by the shadow%@EH@%
of another. A %@AB@%lunar eclipse%@AE@% occurs when the earth blocks the sun's light
from the moon; a %@AB@%solar eclipse%@AE@% occurs when the moon blocks the sun's
light from some area on the earth. Because the earth and moon shine only
by the reflected light of the sun, each casts a shadow into space in the
direction away from the sun. The shadow consists of a cone-shaped area of
complete darkness, called the umbra, and a larger area of partial
darkness that surrounds the umbra, called the penumbra. A lunar eclipse
is said to be total or partial depending on whether the moon passes
completely into the umbra of the earth's shadow or remains partly in the
penumbra. A solar eclipse is said to be total or partial depending on
whether the observer is in the umbra or the penumbra of the moon's
shadow. Total solar eclipses have particular scientific importance,
providing information about the motions of the moon and about the surface
phenomena of the sun and permitting tests of Albert Einstein's general
theory of %@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@%. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the moon is so
distant from the earth that the umbra of its shadow is too short to reach
the earth's surface; the sun is thus seen as a bright ring completely
surrounding the moon's dark disk. Solar and lunar eclipses are possible
only when the moon crosses the earth's orbital plane at a time when the
sun, moon, and earth are in alignment (at new and full moon; see %@AU@%SYZYGY%@BO:          92159b@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ecliptic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ecliptic%@AE@%,%@CR:ECLIPTIC        @%%@QR:ecliptic@% the great circle on the celestial sphere (see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%) that lies in the plane of the earth's %@AU@%ORBIT%@BO:          6e4e7f@%%@AE@%. Because
of the earth's yearly revolution around the sun, the sun appears to move
in an annual journey along the ecliptic. The obliquity of the ecliptic is
the inclination (about 231/2 deg) of the plane of the ecliptic to the
plane of the celestial equator. The constellations of the %@AU@%ZODIAC%@BO:          a55fa2@%%@AE@% are
those through which the ecliptic passes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ecology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ecology%@AE@%,%@CR:ECOLOGY         @%%@QR:ecology@% study of the interrelationships of organisms and the physical%@EH@%
environment. Within the %@AU@%BIOSPHERE%@BO:          1000f5@%%@AE@%, the basic unit of study is the
ecosystem-a community of plants and animals in an environment supplying
the raw materials for life, i.e., chemical elements (or food) and water.
An ecosystem is delimited by climate, altitude, latitude, water, and soil
characteristics, and other physical conditions. The energy for fueling
life activities reaches the earth in the form of sunlight. By
%@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@% green plants capture that light energy and store it in the
chemical bonds of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Some of the energy
is acquired by plant-eating animals, and a fraction of it is passed on to
predatory animals. Such sequences, called food chains, overlap at many
points. Once spent, the energy for life cannot be replenished except by
further exposure of green plants to sunlight. The chemicals of life are
continually recycled by such processes as photosynthesis, %@AU@%RESPIRATION%@BO:          7e6ed3@%%@AE@%,
and nitrogen fixation (see %@AU@%NITROGEN CYCLE%@BO:          6a501c@%%@AE@%). Disruption of these cycles by
natural causes such as drought or by %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@% can disturb the balance of
an entire ecosystem. An ecosystem that has reached a stable and
self-perpetuating stage is known as a %@AI@%climax community.%@AE@% When extensive
and well-defined, the climax community is called a %@AI@%biome.%@AE@% Examples are
%@AU@%TUNDRA%@BO:          989090@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SAVANNA%@BO:          84f9da@%%@AE@% (grassland), %@AU@%DESERT%@BO:          283f36@%%@AE@%, and forests. Stability is attained
through a process known as succession, whereby a relatively simple
community, such as lichen- and algae-covered rocks, gives way over time
to one more complex, such as a forest or tundra.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%econometrics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%econometrics%@AE@%,%@CR:ECONOMETRICS    @%%@QR:econometrics@% a technique of economic analysis that combines economic%@EH@%
theory with statistical and mathematical methods of analysis. It is an
attempt to improve economic forecasting and to make possible successful
policy planning. In econometrics, economic theories are expressed as
mathematical relations and then tested empirically by statistical
techniques. The system is used to create models of the national economy
that endeavor to predict such basic factors as %@AU@%GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT%@BO:          3de3d2@%%@AE@%,
levels of unemployment, inflation rate, and federal budget deficits. The
use of econometrics is growing, even though its forecasts have not always
attained a high degree of accuracy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Economic and Social Council%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Economic and Social Council%@AE@%:%@CR:ECONOMINCIL     @%%@QR:Economic and Social Council@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%economics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%economics%@AE@%,%@CR:ECONOMICS       @%%@QR:economics@% the study of how human beings allocate scarce resources to%@EH@%
produce various commodities and how those goods are distributed for
consumption among the people in society. The essence of economics lies in
the fact that resources are scarce, or at least limited, and that not all
human needs and desires can be met. How to distribute these resources in
the most efficient and equitable way is a principal concern of
economists. The field of economics has undergone a remarkable expansion
in the 20th cent. as the world economy has grown increasingly large and
complex. Today, economists are employed in large numbers in private
industry, government, and higher education. The development of computer
sciences has further enhanced the importance of economics in modern
society. Economics is usually divided into two broad categories and a
number of lesser ones. %@AB@%Macroeconomics%@AE@% involves the study of the whole
economic picture, as opposed to the parts. It analyzes aggregate data in
such areas as the %@AU@%GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT%@BO:          3de3d2@%%@AE@% (GNP) and national income,
general price levels, and total employment. It also examines the
interplay of these forces with each other and the results of any
imbalances among them. %@AB@%Microeconomics,%@AE@% on the other hand, looks at
economic activity in the individual case, whether it be a single
corporation, commodity, or consuming unit, and attempts, for example, to
determine how productive resources are allocated among competing
producers and how incomes are distributed among the various sectors of an
economy. It is especially concerned with the price levels of particular
goods and services. Some economists list a third major category, that of
economic growth and development. All of these fields today make use of
%@AU@%ECONOMETRICS%@BO:          2c2a4a@%%@AE@%, a branch dealing with statistical analysis and forecasting.
The history of economics has roots in the writings of the ancient Greeks.
While it is closely identified with %@AU@%CAPITALISM%@BO:          188a39@%%@AE@%, it plays a vital role in
socialist and communist countries as well. Economics was established as a
major field of study in the 18th cent. by Adam %@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a56a6@%%@AE@%, who founded the
so-called classical school, which included other British economists such
as David %@AU@%RICARDO%@BO:          7ef598@%%@AE@% and John Stuart %@AU@%MILL%@BO:          60bbdb@%%@AE@%. While they embraced the concept of
%@AU@%LAISSEZ-FAIRE%@BO:          51a32f@%%@AE@% (allowing business to follow freely the "natural laws" of
economics), J.M. %@AU@%KEYNES%@BO:          4f402b@%%@AE@% in the 20th cent. developed theories that have
led to governmental attempts to control business cycles. Opposing the
Keynesian school are the monetarists, such as Nobel Prize winner Milton
%@AU@%FRIEDMAN%@BO:          366773@%%@AE@%, who believe that the money supply exerts a dominant influence
on the economy. See also %@AU@%BANKING%@BO:           bd772@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CREDIT%@BO:          246b37@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DEPRESSION%@BO:          28177a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%INFLATION%@BO:          481204@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%INTEREST%@BO:          48bfdb@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SUPPLY AND DEMAND%@BO:          90e0e3@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TAXATION%@BO:          931ca9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ecosystem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ecosystem%@AE@%:%@CR:ECOSYSTEM       @%%@QR:ecosystem@% see %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ecuador%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ecuador%@AE@%%@CR:ECUADOR         @%%@QR:Ecuador@%, officially Republic of Ecuador, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
9,923,000), 109,483 sq mi (283,561 sq km), W South America, bordered by
Colombia (N), Peru (S and E), and the Pacific Ocean (W). %@AU@%QUITO%@BO:          7bdd79@%%@AE@% is the
capital, and %@AU@%GUAYAQUIL%@BO:          3e2eaa@%%@AE@% is the largest city and chief port. The %@AU@%ANDES%@BO:           540e1@%%@AE@% Mts.
dominate the landscape, extending from north to south in two parallel
ranges and reaching their highest point in the peak of Chimborazo (20,577
ft/6,272 m). There are numerous active volcanoes, and earthquakes are
frequent, and often disastrous, in this area. Within the mountains are
high, often fertile, valleys, which support the main bulk of the
population and house the major urban centers. East of the Andes is a
region of almost uninhabited tropical jungle, through which run the
tributaries of the Amazon R., while to the west are the hot, humid
lowlands of the Pacific coast. Since completion of a trans-Andean
pipeline in 1972, Ecuador has become one of the largest oil producers and
exporters in Latin America. Other exports include bananas, coffee, and
cocoa. Industry expanded rapidly in the 1970s in such areas as food
products, textiles, pharmaceuticals, and cement. Forestry and fishing are
also important. Many foodstuffs and other needs must be imported,
however. The majority of the population is Indian or part Indian, but
there are many blacks and mulattoes in the coastal region. Spanish is the
official language, although many Indians speak Quechua or Jarvo. Roman
Catholicism is the predominant religion.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Entering the region that is now Ecuador in 1533, the Spanish
%@AU@%CONQUISTADORES%@BO:          22387e@%%@AE@% did not find the wealth they sought and moved on. The area
became a colonial backwater, at various times subject to Peru and %@AU@%NEW
%@AU@%GRANADA%@BO:          68d9dd@%%@AE@%. It was liberated from Spanish control by Antonio Jose de %@AU@%SUCRE%@BO:          9025ac@%%@AE@%
in the battle of Pichincha in 1822, made part of the newly formed state
of Greater Colombia by Simon %@AU@%BOLIVAR%@BO:          119482@%%@AE@%, and became a separate state (four
times its present size) in 1830. Boundary disputes led to frequent
invasions by Peru in the 19th and 20th cent., and some of them have still
not been settled. Politically, Ecuador became divided between
Conservatives, who supported entrenched privileges and a dominant Church,
and Liberals, who sought social reforms; and its history in the 19th
cent. was marked by bitter internecine struggles between the two
factions. Political instability continued in the 20th cent., bringing a
bewildering number of changes in government. In 1925 the army replaced
the banking interests as the ultimate power. Military coups in support of
various rival factions have been common. In 1979 a new constitution was
promulgated, and popular presidential and legislative elections were
held. Since then the succession of leaders has been essentially peaceful.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ecumenical council%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ecumenical council%@AE@%:%@CR:ECUMENICIL      @%%@QR:ecumenical council@% see %@AU@%COUNCIL, ECUMENICAL%@BO:          23e643@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ecumenical movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ecumenical movement%@AE@%,%@CR:ECUMENIMENT     @%%@QR:ecumenical movement@% a movement aimed at the unification of the%@EH@%
Protestant churches of the world and ultimately of all Christians. In
England the Evangelical Alliance (1846) was an attempt in this direction.
In the U.S. the Federal Council of Churches of Christ was established in
1908. The %@AU@%WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES%@BO:          a32dc2@%%@AE@% (first assembly, 1948) is now the
chief instrument of ecumenicity. Notable progress has been made in
merging individual churches, e.g. the %@AU@%UNITED CHURCH OF CHRIST%@BO:          9a0607@%%@AE@% in the U.S.
and the Church of %@AU@%SOUTH INDIA%@BO:          8c3518@%%@AE@%. Since the Second %@AU@%VATICAN COUNCIL%@BO:          9c1216@%%@AE@%
(1962-65), the Roman Catholic Church has encouraged ecumenical dialogue
with other churches.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edda%@AE@%%@CR:EDDA            @%%@QR:Edda@%, title of two works in Old Icelandic. The %@AI@%Poetic%@AE@% (or %@AI@%Elder%@AE@%) %@AI@%Edda,%@AE@%%@EH@%
the most valuable collection in Old Norse literature, is made up of 34
mythological and heroic lays (c.800-c.1200). The %@AI@%Prose%@AE@% (or %@AI@%Younger%@AE@%) %@AI@%Edda,%@AE@%
probably written c.1222 by %@AU@%SNORRI STURLUSON%@BO:          8a98ea@%%@AE@%, is a treatise on the art of
Icelandic poetry and a compendium of Norse mythology and is the prime
source on the subject.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley%@AE@%,%@CR:EDDINGTON       @%%@QR:Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley@% 1882-1944, English astronomer and%@EH@%
physicist. He was Plumian professor of astronomy (from 1913) and director
of the observatory (from 1914) at Cambridge Univ. Eddington made major
contributions to the study of the evolution, motion, and internal
constitution of stars, and was one of the first physicists to grasp the
theory of relativity, of which he became a leading exponent. A prolific
writer on science, he wrote such works as %@AI@%Mathematical Theory of
%@AI@%Relativity%@AE@% (1923) and %@AI@%The Internal Constitution of the Stars%@AE@% (1926).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eddy, Mary Baker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eddy, Mary Baker%@AE@%,%@CR:EDDY            @%%@QR:Eddy, Mary Baker@% 1821-1910, founder of the %@AU@%CHRISTIAN SCIENCE%@BO:          1dfd58@%%@AE@% movement;%@EH@%
b. Bow, near Concord, N.H. In frail health from childhood, she became
interested in healing and faith, especially after meeting P.P. Quimby, a
mental healer, in 1862. She later discarded his methods and began (1866)
the Christian Science movement. %@AI@%Science and Health,%@AE@% the movement's
textbook, appeared in 1875, and she planned the %@AI@%Church Manual%@AE@% and the
upbuilding of the sect. As pastor emeritus of the Mother Church, Boston,
and head of the whole church, she exercised great influence, even in
retirement. In 1908 she founded the %@AI@%Christian Science Monitor,%@AE@% a daily
newspaper.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edel, (Joseph) Leon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edel, (Joseph) Leon%@AE@%,%@CR:EDEL            @%%@QR:Edel, (Joseph) Leon@% 1907-, American literary scholar; b. Pittsburgh. For%@EH@%
portions of his five-volume biography of Henry %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4b0ffa@%%@AE@% (1953-72) he
received the Pulitzer Prize. His other works include %@AI@%James Joyce: The
%@AI@%Last Journey%@AE@% (1947) and %@AI@%Bloomsbury: A House of Lions%@AE@% (1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%edelweiss%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%edelweiss%@AE@%,%@CR:EDELWEISS       @%%@QR:edelweiss@% perennial plant (genus %@AI@%Leontopodium%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
found at high altitudes in the mountains of Europe, Asia, and South
America. It has woolly-white floral leaves and small yellow disk flowers
surrounded by silvery bracts. It is esteemed in Europe as a symbol of
purity, and in Switzerland is protected by law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eden, Sir Anthony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eden, Sir Anthony%@AE@%,%@CR:EDEN1           @%%@QR:Eden, Sir Anthony@% 1895-1977, British statesman. A Conservative, he was%@EH@%
foreign minister from 1935 to 1938 but resigned in opposition to Neville
%@AU@%CHAMBERLAIN'S%@BO:          1b47e8@%%@AE@% "appeasement" of the %@AU@%AXIS%@BO:           a6909@%%@AE@% powers. Again foreign minister in
Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL'S%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@% war cabinet (1940-45), he was instrumental in
establishing the UN. After Labour's defeat in 1951, he once again became
foreign minister. He succeeded Churchill as prime minister in 1955. His
decision to use armed intervention in the %@AU@%SUEZ CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@% crisis in 1956
provoked much controversy. In poor health, he resigned in 1957. He was
made a life peer in 1961.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eden, Garden of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eden, Garden of%@AE@%,%@CR:EDEN2           @%%@QR:Eden, Garden of@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, the first home of humans. God established%@EH@%
the garden, with its trees of knowledge and of life, as a dwelling place
for %@AU@%ADAM%@BO:            ee16@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EVE%@BO:          30e3e2@%%@AE@%, until, having eaten of the forbidden fruit, they were
banished. Gen. 2; 3. It has been located variously, particularly in
Mesopotamia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edessa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edessa%@AE@%,%@CR:EDESSA          @%%@QR:Edessa@% ancient city of Mesopotamia (modern Urfa, Turkey). Around 137 BC%@EH@%
it became the capital of the kingdom of Osroene and later came under
Roman and Byzantine rule. In AD 639 it fell to the Arabs. Edessa was
captured by the Crusaders in 1097 (see %@AU@%CRUSADES%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%) but passed into Muslim
hands again in 1144.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edgar or Eadgar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edgar or Eadgar%@AE@%,%@CR:EDGAR.OR.EADGAR @%%@QR:Edgar or Eadgar@% 943-75, king of the English (957-75). His reign was one%@EH@%
of orderly prosperity. He initiated widespread monastic reforms and
granted practical autonomy to the Danes in England (see %@AU@%DANELAW%@BO:          264f35@%%@AE@%) in
return for their loyalty. His son was %@AU@%AETHELRED%@BO:           19421@%%@AE@% the Unready.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edinburgh, Philip Mountbatten, duke of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edinburgh, Philip Mountbatten, duke of%@AE@%,%@CR:EDINBURGH1      @%%@QR:Edinburgh, Philip Mountbatten, duke of@% 1921-, consort of %@AU@%ELIZABETH II%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
Great Britain; b. Greece. The son of Prince Andrew of Greece and Princess
Alice, daughter of Prince Louis of %@AU@%BATTENBERG%@BO:           d15e1@%%@AE@%, he is a
great-great-grandson of Queen %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@%. In 1947, the year he married
Elizabeth, he took his mother's name, Mountbatten; became a British
citizen; and was created duke of Edinburgh. In 1957 Elizabeth conferred
upon him the title of Prince.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edinburgh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edinburgh%@AE@%,%@CR:EDINBURGH2      @%%@QR:Edinburgh@% capital city (1985 est. pop. 439,672) of Scotland and royal%@EH@%
burgh. The city is divided into two sections: the Old Town, on the slope
of Castle Rock, dates from the 11th cent.; the New Town spread to the
north in the late 18th cent. Most industry, which includes brewing,
publishing, paper-producing, and engineering, is situated near the city's
port, Leith. Edinburgh grew up around its 11th-cent. castle and became
Scotland's capital in 1437. It blossomed as a cultural center in the 18th
and 19th cent., with such figures as David %@AU@%HUME%@BO:          453d29@%%@AE@%, Robert %@AU@%BURNS%@BO:          15e0ed@%%@AE@%, and Sir
Walter %@AU@%SCOTT%@BO:          8615f1@%%@AE@%. It remains a cultural and educational hub, and is the site
of the annual Edinburgh International Festival of Music and Drama.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edison, Thomas Alva%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edison, Thomas Alva%@AE@%,%@CR:EDISON          @%%@QR:Edison, Thomas Alva@% 1847-1931, American inventor; b. Milan, Ohio. Edison%@EH@%
was a genius in the practical application of scientific principles and
one of the most productive inventors of his time-despite only three
months of formal schooling and an increasing deafness throughout most of
his life. Among his most important inventions were the carbon %@AU@%MICROPHONE%@BO:          603b24@%%@AE@%
(1877), the %@AU@%RECORD PLAYER%@BO:          7d4098@%%@AE@% (patented 1878), and the Kinetoscope (see
%@AU@%MOTION PICTURES%@BO:          6468ac@%%@AE@%). His most significant contributions, however, were his
development of the first commercially practical incandescent lamp (1879)
and his design for a complete electrical distribution system for %@AU@%LIGHTING%@BO:          54f8dd@%%@AE@%
and power, culminating in the installation (1881-82) of the world's first
central electric-light power plant in New York City. His New Jersey
workshops (at Menlo Park and West Orange) were forerunners of the modern
industrial research laboratory, in which teams of workers, rather than a
lone inventor, systematically investigate a problem.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edmonton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edmonton%@AE@%,%@CR:EDMONTON        @%%@QR:Edmonton@% city (1986 est. pop. 573,982), capital of Alberta, W Canada, on%@EH@%
the North Saskatchewan R. It is one of Canada's largest and
fastest-growing cities, and the chief center for Alberta's expanding oil
and petrochemical industries. Edmonton is an important agricultural
processing and wholesaling center, and serves as the gateway to the
developing Peace R. and Athabasca frontier country. Edmonton has the
world's largest mall, which has become a great tourist attraction.
Founded (1795) as Fort Edmonton, the city was a major western fur-trading
post in the 19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edmund, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edmund, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:EDMUND          @%%@QR:Edmund, Saint@% (Edmund Rich), 1170?-1240, English churchman, archbishop of%@EH@%
Canterbury. His zeal for reform antagonized %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%, who secured from
Rome a papal legate sympathetic to himself, with jurisdiction over
Edmund. Feast: Nov. 16.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edmund Crouchback%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edmund Crouchback%@AE@%:%@CR:EDMUND.CK       @%%@QR:Edmund Crouchback@% see under %@AU@%LANCASTER, HOUSE OF%@BO:          51cfdc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edmund Ironside%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edmund Ironside%@AE@%,%@CR:EDMUND.IRONSIDE @%%@QR:Edmund Ironside@% d. 1016, king of the English (1016), son of %@AU@%AETHELRED%@BO:           19421@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
the Unready. He was prominent in the fighting against %@AU@%CANUTE%@BO:          185c3b@%%@AE@%. On
AEthelred's death, Edmund was proclaimed king although Canute received
the support of over half of England. After the battle of Assandun (Oct.
18, 1016), he and Canute came to terms and partitioned England, but
Edmund died the next month. His courage earned him the name Ironside.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edom%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edom%@AE@%:%@CR:EDOM            @%%@QR:Edom@% see %@AU@%ESAU%@BO:          2fe905@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%education%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%education%@AE@%:%@CR:EDUCATION1      @%%@QR:education@% see %@AU@%ADULT EDUCATION%@BO:           15b42@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AUDIOVISUAL INSTRUCTION%@BO:           9b521@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BILINGUAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%EDUCATION%@BO:           fb10e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CHAUTAUQUA MOVEMENT%@BO:          1c53b0@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES%@BO:          204a0f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DYSLEXIA%@BO:          2b9617@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%ETHNIC STUDIES%@BO:          306227@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%KINDERGARTEN%@BO:          4fa835@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%LEARNING DISABILITIES%@BO:          533057@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MAINSTREAMING%@BO:          59e5ff@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%OPEN
%@AU@%CLASSROOM%@BO:          6df3bb@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%OPEN ENROLLMENT%@BO:          6dfc73@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION%@BO:          79cf38@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PROGRESSIVE
%@AU@%EDUCATION%@BO:          79e5ce@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SIGN LANGUAGE%@BO:          8902fb@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SOPHISTS%@BO:          8ba120@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VOCATIONAL EDUCATION%@BO:          9e1568@%%@AE@%; see also
biographies of educators, e.g., %@AU@%BRAILLE, LOUIS%@BO:          133192@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COMENIUS, JOHN AMOS%@BO:          20e658@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%CONANT, JAMES BRYANT%@BO:          21a29a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CREMIN, LAWRENCE ARTHUR%@BO:          24860b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH%@BO:          367a6c@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS%@BO:          377798@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GRAY, HANNA HOLBORN%@BO:          3c8b90@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HUTCHINS, ROBERT MAYNARD%@BO:          45b259@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%MONTESSORI, MARIA%@BO:          634834@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PESTALOZZI, JOHANN%@BO:          73ef08@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WASHINGTON, BOOKER T.%@BO:          9f43f6@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WILLARD,
%@AU@%EMMA%@BO:          a1b28b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Education, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Education, United States Department of%@AE@%,%@CR:EDUCATION2      @%%@QR:Education, United States Department of@% federal executive department%@EH@%
established (1979) to administer and coordinate programs of federal
assistance to education, previously a function of the former Dept. of
Health, Education, and Welfare. It oversees and administers grants at
elementary, secondary, and higher levels of education.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:EDWARD          @%%@QR:Edward@% kings of England. %@AB@%Edward I,%@AE@% 1239-1307 (r.1272-1307), was the son%@EH@%
and successor of %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. He gained new claims to France through his
marriage (1254) to Eleanor of Castile and was responsible for his
father's victory in the %@AU@%BARONS' WAR%@BO:           c6d4f@%%@AE@%. As king, his conquest of Wales
(1277-82) was followed by a long, futile campaign against Scotland
(1290-1307). Edward's legal reforms, notably the statutes of %@AU@%WESTMINSTER%@BO:          a0c4f8@%%@AE@%,
earned him the title "English Justinian." He restricted private and
church courts and controlled land grants to the church. His Model
Parliament (1295) marked greater participation by the barons, merchants,
and clergy whose resistance to war taxation had forced him to confirm
previous charters (e.g., %@AU@%MAGNA CARTA%@BO:          596ecc@%%@AE@%). His son, %@AB@%Edward II,%@AE@% 1284-1327
(r.1307-27), was a weak king, dissipated and self-indulgent. His reign
was noted for internal dissension and the loss of Scotland. His
insistence on having his favorite, Piers Gaveston, at court caused
rebellion among the barons, who eventually had Gaveston killed. Edward's
later favorites, Hugh le Despenser and his son, virtually ruled England
(1322-26). They made a truce with %@AU@%ROBERT I%@BO:          7f9d75@%%@AE@% and recognized him as king of
Scotland. Edward's wife, Queen %@AU@%ISABELLA%@BO:          49ec03@%%@AE@%, refused to return from France
while the Despensers ruled. She entered into an adulterous alliance with
Roger de %@AU@%MORTIMER%@BO:          641876@%%@AE@% and invaded England. The Despensers were executed and
Edward forced to abdicate. He was imprisoned and almost certainly
murdered by henchmen of Isabella and Mortimer. His son, %@AB@%Edward III,%@AE@%
1312-77 (r.1327-77), was dominated by Isabella and Mortimer until he
seized power in a coup in 1330, putting Mortimer to death and forcing his
mother into retirement. He supported Edward de %@AU@%BALIOL%@BO:           b6953@%%@AE@% against the young
Scottish king %@AU@%DAVID II%@BO:          26bb9b@%%@AE@%, but despite his victory at Halidon Hill in 1333,
the Scottish question remained unsettled. In 1337 the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%
began; it would dominate Edward's reign. He and his son %@AU@%EDWARD THE BLACK
%@AU@%PRINCE%@BO:          2ca045@%%@AE@% took an active part in the war, the first phase of which ended
with the treaty of London in 1359. The war was renewed after various
treaties and truces, but, like the Scottish wars, was inconclusive in
Edward's reign. There were many constitutional developments in Edward's
long reign. The most important of these was the emergence of Commons as a
distinct and powerful group in %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%. The king's constant need for
money for his wars enabled Commons to assert its power to consent to all
lay taxation. The Black Death (see %@AU@%PLAGUE%@BO:          76648a@%%@AE@%) decimated the population,
producing a labor shortage that enabled the lower classes to demand
higher wages and social advancement. Edward quarreled with the church,
and the resulting religious unrest found a spokesman in John %@AU@%WYCLIF%@BO:          a3a073@%%@AE@%.
There was rivalry between a court party headed by Edward's son %@AU@%JOHN OF
%@AU@%GAUNT%@BO:          4cab91@%%@AE@% and the parliamentary party, headed by the Black Prince. Edward was
succeeded by %@AU@%RICHARD II%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Edward IV,%@AE@% 1442-83, son of Richard, duke of
York, became king (1461-70, 1471-83) as leader of the York party (see
%@AU@%ROSES, WARS OF THE%@BO:          813180@%%@AE@%) after his defeat of the Lancastrians and capture of
%@AU@%HENRY VI%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. Edward's marriage to Elizabeth %@AU@%WOODVILLE%@BO:          a2ff32@%%@AE@% (1464) and his
favoritism to her family angered his cousin Richard Neville, earl of
Warwick, who rebelled and fled to France, where he formed an alliance
with %@AU@%MARGARET OF ANJOU%@BO:          5b93ea@%%@AE@%, wife of the deposed Henry VI. They returned to
England with troops and placed Henry on the throne. Their defeat by
Edward (1471) led to Henry's death in the Tower (1471) and a peaceful end
to Edward's reign. His son, %@AB@%Edward V,%@AE@% 1470-83?, was king in 1483. He was
a pawn in the conflicting ambitions of his uncles, Earl Rivers and the
duke of Gloucester. Gloucester had Rivers arrested, confined the king and
his young brother in the Tower, had them declared illegitimate, and took
the throne as %@AU@%RICHARD III%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@%. The boys disappeared and were presumed to have
been murdered. One of the oldest and most prevalent theories-that they
were smothered in their sleep by order of Richard III-is now considered
anti-York propaganda of the %@AU@%TUDORS%@BO:          986ea3@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Edward VI,%@AE@% 1537-53 (r.1547-53),
succeeded his father %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% as king at the age of nine. He ruled
under a council of regency controlled by his uncle and protector, Edward
Seymour, duke of %@AU@%SOMERSET%@BO:          8b6a56@%%@AE@%. During his reign Tudor absolutism was relaxed
by a liberalization of the treason and heresy laws, and the government
moved slowly toward Protestantism. Somerset's sympathy to the peasants
led to his overthrow as regent by John Dudley, duke of Northumberland.
Dudley gained ascendancy over the young king, now dying of tuberculosis,
and persuaded him to settle the crown on Dudley's own daughter-in-law,
Lady Jane %@AU@%GREY%@BO:          3db420@%%@AE@%. The ensuing struggle ended with the victory of %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%.
%@AB@%Edward VII,%@AE@% 1841-1910, king of Great Britain and Ireland (r.1901-10), was
the eldest son of Queen %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@%. Prince of Wales for 60 years, he was a
leader of fashionable society. As king, he cooperated reluctantly in
Herbert Asquith's attempt to limit the veto power of the House of Lords.
He improved international understanding by traveling on the continent and
by promoting an alliance with France. He and his wife, %@AU@%ALEXANDRA%@BO:           365e7@%%@AE@%, were
the parents of %@AU@%GEORGE V%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%, whose eldest son, %@AB@%Edward VIII%@AE@% (1894-1972) was
king in 1936. He was extremely popular until his announced intention of
marrying Wallis Warfield Simpson (see %@AU@%WINDSOR, WALLIS WARFIELD, DUCHESS
%@AU@%OF%@BO:          a2492b@%%@AE@%), an American suing her second husband for divorce, precipitated a
crisis with the cabinet, then headed by Stanley %@AU@%BALDWIN%@BO:           b5d0d@%%@AE@%. Edward insisted
that he had the right to marry the woman of his choice, though her
marital background made her unacceptable. The government saw in his
challenge a threat to constitutional procedure and forced his abdication
in 1936. As duke of Windsor, he married Wallis Warfield in 1937. He was
governor of the Bahamas (1940-45).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edwards, Jonathan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edwards, Jonathan%@AE@%,%@CR:EDWARDS         @%%@QR:Edwards, Jonathan@% 1703-58, American theologian and metaphysician; b.%@EH@%
Windsor, Conn. In 1729 he took sole charge of a congregation in
Northampton, Mass., where he soon gained a wide following by his forceful
preaching and powerful logic in support of Calvinist doctrine. A revival
that he held (1734-35) effectively brought the %@AU@%GREAT AWAKENING%@BO:          3c92ce@%%@AE@% to New
England. His stern demands for strict orthodoxy and his unbendingness in
a membership controversy resulted in his dismissal (1750) from
Northampton. At Stockbridge, Mass., he completed his masterpiece, %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Freedom of the Will%@AE@% (1754), which set forth metaphysical and ethical
arguments for determinism. He is often regarded as the last great New
England Calvinist, and his sermon %@AI@%Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God%@AE@% is
still read today. Called (1757) to be president of the College of New
Jersey (now Princeton Univ.), he died soon after.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edward the Black Prince%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edward the Black Prince%@AE@%,%@CR:EDWARD.K.PRINCE @%%@QR:Edward the Black Prince@% 1330-76, eldest son of %@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of England. He%@EH@%
was created duke of Cornwall in 1337, the first duke ever to be created
in England, and prince of Wales in 1343. Joining his father in the
battles of the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%, he fought at Crecy and Calais and in
1356 won the battle of Poitiers and captured %@AU@%JOHN II%@BO:          4c7d80@%%@AE@% of France. It was
apparently the French who first called him the Black Prince, perhaps
because he wore black armor. Edward III made his French holdings a
principality, and the Black Prince maintained a brilliant court at
Bordeaux after 1363. He aided Peter I of Castile and Leon, but the taxes
he was forced to levy in Aquitaine resulted in war with %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of
France. Bad health forced him to resign his principalities in 1372. He
opposed his brother %@AU@%JOHN OF GAUNT%@BO:          4cab91@%%@AE@%, who had become the virtual ruler of
England with the aging of Edward III. The Black Prince died before his
father, but his son succeeded to the throne as %@AU@%RICHARD II%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edward the Confessor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edward the Confessor%@AE@%,%@CR:EDWARD.ESSOR    @%%@QR:Edward the Confessor@% d. 1066, king of the English (1042-66), son of%@EH@%
%@AU@%AETHELRED%@BO:           19421@%%@AE@% the Unready. He grew up in France and returned to succeed
Harthacanute. He was an able but not very energetic ruler, and his strife
with the powerful noble Earl Godwin was heightened by his support of the
Normans in England. Godwin and his family were exiled (1051) but soon
returned. During their absence, Edward received William, duke of Normandy
(later %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%), and apparently made him his heir. Since both William
and Harold III of Norway had claims to the English throne, Edward
eventually recognized Godwin's warlike son %@AU@%HAROLD%@BO:          40121f@%%@AE@% as his heir to avoid
bloodshed. Edward's piety was responsible for his name the Confessor. He
was canonized in the 12th cent. Feast: Oct. 13.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Edward the Elder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Edward the Elder%@AE@%,%@CR:EDWARD.R        @%%@QR:Edward the Elder@% d. 924, king of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@% (899-924). The son and successor%@EH@%
of %@AU@%ALFRED%@BO:           39301@%%@AE@%, he fought with his father against the Danes and was apparently
joint king with him. He gradually became ruler of all England S of the
Humber.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%EEC (European Economic Community)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%EEC (European Economic Community)%@AE@%:%@CR:EEC.EUROMMUNIT  @%%@QR:EEC (European Economic Community)@% see %@AU@%COMMON MARKET.%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@%%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%EEG%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%EEG%@AE@%:%@CR:EEG             @%%@QR:EEG@% see %@AU@%ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY%@BO:          2d7ad7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eel%@AE@%,%@CR:EEL1            @%%@QR:eel@% any of a large order (Anguilliformes) of %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% with a long, snakelike%@EH@%
body, elongate dorsal and anal fins, no pelvic fins, and scales either
lacking or embedded in the skin. The male American eel reaches 2 ft (61
cm) in length; the female, 4 ft (122 cm). Most, including the morays and
conger eels, are marine; one family, Anguillidae, is freshwater. All eels
spawn in the sea, the eggs hatching into transparent, ribbonlike larvae
that drift about feeding until they metamorphose into small eels, or
elvers; freshwater species typically undertake long migrations to spawn
in the sea. Freshwater eels are an important food item in some parts of
the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eel, electric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eel, electric%@AE@%:%@CR:EEL2            @%%@QR:eel, electric@% see %@AU@%ELECTRIC FISH%@BO:          2d609b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egalite, Philippe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egalite, Philippe%@AE@%:%@CR:EGALITE         @%%@QR:Egalite, Philippe@% see under %@AU@%ORLEANS%@BO:          6ee733@%%@AE@%, family.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egbert%@AE@%,%@CR:EGBERT          @%%@QR:Egbert@% d. 839, king of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@% (802-39). He secured the submission of%@EH@%
%@AU@%KENT%@BO:          4efe39@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%EAST ANGLIA%@BO:          2bd119@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MERCIA%@BO:          5edd6a@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%NORTHUMBRIA%@BO:          6bb06e@%%@AE@%. Historians later called him
the first king of England, but there was no conception of a kingdom of
England in his day.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%egg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%egg%@AE@%:%@CR:EGG             @%%@QR:egg@% see %@AU@%OVUM%@BO:          6f97fc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eggplant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eggplant%@AE@%,%@CR:EGGPLANT        @%%@QR:eggplant@% garden vegetable (%@AI@%Solanum melongena%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%NIGHTSHADE%@BO:          6a257f@%%@AE@% family.%@EH@%
Native to Southeast Asia, it is a perennial shrub, although it is often
grown in warm climates as an annual herb. It is cultivated for its ovoid
fruit, which varies in size and may be purple, white, or striped.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eglevsky, Andre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eglevsky, Andre%@AE@%%@CR:EGLEVSKY        @%%@QR:Eglevsky, Andre@% (aNdra' eg'levske), 1917-77, Russian-American dancer; b.%@EH@%
Moscow. He trained in France and made his debut (1931) in London. He
danced (1939-42) with the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo and was (1951-58)
premier danseur with the %@AU@%NEW YORK CITY BALLET%@BO:          698c62@%%@AE@%. After he retired, he
formed (1958) the Eglevsky Ballet in Long Island, New York.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egmont, Lamoral, count of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egmont, Lamoral, count of%@AE@%,%@CR:EGMONT          @%%@QR:Egmont, Lamoral, count of@% 1522-68, Flemish general and statesman.%@EH@%
Although a Catholic, he opposed the persecution of Protestants in the Low
Countries. His beheading by order of the duke of %@AU@%ALBA%@BO:           2be9f@%%@AE@% caused a revolt
against Spanish rule. He is the hero of %@AU@%GOETHE'S%@BO:          3b0629@%%@AE@% tragedy %@AI@%Egmont,%@AE@% with
music by %@AU@%BEETHOVEN%@BO:           db753@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ego%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ego%@AE@%:%@CR:EGO             @%%@QR:ego@% see %@AU@%PSYCHOANALYSIS%@BO:          7a7b44@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%egret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%egret%@AE@%,%@CR:EGRET           @%%@QR:egret@% name for several %@AU@%HERON%@BO:          426287@%%@AE@% species. Egrets were nearly exterminated by%@EH@%
hunters seeking their white, silky plumage (which develops during the
mating season) for millinery. The American egret has straight plumes,
c.21 in. (52.5 cm) long, on its back. The snowy egret, or snowy heron
(%@AI@%Leucophoyx thula%@AE@%), the most beautiful and most hunted, has curved plumes
on the head, breast, and back.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egypt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egypt%@AE@%,%@CR:EGYPT           @%%@QR:Egypt@% Arab. %@AI@%Misr,%@AE@% biblical %@AI@%Mizraim,%@AE@% officially Arab Republic of Egypt,%@EH@%
republic (1987 est. pop. 47,280,000), 386,659 sq mi (1,001,449 sq km), NE
Africa, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea (N), Israel and the Red Sea
(E), Sudan (S), and Libya (W); the Sinai peninsula, the only part of
Egypt located in Asia, is separated from the rest of the country by the
Suez Canal. Major cities include %@AU@%CAIRO%@BO:          16daab@%%@AE@% (the capital) and %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@%. The
principal physiographic feature is the %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@% R., which flows the length of
the country from south to north and separates the Libyan (Western) and
Arabian (Eastern) deserts that comprise 90% of the land area. Bordering
the Nile between Aswan and Cairo are narrow strips of cultivated land,
home of the vast majority of Egypt's inhabitants. Although the country's
industrial base has been increased considerably in the 20th cent., the
economy has been severely strained by the Arab-Israeli Wars, and Egypt in
the early 1980s remained predominantly agricultural. The country depends
on the Nile for its fertility; completion of the %@AU@%ASWAN HIGH DAM%@BO:           93696@%%@AE@% in 1970
greatly increased the arable land. Cotton is the leading cash crop. Major
manufactures include refined petroleum, chemicals, textiles, and
processed foods. The Suez Canal and, to a lesser extent, tourism are
sources of foreign exchange. Most of the population is of a complex
racial mixture, being descended from the ancient Egyptians, Berbers,
black Africans, Arabs, Greeks, and Turks. The majority are %@AU@%SUNNI%@BO:          90c3d3@%%@AE@% Muslims,
but there is a large minority of Coptic Christians (see %@AU@%COPT%@BO:          232c87@%%@AE@%). Arabic is
the official language.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Ancient Egypt%@AE@% Egyptian civilization, one of the world's oldest, developed
in the valley of the Nile over 5,000 years ago. The rival kingdoms of
Upper and Lower Egypt were united as a centralized state c.3200 BC by a
king named Menes, who established his capital at %@AU@%MEMPHIS%@BO:          5e8dfe@%%@AE@%. A high culture
developed early, and the use of writing was introduced. During the Old
Kingdom (3110-2258 BC) Egyptian culture and commerce flourished, and the
great pyramids were built. Its fall introduced a period of anarchy, which
ended c.2000 BC with the establishment of the Middle Kingdom, with its
capital at %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94aa0e@%%@AE@%. Civilization again flourished until in 1786 BC weak
rulers allowed the country to pass under the rule of foreign nomads,
known as the %@AU@%HYKSOS%@BO:          461448@%%@AE@%. The Hyksos were expelled c.1570 BC, and the New
Kingdom was established. During the XVIII dynasty (1570-c.1342 BC)
ancient Egyptian civilization reached its zenith; a vast empire was
established and %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94aa0e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MEMPHIS%@BO:          5e8dfe@%%@AE@% became the political, commercial, and
cultural centers of the world. After the XX dynasty (1200-1085 BC) Egypt
came increasingly under foreign domination, with periods of rule by
Libya, Sudan, Assyria, Nubia, and Persia. Following a brief
reestablishment of native power in 405 BC, Egypt fell without a struggle
to %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% in 332 BC After Alexander's death (323 BC) Egypt
was inherited by his general, %@AU@%PTOLEMY%@BO:          7a9a83@%%@AE@%, who founded the dynasty of
Ptolemies and under whom the new city of %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@% became the
intellectual and religious center of the Hellenistic world. The Ptolemies
maintained a formidable empire for more than two centuries until,
weakened by internal dynastic disputes, Egypt fell to Rome in 30 BC
Christianity was readily accepted in Egypt, which became part of the
Byzantine Empire about AD 395. With the Arab conquest (639-42) Egypt
became an integral part of the Muslim world.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Modern Egypt%@AE@% After 500 years as part of the %@AU@%CALIPHATE%@BO:          174259@%%@AE@%, Egypt was seized
by the %@AU@%MAMELUKES%@BO:          5a7a59@%%@AE@% in 1250 and the Ottoman Turks in 1517. The first close
contact with the West occurred in 1798, when French forces under %@AU@%NAPOLEON%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%
occupied the country; they were expelled in 1801 by combined Ottoman and
British troops. In 1805 %@AU@%MUHAMMAD ALI%@BO:          64edd3@%%@AE@%, a common soldier, was appointed
pasha of Egypt; under his rule the foundations of the modern state of
Egypt were established. The construction of the %@AU@%SUEZ CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@% (1859-69) put
Egypt deeply into debt, and, although nominally still part of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN
%@AU@%EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%, the country was forced to appoint a French-British commission to
manage its financial affairs. The British consolidated their control
between 1883 and 1907, and during %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, when Turkey joined the
Central Powers, Great Britain declared Egypt a British protectorate,
which lasted until 1937.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Independent Egypt%@AE@% Egypt bitterly opposed the UN partition of Palestine in
1948 and played an important role in the %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@% that followed.
In 1952 the Egyptian army deposed King %@AU@%FAROUK%@BO:          31cde2@%%@AE@% in a coup d'etat; a
republic was established in 1953, and Col. Gamal Abdel %@AU@%NASSER%@BO:          66a284@%%@AE@% became
president (1954). For a brief period Egypt and Syria merged (1958) in the
%@AU@%UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC%@BO:          9a03ba@%%@AE@%, then were joined by Yemen in the United Arab
States; the union was dissolved in 1961. Inaugurating a program of
economic and social reform, modernization of the army, and construction
of the Aswan High Dam, Nasser, with the aid of the USSR, strove to make
Egypt the undisputed leader of the Arab world. His rallying-cry was
denunciation of Israel; in 1967 Egypt lost much territory in the Six-Day
War, which also shattered its economy and armed forces. Nasser died in
1970 and was succeeded by Anwar al-%@AU@%SADAT%@BO:          82ced6@%%@AE@%, who regained much of Egypt's
lost territory in the Yom Kippur War (1973) and reversed a 20-year trend
by ending Soviet influence and seeking closer ties with the West. In 1977
Sadat angered his Arab allies by traveling to Jerusalem as a conciliatory
gesture to Israel; the two nations signed a peace treaty in 1979 (see
%@AU@%CAMP DAVID ACCORDS%@BO:          17c878@%%@AE@%). In 1981 Sadat was assassinated by Muslim
fundamentalists, and Hosni %@AU@%MUBARAK%@BO:          64ce2d@%%@AE@%, who pledged to continue Sadat's
policies, became president. The Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai and its
return to Egypt, which began in 1979, was completed in 1982, but many
other crucial problems remained unsolved.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@TH:  88  4622 04 28 19 28 @%%@AB@%DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT%@AE@%%@AI@%Old Kingdom (or Old %@AE@%%@AI@%Empire)%@AE@%DYNASTY                     YEARS              FAMOUS RULERS%@AB@%───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────%@AE@%%@NL@%I                           3110--2884 B.C.    MenesII                          2884--2780 B.C.III                         2780--2680 B.C.    SnefruIV                          2680--2565 B.C.    %@AU@%KHUFU%@BO:          4f6f87@%%@AE@% (Cheops), Khafre,                                                Menkaure. Age of the great                                               pyramids.V                           2565--2420 B.C.Vl                          2420--2258 B.C.    Pepi I, Pepi II%@AI@%First Intermediate Period%@AE@%VII, VIII                   2258--2225 B.C.    An obscure period.IX, X                       2225--2134 B.C.    Capital at Heracleopolis.XI                          2134--c.2000 B.C.  Capital at %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94aa0e@%%@AE@%THEBES.%@AI@%Middle Kingdom (or Middle %@AE@%%@AI@%Empire)%@AE@%XII                         2000--1786 B.C.    %@AU@%AMENEMHET I%@BO:           46bab@%%@AE@%, Sesostris I,                                                Amenemhet II, Sesostris II,                                               Sesostris III, Amenemhet                                                III, Amenemhet IV%@AI@%Second Intermediate Period%@AE@%XIII--XVII                  1786--1570 B.C.    The %@AU@%HYKSOS%@BO:          461448@%%@AE@%. An obscure                                                period.%@AI@%New Kingdom (or New %@AE@%%@AI@%Empire)%@AE@%XVIII                       1570--c.1342 B.C.  %@AU@%AMENHOTEP I%@BO:           46d22@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%THUTMOSE I%@BO:          958949@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%%@AE@%                                               %@AU@%THUTMOSE II%@BO:          958949@%%@AE@% with                                                Hateshepshut, %@AU@%THUTMOSE III%@BO:          958949@%%@AE@%                                               %@AU@%%@AE@%, Amenhotep II, %@AU@%THUTMOSE %@AE@%                                               %@AU@%IV%@BO:          958949@%%@AE@%, Amenhotep IV (%@AU@%IKHNATON%@BO:          46a319@%%@AE@%                                               %@AU@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%TUTANKHAMEN%@BO:          9902cd@%%@AE@%XIX                         c.1342--1200 B.C.  Horemheb, %@AU@%RAMSES%@BO:          7c9a71@%%@AE@%I, Seti I,                                               %@AU@%RAMSES%@BO:          7c9a71@%%@AE@%II, Merneptah, Seti                                                IIXX                          1200--1085 B.C.    %@AU@%RAMSES%@BO:          7c9a71@%%@AE@% III with Tiy. New                                                Kingdom declines.XXI                         1085--945 B.C.     Tanite dynasty (capital at                                               Tanis).XXII                        945--745 B.C.      Sheshonk I. Libyan dynasty                                               (capital at Bubastis).XXIII                       745--718 B.C.      Nubian dynasty with                                                invasion of Piankhi                                                (capital at Bubastis).XXIV                        718--712 B.C.      Saite dynasty (capital at                                                Sais).XXV                         712--663 B.C.      Taharka. Assyrian                                                invasions begin foreign                                                domination.XXVI                        663--525 B.C.      Psamtik, %@AU@%NECHO%@BO:          67faa6@%%@AE@%, Apries,                                                Amais II (capital at Sais).XXVII                       525--405 B.C.      The %@AU@%ACHAEMENIDS%@BO:            b142@%%@AE@% of Persia                                                in control. Cambyses II to                                               %@AU@%DARIUS%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@% II. Egypt revolts.XXVIII, XXIX, XXX           405--332 B.C.      Nikhtnebf I, Nekhtnebf II.                                               Last native dynasties,                                                with conquest of %@AU@%ALEXANDER%@AE@%                                               %@AU@%THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%. Capital at Sais,                                               then at Mendes, then at                                                Sebennytos.%@TE:  88  4622 04 28 19 28 @%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egyptian architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egyptian architecture%@AE@%%@CR:EGYPTIAECTURE   @%%@QR:Egyptian architecture@% was formulated prior to 3000 BC Abundant clay and%@EH@%
scarce wood led to the early development of ceramic arts and brickwork. A
massive, static, serene architecture emerged. Walls were immensely thick;
columns were confined to halls and inner courts. Exterior walls had few
openings and were covered with %@AU@%HIEROGLYPHICS%@BO:          42bd93@%%@AE@% and pictorial carvings in
brilliant colors, with symbolic motifs like the scarab beetle. The
capacity of sculptors to integrate decoration into structure was highly
developed. Flat stone block roofs were supported by walls or by closely
spaced internal columns. No dwellings, only tombs and temples, survive.
Belief in the afterlife led to massive, impressive sepulchral
architecture. Of the Old Kingdom (2680-2258 BC) remains the %@AU@%MASTABA%@BO:          5cfaab@%%@AE@% is
the oldest remaining form of sepulcher. The %@AU@%PYRAMID%@BO:          7b502c@%%@AE@% of a ruler was begun
as soon as he ascended the throne. Middle Kingdom (2134-1786 BC) tombs
were tunneled out of Nile cliffs. In temples of the New Kingdom
(1570-1085 BC), the doorway was flanked by great pylons or towers, often
with statues or obelisks in front. The temple was screened from the
common people by a high wall. The hall had immense columns arranged in a
nave and side aisles; behind were small, restricted sanctuaries. New
Kingdom temples were also carved from rock, e.g., %@AU@%ABU SIMBEL%@BO:            8658@%%@AE@%. Egyptian
architecture consistently resisted foreign influences.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egyptian art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egyptian art%@AE@%.%@CR:EGYPTIAN.ART    @%%@QR:Egyptian art@% The art of predynastic %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@% (c.4000-3200 BC), known from%@EH@%
funerary offerings, was largely painted pottery and figurines, ivory
carvings, slate cosmetic palettes, and flint weapons. Toward the end of
the predynastic period, sculptors carved monolithic figures of the gods
from limestone, e.g., the Min at Coptos. In the protodynastic and early
dynastic periods (3200-2780 BC), Mesopotamian motifs appeared. The stone
bowls and vases of these periods are remarkable for fine craftsmanship.
During the Old Kingdom, centered at Memphis (2680-2258 BC), the stylistic
conventions that characterize Egyptian art were developed, notably the
law of frontality, in which the human figure is represented with the eye
and shoulders in front view, and the head, pelvis, legs, and feet in
profile. There was little attempt at linear perspective or spatial
illusionism. Relief was shallow, e.g., the palette of Namer (Cairo), a
masterpiece of the I dynasty showing battle scenes. In sculpture the law
of frontality was also strictly followed. Working with the most durable
materials they had, artists decorated tombs with domestic, military,
hunting, and ceremonial scenes to enable the dead to attain a happy
continuation of their previous lives. Chief examples of Old Kingdom
sculpture are the %@AI@%Great Chephren,%@AE@% in diorite; the %@AI@%Prince Ra-hetep and
%@AI@%Princess Neferet,%@AE@% in painted limestone; and the %@AI@%Sheik-el-Beled,%@AE@% in
painted wood (all: Cairo). Painting was generally employed as an
accessory to sculpture. In the Middle Kingdom, based at Thebes (2000-1786
BC), the forms of the Old Kingdom were retained, but the unity of style
was broken to admit a new formalism and delicacy. The tomb paintings at
Bani Hasan are remarkable for freedom of draftsmanship. The sculptured
portraits of Sesostris III and Amenemhet III (both: Cairo) are
exceptional in their revelation of inner feelings. New Kingdom art
(1570-1342 BC) was the final development of classic Egyptian style, with
monumental forms, bold design, and a controlled vitality. During the
Amarna period (1372-1350 BC) a naturalistic style developed in sculpture,
e.g., the colossal statue of %@AU@%IKHNATON%@BO:          46a319@%%@AE@% (Cairo) and the magnificent painted
limestone bust of Queen %@AU@%NEFERTITI%@BO:          68087c@%%@AE@% (Berlin Mus.). The rich sophistication
of the period is exemplified by the furnishings from the tomb of
%@AU@%TUTANKHAMEN%@BO:          9902cd@%%@AE@%. The Ramesside period (1314-1085 BC) saw an unsuccessful
attempt to return to New Kingdom styles, but the vitality of that period
was lost. The following period of decline (1085-730 BC) is characterized
by mechanical repetition of earlier forms and by satirical drawings in
the papyri. In the Saite period (730-663 BC) a coarse, brutal style
predominated. After the Assyrian conquest of Egypt (663 BC), all the arts
but metalworking declined. Egypt proved resistant to foreign influence in
art through the Ptolemaic dynasty (332-30 BC). Architecture remained
vital, e.g., at Idfu and Philae, and the minor arts continued to
flourish. Fine collections of Egyptian art in the U.S. are at the
Brooklyn and Metropolitan museums in New York City.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egyptian language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egyptian language%@AE@%,%@CR:EGYPTIAGE       @%%@QR:Egyptian language@% extinct language of ancient Egypt that is generally%@EH@%
classified as a member of the Hamitic subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic
family of languages. See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Egyptian religion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Egyptian religion%@AE@%.%@CR:EGYPTIAON       @%%@QR:Egyptian religion@% Ancient Egyptian worship is remarkable for its%@EH@%
reconciliation and union of conflicting beliefs. The earliest predynastic
tribes venerated many deities who were at first embodied in animals (such
as the sacred cat of Bubastis), but who were later gradually humanized.
The most widely accepted creation myth was that of the great sun god %@AU@%RA%@BO:          7be2c1@%%@AE@%
(Re), who appeared out of Chaos to create a race including %@AU@%OSIRIS%@BO:          6f28d0@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%ISIS%@BO:          49fdb5@%%@AE@%, and their son %@AU@%HORUS%@BO:          4497cc@%%@AE@%. When a national religion arose at the end of
the predynastic period (c.3200 BC) various priesthoods attempted to
systematize the gods and myths. The reign of %@AU@%IKHNATON%@BO:          46a319@%%@AE@% established a
monotheistic cult, but %@AU@%POLYTHEISM%@BO:          77e25c@%%@AE@% was restored after his death. The most
important of the many forms of Egyptian worship were the cults of Osiris,
king and judge of the dead, protector of all; the sun god Ra (symbolized
by the %@AU@%PYRAMID%@BO:          7b502c@%%@AE@%), said to be the direct ancestor of the kings of Egypt;
and %@AU@%AMON%@BO:           4d29f@%%@AE@%, Egypt's greatest god by the XIX dynasty. With no established
book of teachings such as the Bible or Koran, Egyptian conduct was guided
by human wisdom and the belief in %@AI@%maat,%@AE@% the principle of divine justice
and order, held to be reflected in civil order as administered by the
state under the pharaoh. While the priesthoods and state cult grew, the
populace found its expression of religious feeling in the strict rites
prescribed by funerary cults (see %@AU@%BOOK OF THE DEAD%@BO:          11fe90@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ehrenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ehrenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich%@AE@%%@CR:EHRENBURG       @%%@QR:Ehrenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich@%, 1891-1967, Russian writer. From 1909 to%@EH@%
1917 and 1921 to 1941 he lived in W Europe, where he wrote such novels as
%@AI@%The Love of Jeanne Ney%@AE@% (1924) and %@AI@%Out of Chaos%@AE@% (1933). Returning to the
Soviet Union in 1941, he became a war correspondent. His best-known
novel, %@AI@%The Fall of Paris%@AE@% (1941-42), deals with the decay of French
society, while %@AI@%The Thaw%@AE@% (1954) was the first work to discuss Stalinist
repression.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ehrlich, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ehrlich, Paul%@AE@%,%@CR:EHRLICH         @%%@QR:Ehrlich, Paul@% 1854-1915, German bacteriologist. For his work in%@EH@%
immunology he shared with Elie %@AU@%METCHNIKOFF%@BO:          5f52fa@%%@AE@% the 1908 Nobel Prize in
physiology or medicine. He discovered salvarsan for the treatment of
syphilis and made valuable contributions in hematology, cellular
pathology, cancer study, and the use of dyes in microscopy and treatment
of disease.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eichmann, Adolf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eichmann, Adolf%@AE@%%@CR:EICHMANN        @%%@QR:Eichmann, Adolf@%, 1906-62, German %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% official. As head of the Gestapo's%@EH@%
Jewish section, he oversaw the maltreatment, deportation to concentration
camps, and murder (especially by the use of gas chambers) of millions of
%@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%. After World War II, he escaped to Argentina, but he was located and
abducted by Israeli agents in 1960. He was tried and hanged in Israel for
crimes against the Jews.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eiffel Tower%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eiffel Tower%@AE@%,%@CR:EIFFEL.TOWER    @%%@QR:Eiffel Tower@% structure designed by the French engineer Alexandre Gustave%@EH@%
Eiffel (1832-1923) for the Paris Exposition of 1889. The tower is 984 ft
(300 m) high and consists of an open iron framework on four masonry
piers; these piers support four columns that unite to form the shaft.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eight, the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eight, the%@AE@%,%@CR:EIGHT           @%%@QR:Eight, the@% group of American artists in New York City, formed in 1908 to%@EH@%
exhibit paintings. It comprised Arthur B. %@AU@%DAVIES%@BO:          26c3aa@%%@AE@%, Maurice %@AU@%PRENDERGAST%@BO:          793e68@%%@AE@%,
Ernest Lawson, William %@AU@%GLACKENS%@BO:          3a7d12@%%@AE@%, Everett %@AU@%SHINN%@BO:          88631d@%%@AE@%, Robert %@AU@%HENRI%@BO:          419f87@%%@AE@%, John %@AU@%SLOAN%@BO:          8a2d46@%%@AE@%,
and George %@AU@%LUKS%@BO:          57cc75@%%@AE@%. Men of widely different tendencies, they were bound by
common opposition to academism and, because of their portrayal of
everyday American life, were stigmatized as the "ashcan" school. They
organized the %@AU@%ARMORY SHOW%@BO:           8057a@%%@AE@% of 1913, which introduced modern European art
to a reluctant but curious America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eijkman, Christiaan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eijkman, Christiaan%@AE@%,%@CR:EIJKMAN         @%%@QR:Eijkman, Christiaan@% 1858-1930, Dutch physician. For his work on the%@EH@%
cause of %@AU@%BERIBERI%@BO:           ebeff@%%@AE@%, which led to the isolation of antineuritic vitamins,
he shared with Sir Frederick Hopkins the 1929 Nobel Prize in physiology
or medicine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eilat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eilat%@AE@%:%@CR:EILAT           @%%@QR:Eilat@% see %@AU@%ELAT%@BO:          2d3acb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eilshemius, Louis Michel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eilshemius, Louis Michel%@AE@%%@CR:EILSHEMIUS      @%%@QR:Eilshemius, Louis Michel@%, 1864-1941, American painter; b. near Newark,%@EH@%
N.J. He is known for his imaginative, atmospheric American landscapes.
%@AI@%Approaching Storm%@AE@% (Phillips Coll., Wash., D.C.) is an excellent example.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Einhard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Einhard%@AE@%%@CR:EINHARD         @%%@QR:Einhard@% or %@AB@%Eginhard%@AE@% , c.770-840, Frankish historian. His works and%@EH@%
correspondence are prime sources on Frankish society and the royal court,
to which he was attached under %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%, Emperor %@AU@%LOUIS I%@BO:          56ed3b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LOTHAIR%@BO:          56d64c@%%@AE@%
I. Einhard's %@AI@%Life of Charlemagne%@AE@% is eminently readable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Einstein, Albert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Einstein, Albert%@AE@%,%@CR:EINSTEIN        @%%@QR:Einstein, Albert@% 1879-1955, American theoretical physicist; b. Germany;%@EH@%
recognized as one of the greatest physicists of all time. He became
(1914) titular professor of physics and director of theoretical physics
at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. The Nazi government
confiscated (1934) his property and revoked his German citizenship
because he was Jewish, and in 1940 Einstein became an American citizen,
holding a post at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton from 1933
until his death. Although an ardent pacifist, he urged Pres. Franklin
Roosevelt to investigate the possible use of atomic energy in bombs. In
one of three important 1905 papers, he explained %@AU@%BROWNIAN MOVEMENT%@BO:          1482c1@%%@AE@% on the
basis of his study of the motion of atoms. His special theory of
%@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@% (1905) dealt with systems or observers in uniform
(unaccelerated) motion with respect to one another. He asserted (1911)
the equality of %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%INERTIA%@BO:          47fd1b@%%@AE@% and formulated (c.1916) a general
theory of relativity that included gravitation as a determiner of the
curvature of a %@AU@%SPACE-TIME%@BO:          8cd776@%%@AE@% continuum. Einstein contributed to the
development of %@AU@%QUANTUM THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@%, postulating (1905) light quanta (%@AU@%PHOTONS%@BO:          75327a@%%@AE@%),
on which he based his explanation of the %@AU@%PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT%@BO:          751a1a@%%@AE@%, and
developing the quantum theory of %@AU@%SPECIFIC HEAT%@BO:          8d4a75@%%@AE@%. Working on a unified
field theory, he attempted to explain gravitation and electromagnetism
with one set of laws. For his work in theoretical physics, notably on the
photoelectric effect, he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in physics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%einsteinium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%einsteinium%@AE@%%@CR:EINSTEINIUM     @%%@QR:einsteinium@% (Es), radioactive element, discovered in 1952 by A. Ghiorso%@EH@%
and colleagues in residue from a thermonuclear explosion; a member of the
%@AU@%ACTINIDE SERIES%@BO:            ddd8@%%@AE@%. Weighable amounts have since been prepared by neutron
bombardment of plutonium. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Einthoven, Willem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Einthoven, Willem%@AE@%,%@CR:EINTHOVEN       @%%@QR:Einthoven, Willem@% 1860-1927, Dutch physiologist; b. Java. He received%@EH@%
the 1924 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for his invention of a
string galvanometer that he used to produce the electrocardiogram (EKG),
a graphic record of the action of the heart (see %@AU@%ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY%@BO:          2d7248@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eisenhower, Dwight David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eisenhower, Dwight David%@AE@%,%@CR:EISENHOWER      @%%@QR:Eisenhower, Dwight David@% 1890-1969, American general and 34th president%@EH@%
of the U.S. (1953-61); b. Denison, Tex.; his nickname was "Ike." A West
Point graduate, he had a meteoric rise as a military commander during
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. In 1942 he became chief of army operations in Washington,
D.C. Later that year he was named U.S. commander of the European theater
of operations, and in 1943 he became supreme commander of the Allied
Expeditionary Force. Eisenhower coordinated and directed the Allied
invasion of Europe in June 1944. In Dec. 1944 he was made general of the
army (five-star general) and upon his return to the U.S. became army
chief of staff (1945-48). He was president of Columbia Univ. from 1948 to
1950 and in 1950 was named supreme commander of the Allied forces in
Europe. After organizing the defense forces of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO), Eisenhower resigned (1952) from the army to campaign
for the Republican presidential nomination. Popularity as a World War II
hero brought him an easy election victory over his Democratic opponent,
Adlai E. %@AU@%STEVENSON%@BO:          8f00a1@%%@AE@%. One of Eisenhower's first moves as president (July
1953) was to fulfill a campaign promise to end the %@AU@%KOREAN WAR%@BO:          50a0f9@%%@AE@%. He and his
secretary of state, John Foster %@AU@%DULLES%@BO:          2b205b@%%@AE@%, continued the %@AU@%TRUMAN%@BO:          982df7@%%@AE@%
administration's policy of containing Communism, but attempts were also
made to ease cold-war tensions. In domestic affairs, Eisenhower remained
aloof from the legislative process and took few initiatives. Despite a
heart attack (1955) he easily won reelection in 1956. His administration
then took a more active role in the growing %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% movement. In
1957 federal troops were sent to Little Rock, Ark., to enforce a
court-ordered school desegregation decision, and later Congress enacted
federal civil-rights legislation. Also in 1957, the president promulgated
the so-called Eisenhower doctrine, which committed the U.S. to an active
role in the Middle East to protect the region from Communist aggression.
Tensions with the Soviet Union increased, however, and a summit meeting
(1960) with Nikita %@AU@%KHRUSHCHEV%@BO:          4f69f0@%%@AE@% ended abruptly because of conflict over
U.S. espionage flights over the USSR. In 1959 the coming to power of the
Communist Fidel %@AU@%CASTRO%@BO:          19f33d@%%@AE@% in Cuba posed other problems, and Eisenhower broke
diplomatic relations with Cuba just before leaving office in Jan. 1961.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eisenstein, Sergei Mikhailovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eisenstein, Sergei Mikhailovich%@AE@%,%@CR:EISENSTEIN      @%%@QR:Eisenstein, Sergei Mikhailovich@% 1898-1948, Russian film director. Ranked%@EH@%
with D.W. %@AU@%GRIFFITH%@BO:          3dc3fa@%%@AE@% as a cinematic genius, he pioneered the use of %@AU@%MONTAGE%@BO:          631510@%%@AE@%
in such works as %@AI@%Potemkin%@AE@% (1925), %@AI@%October%@AE@% (1928), and %@AI@%Alexander Nevsky%@AE@%
(1938).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eisteddfod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eisteddfod%@AE@%%@CR:EISTEDDFOD      @%%@QR:eisteddfod@%, Welsh festival involving contests in %@AU@%ARTS AND CRAFTS%@BO:           880d2@%%@AE@% with%@EH@%
special emphasis on music and poetry. The National Eisteddfod is held for
a week in August; local festivals are held throughout the year. It dates
from the 12th cent. See also %@AU@%MUSIC FESTIVALS%@BO:          657e38@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ekelof, Gunnar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ekelof, Gunnar%@AE@%,%@CR:EKELOF          @%%@QR:Ekelof, Gunnar@% 1907-68, Swedish poet, the most important Swedish poet of%@EH@%
the 20th cent. His verse, philosophic and mystical, reflects his interest
in the French %@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@% and Oriental literature. Volumes in English
translation include %@AI@%Selected Poems%@AE@% (tr. 1971) and %@AI@%A Molna Elegy%@AE@% (tr.
1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ekelund, Vilhelm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ekelund, Vilhelm%@AE@%%@CR:EKELUND         @%%@QR:Ekelund, Vilhelm@%, 1880-1949, Swedish writer. He wrote poems, e.g., %@AI@%Stella%@EH@%
%@AI@%Maris%@AE@% (1906), and a long series of essays, e.g., %@AI@%Classical Ideal%@AE@% (1909).
Although not widely read, his work influenced Scandinavian modernism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%EKG%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%EKG%@AE@%:%@CR:EKG             @%%@QR:EKG@% see %@AU@%ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY%@BO:          2d7248@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elam%@AE@%,%@CR:ELAM            @%%@QR:Elam@% ancient Asiatic country, N of the Persian Gulf, now in W Iran. A%@EH@%
civilization began there in the late 4th millennium BC, and in the early
2d millennium BC Elam overthrew Babylonia. Its golden age came after 1300
BC Around 645 BC Elam fell to the Assyrian king %@AU@%ASSURBANIPAL%@BO:           8daf9@%%@AE@%. Its capital
was Susa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eland%@AE@%:%@CR:ELAND           @%%@QR:eland@% see %@AU@%ANTELOPE%@BO:           604e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elastic limit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elastic limit%@AE@%:%@CR:ELASTIC.LIMIT   @%%@QR:elastic limit@% see %@AU@%STRENGTH OF MATERIALS%@BO:          8fab12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elat%@AE@%%@CR:ELAT            @%%@QR:Elat@% or %@AB@%Eilat,%@AE@%city (1979 est. pop. 18,900), S Israel, a port on the Gulf%@EH@%
of %@AU@%AQABA%@BO:           6de88@%%@AE@%. It is strategically located near Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi
Arabia and is Israel's gateway to Africa and the Far East. The city is a
center for tourism and small industry. An ancient port (perhaps identical
with the 10th-cent. Ezion-geber), Elat was resettled in 1949, and its
deepwater harbor was opened in 1965.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elba%@AE@%,%@CR:ELBA            @%%@QR:Elba@% island, 86 sq mi (223 sq km), in the Tyrrhenian Sea, 6 mi (9.7 km)%@EH@%
W of the Italian peninsula. Controlled at times by Pisa, Spain, and
Naples, it was an independent principality (1814-15) under the exiled
%@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% prior to his escape and return to France. Following his final
defeat, Elba passed to %@AU@%TUSCANY%@BO:          98fb9b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elbe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elbe%@AE@%,%@CR:ELBE            @%%@QR:Elbe@% river, central Europe, flowing c.725 mi (1,170 km) from NW%@EH@%
Czechoslovakia and through East Germany before entering the North Sea
through a 60-mi (97-km), two-armed estuary at Cuxhaven, West Germany.
Navigable for c.525 mi (845 km), the river was internationalized in 1919.
Traffic declined after Germany repudiated (1938) internationalization,
and the division of Germany (1945) made the river part of the boundary
between East and West Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elbrus, Mount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elbrus, Mount%@AE@%,%@CR:ELBRUS          @%%@QR:Elbrus, Mount@% highest mountain of the %@AU@%CAUCASUS%@BO:          1a6c62@%%@AE@%, SW USSR, considered the%@EH@%
highest point in Europe by those who consider the area part of that
continent. Its twin peaks are extinct volcanic cones 18,481 ft (5,633 m)
and 18,356 ft (5,595 m) high.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%El Cordobes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%El Cordobes%@AE@%%@CR:EL.CORDOBES     @%%@QR:El Cordobes@%, 1936?-, Spanish bullfighter; b. Manuel Benitez Perez. The%@EH@%
highest paid matador in history, he rose to national fame in the early
1960s because of his courage and personal magnetism. He retired in 1971.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elder%@AE@%:%@CR:ELDER           @%%@QR:elder@% see %@AU@%HONEYSUCKLE%@BO:          4410c3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eldjarn, Kristjan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eldjarn, Kristjan%@AE@%%@CR:ELDJARN         @%%@QR:Eldjarn, Kristjan@%, 1916-82, Icelandic statesman and archaeologist. He was%@EH@%
curator at the National Museum of Iceland (1947-68) and president of
Iceland (1968-80).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%El Dorado%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%El Dorado%@AE@%,%@CR:EL.DORADO       @%%@QR:El Dorado@% legendary land of the Golden Man, a place of gold and plenty%@EH@%
sought by Spanish %@AU@%CONQUISTADORS%@BO:          22387e@%%@AE@% in the New World from the mid-16th cent.
Its location shifted as new regions were explored. Similar legends
appeared in the W United States.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eleanor of Aquitaine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eleanor of Aquitaine%@AE@%%@CR:ELEANORTAINE    @%%@QR:Eleanor of Aquitaine@%, 1122-1204, queen consort first of %@AU@%LOUIS VII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
France and then of %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England; daughter of William X, duke of
Aquitaine. Her marriage to Louis was annulled in 1152 and shortly
thereafter she married Henry, then duke of Normandy, uniting her vast
possessions with his. Two of her sons-%@AU@%RICHARD I%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%-became kings of
England. Henry's many infidelities caused her to establish her own court
(1170) at Poitiers, which became the scene of much artistic activity. She
supported her sons in their unsuccessful revolt (1173) against Henry and
was confined by Henry until 1185. In 1189 she helped Richard secure the
throne.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electoral college%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electoral college%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTORGE       @%%@QR:electoral college@% in U.S. government, the body of electors that chooses%@EH@%
the president and vice president. During national elections, voters in
each state choose between slates of electors publicly pledged to one or
another of the teams of national candidates. When the electoral college
meets, each state's electors (equal in number to the total of its U.S.
representatives and senators) usually cast all of their ballots for the
team to which they are pledged. A majority of the electoral college is
required to elect. If no candidate obtains a majority, the Constitution
provides that the House of Representatives will select the president from
among the top three candidates. Only two presidents have been elected in
the House, Thomas %@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@% (1800) and John Quincy %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:           10887@%%@AE@% (1824). The
system is often criticized for leaving open the possibility that a
candidate may obtain an electoral college majority without getting a
majority (or even a plurality) of the national vote. Thus, in 1888,
Benjamin %@AU@%HARRISON%@BO:          40367a@%%@AE@% was elected even though Grover %@AU@%CLEVELAND%@BO:          1f5521@%%@AE@% received a
greater popular vote.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electors%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electors%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTORS        @%%@QR:electors@% in the history of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%, the German princes who%@EH@%
had the right to elect the German king, who was generally crowned
emperor. The number of electors varied, but in 1356 Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES IV%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%
issued the Golden Bull, an edict that regularized election procedures and
named the electors as the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier, the
king of Bohemia, the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony, and
the margrave of Brandenburg. Later, the duke of Bavaria and the ruler of
Hanover were added. After 1438 only members of the house of %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% were
elected. The electoral function disappeared with the end of the Holy
Roman Empire in 1806.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Electra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Electra%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRA         @%%@QR:Electra@% in Greek mythology, daughter of %@AU@%AGAMEMNON%@BO:           1f531@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CLYTEMNESTRA%@BO:          1fa977@%%@AE@%. She%@EH@%
aided her brother %@AU@%ORESTES%@BO:          6ea70f@%%@AE@% in avenging the murder of their father by their
mother and %@AU@%AEGISTHUS%@BO:           1717f@%%@AE@%. The tale was dramatized by %@AU@%AESCHYLUS%@BO:           18617@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SOPHOCLES%@BO:          8ba3a2@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electric and magnetic units%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electric and magnetic units%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRINITS     @%%@QR:electric and magnetic units@% units used to express the magnitudes of%@EH@%
various quantities in electricity and magnetism. Three systems of such
units, all based on the %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%, are commonly used. One of these,
the mksa-practical system, is defined in terms of the units of the mks
system and has the %@AU@%AMPERE%@BO:           4d9c8@%%@AE@% of electric current as its basic unit. The
units of this system-the %@AU@%VOLT%@BO:          9e3bfc@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OHM%@BO:          6d2c20@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WATT%@BO:          9fcb4c@%%@AE@%, and farad-are those commonly
used by scientists and engineers to make practical measurements. The two
other systems, now being gradually abandoned, are both based on the cgs
system. Electrostatic units (cgs-esu) are defined in a way that
simplifies the description of interactions between static electric
charges; there are no corresponding magnetic units in this system.
Electromagnetic units (cgs-emu), on the other hand, are defined
especially for the description of phenomena associated with moving
electric charges, i.e., electric currents and magnetic poles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electric circuit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electric circuit%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRIT        @%%@QR:electric circuit@% unbroken path along which an electric current may flow.%@EH@%
A simple circuit consists of a voltage source, such as a battery (see
%@AU@%CELL%@BO:          1ab1a5@%%@AE@%, in electricity) or a %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%, whose terminals are connected to
those of a circuit element, such as a %@AU@%RESISTOR%@BO:          7e6ac7@%%@AE@%, through which current can
flow. More complex circuits include additional sources or elements and
perhaps %@AU@%SWITCHES%@BO:          91a173@%%@AE@%, so interconnected that, when appropriate switches are
closed, each element is included in a closed path that also contains a
source. Series, parallel, and non-series-parallel connections are
illustrated in the figure. The effective %@AU@%RESISTANCE%@BO:          7e6737@%%@AE@% of two
series-connected resistors is the sum of the individual resistances. The
effective conductance (reciprocal of resistance) of two
parallel-connected resistors is the sum of the individual conductances.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electric eel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electric eel%@AE@%:%@CR:ELECTRIC.EEL    @%%@QR:electric eel@% see %@AU@%ELECTRIC FISH%@BO:          2d609b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electric fish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electric fish%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRIC.FISH   @%%@QR:electric fish@% any of many unrelated species of %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% that have electric%@EH@%
organs, usually made of modified muscle tissue, that are capable of
producing from 450 to 600 volts of electricity. This electricity is used
to detect and paralyze prey, repel enemies, navigate, and possibly
communicate. Important electric fish include the electric %@AU@%EEL%@BO:          2cafef@%%@AE@%, the
electric %@AU@%CATFISH%@BO:          1a26e0@%%@AE@%, and the electric %@AU@%RAY%@BO:          7cfe12@%%@AE@%, or torpedo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electricity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electricity%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRICITY     @%%@QR:electricity@% class of phenomena arising from the existence of %@AU@%CHARGE%@BO:          1bad43@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
According to modern theory, most %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLES%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@% of matter possess
charge, either positive or negative. Two particles of like charge, both
positive or both negative, repel each other; two particles of unlike
charge are attracted (see %@AU@%COULOMB'S LAW%@BO:          23e3e0@%%@AE@%). The electric %@AU@%FORCE%@BO:          34505b@%%@AE@% between two
charged particles is much greater than the gravitational force between
the particles. Many of the bulk properties of matter are ultimately due
to the electric forces among the particles of which the substance is
composed. Materials differ in their ability to allow charge to flow
through them. Those that allow charge to pass easily are conductors (see
%@AU@%CONDUCTION%@BO:          21d297@%%@AE@%), whereas those that allow extremely little charge to pass
through are called insulators (see %@AU@%INSULATION%@BO:          488d62@%%@AE@%), or %@AU@%DIELECTRICS%@BO:          28eaa1@%%@AE@%. A third
class of materials, called %@AU@%SEMICONDUCTORS%@BO:          86c028@%%@AE@%, is intermediate.
Electrostatics is the study of charges, or charged bodies, at rest. When
positive or negative charge builds up in fixed positions on objects,
certain phenomena can be observed that are collectively referred to as
static electricity. The charge can be built by rubbing certain objects
together, such as silk and glass or rubber and fur; the friction between
these objects causes %@AU@%ELECTRONS%@BO:          2d8f0a@%%@AE@% to transfer from one to another with the
result that the object losing electrons acquires a positive charge and
the object gaining electrons acquires a negative charge. Electrodynamics
is the study of charges in motion. A flow of electric charge constitutes
an electric current. In order for a current to exist in a conductor,
there must be an %@AU@%ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE%@BO:          2d8da4@%%@AE@% (emf), or %@AU@%POTENTIAL%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@% difference,
between the conductor's ends. An electric %@AU@%CELL%@BO:          1ab1a5@%%@AE@%, a %@AU@%PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL%@BO:          753df7@%%@AE@%, and
a %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@% are all sources of emf. An emf source with an external
conductor connected from one of the source's two terminals to the other
constitutes an %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@%. Direct current (DC) is a flow of current
in one direction at a constant rate. Alternating current (AC) is a
current flow that increases in magnitude from zero to a maximum,
decreases back to zero, increases to a maximum in the opposite direction,
decreases to zero, and then repeats this process periodically. The number
of repetitions of the cycle occurring each second is defined as the
frequency, which is expressed in %@AU@%HERTZ%@BO:          4282f3@%%@AE@% (Hz). The frequency of ordinary
household current in the U.S. is 60 cycles per sec (60 Hz), and electric
devices must be designed to operate at this frequency. In a solid, the
current consists not of a few electrons moving rapidly but of many
electrons moving slowly; although this drift of electrons is slow, the
impulse that causes it moves through the circuit, when the circuit is
completed, at nearly the speed of light. The movement of electrons in a
current is not steady; each electron moves in a series of stops and
starts. In a direct current, the electrons are spread evenly through the
conductor; in an alternating current, the electrons tend to congregate
along the conductor surface. In liquids, gases, and semiconductors,
current carriers may be positively or negatively charged.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electrocardiography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electrocardiography%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROAPHY     @%%@QR:electrocardiography@% science of recording and interpreting the electrical%@EH@%
activity of the %@AU@%HEART%@BO:          40ef87@%%@AE@% by means of a device called a cardiograph.
Electrodes (leads) attached to the extremities and the left chest pick up
electrical currents from heart muscle contractions. The currents are
registered in wave patterns on a light-sensitive film recording known as
an electrocardiogram, cardiogram, or simply EKG or ECG. Deviations in the
normal height, form, or duration of the wave patterns indicate specific
disorders; thus the EKG is an important aid in diagnosing many heart
diseases. The first practical device for recording the activity of the
heart was developed by W. %@AU@%EINTHOVEN%@BO:          2d2316@%%@AE@% in 1903, for which he won (1923) the
Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electrochemistry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electrochemistry%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROY        @%%@QR:electrochemistry@% science dealing with the relationship between%@EH@%
electricity and chemical changes. Of principal interest are the reactions
that take place between %@AU@%ELECTRODES%@BO:          2d7836@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%ELECTROLYTES%@BO:          2d82b5@%%@AE@% in electric and
electrolytic cells (see %@AU@%ELECTROLYSIS%@BO:          2d7e18@%%@AE@%) and that take place in an
electrolyte as electricity passes through it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electrode%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electrode%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRODE       @%%@QR:electrode@% terminal, usually in the form of a wire, rod, or plate,%@EH@%
through which electric current passes between metallic and nonmetallic
parts of an %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@%. The electrode through which current passes
from the metallic to the nonmetallic conductor is called the anode; that
through which current passes from the nonmetallic to the metallic
conductor is called the cathode. An electrode may be made of a metal,
e.g., copper, lead, platinum, silver, or zinc, or of a nonmetal, commonly
carbon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electroencephalography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electroencephalography%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROOGRAPHY  @%%@QR:electroencephalography@% science of recording and analyzing the electrical%@EH@%
activity of the %@AU@%BRAIN%@BO:          1333f7@%%@AE@%. The recording, known as an electroencephalogram,
or EEG, is made through electrodes by an electroencephalograph and
appears as characteristic wave patterns. An important aid in diagnosing
brain disorders and malfunctions, it has contributed to understanding
normal brain function, %@AU@%SLEEP%@BO:          8a1e2d@%%@AE@%, and the effects of %@AU@%DRUGS%@BO:          2abe28@%%@AE@% and such
activities as %@AU@%BIOFEEDBACK%@BO:           fdcf8@%%@AE@%. The electrical activity of the brain was first
demonstrated by the German psychiatrist Hans Berger in 1929.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electrolysis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electrolysis%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROLYSIS    @%%@QR:electrolysis@% passage of an electric current through a conducting%@EH@%
solution or molten salt (either is a type of %@AU@%ELECTROLYTE%@BO:          2d82b5@%%@AE@%) that is
decomposed in the process. When a cathode, or negative electrode, and an
anode, or positive electrode, are dipped into a solution, and a
direct-current source is connected to the electrodes, the positive ions
migrate to the negative electrode and the negative ions migrate to the
positive electrode. At the negative electrode each positive ion gains an
electron and becomes neutral; at the positive electrode each negative ion
gives up an electron and becomes neutral. The migration of ions through
the electrolyte constitutes the electric current flowing from one
electrode to the other. Electrolysis is used in the commercial
preparation of various substances, e.g., chlorine by the electrolysis of
a solution of common salt, and hydrogen by the electrolysis of water. The
electrolysis of metal salts is used for plating. See also
%@AU@%ELECTROCHEMISTRY%@BO:          2d760b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electrolyte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electrolyte%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROLYTE     @%%@QR:electrolyte@% electrical conductor in which current is carried by %@AU@%IONS%@BO:          492c3f@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
rather than free electrons (as in a metal). Electrolytes include water
solutions of acids, bases (see %@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%); or %@AU@%SALTS%@BO:          83a8e6@%%@AE@%; certain pure
liquids; and molten salts. See also %@AU@%ELECTROLYSIS%@BO:          2d7e18@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electromagnet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electromagnet%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROMAGNET   @%%@QR:electromagnet@% device in which an electric current, passing through a%@EH@%
wire coil wrapped around a soft iron core, produces a magnetic field. The
magnetic-field strength produced depends on the number of turns of the
coil of wire, the size of the current, and the magnetic permeability of
the core. Electromagnets lose their magnetism when the current is
discontinued. See also %@AU@%SUPERCONDUCTIVITY%@BO:          90d1c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electromagnetic radiation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electromagnetic radiation%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROON       @%%@QR:electromagnetic radiation@% energy radiated in the form of a %@AU@%WAVE%@BO:          9fd548@%%@AE@% caused%@EH@%
by an electric field interacting with a magnetic field. Electromagnetic
radiation is the result of the acceleration of a charged particle. It
does not require a material medium, and can travel through a vacuum. The
theory of electromagnetic radiation was developed by James Clerk %@AU@%MAXWELL%@BO:          5d9adc@%%@AE@%
and published in 1865, although his ideas were not accepted until
Heinrich %@AU@%HERTZ%@BO:          4282f3@%%@AE@% proved the existence of radio waves in 1887. In order of
decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, the various types of
electromagnetic radiation are %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@% waves, %@AU@%MICROWAVES%@BO:          604836@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%INFRARED
%@AU@%RADIATION%@BO:          483032@%%@AE@%, visible %@AU@%LIGHT%@BO:          54f8dd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION%@BO:          9995e1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%X RAYS%@BO:          a3d2ea@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GAMMA
%@AU@%RADIATION%@BO:          37c042@%%@AE@%. The possible sources of electromagnetic radiation are directly
related to wavelength; long radio waves are produced by large antennas
such as those used by broadcasting stations; much shorter visible light
waves are produced by the motions of charges within atoms; the shortest
waves, those of gamma radiation, result from changes within the nucleus
of the atom. The individual quantum of electromagnetic radiation is known
as the %@AU@%PHOTON%@BO:          75327a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electromotive force%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electromotive force%@AE@%%@CR:ELECTROORCE     @%%@QR:electromotive force@% (emf), difference in electric %@AU@%POTENTIAL%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@%, or voltage,%@EH@%
between the terminals of a source of electricity. It is usually measured
in %@AU@%VOLTS%@BO:          9e3bfc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electron%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRON        @%%@QR:electron@% %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLE%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@% carrying a unit charge of negative%@EH@%
electricity. An %@AU@%ATOM%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@% consists of a small, dense, positively charged
nucleus surrounded by electrons that whirl about it in orbits, forming a
cloud of charge. Ordinarily there are just enough negative electrons to
balance the positive charge of the nucleus, and the atom is neutral. If
electrons are added or removed, a net charge results, and the atom is
said to be ionized (see %@AU@%ION%@BO:          492c3f@%%@AE@%). Atomic electrons are responsible for the
chemical properties of matter (see %@AU@%VALENCE%@BO:          9b6f17@%%@AE@%). The electron was discovered
in 1897 by Joseph John %@AU@%THOMSON%@BO:          953a63@%%@AE@%, who showed that cathode rays are composed
of electrons. The electron is the lightest known particle having a
non-zero rest mass. The positron, the electron's antiparticle (see
%@AU@%ANTIMATTER%@BO:           64b78@%%@AE@%), was discovered in 1932.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electronegativity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electronegativity%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROTY       @%%@QR:electronegativity@% in chemistry, tendency for an atom to attract a pair%@EH@%
of electrons that it shares with another atom. If the pair of electrons
is not shared equally, i.e., if they spend more time with one atom than
with the other atom, the favored atom is said to be more electronegative.
Nonmetals have much higher electronegativities than metals; of the
nonmetals, fluorine is the most electronegative, followed by oxygen,
nitrogen, and chlorine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electronic game%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electronic game%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRONIC.GAME @%%@QR:electronic game@% device that challenges eye-hand coordination in a%@EH@%
setting designed to provide entertainment and, sometimes, education. Made
possible by the development of the %@AU@%MICROPROCESSOR%@BO:          603e05@%%@AE@%, electronic games are
marketed in various sizes, such as hand-held one-player models,
home-video types consisting of cartridges that are inserted in modules
attached to television sets, and freestanding arcade versions. Most of
their appeal comes from the %@AU@%COMPUTER PROGRAM%@BO:          218aca@%%@AE@% that synchronizes flashing
lights and a variety of rhythmic auditory stimuli with the action
portrayed on a graphic display (see %@AU@%COMPUTER GRAPHICS%@BO:          21858e@%%@AE@%). The games may be
contested among several players, or an individual may engage in a test of
skill against the %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%. Game subjects include sports (e.g., baseball
and football); action warfare, often space-oriented; and such classics as
contract bridge, chess, and poker.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electronic music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electronic music%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROC        @%%@QR:electronic music@% term applied to compositions whose sounds are either%@EH@%
produced or modified electronically. The early examples of electronic
compositions, called concrete music, were taped montages of
electronically altered sound obtained by microphone from nonelectronic
sources, such as voices and street noise. After the perfection of the
tape recorder in the 1940s, music was composed with tones that were
electronically produced as well as electronically manipulated. In 1955
the synthesizer was developed, a single unit with numerous generating and
modifying capacities that enable composers to generate new sounds and to
combine these sounds with great precision. Contemporary composers of
electronic music include Karlheinz %@AU@%STOCKHAUSEN%@BO:          8f2cc9@%%@AE@%, Luciano %@AU@%BERIO%@BO:           ec5e1@%%@AE@%, and Bruno
Maderna. Since the 1950s, composers such as John %@AU@%CAGE%@BO:          16d01b@%%@AE@%, Milton %@AU@%BABBITT%@BO:           a96d1@%%@AE@%,
and others have also experimented with %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%-generated music. Many
rock musicians play electronic instruments, i.e., the instrument is
connected to an amplifier and its sound is fed through speakers (see %@AU@%ROCK
%@AU@%MUSIC%@BO:          800289@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electronics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electronics%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRONICS     @%%@QR:electronics@% a branch of electrical engineering; the science and%@EH@%
technology based on and concerned with the controlled flow of electrons
or other carriers of electric charge, especially in %@AU@%ELECTRON TUBES%@BO:          2da8a0@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%SEMICONDUCTOR%@BO:          86c028@%%@AE@% devices. The miniaturization (see %@AU@%MICROELECTRONICS%@BO:          602b66@%%@AE@%) and
savings in power brought about by the invention (1948) of the %@AU@%TRANSISTOR%@BO:          97552b@%%@AE@%
and the subsequent development of %@AU@%INTEGRATED CIRCUITS%@BO:          48a52c@%%@AE@% have allowed
%@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUITS%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% to be packaged more densely, making possible compact
%@AU@%COMPUTERS%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%, advanced %@AU@%RADAR%@BO:          7c0fb6@%%@AE@% and navigation systems, more reliable %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%TELEVISION%@BO:          93a2aa@%%@AE@% receivers, advanced sound-reproducing systems, and electronic
automotive accessories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electron microscope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electron microscope%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTROCOPE     @%%@QR:electron microscope@% instrument that produces a highly magnified image of%@EH@%
a small object, using an accelerated electron beam held within a vacuum
to illuminate the object, and electromagnetic fields to magnify and focus
the image. (By contrast, the optical %@AU@%MICROSCOPE%@BO:          6041bf@%%@AE@% uses visual light for
illumination, and glass lenses for magnifying and focusing.) First
developed in Gemany c.1932, the transmission electron microscope exploits
the very short wavelengths of accelerated electrons, which are thousands
of times shorter than those of light, to magnify an object up to one
million times without losing definition. Images produced by the
microscope are thrown onto a fluorescent screen or are photographed. The
more recently developed scanning electron microscope constructs an image
on a %@AU@%CATHODE-RAY TUBE%@BO:          1a4721@%%@AE@% as the surface of a specimen is gradually
illuminated by a television scanning probe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electron tube%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electron tube%@AE@%,%@CR:ELECTRON.TUBE   @%%@QR:electron tube@% device consisting of a sealed enclosure in which electrons%@EH@%
flow between %@AU@%ELECTRODES%@BO:          2d7836@%%@AE@% separated either by vacuum (in a vacuum tube) or
by an ionized gas at low pressure (in a gas tube). The two principal
electrodes of an electron tube are called the anode and cathode. The
simplest vacuum tube, the %@AU@%DIODE%@BO:          2925da@%%@AE@%, contains only these two electrodes. When
the cathode is heated, it emits a cloud of electrons, which are attracted
to the positive polarity of the anode and constitute the current through
the tube. Because the anode is not capable of emitting electrons, no
current can flow in the reverse direction, and the diode acts as a
%@AU@%RECTIFIER%@BO:          7d4499@%%@AE@%. In the vacuum triode, small signals applied to a third
electrode, called a grid, placed between the cathode and anode cause
large fluctuations in the current between the cathode and anode. A triode
can thus act as a signal %@AU@%AMPLIFIER%@BO:           4ed45@%%@AE@%. Although formerly the key elements of
%@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUITS%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@%, electron tubes have been almost entirely displaced by
%@AU@%SEMICONDUCTOR%@BO:          86c028@%%@AE@% devices. See also %@AU@%CATHODE-RAY TUBE%@BO:          1a4721@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%electron-volt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%electron-volt%@AE@%%@CR:ELECTRONVOLT    @%%@QR:electron-volt@% (eV), unit of %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@% used in atomic and nuclear physics; 1%@EH@%
eV is the energy transferred in moving a unit electric charge, positive
or negative and equal in magnitude to the charge of the electron, through
a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 eV=1.60*10%@AH@%-19%@AE@% joules=1.60*10%@AH@%-12%@AE@% ergs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elegy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elegy%@AE@%,%@CR:ELEGY           @%%@QR:elegy@% in Greek and Roman poetry, type of verse (in hexameter and%@EH@%
pentameter couplets), written by %@AU@%THEOCRITUS%@BO:          94b2ac@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OVID%@BO:          6f9514@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CATULLUS%@BO:          1a6813@%%@AE@%, and others;
in English, a reflective poem of lamentation or regret, of no set
metrical form, mourning one person, e.g., P.B. %@AU@%SHELLEY'S%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@% "Adonais," or
all mankind, e.g., Thomas %@AU@%GRAY'S%@BO:          3c8da0@%%@AE@% "Elegy in a Country Churchyard." The
pastoral elegy, of which John %@AU@%MILTON'S%@BO:          60e6b0@%%@AE@% "Lycidas" is the best known, has a
classical pastoral setting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%element%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%element%@AE@%,%@CR:ELEMENT         @%%@QR:element@% in chemistry, substance composed of %@AU@%ATOMS%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@% all having the same%@EH@%
number of %@AU@%PROTONS%@BO:          7a3d8e@%%@AE@% in their nuclei. This number, called the %@AU@%ATOMIC NUMBER%@BO:           9932e@%%@AE@%,
defines the element and establishes its place in the %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%. Each
element is assigned a symbol of one or two letters . The total number of
protons and %@AU@%NEUTRONS%@BO:          688b68@%%@AE@% in the nucleus of an atom is called the %@AU@%MASS NUMBER%@BO:          5cf2e9@%%@AE@%.
Although all atoms of an element have the same number of protons in their
nuclei, they may not all have the same number of neutrons. Atoms of an
element with the same mass number make up an %@AU@%ISOTOPE%@BO:          4a2f0d@%%@AE@% of the element. All
elements have isotopes; over 1,000 isotopes of the elements are known. As
of 1989, 108 elements were known. Only 92 elements occur naturally on
earth; the others are produced artificially (see %@AU@%SYNTHETIC ELEMENTS%@BO:          91f0d9@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS%@BO:          977dcd@%%@AE@%). The chemical properties of an element are due to
the distribution of electrons around the nucleus, particularly the outer,
or %@AU@%VALENCE%@BO:          9b6f17@%%@AE@%, electrons (the ones involved in chemical reactions). Chemical
reaction does not affect the nucleus and thus does not change the atomic
number. For this reason an element is often defined as a substance that
cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means. See also
%@AU@%ATOMIC WEIGHT%@BO:           99540@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COMPOUND%@BO:          21587f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOLECULE%@BO:          62532b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@TH: 111 10911 03 15 08 15 16 36 36 @%%@AB@%ELEMENTS%@AE@%%@AI@%Element%@AE@%        %@AI@%Symbol%@AE@%  %@AI@%Atomic Number%@AE@%  %@AI@%Atomic Weight%@AE@%%@AH@%1%@AE@%  %@AI@%Melting Point (Degrees Centigrade)%@AE@%  %@AI@%Boiling Point (Degrees Centigrade)%@AE@%%@AB@%──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────%@AE@%%@NL@%actinium       Ac      89             227.0278        1050.                               3200.+-300aluminum       Al      13             26.98154        660.37                              2467.americium      Am      95             (243)           994.+-4                             2607.antimony       Sb      51             121.75          630.74                              1950.argon          Ar      18             39.948          -189.2                              -185.7arsenic        As      33             74.9216         817. (28 atmospheres)               613. (sublimates)astatine       At      85             (210)           302 (est.)                          337. (est.)barium         Ba      56             137.33          725.                                1640.berkelium      Bk      97             (247)           --                                  --beryllium      Be      4              9.01218         1278.+-5                            2970.bismuth        Bi      83             208.9804        271.3                               1560.+-5boron          B       5              10.81           2079.                               2550. (sublimates)bromine        Br      35             79.904          -7.2                                58.78cadmium        Cd      48             112.41          320.9                               765.calcium        Ca      20             40.08           839.+-2                             1484.californium    Cf      98             (251)           --                                  --   carbon         C       6              12.011          ~3550.                              4827.cerium         Ce      58             140.12          799.                                3426.cesium         Cs      55             132.9054        28.40                               669.3chlorine       Cl      17             35.453          -100.98                             34.6chromium       Cr      24             51.996          1857.+-20                           2672.cobalt         Co      27             58.9332         1495.                               2870.copper         Cu      29             63.546          1083.4+-0.2                         2567.curium         Cm      96             (247)           1340.+-40                           --dysprosium     Dy      66             162.50          1412.                               2562.einsteinium    Es      99             (252)           --                                  --   erbium         Er      68             167.26          1522.                               2863.europium       Eu      63             151.96          822.                                1597.fermium        Fm      100            (257)           --                                  --   fluorine       F       9              18.998403       -219.62                             -188.14francium       Fr      87             (223)           (27) (est.)                         (677) (est.)gadolinium     Gd      64             157.25          1313.+-1                            3266.gallium        Ga      31             69.72           29.78                               2403.germanium      Ge      32             72.59           937.4                               2830.gold           Au      79             196.9665        1064.43                             3080.hafnium        Hf      72             178.49          2227.+-20                           4602.helium         He      2              4.00260         <-272.2                             -268.934holmium        Ho      67             164.9304        1474.                               2695.hydrogen       H       1              1.00794         -259.14                             -252.87indium         In      49             114.82          156.61                              2080.iodine         I       53             126.9045        113.5                               184.35iridium        Ir      77             192.22          2410.                               4130.iron           Fe      26             55.847          1535.                               2750.krypton        Kr      36             83.80           -156.6                              -152.30+-0.10lanthanum      La      57             138.9055        921.                                3457.Iawrencium     Lw      103            (260)           --                                  --   lead           Pb      82             207.2           327.502                             1740.lithium        Li      3              6.941           180.54                              1342.Iutetium       Lu      71             174.967         1663.                               3395.magnesium      Mg      12             24.305          648.8+-0.5                          1090.manganese      Mn      25             54.9380         1244.+-3                            1962.mendelevium    Md      101            (258)           --                                  --   mercury        Hg      80             200.59          -38.842                             356.58molybdenum     Mo      42             95.94           2617.                               4612.neodymium      Nd      60             144.24          1021.                               3068.neon           Ne      10             20.179          -248.67                             -246.048neptunium      Np      93             237.0482        640.+-1                             3902. (est.)nickel         Ni      28             58.69           1453.                               2732.niobium        Nb      41             92.9064         2468.+10                            4742.nitrogen       N       7              14.0067         -209.86                             -195.8nobelium       No      102            (259)           --                                  -- osmium         Os      76             190.2           3045.+30                            5027.+100oxygen         0       8              15.9994         -218.4                              -182.962palladium      Pd      46             106.42          1554.                               2970.phosphorus     P       15             30.97376        44.1 (white)                        280. (white)platinum       Pt      78             195.08          1772.                               3827.+-100plutonium      Pu      94             (244)           641.                                3232.polonium       Po      84             (209)           254.                                962.potassium      K       19             39.0983         63.25                               760.praseodymium   Pr      59             140.9077        931.                                3512.promethium     Pm      61             (145)           ~1168.+-6                           2460.protactinium   Pa      91             231.0359        <1600.                              -- radium         Ra      88             226.0254        700.                                1140.radon          Rn      86             (222)           -71.                                -61.8rhenium        Re      75             186.207         3180.                               5627. (est.)rhodium        Rh      45             102.9055        1966.+-3                            3727.+-100rubidium       Rb      37             85.4678         38.89                               686.ruthenium      Ru      44             101.07          2310.                               3900.samarium       Sm      62             150.36          1072.+-5                            1791.scandium       Sc      21             44.9559         1541.                               2831.selenium       Se      34             78.96           217.                                684.9+-1.0silicon        Si      14             28.0855         1410.                               2355.silver         Ag      47             107.8682        961.93                              2212.sodium         Na      11             22.98977        97.81+-0.03                         882.9strontium      Sr      38             87.62           769.                                1384.sulfur         S       16             32.06           112.8                               444.674tantalum       Ta      73             180.9479        2996.                               5425.+-100technetium     Tc      43             (98)            2172.                               4877.tellurium      Te      52             127.60          449.5+-0.3                          989.8+-3.8terbium        Tb      65             158.9254        1356.                               3123.thallium       Tl      81             204.383         303.5                               1457.+-10thorium        Th      90             232.0381        1750.                               4790.thulium        Tm      69             168.9342        1545.+-15                           1947.tin            Sn      50             118.69          231.9681                            2270.titanium       Ti      22             47.88           1660.+-10                           3287.tungsten       W       74             183.85          3410.+-20                           5660.unnilennium    Une     109            (266)           --                                  -- unnilhexium    Unh     106            (263)           --                                  --unnilpentium%@AH@%2%@AE@%  Unp     105            (262)           --                                  -- unnilquadium%@AH@%3%@AE@%  Unq     104            (261)           --                                  -- unnilseptium   Uns     107            (262)           --                                  -- uranium        U       92             238.0289        1132.3+-0.8                         3818.vanadium       V       23             50.9415         1890.+-10                           3380.xenon          Xe      54             131.29          -111.9                              -107.1+-3ytterbium      Yb      70             173.04          819.                                1194.yttrium        Y       39             88.9059         1522.+-8                            3338.zinc           Zn      30             65.38           419.58                              907.zirconium      Zr      40             91.22           1852.+-2                            4377.%@TE: 111 10911 03 15 08 15 16 36 36 @%

%@AH@%1%@AE@% %@AI@%Parentheses indicate most stable isotope.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@AH@%2%@AE@% %@AI@%Other proposed names are nielsbohrium (USSR) and hahnium (U 5.).%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@AH@%3%@AE@% %@AI@%Other proposed names are kurchatovium (USSR) and rutherfordium (U.S.).%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elementary particles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elementary particles%@AE@%,%@CR:ELEMENTICLES    @%%@QR:elementary particles@% tiny bits of matter assumed to be the most basic%@EH@%
constituents of the universe. Certain elementary particles combine to
form an %@AU@%ATOM%@BO:           97c93@%%@AE@%, which is the basic unit of any chemical %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% and from
which all forms of matter are built. The first elementary particle to be
discovered was the %@AU@%ELECTRON%@BO:          2d8f0a@%%@AE@%, identified in 1897 by Joseph John %@AU@%THOMSON%@BO:          953a63@%%@AE@%.
The nucleus of ordinary hydrogen was subsequently recognized as a single
particle and was named the %@AU@%PROTON%@BO:          7a3d8e@%%@AE@%. The third basic particle in an atom,
the %@AU@%NEUTRON%@BO:          688b68@%%@AE@%, was discovered in 1932. Although models of the atom
consisting of just these three particles are sufficient to account for
all forms of chemical behavior of matter, %@AU@%QUANTUM THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@% predicted the
existence of additional elementary particles. A search for the positron,
or antiparticle (see %@AU@%ANTIMATTER%@BO:           64b78@%%@AE@%) of the electron, led to its detection in
1932, but a search for a particle predicted by %@AU@%YUKAWA HIDEKI%@BO:          a4ad84@%%@AE@% in 1935 led
to the unexpected discovery of the mu meson, or muon, the following year.
Yukawa's particle was finally discovered in 1947 and named the pi meson,
or pion. Both the muon and the pion were first observed in %@AU@%COSMIC RAYS%@BO:          23af5d@%%@AE@%.
As the list of particles and antiparticles grew, through further study of
cosmic rays and the study of the results of particle collisions produced
by %@AU@%PARTICLE ACCELERATORS%@BO:          71b454@%%@AE@%, four basic categories of particles were
distinguished, according to their behavior with regard to the four
fundamental forces of nature: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong
nuclear, and weak nuclear. A given particle experiences certain of these
forces but may be immune to others. The gravitational force is
experienced by all particles. The electromagnetic force is experienced
only by charged particles, although it is transmitted by the %@AU@%PHOTON%@BO:          75327a@%%@AE@%,
which has no charge. The weak and strong nuclear forces exist only at the
atomic level. Of the four classes of particles, the smallest is that of
the massless bosons, which include the photon, eight types of gluons, and
the hypothetical graviton. The lepton class includes twelve particles:
the electron, the positron, the positive and negative muons, the tauon
and its antiparticle, and the neutrino or antineutrino associated with
each of these particles. The bosons and the leptons are not strongly
interacting. Members of the meson class are more massive than the
leptons. The mesons are the "glue" that holds nuclei together. By far the
largest class of particles is the baryon class, the lightest members of
which are the proton and neutron; the heavier members are the hyperons.
Baryons and mesons, both strongly interacting, are sometimes considered
together as hadrons. A theory independently proposed in 1964 by Murray
Gell-Mann and George Zweig explains the properties of all known hadrons
according to the assumption that hadrons are built up of other, still
more fundamental particles called %@AU@%QUARKS%@BO:          7b8f3c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elephant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elephant%@AE@%,%@CR:ELEPHANT        @%%@QR:elephant@% largest living land %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@%, of Africa and Asia. It has a%@EH@%
massive head, thick legs, and tough, gray skin. The upper lip extends
into a long, flexible trunk used for drinking, spraying, conveying food
to the mouth, and touching; the large ears provide an extensive cooling
surface. African bull elephants may measure 13 ft (4 m) high at the
shoulder and weigh 6 to 8 tons (5400 to 7200 kg). Hunted for their great,
curved ivory tusks, they have become endangered. Highly intelligent, they
are used in foresting and trained as circus and zoo performers. See also
%@AU@%MAMMOTH%@BO:          5a892b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MASTODON%@BO:          5d05b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elephantiasis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elephantiasis%@AE@%,%@CR:ELEPHANTIASIS   @%%@QR:elephantiasis@% abnormal enlargement of any part of the body due to%@EH@%
obstruction of the lymphatic channels in the affected area. In tropical
countries, the most common cause is a disease called filariasis, a result
of the infestation of small roundworms, %@AI@%Filaria,%@AE@% in the %@AU@%LYMPHATIC SYSTEM%@BO:          583eee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eleusinian Mysteries%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eleusinian Mysteries%@AE@%,%@CR:ELEUSINERIES    @%%@QR:Eleusinian Mysteries@% principal religious %@AU@%MYSTERIES%@BO:          65dfb1@%%@AE@% of ancient Greece,%@EH@%
held at %@AU@%ELEUSIS%@BO:          2dfb73@%%@AE@%. The secret rites, which celebrated the abduction of
%@AU@%PERSEPHONE%@BO:          739443@%%@AE@% and her return to her mother %@AU@%DEMETER%@BO:          27c701@%%@AE@%, symbolized the annual
cycle of death and rebirth in nature, as well as the immortality of the
soul. %@AU@%DIONYSUS%@BO:          293219@%%@AE@% was also much honored at the festival.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eleusis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eleusis%@AE@%%@CR:ELEUSIS         @%%@QR:Eleusis@%, ancient city of Attica, %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, NW of %@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@%. It was the seat of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES%@BO:          2df8ef@%%@AE@%, dedicated to %@AU@%DEMETER%@BO:          27c701@%%@AE@%. The Eleusinian games were
also held there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elevator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elevator%@AE@%,%@CR:ELEVATOR        @%%@QR:elevator@% mechanical lift device for transporting people or goods from%@EH@%
one level to another. The American inventor Elisha G. Otis demonstrated
(1853) a safety device designed to prevent the fall of an elevator if its
supporting cable should break; in 1861 he patented a steam-powered
elevator. Steam was gradually replaced, first in the early 1870s by
hydraulic power (see %@AU@%HYDRAULIC MACHINERY%@BO:          45dc46@%%@AE@%) and then toward the end of the
19th cent. by electricity. Safety devices were improved and automatic
controls introduced as elevator speeds increased.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elgar, Sir Edward William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elgar, Sir Edward William%@AE@%,%@CR:ELGAR           @%%@QR:Elgar, Sir Edward William@% 1857-1934, English composer. Among his%@EH@%
outstanding compositions are %@AI@%Variations on an Original Theme%@AE@% (or %@AI@%Enigma
%@AI@%Variations,%@AE@% 1899) and the Violin Concerto in B Minor. He is best known
for the %@AI@%Pomp and Circumstance%@AE@% marches (1901-30).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of%@AE@%,%@CR:ELGIN           @%%@QR:Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of@% 1766-1841, British diplomat. While on a%@EH@%
diplomatic mission in Constantinople (1799-1803), he arranged for the
%@AU@%ELGIN MARBLES%@BO:          2e0509@%%@AE@% to be brought to England. His son %@AB@%James Bruce,%@AE@% 8th %@AB@%earl of
%@AB@%Elgin,%@AE@% 1811-63, was governor general of Canada (1847-54). He implemented
the plan for responsible government outlined by his father-in-law, the
earl of %@AU@%DURHAM%@BO:          2b5a46@%%@AE@%, and personally negotiated the reciprocity treaty of 1854
with the U.S. His son, %@AB@%Victor Alexander Bruce,%@AE@% 9th %@AB@%earl of Elgin,%@AE@%
1849-1917, was viceroy of India (1894-99) and colonial secretary
(1905-8).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elgin Marbles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elgin Marbles%@AE@%,%@CR:ELGIN.MARBLES   @%%@QR:Elgin Marbles@% ancient sculpture taken from the Acropolis of Athens to%@EH@%
England in 1806 by Thomas Bruce, 7th earl of Elgin. The %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@% frieze
by %@AU@%PHIDIAS%@BO:          74742e@%%@AE@% and sculpture from the %@AU@%ERECHTHEUM%@BO:          2fbc7a@%%@AE@% are on view at the British
Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%El Greco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%El Greco%@AE@%:%@CR:EL.GRECO        @%%@QR:El Greco@% see %@AU@%GRECO, EL%@BO:          3cfa0c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eliade, Mircea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eliade, Mircea%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIADE          @%%@QR:Eliade, Mircea@% 1907-86, American religious scholar and writer; b.%@EH@%
Bucharest. A student of myths and mystical experiences, he wrote over 50
books, including a history of religious ideas, completed in 1985, and
novels such as %@AI@%The Forbidden Forest%@AE@% (1955) and %@AI@%The Old Man and the
%@AI@%Bureaucrats%@AE@% (1979). He was editor of the multivolume %@AI@%Encyclopedia of
%@AI@%Religion and Religious Belief%@AE@% (1988).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elias%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIAS           @%%@QR:Elias@% Greek form of %@AU@%ELIJAH%@BO:          2e0a6b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elijah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elijah%@AE@%%@CR:ELIJAH          @%%@QR:Elijah@% or %@AB@%Elias,%@AE@%fl. c.875 BC, Hebrew %@AU@%PROPHET%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@% in the reign of King %@AU@%AHAB%@BO:           22847@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and an outstanding figure in the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%. Elijah's mission was to
destroy the worship of foreign gods and to restore justice, and his zeal
brought about a temporary banishment of idolatry. His story in the Bible
has many incidents, such as his raising the widow's son from the dead,
his being fed by ravens, his experience of the still, small voice on Mt.
Horeb, and his departure from earth in a chariot of fire enveloped in a
whirlwind. 1 Kings 17-19; 21; 2Kings 1-2. His disciple was %@AU@%ELISHA%@BO:          2e1dea@%%@AE@%. In
Jewish tradition, Elijah is the herald of the %@AU@%MESSIAH%@BO:          5f23a1@%%@AE@%. He is also
prominent in the %@AU@%KORAN%@BO:          508524@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elijah ben Solomon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elijah ben Solomon%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIJAH.MON      @%%@QR:Elijah ben Solomon@% 1720-97, Jewish scholar, called the Gaon Eminence of%@EH@%
Vilna; b. Lithuania. Although a student of the %@AU@%CABALA%@BO:          167cc0@%%@AE@%, he fought the
spread of %@AU@%HASIDISM%@BO:          4062bc@%%@AE@% among the Jews of Lithuania and Poland, fearing that
it would weaken the Jewish community. His major writings were on the
%@AU@%HALAKAH%@BO:          3f37de@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eliot, Charles William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eliot, Charles William%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIOT1          @%%@QR:Eliot, Charles William@% 1834-1926, American educator and president of%@EH@%
Harvard Univ. (1869-1909); b. Boston. His 40-year administration at
Harvard Univ. developed the college into a great modern university. He
extended the elective system, added new courses, required written exams,
enlarged the faculty, and increased entrance requirements while raising
the standards for professional degrees. He supported Elizabeth Cary
Agassiz's development of Radcliffe, and was also influential in securing
greater uniformity in high school curricula and college entrance
requirements. Eliot published widely.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eliot, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eliot, George%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIOT2          @%%@QR:Eliot, George@% pseud. of %@AB@%Mary Ann%@AE@% or %@AB@%Marian Evans,%@AE@% 1819-80, English%@EH@%
novelist, a major 19th-cent. writer. She defied convention to live with
her mentor, G.H. Lewes. Writing about rural life, Eliot was primarily
concerned with people's moral choices and their responsibility for their
own lives. Her novels include %@AI@%Adam Bede%@AE@% (1859) and %@AI@%Silas Marner%@AE@% (1861).
%@AI@%Middlemarch%@AE@% (1871-72) is considered her masterpiece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eliot, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eliot, John%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIOT3          @%%@QR:Eliot, John@% 1604-90, English missionary in colonial Massachusetts,%@EH@%
called the Apostle to the Indians. A Puritan, he arrived in Boston in
1631, studied the area's Indian language, began preaching, and
established villages for his native converts. His translation of the
Bible into an Algonquian Indian language (1661-63) and his %@AI@%Indian Primer%@AE@%
(1669) are prime sources of our knowledge of the peoples of the area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns)%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIOT4          @%%@QR:Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns)@% 1888-1965, English poet, one of the most%@EH@%
influential literary figures of the 20th cent.; b. St. Louis. Living in
London from 1914, he became a British subject in 1927, the same year he
espoused Anglo-Catholicism. He was associated with the periodicals %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Egoist%@AE@% (1917-30) and his own %@AI@%Criterion%@AE@% (1922-39), and he had an active
career in publishing. Eliot's early poems-%@AI@%Prufrock and Other Observations%@AE@%
(1917), %@AI@%Poems%@AE@% (1920), and %@AI@%The Wasteland%@AE@% (1922)-express the anguish and
barrenness of modern life. Breaking completely with the 19th-cent. poetic
tradition, they drew on the 17th-cent. %@AU@%METAPHYSICAL POETS%@BO:          5f4423@%%@AE@%, along with
%@AU@%DANTE%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@%, Jacobean drama, and the French %@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%. Eliot's later, more
hopeful, poetry includes %@AI@%Ash Wednesday%@AE@% (1930) and %@AI@%Four Quartets%@AE@%
(1935-42). He was also an important critic. His plays, attempts to
revitalize the verse drama, include %@AI@%Murder in the Cathedral%@AE@% (1935) and
%@AI@%The Cocktail Party%@AE@% (1950). He was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elisabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elisabeth%@AE@%:%@CR:ELISABETH       @%%@QR:Elisabeth@% see %@AU@%ELIZABETH%@BO:          2e1f39@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elisha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elisha%@AE@%%@CR:ELISHA          @%%@QR:Elisha@% or %@AB@%Eliseus%@AE@%, Hebrew prophet. He continued the work of %@AU@%ELIJAH%@BO:          2e0a6b@%%@AE@%, but%@EH@%
was more diplomatic and of a milder nature. Unlike Elijah, he had many
disciples. 2 Kings 1-13.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIZABETH1      @%%@QR:Elizabeth@% 1837-98, empress of Austria and queen of Hungary, consort of%@EH@%
%@AU@%FRANCIS JOSEPH%@BO:          3550b0@%%@AE@%. Her life was marred by tragedy, notably the death of her
only son, Archduke %@AU@%RUDOLF%@BO:          81c559@%%@AE@%. She was assassinated in Geneva by an Italian
anarchist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIZABETH2      @%%@QR:Elizabeth@% 1709-62, czarina of Russia (1741-62); daughter of %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%CATHERINE I%@BO:          1a329e@%%@AE@%. She gained the throne by overthrowing %@AU@%IVAN VI%@BO:          4a7fe6@%%@AE@%. Violently
anti-German, she sided against %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% of Prussia in the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@%. She gave the nobles greater power over their serfs and in local
government, while decreasing the service they owed the state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIZABETH3      @%%@QR:Elizabeth@% queens of England. %@AB@%Elizabeth I,%@AE@% 1533-1603, queen of England%@EH@%
(1558-1603), the daughter of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% and Anne %@AU@%BOLEYN%@BO:          119162@%%@AE@%, was declared
illegitimate after her mother's execution; in 1544 Parliament
reestablished her in the succession. Imprisoned as a rallying point for
discontented Protestants, she regained some freedom by outward conformity
to Catholicism. On her accession in 1558 England's low fortunes included
religious strife, a huge government debt, and failure in wars with
France. Her reign took England through one of its greatest eras-a period
that produced such men as William %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%, Edmund %@AU@%SPENSER%@BO:          8d716d@%%@AE@%, Francis
%@AU@%BACON%@BO:           aced4@%%@AE@%, and Walter %@AU@%RALEIGH%@BO:          7c7f53@%%@AE@%; a period that saw the country united to become
a first-rate European power with a great navy; a period in which commerce
and industry prospered and colonization began. Elizabeth's Tudor concept
of strong rule and the need for popular support helped her select
excellent counselors, such as Sir William Cecil (Lord %@AU@%BURGHLEY%@BO:          159e0b@%%@AE@%) and Sir
Francis Walsingham. She reestablished Anglicanism, and measures against
Catholics grew harsher. Important legislation enacted in her reign
included stabilization of labor conditions, currency reforms, poor laws,
and acts to encourage agriculture, commerce, and manufacturing. Elizabeth
began a policy of peace, and her diplomatic maneuvers eventually defeated
Spain and stalemated France. The Treaty of Edinburgh (1560) started a
policy of supporting Protestant lords against Catholics. After the
abdication of %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@% from the Scottish throne, Elizabeth
gave her refuge, kept her prisoner, and executed her only after numerous
plots to seat Mary on the English throne. Although she had many
favorites, notably the earl of %@AU@%LEICESTER%@BO:          539b1b@%%@AE@%, Elizabeth never married, but
she used the possibility of marriage as a diplomatic tool. By marriage
negotiations with %@AU@%FRANCIS%@BO:          354568@%%@AE@%, duke of Alencon and Anjou, she secured (1572)
a defense alliance against Spain and, later, French aid for the Dutch
against Spain, which now emerged as England's main enemy. %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of
Spain, whose marriage offer Elizabeth had refused in 1559, planned the
Spanish %@AU@%ARMADA%@BO:           7ed3f@%%@AE@% as a reprisal for English raids against Spanish shipping.
The defeat of the Armada (1588) broke the power of Spain and strengthened
England's national pride. Elizabeth's last years were darkened by the
rash uprising of her favorite, Robert Devereux, 2d earl of %@AU@%ESSEX%@BO:          301780@%%@AE@%. She was
succeeded by James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, who became
%@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% of England. Vain, fickle in bestowing favors, prejudiced,
vacillating, and parsimonious, she was nonetheless a great monarch,
highly aware of the responsibility of rule and immensely courageous.
%@AB@%Elizabeth II,%@AE@% 1926-, queen of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
succeeded her father, %@AU@%GEORGE VI%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%, in 1952. In 1947 she married Philip
Mountbatten, duke of %@AU@%EDINBURGH%@BO:          2c635f@%%@AE@%. They have four children: Prince %@AU@%CHARLES%@BO:          1c12e1@%%@AE@%,
Princess %@AU@%ANNE%@BO:           5caac@%%@AE@%, Prince Andrew (b. 1960), and Prince Edward (b. 1964). In
1977 she celebrated her Silver Jubilee, the 25th anniversary of her
accession to the throne. Her mother, %@AB@%Elizabeth,%@AE@% 1900-, queen consort to
George VI, was the daughter of the 14th earl of Strathmore.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIZABETH4      @%%@QR:Elizabeth@% 1843-1916, queen of %@AU@%RUMANIA%@BO:          81dbb9@%%@AE@%, consort of %@AU@%CAROL I%@BO:          191b58@%%@AE@%, also known as%@EH@%
Elizabeth of Wied. Under the pseudonym Carmen Sylva she wrote extensively
in several languages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIZABETH5      @%%@QR:Elizabeth@% city (1986 est. pop. 106,540), seat of Union co., NE N.J., on%@EH@%
Newark Bay; settled 1609, inc. 1855. It is one of the largest container
seaports in the world, and manufactures sewing machines, processed foods,
pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. The area was purchased from the Indians
in 1664. It was the scene of several clashes during the %@AU@%AMERICAN
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elizabethan style%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elizabethan style%@AE@%,%@CR:ELIZABELE       @%%@QR:Elizabethan style@% in architecture and decorative arts, transitional%@EH@%
style of the English %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% during which large manor houses were
built. Plans tended toward symmetry, although such characteristics of
%@AU@%TUDOR STYLE%@BO:          9876f3@%%@AE@% as the great hall remained. New features were added, notably
broad staircases and long galleries. A famous example is Longleat,
Wiltshire. Owners often designed houses themselves, and carpenters and
masons amplified the plans. Renaissance, mannerist, and Flemish motifs
were haphazardly adapted with no attempt at a unified classical style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elizabeth Woodville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elizabeth Woodville%@AE@%:%@CR:ELIZABEILLE     @%%@QR:Elizabeth Woodville@% see %@AU@%WOODVILLE, ELIZABETH%@BO:          a2ff32@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elk%@AE@%,%@CR:ELK             @%%@QR:elk@% any of several members of the %@AU@%DEER%@BO:          275a2e@%%@AE@% family. It most properly%@EH@%
designates the largest member of the family, %@AI@%Alcesalces,%@AE@% found in N North
America, where it is called %@AU@%MOOSE%@BO:          63a729@%%@AE@%, and Eurasia. The name %@AI@%elk%@AE@% is used in
North America to designate a different animal, the %@AU@%WAPITI%@BO:          9ef97b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elkin, Stanley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elkin, Stanley%@AE@%,%@CR:ELKIN           @%%@QR:Elkin, Stanley@% 1930-, American novelist and short-story writer; b.%@EH@%
N.Y.C. An offbeat comic writer with a gift for imagery and bizarre
situations, Elkin demonstrates an underlying seriousness in such novels
as %@AI@%Boswell%@AE@% (1964), %@AI@%The Living End%@AE@% (1979), and %@AI@%George Mills%@AE@% (1982), and
the stories in %@AI@%Criers and Kibitzers, Kibitzers and Criers%@AE@% (1966).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ellice Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ellice Islands%@AE@%:%@CR:ELLICE.ISLANDS  @%%@QR:Ellice Islands@% see %@AU@%TUVALU%@BO:          990c57@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ellington, Duke%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ellington, Duke%@AE@%%@CR:ELLINGTON       @%%@QR:Ellington, Duke@% (Edward Kennedy Ellington), 1899-1974, black American%@EH@%
jazz pianist and composer; b. Washington, D.C. He formed a band in 1918
and became nationally famous while appearing in Harlem (N.Y.C.)
nightclubs. His orchestra, playing his own often complex compositions,
made many innovations in the %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% idiom. Ellington's compositions include
"Solitude" and "Mood Indigo" as well as such long concert works as %@AI@%Black,
%@AI@%Brown, and Beige%@AE@% (1943).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ellipse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ellipse%@AE@%:%@CR:ELLIPSE         @%%@QR:ellipse@% see %@AU@%CONIC SECTION%@BO:          221550@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elliptical geometry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elliptical geometry%@AE@%:%@CR:ELLIPTIETRY     @%%@QR:elliptical geometry@% see %@AU@%NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          6b0516@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ellis Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ellis Island%@AE@%,%@CR:ELLIS.ISLAND    @%%@QR:Ellis Island@% c.27 acres (10.9 hectares), in Upper New York Bay.%@EH@%
Government property since 1808, it served (1892-1943) as the chief entry
station for immigrants to the U.S. It is now part of the Statue of
Liberty National Monument.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ellison, Ralph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ellison, Ralph%@AE@%,%@CR:ELLISON         @%%@QR:Ellison, Ralph@% 1914-, black American writer; b. Oklahoma City. His%@EH@%
classic novel, %@AI@%Invisible Man%@AE@% (1952), details the struggles of a nameless
young black man in a hostile society. A collection of his essays,
speeches, interviews, and reviews is %@AI@%Going to the Territory%@AE@% (1986).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ellsworth, Lincoln%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ellsworth, Lincoln%@AE@%,%@CR:ELLSWORTH1      @%%@QR:Ellsworth, Lincoln@% 1880-1951, American explorer; b. Chicago. He was the%@EH@%
financial backer and colleague of Roald %@AU@%AMUNDSEN%@BO:           4fa76@%%@AE@%. With the aviator
Umberto Nobile, they flew over the %@AU@%NORTH POLE%@BO:          6bad4f@%%@AE@% in a dirigible in 1925.
Ellsworth was the first man to fly over %@AU@%ANTARCTICA%@BO:           5f5e2@%%@AE@% (1936). In 1939 he
flew into interior Antarctica, viewing and claiming vast areas for the
U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ellsworth, Oliver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ellsworth, Oliver%@AE@%,%@CR:ELLSWORTH2      @%%@QR:Ellsworth, Oliver@% 1745-1807, 3d chief justice of the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1796-99); b. Windsor, Conn. At the %@AU@%FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@%
(1787), he (with Roger Sherman) advanced the "Connecticut compromise,"
ending the struggle between large and small states over congressional
representation. As U.S. senator (1789-96) he was the chief author of the
bill establishing the federal court system.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elm%@AE@%,%@CR:ELM             @%%@QR:elm@% tree or shrub of the family Ulmaceae, found chiefly in the Northern%@EH@%
Hemisphere. Elm trees (genus %@AI@%Ulmus%@AE@%) are tall and graceful, with
fan-shaped crowns of finely subdividing branches and twigs. The American,
or white, elm (%@AI@%U. americana%@AE@%) and the English, or Wych, elm (%@AI@%U.
%@AI@%campestris%@AE@%) of Eurasia are widely planted as ornamental and shade trees.
Both species are vulnerable to the fungus known as Dutch elm disease.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elohim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elohim%@AE@%:%@CR:ELOHIM          @%%@QR:Elohim@% see %@AU@%GOD%@BO:          3adbf5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%elongation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%elongation%@AE@%,%@CR:ELONGATION      @%%@QR:elongation@% the angular distance between two points in the sky as%@EH@%
measured from a third point. As viewed from a third body, the elongation
of two celestial bodies will be 0 deg when they are in conjunction and
180 deg when in opposition (see %@AU@%SYZYGY%@BO:          92159b@%%@AE@%); quadrature occurs when the two
bodies have an elongation of 90 deg. As viewed from the earth, the
greatest elongations with respect to the sun of the inferior planets
Mercury and Venus are 28 deg and 47 deg; the moon and the superior
planets can range from 0 deg to 180 deg.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%El Paso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%El Paso%@AE@%,%@CR:EL.PASO         @%%@QR:El Paso@% city (1986 est. pop. 491,800), seat of El Paso co., extreme W%@EH@%
Tex., on the %@AU@%RIO GRANDE%@BO:          7f653f@%%@AE@%, opposite %@AU@%JUAREZ%@BO:          4d70c5@%%@AE@%, Mex., and near the N.Mex.
border; inc. 1873. Located in a region of cattle ranches and farms, the
city is a port, and a commercial, industrial, and mining center.
Manufactures include refined petroleum, copper, clothing, and machinery.
The dry climate attracts tourists. The largest of the border cities, El
Paso's history is bound up with that of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@%. Early settlement in the
area was on the south (Juarez) bank of the river; the first house on the
site of the present city was built in 1827. The arrival of railroad
service in 1881 initiated the border town's growth into a modern city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%El Salvador%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%El Salvador%@AE@%,%@CR:EL.SALVADOR     @%%@QR:El Salvador@% officially Republic of El Salvador, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
5,009,000), 8,260 sq mi (21,393 sq km), Central America; bordered by the
Pacific Ocean (S), Guatemala (W), and Honduras (N and E). The capital is
%@AU@%SAN SALVADOR%@BO:          8425be@%%@AE@%. Two volcanic ranges traverse the country from west to east.
In between are the broad, fertile valleys that are the nation's
heartland. The densely populated country is the smallest of the Latin
American republics, with a weak economy overly dependent on fluctuation
in the world market price for coffee, the principal export. Cotton and
sugar are also exported while oil and manufactured goods are imported.
Rice is the main subsistence crop. Light industry includes textile
manufacture and food processing. The Spanish-speaking, Roman Catholic
population is predominantly mestizo.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Spaniards conquered the area in 1524. El Salvador declared
independence in 1821 and after a brief period was part of the Mexican
Empire (1821-23) and then of the %@AU@%CENTRAL AMERICAN FEDERATION%@BO:          1af48e@%%@AE@% (1825-38).
Becoming a separate republic in 1839 it was plagued by frequent
interference from nearby states, notably %@AU@%GUATEMALA%@BO:          3e2308@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NICARAGUA%@BO:          69befe@%%@AE@%. The
establishment of coffee cultivation in the late 19th cent. created an
inequitable distribution of wealth that became the basis for future
unrest and, consequently, of several repressive dictatorships.
Overpopulation was a major 20th-cent. problem. Failure of land reform in
the 1970s brought increasing left-right polarization and guerrilla
warfare, with U.S. and Cuban involvement. In 1982 the left boycotted a
widely publicized election that brought a right-wing coalition into
power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elsheimer, Adam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elsheimer, Adam%@AE@%%@CR:ELSHEIMER       @%%@QR:Elsheimer, Adam@%, 1578-1610?, German painter. Known for small paintings on%@EH@%
copper of biblical subjects, he excelled at landscape and light effects
and influenced Dutch painters. His %@AI@%Good Samaritan%@AE@% is in the Louvre.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elsinore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elsinore%@AE@%:%@CR:ELSINORE        @%%@QR:Elsinore@% see %@AU@%HELSINGOOR%@BO:          4184a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elysian fields%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elysian fields%@AE@%%@CR:ELYSIAN.FIELDS  @%%@QR:Elysian fields@% or %@AB@%Elysium,%@AE@%in Greek mythology, happy otherworld in the%@EH@%
west for heroes favored by the gods.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elytis, Odysseus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elytis, Odysseus%@AE@%,%@CR:ELYTIS          @%%@QR:Elytis, Odysseus@% pseud. of %@AB@%Odysseus Alepoudelis,%@AE@% 1911-, Greek poet; b.%@EH@%
Crete. His poetry, joyful and sensuous, is replete with imagery of the
Aegean Islands. %@AI@%The Sovereign Sun%@AE@% (1974) is a selection of his poems in
English translation. He was awarded the 1979 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Elzevir, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Elzevir, Louis%@AE@%,%@CR:ELZEVIR         @%%@QR:Elzevir, Louis@% 1540-1617, Dutch publisher, whose name also appeared as%@EH@%
Elsevier or Elzevier. His family concern, from his first published book
in Leiden (1583) to the death of the second Abraham Elzevir in 1712, was,
in its best years, the greatest publishing business in the world.
Businessmen rather than printers or scholars, the Elzevirs owned presses
and employed good editors and printers in Leiden, Amsterdam, Utrecht, and
The Hague. Elzevir agencies functioned in cities from Denmark to Italy.
Their books were typically legible, sturdy, and inexpensive, rather than
elegant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Emancipation, Edict of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Emancipation, Edict of%@AE@%,%@CR:EMANCIPATION    @%%@QR:Emancipation, Edict of@% 1861, edict by which Czar %@AU@%ALEXANDER II%@BO:           34897@%%@AE@% freed all%@EH@%
Russian %@AU@%SERFS%@BO:          871fae@%%@AE@% (one third of the population). Serfdom was abolished, and
peasants were to receive land from landlords and pay them for it. The
system of payment and of land distribution, cumbersome and unjust, was
reformed by %@AU@%STOLYPIN%@BO:          8f3e10@%%@AE@% in 1906 in an effort to stem discontent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Emancipation Proclamation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Emancipation Proclamation%@AE@%,%@CR:EMANCIPON       @%%@QR:Emancipation Proclamation@% in U.S. history, the executive order%@EH@%
abolishing %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@% in the %@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@%. Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% refrained at the
start of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% from freeing slaves lest it alienate the loyal
border states. But after the successful %@AU@%ANTIETAM CAMPAIGN%@BO:           6363a@%%@AE@%, Lincoln issued
a preliminary edict and, on Jan. 1, 1863, the formal Emancipation
Proclamation. It freed only those slaves residing in territory in
rebellion "as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said
rebellion." It was designed to deplete the Southern manpower reserve in
slaves and to enhance the Union cause abroad, especially in Britain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%embalming%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%embalming%@AE@%,%@CR:EMBALMING       @%%@QR:embalming@% preservation of the body after death by artificial chemical%@EH@%
means. It was highly developed in dynastic %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%, where immersion in a
soda solution and filling of body cavities with resins and spices were
common. Modern embalming grew from 17th-cent. attempts to preserve
anatomical specimens. Formaldehyde, infused to replace the blood, is the
most common embalming agent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%embargo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%embargo%@AE@%,%@CR:EMBARGO         @%%@QR:embargo@% prohibition by a country of the departure of ships or certain%@EH@%
types of goods from its ports. Instances of confining all domestic ships
to port are rare, and the %@AU@%EMBARGO ACT OF 1807%@BO:          2e6f75@%%@AE@% is the sole example in U.S.
history. The detention of foreign vessels, however, has often occurred as
an act of reprisal or in anticipation of war. Embargoes on goods for
economic and strategic purposes are also common. Both the %@AU@%LEAGUE OF
%@AU@%NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@% have recognized the use of embargoes,
e.g., the League's sanctions (1935) against Italy for its aggression in
Ethiopia and the UN call for an oil and arms embargo against Rhodesia.
The U.S. instituted (1980-81) a grain embargo against the USSR in
reprisal for the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Embargo Act of 1807%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Embargo Act of 1807%@AE@%,%@CR:EMBARGO1807     @%%@QR:Embargo Act of 1807@% passed Dec. 22, 1807, by the U.S. Congress in answer%@EH@%
to British and French restrictions on neutral shipping during the
Napoleonic Wars (see %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%). It forbade all international trade to
and from American ports in an attempt to persuade Britain and France of
the value and rights of neutral commerce. In Jan. 1808 the prohibition
was extended to inland waters and land commerce to halt trade with
Canada. Britain and France stood firm, however, and enforcement was
difficult, especially in New England. The Nonintercourse Act (Mar. 1,
1809) and Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810) effectually dissolved the purpose of
the embargo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%embezzlement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%embezzlement%@AE@%:%@CR:EMBEZZLEMENT    @%%@QR:embezzlement@% see %@AU@%LARCENY%@BO:          52613f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%embroidery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%embroidery%@AE@%,%@CR:EMBROIDERY      @%%@QR:embroidery@% ornamental needlework applied to all types of fabrics and%@EH@%
worked with linen, cotton, wool, silk, gold, or silver thread. Beads,
shells, feathers, or gems may be added. The art is mentioned in the Hindu
Vedas and in the Old Testament; it probably antedates %@AU@%WEAVING%@BO:          9ffa82@%%@AE@%. It was
introduced into Europe from Byzantium, initiating a rich period of church
embroidery (12th-14th cent.). Secular embroidery reached a height of
sumptuousness in the 16th cent. By the 19th cent. embroidery had almost
disappeared from male attire, and today it is used mainly on women's and
children's clothing. Machine-made embroidery in no way approaches the
quality of that formerly done by hand. Peasant embroidery, which has long
flourished in Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Scandinavia, India, and the
Americas, is still done in areas not yet penetrated by mechanization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%embryo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%embryo%@AE@%,%@CR:EMBRYO          @%%@QR:embryo@% name for the developing young of an animal or plant. Embryology,%@EH@%
the scientific study of embryonic development, deals with the period from
fertilization until hatching or birth of an animal or, in plants,
germination. In animals, early divisions produce a hollow ball one cell
thick (a blastula), which later becomes a two-layered cuplike gastrula.
In higher animals, a third (middle) layer of cells develops from one or
both of the first two layers. The outer layer (ectoderm) gives rise to
skin, scales, feathers, hair, nails, and the nervous system; the
innermost layer (endoderm) forms the digestive glands and lining of the
alimentary tract and lungs; the middle layer (mesoderm) develops the
skeletal, muscular, and connective tissue and circulatory, excretory, and
reproductive systems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%emerald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%emerald%@AE@%,%@CR:EMERALD         @%%@QR:emerald@% highly valued %@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%, green variety of the mineral %@AU@%BERYL%@BO:           f1867@%%@AE@%. The%@EH@%
finest emeralds are found in Colombia; other sources are the USSR,
Zimbabwe, and Australia. The Oriental emerald is the transparent green
variety of %@AU@%CORUNDUM%@BO:          23a472@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Emerson, Ralph Waldo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Emerson, Ralph Waldo%@AE@%,%@CR:EMERSON         @%%@QR:Emerson, Ralph Waldo@% 1803-82, one of America's most influential authors%@EH@%
and thinkers; b. Boston. A Unitarian minister, he left his only
pastorate, Boston's Old North Church (1829-32), because of doctrinal
disputes. On a trip to Europe Emerson met Thomas %@AU@%CARLYLE%@BO:          18fb53@%%@AE@%, S.T. %@AU@%COLERIDGE%@BO:          202f59@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%WORDSWORTH%@BO:          a31938@%%@AE@%, whose ideas, along with those of %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@%, the
Neoplatonists, Oriental mystics, and %@AU@%SWEDENBORG%@BO:          9177dd@%%@AE@%, strongly influenced his
philosophy. Returning home (1835), he settled in Concord, Mass., which
he, Margaret %@AU@%FULLER%@BO:          36cab5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%THOREAU%@BO:          954415@%%@AE@%, and others made a center of
%@AU@%TRANSCENDENTALISM%@BO:          973e73@%%@AE@%. He stated the movement's main principles in %@AI@%Nature%@AE@%
(1836), stressing the mystical unity of nature. A noted lecturer, Emerson
called for American intellectual independence from Europe in his Phi Beta
Kappa address at Harvard ("The American Scholar," 1837). In an address at
the Harvard divinity school (1838), he asserted that redemption could be
found only in one's own soul and intuition. Emerson developed
transcendentalist themes in his famous %@AI@%Journal%@AE@% (kept since his student
days at Harvard), in the magazine %@AI@%The Dial,%@AE@% and in his series of %@AI@%Essays%@AE@%
(1841, 1844). Among the best known of his essays are "The Over-Soul,"
"Compensation," and "Self-Reliance." He is also noted for his poems,
e.g., "Threnody," "Brahma," and "The Problem." His later works include
%@AI@%Representative Men%@AE@% (1850), %@AI@%English Traits%@AE@% (1856), and %@AI@%The Conduct of Life%@AE@%
(1870).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%emery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%emery%@AE@%:%@CR:EMERY           @%%@QR:emery@% see %@AU@%CORUNDUM%@BO:          23a472@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Emigrant Aid Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Emigrant Aid Company%@AE@%,%@CR:EMIGRANMPANY    @%%@QR:Emigrant Aid Company@% formed (1854) to promote organized antislavery%@EH@%
immigration to %@AU@%KANSAS%@BO:          4e36c8@%%@AE@% from the Northeast. It hoped to use the concept of
%@AU@%SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY%@BO:          8de59f@%%@AE@% in the %@AU@%KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT%@BO:          4e49fd@%%@AE@% to ensure that Kansas
became a free state. The name is associated exclusively with the New
England Emigrant Aid Co., although Kansas aid societies in other northern
states were also formed. Conceived by Eli Thayer, the company sent out
1,240 settlers. The National Kansas Committee, formed (1856) by various
aid societies, became divided as to how to handle violence by proslavery
forces. The movement virtually ended by 1857 and did little toward making
Kansas a free state, but it captured public attention and engendered much
bitterness that contributed to the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%emigration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%emigration%@AE@%:%@CR:EMIGRATION      @%%@QR:emigration@% see %@AU@%IMMIGRATION%@BO:          46da6d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eminescu, Mihail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eminescu, Mihail%@AE@%%@CR:EMINESCU        @%%@QR:Eminescu, Mihail@%, 1850-89, Rumanian poet. The lyrical, passionate, and%@EH@%
revolutionary work of Eminescu, considered the leading Rumanian poet of
his century, is typified by "Calin," extolling nature and simple peasant
life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Emmanuel Philibert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Emmanuel Philibert%@AE@%,%@CR:EMMANUEERT      @%%@QR:Emmanuel Philibert@% 1528-80, duke of Savoy (1553-80), called Ironhead. He%@EH@%
succeeded his father, who had been dispossessed of his duchy by the
French and the Swiss. Serving Spain, he defeated the French at
Saint-Quentin (1557), and by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559) most
of Savoy was restored to him. He made many reforms in Savoy and moved its
capital to Turin, thus making it an Italian, rather than a French, state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Empedocles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Empedocles%@AE@%,%@CR:EMPEDOCLES      @%%@QR:Empedocles@% c.495-c.435 BC, Greek philosopher. He held that everything in%@EH@%
existence is composed of four underived and indestructible
substances-fire, water, earth, and air-and that atmosphere is a corporeal
substance, not a mere void. He believed that motion is the only sort of
change possible and that apparent changes in quantity and quality are in
fact changes of position of the basic particles underlying the observable
object. Thus he first stated a principle central to modern physics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%emphysema%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%emphysema%@AE@%,%@CR:EMPHYSEMA       @%%@QR:emphysema@% abnormal enlargement or distension of the air sacs of the%@EH@%
lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. Usually chronic and progressive,
the condition is associated with heredity, smoking, and long-standing
respiratory ailments such as chronic bronchitis. Management is aimed at
increasing lung capacity and preventing and treating infection, a common
complication.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Empire State Building%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Empire State Building%@AE@%,%@CR:EMPIRE.ILDING   @%%@QR:Empire State Building@% in New York City, on Fifth Ave., between 33d St.%@EH@%
and 34th St. It was designed by Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon, and built in
1930-31. With 102 stories, it was for years the tallest building in the
world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Empire style%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Empire style%@AE@%,%@CR:EMPIRE.STYLE    @%%@QR:Empire style@% in French interior decoration and costume, the manner%@EH@%
prevailing in the reign of Napoleon I (1804-14), largely created for him
by the architects %@AU@%FONTAINE%@BO:          342a27@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PERCIER%@BO:          732c75@%%@AE@% and the artist J.-L. %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26be8f@%%@AE@%.
Furniture was chiefly of mahogany. Walls were decorated with stucco, or
with classical motifs and such imperial symbols as the emperor's monogram
and representations of military trophies. The empress Josephine
introduced the court dress with train, and men began to wear full-length
trousers and polished top hats.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%empiricism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%empiricism%@AE@%,%@CR:EMPIRICISM      @%%@QR:empiricism@% philosophical doctrine holding that all knowledge is derived%@EH@%
from experience, whether of the mind or of the senses. Thus it opposes
the rationalist belief in the existence of innate ideas. A doctrine basic
to the scientific method, empiricism is associated with the rise of
experimental science after the 17th cent. It has been a dominant
tradition in British philosophy, as in the works at %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HUME%@BO:          453d29@%%@AE@%, and
George %@AU@%BERKELEY%@BO:           ec9fd@%%@AE@%. Most empiricists acknowledge certain a priori truths
(e.g., principles of mathematics and logic), but John Stuart %@AU@%MILL%@BO:          60bbdb@%%@AE@% and
others have treated even these as generalizations deduced from
experience.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%empyema%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%empyema%@AE@%:%@CR:EMPYEMA         @%%@QR:empyema@% see %@AU@%PLEURISY%@BO:          76def3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ems dispatch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ems dispatch%@AE@%,%@CR:EMS.DISPATCH    @%%@QR:Ems dispatch@% 1870 communication between King William of Prussia (later%@EH@%
German Emperor %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1d3b9@%%@AE@%) and his premier, Otto von %@AU@%BISMARCK%@BO:          103161@%%@AE@%. In June
1870 the Spanish throne had been offered to Prince
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. France having protested, the prince refused
this offer, but the French ambassador, Comte Benedetti, meeting William
at Ems, demanded further assurance. William rejected the request. Seeking
to goad France into war, Bismarck made public the king's report of the
conversation, edited in a provocative manner. France declared war on July
19, and the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@% began.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%emu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%emu%@AE@%%@CR:EMU             @%%@QR:emu@% or %@AB@%emeu,%@AE@%large, flightless Australian %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Dromiceius%@EH@%
%@AI@%novaehollandiae%@AE@%) related to the %@AU@%CASSOWARY%@BO:          19cb0a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%OSTRICH%@BO:          6f4e57@%%@AE@%. A swift runner, it
is 5 to 6 ft (150 to 180 cm) tall. Its brownish plumage is coarse and
hairlike.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%emulsion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%emulsion%@AE@%:%@CR:EMULSION        @%%@QR:emulsion@% see %@AU@%COLLOID%@BO:          205ebf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%enamel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%enamel%@AE@%,%@CR:ENAMEL          @%%@QR:enamel@% a siliceous substance that fuses with metal. Transparent or%@EH@%
opaque, clear or colored, it adds a decorative surface. Enamel was used
in making jewelry in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, and was perfected
in the Byzantine world, often in the %@AU@%CLOISONNE%@BO:          1f7e38@%%@AE@% technique. Fine
enamel-work was created in 12th-cent. France and Spain. The most famous
enamelist was the 16th-cent. French artist Leonard %@AU@%LIMOUSIN%@BO:          553b3e@%%@AE@%. In England
from the 17th cent. on, enamel was used for miniature portraits.
Enamel-work declined in the 19th cent. but was revived in the 1960s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%encaustic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%encaustic%@AE@%,%@CR:ENCAUSTIC       @%%@QR:encaustic@% painting medium in which the binder for the pigment is wax, or%@EH@%
wax and resin. Thought to have been widely used in ancient times, the
technique is exemplified by remarkably preserved tomb paintings from
Roman Egypt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Enceladus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Enceladus%@AE@%,%@CR:ENCELADUS       @%%@QR:Enceladus@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84d488@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%encephalitis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%encephalitis%@AE@%,%@CR:ENCEPHALITIS    @%%@QR:encephalitis@% general term used to describe an inflammation of the brain%@EH@%
and spinal cord, characterized by headache, lethargy, and convulsions.
Rabies and herpes viruses, among others, are common causes. For many
forms of encephalitis there is no treatment, although herpes encephalitis
responds to the drug adenine arabinoside.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Encina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Encina%@AE@%%@CR:ENCINA          @%%@QR:Encina@%or %@AB@%Enzina, Juan del%@AE@%,1469?-c.1530, Spanish poet and court musician.%@EH@%
His %@AI@%Eglogas%@AE@% (pastoral plays), which together with musical compositions
and a treatise on poetry appear in %@AI@%Cancionero%@AE@% (1946), made him the father
of Spanish %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% drama%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%enclosure of land%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%enclosure of land%@AE@%:%@CR:ENCLOSUND       @%%@QR:enclosure of land@% see %@AU@%INCLOSURE%@BO:          47237e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%encomienda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%encomienda%@AE@%,%@CR:ENCOMIENDA      @%%@QR:encomienda@% system of tribute in Spanish America to supply adequate and%@EH@%
cheap labor. Indians were required to pay tribute from their lands in
return for Spanish protection. The hardships of the system soon decimated
the Indian population, however, and it died out gradually after 1542.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%encyclical%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%encyclical%@AE@%:%@CR:ENCYCLICAL      @%%@QR:encyclical@% see %@AU@%BULL%@BO:          155fdc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%encyclopedia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%encyclopedia%@AE@%,%@CR:ENCYCLOPEDIA    @%%@QR:encyclopedia@% a compendium of knowledge, either general or specialized,%@EH@%
i.e., within one field. A dictionary is basically devoted to words, an
encyclopedia to data on and discussion of each subject covered. An
almanac is a periodical publication containing much ephemeral data.
Although attempts at comprehensive knowledge began with %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%, the
%@AI@%Natural History%@AE@% of %@AU@%PLINY%@BO:          76e240@%%@AE@% the Elder is considered the first true
encyclopedia. There were various compendia during the Middle Ages,
including Vincent of Beauvais's %@AI@%Mirror of the World,%@AE@% printed in English
translation in 1481. The modern encyclopedia-alphabetically arranged, and
often with bibliographies-is usually said to have begun with John
Harris's %@AI@%Lexicon technicum%@AE@% (1704) and Ephraim Chambers's %@AI@%Cyclopaedia%@AE@%
(1728). The most renowned and influential of all encyclopedias, the
French %@AU@%ENCYCLOPEDIE%@BO:          2eb459@%%@AE@%, was completed in 1772 by Denis %@AU@%DIDEROT%@BO:          28d97e@%%@AE@% and other
philosophes. The %@AI@%Encyclopaedia Britannica,%@AE@% first published (1771) in
three volumes, grew in size and reputation and is now published in the
U.S. The famous French Larousse encyclopedias date from 1865, and the
first noteworthy American encyclopedia, the %@AI@%Encyclopedia Americana,%@AE@% from
1829 to 1833. Encyclopedias increased in usefulness in the 19th and 20th
cent. as knowledge in various fields grew more complex and specialized.
Notable national encyclopedias today include the %@AI@%Encyclopedia Italiana%@AE@%
(1929-39), the %@AI@%Great Soviet Encyclopedia%@AE@% (1926-47, 3d ed. 1980), and the
French %@AI@%Universal Encyclopedia%@AE@% (1968-74). Some specialized encyclopedias
are in many volumes. They include %@AI@%Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences,
%@AI@%Encyclopedia of Islam, Encyclopedia of Science and Technology,%@AE@% and
%@AI@%Encyclopedia of World Art.%@AE@% The first one-volume general encyclopedia in
English was the %@AI@%Columbia Encyclopedia%@AE@% (1935).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Encyclopedie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Encyclopedie%@AE@%,%@CR:ENCYCLOPEDIE    @%%@QR:Encyclopedie@% influential 28-volume French encyclopedia, edited by Denis%@EH@%
%@AU@%DIDEROT%@BO:          28d97e@%%@AE@% and Jean d'%@AU@%ALEMBERT%@BO:           33722@%%@AE@%, with the aid of %@AU@%QUESNAY%@BO:          7bbf53@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MONTESQUIEU%@BO:          6344e3@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@%, J.J. %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TURGOT%@BO:          98ba91@%%@AE@%, and others. It was published between
1751 and 1775. Its famous "preliminary discourse," signed by Alembert,
indicated its aims and then presented definitions and histories of
science and the arts. Despite attacks by the %@AU@%JESUITS%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@% and unofficial
censorship by the printer, it was an immediate success. It championed the
skepticism and rationalism of the %@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@% and played a major role
in the intellectual preparation for the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. In 1780 a
five-volume supplement and two-volume index were added.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%endangered species%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%endangered species%@AE@%,%@CR:ENDANGEIES      @%%@QR:endangered species@% any species of animal or plant whose ability to%@EH@%
survive is seriously in question. Human activities can contribute to such
endangerment: for example, by purposeful extermination to protect
livestock; unrestricted hunting to obtain hides, feathers, or food; or
the use of %@AU@%PESTICIDES%@BO:          73f244@%%@AE@% to protect crops. Humans have contributed to the
destruction of entire habitats through, e.g., %@AU@%STRIP MINING%@BO:          8fc90c@%%@AE@%, oil spills,
water %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%, and the draining of swamps and leveling of forests for
industrial and residential development. Such destruction can endanger the
lives and breeding grounds of a large number of species simultaneously.
In recent years environmentalists have pressed for the establishment of
new %@AU@%WILDLIFE REFUGES%@BO:          a193aa@%%@AE@% and for land use planning. In the U.S. the
Endangered Species Acts of 1966, 1969, and 1973 prohibit any trade in
endangered species or their products and require that federal agencies
assess the impact on wildlife of proposed projects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%endive%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%endive%@AE@%:%@CR:ENDIVE          @%%@QR:endive@% see %@AU@%CHICORY%@BO:          1cdfbf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%endocrine system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%endocrine system%@AE@%,%@CR:ENDOCRIM        @%%@QR:endocrine system@% body control system composed of a group of glands that%@EH@%
keeps the internal environment stable by producing chemical regulatory
substances called %@AU@%HORMONES%@BO:          446acb@%%@AE@%. In humans the major endocrine organs are the
%@AU@%PITUITARY GLAND%@BO:          7638ed@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%THYROID GLAND%@BO:          959313@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PARATHYROID GLANDS%@BO:          713235@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ADRENAL GLANDS%@BO:           14ed3@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%THYMUS GLAND%@BO:          959027@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PINEAL BODY%@BO:          75d91b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PANCREAS%@BO:          708218@%%@AE@%, ovaries, and testes (see
%@AU@%REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM%@BO:          7e46bf@%%@AE@%); the %@AU@%KIDNEYS%@BO:          4f8165@%%@AE@% are also sometimes included. The
endocrine, or ductless, glands secrete the hormones they produce directly
into the internal environment; transmitted via the bloodstream or by
diffusion, the endocrine hormones act at distant points in the body.
Some, such as thyroxine from the thyroid gland, affect nearly all body
cells; others, such as %@AU@%PROGESTERONE%@BO:          79cd4f@%%@AE@% from the female ovary, which
regulates the uterine lining, affect only a single organ. The pituitary,
sometimes called the master gland, secretes hormones that regulate many
of the other endocrine glands. The regulation of body function depends on
the existence of specific receptor cells in target organs-cells that
respond in specialized ways to minute hormonal stimuli. The hormones act
by regulating cell metabolism: By accelerating, slowing, or maintaining
enzyme activity in receptor cells, they control growth and development,
metabolic rate, sexual rhythms, and reproduction. The quantities of
hormones are maintained by feedback mechanisms that depend on
interactions between the endocrine glands, blood levels of hormones, and
activities of the target organs. See %@AU@%HYPOTHALAMUS%@BO:          462adf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%endorphin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%endorphin%@AE@%,%@CR:ENDORPHIN       @%%@QR:endorphin@% any of a group of proteins produced by the pituitary gland,%@EH@%
affecting mood, perception of pain, memory retention, and learning.
Chemically similar to opium-derived %@AU@%NARCOTICS%@BO:          6680db@%%@AE@%, endorphins were searched
for and found in the 1970s after the discovery that %@AU@%MORPHINE%@BO:          63fcb1@%%@AE@% works by
attaching itself to specific receptor sites in the brain. Endorphins also
attach to these receptors and appear to be the brain's own natural
"painkillers." It is thought that %@AU@%ACUPUNCTURE%@BO:            e9a5@%%@AE@% reduces pain, at least in
part, by stimulating the body to produce endorphins.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%energy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%energy%@AE@%,%@CR:ENERGY1         @%%@QR:energy@% in physics, the ability or capacity to do %@AU@%WORK%@BO:          a320e8@%%@AE@%. Forms of energy%@EH@%
include %@AU@%HEAT%@BO:          40fcdf@%%@AE@%, chemical energy, and, according to the theory of
%@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MASS%@BO:          5ccc02@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%NUCLEAR ENERGY%@BO:          6c0981@%%@AE@%); other forms of energy are
associated with the transmission of %@AU@%LIGHT, SOUND%@BO:          54f8dd@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%. Energy
and work are measured in the same units: joules, ergs, electron-volts,
calories, foot-pounds, or some other, depending on the system of
measurement being used. When a force acts on a body, the work performed
(and the energy expended) is the product of the force and the distance
over which it is exerted. Potential energy is the capacity for doing work
that a body possesses because of its position or condition. For example,
a weight lifted to a certain height has potential energy because of its
position in earth's gravitational field. Kinetic energy, the energy a
body possesses because it is in motion, is equal to 1/2%@AI@%mv%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%, where %@AI@%m%@AE@% is
its mass and %@AI@%v%@AE@% is its velocity. The average kinetic energy of the atoms
or molecules of a body is measured by the %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@% of the body. Energy
(or its equivalent in mass) can be neither created nor destroyed (see
%@AU@%CONSERVATION LAWS%@BO:          22503b@%%@AE@%), but it can be changed from one form into another.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%energy, sources of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%energy, sources of%@AE@%.%@CR:ENERGY2         @%%@QR:energy, sources of@% In contemporary usage, energy is whatever can be%@EH@%
efficiently converted into heat or motion to provide power to run
machines and vehicles and to supply heat and light. Energy sources are of
two basic types, renewable and nonrenewable. Most of the industrial world
is presently powered by nonrenewable fossil fuels-%@AU@%COAL, PETROLEUM%@BO:          1fb074@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%NATURAL GAS%@BO:          677f84@%%@AE@%-that, once used, cannot be replaced. Fission %@AU@%NUCLEAR REACTORS%@BO:          6c1c99@%%@AE@%
are fueled by uranium or plutonium, themselves finite energy sources.
Spent uranium can be converted to fissile plutonium in a breeder reactor,
however, a process that makes nuclear energy almost infinitely renewable.
Nuclear technology, however, has not yet developed either failproof
reactors or a safe method for disposing of nuclear wastes (see %@AU@%WASTE
%@AU@%DISPOSAL%@BO:          9f7b15@%%@AE@%). The development of nuclear fusion (whose end products are
harmless) has so far been hindered by the difficulties of containing the
fuels (plentiful light elements such as hydrogen) at the extremely high
temperatures necessary to initiate and sustain fusion. Renewable energy
sources include the energy from water and wind (see %@AU@%TURBINE%@BO:          98b0e8@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WATER WHEEL%@BO:          9fbcb7@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%WINDMILL%@BO:          a2402c@%%@AE@%); geothermal energy, the earth's internal heat that is released
naturally in %@AU@%GEYSERS%@BO:          39d0f4@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%VOLCANOES%@BO:          9e2437@%%@AE@%; tidal energy, the power released by
the ebb and flow of the ocean's tides; biomass, the use of certain crops
(including wood) or crop wastes either directly as fuel or as a
fermentable source of fuels such as alcohol or methane (see %@AU@%GASOHOL%@BO:          38337c@%%@AE@%); and
%@AU@%SOLAR ENERGY%@BO:          8b18b8@%%@AE@%, which can be stored and used directly as heat, or
transformed into electricity through the use of %@AU@%PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS%@BO:          753df7@%%@AE@%. All
these renewable energy sources are presently being tapped in some form,
but none can replace fossil fuels without huge advances in the
technologies needed to exploit them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Energy, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Energy, United States Department of%@AE@%,%@CR:ENERGY3         @%%@QR:Energy, United States Department of@% federal executive department%@EH@%
established (1977) to coordinate all national activities relating to the
production, regulation, marketing, and conservation of energy. The
department was created during the presidency of Jimmy %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% to be
responsible for the management of the nuclear-weapons production network.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Enewetak, Enewetok%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Enewetak, Enewetok%@AE@%,%@CR:ENEWETAK        @%%@QR:Enewetak, Enewetok@% or %@AB@%Eniwetok,%@AE@%circular atoll, central Pacific, in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%MARSHALL ISLANDS%@BO:          5c20ae@%%@AE@%, part of the U.S. Trust Territory of the %@AU@%PACIFIC
%@AU@%ISLANDS%@BO:          6fe995@%%@AE@%. Consisting of c.40 islets surrounding a large lagoon c.50 mi (80
km) in circumference, it was used (1948-54) by the U.S. for nuclear-bomb
tests. Former residents, evacuated before the tests started, began
returning in the early 1970s, and the island was declared free of
residual radioactivity in 1980. Because of damage inflicted by the tests
and continuing need for U.S. aid, residents requested (1981) that the UN
trusteeship relationship with the U.S. be continued after the rest of the
trust territory becomes independent in the 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Engel, Marian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Engel, Marian%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGEL           @%%@QR:Engel, Marian@% 1933-, Canadian novelist. A major contemporary Canadian%@EH@%
writer, Engel introduced elements of feminism into such works as %@AI@%No
%@AI@%Clouds of Glory%@AE@% (1968), %@AI@%Bear%@AE@% (1976), %@AI@%The Glassy Sea%@AE@% (1979) and %@AI@%Lunatic
%@AI@%Villas%@AE@% (1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Engels, Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Engels, Friedrich%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGELS          @%%@QR:Engels, Friedrich@% 1820-95, German social philosopher and revolutionary;%@EH@%
with Karl %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@%, a founder of modern %@AU@%COMMUNISM%@BO:          212749@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@%. He was the
son of a textile manufacturer, and after managing a factory in
Manchester, England, he wrote his first major work, %@AI@%The Condition of the
%@AI@%Working Class in England in 1844%@AE@% (1845). In 1844 he met Marx in Paris,
beginning a lifelong collaboration. He and Marx wrote the %@AI@%Communist
%@AI@%Manifesto%@AE@% (1848) and other works that predicted the inevitable triumph of
the working class. When the %@AU@%REVOLUTIONS OF 1848%@BO:          7e9062@%%@AE@% failed, Engels settled in
England. With Marx he helped found (1864) the International Workingmen's
Association. Engels's financial aid enabled Marx to devote himself to
writing %@AI@%Das Kapital%@AE@% (3 vol., 1867-94); after his death Engels edited vol.
2 and 3 from Marx's drafts and notes. Engels had enormous influence on
the theories of %@AU@%MARXISM%@BO:          5c61b3@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM%@BO:          289f2f@%%@AE@%. His major works
include %@AI@%Anti-Duhring%@AE@% (1878) and %@AI@%The Origin of the Family, Private
%@AI@%Property, and the State%@AE@% (1884).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%engine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%engine%@AE@%:%@CR:ENGINE          @%%@QR:engine@% see %@AU@%AUTOMOBILE%@BO:           a3f3e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DIESEL ENGINE%@BO:          28f0ff@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%STEAM%@EH@%
%@AU@%ENGINE%@BO:          8e7d17@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TURBINE%@BO:          98b0e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%engineering%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%engineering%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGINEERING     @%%@QR:engineering@% profession devoted to designing, constructing, and operating%@EH@%
the structures, machines, and other devices of industry and everyday
life. Before the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%, the field was confined to the
military engineer, who built fortifications and weapons, and the civil
engineer, who built bridges, harbors, aqueducts, buildings, and other
structures. During the early 19th cent., mechanical engineering developed
to design and build manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.
Major modern engineering fields include the allied pursuits of mining,
metallurgical, and petroleum engineering; electrical engineering,
encompassing the generation and transmission of electric power and the
design of all the devices that use it; electronics engineering, dealing
mainly with computers and communications equipment; chemical engineering,
dealing with the design, construction, and operation of plants and
machinery for making such products as acids, dyes, drugs, plastics, and
synthetic rubber; and aerospace engineering, comprising the design and
production of aircraft, spacecraft, and missiles. Industrial, or
management, engineering is concerned with efficient production and the
design of methods and processes to achieve it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%England%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%England%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGLAND1        @%%@QR:England@% largest (50,334 sq mi/130,365 sq km) and most populous (1981%@EH@%
pop. 45,771,956) political division of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland. Separated from the continent of Europe by
the %@AU@%ENGLISH CHANNEL%@BO:          2efe13@%%@AE@%, the Strait of Dover, and the %@AU@%NORTH SEA%@BO:          6baec2@%%@AE@%, it is
bounded by Wales and the Irish Sea (W) and Scotland (N). The Isle of
%@AU@%WIGHT%@BO:          a17dd4@%%@AE@% and the Scilly Islands are part of England. Inland from the white
chalk cliffs of the southern coast lie gently rolling downs and wide
plains. The lowlands of the east coast extend north to the reclaimed
marsh of the %@AU@%FENS%@BO:          32731b@%%@AE@%. Northern England, above the Humber R., is mountainous;
the chief highlands are the Cumbrian Mts. and the Pennines, and the
famous %@AU@%LAKE DISTRICT%@BO:          51afe8@%%@AE@%, in the Cumbrians, is the site of England's highest
points. Central England-the Midlands-is a large plain, interrupted and
bordered by hills. In the west and southwest the terrain is high and
hilly. The %@AU@%THAMES%@BO:          94824a@%%@AE@% and the Severn are the longest rivers. Among the
principal cities are %@AU@%LONDON%@BO:          5664e6@%%@AE@%, the capital of the United Kingdom;
%@AU@%BIRMINGHAM%@BO:          1017db@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MANCHESTER%@BO:          5a9ec7@%%@AE@%, both industrial centers; and %@AU@%LIVERPOOL%@BO:          55d011@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%BRISTOL%@BO:          13e8d9@%%@AE@%, important ports. Despite its northerly latitudes, England has a
mild climate. Most of the region is subject to wet weather and some of it
to severe cold, but in general life in England is conducive to a wide
variety of agricultural and industrial pursuits. (For government,
economy, and history of England, see %@AU@%GREAT BRITAIN%@BO:          3c9d4a@%%@AE@%.)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%England, Church of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%England, Church of%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGLAND2        @%%@QR:England, Church of@% the established church in England and the mother%@EH@%
church of the %@AU@%ANGLICAN COMMUNION%@BO:           582ae@%%@AE@%. Christianity, brought by the Romans,
was established in Britain by the 4th cent., but it was nearly destroyed
by invasions of pagan Anglo-Saxons beginning in the 5th cent. The mission
of St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY%@BO:           9c776@%%@AE@% began (597) the reconversion of England
and the reestablishment of its ties to the papacy. Conflicts between
church and state during the Middle Ages culminated with %@AU@%HENRY VIII'S%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%
break with Rome. The pope's refusal to annul Henry's marriage to
%@AU@%KATHARINE OF ARAGON%@BO:          4e9070@%%@AE@% led Henry to issue the Act of Supremacy (1534), which
declared the king to be the head of the Church of England. Henry
suppressed the monasteries and authorized the Great Bible (1539). Under
Archbishop %@AU@%CRANMER%@BO:          24543b@%%@AE@% the First %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@% was produced and
adopted (1549). %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@% returned the English church to communion with
Rome, but with the accession of %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, an independent church was
restored and steered along a middle ground between Roman Catholicism and
Calvinism. During the %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@% the Long Parliament established
(1646) %@AU@%PRESBYTERIANISM%@BO:          794734@%%@AE@%, but with the %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% (1660), the episcopacy
was restored and the Prayer Book was made the only legal service book by
the Act of Uniformity (1662). Since that time, despite internal
controversies, e.g., the %@AU@%OXFORD MOVEMENT%@BO:          6fb99a@%%@AE@%, the church has held firm. The
Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief leader (primate) of the church. In
polity, the High Church party holds to ritual and apostolic succession
and is contravened by the Low Church party, which emphasizes the Bible
and preaching. Since 1981 women have been admitted to the diaconate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English Channel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English Channel%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGLISH.CHANNEL @%%@QR:English Channel@% arm of the Atlantic Ocean between France and Great%@EH@%
Britain. Up to c.150 mi (240 km) wide in the west, it narrows to 21 mi
(34 km) in the east, where it is connected to the North Sea by the Strait
of Dover. Train and motor transport ferries, along with Hovercraft,
provide regular channel crossings. Construction of a long-discussed
tunnel crossing, begun in 1974, was suspended until 1993.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English civil war%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English civil war%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGLISHAR       @%%@QR:English civil war@% 1642-48, the conflict between %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@% of England and%@EH@%
a large body of his subjects, generally called the "parliamentarians,"
that culminated in the defeat and execution of the king and the
establishment of a republican Commonwealth. The struggle has been called
the Puritan Revolution because many of the king's opponents were
Puritans, and the king's defeat was accompanied by the abolition of
episcopacy. The more important constitutional issue in the war was
between a king who claimed to rule by divine right and a Parliament that
claimed the right to govern the nation independent of the crown.
Charles's father, %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%, temporized with Parliament due to his need for
money. Sir Edward %@AU@%COKE%@BO:          2015a4@%%@AE@% upheld Parliament's rights and was dismissed by
the king; Sir Francis %@AU@%BACON%@BO:           aced4@%%@AE@% upheld the royal prerogative and was
impeached by Parliament. James's last Parliament granted money with
specific directions for its use. Charles I proved more intractable.
Parliament tried hard to limit his power; it refused his subsidy until he
signed the %@AU@%PETITION OF RIGHT%@BO:          742d26@%%@AE@%. Charles still levied forced taxes,
dissolved Parliament, and governed alone for 11 years, but his financial
needs in the %@AU@%BISHOPS' WARS%@BO:          102f42@%%@AE@% forced him to recall Parliament in 1640.
Parliament recited the evils of Charles's reign in the Grand Remonstrance
and tried to gather an army with a militia bill. The king organized an
army himself and refused Parliament's final 19 demands. War became
inevitable, and both sides bid for popular support. Charles was aided by
the nobles, Anglicans, and Catholics, Parliament by the trading and
artisan classes and the Scotch %@AU@%COVENANTERS%@BO:          241445@%%@AE@%. After initial indecisive
campaigns, the victories of Oliver %@AU@%CROMWELL%@BO:          24d49f@%%@AE@% at Marston Moor and Naseby
led to the king's surrender in 1645 and the end of the first civil war.
His escape caused the second civil war (1647); it failed quickly. Pride's
Purge (see under %@AU@%PRIDE, THOMAS%@BO:          797743@%%@AE@%) expelled from Parliament all those
opposed to the army. The remainder, known as the Rump Parliament,
sentenced and beheaded Charles for treason (1649). A quasi-democratic
commonwealth was followed by Cromwell's domination in the Protectorate.
The English civil war assured the emergence of the middle class, aided
religious toleration, and settled the contest between king and
Parliament. Its results were permanently confirmed by the %@AU@%GLORIOUS
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          3ab198@%%@AE@% of 1688.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English foxhound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English foxhound%@AE@%:%@CR:ENGLISHD        @%%@QR:English foxhound@% see %@AU@%FOXHOUND%@BO:          34edbe@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English horn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English horn%@AE@%:%@CR:ENGLISH.HORN    @%%@QR:English horn@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English language%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGLISHE        @%%@QR:English language@% member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English setter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English setter%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGLISH.SETTER  @%%@QR:English setter@% large %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.25 in. (63.5 cm);%@EH@%
weight, c.60 lb (27.2 kg). Its silky hair may be black, tan, and white;
mixtures of lemon, liver, orange, blue, or black with white; or solid
white. Developed in England as a hunting dog, it is commonly trained to
point.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English sheepdog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English sheepdog%@AE@%:%@CR:ENGLISHG        @%%@QR:English sheepdog@% see %@AU@%OLD ENGLISH SHEEPDOG%@BO:          6d6950@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English sparrow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English sparrow%@AE@%%@CR:ENGLISH.SPARROW @%%@QR:English sparrow@% or %@AB@%house sparrow,%@AE@%small %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Passer domesticus%@AE@%) of the%@EH@%
weaver bird family, found worldwide. They are 4 to 7 in. (10 to 18 cm)
long, with short, stout bills. The male is brown with black streaks above
and grayish white below; the female is dull brown above and brownish
white below. Chiefly seedeaters, they also eat harmful insects.
Introduced (1850) in the U.S. to combat cankerworms, they have replaced
many native birds in urban areas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%English units of measurement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%English units of measurement%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGLISHEMENT    @%%@QR:English units of measurement@% principal system of a few nations, the only%@EH@%
major industrial one being the United States. The English system actually
consists of two related systems-the U.S. Customary System, used in the
United States and dependencies, and the British Imperial System (see
%@AU@%WEIGHTS AND MEASURES%@BO:          a0404d@%%@AE@%, ). Great Britain, the originator of the latter
system, is now gradually converting to the %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%. The names of
the units and the relationships between them are generally the same in
both systems, but the sizes of the units differ, sometimes considerably.
The basic unit of length is the yard (yd); the basic unit of mass
(weight) is the pound (lb). Within the English units of measurement there
are three different systems of weights (avoirdupois, troy, and
apothecaries'), of which the most widely used is the avoirdupois. The
troy system (named for Troyes, France, where it is said to have
originated) is used only for precious metals. Apothecaries' weights are
based on troy weights; in addition to the pound, ounce, and grain-which
are equal to the troy units of the same name-other units are the dram and
the scruple. For liquid measure, or liquid capacity, the basic unit is
the gallon. The U.S. gallon, or wine gallon, is 231 cubic inches (cu
in.); the British imperial gallon is the volume of 10 lb of pure water at
62 degF and is equal to 277.42 cu in. The British units of liquid
capacity are thus about 20% larger than the corresponding American units.
The U.S. bushel, or Winchester bushel, is 2,150.42 cu in. and is about 3%
smaller than the British imperial bushel of 2,219.36 cu in.; a similar
difference exists between U.S. and British subdivisions. The barrel is a
unit for measuring the capacity of larger quantities and has various
legal definitions depending on the substance being measured, the most
common value being 105 dry quarts. Since the Mendenhall Order of 1893,
the U.S. yard and pound and all units derived from them have been defined
in terms of the metric units of length and mass, the meter (m) and the
kilogram (kg); since 1959 these values are 1 yd=0.9144 m and 1
lb=0.45359237 kg. In the United States, the older definition of the yard
as 3,600/3,937 m is still used for surveying, the corresponding foot
(1,200/3,937 m) being known as the survey foot. The English units of
measurement have many drawbacks: the complexity of converting from one
unit to another, the differences between American and British units, the
use of the same name for different units (e.g., %@AI@%ounce%@AE@% for both weight and
liquid capacity, %@AI@%quart%@AE@% and %@AI@%pint%@AE@% for both liquid and dry capacity), and
the existence of the three different systems of weights.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%engraving%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%engraving%@AE@%,%@CR:ENGRAVING       @%%@QR:engraving@% %@AU@%INTAGLIO%@BO:          48a193@%%@AE@% printing process in which the lines to be printed are%@EH@%
cut into a metal (usually copper) plate with a graver, or burin. The
earliest known engravings printed on paper date from the mid-15th cent.
Early master engravers include %@AU@%DURER%@BO:          2b530d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCHONGAUER%@BO:          85a393@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LUCAS VAN LEYDEN%@BO:          57a9b2@%%@AE@%.
During the 19th cent., steel engraving, which can produce many prints,
was used to produce reproductions; it was superseded by photomechanical
processes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eniwetok%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eniwetok%@AE@%:%@CR:ENIWETOK        @%%@QR:Eniwetok@% see %@AU@%ENEWETAK%@BO:          2edba3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%enkephalin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%enkephalin%@AE@%,%@CR:ENKEPHALIN      @%%@QR:enkephalin@% one of several naturally occurring morphinelike substances%@EH@%
(%@AU@%ENDORPHINS%@BO:          2ec691@%%@AE@%) in the brain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Enlightenment%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Enlightenment%@AE@%,%@CR:ENLIGHTENMENT   @%%@QR:Enlightenment@% term for the rationalist, liberal, humanitarian, and%@EH@%
scientific trend of 18th-cent. Western thought; the period is also
sometimes known as the Age of Reason. The enormous scientific and
intellectual advancements made in the 17th cent. by the %@AU@%EMPIRICISM%@BO:          2e960d@%%@AE@% of
Francis %@AU@%BACON%@BO:           aced4@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@%, as well as by %@AU@%DESCARTES%@BO:          28372d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SPINOZA%@BO:          8d99f9@%%@AE@%, and others,
fostered the belief in %@AU@%NATURAL LAW%@BO:          678e6a@%%@AE@% and universal order, promoted a
scientific approach to political and social issues, and gave rise to a
sense of human progress and belief in the state as its rational
instrument. Representative of the Enlightenment are such thinkers as
%@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@%, J.J. %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MONTESQUIEU%@BO:          6344e3@%%@AE@%, Adam %@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a56a6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SWIFT%@BO:          918895@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HUME
%@AU@%%@BO:          453d29@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KANT%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@%, G.E. %@AU@%LESSING%@BO:          544513@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BECCARIA%@BO:           d8781@%%@AE@%, and, in America, Thomas %@AU@%PAINE%@BO:          7010a0@%%@AE@%, Thomas
%@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%, and Benjamin %@AU@%FRANKLIN%@BO:          357a50@%%@AE@%. The social and political ideals they
presented were enforced by "enlightened despots" such as Holy Roman
Emperor %@AU@%JOSEPH II%@BO:          4d42fc@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CATHERINE II%@BO:          1a329e@%%@AE@% of Russia, and %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% of Prussia.
%@AU@%DIDEROT'S%@BO:          28d97e@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Encyclopedie%@AE@% and the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@% are representative
documents of the Age of Reason.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ennius, Quintus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ennius, Quintus%@AE@%,%@CR:ENNIUS          @%%@QR:Ennius, Quintus@% 239-169? BC, Calabrian poet, regarded by the Romans as%@EH@%
the father of Latin poetry. He introduced quantitative hexameter and the
elegiac couplet. Though he wrote in many forms, his masterpiece is the
epic %@AI@%Annales,%@AE@% a literary history of Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Enoch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Enoch%@AE@%,%@CR:ENOCH           @%%@QR:Enoch@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, father of %@AU@%METHUSELAH%@BO:          5f7cc5@%%@AE@%. It was said of him that he%@EH@%
walked with God-a phrase also used of %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@%-and that like %@AU@%ELIJAH%@BO:          2e0a6b@%%@AE@% he was
translated to heaven.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ensor, James Ensor, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ensor, James Ensor, Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:ENSOR           @%%@QR:Ensor, James Ensor, Baron@% 1860-1949, Belgian painter and etcher.%@EH@%
Containing bizarre and powerful imagery, his early work, such as the
nightmarish %@AI@%Entry of Christ into Brussels%@AE@% (1888), was rejected as
scandalous. He produced his most inventive and original works, with
weird, often gruesome compositions, until about 1900. Among his
masterpieces is %@AI@%The Temptation of St. Anthony%@AE@% (Mus. Mod. Art, N.Y.C.).
His sources included the grotesque fantasies of %@AU@%BOSCH%@BO:          125d14@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BRUEGEL%@BO:          14a0ed@%%@AE@%. Ensor
was one of the great innovators of the 19th cent; his art opened the way
for %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%entablature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%entablature%@AE@%,%@CR:ENTABLATURE     @%%@QR:entablature@% the entire unit of horizontal members above columns or%@EH@%
pilasters in classical architecture. Its height in relation to that of
the column varies with the three Greek orders: Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian. In Roman and Renaissance architecture it is about one fourth
of the column height. Components are the architrave, which rests directly
on the column cap, the frieze, and the cornice, or topmost member.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Entebbe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Entebbe%@AE@%,%@CR:ENTEBBE         @%%@QR:Entebbe@% town (1980 pop. 20,472), S Uganda, on %@AU@%VICTORIA NYANZA%@BO:          9d39b7@%%@AE@% (Lake%@EH@%
Victoria), near %@AU@%KAMPALA%@BO:          4e1951@%%@AE@%. Founded in 1893, it was the administrative
capital (1894-1962) of the British Uganda Protectorate. It is the site of
a major international airport, where in 1976 Israeli airborne commandos
staged a daring rescue of 91 passengers aboard a hijacked plane.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Entente%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Entente%@AE@%:%@CR:ENTENTE         @%%@QR:Entente@% see %@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%entomology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%entomology%@AE@%,%@CR:ENTOMOLOGY      @%%@QR:entomology@% study of insects, an arthropod class comprising about 675,000%@EH@%
known species, and representing about nine tenths of all classified
animal species. Insects are studied for purely biological reasons, as
well as for their role as crop pollinators; carriers of viral, bacterial,
fungal, and protozoal diseases; parasites of man and livestock;
destroyers of economically important plants; and predators of other
destructive insects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%entropy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%entropy%@AE@%,%@CR:ENTROPY         @%%@QR:entropy@% quantity specifying the amount of disorder or randomness in a%@EH@%
system bearing energy or information. In %@AU@%THERMODYNAMICS%@BO:          94e3ba@%%@AE@%, entropy
indicates the degree to which a given quantity of thermal energy is
available for doing useful work-the greater the entropy, the less
available the energy. According to the second law of thermodynamics,
during any process the change in entropy of a system and its surroundings
is either zero or positive; thus the entropy of the universe as a whole
tends towards a maximum. In %@AU@%INFORMATION THEORY%@BO:          4827d9@%%@AE@% entropy represents the
"noise," or random errors, occurring in the transmission of signals or
messages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%environmental impact statement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%environmental impact statement%@AE@%,%@CR:ENVIRONATEMENT  @%%@QR:environmental impact statement@% in the U.S., analysis of the impact that%@EH@%
a proposed government program or ruling will have on the natural and
social environment. The National Environmental Policy Act as well as many
state and local laws enacted during the late 1960s and early 1970s
mandate that these statements be completed before major development
projects can begin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%environmentalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%environmentalism%@AE@%,%@CR:ENVIRONM        @%%@QR:environmentalism@% movement to preserve the quality and continuity of life%@EH@%
through %@AU@%CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES%@BO:          225339@%%@AE@%, prevention of %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%, and
control of land use. U.S. conservationists began working early in the
1900s to establish state and %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%, forests, and %@AU@%WILDLIFE
%@AU@%REFUGES%@BO:          a193aa@%%@AE@%. In the decades following World War II, growing public concern
about pollution problems, dwindling energy resources, and the dangers of
pesticides and radiation gave rise to environmentalism-a new kind of
conservationism embracing the broader concept of conserving the earth
itself by protecting its capacity for self-renewal (see %@AU@%BIOSPHERE%@BO:          1000f5@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%). The movement generated extensive legislation, notably laws
regulating air quality, water quality, noise, pesticides, toxic
substances, and ocean dumping; laws to protect %@AU@%ENDANGERED SPECIES%@BO:          2eb8ed@%%@AE@% and
wilderness lands; and the National Environmental Protection Act (1970),
creating the Environmental Protection Agency to develop and enforce
federal standards. At the heart of the new laws was the requirement that
%@AU@%ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT%@BO:          2f3c39@%%@AE@%s (assessments of the probable
environmental consequences) be filed for all federally funded projects,
and the empowering of private citizens to sue government and industry for
failure to comply with governmental standards. Today numerous private
organizations, such as the Sierra Club, the National Audubon Society,
Friends of the Earth, and the Natural Resources Defense Council, continue
to lobby and litigate to preserve and extend environmental safeguards in
a changing political climate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Environmental Protection Agency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Environmental Protection Agency%@AE@%%@CR:ENVIRONN.AGENC  @%%@QR:Environmental Protection Agency@% (EPA), independent U.S. agency in the%@EH@%
executive branch of the government. It was established in 1970 to reduce
and control air and water %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NOISE POLLUTION%@BO:          6af9c7@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%RADIATION%@BO:          7c1c4c@%%@AE@% and
to ensure safe handling and disposal of toxic substances (see %@AU@%WASTE
%@AU@%DISPOSAL%@BO:          9f7b15@%%@AE@%). The EPA engages in research, monitoring, and the setting and
enforcement of national standards. It also issues statements on the
impact of operations of other federal agencies that are found detrimental
to environmental quality, and it supports the antipollution activities of
states, municipalities, and public and private groups.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Enzina, Juan del%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Enzina, Juan del%@AE@%:%@CR:ENZINA          @%%@QR:Enzina, Juan del@% see %@AU@%ENCINA, JUAN DEL%@BO:          2ea6d5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%enzyme%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%enzyme%@AE@%,%@CR:ENZYME          @%%@QR:enzyme@% protein functioning as a biological %@AU@%CATALYST%@BO:          1a13a9@%%@AE@%. Enzymes accelerate%@EH@%
(often by several orders of magnitude) chemical reactions in the cell
that would proceed imperceptibly or not at all in their absence. The
enzyme is not permanently modified by its participation. Most enzymes
demonstrate great specificity, reacting with only one or a small group of
closely related chemical compounds; thus, sometimes several enzymes are
required for efficient catalytic function. Some enzymes depend on the
presence of %@AU@%COENZYMES%@BO:          1ffe44@%%@AE@% for their function. For the enzyme to continue to
be effective, its three-dimensional molecular structure must be
maintained. X-ray crystallography is used to analyze the structure of
enzymes. Over 1,000 different enzymes have been identified, and the exact
sequence of %@AU@%AMINO ACIDS%@BO:           4b486@%%@AE@% (subunits of a protein) has been determined for
many proteins since 1967, when the first such determination was made. It
is believed that enzymes function by attaching the substrate molecule to
a specific molecular site, so that the electrostatic forces of nearby
atoms sharply reduce the energy needed to cleave and re-form the
appropriate chemical bonds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eocene epoch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eocene epoch%@AE@%:%@CR:EOCENE.EPOCH    @%%@QR:Eocene epoch@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eos%@AE@%,%@CR:EOS             @%%@QR:Eos@% in Greek mythology, goddess of dawn. Daughter of Hyperion and Theia,%@EH@%
she was the sister of the sun god %@AU@%HELIOS%@BO:          415fe3@%%@AE@%, and the mother of the winds.
The Romans called her Aurora.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ephedrine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ephedrine%@AE@%,%@CR:EPHEDRINE       @%%@QR:ephedrine@% mild, slow-acting drug used to treat moderate attacks of%@EH@%
bronchial asthma and to relieve nasal congestion from hay fever or
infection of the upper respiratory tract. Nonaddictive, ephedrine may
cause insomnia and restlessness.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ephemeris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ephemeris%@AE@%,%@CR:EPHEMERIS       @%%@QR:ephemeris@% table listing the positions of one or more celestial bodies%@EH@%
for each day of the year. Early national ephemerides include the French
%@AI@%Connaissance des temps%@AE@% (begun 1679) and the British %@AI@%Nautical Almanac and
%@AI@%Astronomical Ephemeris%@AE@% (begun 1767). Since 1958 the U.S. and Great
Britain have jointly published solar, lunar, planetary, and satellite
ephemerides in identical publications (the U.S. %@AI@%American Ephemeris%@AE@% and
the British %@AI@%Astronomical Ephemeris%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ephesians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ephesians%@AE@%,%@CR:EPHESIANS       @%%@QR:Ephesians@% %@AU@%EPISTLE%@BO:          2f8556@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, 10th book in the usual order,%@EH@%
traditionally by St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@% (AD c.60). Some scholars believe the letter was
intended as an encyclical. The most profound of the Pauline epistles, it
is pervaded with the doctrine of the mystical body of Christ, Paul's
analogy of the perfect union of Christians. It contains a famous metaphor
of the Christian as soldier (6:10-17).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ephesus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ephesus%@AE@%%@CR:EPHESUS         @%%@QR:Ephesus@%, ancient Ionian Greek city of %@AU@%ASIA MINOR%@BO:           8b216@%%@AE@%, in modern %@AU@%TURKEY%@BO:          98c2ce@%%@AE@%. A%@EH@%
wealthy seaport, it was captured in turn by Lydia, Persia, and Macedonia.
It passed to Rome in 133 BC and was the leading city of the province of
Asia. Its temple of Artemis (Diana) was one of the %@AU@%SEVEN WONDERS OF THE
%@AU@%WORLD%@BO:          87605b@%%@AE@%. Ephesus later became a center of Christianity and was visited by
St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ephraim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ephraim%@AE@%:%@CR:EPHRAIM         @%%@QR:Ephraim@% see %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epic%@AE@%,%@CR:EPIC            @%%@QR:epic@% long, narrative poem, usually on a serious, or exalted theme,%@EH@%
centered on a heroic figure. Early epics, e.g., the Babylonian %@AI@%Gilgamesh,%@AE@%
%@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Iliad%@AE@% and %@AI@%Odyssey,%@AE@% and the Anglo-Saxon %@AU@%BEOWULF%@BO:           ea328@%%@AE@%, were shaped from
the legends of expanding nations. Literary epics, e.g., %@AU@%VERGIL'S%@BO:          9ca1fb@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Aeneid%@AE@%
and John %@AU@%MILTON'S%@BO:          60e6b0@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Paradise Lost,%@AE@% consciously imitate the earlier form.
Epic conventions include a hero embodying national ideals, the
performance of great deeds, the depiction of an era, divine intervention,
and concern with eternal human problems. A mock epic is a satire based on
an incongruous treatment of the trivial in epic terms, e.g., Alexander
%@AU@%POPE'S%@BO:          78246d@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Rape of the Lock.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epictetus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epictetus%@AE@%,%@CR:EPICTETUS       @%%@QR:Epictetus@% AD c.50-c.138, Phrygian Stoic philosopher, once a slave. His%@EH@%
%@AU@%STOICISM%@BO:          8f364c@%%@AE@% taught that the true good is within oneself and is not dependent
on external things, and he emphasized the doctrine of brotherhood. His
teachings, set down by his disciple Arrian in the %@AI@%Encheiridion%@AE@% and
%@AI@%Discourses,%@AE@% influenced %@AU@%MARCUS AURELIUS%@BO:          5b7f79@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epic theater%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epic theater%@AE@%:%@CR:EPIC.THEATER    @%%@QR:epic theater@% see %@AU@%BRECHT, BERTOLT%@BO:          139be0@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PISCATOR, ERWIN%@BO:          761571@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epicurus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epicurus%@AE@%,%@CR:EPICURUS        @%%@QR:Epicurus@% 341-270 BC, Greek philosopher, founder and eponym of%@EH@%
epicureanism. He defined philosophy as the art of making life happy and
subordinated %@AU@%METAPHYSICS %@BO:          5f4705@%%@AE@%to %@AU@%ETHICS, %@BO:          304cc3@%%@AE@%naming pleasure the highest and only
good. For Epicurus, however, pleasure was not the heedless indulgence
advocated by the followers of %@AU@%HEDONISM%@BO:          412d94@%%@AE@%, but rather the serenity
(%@AI@%ataraxia%@AE@%) resulting from the absence of pain. He also prescribed a code
of social conduct that advocated honesty, prudence, and justice in
dealing with others (because such conduct would save the individual from
society's retribution, or pain). Only fragments of his writings are
extant; the finest exposition of his ideas is contained in %@AI@%On the Nature
%@AI@%of Things%@AE@% by the Roman poet %@AU@%LUCRETIUS%@BO:          57b440@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epicycle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epicycle%@AE@%:%@CR:EPICYCLE        @%%@QR:epicycle@% see %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epidaurus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epidaurus%@AE@%%@CR:EPIDAURUS       @%%@QR:Epidaurus@%, ancient city of %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, in the NE %@AU@%PELOPONNESUS%@BO:          72b660@%%@AE@%. It was the%@EH@%
site of the temple of %@AU@%ASCLEPIUS%@BO:           89623@%%@AE@% (4th cent. BC), renowned for its
beautiful sculpture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epidemic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epidemic%@AE@%:%@CR:EPIDEMIC        @%%@QR:epidemic@% see %@AU@%EPIDEMIOLOGY%@BO:          2f6994@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epidemiology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epidemiology%@AE@%,%@CR:EPIDEMIOLOGY    @%%@QR:epidemiology@% field of medicine concerned with the study of epidemics,%@EH@%
outbreaks of disease that affect large numbers of people.
Epidemiologists, using sophisticated statistical analyses, field
investigations, and complex laboratory techniques, investigate the cause
of a disease, its distribution (geographic, ecological, and ethnic),
method of spread, and measures for control and prevention.
Epidemiological investigations once concentrated on such communicable
diseases as %@AU@%TUBERCULOSIS%@BO:          986043@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%INFLUENZA%@BO:          481e34@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CHOLERA%@BO:          1dbbc7@%%@AE@%, but now also encompass
%@AU@%AIDS%@BO:           2376a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CANCER%@BO:          182344@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HEART DISEASE%@BO:          40f6eb@%%@AE@%, and other diseases affecting large numbers
of people.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epigoni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epigoni%@AE@%:%@CR:EPIGONI         @%%@QR:Epigoni@% see %@AU@%SEVEN AGAINST THEBES%@BO:          87557f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epigram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epigram%@AE@%,%@CR:EPIGRAM         @%%@QR:epigram@% short, polished saying, usually in verse, often with a satirical%@EH@%
or paradoxical twist. Established by %@AU@%MARTIAL%@BO:          5c3619@%%@AE@%, it is particularly
associated with John %@AU@%DONNE%@BO:          2a1dff@%%@AE@%, Alexander %@AU@%POPE%@BO:          78246d@%%@AE@%, Lord %@AU@%BYRON%@BO:          16477d@%%@AE@%, and S.T.
%@AU@%COLERIDGE%@BO:          202f59@%%@AE@%. Among the most brilliant epigrammatists was Oscar %@AU@%WILDE%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@%, whose
works are studded with epigrams, e.g., "A cynic is a man who knows the
price of everything, and the value of nothing."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epilepsy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epilepsy%@AE@%,%@CR:EPILEPSY        @%%@QR:epilepsy@% disorder of the brain characterized by sudden, brief, localized%@EH@%
seizures or by widespread convulsive seizures involving loss of
consciousness and motor control. The development of epilepsy may be
idiopathic (of unknown cause) or symptomatic (with the cause identified).
Infantile epilepsy may result from developmental abnormalities, metabolic
disease, or birth injury. In adults, causes of epilepsy include trauma,
tumors, and organic brain disorders. Drug therapy includes the use of
anticonvulsants such as phenytoin and phenobarbital.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epinephrine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epinephrine%@AE@%%@CR:EPINEPHRINE     @%%@QR:epinephrine@% or %@AB@%adrenaline,%@AE@%hormone secreted by the medulla of the %@AU@%ADRENAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%GLANDS%@BO:           14ed3@%%@AE@%. Strong emotions, such as fear and anger, produce an increase in
heart rate, muscle strength, blood pressure, and glycogen metabolism,
causing epinephrine to be released into the bloodstream and prolonging
the acceleration of such bodily functions. See also %@AU@%CATECHOLAMINE%@BO:          1a225b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epiphany%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epiphany%@AE@%%@CR:EPIPHANY        @%%@QR:Epiphany@% [Gr.,=showing], a prime Christian feast, celebrated Jan. 6; also%@EH@%
called Twelfth Day or Little Christmas. It commemorates the baptism of
Jesus, the visit of the Wise Men to Bethlehem, and the miracle of Cana.
Its eve is Twelfth Night.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epiphyte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epiphyte%@AE@%%@CR:EPIPHYTE        @%%@QR:epiphyte@% or %@AB@%air plant,%@AE@%plant that grows not in the soil but on another%@EH@%
plant, depending on it only for physical support; an epiphyte makes its
own food, thus differing from a %@AU@%PARASITE%@BO:          712f90@%%@AE@%. Epiphytes obtain moisture from
the air or moisture-laden pockets of the host plant. Well-known examples
are many %@AU@%ORCHIDS%@BO:          6e7cf9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BROMELIADS%@BO:          142f88@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epirus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epirus%@AE@%%@CR:EPIRUS          @%%@QR:Epirus@%, ancient country of W %@AU@%GREECE%@BO:          3cfe84@%%@AE@%, on the Ionian Sea. It reached its%@EH@%
height in the 3d cent. BC, under %@AU@%PYRRHUS%@BO:          7b5ecf@%%@AE@%. It sided with %@AU@%MACEDON%@BO:          58a317@%%@AE@% against
Rome, was sacked (167 BC), and passed under Roman rule. In AD 1204 the
independent despotate of Epirus emerged, but the Turks took it over in
the 15th cent. In the late 18th cent. %@AU@%ALI PASHA%@BO:           3c894@%%@AE@% established an
independent state in Epirus and Albania.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Episcopal Church, Protestant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Episcopal Church, Protestant%@AE@%,%@CR:EPISCOPH        @%%@QR:Episcopal Church, Protestant@% in the United States of America, a part of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%ANGLICAN COMMUNION%@BO:           582ae@%%@AE@%. Anglican (Church of England) services were first
held in America at Jamestown, Va., in 1607, but after the American
Revolution, it was necessary for American Anglicans to organize a
national church. Samuel %@AU@%SEABURY%@BO:          8646b4@%%@AE@% was consecrated (1784) as the first
bishop, and the first General Convention (1789) approved the name and
constitution of the church and revised the %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@% for use
in America. The church follows the doctrinal lines of the Anglican
Communion, although the Thirty-nine Articles have been modified to fit
American conditions. Since 1976 its priesthood has been open to both men
and women. In 1988 church membership was reported to be 2,504,507.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epistemology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epistemology%@AE@%,%@CR:EPISTEMOLOGY    @%%@QR:epistemology@% branch of philosophy dealing with the origin and nature of%@EH@%
knowledge, a fundamental theme since the 17th cent. The rationalist view,
led by %@AU@%DESCARTES%@BO:          28372d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SPINOZA%@BO:          8d99f9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LEIBNIZ%@BO:          539448@%%@AE@%, and others, sought to integrate a
belief in the existence of certain innate ideas with an acceptance of the
value of data received by experience. %@AU@%EMPIRICISM%@BO:          2e960d@%%@AE@%, expounded by %@AU@%HUME%@BO:          453d29@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@%, and John Stuart %@AU@%MILL%@BO:          60bbdb@%%@AE@%, denied the existence of innate ideas
altogether, maintaining that all knowledge comes from human experience.
%@AU@%KANT%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@% attempted to combine the two views. In later theories the split was
reflected in %@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MATERIALISM%@BO:          5d0e1a@%%@AE@%. The empirical view has been
central to %@AU@%PRAGMATISM%@BO:          78fcd0@%%@AE@%, as taught by C.S. %@AU@%PEIRCE%@BO:          72991d@%%@AE@%, William %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4b163b@%%@AE@%, and John
%@AU@%DEWEY%@BO:          2880b3@%%@AE@%, and to the development of the modern scientific approach.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%epistle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%epistle%@AE@%,%@CR:EPISTLE         @%%@QR:epistle@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, a letter of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%. The Pauline%@EH@%
Epistles (ascribed to St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%) are %@AU@%ROMANS%@BO:          80a53e@%%@AE@%, First and Second %@AU@%CORINTHIANS%@BO:          23564c@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%GALATIANS%@BO:          374da8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%EPHESIANS%@BO:          2f55d9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PHILIPPIANS%@BO:          74b554@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COLOSSIANS%@BO:          20a6c3@%%@AE@%, First and Second
%@AU@%THESSALONIANS%@BO:          94f3a0@%%@AE@%, First and Second %@AU@%TIMOTHY%@BO:          95e83c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TITUS%@BO:          96320a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PHILEMON%@BO:          748279@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HEBREWS%@BO:          4118c5@%%@AE@%.
%@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4b1aab@%%@AE@%, First and Second %@AU@%PETER%@BO:          7419c3@%%@AE@%, First, Second, and Third %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JUDE%@BO:          4d9409@%%@AE@%
are traditionally called Catholic, or General, Epistles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epsom salts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epsom salts%@AE@%,%@CR:EPSOM.SALTS     @%%@QR:Epsom salts@% a water-soluble, bitter-tasting compound (MgSO%@AH@%4%@AE@%  7H%@AH@%2%@AE@%O) that%@EH@%
occurs as white or colorless needle-shaped crystals. It is used as a
medicinal purgative, in leather tanning, in mordant dyeing, and as a
filler in cotton goods and paper. It is found in waters of mineral
springs and as the mineral epsomite.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Epstein, Sir Jacob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Epstein, Sir Jacob%@AE@%,%@CR:EPSTEIN         @%%@QR:Epstein, Sir Jacob@% 1880-1959, English sculptor; b. N.Y.C. After studying%@EH@%
with %@AU@%RODIN%@BO:          802c08@%%@AE@% in Paris, he revolted against the ornate and pretty in art,
producing bold, often harsh and massive forms in stone and bronze. His
best-known pieces include the Oscar Wilde Memorial (1911; Pere-Lachaise,
Paris), a marble %@AI@%Venus%@AE@% (1917; Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.), and a
%@AI@%Madonna and Child%@AE@% (Convent of the Holy Child Jesus, London).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Equal Employment Opportunity Commission%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Equal Employment Opportunity Commission%@AE@%%@CR:EQUAL.EUNITY.C  @%%@QR:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission@% (EEOC), U.S. agency created%@EH@%
(1964) to end discrimination in hiring based on race, color, religion,
sex, or national origin and to promote equal employment opportunities. If
its attempts at persuasion fail to remedy unlawful practices, it is
empowered to bring suit against offenders in federal court.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Equal Pay Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Equal Pay Act%@AE@%,%@CR:EQUAL.PAY.ACT   @%%@QR:Equal Pay Act@% U.S. law passed (1963) as an amendment to the %@AU@%WAGES AND%@EH@%
%@AU@%HOURS ACT%@BO:          9e7838@%%@AE@% which prohibits discrimination based on sex that results in
unequal pay for equal work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Equal Rights Amendment%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Equal Rights Amendment%@AE@%:%@CR:EQUAL.RENDMENT  @%%@QR:Equal Rights Amendment@% see %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%FEMINISM%@BO:          3261c5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%equal-time rule%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%equal-time rule%@AE@%,%@CR:EQUALTIME.RULE  @%%@QR:equal-time rule@% a %@AU@%FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION%@BO:          32327c@%%@AE@% rule that requires%@EH@%
equal air time for all major candidates competing for political office.
It was preceded by the fairness doctrine that required radio and
television broadcasters to air contrasting views on controversial public
issues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%equation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%equation%@AE@%,%@CR:EQUATION        @%%@QR:equation@% a statement, usually in symbols, that two quantities or%@EH@%
mathematical expressions are equal, e.g., %@AI@%x%@AE@% + 3=6-%@AI@%y%@AE@% or sin%@AH@%2%@AE@% ;gu=1-cos%@AH@%2%@AE@%
;gu. A numerical equation contains only numbers, e.g., 2 + 3=6-1; a
literal equation contains some letters, representing unknowns or
variables. An identity is an equation that is true no matter what value
is substituted for the variables, such as %@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%-1=(%@AI@%x%@AE@%-1) (%@AI@%x%@AE@% + 1); a
conditional equation is true for only certain substitutions, e.g., only
the values +1 and -1 make true the equation %@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%-1=0. See also %@AU@%ALGEBRA%@BO:           39cfe@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%ROOT%@BO:          810f61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%equation of time%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%equation of time%@AE@%:%@CR:EQUATIOE        @%%@QR:equation of time@% see %@AU@%SOLAR TIME%@BO:          8b25eb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%equator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%equator%@AE@%,%@CR:EQUATOR         @%%@QR:equator@% imaginary great circle around the earth, equidistant from the%@EH@%
two geographical poles and forming the base line from which %@AU@%LATITUDE%@BO:          52ac0f@%%@AE@% is
reckoned. Measuring c.24,000 mi (38,600 km), the equator intersects N
South America, central Africa, and Indonesia. See also %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL
%@AU@%COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Equatorial Guinea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Equatorial Guinea%@AE@%%@CR:EQUATOREA       @%%@QR:Equatorial Guinea@%, officially Republic of Equatorial Guinea, republic%@EH@%
(1987 est. pop. 384,000), 10,830 sq mi (28,051 sq km), W central Africa,
formerly Spanish Guinea, comprising a mainland section, Rio Muni,
bordered by Cameroon (N), Gabon (E and S), and the Gulf of Guinea (W);
and several islands, the most important of which is Bioko (formerly
Fernando Po), in the Gulf of Guinea. %@AU@%MALABO%@BO:          59ff63@%%@AE@%, on Bioko, is the capital.
Rio Muni, with 93% of the nation's land and 75% of the population,
comprises a low-lying coastal area that rises in the interior to c.3,600
ft (1,100 m); forests of okoume, mahogany, and walnut grow along the
coast. Bioko is made up of three extinct volcanoes, the loftiest of which
rises to c.9,870 ft (3,010 m); the island has abundant fertile volcanic
soil. The economy of Equatorial Guinea is almost exclusively
agricultural, with cacao (from Bioko) and timber the principal cash
crops. The population is black African, notably the Fang in Rio Muni and
the Bubi on Bioko. Spanish is the official language, but most people
speak a Bantu language. Traditional tribal religions and Roman
Catholicism are both practiced.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The island now called Bioko was discovered by Fernao do Po, a
Portuguese navigator, in 1472, but Portugal ceded it to Spain in 1778.
Spain formally acquired Rio Muni in 1885. The boundaries of the
possession were defined in a 1900 treaty, and Bioko and Rio Muni, as well
as several other islands, were grouped together as Spanish Guinea. In
1968 nationalist demands led to limited autonomy and then full
independence (1973). The first president, Francisco Macias Nguema,
imposed a brutal and despotic rule over the new nation; by the late 1970s
thousands of refugees had fled the country, and the economy was virtually
ruined. In 1979 a military coup overthrew Macias, who was executed. A new
constitution was approved (1982) and Col. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasoga
was elected president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%equilibrium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%equilibrium%@AE@%:%@CR:EQUILIBRIUM     @%%@QR:equilibrium@% see %@AU@%STATICS%@BO:          8e7088@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%equinox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%equinox%@AE@%,%@CR:EQUINOX         @%%@QR:equinox@% either of two points on the celestial sphere where the %@AU@%ECLIPTIC%@BO:          2c1f99@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and the celestial equator intersect (see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE
%@AU@%SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%). The vernal equinox is the point at which the sun appears to
cross the celestial equator from south to north; the autumnal equinox,
the point where it appears to cross from north to south. These crossings
occur about March 21 and September 23 and mark the beginnings of Northern
Hemisphere spring and autumn. On either date night and day are of equal
length (12 hr each) in all parts of the world. The equinoxes are not
fixed points, but move westward along the ecliptic (see %@AU@%PRECESSION OF THE
%@AU@%EQUINOXES%@BO:          79154c@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Equisetophyta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Equisetophyta%@AE@%,%@CR:EQUISETOPHYTA   @%%@QR:Equisetophyta@% division of the plant kingdom consisting of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%HORSETAILS%@BO:          448cf3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%equity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%equity%@AE@%,%@CR:EQUITY          @%%@QR:equity@% body of legal principles and rules developed in the English Court%@EH@%
of Chancery from the 15th cent., to correct injustices caused by the
rigidity and formalism of %@AU@%COMMON LAW%@BO:          21060f@%%@AE@%. It implies application of the
standard of what seems naturally just and right rather than the strict
rules of law. However, equity law gradually built its own rigid body of
precedent, and today the distinction between equity and common law is
much diminished.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Er%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Er%@AE@%,%@CR:ER              @%%@QR:Er@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%ERBIUM%@BO:          2fb8a0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%era of good feelings%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%era of good feelings%@AE@%,%@CR:ERA.OF.LINGS    @%%@QR:era of good feelings@% period (1817-23) in U.S. history after the decline%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%FEDERALIST PARTY%@BO:          32412f@%%@AE@% when there was little open party feeling. The
term was coined during Pres. %@AU@%MONROE'S%@BO:          630212@%%@AE@% goodwill tour of the North. Under
the surface, however, vast sectional issues and personal rivalries were
developing, to break loose in the campaign of 1824.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erasistratus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erasistratus%@AE@%,%@CR:ERASISTRATUS    @%%@QR:Erasistratus@% fl. 3d cent. BC, Greek physician. Leader of a school of%@EH@%
medicine in Alexandria, his works were influential until the 4th cent. AD
He suggested that air carried from the lungs to the heart is converted
into a vital spirit distributed by the arteries, and he also developed a
reverse theory of circulation (veins to arteries). He studied brain
convolutions, named the trachea, distinguished between motor and sensory
nerves, and considered plethora (hyperemia) to be the primary cause of
disease.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erasmus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erasmus%@AE@%%@CR:ERASMUS         @%%@QR:Erasmus@% or %@AB@%Desiderius Erasmus,%@AE@%1466?-1536, Dutch humanist. One of the%@EH@%
great figures of the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%, he taught throughout Europe,
influencing European letters profoundly from 1500. An ordained priest of
the Roman Catholic Church, he edited the Latin and Greek classics and the
writings of the Fathers of the Church, and made a Latin translation of
the New Testament based on the original Greek. Among his original,
satirical works, written in Latin, are %@AI@%In Praise of Folly%@AE@% (1509) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Education of a Christian Prince%@AE@% (1515). He was intimate with most of the
scholars of Europe; his English friends included Henry VIII and Thomas
%@AU@%MORE%@BO:          63bd91@%%@AE@%. Erasmus combined vast learning with a fine style, keen humor,
moderation, and tolerance. He championed church reform but opposed the
Protestant Reformation and remained a loyal Catholic. As a result, he and
Martin %@AU@%LUTHER%@BO:          57f60a@%%@AE@% became bitter opponents, and in %@AI@%On the Freedom of the Will%@AE@%
he denounced Luther's position on predestination.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erastus, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erastus, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:ERASTUS         @%%@QR:Erastus, Thomas@% 1524-83, Swiss Protestant theologian, originally named%@EH@%
Luber, Lieber, or Liebler. He opposed Calvinist doctrine and the punitive
power of the church. The term %@AB@%Erastianism%@AE@% has come to represent approval
of the dominance of civil authority in punitive matters and, by
extension, complete dominance of state over church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erato%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erato%@AE@%:%@CR:ERATO           @%%@QR:Erato@% see %@AU@%MUSES%@BO:          655f08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eratosthenes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eratosthenes%@AE@%,%@CR:ERATOSTHENES    @%%@QR:Eratosthenes@% c.275-c.195 BC, Greek scholar. The author of works on%@EH@%
literature, mathematics, astronomy, geography, and philosophy, he devised
a world map and a system of chronology and measured the earth's
circumference and tilt and the size and distance from earth of the sun
and moon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%erbium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%erbium%@AE@%%@CR:ERBIUM          @%%@QR:erbium@% (Er), metallic element, discovered by Carl G. Mosander in 1843 in%@EH@%
the mineral gadolinite. A silvery, malleable %@AU@%RARE-EARTH METAL%@BO:          7cc65d@%%@AE@%, erbium is
in the %@AU@%LANTHANIDE SERIES%@BO:          523c36@%%@AE@%. The rose-colored oxide erbia is used as a
coloring agent in glazes and glass. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ercilla y Zuniga, Alonso de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ercilla y Zuniga, Alonso de%@AE@%%@CR:ERCILLAA        @%%@QR:Ercilla y Zuniga, Alonso de@%, 1533-94, Spanish poet. His %@AI@%La Araucana%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1569-89), about the conquest of the Araucanian Indians of Chile (in
which he took part), is the finest %@AU@%EPIC%@BO:          2f5b7d@%%@AE@% of the Spanish %@AU@%GOLDEN AGE%@BO:          3b20f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erechtheum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erechtheum%@AE@%,%@CR:ERECHTHEUM      @%%@QR:Erechtheum@% temple on the Acropolis, Athens, a masterpiece of Greek%@EH@%
architecture. Built between c.421 BC and 405 BC, it is sometimes ascribed
to the architect %@AU@%MNESICLES%@BO:          61dbfb@%%@AE@%. It contained sanctuaries to Athena, Poseidon,
and the Athenian king Erechtheus. Of the Ionic order, the temple has
three porticos; the southern one is the famous Porch of the Caryatids.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich%@AE@%:%@CR:ERENBURG        @%%@QR:Erenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich@% see %@AU@%EHRENBURG%@BO:          2d0782@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%erg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%erg%@AE@%:%@CR:ERG             @%%@QR:erg@% see %@AU@%WORK%@BO:          a320e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ergot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ergot%@AE@%,%@CR:ERGOT           @%%@QR:ergot@% disease of rye and other cereals caused by a fungus (%@AI@%Claviceps%@EH@%
%@AI@%purpurea%@AE@%), which appears on heads of rye as dark purple structures called
ergots. The ergots, which resemble rye seeds, contain certain active
substances (%@AU@%ALKALOIDS%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@%) that are poisonous-ergot poisoning was epidemic in
the Middle Ages, for example, because bread was often made from
ergot-contaminated rye. The ergots also contain alkaloids used as drugs:
e.g., ergotamine to treat migraine headaches and ergonovine to stop
postpartum uterine bleeding.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erhard, Ludwig%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erhard, Ludwig%@AE@%,%@CR:ERHARD          @%%@QR:Erhard, Ludwig@% 1897-1977, West German political leader and economist,%@EH@%
chancellor (1963-66). As economics minister (1949-57) he oversaw the
resurgence of the West German economy. He succeeded %@AU@%ADENAUER%@BO:           12f0d@%%@AE@% as
chancellor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ericsson, Leif%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ericsson, Leif%@AE@%:%@CR:ERICSSON        @%%@QR:Ericsson, Leif@% see %@AU@%LEIF ERICSSON%@BO:          53a268@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eric the Red%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eric the Red%@AE@%,%@CR:ERIC.THE.RED    @%%@QR:Eric the Red@% fl. 10th cent., Norse chieftain; discoverer and colonizer%@EH@%
of Greenland. He discovered Greenland c.982 and led (c.986) a group of
500 colonists there, founding Brattah-lid. The colony may have lasted
four or five centuries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erie%@AE@%,%@CR:ERIE1           @%%@QR:Erie@% city (1986 est. pop. 115,270), seat of Erie co., NW Pa., on Lake%@EH@%
Erie; inc. as a city 1851. Pennsylvania's only %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@% port, it is a
shipping point for coal, iron, and other products. Its manufactures
include machinery and plastics. Laid out in 1795 on the site of a French
fort, it was the launching point of the American fleet in the battle of
Lake Erie (1813), during the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%. There are several colleges in
the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erie, Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erie, Lake%@AE@%,%@CR:ERIE2           @%%@QR:Erie, Lake@% fourth largest (9,940 sq mi/25,745 sq km) of the %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
separating Canada (at Ontario) and the U.S. (at New York). It is 241 mi
(388 km) long, 30-57 mi (48-92 km) wide, 572 ft (174 m) above sea level,
and up to 210 ft (64 m) deep. Discharge of municipal and industrial
wastes from lakeshore cities, although banned since 1972, has left much
of the lake polluted. Lake Erie was discovered by %@AU@%JOLLIET%@BO:          4cffae@%%@AE@% in 1669.
British and French and, later, British and Americans fought for its
control in the 18th and 19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erie Canal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erie Canal%@AE@%,%@CR:ERIE.CANAL      @%%@QR:Erie Canal@% historic artificial waterway (opened 1825) between Lake Erie%@EH@%
and the Hudson R., providing a link between the Atlantic Ocean and the
Great Lakes. Its use declined after 1850, as traffic was diverted to the
railroads. It was replaced (1918) by the larger New York State Barge
Canal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erikson, Erik%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erikson, Erik%@AE@%,%@CR:ERIKSON         @%%@QR:Erikson, Erik@% 1902-, Danish-American psychoanalyst; b. Germany. He%@EH@%
became a %@AU@%MONTESSORI%@BO:          634834@%%@AE@% teacher in Vienna after 1927 and trained under
Sigmund and Anna %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@%, specializing in child analysis. After emigrating
to the U.S. (1933) he became engaged in varied clinical work, widening
the scope of psychoanalytic theory to take greater account of social,
cultural, and other environmental factors. In his most influential book,
%@AI@%Childhood and Society%@AE@% (1950), he divided the human life cycle into eight
psychosexual stages of development. His famous psychohistorical studies,
%@AI@%Young Man Luther%@AE@% (1958) and %@AI@%Gandhi's Truth%@AE@% (1969), explore the
convergence of personal and social history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erinyes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erinyes%@AE@%:%@CR:ERINYES         @%%@QR:Erinyes@% see %@AU@%FURIES%@BO:          36f382@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eritrea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eritrea%@AE@%%@CR:ERITREA         @%%@QR:Eritrea@%, province (1984 pop. 2,614,700), c.48,000 sq mi (124,320 sq km),%@EH@%
N Ethiopia, on the Red Sea. %@AU@%ASMARA%@BO:           8b6b5@%%@AE@% is the capital. Most of Eritrea is
sparsely populated by pastoral nomads, but there is settled agriculture
in valleys of the central plateau. Products include citrus fruits, cereal
grains, and cotton. Part of an ancient Ethiopian kingdom until the 7th
cent., Eritrea remained under Ethiopian influence until it fell to the
Ottoman Turks in the mid-16th cent. It became an Italian colony in 1890
and was the main base for the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935-36); it
was captured by the British in 1941. Since 1962, when it was annexed by
Ethiopia, secessionist movements have sought to end the union. In the
late 1970s Eritrean guerrillas held most of the province before Ethiopian
forces, aided by the USSR and Cuba, regained control. However, renewed
rebel activity has caused the Ethiopian government to suspend famine
relief efforts in the region.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ermine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ermine%@AE@%,%@CR:ERMINE          @%%@QR:ermine@% northern %@AU@%WEASEL%@BO:          9fe9c4@%%@AE@% species (%@AI@%Mustela erminea%@AE@%), called short-tailed%@EH@%
weasel in North America and stoat in the Old World. Its highly-prized
white winter fur is used for coats, wraps, and trimmings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ernst, Max%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ernst, Max%@AE@%,%@CR:ERNST           @%%@QR:Ernst, Max@% 1891-1976, German painter. A member of the %@AU@%DADA%@BO:          25ec61@%%@AE@% movement and%@EH@%
a founder of %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, he developed several devices to express his
fantastic vision. Some of his landscapes are dreamlike and whimsical,
while other works reveal a satanic, allegorical imagination. %@AI@%Two Children
%@AI@%Are Threatened by a Nightingale%@AE@% is in the Museum of Modern Art (N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eros%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eros%@AE@%,%@CR:EROS            @%%@QR:Eros@% in Greek mythology, god of love in all its manifestations.%@EH@%
According to some legends, he was one of the oldest of the gods, born
from %@AU@%CHAOS%@BO:          1b9487@%%@AE@% but personifying harmony. In most stories he was the son of
%@AU@%APHRODITE%@BO:           6a3b4@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ARES%@BO:           780db@%%@AE@% and was represented as a winged youth armed with bow
and arrows. In Roman myth, under the name Cupid or Amor, he was the naked
infant son and companion of %@AU@%VENUS%@BO:          9c8ea6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%erosion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%erosion%@AE@%,%@CR:EROSION         @%%@QR:erosion@% general term for the processes by which the surface of the earth%@EH@%
is constantly worn away, principally by the abrasive action of running
water, waves, %@AU@%GLACIERS%@BO:          3a778c@%%@AE@%, and wind. Streams and ocean waves, for example,
erode bedrock by their own impact or by the abrasive action of the debris
they carry. Rock surfaces are eroded by glaciers moving over them or by
wind driving sand and other particles against them. In the U.S. the
washing away of farmland topsoil is a problem. Erosion is also caused by
strip mining and the removal of vast areas of plant cover, e.g., by
careless land developers. Some methods of preventing soil erosion are
reforestation, terracing, and special plowing techniques.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erskine, Thomas, 1st Baron Erskine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erskine, Thomas, 1st Baron Erskine%@AE@%,%@CR:ERSKINE         @%%@QR:Erskine, Thomas, 1st Baron Erskine@% 1750-1823, British jurist. Earlier a%@EH@%
noted commercial lawyer, Erskine is best known as a defender of radicals
at the time of the French Revolution. He defended Thomas %@AU@%PAINE'S%@BO:          7010a0@%%@AE@%
publication of %@AI@%The Rights of Man%@AE@% against a charge of sedition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ervin, Samuel James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ervin, Samuel James%@AE@%,%@CR:ERVIN           @%%@QR:Ervin, Samuel James@% 1896-1985, U.S. senator from North Carolina%@EH@%
(1954-74); b. Morgantown, N.C. A distinguished jurist, he served
(1948-54) on the North Carolina supreme court. As a Senate Democrat he
favored a large defense establishment and opposed civil rights
legislation. He later became a constitutional expert and a civil
libertarian. He gained national attention (1973-74) as chairman of the
Senate hearings that probed the %@AU@%WATERGATE AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erving, Julius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erving, Julius%@AE@%,%@CR:ERVING          @%%@QR:Erving, Julius@% 1950-, black American basketball player, nicknamed "Dr.%@EH@%
J."; b. Roosevelt, N.Y. Playing for the Virginia Squires, the New York
Nets (of the ABA) and the Philadelphia 76ers (of the NBA; 1976-87), he
excelled as a shooter, rebounder, and ball-handler. He led the league in
scoring (1973, 1974, 1976) and was named most valuable player three times
(1974, 1975, 1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Erzberger, Matthias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Erzberger, Matthias%@AE@%,%@CR:ERZBERGER       @%%@QR:Erzberger, Matthias@% 1875-1921, German political leader. He headed the%@EH@%
German delegation that signed the armistice at the end of World War I. He
was vice chancellor and finance minister of the republican government
formed in 1919, but he resigned after ruthless attacks by conservatives
and reactionaries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Es%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Es%@AE@%,%@CR:ES              @%%@QR:Es@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%EINSTEINIUM%@BO:          2d2117@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esaias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esaias%@AE@%,%@CR:ESAIAS          @%%@QR:Esaias@% variant of %@AU@%ISAIAH%@BO:          49eea6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esau%@AE@%%@CR:ESAU            @%%@QR:Esau@%, in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, son of %@AU@%ISAAC%@BO:          49e349@%%@AE@%. He sold his birthright for pottage to%@EH@%
his younger twin, %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@%, who also tricked him out of their father's
blessing. Gen. 25-28. Also known as Edom, Esau was the ancestor of the
Edomites, a tribe consistently hostile to the Jews.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%escape velocity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%escape velocity%@AE@%,%@CR:ESCAPE.VELOCITY @%%@QR:escape velocity@% the velocity that a body must be given in order to%@EH@%
escape the gravitational hold of some other larger body, e.g., the earth,
moon, or sun. Escape velocity depends on the mass of the larger body and
the distance of the smaller body from its center. The escape velocity
from the earth's surface is about 7 mi/sec (11.3 km/sec).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%escarole%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%escarole%@AE@%:%@CR:ESCAROLE        @%%@QR:escarole@% see %@AU@%CHICORY%@BO:          1cdfbf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eschenbach, Wolfram von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eschenbach, Wolfram von%@AE@%:%@CR:ESCHENBACH      @%%@QR:Eschenbach, Wolfram von@% see %@AU@%WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH%@BO:          a2c662@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Escher, Maurits Corneille%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Escher, Maurits Corneille%@AE@%%@CR:ESCHER          @%%@QR:Escher, Maurits Corneille@%, 1898-1970, Dutch artist. Primarily a graphic%@EH@%
artist, he composed ironic works, often visual riddles that play with the
pictorially logical and the visually impossible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Escorial%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Escorial%@AE@%%@CR:ESCORIAL        @%%@QR:Escorial@% or %@AB@%Escurial,%@AE@%monastery and palace, in central Spain, near Madrid.%@EH@%
It was built (1563-84) by %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% to commemorate a victory over the
French. A somber, massive granite pile, it includes a monastery, church,
palace, mausoleum, college, and library. Designed by Juan Bautista de
Toledo and Juan de Herrera, it has a famous art collection.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esdraelon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esdraelon%@AE@%%@CR:ESDRAELON       @%%@QR:Esdraelon@%, plain, N Israel, c.200 sq mi (520 sq km), extending SE c.25 mi%@EH@%
(40 km) between the coastal plain, near Mt. Carmel, and the Jordan R.
valley. Once a swampy, malarial lowland, it has been drained and turned
into one of Israel's most fertile and densely populated regions.
Esdraelon is also called the plain of Jezreel or of Megiddo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esdras%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esdras%@AE@%,%@CR:ESDRAS          @%%@QR:Esdras@% two pseudepigraphic texts included in the Western canon and the%@EH@%
Septuagint but placed in the %@AU@%APOCRYPHA%@BO:           6a905@%%@AE@% in the Authorized Version, where
they are called First and Second Esdras. The Western canon calls %@AU@%EZRA%@BO:          3167d4@%%@AE@% and
Nehemiah First and Second Esdras respectively, and the terms Third and
Fourth Esdras are then used for the pseudepigraphic books. These are a
series of apocalyptic visions and revelations to Ezra. Third Esdras
antedates 100 BC; most critics date Fourth Esdras as a whole after AD
100.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esenin, Sergei Aleksandrovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esenin, Sergei Aleksandrovich%@AE@%:%@CR:ESENIN          @%%@QR:Esenin, Sergei Aleksandrovich@% see %@AU@%YESENIN%@BO:          a432e7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esfahan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esfahan%@AE@%%@CR:ESFAHAN         @%%@QR:Esfahan@% or %@AB@%Isfahan,%@AE@%city (1986 pop. 1,001,248), central Iran, on the%@EH@%
Zayandeh R. Esfahan has long been known for its fine carpets,
hand-printed textiles, and metalwork. Noteworthy from %@AU@%SASSANID%@BO:          84b976@%%@AE@% times, it
reached the height of its glory under Persian Shah %@AU@%ABBAS I%@BO:            13a0@%%@AE@%, who made it
his capital in 1598 and embellished it with many fine buildings, e.g.,
the beautiful imperial mosque, the Lutfullah mosque, and the royal
palace. The city declined after its capture (1723) by the Afghans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eshkol, Levi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eshkol, Levi%@AE@%,%@CR:ESHKOL          @%%@QR:Eshkol, Levi@% 1895-1969, Israeli statesman; b. Ukraine as Levi Shkolnik.%@EH@%
A leader in the General Federation of Jewish Labor and the Mapai party,
he served in David %@AU@%BEN-GURION'S%@BO:           e6967@%%@AE@% cabinet as minister of finance from 1952
to 1963, when he became prime minister. He led Israel in the Six-Day War
(1967) and died in office. See also %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%esker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%esker%@AE@%,%@CR:ESKER           @%%@QR:esker@% long (up to many miles), narrow, winding ridge of stratified%@EH@%
sand-and-gravel %@AU@%DRIFT%@BO:          2ab119@%%@AE@%, deposited in the beds of streams flowing through
or beneath %@AU@%GLACIERS%@BO:          3a778c@%%@AE@%. Eskers occur in Scandinavia, Ireland, Scotland, and
New England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eskimo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eskimo%@AE@%,%@CR:ESKIMO          @%%@QR:Eskimo@% Algonquian and European name for the %@AB@%Inuit,%@AE@% native inhabitants of%@EH@%
the coast from the Bering Sea to Greenland and of the Chukchi Peninsula,
in NE Siberia. They have remained largely of pure stock and, despite
their wide dispersal, are extremely uniform in language (dialects of
Eskimo-Aleut), physical type (Mongoloid), and culture. Probably of Asian
origin, the Eskimo first appeared in Greenland in the 13th cent. Adapting
to a severe environment, they get their food, clothing, oil, tools, and
weapons from sea mammals. Fish and %@AU@%CARIBOU%@BO:          18e694@%%@AE@% are also important. Summer
shelters are tents of caribou or seal skins, while cold-weather shelters
are built of sod, wood, or stone; the igloo, or snow hut, is seldom used.
Travel is by dog sled or kayak. The Eskimo live in small bands, and
almost all property is communal. Their religion has a rich mythology, and
their art, which includes soapstone, ivory, and bone carvings, is
skillfully rendered and well developed (see %@AU@%ESKIMO ART%@BO:          3003b2@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eskimo-Aleut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eskimo-Aleut%@AE@%,%@CR:ESKIMOALEUT     @%%@QR:Eskimo-Aleut@% family of American Indian languages consisting of Aleut%@EH@%
(spoken on the Aleutian Islands) and Eskimo (spoken in Alaska, Canada,
Greenland, and Siberia). See %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eskimo art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eskimo art%@AE@%.%@CR:ESKIMO.ART      @%%@QR:Eskimo art@% The art of the Eskimo peoples arose some 2,000 years ago in%@EH@%
the Bering Sea area and in Canada. Traditional art consisted of small
utilitarian objects, such as weapons and tools, as well as diminutive
animals, carved and incised in walrus ivory, bone, and stone. The
subjects of Eskimo art reflected their lives as hunters and fishermen as
well as their extensive mythology. Carved and painted wooden masks of the
19th cent. were used in various rituals. Modern Eskimo art dates from the
late 1940s, when Canadians encouraged the development of art by native
craftsmen working in traditional modes. Contemporary Eskimo art consists
mainly of carved figures in smooth soapstone, ivory, and rough-surfaced
whalebone, and lithographs printed with local stone that simplify and
abstract the forms of the Eskimo hunters and their quarry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ESP%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ESP%@AE@%:%@CR:ESP             @%%@QR:ESP@% see %@AU@%EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION%@BO:          314cd2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esperanto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esperanto%@AE@%:%@CR:ESPERANTO       @%%@QR:Esperanto@% see %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE%@BO:          48ea23@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Espinel, Vicente Martinez%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Espinel, Vicente Martinez%@AE@%%@CR:ESPINEL         @%%@QR:Espinel, Vicente Martinez@%, 1550-1624, Spanish novelist, poet, and%@EH@%
musician of the %@AU@%GOLDEN AGE%@BO:          3b20f6@%%@AE@%. He helped popularize the guitar and may have
added its fifth string. His major work is the picaresque,
semiautobiographical novel %@AI@%History of the Life of the Squire Marcos of
%@AI@%Obregon%@AE@% (1618), the source of much of %@AU@%LE SAGE'S%@BO:          5432ef@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Gil Blas.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%espionage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%espionage%@AE@%:%@CR:ESPIONAGE       @%%@QR:espionage@% see under %@AU@%INTELLIGENCE GATHERING%@BO:          48b995@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%essay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%essay%@AE@%,%@CR:ESSAY           @%%@QR:essay@% relatively short literary composition in prose in which the writer%@EH@%
discusses a topic or tries to persuade the reader to accept a point of
view. %@AU@%PLUTARCH%@BO:          76f2b8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CICERO%@BO:          1e597e@%%@AE@%, among classical authors, wrote essays, but the
term was first used by %@AU@%MONTAIGNE%@BO:          631cba@%%@AE@% (1580) and Francis %@AU@%BACON%@BO:           aced4@%%@AE@% (1597), two of
the greatest essayists. The informal essay is personal, conversational,
relaxed, and, frequently, humorous. Charles %@AU@%LAMB%@BO:          51bfa8@%%@AE@%, William %@AU@%HAZLITT%@BO:          40c98c@%%@AE@%, and
Mark %@AU@%TWAIN%@BO:          9911cd@%%@AE@% are among its masters. The formal essay, as written by Joseph
%@AU@%ADDISON%@BO:           120b9@%%@AE@%, Matthew %@AU@%ARNOLD%@BO:           81f0c@%%@AE@%, John Stuart %@AU@%MILL%@BO:          60bbdb@%%@AE@%, Walter Pater, and others, is
dogmatic, systematic, and expository.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Essen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Essen%@AE@%,%@CR:ESSEN           @%%@QR:Essen@% city (1986 est. pop. 617,700), North Rhine-Westphalia, W West%@EH@%
Germany, on the Ruhr R. An industrial center of the %@AU@%RUHR%@BO:          81d29b@%%@AE@% district, it is
the site of the %@AU@%KRUPP%@BO:          50e619@%%@AE@% steel works and West Germany's chief producer of
electricity. The city grew up around a 9th-cent. Benedictine convent and
was a small imperial state until it passed (1802) to Prussia. Badly
damaged during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, it was rebuilt after 1945. Landmarks include
the cathedral (9th-14th cent.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%essential oils%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%essential oils%@AE@%,%@CR:ESSENTIAL.OILS  @%%@QR:essential oils@% volatile oils that occur in plants and in general give%@EH@%
the plants their characteristic odors, flavors, or other such properties.
Generally complex mixtures of organic compounds, they are used in
perfumes, flavorings, and medicines. Among the plants notable for their
essential oils are members of the following plant families: %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% (e.g.,
%@AU@%ANISE%@BO:           5aba7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DILL%@BO:          290993@%%@AE@%, angelica), %@AU@%GINGER%@BO:          3a3f62@%%@AE@% (cardamom), %@AU@%LAUREL%@BO:          52c23c@%%@AE@% (%@AU@%CINNAMON%@BO:          1e7831@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CAMPHOR
%@AU@%%@BO:          17cd9d@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%MINT%@BO:          614b8f@%%@AE@% (peppermint, %@AU@%THYME%@BO:          958e9c@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%MYRTLE%@BO:          65dbcc@%%@AE@% (%@AU@%CLOVE%@BO:          1f9781@%%@AE@%), and %@AU@%ORCHID%@BO:          6e7cf9@%
%@AU@%%@AE@% (%@AU@%VANILLA%@BO:          9bd646@%%@AE@%). See also %@AU@%FATS AND OILS%@BO:          320481@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Essex, Robert Devereux, 2d earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Essex, Robert Devereux, 2d earl of%@AE@%%@CR:ESSEX1          @%%@QR:Essex, Robert Devereux, 2d earl of@%, 1567-1601, English courtier. After%@EH@%
distinguishing himself as a cavalry officer in the Netherlands (1585-86),
serving under his stepfather, the earl of %@AU@%LEICESTER%@BO:          539b1b@%%@AE@%, he became a favorite
of %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% and a rival of Sir Walter %@AU@%RALEIGH%@BO:          7c7f53@%%@AE@%. In 1590 he angered the
queen by his secret marriage to the young widow of Sir Philip %@AU@%SIDNEY%@BO:          88d2d3@%%@AE@%.
Advised by Francis %@AU@%BACON%@BO:           aced4@%%@AE@%, he entered politics, hoping to seize power from
the aging Lord %@AU@%BURGHLEY%@BO:          159e0b@%%@AE@%, but Elizabeth conferred power on Burghley's son,
Robert Cecil, instead. On his own demand, Essex was sent to Ireland as
lord lieutenant, where he failed to quell the rebellion of the earl of
Tyrone. On his return he was confined and later banned from court. He
attempted a coup to establish his own party around the queen, but it
failed and he was arrested. Elizabeth signed the warrant for his
execution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Essex%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Essex%@AE@%,%@CR:ESSEX2          @%%@QR:Essex@% one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England. Probably settled by%@EH@%
Saxons in the early 6th cent., Essex eventually approximated in size the
modern counties of Essex, London, and Hertfordshire. King Sabert of Essex
accepted Christianity c.604, but the kingdom lapsed for a time into
heathenism. Long dominated by %@AU@%MERCIA%@BO:          5edd6a@%%@AE@%, Essex submitted (825) to %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@% and
became an earldom. It became part of the %@AU@%DANELAW%@BO:          264f35@%%@AE@% in 886 but was retaken
(917) by Edward the Elder of Wessex.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%estate tax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%estate tax%@AE@%:%@CR:ESTATE.TAX      @%%@QR:estate tax@% see %@AU@%INHERITANCE TAX%@BO:          483b4b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Estates-General%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Estates-General%@AE@%:%@CR:ESTATESGENERAL  @%%@QR:Estates-General@% see %@AU@%STATES-GENERAL%@BO:          8e5ccc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Este%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Este%@AE@%%@CR:ESTE            @%%@QR:Este@%, Italian noble family, rulers of Ferrara (1240-1597) and of Modena%@EH@%
(1288-1796), celebrated patrons of the arts. %@AB@%Azzo d'Este II,%@AE@% 896-1097,
founded the family's greatness, and acquired Milan. His son, %@AB@%Guelph
%@AB@%d'Este IV,%@AE@% d. 1101, founded the German line of %@AU@%GUELPHS%@BO:          3e3505@%%@AE@%. Among the Italian
branch, %@AB@%Azzo d'Este VII,%@AE@% 1205-64, became (1240) chief magistrate of
Ferrara. %@AB@%Obizzo d'Este II,%@AE@% d. 1293, was made perpetual lord of Ferrara
(1264) and lord of Modena (1288). %@AB@%Beatrice d'Este,%@AE@% 1475-97, married
Ludovico %@AU@%SFORZA%@BO:          879029@%%@AE@%; her sister %@AB@%Isabella d'Este,%@AE@% 1474-1539, was an important
patron of Renaissance art. %@AB@%Alfonso d'Este I,%@AE@% 1476-1534, second husband of
Lucrezia %@AU@%BORGIA%@BO:          123a5e@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%BORGIA%@BO:          123a5e@%%@AE@%, family), fought for France in the Italian
Wars (1494-1559). Pope %@AU@%JULIUS II%@BO:          4da75a@%%@AE@% declared (1510) his fiefs forfeited, but
Alfonso aided Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% against Pope %@AU@%CLEMENT VII%@BO:          1f393b@%%@AE@%, who
was forced to recognize (1530) Alfonso's claims. His brother, %@AB@%Ippolito I,
%@AB@%Cardinal d'Este,%@AE@% 1479-1520, was a patron of %@AU@%ARIOSTO%@BO:           7aa0c@%%@AE@%. Alfonso's son,
%@AB@%Ippolito II, Cardinal d'Este,%@AE@% 1509-72, built the Villa d'Este at Tivoli.
In 1597 the direct male line died out, and Pope %@AU@%CLEMENT VIII%@BO:          1f3c8a@%%@AE@% annexed
(1598) Ferrara to the papal states. Another branch ruled Modena until
deposed (1796) by the French.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esterhazy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esterhazy%@AE@%%@CR:ESTERHAZY       @%%@QR:Esterhazy@%, princely Hungarian family. %@AB@%Paul, Furst Esterhazy von Galantha,%@AE@%%@EH@%
1635-1713, took part in the defense of Vienna (1683) and the reconquest
of Hungary from the Turks. His grandson, %@AB@%Nikolaus Joseph, Furst Esterhazy
%@AB@%von Galantha,%@AE@% 1714-90, made (1766) F.J. %@AU@%HAYDN%@BO:          40ade8@%%@AE@% chief musical director at
Eisenstadt and built the celebrated Esterhazy palace there. His nephew,
%@AB@%Nickolaus, Furst Esterhazy von Galantha,%@AE@% 1765-1833, was offered (1809)
the crown of Hungary by %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%, but refused it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Estes, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Estes, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:ESTES           @%%@QR:Estes, Richard@% 1936-, American painter; b. Evanston, Ill. One of the%@EH@%
best-known American exponents of %@AU@%PHOTOREALISM%@BO:          753559@%%@AE@%, Estes is noted for his
city street scenes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Esther%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Esther%@AE@%,%@CR:ESTHER          @%%@QR:Esther@% book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 17th in the Authorized Version. It is%@EH@%
the story of the beautiful Jewish woman Esther (Hadassah), chosen as
queen by the Persian king Ahasuerus after he has repudiated his previous
wife, Vashti. Esther and her cousin Mordecai thwart the courtier Haman,
who plots to massacre the Jews; Haman is hanged, and Mordecai becomes the
king's chief minister. The feast of Purim (see %@AU@%JEWISH HOLIDAYS%@BO:          4c1c13@%%@AE@%)
celebrates this event. The historicity of the book is in question.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Estienne, Etienne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Estienne, Etienne%@AE@%%@CR:ESTIENNE        @%%@QR:Estienne, Etienne@%, or, Latinized, %@AB@%Stephanus,%@AE@% family of Parisian and%@EH@%
Genevan printers and scholars of the 16th and 17th cent. %@AB@%Henri Estienne,%@AE@%
d. 1520, was established in Paris by 1502, and issued more than 100
books. His son %@AB@%Robert Estienne,%@AE@% b. 1498 or 1503, d. 1559, devoted himself
to printing scholarly works, classics, and critical editions of the
Bible, many of which he edited. He was the French king %@AU@%FRANCIS I'S%@BO:          353d30@%%@AE@%
printer for Latin, Hebrew, and Greek. Claude %@AU@%GARAMOND%@BO:          37e2a4@%%@AE@% and probably
Geofroy %@AU@%TORY%@BO:          96cccc@%%@AE@% worked for him. A humanist, he was driven by attacks on him
to Geneva, Switzerland, in 1550 and established a press there. His Latin
dictionary (1531) and his grammatical treatises in French are major
works. A brother, %@AB@%Charles Estienne,%@AE@% c.1504-1564, succeeded Robert at
Paris (1551). Educated in medicine and the classics, he produced an early
%@AU@%ENCYCLOPEDIA%@BO:          2eabaf@%%@AE@%, and many other works. One of Robert's sons, the second
%@AB@%Henri Estienne,%@AE@% 1531?-1598, the greatest scholar in the family,
discovered, edited, and printed at Geneva numerous Greek and Latin works,
including his %@AI@%Thesaurus Graecae Linguae%@AE@% (1572). He championed the use of
French, notably in %@AI@%La Precellence du langage francois%@AE@% (1579). The
Estienne family remained prominent as printers until late in the 17th
cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Estonia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Estonia%@AE@%%@CR:ESTONIA         @%%@QR:Estonia@% or %@AB@%Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic,%@AE@%constituent republic (1987%@EH@%
est. pop. 1,600,000), 17,413 sq mi (45,100 sq km), W European USSR. It
borders on the Baltic Sea (W); the gulfs of Riga and Finland (SW and N);
Latvia (S); and the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (E). The
capital is %@AU@%TALLINN%@BO:          9275ff@%%@AE@%. Industrial products include shale oil and gas, paper,
and fertilizer. Fishing, shipbuilding, and farming are important. In
addition to the Estonian majority, there are Russian and other
minorities. The Estonians, ethnically and linguistically close to the
Finns, settled the region before the 1st cent. AD Between the 13th and
18th cent. it was ruled by Denmark, the Livonian Knights, Sweden, and
Russia. Independent after 1920, it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 and
was under German occupation from 1941 to 1944.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%estrogen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%estrogen%@AE@%,%@CR:ESTROGEN        @%%@QR:estrogen@% any of a group of hormones synthesized by the reproductive%@EH@%
organs and adrenal glands. Estrogens are important in the regulation of
the female menstrual cycle (see %@AU@%MENSTRUATION%@BO:          5ec656@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%estuary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%estuary%@AE@%,%@CR:ESTUARY         @%%@QR:estuary@% partly enclosed coastal body of water, open to the ocean so that%@EH@%
fresh and salt water are mixed. Estuaries are extremely sensitive and
ecologically important habitats, providing waterfowl sanctuaries and
breeding and feeding grounds for many desirable life forms. They are
often excellent harbors, and most large U.S. ports are located in them.
The human impact on estuaries (e.g., landfill, sewage pollution,
industrial effluents) can destroy the very properties of the estuary that
facilitated development of the region.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%etching%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%etching%@AE@%,%@CR:ETCHING         @%%@QR:etching@% %@AU@%INTAGLIO%@BO:          48a193@%%@AE@% process and the print produced from it. A metal plate,%@EH@%
usually copper or zinc, is coated with a ground of acid-resistant resin
or wax. The design is drawn on the ground with a needle, exposing the
metal. Then the plate is submerged in acid, cutting into the exposed
lines. The plate is removed frequently, and lines that are sufficiently
deep are coated with varnish; others remain longer and produce darker,
heavier lines when printed. In printing, varnish is removed and the plate
is warmed, coated with ink, wiped so that ink remains only in the
grooves, covered with moist paper, and run through a press. Artists often
alter etching plates, and several states of a work may exist. The art of
etching evolved from %@AU@%ENGRAVING%@BO:          2f1ed9@%%@AE@%; both apparently originated in Germany.
Among the foremost etchers are %@AU@%DURER%@BO:          2b530d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CALLOT%@BO:          1762b3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TIEPOLO%@BO:          95c1bc@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%PIRANESI%@BO:          760387@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GOYA%@BO:          3beccc@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%WHISTLER%@BO:          a1231a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eteocles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eteocles%@AE@%:%@CR:ETEOCLES        @%%@QR:Eteocles@% see %@AU@%SEVEN AGAINST THEBES%@BO:          87557f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethanol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethanol%@AE@%%@CR:ETHANOL         @%%@QR:ethanol@% or %@AB@%ethyl alcohol%@AE@%(CH%@AH@%3%@AE@%CH%@AH@%2%@AE@%OH), a colorless liquid with%@EH@%
characteristic odor and taste, commonly called grain alcohol or, simply,
%@AU@%ALCOHOL%@BO:           310a9@%%@AE@%. Ordinary ethanol is about 95% pure, the remaining 5% being
water, which can only be removed with difficulty to give pure or absolute
ethanol. Ethanol is the alcohol in beer, wine, and liquor, and can be
made by the %@AU@%FERMENTATION%@BO:          32a1b0@%%@AE@% of sugar or starch. Denatured alcohol, for
industrial use, is ethanol with toxic additives. Ethanol is used as a
solvent in the manufacture of varnishes and perfumes; as a preservative;
in medicines; as a disinfectant; and as a fuel. Ethanol is a soporific;
if its presence in the blood exceeds about 5%, death usually occurs.
Behavioral changes, impairment of vision, or unconsciousness occur at
lower concentrations. See %@AU@%ALCOHOLISM%@BO:           3168c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ethelfleda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ethelfleda%@AE@%:%@CR:ETHELFLEDA      @%%@QR:Ethelfleda@% see %@AU@%AETHELFLED%@BO:           19278@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ether%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ether%@AE@%%@CR:ETHER           @%%@QR:ether@% or %@AB@%aether,%@AE@%in physics, a hypothetical medium for transmitting%@EH@%
%@AU@%ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION%@BO:          2d8706@%%@AE@%, filling all unoccupied space. The theory of
%@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@% eliminated the need for such a medium, and the term is used
only in a historical context.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Etherege, Sir George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Etherege, Sir George%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHEREGE        @%%@QR:Etherege, Sir George@% 1634?-1691, English dramatist. His witty %@AI@%Comical%@EH@%
%@AI@%Revenge; or, Love in a Tub%@AE@% (1664) and %@AI@%She Wou'd If She Cou'd%@AE@% (1668) set
the tone for the %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% comedy of manners.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ethical Culture movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ethical Culture movement%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHICALT        @%%@QR:Ethical Culture movement@% originating in the Society for Ethical Culture,%@EH@%
founded (1876) in N.Y.C. by Felix %@AU@%ADLER%@BO:           13ee2@%%@AE@%. It stresses the ethical factor
in all relations of life, but insists on no definite ethical system. The
society holds religious services, but members may have other religious
affiliations. The movement spread (1887) to England. In 1896 the
International Union of Ethical Societies was formed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethics%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHICS          @%%@QR:ethics@% in philosophy, the study and evaluation of human conduct in the%@EH@%
light of moral principles, which may be viewed as the individual's
standard of conduct or as a body of social obligations and duties.
Theories of conscience have ascribed the moral awareness of right and
wrong to divine will; to an innate sense (e.g., J.J. %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@%); or to the
set of values derived from individual experience (e.g., %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MILL%@BO:          60bbdb@%%@AE@%).
Idealists such as %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@% have contended that there is an absolute good to
which human activities aspire. Moral codes have frequently been based on
religious absolutes, but %@AU@%KANT'S%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@% categorical imperative attempted to set
up an ethical criterion independent of theological consideration. The
source of an ethical criterion has been variously equated with religion,
the state (e.g., %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@%), or the good of the individual or a
group (as in the %@AU@%HEDONISM%@BO:          412d94@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%EPICURUS%@BO:          2f629a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HOBBES%@BO:          4343df@%%@AE@%; and the %@AU@%UTILITARIANISM%@BO:          9b46d8@%%@AE@% of
%@AU@%BENTHAM%@BO:           e8bd7@%%@AE@%). Modern ethical theories include the instrumentalism of John
%@AU@%DEWEY%@BO:          2880b3@%%@AE@%, for whom morality is relative to individual experience; and the
intuitionism of G.E. %@AU@%MOORE%@BO:          63968c@%%@AE@%, who postulated an immediate awareness of the
morally good.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ethiopia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ethiopia%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHIOPIA        @%%@QR:Ethiopia@% independent state (1988 est. pop. 48,264,570), 471,776 sq mi%@EH@%
(1,221,900 sq km), NE Africa, formerly known as Abyssinia, bordered by
the Red Sea (N), Djibouti (NE), Somalia (E and SE), Kenya (S), and Sudan
(W). %@AU@%ADDIS ABABA%@BO:           11cfe@%%@AE@% (the capital) and %@AU@%ASMARA%@BO:           8b6b5@%%@AE@% are the principal cities.
Ethiopia may be divided into four geographic zones: from west to east
they are the Ethiopian Plateau, a highland region including more than
half the country and reaching a height of 15,158 ft (4,620 m) at Ras
Dashan; the %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@%, containing the Danakil Desert and several
large lakes; the Somali Plateau, with heights of more than 14,000 ft
(4,267 m) in the Urgoma Mts.; and the Ogaden Plateau, which is mostly
desert. The Blue %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@% (called the Abbai in Ethiopia) flows through the
center of the Ethiopian Plateau from its source, Lake Tana, Ethiopia's
largest lake. The economy is almost entirely agricultural, with most of
the labor force engaged in subsistence farming. Coffee accounts for 60%
of export earnings; other leading exports are oilseeds, hides and skins,
and grain. Industry is limited to production of basic consumer needs.
Some minerals are extracted on a small scale. The Muslim Galla, who
constitute about 40% of the population, are the largest ethnic group, and
there are significant numbers of Somali, but the Amhara and Tigrinya (33%
combined), who are Coptic Christians, are politically dominant. Amharic
is the official language, but English is widely spoken.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% According to tradition, the kingdom of Ethiopia was founded (10th
cent. BC) by Menelik I, Solomon's first son, supposedly by the Queen of
Sheba. The first recorded kingdom, however, is that of Aksum (Axum),
probably founded (1st cent. AD) by traders from S Arabia and converted to
Coptic Christianity in the 4th cent. With the rise of Islam in the 7th
cent., Aksum lost control of the Red Sea routes, and a period of chaos
followed. Order was restored in the 13th cent., with the founding of a
new Solomonic dynasty. However, a war to expel the encroaching Somali,
while successful (1543), exhausted the nation, which for the next two
centuries was beset by ruinous civil wars. Finally, in 1889, %@AU@%MENELIK II%@BO:          5eaeaf@%%@AE@%,
supported by Italy, instituted a strong rule. Claiming that Menelik had
agreed to the establishment of a protectorate, Italy invaded Ethiopia in
1895 but was decisively defeated at Aduwa (1896). %@AU@%HAILE SELASSIE%@BO:          3f1e92@%%@AE@%, who
ascended the throne in 1930, faced a renewed Italian threat, which
culminated in a full-scale invasion in 1935. Ethiopia remained occupied
until 1941, when it was liberated by the British. In 1973 Haile Selassie
was overthrown by military officers who proclaimed a socialist state and
nationalized the economy. The military regime has experienced serious
political and economic problems, particularly a secessionist movement in
%@AU@%ERITREA%@BO:          2fd197@%%@AE@%, a territorial dispute with Somalia in %@AU@%OGADEN%@BO:          6d025f@%%@AE@%, and a drought that
caused famine. It has depended on outside support from the USSR and its
allies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ethiopic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ethiopic%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHIOPIC        @%%@QR:Ethiopic@% extinct language of Ethiopia belonging to the Semitic subfamily%@EH@%
of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages. See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethnic studies%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethnic studies%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHNIC.STUDIES  @%%@QR:ethnic studies@% in U.S. education, courses of instruction in the history%@EH@%
and culture of U.S. minority groups. As a result of the %@AU@%BLACK AMERICAN%@BO:          105bd2@%%@AE@%
protests of the 1960s, courses in areas such as black history and
literature were added to the curricula of educational institutions. Other
ethnic minorities, especially %@AU@%CHICANOS%@BO:          1ccea1@%%@AE@% and other %@AU@%HISPANIC AMERICANS%@BO:          4318ea@%%@AE@%, have
obtained similar course offerings, but to a lesser extent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethnocentrism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethnocentrism%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHNOCENTRISM   @%%@QR:ethnocentrism@% the feeling that a group's mode of living, values, and%@EH@%
patterns of adaptation are superior to those of other groups. It may
manifest itself in attitudes of superiority or hostility toward members
of other groups and is sometimes expressed in discrimination,
proselytizing, or violence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethnology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethnology%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHNOLOGY       @%%@QR:ethnology@% scientific study of the origin and functioning of humans and%@EH@%
their cultures, usually considered a branch of cultural %@AU@%ANTHROPOLOGY%@BO:           61e36@%%@AE@%. In
the 19th cent. historical ethnology attempted to explain extant cultures
by examining their early development. In the 20th cent. the comparative
study of cultures has predominated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethology%@AE@%,%@CR:ETHOLOGY        @%%@QR:ethology@% study of animal behavior, especially its physiological,%@EH@%
ecological, and evolutionary aspects. Originally, an organism's actions
were classified as either instinctive behavior (actions not influenced by
the animal's previous experiences, e.g., common reflexes) or learned
behavior (actions dependent on earlier experiences, e.g., problem
solving). Current emphasis is on the interaction between environmental
and genetically determined responses, particularly during early
development.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethyl alcohol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethyl alcohol%@AE@%:%@CR:ETHYL.ALCOHOL   @%%@QR:ethyl alcohol@% see %@AU@%ETHANOL%@BO:          304246@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ethyne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ethyne%@AE@%:%@CR:ETHYNE          @%%@QR:ethyne@% see %@AU@%ACETYLENE%@BO:            aaa8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Etna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Etna%@AE@%%@CR:ETNA            @%%@QR:Etna@% or %@AB@%Aetna,%@AE@%frequently active volcano, 10,958 ft (3,340 m), the highest%@EH@%
in Europe, on the east coast of Sicily, S Italy. Snowcapped for much of
the year, the volcano constantly threatens a densely populated
agricultural area at its base. It last erupted in 1986.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Etoile, Place de l'%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Etoile, Place de l'%@AE@%:%@CR:ETOILE          @%%@QR:Etoile, Place de l'@% see %@AU@%ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'ETOILE%@BO:           74b74@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eton%@AE@%,%@CR:ETON            @%%@QR:Eton@% town, Berkshire, central England, on the Thames R. It is known%@EH@%
chiefly for %@AB@%Eton College%@AE@% (est. 1440), the largest and most famous of the
English public schools.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Etruria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Etruria%@AE@%%@CR:ETRURIA         @%%@QR:Etruria@%, ancient country, W Italy, now Tuscany and W Umbria. It was the%@EH@%
center of %@AU@%ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          30739d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Etruscan art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Etruscan art%@AE@%,%@CR:ETRUSCAN.ART    @%%@QR:Etruscan art@% the art of %@AU@%ETRURIA%@BO:          306fad@%%@AE@%, which, by the 8th cent. BC, spanned the%@EH@%
area in Italy from Salerno to the Tiber R. The bronze and clay sculptures
and carvings owe much to Greek sources but have a skillful, naturalistic
character of their own. Sepulchral art was highly developed in centers
such as Caere (Cerveteri) and Veii (Veio), as were portrait sculpture and
%@AU@%FRESCO%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% depictions of banquets and %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% scenes. %@AU@%ROMAN ART%@BO:          8063c1@%%@AE@% absorbed the
Etruscan by the 1st cent. BC%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Etruscan civilization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Etruscan civilization%@AE@%,%@CR:ETRUSCAZATION   @%%@QR:Etruscan civilization@% highest civilization in Italy before the rise of%@EH@%
Rome. Modern research tends to uphold the tradition of %@AU@%HERODOTUS%@BO:          425c9f@%%@AE@% that the
Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in Asia Minor in the 12th cent. BC
A distinctive Etruscan culture evolved about the 8th cent. BC, developed
rapidly during the 7th cent., achieved its peak of power and wealth
during the 6th cent., and declined during the 5th and 4th cent. Etruria
comprised a loose confederation of city-states, including Clusium (now
Chiusi), Tarquinii (Tarquinia), Veii (Veio), Volterra, and Perusia
(Perugia). The Estruscans' wealth and power were in part based upon their
knowledge of metalworking. They also made fine pottery. The Etruscan
language cannot be classified into any known group of languages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%etymology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%etymology%@AE@%%@CR:ETYMOLOGY       @%%@QR:etymology@%, branch of linguistics that investigates the origin and%@EH@%
development of words. This study revealed the regular relations of sound
in the Indo-European languages (as described in %@AU@%GRIMM'S LAW%@BO:          3dcd79@%%@AE@%), and led to
the historical study of language in the 19th cent. Modern linguists are
particularly interested in investigating the meaning of a form within the
specific context of a given time and place. The term %@AI@%etymology%@AE@% has been
replaced by %@AI@%derivation%@AE@% for the creation of combinations used in a
language, such as new nouns formed with the ending %@AI@%-ness%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eu%@AE@%,%@CR:EU              @%%@QR:Eu@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%EUROPIUM%@BO:          30c1a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euboea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euboea%@AE@%:%@CR:EUBOEA          @%%@QR:Euboea@% see %@AU@%EVVOIA%@BO:          310484@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eucalyptus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eucalyptus%@AE@%,%@CR:EUCALYPTUS      @%%@QR:eucalyptus@% evergreen shrubs or trees (genus %@AI@%Eucalyptus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MYRTLE%@BO:          65dbcc@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, a characteristic component of Australian flora. Also called
ironbark, bloodwood, and gum tree, it is the sole food source of the
%@AU@%KOALA%@BO:          505db8@%%@AE@% and is valued for its timber and %@AU@%ESSENTIAL OILS%@BO:          3012eb@%%@AE@%. Several eucalyptus
species are among the tallest trees known; %@AI@%E. amygdalina regnans%@AE@% reaches
a height of over 300 ft (91 m).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eucharist%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eucharist%@AE@%:%@CR:EUCHARIST       @%%@QR:Eucharist@% see %@AU@%COMMUNION%@BO:          21242f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euclid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euclid%@AE@%,%@CR:EUCLID          @%%@QR:Euclid@% fl. 300 BC, Greek mathematician whose treatment of elementary%@EH@%
plane %@AU@%GEOMETRY%@BO:          3921d2@%%@AE@% serves as the basis for most beginning courses on the
subject. His great contribution was the use of a deductive system of
proof in his %@AI@%Elements,%@AE@% a presentation of the mathematics of his day in 13
books. Studies of his work in the 19th cent. gave rise to several types
of %@AU@%NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          6b0516@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euclidean geometry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euclidean geometry%@AE@%,%@CR:EUCLIDETRY      @%%@QR:Euclidean geometry@% set of propositions in geometry that can be derived%@EH@%
by rigorous logical steps from the five postulates stated by %@AU@%EUCLID%@BO:          307edd@%%@AE@% in
his %@AI@%Elements%@AE@%. The first three postulates state that it is possible (1) to
draw a straight line from any point to any point, (2) to produce a finite
straight line continuously in a straight line, and (3) to describe a
circle with any center and radius. The fourth postulate states that "All
right angles are equal to one another," and the fifth posits that "If a
straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on
the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if
produced indefinitely, will meet on that side on which are the angles
less than two right angles." A %@AU@%NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          6b0516@%%@AE@% replaces the fifth
postulate with either of two alternative postulates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eudoxus of Cnidus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eudoxus of Cnidus%@AE@%%@CR:EUDOXUSUS       @%%@QR:Eudoxus of Cnidus@%, 408?-355? BC, Greek astronomer, mathematician, and%@EH@%
physician. He was the first Greek astronomer to explain the movements of
the planets scientifically, holding that a number of concentric spheres
supported the planets in their paths. It is claimed that he calculated
the length of the solar year, indicating a calendar reform similar to
that made later by Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%, and that he was the discoverer of parts
of geometry included in %@AU@%EUCLID'S%@BO:          307edd@%%@AE@% work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eugene III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eugene III%@AE@%,%@CR:EUGENE.III      @%%@QR:Eugene III@% d. 1153, pope (1145-53), a Pisan named Bernard. He was driven%@EH@%
(1146) from Rome by the agitation of Arnold of Brescia and the
republicans. Eugene was a friend of %@AU@%BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX%@BO:           efc37@%%@AE@% and promoted the
disastrous Second %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eugene IV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eugene IV%@AE@%,%@CR:EUGENE.IV       @%%@QR:Eugene IV@% 1383-1447, pope (1431-47), a Venetian named Gabriele%@EH@%
Condulmer. Eugene at first opposed the Council of %@AU@%BASEL%@BO:           cc423@%%@AE@%, but after being
driven by rebellion from Rome to Florence (1434), he became conciliatory.
He removed (1437) the council to Ferrara, where it proclaimed (1439) the
reunion of the Eastern and Western churches (see %@AU@%COUNCIL, ECUMENICAL%@BO:          23e643@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eugene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eugene%@AE@%,%@CR:EUGENE          @%%@QR:Eugene@% city (1986 est. pop. 105,410), seat of Lane co., W Oreg., on the%@EH@%
Willamette R.; inc. 1862. Located in a farming area, it has large lumber
and food-processing industries. Tourism and convention business are
important. The Univ. of Oregon is central to the city's cultural and
recreational life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eugene of Savoy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eugene of Savoy%@AE@%,%@CR:EUGENE.OF.SAVOY @%%@QR:Eugene of Savoy@% 1663-1736, prince of the house of Savoy and general in%@EH@%
the service of the Holy Roman Empire. He is regarded as one of the great
military commanders of the modern age. He was a leading participant in
the War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@%, and he and the duke of %@AU@%MARLBOROUGH%@BO:          5be6d7@%%@AE@% won
the great battle of Blenheim (1704). He also fought the Turks and for
Austria in the War of the %@AU@%POLISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          7779cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eugenics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eugenics%@AE@%,%@CR:EUGENICS        @%%@QR:eugenics@% study of methods to improve inherited human characteristics. It%@EH@%
is directed chiefly at discouraging propagation among the unfit and
encouraging it in the fit, although there are many difficulties in
defining which traits are most desirable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eugenie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eugenie%@AE@%%@CR:EUGENIE         @%%@QR:Eugenie@%, 1826-1920, empress of the French (1853-70), consort of %@AU@%NAPOLEON%@EH@%
%@AU@%III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@%. A Spanish noblewoman of great beauty, she married the emperor in
1853 and took an active part in government. After Napoleon III's
deposition (1870) during the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@%, she fled to England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euglenophyta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euglenophyta%@AE@%,%@CR:EUGLENOPHYTA    @%%@QR:Euglenophyta@% small division of the plant kingdom consisting of%@EH@%
photosynthetic, aquatic organisms. Most are unicellular; many have
flagella and are motile. They resemble plants in that they have
%@AU@%CHLOROPLASTS%@BO:          1db46b@%%@AE@%, but they also have gullets and lack cell walls, like
animals. The most characteristic genus is %@AI@%Euglena,%@AE@% common in ponds and
pools.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eulenspiegel, Till%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eulenspiegel, Till%@AE@%%@CR:EULENSPIEGEL    @%%@QR:Eulenspiegel, Till@%, a north German peasant clown of the 14th cent.,%@EH@%
immortalized in chapbooks describing his practical jokes. He is
celebrated in Richard %@AU@%STRAUSS'S%@BO:          8f9bf1@%%@AE@% tone poem and in stories and verse
throughout Europe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euler, Leonhard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euler, Leonhard%@AE@%%@CR:EULER           @%%@QR:Euler, Leonhard@%, 1707-83, Swiss mathematician. The most prolific%@EH@%
mathematician who ever lived, he worked at the St. Petersburg Academy of
Sciences, Russia (1727-41, 1766-83), and at the Berlin Academy (1741-66).
He contributed to areas of both pure and applied mathematics, including
calculus, analysis, number theory, topology, algebra, geometry,
trigonometry, analytical mechanics, hydrodynamics, and the theory of the
moon's motion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%euphorbia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%euphorbia%@AE@%:%@CR:EUPHORBIA       @%%@QR:euphorbia@% see %@AU@%SPURGE%@BO:          8ddbaf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euphrates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euphrates%@AE@%,%@CR:EUPHRATES       @%%@QR:Euphrates@% major river of arid SW Asia, formed by the confluence of the%@EH@%
Kara and Murad rivers in E Turkey. It flows generally south, then
southeast for c.1,700 mi (2,740 km) through deep canyons and narrow
gorges in its upper course to a wide flood plain in Syria and Iraq. At
%@AU@%BASRA%@BO:           ce95b@%%@AE@% the river joins with the %@AU@%TIGRIS%@BO:          95caab@%%@AE@% R. to form the %@AU@%SHATT AL ARAB%@BO:          880417@%%@AE@%, which
enters the %@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@%. An important source of irrigation for modern
Syria and Iraq, the Euphrates contributed significantly to the
development of many great civilizations in ancient %@AU@%MESOPOTAMIA%@BO:          5f1485@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%euphuism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%euphuism%@AE@%,%@CR:EUPHUISM        @%%@QR:euphuism@% an elaborate, artificial English prose style, derived from John%@EH@%
%@AU@%LYLY'S%@BO:          583b52@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Euphues,%@AE@% that flourished in the 1580s. The term now means
preciosity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eurasia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eurasia%@AE@%,%@CR:EURASIA         @%%@QR:Eurasia@% name of the great land mass that comprises the continents of%@EH@%
%@AU@%EUROPE%@BO:          30a49d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ASIA%@BO:           8aa90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euric%@AE@%,%@CR:EURIC           @%%@QR:Euric@% d. c.484, king of the %@AU@%VISIGOTHS%@BO:          9dfd40@%%@AE@% (466-c.484). He conquered the%@EH@%
Iberian peninsula and S Gaul, made Toulouse his capital, and codified
(475) Visigothic law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euripides%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euripides%@AE@%,%@CR:EURIPIDES       @%%@QR:Euripides@% b. 480 or 485 BC, d. 406 BC, major Greek tragic poet. He wrote%@EH@%
perhaps 92 plays, of which 19 are extant, including %@AI@%Alcestis, Medea,
%@AI@%Hippolytus, Andromache,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Trojan Women, Iphigenia in Tauris,%@AE@% the
%@AI@%Phoenician Women, Orestes, Iphigenia in Aulis,%@AE@% and the %@AI@%Bacchae.%@AE@% More
realistic than %@AU@%AESCHYLUS%@BO:           18617@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%SOPHOCLES%@BO:          8ba3a2@%%@AE@% and rationalistic and iconoclastic
toward the gods, he was interested in less-than-heroic characters. He
resorted often to the device of the %@AI@%deus ex machina%@AE@% (god out of a
machine) to resolve his plots. See also %@AU@%TRAGEDY%@BO:          97260f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Europa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Europa%@AE@%,%@CR:EUROPA          @%%@QR:Europa@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dc4a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Europe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Europe%@AE@%,%@CR:EUROPE          @%%@QR:Europe@% 6th largest continent, c.4,000,000 sq mi (10,360,000 sq km)%@EH@%
including adjacent islands (1980 est. pop. 686,000,000). Actually a vast
peninsula of the Eurasian landmass, it is conventionally separated from
Asia by the %@AU@%URALS%@BO:          9af6db@%%@AE@% and Ural R. (E); the %@AU@%CASPIAN SEA%@BO:          19b3ca@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CAUCASUS%@BO:          1a6c62@%%@AE@% (SE); and
the %@AU@%BLACK SEA%@BO:          10a43e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BOSPORUS%@BO:          1267b2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%DARDANELLES%@BO:          2672dd@%%@AE@% straits, and the Sea of Marmara
(S). The %@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN SEA%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@% and Strait of %@AU@%GIBRALTAR%@BO:          3a0f2d@%%@AE@% separate it from
Africa. The huge, young Alpine mountain chain, which includes the
%@AU@%PYRENEES%@BO:          7b57ba@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ALPS%@BO:           41c4e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%APENNINES%@BO:           69dde@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CARPATHIANS%@BO:          19339d@%%@AE@%, and Caucasus, traverses the
continent from west to east. %@AU@%MONT BLANC%@BO:          6335f3@%%@AE@% (15,771 ft/4,807 m) in the Alps
and Mt. %@AU@%ELBRUS%@BO:          2d4127@%%@AE@% (18,481 ft/ 5,633 m) in the Caucasus are the highest
points. The fertile European plain stretches from the Atlantic coast of
France to the Urals. The climate is mild and generally humid in the west
and northwest, dry in summer (Mediterranean type) in the south, and humid
with cool summers in the east. Except for the north, Europe is densely
populated. The countries of Europe are Albania, Andorra, Austria,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, France, East
Germany, West Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, the Republic of Ireland,
Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, the Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Rumania, San Marino, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
European Turkey, the United Kingdom (Great Britain and Northern Ireland),
the European USSR, Vatican City, and Yugoslavia (see separate articles).
%@AU@%LONDON, MOSCOW%@BO:          5664e6@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          713e64@%%@AE@% are the largest cities. See map of Europe in
separate section.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Atomic Energy Community%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Atomic Energy Community%@AE@%%@CR:EUROPEACOMMUNI  @%%@QR:European Atomic Energy Community@% (EURATOM), economic organization%@EH@%
established in 1958 as the 3d member of the %@AU@%EUROPEAN COMMUNITY%@BO:          30b165@%%@AE@%. Its
members are pledged to the common development of Europe's nuclear energy
resources through coordination of their nuclear research and development
programs. EURATOM is vested with wide powers, e.g., to obtain raw
materials and set safety standards. It operates nuclear reactors and
research centers at Culham (England), Ispra (Italy), Geel (Belgium),
Petten (the Netherlands), and Karlsruhe (West Germany).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Coal and Steel Community%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Coal and Steel Community%@AE@%:%@CR:EUROPEA.COMMUN  @%%@QR:European Coal and Steel Community@% see %@AU@%EUROPEAN COMMUNITY%@BO:          30b165@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Community%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Community%@AE@%,%@CR:EUROPEAITY      @%%@QR:European Community@% the collective name given to the consolidation (1967)%@EH@%
of three supranational groups: the European Coal and Steel Community (or
Schuman Plan), established (1952) when six nations pooled their coal and
steel resources to create unified products and labor markets; the %@AU@%COMMON
%@AU@%MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@% (or European Economic Community, est. 1958); and the European
Atomic Energy Community, or Euratom (est. 1958), pledged to the common
development of Europe's nuclear resources. The European Community grew
out the efforts of such statesmen as Jean %@AU@%MONNET%@BO:          62e537@%%@AE@% and Robert %@AU@%SCHUMAN%@BO:          85bbfa@%%@AE@% of
France and Paul Henri %@AU@%SPAAK%@BO:          8c5b17@%%@AE@% of Belgium, who envisioned a unified Europe.
It consists of a Council of Ministers of its member nations, an Executive
Commission, a European Parliament (whose members were directly elected by
voters in the member states for the first time in 1979), and a Court of
Justice.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Economic Community%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Economic Community%@AE@%:%@CR:EUROPEANITY     @%%@QR:European Economic Community@% see %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Free Trade Association%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Free Trade Association%@AE@%%@CR:EUROPEAOCIATIO  @%%@QR:European Free Trade Association@% (EFTA), a customs union and trading bloc%@EH@%
formed (1960) by Austria, Denmark, Britain, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and
Switzerland to promote free trade among members and seek broader economic
integration of Europe. Iceland joined EFTA in 1971; Britain and Denmark
left in 1973 to join the %@AU@%EUROPEAN COMMUNITY%@BO:          30b165@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Monetary System%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Monetary System%@AE@%%@CR:EUROPEAM        @%%@QR:European Monetary System@% (EMS), arrangement by which eight %@AU@%EUROPEAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%COMMUNITY%@BO:          30b165@%%@AE@% nations (Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, and West Germany) link their currencies to prevent large
fluctuations relative to one another. It was organized in 1979 as a means
of stabilizing foreign exchange and countering the varying rates of
inflation among members. Periodic adjustments raise the values of strong
currencies while lowering those of weaker ones, thereby affecting the
prices of imports and exports.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Organization for Nuclear Research%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Organization for Nuclear Research%@AE@%%@CR:EUROPEAOR.NUCL  @%%@QR:European Organization for Nuclear Research@% (CERN), principal European%@EH@%
center (est. 1954) for research in particle physics. Twelve European
countries sponsor the center, which straddles the Franco-Swiss border W
of Geneva.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Recovery Program%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Recovery Program%@AE@%:%@CR:EUROPEAAM       @%%@QR:European Recovery Program@% see %@AU@%MARSHALL PLAN%@BO:          5c2681@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%European Space Agency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%European Space Agency%@AE@%%@CR:EUROPEAAGENCY   @%%@QR:European Space Agency@% (ESA), multinational agency formed in 1975 through%@EH@%
the merger of the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) and the
European Launcher Development Organization (ELDO). The financial
contribution of each of the member countries is determined by the
projects it wishes to support. Major programs include the development of
the Ariane rocket, the Spacelab scientific workshop (see %@AU@%SPACE
%@AU@%EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@%, ) carried into orbit by the space shuttle, and the %@AU@%SPACE
%@AU@%PROBE%@BO:          8ca220@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Giotto%@AE@% that flew by Halley's comet in 1985. The agency placed
(1983, 1989) two European Communications Satellites in orbit.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%europium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%europium%@AE@%%@CR:EUROPIUM        @%%@QR:europium@% (Eu), metallic element, purified by Eugene Demar cay in 1901. A%@EH@%
silvery-white %@AU@%RARE-EARTH METAL%@BO:          7cc65d@%%@AE@%, it has physical properties like those of
other %@AU@%LANTHANIDE SERIES%@BO:          523c36@%%@AE@% members, but its chemical properties resemble
those of calcium. Europium is used in nuclear-reactor control rods. See
%@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eurydice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eurydice%@AE@%:%@CR:EURYDICE        @%%@QR:Eurydice@% see %@AU@%ORPHEUS%@BO:          6efb00@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Euterpe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Euterpe%@AE@%:%@CR:EUTERPE         @%%@QR:Euterpe@% see %@AU@%MUSES%@BO:          655f08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%euthanasia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%euthanasia%@AE@%,%@CR:EUTHANASIA      @%%@QR:euthanasia@% either painlessly putting to %@AU@%DEATH%@BO:          270c90@%%@AE@% (positive euthanasia) or%@EH@%
failing to postpone death from natural causes (negative euthanasia) in
cases of terminal illness. The term %@AI@%negative euthanasia%@AE@% has come to mean
withdrawal of extraordinary means (e.g., intravenous feeding,
respirators, and artificial kidney machines) used to preserve life.
Positive euthanasia is illegal in the U.S., but physicians may lawfully
refuse to prolong life when there is extreme suffering. Debate centers
around whether measures used to keep the terminally ill alive are
routine, and justifiable, or extraordinary. Those seeking to legalize
positive euthanasia assert that a patient has a right to decide to refuse
treatment even though that may result in death. The problem of
incapacitation can be solved, it is held, by a living will, in which a
person expresses, in writing, preferences concerning medical treatment
and death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eutrophication%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eutrophication%@AE@%,%@CR:EUTROPHICATION  @%%@QR:eutrophication@% aging of a lake or slow-moving stream by biological%@EH@%
enrichment of its water. In a young lake, the water is cold and clear,
supporting little life. With time, plant and animal life burgeon, and
organic remains begin to be deposited. As the lake grows shallower and
warmer, marsh plants take root and begin to fill in the basin. Eventually
the lake gives way to bog, finally becoming dry land. The natural aging
of a lake may span thousands of years. However, wastes from human
activities can accelerate the aging process, as with water %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%. The
prime pollutants are nitrates and phosphates, which greatly stimulate the
growth of algae, producing a pungent surface scum. Decomposition of dead
algae reduces the water's dissolved oxygen content, adversely affecting
fish and other aquatic life forms typical of a mature lake.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eutyches%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eutyches%@AE@%%@CR:EUTYCHES        @%%@QR:Eutyches@%, c.378-c.452, archimandrite in %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          2283b5@%%@AE@%, sponsor of%@EH@%
Eutychianism (the first phase of %@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@%) and leader of the
opponents of %@AU@%NESTORIANISM%@BO:          685e94@%%@AE@%. He taught that Christ's humanity was absorbed
in his one divine nature. Eutyches was deposed (448), but was reinstated
(449) by the Robber Synod at Ephesus. The Council of %@AU@%CHALCEDON%@BO:          1b3c4f@%%@AE@% (1451)
ended Eutychianism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evangelical Alliance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evangelical Alliance%@AE@%,%@CR:EVANGELIANCE    @%%@QR:Evangelical Alliance@% an association of individual Evangelical Christians%@EH@%
of many denominations and countries, founded (1846) in London. In the
U.S. the association was superseded (1950) by the %@AU@%NATIONAL COUNCIL OF
%@AU@%CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA%@BO:          66c878@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evangelical United Brethren Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evangelical United Brethren Church%@AE@%,%@CR:EVANGELHREN.CH  @%%@QR:Evangelical United Brethren Church@% Protestant denomination created%@EH@%
(1946) by the union of the Evangelical Church and the United Brethren in
Christ. Both bodies grew from evangelistic efforts, the former from the
work of Jacob Albright (1807), the latter from the efforts of P.W.
%@AU@%OTTERBEIN%@BO:          6f6710@%%@AE@% and Martin Boehm (1800). The church had an episcopal government
and stressed prayer, devotion to Christ, and individual responsibility.
In 1967 it became a part of the United Methodist Church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%evangelist%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%evangelist%@AE@%%@CR:EVANGELIST      @%%@QR:evangelist@% [from Gr.,=Gospel], title given to saints %@AU@%MATTHEW%@BO:          5d4238@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MARK%@BO:          5bdcd6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LUKE%@BO:          57c990@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
and %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%. The title is now applied to Protestant preachers who preach
personal conversion. Notable examples are John %@AU@%WESLEY%@BO:          a08a3c@%%@AE@%, George %@AU@%WHITEFIELD%@BO:          a14104@%%@AE@%,
George %@AU@%FOX%@BO:          34e449@%%@AE@%, Dwight Moody, and Billy %@AU@%GRAHAM%@BO:          3c082c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evans, Sir Arthur John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evans, Sir Arthur John%@AE@%,%@CR:EVANS1          @%%@QR:Evans, Sir Arthur John@% 1851-1941, English archaeologist. Keeper%@EH@%
(1884-1908) of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, he excavated at %@AU@%CNOSSUS%@BO:          1fad4f@%%@AE@% and
uncovered remains of an ancient Cretan culture, which he called %@AU@%MINOAN%@BO:          613426@%%@AE@%.
His writings include %@AI@%The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult%@AE@% (1901) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Palace of Minos%@AE@% (4 vol., 1921-35).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evans, Mary Ann%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evans, Mary Ann%@AE@%%@CR:EVANS2          @%%@QR:Evans, Mary Ann@% or %@AB@%Marian:%@AE@%see %@AU@%ELIOT, GEORGE%@BO:          2e1363@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evans, Oliver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evans, Oliver%@AE@%,%@CR:EVANS3          @%%@QR:Evans, Oliver@% 1775-1819, American inventor; b. near Newport, Del. Evans%@EH@%
developed and patented a number of grain-handling machines, including an
elevator and a conveyor system, that later became standard equipment in
U.S. mills. He pioneered the design of high-pressure steam engines. In
1804 he built the first land vehicle in the U.S. that moved under its own
power, an engine-equipped dredge.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evans, Walker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evans, Walker%@AE@%,%@CR:EVANS4          @%%@QR:Evans, Walker@% 1903-75, American photographer; b. St. Louis. He is noted%@EH@%
for his studies of the rural South during the Great Depression. Many of
his photographs of tenant farmers appeared in the book %@AI@%Let Us Now Praise
%@AI@%Famous Men%@AE@% (1941), written by James %@AU@%AGEE%@BO:           202c8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan%@AE@%,%@CR:EVANSPRITCHARD  @%%@QR:Evans-Pritchard, Edward Evan@% 1902-73, English social anthropologist. A%@EH@%
specialist on Africa, he wrote %@AI@%The Nuer%@AE@% (1940), a classic of ethnography,
and %@AI@%Theories of Primitive Religion%@AE@% (1965).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evansville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evansville%@AE@%,%@CR:EVANSVILLE      @%%@QR:Evansville@% city (1986 est. pop. 129,480), seat of Vanderburgh co., SW%@EH@%
Ind., a port on the Ohio R.; inc. 1819. Commercial center for a coal,
oil, and farm region, the city manufactures refrigeration and
air-conditioning equipment, machinery, metal products, and
pharmaceuticals. The Univ. of Evansville and several other colleges are
located there. Cultural institutions include a museum of arts and
sciences and a philharmonic orchestra.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%evaporation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%evaporation%@AE@%:%@CR:EVAPORATION     @%%@QR:evaporation@% see %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evatt, Herbert Vere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evatt, Herbert Vere%@AE@%,%@CR:EVATT           @%%@QR:Evatt, Herbert Vere@% 1894-1965, Australian statesman. After serving%@EH@%
(1930-40) as justice of the high court of Australia, Evatt, a Labour
party member, was (1941-49) attorney general and foreign minister. He was
president (1948-49) of the U.N. General Assembly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eve%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eve%@AE@%,%@CR:EVE             @%%@QR:Eve@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, the first woman, wife of %@AU@%ADAM%@BO:            ee16@%%@AE@%, mother of %@AU@%CAIN%@BO:          16d5bb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ABEL%@BO:            2f17@%%@EH@%
%@AU@%%@AE@%, and Seth. Led by the serpent to eat of the forbidden tree of knowledge,
Eve tempted Adam to eat of the tree also. As punishment, they were
banished from the Garden of %@AU@%EDEN%@BO:          2c5d8a@%%@AE@%. Gen. 2-4.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evelyn, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evelyn, John%@AE@%,%@CR:EVELYN          @%%@QR:Evelyn, John@% 1620-1706, English diarist and author. A founder of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%ROYAL SOCIETY%@BO:          81990b@%%@AE@% (1660), he wrote on reforestation, natural science, art
history, and numismatics. He is best known for his lifelong %@AU@%DIARY%@BO:          28b08d@%%@AE@% (pub.
1818), full of historical information on 17th-cent. England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%evening primrose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%evening primrose%@AE@%,%@CR:EVENINGE        @%%@QR:evening primrose@% common name for a plant of the Onagraceae family,%@EH@%
distributed worldwide. More specifically, it refers to a yellow,
evening-flowering annual or biennial of the genus %@AI@%Oenothera,%@AE@% grown in the
temperate New World. The family also includes the %@AU@%FUCHSIA%@BO:          36adc3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%evening star%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%evening star%@AE@%,%@CR:EVENING.STAR    @%%@QR:evening star@% a common term for a bright planet, not a star, usually%@EH@%
Venus, appearing in the western sky soon after sunset. In ancient times
Venus was called Hesperus (Greek) or Vesper (Roman) when it was seen as
the evening star.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Everest, Mount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Everest, Mount%@AE@%,%@CR:EVEREST         @%%@QR:Everest, Mount@% 29,028 ft (8,848 m) high, highest mountain in the world,%@EH@%
located in the central %@AU@%HIMALAYAS%@BO:          42dcce@%%@AE@%, on the Tibet-Nepal border. Named for
Sir George Everest, the surveyor of the Himalayas, it was first climbed
in 1953 by Sir Edmund %@AU@%HILLARY%@BO:          42d349@%%@AE@% and Tenzing Norkay, after at least eight
earlier attempts to scale it had failed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Everett, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Everett, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:EVERETT         @%%@QR:Everett, Edward@% 1794-1865, American orator and statesman; b. Dorchester,%@EH@%
Mass. His long public career included service as congressman from
Massachusetts (1825-35), governor of the state (1836-39), minister to
England (1841-45), and U.S. senator (1853-54). During the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% he
traveled throughout the North, speaking for the Union cause. He gave the
principal speech at Gettysburg on the same occasion that produced
Lincoln's famous %@AU@%GETTYSBURG ADDRESS%@BO:          39c98d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Everglades%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Everglades%@AE@%,%@CR:EVERGLADES      @%%@QR:Everglades@% marshy, low-lying tropical area (maximum elevation 7 ft/2.1%@EH@%
m), S Florida, covering c.5,000 sq mi (12,950 sq km) and including
Everglades National Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%, ). It is an area of solidly
packed muck, saw grass, and marsh hammocks, and is rich in wildlife. The
local %@AU@%SEMINOLE INDIANS%@BO:          86c607@%%@AE@% were driven out in the 1830s. From the late 19th
cent., large tracts of land were drained with a view to cultivation, but
most such plans were abandoned after great fires occurred in 1939.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Everglades National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Everglades National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:EVERGLAK        @%%@QR:Everglades National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evert, Chris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evert, Chris%@AE@%%@CR:EVERT           @%%@QR:Evert, Chris@% (Christine Marie Evert), 1954-, American tennis player; b.%@EH@%
Fort Lauderdale, Fla. Noted for her poise on the court and her strong,
two-handed backhand, she captured the singles title at Wimbledon in 1974,
1976, and 1981, and won six U.S. Open singles titles between 1975 and
1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Everyman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Everyman%@AE@%,%@CR:EVERYMAN        @%%@QR:Everyman@% late-15th-cent. English morality play. Summoned by Death,%@EH@%
Everyman can persuade none of his friends-Beauty, Kindred, Worldly
Goods-to go with him, except Good Deeds. This %@AU@%ALLEGORY%@BO:           3da28@%%@AE@% is the basis of
many later plays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%evidence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%evidence%@AE@%,%@CR:EVIDENCE        @%%@QR:evidence@% in law, material submitted to a court or other inquiring body%@EH@%
to prove the facts in a legal dispute. The admissibility of evidence is
governed by various rules. Particular evidence may be excluded on the
grounds that it is irrelevant (having no bearing on the dispute),
immaterial (having no impact on the substance of the dispute), or
incompetent (outside the knowledge of the witness, e.g., hearsay). Rules
of personal privilege excuse a witness from giving evidence relating to
certain communications, e.g., between husband and wife; witnesses may
also withhold self-incriminating evidence, and criminal defendants may
refuse to testify. Evidence may be direct, such as that arising from
personal observation, or it may be circumstantial, arising from facts
that tend to prove other facts by inference. The kinds of evidence
usually produced are physical objects (real evidence); written statements
and documents (documentary evidence); oral testimony of the parties to
the dispute (personal evidence); and technical or other specialized
testimony (expert evidence). The burden of proof, i.e., the
responsibility to establish a disputed fact, shifts according to the
nature of the controversy: in a civil suit, each party must prove its
affirmative contentions by a preponderance of the evidence; in a criminal
suit, the burden of proof rests on the prosecution, which must prove each
element of its case beyond a reasonable doubt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%evolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%evolution%@AE@%,%@CR:EVOLUTION       @%%@QR:evolution@% concept embodying the belief that existing organisms descended%@EH@%
from a common ancestor. This theory, also known as descent with
modification, constitutes organic evolution. Inorganic evolution deals
with the development of the physical universe from unorganized matter
(see %@AU@%COSMOLOGY%@BO:          23b30e@%%@AE@%). Organic evolution conceives of life as having begun as a
simple, primordial protoplasmic mass from which arose, through time, all
subsequent living forms. The first clearly stated theory of evolution,
that proposed by Jean %@AU@%LAMARCK%@BO:          51b77b@%%@AE@% in 1801, included the inheritance of
%@AU@%ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS%@BO:            d635@%%@AE@% as the operative force in evolution.
Subsequently (1858), Alfred Russel %@AU@%WALLACE%@BO:          9ec09f@%%@AE@% and Charles %@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@%
independently set forth a scientifically credible theory of evolution
based on %@AU@%NATURAL SELECTION%@BO:          679366@%%@AE@%, focusing on the survival and reproduction of
those species best adapted to the environment. This theory had a profound
effect on scientific thought and experimentation. Although it has
undergone modification in light of later scientific developments, the
theory of evolution still rests on essentially the same grounds
emphasized by Darwin, supported by research in %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@% as well as by
comparative anatomy, embryology, geography, paleontology, and, recently,
biochemistry. It has been challenged by those believing in the creation
theory of the universe (see %@AU@%CREATIONISM%@BO:          2468ea@%%@AE@%). See also %@AU@%MUTATION%@BO:          65b679@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evtushenko, Evgeny%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evtushenko, Evgeny%@AE@%:%@CR:EVTUSHENKO      @%%@QR:Evtushenko, Evgeny@% see %@AU@%YEVTUSHENKO%@BO:          a43614@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Evvoia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Evvoia%@AE@%%@CR:EVVOIA          @%%@QR:Evvoia@% or %@AB@%Euboea,%@AE@%island (1981 pop. 188,410), c.1,467 sq mi (3,800 sq.%@EH@%
km), SE Greece, separated from the mainland by the Evripos strait. Its
main industries are agriculture, magnesite and lignite mining, and marble
quarrying. Settled by the ancient Greeks, it was divided among seven
%@AU@%CITY-STATES%@BO:          1eaf77@%%@AE@%, including Eretria, and later passed to Rome, Venice, and the
Ottoman Turks before its incorporation (1830) into Greece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ewing, (William) Maurice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ewing, (William) Maurice%@AE@%,%@CR:EWING           @%%@QR:Ewing, (William) Maurice@% 1906-74, American geophysicist; b. Lockney,%@EH@%
Tex. Ewing's oceanographic work was critical to the acceptance of the
theory of %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%. In the late 1930s he conducted the first
seismic studies (1935) and the first photographing (1939) of the ocean
floor. At Columbia Univ. he helped to found (1949) the Lamont-Doherty
Geological Observatory and was (1949-72) its first director.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exceptional children%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exceptional children%@AE@%,%@CR:EXCEPTILDREN    @%%@QR:exceptional children@% children who differ markedly from the average%@EH@%
physically, mentally, or psychologically. This includes children who need
special education, including the gifted, physically impaired, mentally
retarded, or emotionally disturbed. Special educational programs,
including public school instruction with special attention, segregated
day schools, integrated day schools, and institutional care, have been
designed to accommodate these children.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%excess profits tax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%excess profits tax%@AE@%,%@CR:EXCESS.TAX      @%%@QR:excess profits tax@% levy on any profit above a standard level, usually%@EH@%
imposed during wartime to prevent businesses from making unreasonable
profits. Both the U.S. and Britain levied such taxes during the world
wars. A "windfall profits" tax on oil revenues and royalties, enacted by
the U.S. in 1980, was actually an %@AU@%EXCISE TAX%@BO:          310e61@%%@AE@% on production, not profits.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exchange rate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exchange rate%@AE@%:%@CR:EXCHANGE.RATE   @%%@QR:exchange rate@% see %@AU@%FOREIGN EXCHANGE%@BO:          347166@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%excise tax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%excise tax%@AE@%,%@CR:EXCISE.TAX      @%%@QR:excise tax@% governmental levy on specific goods. Introduced by Holland in%@EH@%
the 17th cent., excise taxes spread to England (1643) and the U.S.
(1791). Both the federal government and state governments impose such
taxes in the U.S., chiefly on gasoline, cigarettes, and liquor, and
sometimes on furs, jewelry, and other goods classed as luxury items.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exclamation point%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exclamation point%@AE@%:%@CR:EXCLAMANT       @%%@QR:exclamation point@% see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%excommunication%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%excommunication%@AE@%,%@CR:EXCOMMUNICATION @%%@QR:excommunication@% formal expulsion of a person from a religious community,%@EH@%
especially from the Roman Catholic Church. It involves a formal decree
(or anathema) and public exclusion from the church, sacraments, and
society. An excommunicate may return to the church on repentance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%excretion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%excretion%@AE@%,%@CR:EXCRETION       @%%@QR:excretion@% process of eliminating from an organism the waste products of%@EH@%
metabolism and other materials of no use. In one-celled organisms wastes
are discharged through the cell's surface. Higher plants eliminate gases
through the stomata, or pores, on the leaf surface, and multicellular
animals have special excretory organs. In humans the main excretory
organs are the %@AU@%KIDNEYS%@BO:          4f8165@%%@AE@% and other organs of the %@AU@%URINARY SYSTEM%@BO:          9b1328@%%@AE@%, through
which %@AU@%URINE%@BO:          9b1650@%%@AE@% is eliminated, and the large intestine, from which solid
wastes are expelled (see %@AU@%DIGESTIVE SYSTEM%@BO:          28fa20@%%@AE@%). Excretion also takes place in
the %@AU@%SKIN%@BO:          89dd3c@%%@AE@%, which eliminates water and salt in the form of sweat, and the
%@AU@%LUNGS%@BO:          57e24d@%%@AE@%, which expel water vapor and carbon dioxide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%executive%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%executive%@AE@%,%@CR:EXECUTIVE       @%%@QR:executive@% in government, the chief administrative officer and the branch%@EH@%
charged with carrying out the laws, as distinguished from the legislative
(see %@AU@%CONGRESS%@BO:          2209cf@%%@AE@%) and judicial branches (see %@AU@%COURT SYSTEM%@BO:          2402e3@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%). A
further distinction is sometimes made between the executives who decide
policy and civil servants who implement it. Executive areas of concern
include directing relations with foreign governments, commanding the
armed forces, and, approving or disapproving legislative acts. In the
U.S., the president, the %@AU@%CABINET%@BO:          168ae6@%%@AE@%, and functionaries of the federal
administrative agencies are considered part of the executive.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exercise electrocardiography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exercise electrocardiography%@AE@%:%@CR:EXERCISRAPHY    @%%@QR:exercise electrocardiography@% see %@AU@%STRESS TEST%@BO:          8fb2ef@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Exeter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Exeter%@AE@%,%@CR:EXETER          @%%@QR:Exeter@% city (1986 est. pop. 99,300), capital of Devonshire, SW England,%@EH@%
on the Exe R. It is the market and distribution center for SW England.
Strategically located, it was besieged by the Danes (9th, 11th cent.), by
William the Conquerer (1068), and by Yorkists (15th cent.). Its many
historic sites include Roman ruins and the massive Norman Cathedral,
whose library contains the famous Old English Exeter Book. The city's
center was rebuilt after heavy bombings in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%existentialism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%existentialism%@AE@%,%@CR:EXISTENTIALISM  @%%@QR:existentialism@% any of several philosophical systems of the 20th cent.,%@EH@%
all centered on the individual and the individual's relationship to the
universe or to God. Sooren %@AU@%KIERKEGAARD%@BO:          4f8884@%%@AE@% developed a Christian
existentialism that recognized the concrete ethical and religious demands
confronting the individual, who is forced each time to make a subjective
commitment. The necessity and seriousness of these decisions cause him
dread and despair. Following Kierkegaard, %@AU@%HEIDEGGER%@BO:          413b0d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SARTRE%@BO:          84ab54@%%@AE@%, both
students of %@AU@%HUSSERL%@BO:          45a95a@%%@AE@%, were the major thinkers of the movement. Heidegger
rejected the label of existentialism, describing his philosophy as an
investigation of the nature of being in which the analysis of human
existence is only a first step. For Sartre, the only self-declared
existentialist among the major thinkers, existence precedes essence:
there is no God and no fixed human nature; thus man is totally free and
entirely responsible for what he makes of himself. This responsibility
accounts for his dread and anguish. Sartre influenced the writings of
%@AU@%CAMUS%@BO:          17db88@%%@AE@% and de %@AU@%BEAUVOIR%@BO:           d7fff@%%@AE@%. A Christian existentialism was developed in France
by Gabriel Marcel, a Roman Catholic. The religious thinkers Karl %@AU@%BARTH%@BO:           c98cb@%%@AE@%,
Paul %@AU@%TILLICH%@BO:          95d573@%%@AE@%, Reinhold %@AU@%NIEBUHR%@BO:          69f19a@%%@AE@%, and Martin %@AU@%BUBER%@BO:          14e083@%%@AE@%, and the philosopher
Karl %@AU@%JASPERS%@BO:          4b7faa@%%@AE@% are often included in the orbit of existentialism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exobiology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exobiology%@AE@%,%@CR:EXOBIOLOGY      @%%@QR:exobiology@% search for extraterrestrial life throughout the universe.%@EH@%
Philosophical speculation that there might be other worlds similar to
ours dates back to the ancient Chinese and Greeks. Six basic parameters
determine whether an environment is suitable for life as we know it:
temperature, pressure, salinity, acidity, water availability, and oxygen
content. Advanced life is restricted to a narrow range of these
parameters, but primitive microorganisms can exist over a much wider
range. Data already collected by %@AU@%SPACE PROBES%@BO:          8ca220@%%@AE@% essentially rule out
advanced life on other planets of our solar system. Some scientists,
however, have estimated that as many as 50,000 planets in our galaxy have
earthlike conditions and that a substantial fraction of these are likely
to have cultures as technologically advanced as our own; efforts to
detect radio emissions from these civilizations have so far been
unsuccessful. A continuing effort is being made to detect primitive life
within our solar system, e.g., the surface landings (1976) of the Viking
space probes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Exodus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Exodus%@AE@%,%@CR:EXODUS          @%%@QR:Exodus@% second book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@% and of the %@AU@%PENTATEUCH%@BO:          730045@%%@AE@%, ascribed%@EH@%
by tradition to %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@%. It is a religious history of the %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@% during their
flight from Egypt, when they began to receive the Law. The events include
the bondage in Egypt and God's preparations for liberation through the
agency of Moses (1-11); the exodus proper, with the institution of the
Passover (see %@AU@%JEWISH HOLIDAYS%@BO:          4c1c13@%%@AE@%) and the crossing of the Red Sea (12-18);
and the divine legislation at Mt. Sinai (19-40), including the giving of
the %@AU@%TEN COMMANDMENTS%@BO:          93d66a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exorcism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exorcism%@AE@%,%@CR:EXORCISM        @%%@QR:exorcism@% ritual driving out of evil spirits, as distinguished from rites%@EH@%
of propitiation or evocation. It may be applied to a person, place, or
thing by use of holy water, incense, incantation, or various rites. The
New Testament records Christ's ability to drive out devils. The Roman
Catholic Church regulates exorcism of demons from persons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%expert system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%expert system%@AE@%,%@CR:EXPERT.SYSTEM   @%%@QR:expert system@% an computer program that makes decisions based on an%@EH@%
analysis of data using a complex set of rules. Expert systems can analyze
information in such areas as medical diagnosis and financial planning.
Often, the rules are an elaborate set of "if...then" statements. One such
program, MYCIN, contains 400 rules designed to diagnosis and recommend
treatment for infectious blood diseases. The design and development of
such systems is an outgrowth of %@AU@%ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE%@BO:           866e9@%%@AE@% called knowledge
engineering.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Explorer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Explorer%@AE@%:%@CR:EXPLORER        @%%@QR:Explorer@% see %@AU@%SATELLITE, ARTIFICIAL%@BO:          84c1ce@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SPACE PROBE%@BO:          8ca220@%%@AE@%, .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%explosive%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%explosive%@AE@%,%@CR:EXPLOSIVE       @%%@QR:explosive@% a substance that undergoes rapid decomposition or combustion,%@EH@%
evolving much heat and producing a large volume of gas. The heat evolved
causes the gas to expand greatly, exerting the enormous pressure of
explosions. Important explosives include TNT (trinitrotoluene), %@AU@%DYNAMITE%@BO:          2b905f@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%NITROGLYCERIN%@BO:          6a54e4@%%@AE@%. Chemical explosives are of two general kinds. Some,
e.g., %@AU@%GUNPOWDER%@BO:          3e9c83@%%@AE@%, are mixtures of readily combustible but not necessarily
explosive substances, which, when set off (by ignition), undergo very
rapid combustion. Others, called high explosives (e.g., TNT), are
compounds whose molecules are unstable and can undergo explosive
decomposition (detonation) without burning. The latter kind is used in
warfare (e.g., in bombs, explosive shells, torpedoes, and missile
warheads) and for blasting rock in mining and construction work.
Nondetonating explosives, e.g., gunpowder and modern smokeless powders,
are used as propellants for bullets and in fireworks. Nuclear explosives
release energy by transformation of the atomic nucleus (see %@AU@%ATOMIC BOMB%@BO:           98960@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%HYDROGEN BOMB%@BO:          45f604@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NUCLEAR ENERGY%@BO:          6c0981@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exponent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exponent%@AE@%,%@CR:EXPONENT        @%%@QR:exponent@% in mathematics, a number or algebraic expression written above%@EH@%
and to the right of another number or algebraic expression called the
base. In the expressions %@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@% and %@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%n%@AE@%, the number 2 and the algebraic letter
%@AI@%n%@AE@% are the exponents, respectively, of the base %@AI@%x.%@AE@% A positive whole number
as exponent indicates the power, or how many times the base is to be
taken as a factor (e.g., 2%@AH@%3%@AE@%=2*2*2=8). Fractional and negative exponents
indicate, respectively, %@AU@%ROOTS%@BO:          810f61@%%@AE@% and reciprocals (e.g., 8%@AH@%1/3%@AE@%=3 82 and
%@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%-2%@AE@%=1/%@AI@%x%@AE@%2). A zero exponent makes any quantity equal to 1.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%exponential function%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%exponential function%@AE@%:%@CR:EXPONENCTION    @%%@QR:exponential function@% see article on %@AI@%e%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%expressionism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%expressionism%@AE@%,%@CR:EXPRESSIONISM   @%%@QR:expressionism@% term used to describe works of art and literature in which%@EH@%
the representation of reality is distorted to communicate an inner
vision, transforming nature rather than imitating it. %@AB@%1%@AE@% In painting and
the graphic arts, certain movements such as the %@AU@%BRUCKE%@BO:          149a86@%%@AE@% (1905) and %@AU@%BLAUE
%@AU@%REITER%@BO:          10d5d2@%%@AE@% (1911) are described as expressionist. In addition, certain
independent artists e.g., %@AU@%ROUAULT%@BO:          81747a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SOUTINE%@BO:          8c3d80@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VLAMINCK%@BO:          9e13ac@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KOKOSCHKA%@BO:          5072a3@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%SCHIELE%@BO:          855b61@%%@AE@%, did personal visionary paintings. %@AU@%GAUGUIN%@BO:          384cf9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ENSOR%@BO:          2f2e70@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VAN GOGH%@BO:          9bd194@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%MUNCH%@BO:          651b2e@%%@AE@% were the spiritual fathers of expressionism, as were such earlier
artists as El %@AU@%GRECO%@BO:          3cfa0c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GRUNEWALD%@BO:          3e05db@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GOYA%@BO:          3beccc@%%@AE@%, whose works show striking
parallels to modern expressionist sensibility. See also %@AU@%NEOEXPRESSIONISM%@BO:          68208f@%%@AE@%.
%@AB@%2%@AE@% In literature, expressionism is often considered a revolt against
realism and naturalism, seeking to achieve a psychological or spiritual
reality rather than to record external events. In the novel, the term
applies to %@AU@%KAFKA%@BO:          4df9b9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JOYCE%@BO:          4d5d9d@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS%@BO:          8fa6a0@%%@AE@%). In drama,
%@AU@%STRINDBERG%@BO:          8fbad5@%%@AE@% is the forerunner of the group of early 20th-century
dramatists to which the term is applied, e.g., %@AU@%KAISER%@BO:          4dfe6c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TOLLER%@BO:          96717d@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%WEDEKIND%@BO:          a02410@%%@AE@%. Their work was often characterized by a bizarre distortion of
reality. The movement, though short-lived, gave impetus to a free form of
writing and of theatrical production.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%extinction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%extinction%@AE@%,%@CR:EXTINCTION      @%%@QR:extinction@% in biology, disappearance of species of living organisms.%@EH@%
Extinction occurs as a result of changed conditions to which the species
is not suited. If no member of the affected species survives and
reproduces, the entire line dies out, leaving no descendants. However, a
species may also become extinct through its gradual evolution into a new
species, as a result of natural selection for characteristics suited to
new conditions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%extortion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%extortion%@AE@%,%@CR:EXTORTION       @%%@QR:extortion@% in law, the offense of obtaining from a person money or%@EH@%
property not legally owed, through the use of fear, force, or authority
of office. The demanding of ransom (a price for return of a captured
person or property) or blackmail (money exacted by threat of exposure of
criminal action or disreputable conduct) are forms of extortion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%extradition%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%extradition%@AE@%,%@CR:EXTRADITION     @%%@QR:extradition@% delivery of a person, suspected or convicted of a crime, by%@EH@%
the country of refuge to the country asserting jurisdiction. In the U.S.
it also applies to the removal of a suspected criminal from one state to
another. Its purpose is to prevent criminals from escaping punishment by
fleeing to another jurisdiction. Extradition became common policy in the
19th cent., but since under international law it is not obligatory
without a treaty, virtually all extradition occurs under the authority of
specific bilateral treaties between nations; these may vary widely. Most
European countries will surrender a criminal fugitive upon simple demand.
The U.S. requires evidence that the accused has violated its law as well
as the law of the demanding country. Like many nations, the U.S. will not
surrender a fugitive wanted for a political crime (see %@AU@%ASYLUM%@BO:           938e8@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%extrasensory perception%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%extrasensory perception%@AE@%,%@CR:EXTRASERCEPTION @%%@QR:extrasensory perception@% commonly called ESP, any perception that occurs%@EH@%
independently of the known sensory processes such as sight and smell. The
main categories of ESP are telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. The
existence of ESP is disputed, though systematic experimental research on
the subject has been ongoing since 1930. See also %@AU@%PARAPSYCHOLOGY%@BO:          7129d1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%extraterritoriality%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%extraterritoriality%@AE@%,%@CR:EXTRATELITY     @%%@QR:extraterritoriality@% privilege of immunity from local law enforcement%@EH@%
enjoyed by certain aliens while present in the territory of a foreign
nation. It is extended to most diplomats and their families, who are
considered by customary international law to be under the legal
jurisdiction of their home countries and thus exempt from civil and
criminal action, arrest, lawsuits, and, often, the payment of personal
and property taxes. Certain transgressions, however, can result in an
alien being declared persona non grata and expelled from the host
country. Extraterritoriality also extends to public (i.e., state-owned)
vessels in foreign territorial waterways and ports, and to air space over
national territory, although air space remains regulated by bilateral
agreements because uniform standards of jurisdiction have not been
established (see %@AU@%AIR, LAW OF THE%@BO:           24207@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%extreme unction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%extreme unction%@AE@%:%@CR:EXTREME.UNCTION @%%@QR:extreme unction@% see %@AU@%ANOINTING OF THE SICK%@BO:           5e127@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%extroversion and introversion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%extroversion and introversion%@AE@%,%@CR:EXTROVEERSION   @%%@QR:extroversion and introversion@% terms introduced into psychology by C.G.%@EH@%
%@AU@%JUNG%@BO:          4db507@%%@AE@% to identify two opposite psychological types: the extrovert, who is
directed toward the external world and is most content when surrounded by
people and activity, and the introvert, who is contemplative and enjoys
solitude and the inner life. Jung believed that everyone has tendencies
in both directions, although one direction generally predominates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eyck, Hubert van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eyck, Hubert van%@AE@%%@CR:EYCK            @%%@QR:Eyck, Hubert van@%, c.1370-1426, and %@AB@%Jan van Eyck,%@AE@% c.1390-1441, Flemish%@EH@%
painters, brothers. Little is known of Hubert, who may have worked
(1414-17) for Duke William of Bavaria and did settle in Ghent, in
Belgium. He is credited with an %@AI@%Annunciation%@AE@% and a stunningly detailed
miniature diptych of the %@AI@%Crucifixion and Last Judgment%@AE@% (both:
Metropolitan Mus.). Jan worked in the courts of Count John of Holland
(1422-25) and Philip of Burgundy. His paintings are minutely descriptive,
realistic depictions of portrait subjects and religious scenes with
contemporary %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% details. His oil technique reveals an unprecedented
richness and intensity of color for the medium. The two brothers
collaborated on their masterwork, the altarpiece of the Church of Saint
Bavon in Ghent (completed by Jan in 1432). One or both brothers
illuminated (see %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@%) parts of the %@AI@%Heures de Turin%@AE@% manuscript.
Jan's portrait oils include %@AI@%Portrait of an Unknown Man%@AE@% (1432) and %@AI@%Man
%@AI@%with the Red Turban,%@AE@% perhaps a self-portrait (both: London), and the
wedding picture %@AI@%Giovanni Arnolfini and his Bride%@AE@% (1434; National Gall.,
London). His splendid %@AI@%Annunciation%@AE@% is in Washington, D.C. (National
Gall.). Jan van Eyck's influence on European painting is enormous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%eye%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%eye%@AE@%,%@CR:EYE             @%%@QR:eye@% organ of vision. Like a camera, it has a diaphragm and variable%@EH@%
focusing. The eyeball has three covering layers. The %@AI@%sclera,%@AE@% the
outermost, is partially visible as the "white" of the eye. In the center
of the sclera and projecting slightly is the cornea, a transparent
membrane that acts as the window of the eye. The %@AI@%choroid,%@AE@% the layer
beneath the sclera, is composed of dense pigment and blood vessels. Near
the center of the visible part of the eye the choroid forms the ciliary
body, the muscles of which change the shape of the lens. The ciliary body
merges with the iris, a muscular diaphragm that regulates the size of the
pupil, the round opening through which light enters the eye. The iris,
where it is not covered by the sclera, reveals the choroid's
pigmentation, usually brown or blue (giving the eye its color). Behind
the iris is the lens, a transparent, elastic, but solid ellipsoid body
that bends light rays, focusing them on the %@AI@%retina,%@AE@% the third tissue
layer. The retina is a network of nerve cells, notably the rods and
cones, that send impulses along the optic nerve to the brain. The rods
provide vision in dim light, while the cones respond best to bright light
and provide color vision. See also %@AU@%ASTIGMATISM%@BO:           8f734@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BLINDNESS%@BO:          10e446@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COLOR
%@AU@%BLINDNESS%@BO:          209d5f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%FARSIGHTEDNESS%@BO:          31d5bf@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GLAUCOMA%@BO:          3a9bab@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NEARSIGHTEDNESS%@BO:          67e172@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Eyre, Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Eyre, Lake%@AE@%,%@CR:EYRE            @%%@QR:Eyre, Lake@% largest lake in Australia, located in the continent's arid%@EH@%
interior, in central %@AU@%SOUTH AUSTRALIA%@BO:          8bfd75@%%@AE@% state. It forms the continent's
lowest point, 39 ft (12 m) below sea level, and frequently runs dry. Its
waters are salty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ezechiel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ezechiel%@AE@%:%@CR:EZECHIEL        @%%@QR:Ezechiel@% see %@AU@%EZEKIEL%@BO:          316510@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ezekiel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ezekiel%@AE@%%@CR:EZEKIEL         @%%@QR:Ezekiel@%or %@AB@%Ezechiel%@AE@%, book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 26th in the Authorized%@EH@%
Version, third of the Major %@AU@%PROPHETS%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@%, recounts the prophecies of Ezekiel,
who preached (592-570 BC) to the Jews of the %@AU@%BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY%@BO:           ab332@%%@AE@%. It
centers on the fall of %@AU@%JERUSALEM%@BO:          4be799@%%@AE@% (586 BC): chapters 1-32 prophesy doom;
33-48, looking to restoration, end with a vision of the ideal Temple.
Ezekiel stresses individual responsibility, and is noted for its symbolic
passages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ezra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ezra%@AE@%%@CR:EZRA            @%%@QR:Ezra@%or %@AB@%Esdras%@AE@% (ez'dras) and %@AB@%Nehemiah%@AE@% , two books of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
15th and 16th in the Authorized Version, tell the history of the %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%
from 538 BC to 432 BC, from the decree of %@AU@%CYRUS THE GREAT%@BO:          25c4e2@%%@AE@% permitting the
return from the %@AU@%BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY%@BO:           ab332@%%@AE@% to the dedication of %@AU@%JERUSALEM'S%@BO:          4be799@%%@AE@% new
walls. The book of Ezra concerns the return of one group, the rebuilding
of the Temple, and the return of Ezra "the priest, the scribe" with
orders to restore Jewish Law. Nehemiah tells of the return of Nehemiah,
who was a cupbearer to %@AU@%ARTAXERXES I%@BO:           8334b@%%@AE@%, the rebuilding of the walls, and the
reading of the Law and signing of a covenant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%F%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%F%@AE@%,%@CR:F               @%%@QR:F@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%FLUORINE%@BO:          33f746@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faberge, Peter Carl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faberge, Peter Carl%@AE@%,%@CR:FABERGE         @%%@QR:Faberge, Peter Carl@% 1846-1920, Russian goldsmith. As head of the studio%@EH@%
established by his father, he was responsible for the design of elegant
jewelry and objets d'art. Faberge was particularly well known for the
richly imaginative jeweled and enameled Easter eggs he created for the
Russian royal family. He died in exile in Switzerland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fabian Society%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fabian Society%@AE@%,%@CR:FABIAN.SOCIETY  @%%@QR:Fabian Society@% British organization founded (1884) to promote%@EH@%
evolutionary socialism. Its exponents included George Bernard %@AU@%SHAW%@BO:          8807c3@%%@AE@%,
Beatrice Potter %@AU@%WEBB%@BO:          a001c4@%%@AE@%, and Sidney %@AU@%WEBB%@BO:          a00785@%%@AE@%. The Fabians rejected Marxism and
denied the need for violent class struggle. After publication of the
%@AI@%Fabian Essays%@AE@% (1889) they gained widespread recognition. The Fabian
Society played a leading role in the creation of the %@AU@%LABOUR PARTY%@BO:          5154ae@%%@AE@%, of
which it remains an affiliated research and publicity agency.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fabius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fabius%@AE@%,%@CR:FABIUS          @%%@QR:Fabius@% ancient Roman gens. %@AB@%Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus%@AE@% or %@AB@%Rullus,%@AE@%%@EH@%
d. c.291 BC, was a renowned general, especially after his victory over
the Etruscans, the Samnites, and their allies at Sentinum (295). His
descendant, %@AB@%Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus,%@AE@% d. 203 BC, the opponent of
%@AU@%HANNIBAL%@BO:          3fbbe1@%%@AE@%, was called Cunctator [Lat.,=delayer] because of his delaying
tactics, from which the term %@AI@%Fabian,%@AE@% referring to a waiting policy, is
derived. Tired of his inaction, the Romans replaced him (216 BC) and were
defeated at Cannae.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fable%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fable%@AE@%,%@CR:FABLE           @%%@QR:fable@% brief, allegorical narrative, in verse or prose, illustrating a%@EH@%
moral thesis or satirizing human behavior. The characters are usually
animals who talk and act like people while retaining animal traits. The
oldest known fables are in the Sanskrit %@AI@%Panchatantra%@AE@% and by %@AU@%AESOP%@BO:           18987@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%LA
%@AU@%FONTAINE%@BO:          518c17@%%@AE@%, G.E. %@AU@%LESSING%@BO:          544513@%%@AE@%, John %@AU@%DRYDEN%@BO:          2adbca@%%@AE@%, and John %@AU@%GAY%@BO:          386225@%%@AE@% continued the
tradition, as did James %@AU@%THURBER%@BO:          958154@%%@AE@% and George %@AU@%ORWELL%@BO:          6f153e@%%@AE@% in the 20th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fabliau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fabliau%@AE@%,%@CR:FABLIAU         @%%@QR:fabliau@% plural %@AB@%fabliaux,%@AE@% short comic, often bawdy verse tale%@EH@%
realistically satirizing middle- or lower-class life, marriage, or the
clergy. It flourished in France in the Middle Ages, and appears in the
work of %@AU@%CHAUCER%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BOCCACCIO%@BO:          114347@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fabriano, Gentile da%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fabriano, Gentile da%@AE@%:%@CR:FABRIANO        @%%@QR:Fabriano, Gentile da@% see %@AU@%GENTILE DA FABRIANO%@BO:          38d49b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fabric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fabric%@AE@%:%@CR:FABRIC          @%%@QR:fabric@% see %@AU@%TEXTILES%@BO:          946065@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%facsimile machine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%facsimile machine%@AE@%,%@CR:FACSIMINE       @%%@QR:facsimile machine@% a device for transmitting copies of printed images%@EH@%
over telephone lines. A facsimile (or "fax") machine scans a page to make
an electronic representation of its text or graphics, compresses the data
to save transmission time, and transmits it to another fax machine. The
receiving machine decrypts the signal and uses a printer (usually built
in) to make a facsimile of the original page.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faeroe Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faeroe Islands%@AE@%%@CR:FAEROE.ISLANDS  @%%@QR:Faeroe Islands@%or %@AB@%Faroe Islands%@AE@%, group of volcanic islands (1979 pop.%@EH@%
43,131), 540 sq mi (1,400 sq km), Denmark, located in the N Atlantic
Ocean c.850 mi (1,370 km) from mainland Denmark. There are 17 inhabited
and 5 uninhabited islands; Steymoy, with Torshavn as the capital, and
Ostero are the largest islands. Fishing is the chief economic activity.
Settled by Norsemen in the 8th cent., the islands became part of Norway
in the 11th cent. and passed to the Danish crown in 1380. They became a
British protectorate (1940-45) in World War II and gained self-government
(1948) after an aborted independence movement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faes, Pieter van der%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faes, Pieter van der%@AE@%:%@CR:FAES            @%%@QR:Faes, Pieter van der@% see %@AU@%LELY, SIR PETER%@BO:          53ac2d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fahd ibn Abdul Aziz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fahd ibn Abdul Aziz%@AE@%,%@CR:FAHD.IBAZIZ     @%%@QR:Fahd ibn Abdul Aziz@% 1922-, king of Saudi Arabia (1982-). A son of %@AU@%IBN%@EH@%
%@AU@%SAUD%@BO:          464bcf@%%@AE@%, the founder of Saudi Arabia, Fahd served (1962-75) as interior
minister and was named (1975) crown prince by his half-brother King
%@AU@%KHALID%@BO:          4f4c63@%%@AE@%. He was a powerful shaper of Saudi foreign and domestic policy
under Khalid, on whose death (1982) he succeeded to the throne.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fahrenheit temperature scale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fahrenheit temperature scale%@AE@%:%@CR:FAHRENHSCALE    @%%@QR:Fahrenheit temperature scale@% see %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fainzilberg, Ilya Arnoldovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fainzilberg, Ilya Arnoldovich%@AE@%:%@CR:FAINZILBERG     @%%@QR:Fainzilberg, Ilya Arnoldovich@% see %@AU@%ILF, ILYA ARNOLDOVICH%@BO:          46a6c9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fairbanks, Douglas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fairbanks, Douglas%@AE@%,%@CR:FAIRBANKS1      @%%@QR:Fairbanks, Douglas@% 1883-1939, American film actor; b. Denver. He starred%@EH@%
in such swashbucklers as %@AI@%The Mark of Zorro%@AE@% (1920), %@AI@%The Thief of Bagdad%@AE@%
(1924), and %@AI@%The Black Pirate%@AE@% (1926). His son, %@AB@%Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.,%@AE@%
1909-, b. N.Y.C., is an actor whose films include %@AI@%The Prisoner of Zenda%@AE@%
(1937) and %@AI@%Gunga Din%@AE@% (1939).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fairbanks%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fairbanks%@AE@%,%@CR:FAIRBANKS2      @%%@QR:Fairbanks@% city (1986 est. pop. 27,610), Fairbanks North Star Borough,%@EH@%
central Alaska, on the Chena R.; inc. 1903. The Univ. of Alaska and the
U.S. government are the chief employers. The discovery of gold (1902) and
the building of the Alaska railroad caused the city to develop. Oil, gas,
and related services have become important to the economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fair Labor Standards Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fair Labor Standards Act%@AE@%:%@CR:FAIR.LAT        @%%@QR:Fair Labor Standards Act@% see %@AU@%WAGES AND HOURS ACT%@BO:          9e7838@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fairness doctrine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fairness doctrine%@AE@%:%@CR:FAIRNESNE       @%%@QR:fairness doctrine@% see %@AU@%EQUAL-TIME RULE%@BO:          2f9289@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fair-trade laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fair-trade laws%@AE@%,%@CR:FAIRTRADE.LAWS  @%%@QR:fair-trade laws@% in the U.S., a group of statutes in most states that%@EH@%
permitted manufacturers to specify the minimum retail price of a
commodity. The first such law was adopted (1931) by California. Intended
to protect independent retailers from the price-cutting competition of
large chain stores, such statutes were originally nullified by the courts
on antitrust grounds, but the Miller-Tydings Act (1937) exempted fair
trade from antitrust legislation. Although 45 states eventually enacted
fair-trade laws, no more than 10% of retail sales were ever affected, and
in the late 1950s many manufacturers began to abandon the setting of
minimum prices. In 1975 Congress repealed all fair-trade laws in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fairy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fairy%@AE@%,%@CR:FAIRY           @%%@QR:fairy@% in folklore, one of a variety of supernatural beings having%@EH@%
magical powers. Belief in fairies has existed from earliest times, but
the concept and description of the creatures varies widely, from the tiny
old men, or leprechauns, of Irish legend, to beautiful enchantresses like
the Germanic Lorelei, to man-eating giants, or ogres. Particular kinds of
fairies include the Arabic %@AU@%JINNI%@BO:          4c4957@%%@AE@%, the Scandinavian troll, the Germanic
elf, and the English pixie. Although usually represented as mischievous
and capricious, they could also be loving and bountiful. Among the great
adapters of popular fairy tales were Charles %@AU@%PERRAULT%@BO:          7389ac@%%@AE@%, the brothers
%@AU@%GRIMM%@BO:          3dc9d1@%%@AE@%, and Hans Christian %@AU@%ANDERSEN%@BO:           52ef1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faisal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faisal%@AE@%%@CR:FAISAL          @%%@QR:Faisal@% or %@AB@%Feisal,%@AE@% kings of Iraq. %@AB@%Faisal I,%@AE@% 1885-1933 (r.1921-33), joined%@EH@%
(1916) with T.E. %@AU@%LAWRENCE%@BO:          52f50d@%%@AE@% in the Arab revolt against the Turks. The
British, largely through the efforts of Gertrude %@AU@%BELL%@BO:           e16ba@%%@AE@%, named him king. He
was generally pro-British and was succeeded by his son, Ghazi. Ghazi's
son, %@AB@%Faisal II,%@AE@% 1935-58 (r.1939-58), was generally pro-Western in his
short majority reign. He was killed in a revolution that overthrew the
Iraqi monarchy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faisal ibn al Saud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faisal ibn al Saud%@AE@%,%@CR:FAISAL.AUD      @%%@QR:Faisal ibn al Saud@% 1905-75, king of Saudi Arabia (1964-75). A son of %@AU@%IBN%@EH@%
%@AU@%SAUD%@BO:          464bcf@%%@AE@%, he forced his brother King Saud, to abdicate in 1964 and assumed
the throne. He used his country's vast oil revenues to finance
far-reaching economic and social reforms. A deranged nephew assassinated
him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Falange%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Falange%@AE@%%@CR:FALANGE         @%%@QR:Falange@% [Span.,=phalanx], Spanish political party, founded 1933. Adhering%@EH@%
to %@AU@%FASCISM%@BO:          31d7e0@%%@AE@%, the Falange, through its militia, joined the Nationalist
forces of Francisco %@AU@%FRANCO%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% in the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@% (1936-39). The
party's founder, Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, son of the dictator Miguel
%@AU@%PRIMO DE RIVERA%@BO:          798c38@%%@AE@%, was executed by the Loyalists in the civil war. In 1937
Franco took control of the Falange, making it the official party of his
regime. By the 1970s its power had waned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Falashas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Falashas%@AE@%%@CR:FALASHAS        @%%@QR:Falashas@% [Ethiopic,=emigrant], group of approximately 30,000 Ethiopians%@EH@%
who practice a form of %@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%. They believe in the Old Testament,
certain apocryphal books, and some traditions that correspond to those
found in the %@AU@%MIDRASH%@BO:          606ea8@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%TALMUD%@BO:          9278f3@%%@AE@%. In modern times there have been
%@AU@%POGROMS%@BO:          77285c@%%@AE@% against the Falashas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%falcon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%falcon%@AE@%,%@CR:FALCON          @%%@QR:falcon@% long-winged %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of prey (genus %@AI@%Falco%@AE@%) related to the %@AU@%HAWK%@BO:          408efa@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Widely distributed, falcons are typified by notched beaks. They range in
size from the 61/2-in. (16.5-cm) falconet to the 24-in. (60-cm)
gyrfalcon. The commonest and smallest American falcon is the sparrow hawk
(%@AI@%F. sparverius%@AE@%). Falcons lay their eggs on the ground, on cliff ledges,
or in deserted hawk or %@AU@%CROW%@BO:          24ef1c@%%@AE@% nests. The peregrine falcon and gyrfalcon are
used in falconry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faliscan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faliscan%@AE@%%@CR:FALISCAN        @%%@QR:Faliscan@%, extinct language belonging to the Italic subfamily of the%@EH@%
Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Falkland Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Falkland Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:FALKLANS        @%%@QR:Falkland Islands@% Span. %@AI@%Islas Malvinas,%@AE@% British crown colony (1986 pop.%@EH@%
1,916), 4,618 sq mi (11,961 sq km), S Atlantic. Consisting of two large
islands and some 200 small ones, they are economically dependent on
sheep-raising. The capital is Stanley. Under British rule since the
1830s, Argentina also claimed them. In 1982 they were seized by Argentina
and retaken by British troops. Dependencies of the colony include South
Georgia and the South Sandwich islands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Falkner, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Falkner, William%@AE@%:%@CR:FALKNER         @%%@QR:Falkner, William@% see %@AU@%FAULKNER, WILLIAM%@BO:          320a8d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Falla, Manuel de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Falla, Manuel de%@AE@%%@CR:FALLA           @%%@QR:Falla, Manuel de@%, 1876-1946, Spanish composer. He was influenced by the%@EH@%
%@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          4709aa@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%DEBUSSY%@BO:          2720ca@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RAVEL%@BO:          7ce8e6@%%@AE@%, but retained Spanish characteristics,
e.g., the flamenco tradition. His works include %@AI@%Nights in the Gardens of
%@AI@%Spain%@AE@% (1916; for piano and orchestra) and the ballets %@AI@%El Amor Brujo%@AE@%
(1915) and %@AI@%The Three-Cornered Hat%@AE@% (1917).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fall line%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fall line%@AE@%,%@CR:FALL.LINE       @%%@QR:fall line@% line where waterfalls occur in rivers passing from areas of%@EH@%
relatively hard rocks (as in the Piedmont of the E U.S.) to areas of
softer rock (as in the Atlantic Coastal Plain). It is usually the head of
navigation. Fall-line cities in the U.S. include %@AU@%TRENTON%@BO:          97ae78@%%@AE@%, N.J.;
%@AU@%WASHINGTON, D.C.%@BO:          9f65c5@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%RICHMOND%@BO:          7f1fcb@%%@AE@%, Va.; %@AU@%RALEIGH%@BO:          7c8487@%%@AE@%, N.C.; and %@AU@%AUGUSTA%@BO:           9bdca@%%@AE@%, Ga.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fallout%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fallout%@AE@%:%@CR:FALLOUT         @%%@QR:fallout@% see %@AU@%ATOMIC BOMB%@BO:           98960@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HYDROGEN BOMB%@BO:          45f604@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fall River%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fall River%@AE@%,%@CR:FALL.RIVER      @%%@QR:Fall River@% industrial city (1986 est. pop. 90,420), SE Mass., a port on%@EH@%
Mt. Hope Bay, at the mouth of the Taunton R.; settled 1656, inc. 1854. It
was once the leading cotton textile center in the U.S., and textiles and
clothing are still the chief manufactures, although industry has
diversified. The trial (1892) of Lizzie %@AU@%BORDEN%@BO:          122ecc@%%@AE@% took place there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%falsetto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%falsetto%@AE@%:%@CR:FALSETTO        @%%@QR:falsetto@% see %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1de9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Family Compact%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Family Compact%@AE@%,%@CR:FAMILY.COMPACT  @%%@QR:Family Compact@% popular name for a small clique of wealthy, powerful men%@EH@%
who dominated Upper Canada (see %@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6ddb6d@%%@AE@%) from the late-18th to the
mid-19th cent. They controlled the government, monopolized political
offices, and strongly influenced banking, land grant issues, education,
the courts, and Anglican church affairs. New settlers who were thus
denied political opportunity formed an opposition which became the Reform
party.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%family planning%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%family planning%@AE@%:%@CR:FAMILY.PLANNING @%%@QR:family planning@% see %@AU@%BIRTH CONTROL%@BO:          101f6d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%family therapy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%family therapy%@AE@%,%@CR:FAMILY.THERAPY  @%%@QR:family therapy@% form of %@AU@%PSYCHOTHERAPY%@BO:          7a91c6@%%@AE@% dealing with the improvement of%@EH@%
family relationships and the emotional environment. Unlike %@AU@%GROUP
%@AU@%PSYCHOTHERAPY%@BO:          3df4d8@%%@AE@%, which concentrates on the individual within a group,
family therapy focuses on the emotional life of the family as a whole. By
defining the existing family structure and clarifying patterns,
conflicts, and alliances, it enables family members to develop
alternative patterns of relating. Treatment may include both family and
individual sessions with one or a team of therapists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fanfani, Amintore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fanfani, Amintore%@AE@%,%@CR:FANFANI         @%%@QR:Fanfani, Amintore@% 1908-, Italian political leader. A Christian Democrat,%@EH@%
he served as foreign minister (1965, 1966-68), president of the Senate
(1968-73, 1976-85), and as premier (1954, 1958-59, 1960-63, 1982-83).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fantin-Latour, Ignace Henri Jean Theodore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fantin-Latour, Ignace Henri Jean Theodore%@AE@%,%@CR:FANTINLATOUR    @%%@QR:Fantin-Latour, Ignace Henri Jean Theodore@% 1836-1904, French painter and%@EH@%
lithographer. Master of an almost photographic technique, he is best
known for portrait groups of famous contemporaries, e.g., %@AI@%The Studio at
%@AI@%Batignolles%@AE@% (Louvre).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faraday, Michael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faraday, Michael%@AE@%,%@CR:FARADAY         @%%@QR:Faraday, Michael@% 1791-1867, English scientist. Despite little formal%@EH@%
education he laid the foundations of classical %@AU@%FIELD%@BO:          3304db@%%@AE@% theory, later
developed by James Clerk %@AU@%MAXWELL%@BO:          5d9adc@%%@AE@%. Faraday worked (1813-62) at the
laboratory of the Royal Institution in London, becoming its director in
1825. He developed the first dynamo (in the form of a copper disk rotated
between the poles of a permanent magnet), the precursor of modern dynamos
and %@AU@%GENERATORS%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%. From Faraday's and Joseph %@AU@%HENRY'S%@BO:          41efe9@%%@AE@% independent discoveries
(1831) of electromagnetic %@AU@%INDUCTION%@BO:          47d40f@%%@AE@% stemmed a vast development of
electrical machinery for industry. In 1825 Faraday discovered the
compound %@AU@%BENZENE%@BO:           e9ead@%%@AE@%. He formulated (1834) Faraday's law, which states that
the number of moles of substance produced at an electrode during
%@AU@%ELECTROLYSIS%@BO:          2d7e18@%%@AE@% is directly proportional to the number of moles of electrons
transferred at that electrode.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%farce%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%farce%@AE@%,%@CR:FARCE           @%%@QR:farce@% light theater piece with characters and events exaggerated to%@EH@%
produce broad, simple humor. An element in the plays of %@AU@%ARISTOPHANES%@BO:           7af56@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%PLAUTUS%@BO:          76c54a@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TERENCE%@BO:          941b09@%%@AE@%, it appeared as a distinct genre in 15th-cent.
France. Nicholas %@AU@%UDALL'S %@BO:          995cf5@%%@AE@%%@AI@%Ralph Roister Doister%@AE@% (1566) is an early English
example. Broad, ribald humor, absurdity, and buffoonery are also found in
works not considered farces, e.g., the plays of %@AU@%MOLIERE%@BO:          625664@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Far East%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Far East%@AE@%,%@CR:FAR.EAST        @%%@QR:Far East@% term commonly used today in a restricted sense for the region%@EH@%
comprising E Asia (i.e., %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JAPAN%@BO:          4b338c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KOREA%@BO:          5089c6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MONGOLIA%@BO:          62b1e4@%%@AE@%) and the %@AU@%SOVIET
%@AU@%FAR EAST%@BO:          8c49c7@%%@AE@% (E %@AU@%SIBERIA%@BO:          88b589@%%@AE@%). It is also sometimes extended to include %@AU@%SOUTHEAST
%@AU@%ASIA%@BO:          8c2416@%%@AE@%. As used in the 19th cent., the term denoted those portions of the
Asian continent farthest removed by sea from the W European maritime
powers trading there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fargo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fargo%@AE@%,%@CR:FARGO           @%%@QR:Fargo@% city (1986 est. pop. 68,020), seat of Cass co., E N.D., on the Red%@EH@%
R., opposite Moorhead, Minn.; inc. 1875. The largest city in the state,
Fargo developed with the coming (1871) of the railroad. It remains a
railroad hub and river port, and the trade center of a great spring-wheat
and livestock region. North Dakota State Univ. is located in the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farid ad-Din Attar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farid ad-Din Attar%@AE@%%@CR:FARID.AAR       @%%@QR:Farid ad-Din Attar@%, d. c.1229, Persian poet, one of the greatest Muslim%@EH@%
mystic poets. Of his many and varied works his masterpiece is %@AI@%Conference
%@AI@%of the Birds,%@AE@% an allegory surveying the philosophy and practices of
%@AU@%SUFISM%@BO:          9049cf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farley, James Aloysius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farley, James Aloysius%@AE@%,%@CR:FARLEY          @%%@QR:Farley, James Aloysius@% 1888-1976, American political leader; b. Rockland%@EH@%
co., N.Y. As Democratic National Committee chairman, he managed (1932,
1936) F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT'S%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% presidential campaigns. He served (1933-40) as
U.S. postmaster general but resigned to protest Roosevelt's third term.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farm Credit Administration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farm Credit Administration%@AE@%%@CR:FARM.CRION      @%%@QR:Farm Credit Administration@% (FCA), independent U.S. agency formed (1933)%@EH@%
to supervise and coordinate the Farm Credit System, which provides credit
to American farmers and their cooperatives. The system, which is
borrower-owned, includes federal land banks and land bank associations,
intermediate credit banks, banks for cooperatives, and over 400
production credit associations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farmer-Labor party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farmer-Labor party%@AE@%,%@CR:FARMERLTY       @%%@QR:Farmer-Labor party@% U.S. political organization founded (1919) to unite%@EH@%
agrarian and organized labor interests. It promoted nationalization of
various industries and resources but garnered little support and
dissolved after 1924. The Minnesota Farmer-Labor party, unaffiliated with
the national party, elected a governor and several U.S. senators and
congressmen in the 1920s and 30s. It merged (1944) with the Minnesota
Democratic party.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farnese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farnese%@AE@%%@CR:FARNESE         @%%@QR:Farnese@%, Italian noble family that ruled Parma and Piacenza from 1545 to%@EH@%
1731. In 1534 Alessandro Farnese became pope as %@AU@%PAUL III%@BO:          722685@%%@AE@%. He created
(1545) the duchy of Parma and Piacenza for his illegitimate son, %@AB@%Pier
%@AB@%Luigi Farnese,%@AE@% 1503-47, who was assassinated by nobles. His son and
successor, %@AB@%Ottavio Farnese,%@AE@% 1520-86, married %@AU@%MARGARET OF PARMA%@BO:          5b9afb@%%@AE@%. Their
son, %@AB@%Alessandro Farnese,%@AE@% 1545-92, duke 1586-92, was a general in the
service of %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of Spain. Appointed (1578) governor in the
rebellious Netherlands, he took Tournai, Maastricht, Breda, Bruges,
Ghent, and Antwerp from the rebels. In 1590 he entered France to aid the
Catholic League against %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% of France and relieved Paris (1590) and
Rouen (1592). He is considered one of the age's greatest generals. The
last duke of the line, Antonio, died in 1731. His niece, %@AB@%Elizabeth
%@AB@%Farnese,%@AE@% 1692-1766, married (1714) %@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of Spain and for a time
virtually ruled Spain. She secured (1748) Parma and Piacenza for her son
Philip, who founded the line of %@AU@%BOURBON%@BO:          12b977@%%@AE@%-Parma.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faroe Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faroe Islands%@AE@%:%@CR:FAROE.ISLANDS   @%%@QR:Faroe Islands@% see %@AU@%FAEROE ISLANDS%@BO:          317c8c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farouk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farouk%@AE@%,%@CR:FAROUK          @%%@QR:Farouk@% 1920-65, king of Egypt (1936-52), son and successor of Fuad I. He%@EH@%
was regarded as a corrupt playboy and was deposed by the 1952 military
coup led by Gamal Abdal %@AU@%NASSER%@BO:          66a284@%%@AE@%. His infant son, Fuad II, succeeded him
briefly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farquhar, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farquhar, George%@AE@%,%@CR:FARQUHAR        @%%@QR:Farquhar, George@% 1678-1707, English dramatist; b. Ireland. The geniality%@EH@%
of such plays as %@AI@%The Constant Couple%@AE@% (1699) and his masterpiece, %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Beaux' Stratagem%@AE@% (1707), mark Farquhar as a transitional figure between
%@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% and 18th-cent. drama.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farragut, David Glasgow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farragut, David Glasgow%@AE@%,%@CR:FARRAGUT        @%%@QR:Farragut, David Glasgow@% 1801-70, American admiral; b. near Knoxville,%@EH@%
Tenn. In the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% he boldly sailed (1862) up the Mississippi R.
and defeated an enemy flotilla, enabling Union forces to take New
Orleans. In 1864, uttering the famous cry "Damn the torpedoes mines," he
forced the defenses of Mobile, Ala., and defeated a Confederate fleet.
The outstanding naval commander of the war, Farragut was the first
officer in the U.S. navy to receive the ranks of vice admiral (1864) and
admiral (1866).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Farrell, James T(homas)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Farrell, James T(homas)%@AE@%,%@CR:FARRELL         @%%@QR:Farrell, James T(homas)@% 1904-79, American novelist; b. Chicago. In the%@EH@%
tradition of %@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@%, his fiction deals with life in Chicago's Irish
Catholic slums. His work includes the novels of the Studs Lonigan trilogy
(1932-35) and Danny O'Neill pentalogy (1936-53), short stories, and
essays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%farsightedness%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%farsightedness%@AE@%,%@CR:FARSIGHTEDNESS  @%%@QR:farsightedness@%  or hyperopia, defect of vision in which near objects%@EH@%
appear blurred, but far objects can be seen clearly. Because the eyeball
is too short or the eye's refractive power too weak, the image is focused
behind the retina of the %@AU@%EYE%@BO:          315c49@%%@AE@% rather than upon it. Eyeglasses with convex
lenses can compensate for the refractive error (see %@AU@%LENS%@BO:          53db0f@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fascism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fascism%@AE@%,%@CR:FASCISM         @%%@QR:fascism@% philosophy of government that glorifies the nation-state at the%@EH@%
expense of the individual. Major concepts of fascism include opposition
to democratic and socialist movements; racist ideologies, such as
%@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@%; aggressive military policy; and belief in an authoritarian
leader who embodies the ideals of the nation. Fascism generally gains
support by promising social justice to discontented elements of the
working class and middle class, and social order to powerful financial
interests. While retaining class divisions and usually protecting
capitalist and landowning interests, the fascist state exercises control
at all levels of individual and economic activity, employing special
police forces to instill fear. The term was first used by the party
started by %@AU@%MUSSOLINI%@BO:          65a8c6@%%@AE@%, who ruled Italy from 1922 until the Italian defeat
in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, and has also been applied to other right-wing movements,
such as %@AU@%NATIONAL SOCIALISM%@BO:          6770ca@%%@AE@%, in Germany, and the %@AU@%FRANCO%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% regime, in Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fashion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fashion%@AE@%,%@CR:FASHION         @%%@QR:fashion@% the prevailing mode affecting modifications in costume. Since%@EH@%
Oriental and classical dress remained unchanged for centuries, fashion
may be said to have originated in Europe around the 14th cent. Over
subsequent centuries new styles, set by monarchs and prominent persons
(e.g., Beau %@AU@%BRUMMELL%@BO:          14aaba@%%@AE@%), were spread by travelers, in letters, and by the
exchange of the fashion %@AU@%DOLL%@BO:          29d97a@%%@AE@%. The first fashion magazine appeared c.1586
in Frankfurt, Germany; the popular American %@AI@%Godey's Lady's Book%@AE@% first
came out in 1830. In Paris-the leading arbiter of fashion since the
Renaissance-the fading influence of celebrities coincided with the rise
of designer-dressmakers in the mid-19th cent. Other world fashion centers
have been London, Rome, and New York. %@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%SOME MAJOR FASHION DESIGNERS%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Adrian, Gilbert,%@AE@% 1903--59 influenced haute couture of 1930s and 40s
through private work and design for Greta Garbo and other film stars.
Extravagant, draped evening gowns; hooded dresses; embroidered, padded
evening jackets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Balenciaga, Cristobal,%@AE@% 1895--1972, in Spain and Paris. Designs for
European royalty, aristocracy. Major success after World War II. Huge
evening coats; long, full skirts; tunic and chemise dresses; fitted
suits; pillbox hats; scarves.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Blass, Bill,%@AE@% 1922--, in New York; own company, 1970. Men's and women's
designs include snakeskin jackets; pullovers; fur-lined jackets;
luxurious gowns; "western" look. Range of accessories, objects includes
automobiles, home furnishings, chocolates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Chanel, Gabrielle (Coco),%@AE@% 1883--1970. Paris house influential from 1920s.
Simple jersey dresses, suits; perfumes; boxjacket suits; costume jewelry;
trousers for women; knit suits. Among most imitated of designers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Courreeges, Andre,%@AE@% 1923--, prominent in Paris from 1960s. Dresses,
trouser suits with straight, flat line. Created popular space-age, unisex
look.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%de La Renta, Oscar,%@AE@% 1932--, worked in Madrid (for Balenciaga), Paris,
N.Y.C., before opening own N.Y.C. business, mid-1960s; Oscar de La Renta,
Ltd. since 1974. Noted for elegant materials (furs, satins) and design
motifs, e.g., "Hapsburg Empire" styles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Dior, Christian,%@AE@% 1905--57, best known for nonfunctional but enormously
popular Paris "New Look" of 1947: narrow shoulders, constricted waist,
full skirt. Sack dress, 1950s; A-line, 1956. Salons in many countries.
Succeeded by Saint-Laurent as chief designer. Consistent elegance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Galanos, James,%@AE@% 1925--, known for ready-to-wear fashions. Full, loose
dresses; chiffon coats over simple sheaths; culottes; silk fabrics. Based
in California.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Givenchy, Hubert de,%@AE@% 1927--, disciple of Balenciaga; assistant to
Schiaparelli. Own Paris house, 1952. Separate skirts and tops; unusual
embroidered, print fabrics; tubular evening dresses; ball gowns; shawls;
sleeveless coats; headbands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Halston (Roy Halston Frowick),%@AE@% 1932--, in New York; own company, 1968.
Designs for Martha Graham Ballet, Dance Theater of Harlem, films,
theater, celebrities. Official noncompetitive designs for 1976 Montreal
Olympics. Beaded dresses; spiral skirts; silk knee-length "petal" pants;
ready-to-wear.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Head, Edith,%@AE@% 1907--81, in Hollywood. Noted for hundreds of film costume
designs. Received many Academy Awards, influenced American haute couture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Lauren, Ralph (Ralph Lifshitz),%@AE@% 1939--, based in N.Y.C. Noted from 1960s
for "Polo" men's collections that began with tie designs. Women's
clothes, featuring masculine tailoring, since 1971. Major late 1970s
success with "Western" look. Espouses American motifs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Lelong, Lucien,%@AE@% 1889--1958, major Paris success, 1930s and 40s. Perfumes;
hobble skirts; bared shoulders; tailored suits with cutaway bodices;
flared skirts; dresses with pleats, tiers, diagonal draping; decolletage
in back.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Mainbocher (Main Rousseau Bocher),%@AE@% 1891--1976. Paris house, 1930, New
York house, 1940. Elegant evening clothes; cardigan sweaters with jeweled
buttons; highwaisted, long, lacy or transparent ball gowns; wartime WAVES
uniforms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Poiret, Paul,%@AE@% 1879--1943, dominated Paris fashions 1909--14. Culottes;
hobble-skirted day dresses; suits with light corsetting; walking coat and
dress ensembles; short hoop skirts over long sheaths. Made boyishness
vogue. Influenced by %@AU@%ART NOUVEAU%@BO:           87c26@%%@AE@% and Oriental designs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Pucci, Emilio,%@AE@% 1914--, Italian; began career in 1947. Elegant sportswear;
own multicolored printed fabric, with geometric and organic patterns;
brilliant colors in silk blouses, knit sweaters, underclothes, scarves,
towels. Accessories, e.g., perfumes, belts, jewelry; objects, e.g., car
roofs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Quant, Mary,%@AE@% 1934--, London boutique, a source of the "mod" or "Chelsea"
look of 1960s. Miniskirts; vinyl boots; geometric pattern dresses;
jumpsuits; the "wet" look.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Saint-Laurent, Yves,%@AE@% 1936--, Dior's successor; based in Paris and New
York. Early "chic beatnik" look: knitted turtlenecks; thigh-length boots;
skin-tight trousers. Later designs include tweed suits; pleated skirts;
costume jewelry; metallic look; "peasant" look; feather trims.
Accessories, clothes for men also.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Schiaparelli, Elsa,%@AE@% 1890--1973, Paris 1920s, New York from 1949.
Flamboyant innovator. Shocking pink, other colors; first haute couture
use of synthetics, zippers. Perfume; wide-shouldered suits; small hats;
scarves. Extravagant, amusing designs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Vionnet, Madeleine,%@AE@% 1876--1975. Parisian house, 1918--39. Graceful,
sensuous silks, organdies, chiffons, velvets, lames. Swirling evening
gowns; medieval and Greek-inspired styles; diaphanous evening wear.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AI@%Worth, Charles Frederick,%@AE@% 1825--95, English, founded Maison Worth,
women's fashion arbiter for over a century, in Paris, London. Dressmaker
to French, Austrian courts. Created ancestor of tailor-made suit;
invented puffed tunic ("polonaise").%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fassbinder, Rainer Werner%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fassbinder, Rainer Werner%@AE@%,%@CR:FASSBINDER      @%%@QR:Fassbinder, Rainer Werner@% 1946-82, German film director. His over 40%@EH@%
films, many of which portray post-World War II German life, include %@AI@%Why
%@AI@%Does Herr R. Run Amok?%@AE@% (1969), %@AI@%The Marriage of Maria Braun%@AE@% (1979), %@AI@%Lola%@AE@%
(1982), and %@AI@%Veronika Voss%@AE@% (1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fatehpur Sikri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fatehpur Sikri%@AE@%%@CR:FATEHPUR.SIKRI  @%%@QR:Fatehpur Sikri@%or %@AB@%Fathpur Sikri%@AE@%, historic city, Uttar Pradesh state, N%@EH@%
India. It was founded (1569) by %@AU@%AKBAR%@BO:           276c6@%%@AE@% as his capital and is unique in
India as a largely intact masterpiece of Mogul architecture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fates%@AE@%,%@CR:FATES           @%%@QR:Fates@% in Greek mythology, three goddesses who controlled human life;%@EH@%
also called the Moerae or Moirai. They were: Clotho, who spun the web of
life; Lachesis, who measured its length; and Atropos, who cut it. The
Roman Fates were the Parcae; the Germanic Fates were the %@AU@%NORNS%@BO:          6b2b54@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fathers of the Church%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fathers of the Church%@AE@%,%@CR:FATHERSCHURCH   @%%@QR:Fathers of the Church@% Christian writers of antiquity whose work is%@EH@%
generally considered orthodox. A convenient definition includes all such
writers up to and including St. %@AU@%GREGORY I%@BO:          3d76c4@%%@AE@% in the West and St. %@AU@%JOHN OF
%@AU@%DAMASCUS%@BO:          4ca9d2@%%@AE@% in the East. The Christian church also recognized %@AB@%Doctors of the
%@AB@%Church%@AE@% who exhibited great holiness and learning. The eight ancient
doctors are Saints Basil the Great, %@AU@%GREGORY NAZIANZEN%@BO:          3d8fbd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JOHN CHRYSOSTOM%@BO:          4c9cdd@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%ATHANASIUS%@BO:           945fb@%%@AE@% in the East; and Saints %@AU@%AMBROSE%@BO:           4654c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JEROME%@BO:          4bdef6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AUGUSTINE%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%GREGORY I%@BO:          3d76c4@%%@AE@% in the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fatimid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fatimid%@AE@%%@CR:FATIMID         @%%@QR:Fatimid@% or %@AB@%Fatimite,%@AE@%dynasty founded by Said ibn Husayn of NE Syria, which%@EH@%
claimed the %@AU@%CALIPHATE%@BO:          174259@%%@AE@% on the basis of descent from Fatima, daughter of
%@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@% the Prophet. Doctrinally, the Fatimids were related to other
Shiite sects, especially the %@AU@%DRUZE%@BO:          2ad78b@%%@AE@%. Around 893, a follower of Said ibn
Husayn, Al-Shii, went to NW Africa and with the support of the %@AU@%BERBERS%@BO:           ea52f@%%@AE@%
won Tunisia, Sicily, NE Algeria, and NW Libya for the Fatimids. Said ibn
Husayn was then hailed as the %@AU@%MAHDI%@BO:          59b70c@%%@AE@%. In the reign (953-75) of the fourth
caliph, Moizz, the Fatimids conquered Egypt, Palestine, parts of Syria,
and W Arabia. In 973 Moizz moved his capital to the new city of Cairo.
Reliance on mercenaries, religious intolerance, and losses to the Normans
and Crusaders in the 11th cent. led to the decline of the Fatimids, who
were succeeded in their last stronghold, Egypt, by the rival %@AU@%ABBASIDS%@BO:            1519@%%@AE@% in
1171.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fats and oils%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fats and oils%@AE@%,%@CR:FATS.AND.OILS   @%%@QR:fats and oils@% group of organic substances that form an important part of%@EH@%
the diet and are used in industry. Generally, fats are solid and oils
liquid at ordinary room temperatures. Vegetable oils, e.g., those from
%@AU@%CORN%@BO:          23669d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PEANUTS%@BO:          727229@%%@AE@%, and linseed (see %@AU@%LINSEED OIL%@BO:          55745c@%%@AE@%), are made by pressing
crushed fruits or seeds. The highest grade oils, used in food, are cold
pressed. Subsequent warm pressing or extraction with solvents yields
industrial-grade oil, used, for example, in making %@AU@%SOAP%@BO:          8aa7f0@%%@AE@%. Most animal
fats, e.g., %@AU@%BUTTER%@BO:          1620d7@%%@AE@% and lard, are saturated fats, i.e., compared with
unsaturated fats or oils, they contain more hydrogen relative to carbon
and do not become as easily rancid. Hardening, the conversion of
unsaturated liquid oils into more saturated solid fats by hydrogenation,
is an important chemical industry. Although fats and oils are
nutritionally important as energy sources, medical research indicates
that saturated fats may contribute to the incidence of %@AU@%ARTERIOSCLEROSIS%@BO:           83ab8@%%@AE@%
by increasing the blood's level of %@AU@%CHOLESTEROL%@BO:          1dbe42@%%@AE@%, a substance deposited in
the arteries. See also %@AU@%ESSENTIAL OILS%@BO:          3012eb@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faulkner, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faulkner, William%@AE@%,%@CR:FAULKNER        @%%@QR:Faulkner, William@% 1897-1962, American novelist; b. New Albany, Miss. One%@EH@%
of the great American writers of the 20th cent., he explored the loss of
traditional values and the decay and anguish of the post-Civil War South,
using the imaginary Yoknapatawpha county as a microcosm of Southern life.
A brilliant literary technician, Faulkner was master of a rhetorical,
highly symbolic style. He was awarded the 1949 Nobel Prize in literature.
His best-known novels include %@AI@%The Sound and the Fury%@AE@% (1929), %@AI@%The Hamlet%@AE@%
(1940), %@AI@%A Fable%@AE@% (1954; Pulitzer), and %@AI@%The Reivers%@AE@% (1962; Pulitzer). He
also published short stories, essays, and poems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fault%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fault%@AE@%,%@CR:FAULT           @%%@QR:fault@% in geology, a fracture in the earth's crust in which the rocks on%@EH@%
each side move in relation to each other. This movement can be vertical,
horizontal, or oblique. Horizontal faults showing lateral displacement of
points originally directly opposite each other, such as the %@AU@%SAN ANDREAS
%@AU@%FAULT%@BO:          83de29@%%@AE@% in California, are called strike-slip. Another type of horizontal
fault, the transform fault, occurs on the ocean floor between offset
portions of the mid-ocean ridge (see %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%). Altered positions
of rocks due to faulting can mislead the geologist, because one rock
layer can appear twice in the same cross section or disappear entirely.
See also %@AU@%EARTHQUAKE%@BO:          2bc7ae@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faunus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faunus%@AE@%,%@CR:FAUNUS          @%%@QR:Faunus@% in Roman myth, woodland deity, protector of herds and crops;%@EH@%
identified with the Greek %@AU@%PAN%@BO:          706d67@%%@AE@%. He was attended by fauns-mischievous
creatures, half man, half goat.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faure, Gabriel Urbain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faure, Gabriel Urbain%@AE@%%@CR:FAURE           @%%@QR:Faure, Gabriel Urbain@%, 1845-1924, French composer and teacher of %@AU@%RAVEL%@BO:          7ce8e6@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
His works include refined, intimate piano and %@AU@%CHAMBER MUSIC%@BO:          1b4fd9@%%@AE@%, operas, a
famous Requiem (1888), and %@AU@%SONGS%@BO:          8b7f8c@%%@AE@%, e.g., "Clair de Lune."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Faust%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Faust%@AE@%%@CR:FAUST           @%%@QR:Faust@%or %@AB@%Faustus,%@AE@%or %@AB@%Johann Faust%@AE@%, fl. 16th cent., learned German doctor%@EH@%
who performed magic and died mysteriously. According to legend he sold
his soul to the devil (Mephistopheles) in exchange for youth, knowledge,
and magical power. Literary treatments of the story include the %@AI@%Volksbuch%@AE@%
of Johannes Spies (1587), Christopher %@AU@%MARLOWE'S%@BO:          5beee6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Dr. Faustus%@AE@% (1593),
%@AU@%GOETHE'S%@BO:          3b0629@%%@AE@% masterpiece %@AI@%Faust%@AE@% (1808, 1833), and Thomas %@AU@%MANN'S%@BO:          5af7d0@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Doctor Faustus%@AE@%
(1947). The legend inspired many composers of musical works, including
%@AU@%BERLIOZ%@BO:           ee9d7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GOUNOD%@BO:          3bde18@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCHUMANN%@BO:          85c058@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BOITO%@BO:          1187a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fauvism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fauvism%@AE@%%@CR:FAUVISM         @%%@QR:fauvism@% Fr., %@AI@%fauve%@AE@%=wild beast, name derisively hurled at and cheerfully%@EH@%
adopted by a group of French painters including %@AU@%MATISSE%@BO:          5d33c7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROUAULT%@BO:          81747a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DERAIN%@BO:          282324@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%VLAMINCK%@BO:          9e13ac@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BRAQUE%@BO:          13661c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%DUFY%@BO:          2b1192@%%@AE@%. Fauvism was essentially an expressionist
style (see %@AU@%EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:          313c02@%%@AE@%) characterized by distortion of forms and
exuberant color. Although short-lived (1905-8), it was basic to the
evolution of 20th-cent. art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fawkes, Guy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fawkes, Guy%@AE@%:%@CR:FAWKES          @%%@QR:Fawkes, Guy@% see %@AU@%GUNPOWDER PLOT%@BO:          3e9ee5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%FBI%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%FBI%@AE@%:%@CR:FBI             @%%@QR:FBI@% see %@AU@%FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION%@BO:          322e01@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fe%@AE@%,%@CR:FE              @%%@QR:Fe@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%IRON%@BO:          49b3ab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%feathers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%feathers%@AE@%,%@CR:FEATHERS        @%%@QR:feathers@% outgrowths of the skin that constitute the protective and%@EH@%
decorative plumage of birds and are thought to have evolved from
reptilian scales in Mesozoic times. Feathers grow only along defined
tracts; full grown, they lack a blood supply and have hollow shafts.
Typically, barbs radiate from the distal part of the shaft (the rachis)
and interlock via smaller cross-linking barbules to form a web, which
gives the feather flexibility and durability. Down feathers of young
birds and the protective undercoats of aquatic birds lack webs.
Specializations (e.g., crests, ruffs, and topknots) and modifications
(e.g., bristles) exist. Most feather colors (e.g., red, yellow, brown)
are due to pigment in the feather; some (e.g., green and violet), as well
as iridescent effects, are due to reflection and diffraction of light.
The most important roles of feathers are in flight and heat retention.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%feather star%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%feather star%@AE@%:%@CR:FEATHER.STAR    @%%@QR:feather star@% see %@AU@%CRINOID%@BO:          24b05c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%February%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%February%@AE@%:%@CR:FEBRUARY        @%%@QR:February@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%February Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%February Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:FEBRUARTION1    @%%@QR:February Revolution@% 1848, French revolution that overthrew the monarchy%@EH@%
of %@AU@%LOUIS PHILIPPE%@BO:          575921@%%@AE@% and established the Second Republic. There was general
dissatisfaction with the reactionary policies of the king and his
minister Francois %@AU@%GUIZOT%@BO:          3e8840@%%@AE@%, and with the poor conditions of the working
class, which worsened in the economic crisis of 1846-47. After the
government forbade a banquet to promote political opposition, street
fighting began and government troops fired (Feb. 23, 1848) on the
demonstrators, setting off the revolution. Louis Philippe abdicated on
Feb. 24. A provisional government was formed and a republic was
proclaimed, but the differing aims of the bourgeois revolutionaries and
the radicals contributed to the revolution's eventual failure. To appease
the workers and radicals, the right to work was guaranteed and national
workshops were established, but deliberate mismanagement and the election
of a more moderate government led to the dissolution of the workshops in
May. The resulting workers' rebellion, known as the %@AU@%JUNE DAYS%@BO:          4db300@%%@AE@%, was
crushed. After the completion of the republican constitution, Prince
Louis Napoleon (later %@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@%) was elected president. The revolution
set off similar uprisings in Europe, but they failed virtually everywhere
(see %@AU@%REVOLUTIONS OF 1848%@BO:          7e9062@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%February Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%February Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:FEBRUARTION2    @%%@QR:February Revolution@% 1917, in Russian history: see %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Art Project%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Art Project%@AE@%:%@CR:FEDERALJECT     @%%@QR:Federal Art Project@% see %@AU@%WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION%@BO:          a32a12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Aviation Administration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Aviation Administration%@AE@%%@CR:FEDERALSTRATIO  @%%@QR:Federal Aviation Administration@% (FAA), U.S. government agency formed%@EH@%
(1958) to regulate and promote air transportation. Its duties include the
management of air traffic, the promulgation of safety regulations, and
the setting of standards for airports and pilots. It assumed many of the
functions of the %@AB@%Civil Aeronautics Board,%@AE@% or CAB (est. as the Civil
Aeronautics Authority, 1938), and became (1967) part of the Dept. of
Transportation. In 1981-82, it took over authority for the limited
regulation of domestic routes and fares from the CAB, which was abolished
by 1985.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Bureau of Investigation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Bureau of Investigation%@AE@%%@CR:FEDERALTIGATIO  @%%@QR:Federal Bureau of Investigation@% (FBI), division of the U.S. Dept. of%@EH@%
Justice charged with investigating all violations of federal law except
those specifically assigned to other federal agencies. The FBI
investigates espionage, sabotage, %@AU@%KIDNAPPING%@BO:          4f7e70@%%@AE@%, bank robbery, %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@%
violations, and fraud against the government, and conducts security
clearances. Created in 1908, the bureau greatly increased its scope under
the directorship (1924-72) of J. Edgar %@AU@%HOOVER%@BO:          444d54@%%@AE@%, gaining wide popularity in
the 1930s for its fight against criminal desperadoes such as John
%@AU@%DILLINGER%@BO:          290b04@%%@AE@% and against World War II saboteurs. During Hoover's
controversial final years, the FBI came under attack for what many
considered political bias and violation of the constitutional rights of
citizens. See also %@AU@%INTELLIGENCE GATHERING%@BO:          48b995@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Communications Commission%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Communications Commission%@AE@%%@CR:FEDERALCOMMISS  @%%@QR:Federal Communications Commission@% (FCC), independent U.S. agency created%@EH@%
(1934) to regulate interstate and foreign communications, including
various kinds of radio, television, wire, and cable transmissions. The
FCC is empowered to grant, revoke, renew, and modify broadcasting
licenses and to assign broadcast frequencies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Constitutional Convention%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Constitutional Convention%@AE@%,%@CR:FEDERALCONVENT  @%%@QR:Federal Constitutional Convention@% in U.S. history, the meeting%@EH@%
(May-Sept. 1787) in Philadelphia at which the %@AU@%CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
%@AU@%STATES%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@% was drawn up. The Articles of %@AU@%CONFEDERATION%@BO:          21dd53@%%@AE@%, under which the U.S.
had been governed, provided only a weak central government that had
trouble conducting foreign policy, quelling internal disorders, and
maintaining economic stability. Demand for a more centralized government
grew steadily among the wealthy and conservative classes in many states.
In 1786 a commercial conference, the %@AU@%ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION%@BO:           5bfc3@%%@AE@%, disbanded with
a call to convene a meeting in Philadelphia the next year for the purpose
of revising the Articles. All states except Rhode Island sent delegates;
George %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% presided. The major dispute at the convention was
between large and small states over representation in the new Congress. A
compromise proposal for a Congress with an upper house in which states
were equally represented and a lower house elected by population was
proposed by Oliver %@AU@%ELLSWORTH%@BO:          2e48a6@%%@AE@% and Roger Sherman, and finally approved.
James %@AU@%MADISON%@BO:          59378d@%%@AE@% was the chief drafter of the Constitution; Gouverneur
%@AU@%MORRIS%@BO:          64004e@%%@AE@% contributed to its style. Despite opposition, a sufficient number
of states ratified the document to make it effective by the end of June,
1788.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation%@AE@%%@CR:FEDERALCE.CORP  @%%@QR:Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation@% (FDIC), an independent U.S. agency%@EH@%
established (1933) to promote public confidence in banks and to protect
the money supply by providing a floor of insurance coverage for bank
deposits in all national and state banks that are members of the %@AU@%FEDERAL
%@AU@%RESERVE SYSTEM%@BO:          32461d@%%@AE@%. It also examines insured state-chartered banks that are
not members of the Federal Reserve.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%federal government%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%federal government%@AE@%%@CR:FEDERALENT      @%%@QR:federal government@% or %@AB@%federation,%@AE@%government of a union of states in which%@EH@%
sovereignty is divided between a central authority and component state
authorities. The central government most often handles the concerns of
the people as a whole, including foreign affairs, defense, coinage, and
commerce; the local entities retain other jurisdictions. A successful
federation usually requires a fairly uniform legal system and broad
cultural affinities. The federal system is often accompanied by tensions
between the central government (with its need for unity among the states)
and state governments (with their desire for autonomy). Modern
federations include the U.S., Switzerland, Australia, and Canada. The
USSR is technically a federation, but the component republics are
subservient to the central authority.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federalist party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federalist party%@AE@%,%@CR:FEDERALY        @%%@QR:Federalist party@% U.S. political faction that supported a strong federal%@EH@%
government. During Pres. %@AU@%WASHINGTON'S%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% administration (1789-97) political
factions appeared within his cabinet, and the group that gathered around
Alexander %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f7530@%%@AE@% was called Federalists. They were conservatives who
favored strong centralized government, encouragement of industry,
attention to the needs of the great merchants and landowners, and a
well-ordered society. They also were pro-British in foreign affairs. The
party was concentrated in New England, with a strong element in the
Middle Atlantic states. After the Democratic party's victory in 1800, the
Federalists remained powerful locally, but leadership passed to
reactionaries rather than moderates. Federalist opposition to the %@AU@%EMBARGO
%@AU@%ACT OF 1807%@BO:          2e6f75@%%@AE@% and to the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@% resulted in the %@AU@%HARTFORD CONVENTION%@BO:          404ac1@%%@AE@%,
but the successful issue of the war ruined the party, and by 1824 it was
virtually dead.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Reserve System%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Reserve System%@AE@%,%@CR:FEDERAL.SYSTEM  @%%@QR:Federal Reserve System@% central banking system of the U.S., established%@EH@%
by the Federal Reserve Act (1913). The act created 12 regional Federal
Reserve banks, supervised by a Federal Reserve Board. All national banks
must belong to the system, and state banks may if they meet certain
requirements. Member banks hold the bulk of the deposits of all
commercial banks in the country. The Board of Governors of the Federal
Reserve System is composed of seven members appointed to staggered
14-year terms by the president, who also names one of the governors as
chairman but has no power to remove any member. The Federal Open Market
Committee directs purchases and sales by the reserve banks of U.S.
government securities in the open market. The most important duties of
the Federal Reserve authorities involve the maintenance of national
monetary and credit conditions through lending to member banks,
open-market operations, fixing reserve requirements, and establishing
discount rates. In a sense, each Federal Reserve bank is a "banker's
bank," with member banks using their reserve accounts much as bank
depositors use their checking accounts. By controlling the credit market,
the Federal Reserve System influences the nation's economic life. It can
expand or contract the %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@% supply by buying or selling U.S. securities
and by raising or lowering reserve requirements (the amount that member
banks must set aside as reserves). Other important functions include the
issuance of currency and coins, and the setting of margin requirements
(credit limits) in the stock exchanges. See also %@AU@%CENTRAL BANK%@BO:          1af6da@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Theatre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Theatre%@AE@%:%@CR:FEDERAL.THEATRE @%%@QR:Federal Theatre@% see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Trade Commission%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Trade Commission%@AE@%%@CR:FEDERALN        @%%@QR:Federal Trade Commission@% (FTC), independent U.S. agency established in%@EH@%
1914 and charged with keeping business competition free and fair. Its
duties include enforcing %@AU@%ANTITRUST LAWS%@BO:           66ee2@%%@AE@%, preventing the dissemination of
false and deceptive advertising, regulating the labeling and packaging of
commodities, and gathering data concerning business conditions and making
it available to Congress, the president, and the public. It may require
corporations to submit information about their business practices if
there is substantial evidence of wrongdoing. It is also empowered to
issue cease-and-desist orders and to take violators to court.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Federal Writers' Project%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Federal Writers' Project%@AE@%:%@CR:FEDERAL.PROJECT @%%@QR:Federal Writers' Project@% see %@AU@%WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION%@BO:          a32a12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%federation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%federation%@AE@%:%@CR:FEDERATION      @%%@QR:federation@% see %@AU@%FEDERAL GOVERNMENT%@BO:          323d6e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fehmgericht%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fehmgericht%@AE@%:%@CR:FEHMGERICHT     @%%@QR:Fehmgericht@% see %@AU@%VEHMGERICHT%@BO:          9c490a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feininger, Lyonel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feininger, Lyonel%@AE@%,%@CR:FEININGER       @%%@QR:Feininger, Lyonel@% 1871-1956, American painter; b. N.Y.C. Living in%@EH@%
Europe, he was an illustrator and caricaturist before turning to easel
painting in 1907. Feininger exhibited with the %@AU@%BLAUE REITER%@BO:          10d5d2@%%@AE@% group and
taught at the %@AU@%BAUHAUS%@BO:           d21f4@%%@AE@% in Germany (1919-32). He returned to the U.S. in
1937. Feininger developed a geometric style with interlocking translucent
planes, often portraying sailboats or skyscrapers. His work is
represented in many leading museum collections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feisal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feisal%@AE@%:%@CR:FEISAL          @%%@QR:Feisal@% see %@AU@%FAISAL%@BO:          319126@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%feldspar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%feldspar%@AE@%%@CR:FELDSPAR        @%%@QR:feldspar@% or %@AB@%felspar,%@AE@%a group of potassium-, sodium-, and calcium-aluminum%@EH@%
silicate minerals (KAlSi%@AH@%3%@AE@%O%@AH@%8%@AE@%, NaAlSi%@AH@%3%@AE@%O%@AH@%8%@AE@%, and CaAl%@AH@%2%@AE@%Si%@AH@%2%@AE@%O%@AH@%8%@AE@%) and their
isomorphic mixtures. The three pure members are called, respectively,
orthoclase, albite, and anorthite. As constituents of crystalline rocks,
the feldspars form much of the earth's crust. Pure feldspar is colorless
and transparent, but impurities commonly make it opaque and colorful.
Potassium feldspars are used in making porcelain and as a source of
aluminum in making glass. The plagioclase feldspars (those ranging in
composition from albite to anorthite) are commonly gray and occasionally
red. %@AU@%MOONSTONE%@BO:          638ef8@%%@AE@% is a gem variety.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Felix V%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Felix V%@AE@%,%@CR:FELIX.V         @%%@QR:Felix V@% antipope: see %@AU@%AMADEUS VIII%@BO:           446f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feller, Bob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feller, Bob%@AE@%%@CR:FELLER          @%%@QR:Feller, Bob@% (Robert William Andrew Feller), 1918-, American baseball%@EH@%
player; b. Van Meter, Iowa. A pitcher famous for his fastball, he won 266
games (1936-56) with the Cleveland Indians. He threw 3 no-hit and 12
one-hit games.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fellini, Federico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fellini, Federico%@AE@%%@CR:FELLINI         @%%@QR:Fellini, Federico@%, 1920-, Italian film director. His films, noted for%@EH@%
their extravagant visual fantasy, include %@AI@%La Dolce Vita%@AE@% (1960), %@AI@%City of
%@AI@%Women%@AE@% (1980), and %@AI@%Ginger and Fred%@AE@% (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%felony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%felony%@AE@%,%@CR:FELONY          @%%@QR:felony@% in %@AU@%CRIMINAL LAW%@BO:          24a96c@%%@AE@%, an offense more serious than a %@AU@%MISDEMEANOR%@BO:          616d8e@%%@AE@%, from%@EH@%
which it is distinguished by the severity of the prescribed punishment.
State laws vary, but in most U.S. jurisdictions (and in federal statutes)
felonies are those crimes punishable by death or by imprisonment for more
than one year. Felonies are usually tried by a %@AU@%JURY%@BO:          4dd121@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%felspar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%felspar%@AE@%:%@CR:FELSPAR         @%%@QR:felspar@% see %@AU@%FELDSPAR%@BO:          3256f7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Femgericht%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Femgericht%@AE@%:%@CR:FEMGERICHT      @%%@QR:Femgericht@% see %@AU@%VEHMGERICHT%@BO:          9c490a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%feminism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%feminism%@AE@%,%@CR:FEMINISM        @%%@QR:feminism@% movement for women's political, social, and educational%@EH@%
equality with men. Early leaders, including Mary %@AU@%WOLLSTONECRAFT%@BO:          a2ccea@%%@AE@% in
England and Elizabeth Cady %@AU@%STANTON%@BO:          8e3606@%%@AE@% and Susan B. %@AU@%ANTHONY%@BO:           61579@%%@AE@% in the U.S.,
demanded full legal and economic equality for women. Gradually women in
the U.S. won the right to own property and to enter the professions, and
in 1920, after a prolonged struggle for %@AU@%WOMAN SUFFRAGE%@BO:          a2d595@%%@AE@% led by Carrie
Chapman %@AU@%CATT%@BO:          1a5f5f@%%@AE@% and others, they obtained the right to vote through the
passage of the 19th amendment to the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%. Women were fully
enfranchised in Britain by 1928 and throughout most of the world by 1950.
Betty %@AU@%FRIEDAN%@BO:          36644e@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN%@BO:          66e455@%%@AE@% played prominent
roles in the resurgence of feminism in the U.S. from the 1960s, stressing
equal pay and employment opportunities, %@AU@%DAY-CARE CENTERS%@BO:          26e7f9@%%@AE@%, the right to
%@AU@%ABORTION%@BO:            5630@%%@AE@%, and the need for liberation from sexual harassment and sex
stereotyping. The movement achieved much but failed in one of its key
goals, that of securing ratification by 38 states of the federal Equal
Rights Amendment (ERA) within 10 years of its passage (1972) by Congress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fencing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fencing%@AE@%,%@CR:FENCING         @%%@QR:fencing@% sport of dueling with foil, epee, and saber. The weapons and%@EH@%
rules of modern fencing evolved from combat weapons and their usage. The
foil, a light, flexible weapon with a blunted point, was originally used
for practice. The epee, or dueling sword, is a straight, narrow, stiff
weapon without cutting edges. The saber, a light version of the old
cavalry broadsword, has a flexible, triangular blade with theoretical
cutting edges. Fencing matches may be conducted among individuals or
between teams, generally of nine players (three for each weapon). Points
are made by touching the opponent. Protective clothing includes heavy
canvas jackets, wire-mesh masks, and gloves. In women's fencing, only the
foil is used. Fencing was first developed as a sport by the Germans in
the 14th cent. It was included in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fenian movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fenian movement%@AE@%%@CR:FENIAN.MOVEMENT @%%@QR:Fenian movement@%, a secret revolutionary society, organized c.1858 in%@EH@%
Ireland and the U.S. to achieve Irish independence from England by force.
The famine of the 1840s, which forced vast numbers of Irishmen to
emigrate, brought to a crisis Irish discontent with English rule. In
Ireland the Fenian movement was led by James Stephens. It appealed to the
nonagrarian population and was opposed by the Roman Catholic Church. The
various Fenian risings and acts of terrorism led at first to suppression
by the British but eventually drew Parliament's attention to Irish
problems. The movement in the U.S. was led by the emigre Irish
revolutionary John O'Mahony. In 1865 a group of embittered Irish-American
Fenians unsuccessfully attempted to invade Canada. The movement continued
until 1914 but its influence was largely drawn into new organizations,
notably the %@AU@%SINN FEIN%@BO:          8989c1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fenians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fenians%@AE@%,%@CR:FENIANS         @%%@QR:Fenians@% a professional military corps that roamed over ancient Ireland%@EH@%
(c.3d cent.) in the service of the high kings. They figure in the legends
that developed around %@AU@%FINN MAC CUMHAIL%@BO:          334bba@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%OSSIAN%@BO:          6f3a95@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fennel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fennel%@AE@%,%@CR:FENNEL          @%%@QR:fennel@% common name for several herbs, particularly those of the genus%@EH@%
%@AI@%Foeniculum%@AE@% of the %@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family. Their licorice-scented foliage and seeds
are used for flavoring. Sweet fennel has a thickened leaf base and is
eaten like %@AU@%CELERY%@BO:          1a9c2d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fens, the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fens, the%@AE@%,%@CR:FENS            @%%@QR:Fens, the@% also %@AB@%Fenland%@AE@%, fertile agricultural district, E England,%@EH@%
reclaimed from The Wash, an arm of the North Sea. Romans, then Saxons,
attempted to drain the low-lying, original swampland. Effective drainage
began in the 17th cent. under Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutch engineer, and
continued into the 19th cent. A drainage-improvement program was
completed in the 1960s to deal with continued land sinkage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferber, Edna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferber, Edna%@AE@%,%@CR:FERBER          @%%@QR:Ferber, Edna@% 1887-1968, American author; b. Kalamazoo, Mich. Her%@EH@%
colorful novels of American life include %@AI@%So Big%@AE@% (1924; Pulitzer), %@AI@%Show
%@AI@%Boat%@AE@% (1926), and %@AI@%Giant%@AE@% (1952). She also wrote plays with G.S. %@AU@%KAUFMAN%@BO:          4ea052@%%@AE@%,
e.g., %@AI@%Stage Door%@AE@% (1936).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FERDINAND1      @%%@QR:Ferdinand@% rulers of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Ferdinand I,%@AE@% 1503-64, emperor%@EH@%
(1558-64), king of %@AU@%BOHEMIA%@BO:          117097@%%@AE@% (1526-64) and of %@AU@%HUNGARY%@BO:          455f06@%%@AE@% (1526-64), was the
younger brother of Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%; he increasingly acted as Charles's
agent in the Hapsburg lands. In Hungary he fought against rival claimants
who had the support of Ottoman Sultan %@AU@%SULAYMAN I%@BO:          90638f@%%@AE@%, to whom he eventually
was forced to pay tribute. In Bohemia, Ferdinand vigorously pushed
Catholic reform and established %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% absolutism. In Germany he dealt
with the Peasants' War and other rebellions, and negotiated the Peace of
Augsburg (1555). Charles abdicated in his favor in 1558. %@AB@%Ferdinand II,%@AE@%
1578-1637, emperor (1619-37), king of Bohemia (1617-37) and of Hungary
(1618-37), was the grandson of Ferdinand I. In 1619 the Bohemian nobles
rebelled and elected %@AU@%FREDERICK THE WINTER KING%@BO:          35c179@%%@AE@%, thus beginning the %@AU@%THIRTY
%@AU@%YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@%. Ferdinand defeated Frederick in 1620, but the war continued.
Ferdinand was almost certainly responsible for the murder (1634) of his
leading general, %@AU@%WALLENSTEIN%@BO:          9ecdba@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Ferdinand III,%@AE@% 1608-57, emperor (1637-57),
king of Hungary (1626-57) and of Bohemia (1627-57), was nominal head
after 1634 of the imperialist forces in the Thirty Years War. After he
succeeded his father, Ferdinand II, as emperor, the war took a disastrous
turn. The Peace of %@AU@%WESTPHALIA%@BO:          a0c9e3@%%@AE@%, which he was forced to accept (1648),
virtually ended the central power of the Holy Roman Empire. Ferdinand
spent the last years of his reign healing the wounds of war and reforming
the imperial bureaucracy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FERDINAND2      @%%@QR:Ferdinand@% 1861-1948, czar of Bulgaria (1908-18), after being ruling%@EH@%
prince (1887-1908). He declared Bulgarian independence from Turkey in
1908 and was a victor in the first of the %@AU@%BALKAN WARS%@BO:           b70f4@%%@AE@% (1912-13). His
fortunes later declined, and in 1918 he was forced to abdicate in favor
of his son, %@AU@%BORIS III%@BO:          1244b5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FERDINAND3      @%%@QR:Ferdinand@% kings of Bohemia and Hungary: see %@AU@%FERDINAND%@BO:          3276fe@%%@AE@%, rulers of the%@EH@%
Holy Roman Empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FERDINAND4      @%%@QR:Ferdinand@% kings of Portugal. %@AB@%Ferdinand I,%@AE@% 1345-83 (r.1367-83), the son%@EH@%
of %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          741191@%%@AE@%, had ambitions for the throne of %@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@% that led to three
disastrous wars between 1369 and 1382. In 1372 he allied himself with
%@AU@%JOHN OF GAUNT%@BO:          4cab91@%%@AE@% of England, but their two wars against Castile resulted in
defeat. The final war ended with the marriage of Ferdinand's daughter,
Beatrice, and John I of Castile. The throne of Portugal, after
Ferdinand's death and a national revolution, went to his half brother,
%@AU@%JOHN I%@BO:          4c8989@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Ferdinand II%@AE@%, 1816-85 (r.1837-53), was the king consort of Maria
II of Portugal and was regent for their son, %@AU@%PETER V%@BO:          741191@%%@AE@%. He was more
interested in his art collection than in governing the country.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FERDINAND5      @%%@QR:Ferdinand@% 1865-1927, king of %@AU@%RUMANIA%@BO:          81dbb9@%%@AE@% (1914-27); nephew and successor of%@EH@%
%@AU@%CAROL I%@BO:          191b58@%%@AE@%. He took Rumania (1916) into %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% on the Allied side. In
1918 he acquired Bessarabia, and in 1919 he successfully intervened in
Hungary against the Communist government of Bela %@AU@%KUN%@BO:          5108e3@%%@AE@%. During his reign
agrarian reforms and universal male suffrage were instituted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FERDINAND6      @%%@QR:Ferdinand@% Spanish kings. %@AB@%Ferdinand I%@AE@% (the Great), d. 1065, king of%@EH@%
%@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@% (1035-65) and of %@AU@%LEON%@BO:          53fc90@%%@AE@% (1037-65), inherited the former kingdom and
conquered the latter. He reduced the Moorish kings of Zaragoza, Badajoz,
%@AU@%SEVILLE%@BO:          876ef2@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TOLEDO%@BO:          9668db@%%@AE@% to vassalage and introduced church reforms. Prior to
his death, he divided his kingdom among three sons. %@AB@%Ferdinand III,%@AE@%
1199-1252, king of Castile (1217-52) and Leon (1230-52), permanently
united the two kingdoms in 1230. He crusaded against the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% and
completed the reconquest of Spain, except for the kingdom of %@AU@%GRANADA%@BO:          3c2554@%%@AE@%, by
1248. %@AB@%Ferdinand IV,%@AE@% 1285-1312, king of Castile and Leon (1295-1312),
conquered %@AU@%GIBRALTAR%@BO:          3a0f2d@%%@AE@% (1309) from the Moors with the help of %@AU@%ARAGON%@BO:           729af@%%@AE@%, but he
failed in his attempt to take Algeciras. %@AB@%Ferdinand V%@AE@% (the Catholic), king
of Castile and Leon (1474-1504, jointly with his wife, %@AU@%ISABELLA I%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@%), king
of Aragon (as Ferdinand II, 1479-1516), king of Sicily (1468-1516), and
king of Naples (1504-16), with his wife completed the unification of
Spain by conquering Granada in 1492. In that fateful year they also
expelled the %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@% and sponsored %@AU@%COLUMBUS'S%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% discovery of the New World.
Ferdinand fought France in the %@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@% and captured %@AU@%NAPLES%@BO:          664789@%%@AE@%. After
Isabella's death (1504), he kept control of Castile by acting as regent
for their daughter, %@AU@%JOANNA%@BO:          4c4cae@%%@AE@%. He increased the powers of the throne by
curbing the nobles and the %@AU@%CORTES%@BO:          23988d@%%@AE@%. During his reign Spain became an
Atlantic power and revolutionized European commerce. He left a vast
empire to his grandson, Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Ferdinand VI,%@AE@%
c.1712-59, king of Spain (1746-59), kept the nation out of the %@AU@%SEVEN
%@AU@%YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@% during his lifetime. After the death (1758) of his beloved
queen, Maria Barbara de Braganza, Ferdinand did not recover from his
grief and died soon afterward. %@AB@%Ferdinand VII,%@AE@% 1784-1833, king of Spain
(1808-32), was forced by %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% to renounce his throne and was
imprisoned in France during the %@AU@%PENINSULAR WAR%@BO:          72d325@%%@AE@% (1808-14). His name became
the rallying cry of Spanish nationalists who resisted the French invaders
and proclaimed (1812) a liberal constitution. But when he was restored to
the throne (1814), Ferdinand proved to be a thorough reactionary; he
abolished the new constitution but was forced to reinstate it by a
revolution (1820). Backed by France's military intervention, he revoked
the constitution again (1823) and ruthlessly repressed Spanish liberals.
Ferdinand's death caused no less trouble than his reign; he had excluded
his brother, Don Carlos, from the throne and thus brought on the %@AU@%CARLIST%@BO:          18f04e@%%@AE@%
wars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FERDINAND7      @%%@QR:Ferdinand@% kings of the %@AU@%TWO SICILIES%@BO:          99270d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Ferdinand I,%@AE@% 1751-1825%@EH@%
(r.1816-1825), had previously been king of Naples as Ferdinand IV and
king of Sicily as Ferdinand III. He had succeeded (1759) to the kingdoms
when his father became king of Spain as %@AU@%CHARLES III%@BO:          1bfc56@%%@AE@%. He opposed the
French, who drove him from Naples to Sicily in 1799 and 1806. Restored
(1815) in Naples, he abolished Sicilian autonomy and proclaimed himself
king of the Two Sicilies. His rule was despotic. His grandson, %@AB@%Ferdinand
%@AB@%II,%@AE@% 1810-59 (r.1830-59), initially tried to improve the kingdom's
wretched state but soon drifted into absolutism. He bombarded Messina
(1848) and Palermo (1849) to quell disorders, thus earning the nickname
"King Bomba."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferdinand the Catholic (Ferdinand V)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferdinand the Catholic (Ferdinand V)%@AE@%:%@CR:FERDINAFERDINA  @%%@QR:Ferdinand the Catholic (Ferdinand V)@% see under %@AU@%FERDINAND,%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@% Spanish kings.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fergana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fergana%@AE@%%@CR:FERGANA         @%%@QR:Fergana@%or %@AB@%(Ferghana Valley)%@AE@%, region, c.8,500 sq mi (22,000 sq km), in the%@EH@%
Uzbek, Tadzhik, and Kirghiz republics of the S USSR. It is one of Soviet
Central Asia's most densely populated agricultural and industrial areas,
with important oil, coal, natural gas, and iron deposits. The valley
belonged to a succession of Central Asian empires until it was acquired
by Russia in 1876. It prospered until the 16th cent. from caravan trade
along the traditional silk route between China and the Mediterranean.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferlinghetti, Lawrence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferlinghetti, Lawrence%@AE@%,%@CR:FERLINGHETTI    @%%@QR:Ferlinghetti, Lawrence@% 1919-, American poet and publisher; b. Yonkers,%@EH@%
N.Y. His City Lights Bookshop in San Francisco was a center for %@AU@%BEAT
%@AU@%GENERATION%@BO:           d5e1f@%%@AE@% writers. Among his volumes of verse is %@AI@%A Coney Island of the
%@AI@%Mind%@AE@% (1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fermat, Pierre de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fermat, Pierre de%@AE@%%@CR:FERMAT          @%%@QR:Fermat, Pierre de@%, 1601-65, French mathematician and magistrate. Although%@EH@%
his work in mathematics was done for recreation, he was a founder of
modern %@AU@%NUMBER THEORY%@BO:          6c4406@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PROBABILITY%@BO:          79bc5b@%%@AE@% theory. Many developments in number
theory have resulted from unsuccessful attempts to prove Fermat's Last
Theorem, a still unproved conjecture that states that the equation
%@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%n%@AE@%+y%@AH@%n%@AE@%=z%@AH@%n%@AE@%, where %@AI@%x, y,%@AE@% and %@AI@%%@AE@% are nonzero integers, has no solutions for %@AI@%n%@AE@%
when %@AI@%n%@AE@%  is an integer greater than 2.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fermentation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fermentation%@AE@%,%@CR:FERMENTATION    @%%@QR:fermentation@% anaerobic degradation of glucose and other simple sugars in%@EH@%
the living cell. Of the many different kinds of glucose fermentation, two
kinds predominate: one, in microorganisms and animal cells, produces
lactic acid as the sole end product; the other, in brewer's yeast and
some bacteria, yields ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. Alcoholic
fermentation to produce intoxicating beverages was practiced in
antiquity. By 1500 BC production of beer from germinating cereals (malt)
and of wine from crushed grapes was an established technical art in most
of the Middle East. The modern science of biochemistry emerged directly
from 19th-cent. studies of fermentation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fermented milk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fermented milk%@AE@%,%@CR:FERMENTED.MILK  @%%@QR:fermented milk@% whole or skim milk curdled and thickened by%@EH@%
lactic-acid-producing microorganisms. It was used in many forms by early
nomadic herdsmen, especially in Asia, S and E Europe, Scandinavia,
Africa, and South America. Yogurt, acidophilus milk, cultured buttermilk,
and kumiss (koumiss) are forms of fermented milk.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fermi, Enrico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fermi, Enrico%@AE@%,%@CR:FERMI           @%%@QR:Fermi, Enrico@% 1901-54, American physicist; b. Italy; came to U.S., 1938.%@EH@%
He contributed to the early theory of beta decay and the %@AU@%NEUTRINO%@BO:          688801@%%@AE@% and to
quantum statistics and discovered the element %@AU@%NEPTUNIUM%@BO:          684113@%%@AE@%. For his
experiments with %@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@% he was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in
physics. Fermi created (1942) the first self-sustaining chain reaction in
uranium and worked on the atomic bomb at Los Alamos (see %@AU@%MANHATTAN
%@AU@%PROJECT%@BO:          5ada65@%%@AE@%). He later helped develop the hydrogen bomb and served on the
General Advisory Committee of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory%@AE@%%@CR:FERMI.NTOR.LAB  @%%@QR:Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory@% (Fermilab), physical science%@EH@%
research center (est. 1968) located near Batavia, Ill. Universities
Research Association operates it under contract to the U.S. Dept. of
Energy. Work at Fermilab is devoted to the study of elementary particles,
principally through the use of a synchrotron particle accelerator capable
of accelerating protons up to energies of 500 billion electron volts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fermium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fermium%@AE@%%@CR:FERMIUM         @%%@QR:fermium@% (Fm), radioactive element, discovered in 1952 by Albert Ghiorso%@EH@%
and colleagues in residue from a thermonuclear explosion. Its physical
properties are largely unknown; its chemical properties are similar to
those of other %@AU@%ACTINIDE SERIES%@BO:            ddd8@%%@AE@% members. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fern%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fern%@AE@%,%@CR:FERN            @%%@QR:fern@% any plant of the division Polypodiophyta, consisting of several%@EH@%
thousand species found worldwide, usually in tropical rain forests. Most
common living ferns belong to the polypody family (Polypodiaceae) and are
characterized by triangular fronds subdivided into many leaflets (pinnae)
and smaller pinnules. Except for ornamentals, the only commercially
important ferns are tree ferns (families Dicksoniaceae and Cyatheaceae),
whose trunks are used in construction; the starchy pith is used as stock
food. Ancestors of modern ferns were the dominant vegetation during the
Carboniferous era. They, and such relatives as %@AU@%CLUB MOSSES%@BO:          1f9e1a@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%HORSETAILS%@BO:          448cf3@%%@AE@%, are the most primitive plants to have developed a true
vascular system. Ferns reproduce by alternation of generations (see
%@AU@%REPRODUCTION%@BO:          7e3cff@%%@AE@%), and although no present-day ferns reproduce by seed, there
is some fossil evidence that fernlike plants are the ancestors of seed
plants (%@AU@%CONIFERS%@BO:          2218e9@%%@AE@% and true flowering plants).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fernandez de Lizardi, Jose Joaquin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fernandez de Lizardi, Jose Joaquin%@AE@%%@CR:FERNANDZARDI    @%%@QR:Fernandez de Lizardi, Jose Joaquin@%%@AI@%The Itching Parrot%@AE@% (1816-30),%@EH@%
considered the first Spanish American novel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferrara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferrara%@AE@%,%@CR:FERRARA         @%%@QR:Ferrara@% city (1986 est. pop. 143,950), in Emilia-Romagna, N Italy, an%@EH@%
industrial and agricultural center on a marshy plain. It was the site of
an %@AU@%ESTE%@BO:          302085@%%@AE@% family principality (13th cent.). Its commerce and art flourished
during the Renaissance. The 12th-cent. cathedral, 14th-cent. castle, and
several palaces are notable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferrara-Florence, Council of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferrara-Florence, Council of%@AE@%:%@CR:FERRARAFLORENCE @%%@QR:Ferrara-Florence, Council of@% see %@AU@%COUNCIL, ECUMENICAL%@BO:          23e643@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferraro, Geraldine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferraro, Geraldine%@AE@%,%@CR:FERRARO         @%%@QR:Ferraro, Geraldine@% 1935-, U.S. politician; b. N.Y.C. A Democrat, she%@EH@%
served three terms in the House of Representatives (1979-84). In 1984, as
Walter %@AU@%MONDALE'S%@BO:          6293d4@%%@AE@% running mate, she became the first woman nominated for
the vice-presidency by a major party in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ferret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ferret%@AE@%,%@CR:FERRET          @%%@QR:ferret@% domesticated polecat (%@AI@%Mustela putorius%@AE@%), a %@AU@%WEASEL%@BO:          9fe9c4@%%@AE@% common in the%@EH@%
Old World. Used for centuries to hunt rats, mice, and rabbits, the ferret
is related to the wild North American black-footed ferret (%@AI@%M. nigripes%@AE@%),
now nearly extinct.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ferry, Jules%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ferry, Jules%@AE@%,%@CR:FERRY           @%%@QR:Ferry, Jules@% 1832-93, French statesman, minister of education (1879-80,%@EH@%
1882), premier (1880-81, 1883-85). He established the modern, secular
French educational system. An exponent of imperialism, he directed French
colonial expansion into Tunis, Tonkin, Madagascar, and Africa. He was
assassinated by a religious fanatic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fertile Crescent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fertile Crescent%@AE@%,%@CR:FERTILET        @%%@QR:Fertile Crescent@% historic region of the Middle East, flanked by the Nile%@EH@%
R. (W) and the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (E). A well-watered area, it
includes parts of Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq. It was the cradle of
many ancient civilizations, e.g., %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MESOPOTAMIA%@BO:          5f1485@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fertility drug%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fertility drug%@AE@%,%@CR:FERTILITY.DRUG  @%%@QR:fertility drug@% any of a variety of substances used to increase the%@EH@%
potential for conception and successful pregnancy by correcting various
functional disorders. In the male, inadequate sperm production can often
be remedied by administering testosterone and sometimes pituitary
hormones. In the female, failure to ovulate, the most common cause of
female sterility, can sometimes be treated with the administration of
gonadotropic hormone and, in some cases, clomiphene citrate. Often
inducing more than one ovum in a month, the use of clomiphene may result
in multiple births. In cases of repeated miscarriage or bleeding during
pregnancy, %@AU@%PROGESTERONE%@BO:          79cd4f@%%@AE@% has been found effective.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fertilization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fertilization%@AE@%,%@CR:FERTILIZATION   @%%@QR:fertilization@% in biology, sexual reproductive process involving the%@EH@%
union of two unlike sex cells (gametes)-the ovum, or egg (female), and
sperm (male)-followed by fusion of their nuclei. The principle of
fertilization is the same in all organisms. The ovum absorbs the first
sperm to make successful contact and the two nuclei fuse, combining the
hereditary material of both parents; the subsequent %@AU@%EMBRYO%@BO:          2e7758@%%@AE@% develops into
a new individual. In lower plants and animals, the sperm swims to the egg
through an external medium or through fluid in the female reproductive
tract. In some higher plants, %@AU@%POLLINATION%@BO:          779863@%%@AE@% enables the sperm to contact
the egg. In higher animals, sperm contact initiates cell division in the
fertilized egg (zygote).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fertilizer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fertilizer%@AE@%,%@CR:FERTILIZER      @%%@QR:fertilizer@% organic or inorganic material added to the soil to replace or%@EH@%
increase plant nutrients. Organic fertilizers-including animal and green
manure, fish and bone meal, guano (seabird excrement), and %@AU@%COMPOST%@BO:          215667@%%@AE@%-are
decomposed by soil microorganisms, and their elements are freed for plant
use (see %@AU@%HUMUS%@BO:          454d2a@%%@AE@%). Most inorganic or chemical fertilizers contain the major
nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) in proportions required
by the crop. Properly used, fertilizers increase crop yields; they do not
affect a crop's nutritive properties unless specifically intended to do
so. See also %@AU@%NITROGEN CYCLE%@BO:          6a501c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Festus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Festus%@AE@%%@CR:FESTUS          @%%@QR:Festus@% (Sextus Pompeius Festus), fl. at some time between AD 100 and 400,%@EH@%
Roman lexicographer. His surviving work, %@AI@%On the Meaning of Words,%@AE@% an
abridgment of the lost glossary of Marcus Verrius Flaccus, is important
as a primary source for Roman scholarship and antiquities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fetish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fetish%@AE@%,%@CR:FETISH          @%%@QR:fetish@% inanimate natural or man-made object believed to have magical%@EH@%
power, either from a will of its own or from a god that has transformed
the object into an instrument of its desires. A fetish with great power
is often declared %@AU@%TABOO%@BO:          922acd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feuchtwanger, Lion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feuchtwanger, Lion%@AE@%%@CR:FEUCHTWANGER    @%%@QR:Feuchtwanger, Lion@%, 1884-1958, German historical novelist. He achieved%@EH@%
fame with %@AI@%The Ugly Duchess%@AE@% (1923), %@AI@%Jud Suss%@AE@% (1925), and the %@AI@%Josephus%@AE@%
trilology (1923-42). Feuchtwanger left Germany in 1933 and lived in the
U.S. after 1940. His novels are noted for imaginative historical
reconstruction and character portrayal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%feud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%feud%@AE@%,%@CR:FEUD            @%%@QR:feud@% formalized private warfare, especially between family groups. The%@EH@%
blood feud is characteristic of societies in which central government has
not arisen or has decayed. The feud, now outlawed in most countries, has
persisted where public justice cannot be easily enforced and private
means are a simpler recourse.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%feudalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%feudalism%@AE@%,%@CR:FEUDALISM       @%%@QR:feudalism@% a political and social system in Western Europe from the end%@EH@%
of %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE'S%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% empire (late 9th cent. AD) to the rise of absolute
monarchies. It had a local agricultural economy with the manor as its
unit. In the %@AU@%MANORIAL SYSTEM%@BO:          5b0e18@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%VILLEIN%@BO:          9d8c79@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SERF%@BO:          871fae@%%@AE@% held land from the
lord of the manor, the seigneur or suzerain, in return for services,
dues, and an oath of fealty. The king owned all land. Under him came a
hierarchy of nobles, the highest holding land from the king and those of
lesser rank from the nobles above them. Landholding was by fief and was
ceremonially acquired by %@AU@%INVESTITURE%@BO:          491c94@%%@AE@%. The unsettled conditions of the
time necessitated warriors for the lord and protection for the vassal.
Gradations of vassalage were based on land holding and military service,
from the single serf to private armies of hundreds. The %@AU@%KNIGHT%@BO:          5035fe@%%@AE@% was the
typical warrior, with the squire below him and counts, dukes, and other
nobles above him. The system, rooted in the decay of Roman institutions,
spread from France to Spain, to Italy, and later to Germany and E Europe.
%@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% (the Conqueror) brought (1066) the Frankish form of feudalism
to England. Feudalism waned as powerful monarchies broke down local
systems, but it lingered in France until the French Revolution, in
Germany and Japan until the 19th cent., and in Russia, although serfdom
was abolished officially in 1861, until 1917.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas%@AE@%,%@CR:FEUERBACH1      @%%@QR:Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas@% 1804-72, German philosopher. At first a%@EH@%
follower of %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@%, he abandoned %@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@% for materialism, a progression
that influenced Karl %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@% in the development of %@AU@%DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM%@BO:          289f2f@%%@AE@%.
Feuerbach rejected the "illusionistic" nature of religion and established
a naturalistic-humanistic ethic that held mankind and nature to be the
proper study of philosophy. His best-known work, %@AI@%The Essence of
%@AI@%Christianity%@AE@% (1841), was translated into English by George %@AU@%ELIOT%@BO:          2e1363@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm von%@AE@%,%@CR:FEUERBACH2      @%%@QR:Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm von@% 1775-1833, German jurist. A%@EH@%
criminal-law theorist, he argued in %@AI@%Critique of Natural Law%@AE@% (1796) that
law was the positive mandate of the state, and not to be confused with
natural morality. Feuerbach saw a dual role for criminal law as protector
both of society (through its deterrent function) and of the individual
(through its exact definition of crimes). In 1813 he drafted an
influential liberal criminal code in Bavaria.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feuillants%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feuillants%@AE@%,%@CR:FEUILLANTS      @%%@QR:Feuillants@%  political club of the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. Emerging in July%@EH@%
1791, the group advocated a constitutional monarchy. After the fall
(Sept. 1792) of the monarchy, it was suppressed by the %@AU@%JACOBINS%@BO:          4ace57@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Feynman, Richard Phillips%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Feynman, Richard Phillips%@AE@%,%@CR:FEYNMAN         @%%@QR:Feynman, Richard Phillips@%  1918-88, American physicist; b. N.Y.C. He%@EH@%
shared (1965) the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on quantum
electrodynamics. Feynman also explained, with Murray %@AU@%GELL-MANN%@BO:          388458@%%@AE@%, the
interactions of the weak nuclear force. He worked on the early
development of the atomic bomb and developed the Feynman diagram, a
system of notation used to describe and calculate subatomic reactions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fez%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fez%@AE@%,%@CR:FEZ             @%%@QR:Fez@% city (1981 est. pop. 562,900), N central Morocco. It is located in a%@EH@%
rich agricultural region. The city is noted for its Muslim art and its
handicraft industries. It has given its name to the brimless felt caps
that were formerly characteristic items of Muslim dress in the Middle
East. Fez reached its zenith under the Marinid sultans in the mid-14th
cent. It consists of the old city (founded AD 808) and the new city
(founded 1276), connected by walls; there is also a European suburb. The
city has more than 100 mosques.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fianna Fail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fianna Fail%@AE@%,%@CR:FIANNA.FAIL     @%%@QR:Fianna Fail@% Irish political party, organized in 1926 by opponents of the%@EH@%
Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 establishing the Irish Free State. Led by
Eamon %@AU@%DE VALERA%@BO:          2868d7@%%@AE@%, the party gained control of the government in 1932 and
advocated separation from Great Britain. Except for 1948-51 and 1954-57,
it held power until 1973. It returned to power under John %@AU@%LYNCH%@BO:          5844eb@%%@AE@% (1977-79)
and Charles %@AU@%HAUGHEY%@BO:          406fe6@%%@AE@% (1979-81, Mar.-Dec. 1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fiat money%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fiat money%@AE@%:%@CR:FIAT.MONEY      @%%@QR:fiat money@% see %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fiber%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fiber%@AE@%,%@CR:FIBER1          @%%@QR:fiber@% threadlike strand, usually pliable and capable of being spun into%@EH@%
a yarn. Fibers are classified as either natural (including animal,
vegetable, and inorganic) or artificial (see %@AU@%SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBERS%@BO:          91f393@%%@AE@%).
Animal fibers, e.g., %@AU@%SILK%@BO:          892c92@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WOOL%@BO:          a304be@%%@AE@%, and goat hair (mohair), consist mainly
of proteins. Vegetable fibers, e.g., %@AU@%COTTON%@BO:          23d404@%%@AE@%, consist mainly of cellulose.
%@AU@%ASBESTOS%@BO:           88c27@%%@AE@% is the chief natural inorganic fiber; %@AU@%FIBER GLASS%@BO:          32ec0b@%%@AE@% is also of
inorganic origin. Artificial fibers are made by either synthesizing
%@AU@%POLYMERS%@BO:          77c908@%%@AE@%, as in nylon, or altering natural fibers, as in %@AU@%RAYON%@BO:          7d057e@%%@AE@%. Fibers
are used for textiles, e.g., cotton, silk, wool; cordage, e.g., hemp;
brushes, e.g., animal hairs; filling, e.g., horsehair; and plaiting,
e.g., sisal. The invention of %@AU@%SPINNING%@BO:          8d93cc@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WEAVING%@BO:          9ffa82@%%@AE@% machinery during the
%@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@% greatly increased the demand for fibers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fiber, food%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fiber, food%@AE@%,%@CR:FIBER2          @%%@QR:fiber, food@% the complex of carbohydrates and other substances present%@EH@%
primarily in the cell walls of plant foods. Fiber, also known as bulk or
roughage, appears not to be digested or absorbed by humans but does seem
to have significant physiological benefits in the digestive tract.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fiber glass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fiber glass%@AE@%,%@CR:FIBER.GLASS     @%%@QR:fiber glass@% thread made from glass. Molten glass is forced through a%@EH@%
kind of sieve, thus spinning it into threads. Strong, durable, and
impervious to many caustics and to extreme temperatures, fiber glass
fabrics are widely used in industry. Some, resembling silk and cotton,
are used for drapery. Boat hulls and auto bodies molded of fiber glass
combined with plastic are rustproof.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fiber optics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fiber optics%@AE@%,%@CR:FIBER.OPTICS    @%%@QR:fiber optics@% transmission of messages or information by light pulses%@EH@%
along hair-thin glass fibers. Cables of optical fibers can be made
smaller and lighter than conventional cables using copper wires or
coaxial tubes, yet they can carry much more information, making them
useful for transmitting large amounts of data between computers and for
carrying data-intensive television pictures or many simultaneous
telephone conversations. Optical fibers are immune to electromagnetic
interference (from lightning, nearby electric motors, and similar
sources) and to crosstalk from adjoining wires, and tapping into them is
more easily detected. To keep a signal from deteriorating, optical fibers
require fewer repeaters over a given distance than does copper wire. In
addition to communications, optical fibers are starting to be used in
automobiles and aircraft and are expected to have many other
applications.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fibonacci, Leonardo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fibonacci, Leonardo%@AE@%%@CR:FIBONACCI       @%%@QR:Fibonacci, Leonardo@%; b. c.1170, d. after 1240; Italian mathematician,%@EH@%
known also as Leonardo da Pisa. The Fibonacci %@AU@%SEQUENCE%@BO:          870c3d@%%@AE@% 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
8, 13, 21,  . . .  , in which each term is the sum of the two preceding
terms, occurs in higher mathematics in various connections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fichte, Johann Gottlieb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fichte, Johann Gottlieb%@AE@%,%@CR:FICHTE          @%%@QR:Fichte, Johann Gottlieb@% 1762-1814, German philosopher. He received early%@EH@%
recognition for %@AI@%A Critique of All Revelation%@AE@% (1788), erroneously
attributed to %@AU@%KANT%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@%. His later works, including %@AI@%The Vocation of Man%@AE@%
(1800), developed a transcendental %@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@% that considered the
individual ego as the source of experience and postulated an absolute ego
or moral will of the universe from which everything derives. An important
influence on Friedrich %@AU@%SCHELLING%@BO:          855219@%%@AE@% and G.W. %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@%, Fichte is best
remembered for his political theories. His %@AI@%Addresses to the German People%@AE@%
(1808) established him as a leader of liberal nationalism, and he became
a hero to the revolutionaries of 1848.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fiction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fiction%@AE@%:%@CR:FICTION         @%%@QR:fiction@% see %@AU@%NOVEL%@BO:          6bed67@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SHORT STORY%@BO:          88931b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fiedler, Arthur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fiedler, Arthur%@AE@%,%@CR:FIEDLER1        @%%@QR:Fiedler, Arthur@% 1894-1979, American conductor; b. Boston. A versatile%@EH@%
German-trained instrumentalist, he formed (1924) the Boston Sinfonietta,
a group dedicated to performing little-heard compositions. In 1929 he
inaugurated annual concerts at Boston's Esplanade bandshell. Fiedler
became director of the Boston Pops Orchestra in 1930; for almost 50 years
he led it to enormous international popularity with an astute blend of
classical and popular music concerts featuring a wide variety of guest
artists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fiedler, Leslie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fiedler, Leslie%@AE@%,%@CR:FIEDLER2        @%%@QR:Fiedler, Leslie@% 1917-, American critic; b. Newark, N.J. He is probably%@EH@%
best known for %@AI@%Love and Death in the American Novel%@AE@% (1960), a Freudian
literary analysis. His other works include %@AI@%An End to Innocence%@AE@% (1955),
essays; %@AI@%Nude Croquet%@AE@% (1969), stories; and %@AI@%Freaks%@AE@% (1978), a historical
study.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fief%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fief%@AE@%:%@CR:FIEF            @%%@QR:fief@% see %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Field, Cyrus West%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Field, Cyrus West%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELD1          @%%@QR:Field, Cyrus West@% 1819-92, American merchant, promoter of the first%@EH@%
Atlantic %@AU@%CABLE%@BO:          1693be@%%@AE@%; b. Stockbridge, Mass. In 1853 he retired with a modest
fortune from the paper business. The next year he conceived the idea of
the cable and organized English and American companies to lay it. The
first message was transmitted on Aug. 16, 1858; the cable failed three
weeks later, but he raised new funds and succeeded in laying a new cable
in 1866. He later promoted other oceanic cables, notably one via Hawaii
to Asia and Australia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Field, Eugene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Field, Eugene%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELD2          @%%@QR:Field, Eugene@% 1850-95, American writer; b. St. Louis. He was known for%@EH@%
his wittily urbane newspaper column "Sharps and Flats." Among his books
are %@AI@%A Little Book of Western Verse%@AE@% (1889) and %@AI@%With Trumpets and Drums%@AE@%
(1892). Field's children's poems include "Little Boy Blue" and "Wynken,
Blynken, and Nod."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Field, Marshall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Field, Marshall%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELD3          @%%@QR:Field, Marshall@% 1834-1906, American merchant; b. Conway, Mass. As a%@EH@%
partner in the firm of Field, Leiter, and Co. (founded 1881), he amassed
one of the largest private fortunes in the U.S. and pioneered in many
modern retailing practices. His large philanthropies included the Art
Institute of Chicago, Univ. of Chicago, and the Chicago Museum of Natural
History. His grandson, %@AB@%Marshall Field III,%@AE@% 1893-1956, was owner (1940-48)
of the New York city liberal newspaper %@AI@%PM,%@AE@% and later of the Chicago %@AI@%Sun%@AE@%
and %@AI@%Times%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%field%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%field%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELD4          @%%@QR:field@% in physics, region throughout which a force may be exerted;%@EH@%
examples are the gravitational, electric, and magnetic fields that
surround, respectively, masses, electric charges, and magnets (see
%@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MAGNETISM%@BO:          59882f@%%@AE@%). Fields are used to describe all
cases in which two bodies separated in space exert a force on each other.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%field hockey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%field hockey%@AE@%:%@CR:FIELD.HOCKEY    @%%@QR:field hockey@% see %@AU@%HOCKEY, FIELD%@BO:          435196@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fielding, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fielding, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELDING        @%%@QR:Fielding, Henry@% 1707-54, English novelist and dramatist. %@AI@%Tom Thumb%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1730) was the most notable of his early comedies, farces, and
burlesques. Two satires, %@AI@%Pasquin%@AE@% (1736) and %@AI@%The Historical Register for
%@AI@%1736%@AE@% (1737), in which he attacked the government of Robert %@AU@%WALPOLE%@BO:          9ee071@%%@AE@%, ended
his dramatic career by provoking the Licensing Act of 1737, which
censored the stage. Turning to the %@AU@%NOVEL%@BO:          6bed67@%%@AE@%, he achieved success with %@AI@%Joseph
%@AI@%Andrews%@AE@% (1742), a parody of Samuel %@AU@%RICHARDSON'S%@BO:          7f162d@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Pamela;%@AE@% and %@AI@%Jonathan Wild%@AE@%
(1743), the ironic history of a highwayman. His masterpiece, %@AI@%Tom Jones%@AE@%
(1749), presents in the foundling Tom and his guardian, Squire Allworthy,
Fielding's ideal man, in whom goodness and charity are combined with
common sense. Memorable characters, brilliant plotting, and moral vision
make it one of the greatest English novels. Fielding's last works were
%@AI@%Amelia%@AE@% (1751) and the %@AI@%Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon%@AE@% (1755).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%field mouse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%field mouse%@AE@%:%@CR:FIELD.MOUSE     @%%@QR:field mouse@% see %@AU@%VOLE%@BO:          9e2c0c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Field Museum of Natural History%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Field Museum of Natural History%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELD.M.HISTOR  @%%@QR:Field Museum of Natural History@% at Chicago, est. 1893 with gifts of%@EH@%
Marshall Field and others. It is noted for its exhibits of animals in
their natural settings, displays of plant life, and anthropological and
geological collections. The museum sponsors expeditions and conducts
research.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Field of the Cloth of Gold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Field of the Cloth of Gold%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELD.OOLD      @%%@QR:Field of the Cloth of Gold@% meeting place of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England and%@EH@%
%@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@% of France, near Calais, France (1520). Both kings brought large
retinues, and the name given the site indicates the splendor of the
pageantry. The political results were negligible, because Henry had
decided to ally himself with Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% rather than
with Francis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fields, W.C.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fields, W.C.%@AE@%,%@CR:FIELDS          @%%@QR:Fields, W.C.@% 1880-1946, American film actor; b. Philadelphia as William%@EH@%
Claude Dukenfield. He played a series of drunken, misanthropic, yet
wistful rascals in such comedies as %@AI@%It's a Gift%@AE@% (1934), %@AI@%My Little
%@AI@%Chickadee%@AE@% (1940), and %@AI@%The Bank Dick%@AE@% (1940).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fifth force%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fifth force%@AE@%,%@CR:FIFTH.FORCE     @%%@QR:fifth force@% a postulated fifth basic, repulsive force of nature. It is%@EH@%
said to be about 1000 times less powerful than gravity, and its strength
is said to fall off quickly with distance, having a range of about 700 ft
(200 m). If this force exists, it would disprove the long-held belief,
first stated by %@AU@%GALILEO%@BO:          376852@%%@AE@%, that all objects fall at the same rate in a
vacuum. The four known forces of nature are gravity, electromagnetism,
and the strong and weak nuclear forces%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fifty-four forty or fight%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fifty-four forty or fight%@AE@%,%@CR:FIFTYFOT        @%%@QR:Fifty-four forty or fight@% in U.S. history, phrase commonly used by%@EH@%
American extremists in the controversy with Great Britain over the %@AU@%OREGON%@BO:          6e9201@%%@AE@%
country. They held that U.S. rights extended to lat. 54 deg40'N, the
recognized southern boundary of Russian America. The phrase was used by
Democrat James %@AU@%POLK%@BO:          778644@%%@AE@% in the 1844 presidential campaign. In 1846 the
boundary was set at 49 degN.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fig%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fig%@AE@%,%@CR:FIG             @%%@QR:fig@% plant (genus %@AI@%Ficus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MULBERRY%@BO:          64fc4d@%%@AE@% family, comprising over 600%@EH@%
species of vines, shrubs, and trees. Fig plants bear hundreds of tiny
female flowers inside a fleshy receptacle, which ripens into a soft,
pear-shaped fruit containing masses of tiny seeds. The common fig (%@AI@%F.
%@AI@%carica%@AE@%), native to the Mediterranean region and cultivated from early
times for its commercially valuable fruit, has been naturalized elsewhere
in mild, semiarid climates. Some edible varieties can be pollinated only
by the fig wasp.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Figueiredo, Joao Baptista de Oliveira%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Figueiredo, Joao Baptista de Oliveira%@AE@%%@CR:FIGUEIREDO      @%%@QR:Figueiredo, Joao Baptista de Oliveira@%, 1918-, Brazilian general and%@EH@%
politician, president of Brazil (1979-85). He was named (1974) to head
the national intelligence service and in 1979 was chosen to succeed
Ernesto Geisel as president. Figueiredo liberalized Brazil's military
regime and moved the nation cautiously toward democracy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Figueres Ferrer, Jose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Figueres Ferrer, Jose%@AE@%%@CR:FIGUERES.FERRER @%%@QR:Figueres Ferrer, Jose@%, 1906-, president of %@AU@%COSTA RICA%@BO:          23c2ac@%%@AE@% (1948-49, 1953-58,%@EH@%
1970-74). In 1948 he led a revolt to ensure the presidency of newly
elected Otilio Ulate and served as provisional president. His
administrations enacted social legislation and economic reforms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%figured bass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%figured bass%@AE@%,%@CR:FIGURED.BASS    @%%@QR:figured bass@% in music, a system of shorthand notation in which figures%@EH@%
are written below the notes of the bass part to indicate the chords to be
played; also called thorough bass and basso continuo. It arose in the
17th cent. and was widespread until after the time of J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@% as a
means of notating an accompaniment on the harpsichord or %@AU@%ORGAN%@BO:          6ead26@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%figurehead%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%figurehead%@AE@%,%@CR:FIGUREHEAD      @%%@QR:figurehead@% carved decoration, usually a head or figure, placed under the%@EH@%
bowsprit of a ship. Ancient ships had beaks on the bow to ram enemy
vessels; these were often surmounted by figureheads of national or
religious significance. Roman vessels often carried bronze gods' heads,
and Viking ships had elaborately carved prows. Dragons, lions, and human
forms adorned Renaissance vessels. In the final phase of the art, in the
18th and 19th cent., highly original wood figureheads were carved in the
United States.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fiji%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fiji%@AE@%%@CR:FIJI            @%%@QR:Fiji@% or %@AB@%Viti,%@AE@%independent republic (1986 pop. 714,000), c.7,000 sq mi%@EH@%
(18,130 sq km), comprising c.320 islands (c.105 inhabited), in the SW
Pacific Ocean. The two largest islands are Viti Levu, the site of Suva,
the capital; and Vanua Levu. The climate is tropical. Sugarcane, copra,
and ginger are the chief crops. Gold and fish are also significant
exports. Tourism is important. The original Fijians, of Melanesian origin
in the west and Polynesian origin in the east, are now outnumbered by
Indians, who first came (1870-1916) to the islands as indentured workers
for the British. The islands were discovered (1643) by the Dutch
navigator Abel %@AU@%TASMAN%@BO:          92fe1e@%%@AE@% and visited (1774) by Capt. James %@AU@%COOK%@BO:          22f2d1@%%@AE@%. The first
European settlement was established in 1804, and the islands were annexed
by Britain in 1874. Fiji gained independence as a Commonwealth member in
1970. Following two coups in 1987, Fiji declared itself a republic and
left the Commonwealth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%filbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%filbert%@AE@%:%@CR:FILBERT         @%%@QR:filbert@% see %@AU@%HAZEL%@BO:          40c755@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%filibuster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%filibuster%@AE@%,%@CR:FILIBUSTER      @%%@QR:filibuster@% term used to designate obstructionist tactics in legislative%@EH@%
bodies, especially in the U.S. Senate. The term was applied in the 17th
cent. to buccaneers who plundered Spanish colonies in the New World, and
in the 19th cent. to adventurers who led private forays into friendly
countries, e.g., from the U.S. into Cuba and Mexico.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Filipepi, Alessandro di Mariano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Filipepi, Alessandro di Mariano%@AE@%:%@CR:FILIPEPI        @%%@QR:Filipepi, Alessandro di Mariano@% see %@AU@%BOTTICELLI, SANDRO%@BO:          129636@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fillmore, Millard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fillmore, Millard%@AE@%,%@CR:FILLMORE        @%%@QR:Fillmore, Millard@% 1800-1874, 13th president of the U.S. (1850-53); b.%@EH@%
Summerhill, N.Y. A U.S. representative from New York (1833-35, 1837-43),
Fillmore was elected (1848) vice president on the %@AU@%WHIG PARTY%@BO:          a109c5@%%@AE@% ticket with
Zachary %@AU@%TAYLOR%@BO:          9336f3@%%@AE@%. Succeeding to the presidency on Taylor's death, Fillmore
signed the %@AU@%COMPROMISE OF 1850%@BO:          2162e3@%%@AE@% and tried to enforce the %@AU@%FUGITIVE SLAVE
%@AU@%ACT%@BO:          36b871@%%@AE@%. He emphasized nonintervention in foreign disputes and signed a
treaty opening Japan to Western commerce. Fillmore unsuccessfully strove
to make the Whigs a national party, in order to conciliate the sectional
struggle. In 1856 he was the presidential candidate of the %@AU@%KNOW-NOTHING
%@AU@%MOVEMENT%@BO:          504f22@%%@AE@%, which tried vainly to unite the North and South.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%finch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%finch%@AE@%,%@CR:FINCH           @%%@QR:finch@% %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Fringillidae, found worldwide except Australia,%@EH@%
considered the most highly developed of birds. Finches are typified by
stout, conical bills, used to open the seeds that comprise their main
diet; many also eat insects. Highly diversified, finches are classified
in three groups: those with triangular bills, e.g., %@AU@%CANARY%@BO:          181b7b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SPARROW%@BO:          8d32ad@%%@AE@%, and
the birds called finch, e.g., bullfinch and goldfinch; those with thick,
rounded bills, e.g., %@AU@%CARDINAL%@BO:          18d707@%%@AE@%; and those whose mandibles cross at the
tips, e.g., crossbill. Because their seed diet does not depend on
weather, many finches are year-round residents in colder areas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fingal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fingal%@AE@%:%@CR:FINGAL          @%%@QR:Fingal@% see %@AU@%FINN MAC CUMHAIL%@BO:          334bba@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fingerprint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fingerprint%@AE@%,%@CR:FINGERPRINT     @%%@QR:fingerprint@% an impression of the underside of the end of a finger or%@EH@%
thumb, which has ridges that form a pattern unique to each person.
Fingerprinting as an identification device dates from antiquity, but
sophisticated modern methods are based on work by the English scientist
Sir Francis %@AU@%GALTON%@BO:          379b3d@%%@AE@% and others during the late 19th cent. Fingerprint
identification is used extensively in criminal investigation, the armed
services, government employment, and banking. In the U.S. a national
fingerprint file is maintained by the %@AU@%FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION%@BO:          322e01@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finiguerra, Maso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finiguerra, Maso%@AE@%%@CR:FINIGUERRA      @%%@QR:Finiguerra, Maso@%or %@AB@%Tommaso%@AE@%, 1426-64, Florentine goldsmith and engraver%@EH@%
during the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%. He collaborated with Antonio Pollaiuolo (see
%@AU@%POLLAIUOLO%@BO:          779137@%%@AE@%, family) on such works as the baptistery %@AI@%Crucifixion%@AE@% in
Florence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finland%@AE@%,%@CR:FINLAND         @%%@QR:Finland@% Finnish %@AI@%Suomi,%@AE@% officially the Republic of Finland, republic%@EH@%
(1986 est. pop. 4,930,000), 130,119 sq mi (337,009 sq km), N Europe;
bordered by the Gulf of Bothnia and Sweden (W), Norway (N), the USSR (E),
and the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea (S). %@AU@%HELSINKI%@BO:          418691@%%@AE@% is the capital.
There are three main geographical zones: a low-lying coastal strip in the
south and west that includes most of the major cities; a vast forested
interior plateau, dotted with some 60,000 lakes; and a thinly wooded or
barren region north of the %@AU@%ARCTIC CIRCLE%@BO:           771ce@%%@AE@%, part of %@AU@%LAPLAND%@BO:          525d1c@%%@AE@%. Since World
War II, manufacturing has replaced agriculture as the principal sector of
the economy; the chief manufactures are forest products (about 70% of
Finland is forested), processed foods, metal and engineering products,
machinery, and chemicals. Finland is also known for its design of glass,
ceramics, and stainless-steel cutlery. Finnish and Swedish are both
official languages, and most of the population belongs to the established
Evangelical Lutheran Church. Finland is governed by an elected president
and a 200-member unicameral parliament (%@AI@%Eduskunta%@AE@%).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Beginning in the 1st cent AD, Finland was settled by nomadic
hunters and fishers, who forced the small number of Lapps living in the
central and southern regions to move to the far north, where they live
today. Sweden conquered the area in the 13th cent. but allowed the Finns
considerable independence, raising Finland to the rank of grand duchy in
1581. During the Napoleonic Wars, Finland was invaded by Russia, which
annexed it in 1809. As a Russian grand duchy, Finland was again allowed
wide-ranging autonomy. Finnish nationalism became a strong force early in
the 19th cent.; an elected parliament was established in 1906, and
Finnish independence was proclaimed in 1917. In the civil war that
followed (1918), the nationalist White Guard, led by C.G.E. %@AU@%MANNERHEIM%@BO:          5b0331@%%@AE@%
and aided by German troops, defeated the leftist Red Guard, supported by
the Soviets. A republic was established in 1919. After the start of %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, Soviet troops invaded Finland (1939), which, despite heroic
resistance, was defeated (1940). Hoping to recover territories lost in
the conflict, Finland joined the German attack (1941) on the USSR but was
forced to capitulate (1944). The armistice required Finland to expel the
Germans, and in the ensuing Finnish-German warfare N Finland was
devastated. The peace treaty signed in 1947 ceded additional Finnish
territory to the USSR. In the postwar years the Social Democrat and
Center (formerly Agrarian) parties dominated Finnish politics. U.K.
%@AU@%KEKKONEN%@BO:          4ec39f@%%@AE@% was president from 1956 to 1981. M.K. Koivisto was elected
president in 1982 and pledged to continue a neutral foreign policy and to
pursue good relations with the USSR.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finlay, Carlos Juan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finlay, Carlos Juan%@AE@%,%@CR:FINLAY          @%%@QR:Finlay, Carlos Juan@% 1833-1915, Cuban physician. He suggested (1881) the%@EH@%
mosquito as the carrier of %@AU@%YELLOW FEVER%@BO:          a40e86@%%@AE@% and specified (1882) the correct
species, now known as %@AI@%Aedes aegypti.%@AE@% A commission headed by Walter %@AU@%REED%@BO:          7d6fb6@%%@AE@%
inaugurated (1900) experiments that proved his theory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finney, Albert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finney, Albert%@AE@%,%@CR:FINNEY1         @%%@QR:Finney, Albert@% 1936-, English film actor. He has starred in such varied%@EH@%
films as %@AI@%Tom Jones%@AE@% (1963), %@AI@%Murder on the Orient Express%@AE@% (1974), and %@AI@%Shoot
%@AI@%the Moon%@AE@% (1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finney, Charles Grandison%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finney, Charles Grandison%@AE@%,%@CR:FINNEY2         @%%@QR:Finney, Charles Grandison@% 1792-1875, American revivalist, theologian,%@EH@%
and educator; b. Warren, Conn. He began his career as a Presbyterian
minister. In 1834 the Broadway Tabernacle (N.Y.C.) was organized for him,
and he soon left Presbyterianism for Congregationalism. He taught
(1837-75) at Oberlin College and was its president (1851-65). His
writings and preaching were very influential.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finnish language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finnish language%@AE@%,%@CR:FINNISHE        @%%@QR:Finnish language@% also called Suomi, member of the Finnic group of the%@EH@%
Finno-Ugric languages. These languages form a subdivision of the Uralic
subfamily of the %@AU@%URALIC AND ALTAIC%@BO:          9af4c9@%%@AE@% family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finn mac Cumhail, Fionn mac Cumhail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finn mac Cumhail, Fionn mac Cumhail%@AE@%,%@CR:FINN.MAL        @%%@QR:Finn mac Cumhail, Fionn mac Cumhail@%or %@AB@%Finn MacCool%@AE@% , semimythical Irish%@EH@%
hero, celebrated in %@AU@%OSSIAN'S%@BO:          6f3a95@%%@AE@% narrative poems and in the Fenian ballads,
so called after the professional fighters Finn is said to have led in the
3d cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Finno-Ugric languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Finno-Ugric languages%@AE@%%@CR:FINNOUGUAGES    @%%@QR:Finno-Ugric languages@%, group of languages forming a subdivision of the%@EH@%
Uralic subfamily of the %@AU@%URALIC AND ALTAIC%@BO:          9af4c9@%%@AE@% family of languages. See
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fiord%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fiord%@AE@%:%@CR:FIORD           @%%@QR:fiord@% see %@AU@%FJORD%@BO:          338543@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fir%@AE@%,%@CR:FIR             @%%@QR:fir@% tree (genus %@AI@%Abies%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PINE%@BO:          75d24e@%%@AE@% family, found chiefly in the alpine%@EH@%
regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Tall, pyramidal evergreens, firs have
short, flat, stemless needles and erect, cylindrical cones. They are
valued for their fragrance and beauty. The balsam fir is a popular
Christmas tree.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Firbank, (Arthur Annesley) Ronald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Firbank, (Arthur Annesley) Ronald%@AE@%,%@CR:FIRBANK         @%%@QR:Firbank, (Arthur Annesley) Ronald@% 1886-1926, English author. An%@EH@%
eccentric aesthete, he wrote unconventional satiric novels, e.g.,
%@AI@%Vainglory%@AE@% (1915), %@AI@%Valmouth%@AE@% (1919), %@AI@%Prancing Nigger%@AE@% (1924), that
influenced %@AU@%WAUGH%@BO:          9fd27c@%%@AE@%, Compton-Burnett, and Aldous %@AU@%HUXLEY%@BO:          45bb49@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Firdausi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Firdausi%@AE@%%@CR:FIRDAUSI        @%%@QR:Firdausi@%, c.940-1020, Persian poet, author of the %@AI@%Book of Kings,%@AE@% the%@EH@%
first great work of Persian literature; b. Abdul Kasim Mansur. The %@AI@%Book
%@AI@%of Kings%@AE@% is an epic poem recounting the history of Persia from the
arrival of the Persians to that of the Arabs. It is noted for its even
rhyme, stately cadences, and continuous flow.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%firearm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%firearm%@AE@%:%@CR:FIREARM         @%%@QR:firearm@% see %@AU@%ARTILLERY%@BO:           8773d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GUN%@BO:          3e94bb@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MORTAR%@BO:          64146c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SMALL ARMS%@BO:          8a3da7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%firefly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%firefly%@AE@%%@CR:FIREFLY         @%%@QR:firefly@% or %@AB@%lightning bug,%@AE@%small, luminescent, nocturnal, carnivorous%@EH@%
%@AU@%BEETLE%@BO:           dbe15@%%@AE@% of the family Lampyridae. They emit heatless flashes of
green-yellow to red-orange light (see %@AU@%BIOLUMINESCENCE%@BO:           ff0a7@%%@AE@%); these are sexual
signals produced by special organs on the abdomen. Firefly larvae prey on
snails and earthworms, and some are beneficial to agriculture. Larvae and
wingless females are called glowworms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Firestone, Harvey Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Firestone, Harvey Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:FIRESTONE       @%%@QR:Firestone, Harvey Samuel@% 1868-1938, American industrialist; b.%@EH@%
Columbiana co., Ohio. He began to manufacture rubber tires in 1896. The
Firestone Fire & Rubber Co., which he organized in 1900, became a leader
of the rubber industry and one of the largest tire manufacturers in the
U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Firth, Raymond William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Firth, Raymond William%@AE@%,%@CR:FIRTH           @%%@QR:Firth, Raymond William@% 1901-, English social anthropologist; b. New%@EH@%
Zealand. A professor at the Univ. of London (1944-68), he conducted
research in the Pacific and in West Africa, focusing on social
organization and economic systems. His works include %@AI@%We the Tikopia%@AE@%
(1936, rev. ed. 1957) and %@AI@%Symbols: Public and Private%@AE@% (1973).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fischer, Bobby%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fischer, Bobby%@AE@%%@CR:FISCHER         @%%@QR:Fischer, Bobby@% (Robert James Fischer), 1943-, American chess player; b.%@EH@%
Chicago. In 1972 at Reykjavik, Iceland, he won the world chess
championship from Boris Spassky of the USSR. Fischer subsequently
disputed match rules with the International Federation of Chess, and in
1975 Anatoly %@AU@%KARPOV%@BO:          4e7d92@%%@AE@% of the USSR was declared champion by default.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich%@AE@%,%@CR:FISCHERDIESKAU  @%%@QR:Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich@% 1925-, German baritone. He is one of the%@EH@%
foremost singers of German %@AU@%LIEDER%@BO:          54ed89@%%@AE@%, noted for his interpretations of
Brahms, Schubert, Schumann, and Wolf.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fischer-Tropsch process%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fischer-Tropsch process%@AE@%,%@CR:FISCHERPROCESS  @%%@QR:Fischer-Tropsch process@% method, discovered (1923) by the German coal%@EH@%
researchers Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch, for the synthesis of
hydrocarbons and other aliphatic compounds. A mixture of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide is reacted in the presence of an iron or cobalt catalyst.
Much heat is evolved, and such products as methane, synthetic gasoline
and waxes, and alcohols are made, with water or carbon dioxide
by-products.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fish, Hamilton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fish, Hamilton%@AE@%,%@CR:FISH1           @%%@QR:Fish, Hamilton@% 1808-93, American statesman; b. N.Y.C. A Whig congressman%@EH@%
(1843-45) and senator (1851-57) from New York, Fish served as Pres.
%@AU@%GRANT'S%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@% secretary of state (1869-77) and was one of the ablest men ever
to hold that office. He arranged the Treaty of %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f6f57@%%@AE@% (1871), which
settled long-standing disputes with Britain, and he kept U.S.-based
filibustering expeditions against Cuba from escalating into war with
Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fish%@AE@%,%@CR:FISH2           @%%@QR:fish@% limbless, aquatic, %@AU@%VERTEBRATE%@BO:          9ce5a4@%%@AE@% animal with fins, internal gills, and%@EH@%
skin with a glandular secretion that decreases friction. Most fish have
scales and are cold-blooded. A typical fish is torpedo-shaped, with a
head containing a brain and sensory organs, a muscular-walled trunk with
a cavity containing internal organs, and a muscular tail. Most fish
propel themselves through water with weaving movements and control
direction with fins. Although some fish, such as sharks, bear live young,
most fish eggs are fertilized and hatch in water. There are over 20,000
species in three classes: Agnatha, the most primitive fishes, jawless and
without paired pelvic and pectoral fins (e.g., %@AU@%LAMPREY%@BO:          51c859@%%@AE@%); Chondrichthyes,
cartilaginous fishes, with skeletons of cartilage but no swim bladder or
lungs (e.g., %@AU@%SHARK%@BO:          87fc06@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RAY%@BO:          7cfe12@%%@AE@%); and Osteichthyes, bony fishes, the most highly
developed. Bony fishes have a bony skeleton and a swim bladder or lungs,
and are divided into fleshy-finned (e.g., %@AU@%LOBEFIN%@BO:          55fcd0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LUNGFISH%@BO:          57df9d@%%@AE@%) and
ray-finned fishes (e.g., %@AU@%BASS%@BO:           cec0d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TUNA%@BO:          988e6d@%%@AE@%). The largest fish is the whale shark
(%@AI@%Rhincodon typus%@AE@%), reaching 50 ft (15 m) in length and found worldwide in
tropical seas; the smallest is the 1/2-in. (1.3-cm) goby (family
Gobiidae) of the Philippines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fisher, Irving%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fisher, Irving%@AE@%,%@CR:FISHER1         @%%@QR:Fisher, Irving@% 1867-1947, American economist; b. Saugerties, N.Y. A%@EH@%
professor at Yale Univ. (1890-1935), he is known for his pioneering work
in monetary economic theory; his theory of the "compensated dollar" to
stabilize purchasing power; and his development of the %@AU@%INDEX NUMBER%@BO:          473f17@%%@AE@%, a
measurement of price levels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fisher, Saint John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fisher, Saint John%@AE@%,%@CR:FISHER2         @%%@QR:Fisher, Saint John@% c.1469-1535, English prelate, cardinal, bishop of%@EH@%
Rochester (1504-34). For opposing the divorce of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%KATHARINE
%@AU@%OF ARAGON%@BO:          4e9070@%%@AE@% and other acts of the English %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%, Fisher was
imprisoned in 1534. To show his support, Pope %@AU@%PAUL III%@BO:          722685@%%@AE@% created (1535)
Fisher a cardinal, but an enraged Henry quickly had Fisher beheaded. He
was canonized in 1935. Feast: June 22.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fisk, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fisk, James%@AE@%,%@CR:FISK            @%%@QR:Fisk, James@% 1834-72, American financial speculator; b. Pownal, Vt. He%@EH@%
became wealthy during the Civil War by dealing in cotton and established
(1866) a brokerage house in New York City. After taking part in the
struggle against Cornelius %@AU@%VANDERBILT%@BO:          9bb5e4@%%@AE@% for control of the Erie RR, he and
Jay %@AU@%GOULD%@BO:          3bd5f6@%%@AE@% made millions by manipulating Erie stock. They also engineered
an attempt to corner the gold market in 1869, causing the %@AU@%BLACK FRIDAY%@BO:          10855d@%%@AE@%
scandal. At the age of 37, Fisk was killed by a rival for the attentions
of an actress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fission%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fission%@AE@%:%@CR:FISSION         @%%@QR:fission@% see %@AU@%ATOMIC BOMB%@BO:           98960@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NUCLEAR ENERGY%@BO:          6c0981@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fitch, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fitch, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FITCH           @%%@QR:Fitch, John@% 1743-98, American inventor; b. Windsor, Conn. An early%@EH@%
experimenter with steam engines and steamboats (see %@AU@%STEAMSHIP%@BO:          8e82b5@%%@AE@%), he is
believed to have designed (1786) the first practical steamboat.
Nevertheless, he failed to receive either the opportunity to
commercialize his invention or the recognition he justly deserved.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%FitzGerald, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%FitzGerald, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:FITZGERALD1     @%%@QR:FitzGerald, Edward@% 1809-83, English author. His masterpiece is his%@EH@%
translation of %@AI@%The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam%@AE@% (1859; rev. 1868, 1872,
1879). Other works are %@AI@%Euphranor%@AE@% (1851), a Platonic dialogue; and
%@AI@%Polonius%@AE@% (1852), aphorisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fitzgerald, Ella%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fitzgerald, Ella%@AE@%,%@CR:FITZGERALD2     @%%@QR:Fitzgerald, Ella@% 1918-, black American jazz singer; b. Newport News, Va.%@EH@%
She was a popular big band and solo artist. Principally a %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% and blues
singer with a sweet and effortless style, she is also a noted interpreter
of the songs of George %@AU@%GERSHWIN%@BO:          39b794@%%@AE@% and Cole %@AU@%PORTER%@BO:          785260@%%@AE@%, among others.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fitzgerald, F(rancis) Scott (Key)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fitzgerald, F(rancis) Scott (Key)%@AE@%,%@CR:FITZGERALD3     @%%@QR:Fitzgerald, F(rancis) Scott (Key)@% 1896-1940, American author, one of the%@EH@%
great American writers of the 20th cent.; b. St. Paul, Minn. The literary
spokesman of the "jazz age," he wrote about people whose lives resembled
his own. He and his wife, Zelda, lived a celebrated life, glittering and
dissipated, in New York City and the French Riviera, but his later years
were plagued by financial worries and his wife's insanity. Fitzgerald's
novels are %@AI@%This Side of Paradise%@AE@% (1920); %@AI@%The Beautiful and Damned%@AE@% (1922);
%@AI@%The Great Gatsby%@AE@% (1922), his masterpiece about the corruption of the
American dream; %@AI@%Tender Is the Night%@AE@% (1934); and %@AI@%The Last Tycoon%@AE@% (1941),
an unfinished work reflecting his last years in Hollywood. He also
published four short-story collections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Five, The%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Five, The%@AE@%,%@CR:FIVE            @%%@QR:Five, The@% a group of 19th-cent. Russian composers. They were %@AU@%BALAKIREV%@BO:           b33f1@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
Cui, %@AU@%MOUSSORGSKY%@BO:          64aef5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BORODIN%@BO:          12512e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%RIMSKY-KORSAKOV%@BO:          7f5af7@%%@AE@% and drew on Russian
history, literature, and folklore to write music of a distinctly national
character.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Five Civilized Tribes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Five Civilized Tribes%@AE@%,%@CR:FIVE.CITRIBES   @%%@QR:Five Civilized Tribes@% name used since the mid-19th cent. for the%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHEROKEE%@BO:          1c9028@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHICKASAW%@BO:          1cd668@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHOCTAW%@BO:          1db915@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CREEK%@BO:          247e6b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SEMINOLE INDIANS%@BO:          86c607@%%@AE@% settled in
%@AU@%INDIAN TERRITORY%@BO:          47a31c@%%@AE@% under the Removal Act of 1830. Living on communally held
land, each tribe had a written constitution, a tripartite government, and
a public school system. A later federal policy of detribalization
resulted in the loss of their governmental functions, except advisory,
and the division of all land into individual holdings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Five Nations%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Five Nations%@AE@%:%@CR:FIVE.NATIONS    @%%@QR:Five Nations@% see %@AU@%IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY%@BO:          49c1ee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Five-Power Treaty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Five-Power Treaty%@AE@%:%@CR:FIVEPOWY        @%%@QR:Five-Power Treaty@% see %@AU@%NAVAL CONFERENCES%@BO:          67a599@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Five-Year Plan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Five-Year Plan%@AE@%,%@CR:FIVEYEAR.PLAN   @%%@QR:Five-Year Plan@% a program to speed industrialization and the%@EH@%
collectivization of agriculture in the Soviet Union, initiated (1928-33)
by Joseph %@AU@%STALIN%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@%. Now a standard feature of the Soviet economy, such
plans have been adopted elsewhere in the Soviet bloc and in developing
nations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fjord%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fjord%@AE@%%@CR:FJORD           @%%@QR:fjord@% or %@AB@%fiord,%@AE@%coastal inlet characterized by sheer parallel walls, often%@EH@%
extending far below the water surface, and by many branches. They are
probably glaciated valleys subsequently drowned by the sea. Norway's
fjords are noted for their grandeur; Sognafjord is 4,000 ft (1,220 m)
deep and over 100 mi (160 km) long.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flag%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flag%@AE@%,%@CR:FLAG            @%%@QR:flag@% piece of cloth, usually bunting or similar light material, plain,%@EH@%
colored, or bearing a device, varying in size and shape but often oblong
or square, used as an ensign, standard, or signal or for display or
decorative purposes, and generally attached at one end (the hoist) to a
staff or a halyard by which it may be hoisted. The portion from the hoist
to the free end is the fly; the top quarter of the flag next to the staff
is the canton. Flags have been used since ancient times. Early flags had
a religious significance that persisted historically. For example, the
ensign of Great Britain, the Union Jack, is formed by the crosses of St.
%@AU@%GEORGE%@BO:          392ef2@%%@AE@%, St. %@AU@%ANDREW%@BO:           54f29@%%@AE@%, and St. %@AU@%PATRICK%@BO:          720fde@%%@AE@%, the national saints, respectively,
of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Armies and navies use flags for
signaling: the white flag is used universally for truce; the black in
early times was a symbol for piracy; the red symbolizes mutiny or
revolution; the yellow is a sign of infectious diseases. Shipping lines
have their own flags. Striking a flag signifies surrender, and the flag
of the victor is hoisted above that of the vanquished. A flag flown at
half-mast is a symbol of mourning. The inverted national ensign is a
signal of distress. The first flag of the U.S. was raised at Cambridge,
Mass., by George %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% on Jan. 2, 1776. Today, the U.S. flag has 13
stripes, denoting the 13 original colonies, and 50 stars, for the 50
states. The U.S. states and territories also have their own flags.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flag Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flag Day%@AE@%%@CR:FLAG.DAY        @%%@QR:Flag Day@% (June 14), anniversary of the adoption of the American flag in%@EH@%
1777. It is not a legal holiday.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flagstad, Kirsten%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flagstad, Kirsten%@AE@%,%@CR:FLAGSTAD        @%%@QR:Flagstad, Kirsten@% 1895-1962, Norwegian soprano. In 1935 she appeared at%@EH@%
the %@AU@%METROPOLITAN OPERA%@BO:          5f8daf@%%@AE@% in Richard %@AU@%WAGNER'S%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Die Walkure%@AE@% and thereafter was
regarded as the greatest living Wagnerian soprano.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flaherty, Robert Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flaherty, Robert Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:FLAHERTY        @%%@QR:Flaherty, Robert Joseph@% 1884-1951, American film director; b. Iron%@EH@%
Mountain, Mich. His pioneering documentaries include %@AI@%Nanook of the North%@AE@%
(1922) and %@AI@%Man of Aran%@AE@% (1934).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flamingo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flamingo%@AE@%,%@CR:FLAMINGO        @%%@QR:flamingo@% large pink or red tropical wading %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (order Ciconiiformes),%@EH@%
similar to the related %@AU@%HERON%@BO:          426287@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%STORK%@BO:          8f64ca@%%@AE@% but with webbed feet and a unique,
down-bent bill. Ranging in height from 3 to 5 ft (90 to 150 cm), the
flamingo has a long neck and legs and a broad wingspan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flanders%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flanders%@AE@%,%@CR:FLANDERS        @%%@QR:Flanders@% former county in the %@AU@%LOW COUNTRIES%@BO:          5776fb@%%@AE@% extending along the North%@EH@%
Sea and W of the Scheldt R. It became a French fief in the 9th cent.
Virtually independent, it was the hub of medieval Europe's cloth industry
but was weakened by civil strife and by rebellion against France. By the
15th cent., although Flemish art and commerce flourished under the
Burgundians, it was little more than a French province. It passed in turn
to the Spanish Hapsburgs and Austria before being partitioned among
France (1797), the Netherlands (1815), and Belgium (1830); parts of W
Flanders had earlier been annexed (1668-78) to France. Its strategic
location has made Flanders a key battleground; occupation by the Germans
in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% led to the dramatic British evacuation at %@AU@%DUNKIRK%@BO:          2b3aaf@%%@AE@% (1940).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flatfish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flatfish%@AE@%,%@CR:FLATFISH        @%%@QR:flatfish@% member of the order Pleuronectiformes, bottom-living %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
the Atlantic and Pacific. Adult flatfish have an unusual, flattened body
with both eyes on one side of the head. They lie with the blind,
generally whitish, side on the ocean bottom; the eyed, colored side faces
up. Soles are generally small, warm-water flatfishes with small eyes and
mouths and few or no teeth. Flounders, generally larger, are known for
changing color to match the background. The European sole (%@AI@%Solea solea%@AE@%)
and many flounders, including the flukes (genus %@AI@%Paralichthys%@AE@%) and the
large, voracious, cool-water halibuts (genus %@AI@%Hippoglossus%@AE@%), are important
food fish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flathead Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flathead Indians%@AE@%%@CR:FLATHEAS        @%%@QR:Flathead Indians@% or %@AB@%Salish Indians,%@AE@%%@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% from W Montana%@EH@%
who spoke a Salishan language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see
%@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). They were called "flatheads" by neighboring
Columbia R. tribes who shaped the front of the head to a point. After
acquiring horses, the Flathead adopted the buffalo and %@AU@%TEPEE%@BO:          941074@%%@AE@% culture of
the Plains and struggled with the %@AU@%BLACKFOOT INDIANS%@BO:          107fc7@%%@AE@% for hunting lands. In
the 1970s, about 2000 lived on reservations in Montana.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flatworm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flatworm%@AE@%,%@CR:FLATWORM        @%%@QR:flatworm@% soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical invertebrate of the phylum%@EH@%
Platyhelminthes. Among the most primitive organisms, flatworms are
divided into the free-living, primarily aquatic class of turbellarians
(including %@AU@%PLANARIANS%@BO:          7670ef@%%@AE@%) and the exclusively parasitic classes of %@AU@%FLUKES%@BO:          33f0e4@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%TAPEWORMS%@BO:          92d397@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flaubert, Gustave%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flaubert, Gustave%@AE@%%@CR:FLAUBERT        @%%@QR:Flaubert, Gustave@%, 1821-80, French novelist, a master of the realistic%@EH@%
novel. A scrupulous writer, intent on finding the exact word (%@AI@%le mot
%@AI@%juste%@AE@%) and achieving complete objectivity, he published his masterpiece,
%@AI@%Madame Bovary,%@AE@% in 1857, after five years of work. Portraying the
frustrations of a romantic young woman married to a dull provincial
doctor, it resulted in his prosecution on moral grounds. His other works
include the novels %@AI@%Salammbo%@AE@% (1862), %@AI@%A Sentimental Education%@AE@% (1869), and
the satirical %@AI@%Bouvard and Pecuchet%@AE@% (1881) and %@AI@%Three Tales%@AE@% (1877), one of
which is the great novella "A Simple Heart."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flax%@AE@%,%@CR:FLAX            @%%@QR:flax@% common name for an annual herb of the Linaceae family, especially%@EH@%
members of the genus %@AI@%Linum,%@AE@% and for the fiber obtained from such plants.
Native to Eurasia, flax was the major source of cloth fiber until the
growth of the %@AU@%COTTON%@BO:          23d404@%%@AE@% industry (c.1800). The flax of commerce is obtained
from several varieties of %@AI@%L. usitatissimum.%@AE@% Exposure to water or dew and
sun loosens the fiber from the woody tissue in a process known as
retting. After washing, drying, beating, and combing, fibers are obtained
for use in making fabric (see %@AU@%LINEN%@BO:          5561b4@%%@AE@%), threads, and cordage. Flax seeds
are crushed to make %@AU@%LINSEED OIL%@BO:          55745c@%%@AE@%, and the remaining linseed cake is used
for fodder. Dried seed is also used in medicines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flaxman, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flaxman, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FLAXMAN         @%%@QR:Flaxman, John@% 1755-1826, English sculptor and draftsman. After designing%@EH@%
Wedgwood %@AU@%POTTERY%@BO:          78bb0d@%%@AE@%, he produced figure drawings from Greek vases to
illustrate works by Homer and Dante; these were engraved by William
%@AU@%BLAKE%@BO:          10be48@%%@AE@%. He is known for his memorial sculptures, e.g., Sir Joshua
%@AU@%REYNOLDS%@BO:          7ea350@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flea%@AE@%,%@CR:FLEA            @%%@QR:flea@% small, blood-sucking wingless %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% of the order Siphonaptera.%@EH@%
Adult fleas eat only blood and are external %@AU@%PARASITES%@BO:          712f90@%%@AE@% of mammals and
birds. They have hard bodies flattened from side to side, piercing and
sucking mouthparts, and strong legs for jumping. Certain rat fleas carry
%@AU@%TYPHUS%@BO:          994b53@%%@AE@% and bubonic %@AU@%PLAGUE%@BO:          76648a@%%@AE@%; other fleas transmit %@AU@%TAPEWORMS%@BO:          92d397@%%@AE@% to humans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fleche%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fleche%@AE@%:%@CR:FLECHE          @%%@QR:fleche@% see %@AU@%SPIRE%@BO:          8da2dd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flemalle, Master of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flemalle, Master of%@AE@%:%@CR:FLEMALLE        @%%@QR:Flemalle, Master of@% see %@AU@%CAMPIN, ROBERT%@BO:          17d382@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fleming, Sir Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fleming, Sir Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:FLEMING         @%%@QR:Fleming, Sir Alexander@% 1881-1955, Scottish bacteriologist. He discovered%@EH@%
%@AU@%PENICILLIN%@BO:          72cacf@%%@AE@% (1928) and lysozyme (1922), an antibacterial substance found
in body secretions. Professor of bacteriology at the Univ. of London, he
shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine with Ernst %@AU@%CHAIN%@BO:          1b3a2f@%%@AE@%
and Sir Howard %@AU@%FLOREY%@BO:          33ce07@%%@AE@% for work on penicillin. Fleming was knighted in
1944.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flemish language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flemish language%@AE@%,%@CR:FLEMISHE        @%%@QR:Flemish language@% member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic%@EH@%
subfamily of the %@AU@%INDO-EUROPEAN%@BO:          47c0fc@%%@AE@% family of languages. It is one of the
official languages of Belgium. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fletcher, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fletcher, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FLETCHER        @%%@QR:Fletcher, John@% 1579-1625, English dramatist, thought to have worked with%@EH@%
%@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@% on %@AI@%Two Noble Kinsmen%@AE@% and %@AI@%Henry VIII.%@AE@% His most important
collaboration was with Francis %@AU@%BEAUMONT%@BO:           d76ca@%%@AE@%. Their chief works-%@AI@%Philaster, A
%@AI@%Maid's Tragedy, A King and No King,%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Scornful Lady%@AE@%
(1607-13)-developed the romantic tragicomedy, to be popular through the
18th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fleury, Andre Hercule de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fleury, Andre Hercule de%@AE@%%@CR:FLEURY          @%%@QR:Fleury, Andre Hercule de@%, 1653-1743, French Roman Catholic cardinal,%@EH@%
chief minister of %@AU@%LOUIS XV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. As virtual ruler of France (1726-43), he
restored financial order. He strove for peace abroad, but was drawn into
the wars of the %@AU@%POLISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          7779cc@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flextime%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flextime%@AE@%,%@CR:FLEXTIME        @%%@QR:flextime@% the concept that employees must work within a traditionally%@EH@%
accepted time period or work the same hours. By allowing employees to
stagger hours or by changing from five eight-hour days to four-ten hour
days, traffic and commuting problems are eased, parents can adjust work
schedules to school schedules, and expensive office equipment, such as
computers, can be used more efficiently.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flight%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flight%@AE@%,%@CR:FLIGHT          @%%@QR:flight@% sustained, self-powered motion through the air, as accomplished%@EH@%
by an animal, aircraft, or rocket. Adaption for flight is highly
developed in birds and insects. Birds fly by means of semicircular
flapping strokes, the wings moving backward on the upstroke and forward
on the downstroke. That motion pushes air downward and to the rear,
creating a lift and forward thrust. Besides flapping, some birds also use
gliding and soaring techniques in flight. In gliding, a bird holds its
outstretched wings relatively still and relies on its momentum to keep it
aloft for short distances. In soaring, a bird uses rising warm air
currents to give it lift. %@AU@%AIRSHIPS%@BO:           26d33@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BALLOONS%@BO:           b8ced@%%@AE@% owe their ability to
ascend and remain aloft to their inflation with a gas lighter than air.
Aircraft, which are heavier than air, are able to remain aloft because of
forces developed by the movement of the craft through the air. The
development of %@AU@%JET PROPULSION%@BO:          4c0a6a@%%@AE@% makes high speeds possible, and the %@AU@%ROCKET%@BO:          7ff309@%%@AE@%
engine allows flight outside the earth's atmosphere and in interplanetary
space. See also %@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AIR NAVIGATION%@BO:           25e32@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AIRPLANE%@BO:           261f2@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GLIDER%@BO:          3aa7cb@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HANG
%@AU@%GLIDING%@BO:          3fb57c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HELICOPTER%@BO:          415940@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SPACE EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flight simulator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flight simulator%@AE@%,%@CR:FLIGHT.R        @%%@QR:flight simulator@% device providing a controlled environment in which a%@EH@%
flight trainee can experience conditions approximating those of actual
flight. The simulator, complete with a replica of an aircraft's cockpit,
simulates an aircraft's rolling, pitching, and yawing motions. A computer
coordinates the instrument readings, the student's control inputs, the
position of the simulator, information about the aircraft's
characteristics, and information about the terrain over which it is
supposed to be flying. Video displays simulate conditions outside the
cockpit. Recently, simulators have also been used to increase the
competence of experienced pilots with new aircraft and to expose them to
adverse weather conditions and equipment failure conditions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flinders Petrie, Sir William Matthew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flinders Petrie, Sir William Matthew%@AE@%:%@CR:FLINDERS.PETRIE @%%@QR:Flinders Petrie, Sir William Matthew@% see %@AU@%PETRIE%@BO:          7436c1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flinders Ranges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flinders Ranges%@AE@%,%@CR:FLINDERS.RANGES @%%@QR:Flinders Ranges@% mountain chain, %@AU@%SOUTH AUSTRALIA%@BO:          8bfd75@%%@AE@% state, Australia. They%@EH@%
extend 260 mi (418 km) between Lake Torrens and Lake Frome and reach a
high point of 3,900 ft (1,189 m) at St. Mary's Peak. Uranium and copper
are mined there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flint%@AE@%,%@CR:FLINT1          @%%@QR:Flint@% city (1986 est. pop. 145,590), seat of Genesee co., SE Mich.; inc.%@EH@%
1855. Established (1819) as a fur-trading post, it later became a site of
cart and carriage making. Since 1902 it has been an international
automobile-manufacturing center; many major auto makers, e.g., General
Motors, began there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flint%@AE@%:%@CR:FLINT2          @%%@QR:flint@% see %@AU@%CHERT%@BO:          1c9b08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Flood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Flood%@AE@%,%@CR:FLOOD           @%%@QR:Flood@% in the Bible: see %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Florence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Florence%@AE@%,%@CR:FLORENCE        @%%@QR:Florence@% Ital. %@AI@%Firenze,%@AE@% city (1986 pop. 425,835), capital of %@AU@%TUSCANY%@BO:          98fb9b@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
central Italy, on the Arno R. It is a commercial, industrial, and tourist
center known for fine handicrafts. Of Roman origin, it became prominent
after gaining autonomy in the 12th cent. It was a center of %@AU@%GUELPH AND
%@AU@%GHIBELLINE%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@% strife (13th cent.), but nonetheless grew in size and power
through war with other cities. Meanwhile, trade in silks, tapestries, and
jewelry brought great wealth. The %@AU@%MEDICI%@BO:          5e071c@%%@AE@% family dominated Florence from
the 15th to 18th cent., their rule interrupted by two revolutions
(1494-1512, led by %@AU@%SAVONAROLA%@BO:          850622@%%@AE@%; and 1527-30). The artistic and
intellectual life of the city flowered from the 14th to 16th cent., with
%@AU@%DANTE%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BOCCACCIO%@BO:          114347@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DONATELLO%@BO:          2a1044@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LEONARDO DA VINCI%@BO:          540317@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RAPHAEL%@BO:          7cbdba@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MICHELANGELO
%@AU@%%@BO:          5ffcb6@%%@AE@% among the many born or active there. Florence passed (1737) to the house
of Hapsburg-Lorraine, was annexed (1860) to Sardinia, and was the capital
of Italy (1865-71). Among its many glorious works of architecture are the
cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore; the nearby baptistry; the churches of
Santa Croce, Santa Maria Novella, and San Lorenzo; and the Pitti Palace,
Palazzo Vecchio, and %@AU@%UFFIZI%@BO:          995ed4@%%@AE@%, all of which house masterpieces of
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Florey, Howard Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Florey, Howard Walter%@AE@%%@CR:FLOREY          @%%@QR:Florey, Howard Walter@% (Baron Florey of Adelaide), 1898-1968, British%@EH@%
pathologist; b. Australia. For their work in purifying %@AU@%PENICILLIN%@BO:          72cacf@%%@AE@% and
demonstrating its effectiveness against harmful bacteria, he and Ernst
%@AU@%CHAIN%@BO:          1b3a2f@%%@AE@% shared with Alexander %@AU@%FLEMING%@BO:          33acf1@%%@AE@% the 1945 Nobel Prize in physiology or
medicine. He was professor of pathology at Oxford Univ. from 1935 to 1962
and was knighted in 1944.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Florida%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Florida%@AE@%,%@CR:FLORIDA         @%%@QR:Florida@% state in the extreme SE U.S. A long peninsula between the%@EH@%
Atlantic Ocean (E) and the Gulf of Mexico (W), Florida is bordered by
Georgia and Alabama (N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 58,560 sq mi (151,670 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 11,675,000, a 19.8%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Tallahassee. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Mar. 3, 1845
(27th state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% 345 ft (105 m), Walton co.; %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@% sea
level. %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Sunshine State. %@AI@%Motto,%@AE@% In God We Trust. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@%
mockingbird. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% orange blossom. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% Sabal palmetto
palm. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Fla.; FL.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% The highest elevations are found in the northwest, the
Florida Panhandle. Central Florida has rolling hills and abounds in
lakes, of which Lake %@AU@%OKEECHOBEE%@BO:          6d3a6d@%%@AE@% is the largest. The %@AU@%EVERGLADES%@BO:          30efb8@%%@AE@%, which
includes Big Cypress Swamp (both protected by the %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%
system;), is a unique wilderness area extending over much of S Florida.
The small islands of the %@AU@%FLORIDA KEYS%@BO:          33e241@%%@AE@% extend southwest from the end of
the mainland. The state is noted for its mild climate and abundant
sunshine. The extreme south of Florida and the state of Hawaii are the
only places in the U.S. with tropical climates. Florida has one of the
highest rates of population increase in the country-19.8% during
1980-86-partly because of the many retired persons who settled in the
state. It also has one of the largest Hispanic populations in the country
(almost 9% of the total population). In 1984 85% of the population was
white, 15% black and others. Almost 85% of the population lives in
metropolitan areas. %@AU@%MIAMI%@BO:          5fdfad@%%@AE@% is a leading international trade and financial
center; other important cities are %@AU@%JACKSONVILLE%@BO:          4ac1fc@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TAMPA%@BO:          928985@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SAINT PETERSBURG%@BO:          8356a5@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%FORT LAUDERDALE%@BO:          349c83@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Because of Florida's warm climate, extremely long coastline, and
many beaches, and such attractions as Walt Disney World and Epcot Center,
near %@AU@%ORLANDO%@BO:          6ee52e@%%@AE@%, tourism is the main source of income. Florida is one of the
country's leading agricultural states, producing citrus fruits, winter
vegetables, and cattle. Industry is dominated by agricultural processing
and the manufacturing of electrical equipment and chemicals. The state
leads the U.S. in phosphate production; petroleum and natural gas, and
sand and gravel are also extracted. The large fishing industry catches
mostly shellfish.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution (adopted 1968) provides for a governor
elected to a four-year term. The legislature is composed of a house of
120 members elected for two years and a senate of 40 members elected for
four years. Florida sends 19 representatives and 2 senators to the U.S
Congress and has 21 electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Seeking the fabled Fountain of Youth, the Spanish explorer %@AU@%PONCE
%@AU@%DE LEON%@BO:          7808e6@%%@AE@% became the first European to land (1513) in Florida. The first
permanent settlement, %@AU@%SAINT AUGUSTINE%@BO:          8302f3@%%@AE@%, was founded by the Spanish in 1565
and is the oldest city in the U.S. Subsequently, Spain and England fought
for control of the strategic peninsula. In 1819 Spain reluctantly ceded
Florida to the U.S. As settlers arrived, the increasingly displaced
%@AU@%SEMINOLE INDIANS%@BO:          86c607@%%@AE@% rebelled, but they were defeated in the Second Seminole
War (1835-42), and most were forcibly removed to Oklahoma. However, small
bands fled to the Everglades and Lake Okeechobee area, where they still
live on reservations. With the arrival (1880s) of railroads, Florida
experienced its first real-estate boom, followed by a second during the
1920s. After the Cuban Revolution (1958-59) a huge influx of Cubans fled
to Miami; another wave followed in 1980. The establishment (1947) of a
rocket-launching site at %@AU@%CAPE CANAVERAL%@BO:          186eef@%%@AE@% brought the aerospace industry to
Florida, making it one of the fastest-growing states in the %@AU@%SUN BELT%@BO:          90b135@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Florida Keys%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Florida Keys%@AE@%,%@CR:FLORIDA.KEYS    @%%@QR:Florida Keys@% chain of small islands and reefs extending into Florida Bay%@EH@%
c.150 mi (240 km) southwest from the southern shore of Florida. A motor
causeway traverses the keys, linking the mainland and the city of %@AU@%KEY
%@AU@%WEST%@BO:          4f45ad@%%@AE@% on the outermost island (Key West), which is c.90 mi (150 km) N of
Cuba, separated by the Straits of Florida. The largest of the Florida
Keys is Key Largo. Commercial fishing and tourism are the principal
industries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Florio, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Florio, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FLORIO          @%%@QR:Florio, John@% 1553?-1625, English author. He wrote on Italian grammar and%@EH@%
compiled an Italian-English dictionary, and is known for his translation
(1603) of %@AU@%MONTAIGNE'S%@BO:          631cba@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Essays%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flotation process%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flotation process%@AE@%,%@CR:FLOTATISS       @%%@QR:flotation process@% process for concentrating the metal-bearing mineral in%@EH@%
an %@AU@%ORE%@BO:          6e8cf3@%%@AE@%. Crude ore is ground to a fine powder and mixed with water and
reagents. When air is blown through the mixture, mineral particles cling
to the bubbles, which rise to form a froth on the surface. The froth is
skimmed off and the water and chemicals removed, leaving a clean
concentrate. Among the minerals effectively concentrated by this method
are sulfide and phosphate ores.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flounder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flounder%@AE@%:%@CR:FLOUNDER        @%%@QR:flounder@% see %@AU@%FLATFISH%@BO:          339794@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flower%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flower%@AE@%,%@CR:FLOWER          @%%@QR:flower@% specialized part of seed plants that contains reproductive%@EH@%
organs. The basic floral parts (sepal, petal, stamen, and pistil) are
modified leaves, typically arranged concentrically and attached at their
bases to the tip of the stem. The outermost, green sepals (the calyx)
encircle a whorl of usually showy, colored petals (the corolla), within
which %@AU@%POLLEN%@BO:          7795b8@%%@AE@%-bearing stamens surround a central ovary-bearing pistil.
After fertilization, each ovule (the part that contains the egg) in the
ovary becomes a %@AU@%SEED%@BO:          868ba1@%%@AE@%, and the ovary becomes the %@AU@%FRUIT%@BO:          369f0d@%%@AE@%. The number and
arrangement of floral parts varies greatly among groups of plants and are
important bases for classification. In general, the higher a plant is on
the evolutionary scale, the greater the flower's complexity and
efficiency for reproduction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Floyd, Carlisle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Floyd, Carlisle%@AE@%,%@CR:FLOYD           @%%@QR:Floyd, Carlisle@% 1926-, American composer; b. Latta, S.C. He is known for%@EH@%
his folk opera %@AI@%Susannah.%@AE@% Other operas, written in a conservative style,
include %@AI@%Wuthering Heights%@AE@% (1958), %@AI@%Of Mice and Men%@AE@% (1970), and %@AI@%Bilby's
%@AI@%Doll%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fluid mechanics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fluid mechanics%@AE@%,%@CR:FLUID.MECHANICS @%%@QR:fluid mechanics@% branch of %@AU@%MECHANICS%@BO:          5decb3@%%@AE@% dealing with the properties and%@EH@%
behavior of fluids, or substances that flow, i.e., liquids and gases. The
larger part of the field is fluid dynamics (study of fluids in motion),
which itself is divided into hydrodynamics (study of liquids in motion)
and %@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@% (study of gases in motion).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fluke%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fluke%@AE@%,%@CR:FLUKE           @%%@QR:fluke@% %@AU@%FLATWORM%@BO:          339de8@%%@AE@% of the class Trematoda. Flukes, which are related to the%@EH@%
%@AU@%TAPEWORM%@BO:          92d397@%%@AE@%, are internal and external parasites that cause many diseases.
Adults cling to their hosts with sucking disks and bear an external
cuticle resistant to digestion by the host. Some species of %@AU@%FLATFISH%@BO:          339794@%%@AE@% are
also called flukes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fluorescence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fluorescence%@AE@%,%@CR:FLUORESCENCE    @%%@QR:fluorescence@% %@AU@%LUMINESCENCE%@BO:          57d28d@%%@AE@% in which light of a visible color is emitted%@EH@%
from certain substances, called phosphors, when irradiated by
electromagnetic radiation, especially ultraviolet light. Unlike
%@AU@%PHOSPHORESCENCE%@BO:          750689@%%@AE@%, the light is emitted only while the stimulation
continues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fluoridation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fluoridation%@AE@%,%@CR:FLUORIDATION    @%%@QR:fluoridation@% process of adding a fluoride to a community water supply to%@EH@%
preserve the %@AU@%TEETH%@BO:          9364f3@%%@AE@% of the inhabitants. Tooth enamel ordinarily contains
small amounts of fluorides, which, when augmented with fluoridated water,
can greatly reduce tooth decay in children. While studies have proved
fluoridation safe at levels of one part per million, opponents assert
that such action constitutes compulsory medication and that those wanting
fluoride can use it individually.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fluorine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fluorine%@AE@%%@CR:FLUORINE        @%%@QR:fluorine@% (F), gaseous element, first prepared in 1886 by Henri Moissan.%@EH@%
Fluorine is a yellowish, poisonous, highly corrosive %@AU@%HALOGEN%@BO:          3f5f77@%%@AE@% gas. It is
the most chemically active nonmetallic element and the most
electronegative of all the elements. %@AU@%FLUORITE%@BO:          33faa6@%%@AE@% is its chief commercial
source. The addition of one part per million of soluble fluorides to
public water supplies reduces tooth decay. Fluorine compounds are used in
ceramic and glass manufacturing, in refrigeration and air-conditioning
systems, and as aerosol propellants. Teflon is an inert, heat-resistant
fluorocarbon. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fluorite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fluorite%@AE@%%@CR:FLUORITE        @%%@QR:fluorite@% or %@AB@%fluorspar,%@AE@%calcium fluoride mineral (CaF%@AH@%2%@AE@%), occurring in%@EH@%
various colors in crystal, granular, and massive forms. Its crystals
sometimes exhibit fluorescence. Found mainly in England, Germany, Mexico,
Kentucky, and Illinois, fluorite is used as a flux in metallurgy, in
preparing hydrofluoric acid, and in making opal glass and enamel. Some
colorless crystals are used to make lenses and prisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flute%@AE@%:%@CR:FLUTE           @%%@QR:flute@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fly%@AE@%,%@CR:FLY             @%%@QR:fly@% name for a variety of winged %@AU@%INSECTS%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@%, but properly restricted to%@EH@%
members of the order Diptera. True flies have sucking and piercing
mouthparts and, in most species, one pair of wings. All flies undergo
complete %@AU@%METAMORPHOSIS%@BO:          5f404f@%%@AE@%. Most are harmful as disease carriers or crop
destroyers. The order includes the %@AU@%FRUIT FLY%@BO:          36a4a0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GNAT%@BO:          3ac816@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MOSQUITO%@BO:          6439d4@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TSETSE
%@AU@%FLY%@BO:          9849ad@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flying buttress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flying buttress%@AE@%:%@CR:FLYING.BUTTRESS @%%@QR:flying buttress@% see %@AU@%BUTTRESS%@BO:          162eec@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flying fish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flying fish%@AE@%,%@CR:FLYING.FISH     @%%@QR:flying fish@% torpedo-shaped %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% (family Exocoetidae) of warm seas with%@EH@%
well-developed pectoral fins that can be held rigid and used to glide
short distances over the water. Specially adapted tail fins, vibrated in
taxiing along the water surface to gain momentum, and (in some species)
enlarged pelvic fins also help in "flight." The largest species is the
18-in. (45-cm) California flying fish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flying saucer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flying saucer%@AE@%:%@CR:FLYING.SAUCER   @%%@QR:flying saucer@% see %@AU@%UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECT%@BO:          99b6dc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%flying squirrel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%flying squirrel%@AE@%,%@CR:FLYING.SQUIRREL @%%@QR:flying squirrel@% nocturnal %@AU@%SQUIRREL%@BO:          8decea@%%@AE@% adapted for gliding; flying squirrels%@EH@%
do not actually fly. Most are found in Asia, but there are two North
American species (genus %@AI@%Glaucomys%@AE@%), which together are found in forests
over much of the continent. The gliding mechanism is a fold of skin
extending along each side of the body. When the animal extends its limbs
in leaping, the flaps stretch out taut like a parachute.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fm%@AE@%,%@CR:FM1             @%%@QR:Fm@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%FERMIUM%@BO:          32ac35@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%FM%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%FM%@AE@%:%@CR:FM2             @%%@QR:FM@% see %@AU@%MODULATION%@BO:          621997@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fo, Dario%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fo, Dario%@AE@%,%@CR:FO              @%%@QR:Fo, Dario@% 1926-, Italian playwright, actor, director, and songwriter. Fo%@EH@%
developed a form of satirical farce influenced by Berthold %@AU@%BRECHT%@BO:          139be0@%%@AE@% and
Antonio %@AU@%GRAMSCI%@BO:          3c20bb@%%@AE@% that is less formal than traditional %@AU@%COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE%@BO:          20f700@%%@AE@%.
In 1968, Fo and his wife, actress Franca Rame, began presenting plays on
contemporary issues; the most famous is %@AI@%Accidental Death of an Anarchist%@AE@%
(1970).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foam%@AE@%:%@CR:FOAM            @%%@QR:foam@% see %@AU@%COLLOID%@BO:          205ebf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foch, Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foch, Ferdinand%@AE@%%@CR:FOCH            @%%@QR:Foch, Ferdinand@%, 1851-1929, marshal of France. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% he halted%@EH@%
the German advance at the Marne (1914) and fought at Ypres (1915) and the
Somme (1916). In 1917 he became chief of the French general staff, and in
Apr. 1918 he assumed the unified command of the British, French, and U.S.
armies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fog%@AE@%,%@CR:FOG             @%%@QR:fog@% aggregation of water droplets just above the earth's surface, i.e.,%@EH@%
a cloud near the ground. A light or thin fog is usually called a mist.
Fog may occur either when the moisture content of the air is increased
beyond the saturation point or when the air is cooled below the %@AU@%DEW%@BO:          28790a@%%@AE@%
point. In either case, excess moisture condenses on microscopic dust
particles (condensation nuclei) in the atmosphere.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fokine, Michel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fokine, Michel%@AE@%%@CR:FOKINE          @%%@QR:Fokine, Michel@% (meshel' foken', Rus. fo'kyin), 1880-1942,%@EH@%
Russian-American choreographer and ballet dancer; b. St. Petersburg. He
choreographed for %@AU@%NIJINSKY%@BO:          6a2c74@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PAVLOVA%@BO:          724642@%%@AE@% in Russia and for %@AU@%DIAGHILEV%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@% in
Paris. He is considered the founder of modern ballet. His works include
%@AI@%Les Sylphides%@AE@% (1909), %@AI@%The Firebird%@AE@% (1910), and %@AI@%Petrouchka%@AE@% (1911).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fokker, Anton Herman Gerard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fokker, Anton Herman Gerard%@AE@%%@CR:FOKKER          @%%@QR:Fokker, Anton Herman Gerard@%, 1890-1939, German-American aircraft%@EH@%
manufacturer; b. Java. His factories in Germany produced triplanes and
biplanes used in World War I; he also invented an apparatus allowing
machine-gun bullets to be fired through a rotating propeller without
intercepting the blades. He later turned to developing commercial
aircraft and came to the U.S. in 1922.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fold%@AE@%,%@CR:FOLD            @%%@QR:fold@% in geology, bent or deformed arrangement of stratified rocks.%@EH@%
Arches, or upfolds, are known as anticlines; depressions, or downfolds,
are called synclines. An imaginary line drawn along the crest of an
anticline or the trough of a syncline is its axis; the two sides curving
away from the axis are the limbs. The complex causes of folding involve
large-scale crustal movements (see %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Folger, Henry Clay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Folger, Henry Clay%@AE@%,%@CR:FOLGER          @%%@QR:Folger, Henry Clay@% 1857-1930, American industrialist and collector of%@EH@%
Shakespeareana. With the help of his wife, %@AB@%Emily Jordan Folger,%@AE@%
1858-1936, he acquired one of the largest and most valuable collections
of its sort in the world. They endowed the Folger Shakespeare Library
(see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%,).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Folger Shakespeare Library%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Folger Shakespeare Library%@AE@%:%@CR:FOLGER.ARY      @%%@QR:Folger Shakespeare Library@% see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%folk art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%folk art%@AE@%,%@CR:FOLK.ART        @%%@QR:folk art@% art works of a culturally homogeneous people made by artists%@EH@%
without formal training. Generally nationalistic in character, it often
involves craft processes, e.g., in America, %@AU@%QUILTING%@BO:          7bce5c@%%@AE@% and sculpture of
%@AU@%FIGUREHEADS%@BO:          3320d4@%%@AE@% and cigar-store figures. Paintings in the tradition of
%@AU@%PRIMITIVISM%@BO:          798a7d@%%@AE@% are also in the folk idiom. Much folk art has a rough-hewn,
awkward quality often admired and imitated by sophisticated artists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%folk dance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%folk dance%@AE@%,%@CR:FOLK.DANCE      @%%@QR:folk dance@% primitive, tribal, or ethnic form of the dance, sometimes the%@EH@%
survival of an ancient ceremony or festival. The term includes
characteristic national dances, country dances, and figure dances in
costume. Examples include children's games such as "The Farmer in the
Dell" as well as the Spanish fandango, the Bohemian polka, the Irish jig,
and the American Virginia reel. The English musician Cecil James Sharp
made a notable collection of English folk songs and dances, and the
American Folk Dance Society has preserved American country dances.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%folklore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%folklore%@AE@%,%@CR:FOLKLORE        @%%@QR:folklore@% body of customs, legends, beliefs, and superstitions passed on%@EH@%
by oral tradition, including folk tales, dances, songs, and medicine. The
study of folklore became significant in the 19th cent. as a result of the
rise of European %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% and nationalism. Today most anthropologists
see the many manifestations of folklore as imaginative expressions by a
people of its desires, attitudes, and cultural values and regard folk
heroes (e.g., Paul %@AU@%BUNYAN%@BO:          158e7c@%%@AE@% in the U.S. and %@AU@%ROBIN HOOD%@BO:          7fbcd8@%%@AE@% in England) as
reflections of the civilizations from which they sprang.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%folk song%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%folk song%@AE@%,%@CR:FOLK.SONG       @%%@QR:folk song@% music of anonymous composition, transmitted orally. The germ%@EH@%
of a folk song is assumed to be produced by an individual and altered in
transmission as a group expression. National and ethnic individuality is
seen in folk music, but little is wholly indigenous. That of the U.S.
reveals transplanted European and African sources. Interest in folk music
grew in the 19th cent., although earlier scholars had worked in the
field. Bela %@AU@%BARTOK%@BO:           ca44f@%%@AE@% made great contributions in notating the folk music of
central Europe. The phonograph and tape recorder facilitated
transcription and collection of folk song. The music often shows the
influence of formal composition, and songs of traceable authorship, e.g.,
"Dixie," are often considered folk songs. Since the 1950s folk music has
been a significant influence and source for much popular vocal and
instrumental music. Singers like Woody %@AU@%GUTHRIE%@BO:          3eb751@%%@AE@% and Joan %@AU@%BAEZ%@BO:           af610@%%@AE@% have
performed folk songs and their own compositions in the idiom. Types of
folk song include the work songs found in all cultures, e.g., sea
%@AU@%CHANTEYS%@BO:          1b9086@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SPIRITUALS%@BO:          8da8cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fonda, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fonda, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:FONDA1          @%%@QR:Fonda, Henry@% 1905-82, American actor; b. Grand Island, Nebr. Among his%@EH@%
films are %@AI@%Young Mr. Lincoln%@AE@% (1939), %@AI@%The Grapes of Wrath%@AE@% (1940), %@AI@%Mr.
%@AI@%Roberts%@AE@% (1955), and %@AI@%On Golden Pond%@AE@% (1981; Academy Award).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fonda, Jane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fonda, Jane%@AE@%,%@CR:FONDA2          @%%@QR:Fonda, Jane@% 1937-, b. N.Y.C., The daughter of Henry %@AU@%FONDA%@BO:          3425c6@%%@AE@%, she has%@EH@%
starred in such films as %@AI@%Klute%@AE@% (1971; Academy Award), %@AI@%Julia%@AE@% (1977), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%China Syndrome%@AE@% (1979), and %@AI@%On Golden Pond%@AE@% (1981). She is also known for
her radical politics and for her exercise and weight loss books and
videos.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fongafale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fongafale%@AE@%,%@CR:FONGAFALE       @%%@QR:Fongafale@% town (1973 est. pop. 871), capital of %@AU@%TUVALU%@BO:          990c57@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fontaine, Pierre Francois Leonard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fontaine, Pierre Francois Leonard%@AE@%%@CR:FONTAINE        @%%@QR:Fontaine, Pierre Francois Leonard@%, 1762-1853, French architect. Working%@EH@%
from 1794 with Charles %@AU@%PERCIER%@BO:          732c75@%%@AE@%, he was a developer of the Empire style in
France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fontainebleau, school of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fontainebleau, school of%@AE@%,%@CR:FONTAINEBLEAU   @%%@QR:Fontainebleau, school of@% group of 16th-cent. artists who decorated the%@EH@%
royal palace at Fontainebleau, in France. Chief in importance were Il
%@AU@%ROSSO%@BO:          81544f@%%@AE@%, Francesco %@AU@%PRIMATICCIO%@BO:          7981bf@%%@AE@%, and Sabastiano Serlio. An Italian
development of %@AU@%MANNERISM%@BO:          5b052e@%%@AE@%, the style of the Fountainebleau school was
refined to the point of artificiality. Its subjects were allegorical and
symbolic in keeping with the tastes of %@AU@%FRANCIS I'S%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@% court.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fontana, Domenico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fontana, Domenico%@AE@%,%@CR:FONTANA         @%%@QR:Fontana, Domenico@% 1543-1607, Italian architect. In Rome he designed%@EH@%
(1588) the %@AU@%LATERAN%@BO:          52973a@%%@AE@% palace and the Vatican library. His other work
included the fountain Acqua Felice (1587), the erection of an Egyptian
obelisk before St. Peter's (1586), and the royal palace, Naples (1600).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fontane, Theodor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fontane, Theodor%@AE@%%@CR:FONTANE         @%%@QR:Fontane, Theodor@%, 1819-98, German writer. He is best known for his%@EH@%
ballads and his masterful, realistic novels about the decay of
contemporary Berlin. They include %@AI@%L'Adultera%@AE@% (1882), %@AI@%Trials and
%@AI@%Tribulations%@AE@% (1888), and %@AI@%Effi Briest%@AE@% (1895), his masterpiece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fontanne, Lynn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fontanne, Lynn%@AE@%:%@CR:FONTANNE        @%%@QR:Fontanne, Lynn@% see %@AU@%LUNT, ALFRED, AND LYNN FONTANNE%@BO:          57e61d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fonteyn, Dame Margot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fonteyn, Dame Margot%@AE@%%@CR:FONTEYN         @%%@QR:Fonteyn, Dame Margot@% (fontan'), 1919-, English ballerina, b. Margaret%@EH@%
Hookham. She studied in London and was %@AI@%prima ballerina assoluta%@AE@% of the
%@AU@%ROYAL BALLET%@BO:          819066@%%@AE@%. Her performances in %@AI@%Sleeping Beauty%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Firebird%@AE@% were
superb. Her partnership (after 1962) with Russian dancer Rudolf %@AU@%NUREYEV%@BO:          6c57cd@%%@AE@%
brought her new recognition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foochow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foochow%@AE@%:%@CR:FOOCHOW         @%%@QR:Foochow@% see %@AU@%FUZHOU%@BO:          3711bf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Food and Agricultural Organization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Food and Agricultural Organization%@AE@%:%@CR:FOOD.ANRGANIZA  @%%@QR:Food and Agricultural Organization@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Food and Drug Administration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Food and Drug Administration%@AE@%%@CR:FOOD.ANATION    @%%@QR:Food and Drug Administration@% (FDA), agency in the Public Health Service%@EH@%
division of the U.S. Dept. of %@AU@%HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES%@BO:          40d85f@%%@AE@%. Established in
1928, it is charged with protecting public health by ensuring that foods
are safe and pure, cosmetics and other chemical substances harmless, and
products safe, effective, and honestly labeled. All new medicinal drugs
must be licensed for use by the FDA.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%food chain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%food chain%@AE@%:%@CR:FOOD.CHAIN      @%%@QR:food chain@% see %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%food preservation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%food preservation%@AE@%.%@CR:FOOD.PRON       @%%@QR:food preservation@% Because most foods remain edible for only a limited%@EH@%
time, food preservation has been practiced since the remotest times.
Early products of conservation were cheese, butter, wine, bacon,
pemmican, raisins, and parched grains. Advances in the methods used came
with scientific investigations of the microorganisms that cause food
spoilage, especially in the work of Louis %@AU@%PASTEUR%@BO:          71ec94@%%@AE@%. Basic methods of
modern food preservation include dehydration, freeze-drying, heating
(e.g., %@AU@%CANNING%@BO:          1836be@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PASTEURIZATION%@BO:          71efb3@%%@AE@%), refrigeration (both freezing and
chilling), hermetic sealing to remove air, and atomic radiation to
destroy microorganisms. Such preserving agents as salt, vinegar, sugar,
smoke, and alcohol are also used, often in combination. Other common
preservatives are chemical agents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fool's gold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fool's gold%@AE@%:%@CR:FOOLS.GOLD      @%%@QR:fool's gold@% see %@AU@%PYRITE%@BO:          7b5b69@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foot, Michael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foot, Michael%@AE@%,%@CR:FOOT            @%%@QR:Foot, Michael@% 1913-, British politician. He entered Parliament in 1945%@EH@%
and became a spokesman for the Labour party's radical left wing. Editor
of the party organ, the %@AI@%Tribune,%@AE@% he served as secretary of state for
employment (1974-75) and Speaker of the House of Commons (1976-79). He
succeeded James %@AU@%CALLAGHAN%@BO:          174d70@%%@AE@% as Labour party leader (1980- 83) and tried to
maintain the party's traditional policies in the face of the opposition
of more conservative members, who broke away and formed the %@AU@%SOCIAL
%@AU@%DEMOCRATIC PARTY%@BO:          8abfe8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foot-and-mouth disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foot-and-mouth disease%@AE@%:%@CR:FOOTANDSEASE    @%%@QR:foot-and-mouth disease@% see %@AU@%HOOF-AND-MOUTH DISEASE%@BO:          443203@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%football%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%football%@AE@%,%@CR:FOOTBALL        @%%@QR:football@% any of several games in which two opposing teams attempt to%@EH@%
score points by moving an inflated ball past a goal line or into a goal
area. The games, differing greatly in their rules, include %@AU@%SOCCER%@BO:          8ab1b2@%%@AE@%
(association football) and %@AU@%RUGBY%@BO:          81cf45@%%@AE@%, English games from which %@AB@%American
%@AB@%football%@AE@% developed. The American game is played by two teams of 11 men
each on a field that measures 100 by 53 1/3 yd (91.4 by 48.8 m). At each
end of the field is an end zone 10 yd (9.14 m) deep, in which stand
H-shaped goal posts. Play is directed toward gaining possession of the
football and moving it (by running or passing) across the opponent's goal
line, thereby scoring a touchdown, worth six points. Points are also
scored by kicking the ball over the crossbar between the goal posts (a
field goal, worth three points); downing a man with the ball behind his
own goal line (a safety, worth two points); and a conversion following a
touchdown. In professional ball, the conversion is made by kicking the
ball over the goal posts (one point); in college and high school ball,
the conversion is by a kick (one point) or by a pass or run (two points).
The offensive team, led by the quarterback, must gain 10 yd in four tries
(downs) or yield possession of the ball. The defending team tries to stop
the ball carrier from advancing by tackling him. Blocking and tackling
make football one of the most rugged of sports, and players must wear
heavy protective gear. The first intercollegiate football match in
America (more like a 50-man soccer game) was played (1869) between
Princeton and Rutgers at New Brunswick, N.J. Harvard began to play a
rugby-type game in the 1870s, and within the next decade the distinctive
American version evolved. A professional football association was formed
in 1920 and renamed the National Football League (NFL) in 1922. Buoyed by
the tremendous popularity of professional football after World War II,
the NFL absorbed two rival leagues (1949 and 1966) and grew to 28 teams
in two conferences by the early 1980s. The annual Super Bowl game for the
league championship has been a major sports spectacle since its
introduction in January 1967. %@AB@%Canadian football%@AE@% is similar to the U.S.
game except that the field and the end zone are larger, measuring 110 by
65 yd (100 by 59 m) and 25 yd (23 m) deep, respectively; a team consists
of 12 players; and only three downs are allowed. The Canadian Football
League (CFL), formed in 1959, is the major professional circuit. %@AB@%Gaelic
%@AB@%football,%@AE@% played primarily in Ireland, is perhaps the roughest of the
football-type games. The object is to punch, dribble (bounce), or kick
the ball into (3 points) or directly over (1 point) the rectangular
goal-net. A team is made up of 15 men. %@AB@%Australian football%@AE@% is played on a
large oval field. Each team of 18 players attempts to kick the egg-shaped
ball past a set of goal posts. The ball may be advanced by punches,
kicks, or dribbles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foot-pound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foot-pound%@AE@%:%@CR:FOOTPOUND       @%%@QR:foot-pound@% see %@AU@%TORQUE%@BO:          96b880@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WORK%@BO:          a320e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Forbidden City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Forbidden City%@AE@%:%@CR:FORBIDDEN.CITY  @%%@QR:Forbidden City@% see %@AU@%CHINESE ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          1d5d9b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PEKING%@BO:          729d04@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%force%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%force%@AE@%,%@CR:FORCE           @%%@QR:force@% in physics, a quantity that produces a change in the size or shape%@EH@%
(see %@AU@%STRENGTH OF MATERIALS%@BO:          8fab12@%%@AE@%) or the %@AU@%MOTION%@BO:          64539b@%%@AE@% of a body. Commonly experienced
as a "push" or "pull," force is a vector quantity, having both magnitude
and direction. Four basic types of force are known in nature. The
gravitational force (see %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%) and the electromagnetic force (see
%@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MAGNETISM%@BO:          59882f@%%@AE@%) both have an infinite range. The strong nuclear
force, or strong interaction, is a short-range force holding the atomic
nucleus together, and the weak nuclear force, or weak interaction, is a
short-range force associated with radioactivity and particle decay. In
the %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@% forces are measured in such units as the dyne (cgs
system) and the newton (mks system), which cause accelerations of,
respectively, 1 cm/sec%@AH@%2%@AE@% on a 1-gram mass and 1 m/sec%@AH@%2%@AE@% on a 1-kg mass. In
%@AU@%ENGLISH UNITS OF MEASUREMENT%@BO:          2f136f@%%@AE@% the %@AU@%POUND%@BO:          78cb3a@%%@AE@% (lb) is used. A 1-lb force equals
444,823 dynes; 1 dyne equals 10%@AH@%-5%@AE@% newtons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%force bill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%force bill%@AE@%,%@CR:FORCE.BILL      @%%@QR:force bill@% name of several laws in U.S. history, notably the act of Mar.%@EH@%
2, 1833, and the Reconstruction acts of 1870-71. The first force bill was
passed in response to South Carolina's ordinance of %@AU@%NULLIFICATION%@BO:          6c33c2@%%@AE@%. It
empowered Pres. %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% to use the military, if necessary, to enforce the
laws of Congress, specifically the tariff measures at issue. The second
set of force bills strengthened the %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% program of the radical
Republicans by imposing strict penalties on those who tried to obstruct
it. The act of May 31, 1870, penalized anyone who tried to prevent
qualified citizens (in this case blacks) from voting, and placed
congressional elections under exclusive federal control. The act of Apr.
20, 1871, inspired by the %@AU@%KU KLUX KLAN%@BO:          50fe64@%%@AE@%, declared acts by armed
combinations tantamount to rebellion and empowered the president to
suspend habeas corpus in lawless areas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ford, Edsel Bryant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ford, Edsel Bryant%@AE@%:%@CR:FORD1           @%%@QR:Ford, Edsel Bryant@% see under %@AU@%FORD, HENRY%@BO:          3461fa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ford, Ford Madox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ford, Ford Madox%@AE@%,%@CR:FORD2           @%%@QR:Ford, Ford Madox@% 1873-1939, English author; b. Ford Madox Hueffer. He%@EH@%
wrote over 60 works, including novels, poems, criticism, travel essays,
and reminiscences, and edited the %@AI@%English Review%@AE@% (1908-11) and
%@AI@%Transatlantic Review%@AE@% (1924). His most important novels are %@AI@%The Good
%@AI@%Soldier%@AE@% (1915) and a tetralogy published together as %@AI@%Parade's End%@AE@% (1950).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ford, Gerald Rudolph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ford, Gerald Rudolph%@AE@%,%@CR:FORD3           @%%@QR:Ford, Gerald Rudolph@% 1913-, 38th president of the U.S. (1974-77); b.%@EH@%
Omaha, Nebr., as Leslie Lynch King, Jr. (he later took the name of his
stepfather). A Republican congressman from Michigan (1949-73), he served
(1965-73) as Republican minority leader in the House and was (1968, 1972)
permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention. In 1973 Ford
became the first appointed vice president of the U.S. (see %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@%)
when he succeeded Spiro T. %@AU@%AGNEW%@BO:           20f3a@%%@AE@%. When Nixon resigned (Aug. 9, 1974)
amidst the %@AU@%WATERGATE AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@%, Ford became president; one month later he
issued a pardon to Nixon. As president, Ford continued Nixon's foreign
policy and advocated anti-inflationary measures and limited social
spending at home. A presidential candidate in 1976, he lost the election
to Democrat Jimmy %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@%. His defeat was attributed to an economic
recession and high inflation, and to his pardon of Nixon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ford, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ford, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:FORD4           @%%@QR:Ford, Henry@% 1863-1947, American industrialist, pioneer automobile%@EH@%
manufacturer; b. Dearborn, Mich. While working as a machinist and
engineer with the Edison Co., in his spare time he built (1892) his first
automobile. In 1903 he organized the Ford Motor Co. By cutting production
costs, controlling raw materials and distribution, adapting the assembly
line to automobiles, and featuring an inexpensive, standardized car, Ford
became the largest automobile producer in the world. In 1908 he designed
the Model T; over 15 million cars were sold before the model was
discontinued (1928), and a new design, the Model A, was created to meet
growing competition. In 1914 Ford created a sensation by paying his
workers five dollars for an eight-hour day, considerably above the
average, and by beginning a profit-sharing plan that would distribute up
to $30 million annually among his employees. He stubbornly resisted union
organization until 1941. He retired in 1945. His numerous philanthropies
included the %@AU@%FORD FOUNDATION%@BO:          346b31@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AB@%Edsel Bryant Ford,%@AE@% 1893-1943, was
president of the company from 1919 until his death. Henry's grandson,
%@AB@%Henry Ford II,%@AE@% 1917-1987, who became president in 1945 and chairman in
1960, modernized the firm, and, for the first time in company history,
recruited outsiders for high positions. He retired in 1980.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ford, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ford, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FORD5           @%%@QR:Ford, John@% 1586-c.1640, English dramatist. The most important playwright%@EH@%
during the reign of Charles I, he wrote (1627-33) three major tragedies:
%@AI@%'Tis Pity She's a Whore, The Broken Heart,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Love's Sacrifice.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ford, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ford, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FORD6           @%%@QR:Ford, John@% 1895-1973, American film director; b. Cape Elizabeth, Me. He%@EH@%
won Academy Awards for %@AI@%The Informer%@AE@% (1935), %@AI@%The Grapes of Wrath%@AE@% (1940),
%@AI@%How Green Was My Valley%@AE@% (1941), and %@AI@%The Quiet Man%@AE@% (1952). His many
Westerns include %@AI@%Rio Grande%@AE@% (1950) and %@AI@%The Searchers%@AE@% (1956).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ford Foundation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ford Foundation%@AE@%:%@CR:FORD.FOUNDATION @%%@QR:Ford Foundation@% see %@AU@%FOUNDATION%@BO:          34c586@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foreign aid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foreign aid%@AE@%,%@CR:FOREIGN.AID     @%%@QR:foreign aid@% economic, military, technical, and financial assistance,%@EH@%
usually rendered at the intergovernmental level but also given through
international organizations. U.S. efforts include the %@AU@%LEND LEASE%@BO:          53c137@%%@AE@% program
to the Allies during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%MARSHALL PLAN%@BO:          5c2681@%%@AE@% (1948-51), which
distributed more than $12 billion to help reconstruct postwar Europe.
During the 1950s the U.S. entered into a series of military alliances
around the world and began providing large amounts of military aid.
Through various food programs, it also distributed agricultural surpluses
to %@AU@%THIRD WORLD%@BO:          9504ff@%%@AE@% nations. The principal U.S. capital-lending agencies are
the %@AU@%AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT%@BO:           204ba@%%@AE@% and the export-import bank. Many
nations in Europe and some in the Middle East and Far East also have
significant aid programs. International agencies such as the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (or World Bank) and
the International Monetary Fund provide capital, and a number of UN
agencies render development assistance (see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foreign exchange%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foreign exchange%@AE@%,%@CR:FOREIGNE        @%%@QR:foreign exchange@% methods and instruments used to adjust the payment of%@EH@%
debts between two nations that employ different currency systems. A
nation's %@AU@%BALANCE OF PAYMENTS%@BO:           b3669@%%@AE@% has an important effect on the exchange rate
of its currency. The rate of exchange is the price in local currency of
one unit of foreign currency and is determined by the relative supply and
demand of the currencies in the foreign exchange market. The chief demand
for foreign exchange comes from importers and exporters, purchasers of
foreign securities, government agencies, and international corporations.
Exchange rates were traditionally fixed under the gold standard and,
later, by international agreements, but in 1973 the major industrial
nations of the West adopted a system of "floating" rates that allows for
fluctuation within a limited range. See also %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL MONETARY
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          48fb21@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foreign Legion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foreign Legion%@AE@%,%@CR:FOREIGN.LEGION  @%%@QR:Foreign Legion@% French volunteer armed force composed chiefly, in its%@EH@%
enlisted ranks, of foreigners. Its international composition and practice
of not inquiring into enlistees' backgrounds surrounded it with an aura
of romance. Created by King %@AU@%LOUIS PHILIPPE%@BO:          575921@%%@AE@% (1831) to pacify Algeria, it
was used throughout the French colonial empire and during both world
wars. Today there are c.8,000 members stationed in metropolitan France,
its overseas departments, and the Republic of Djibouti.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foreign Ministers, Council of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foreign Ministers, Council of%@AE@%,%@CR:FOREIGNRS       @%%@QR:Foreign Ministers, Council of@% organization of the foreign ministers of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Allies-the U.S., Great Britain, France, and the
USSR-that in a long series of meetings (1945-72) attempted to reach
political settlements after the war. At the third meeting (New York City,
1946) final peace treaties with Italy, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, and
Finland were drafted, and the %@AU@%TRIESTE%@BO:          97c3c7@%%@AE@% problem was resolved. At the next
two meetings (Moscow, London, both 1947), unsuccessful attempts were made
to reach agreement on Germany and Austria. German unification was again
the subject at meetings in Paris (1949) and Berlin (1954). In 1954, in
Geneva, the council called for a conference on the %@AU@%KOREAN WAR%@BO:          50a0f9@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%GENEVA
%@AU@%CONFERENCE 1%@BO:          38bf43@%%@AE@%). In 1955, in Vienna, an Austrian treaty was agreed upon. In
1959 the conference again met in Geneva to consider German unification;
but after failing to agree, the conference recessed for an indefinite
period. In 1972, however, the foreign ministers regularized %@AU@%BERLIN'S%@BO:           eda75@%%@AE@%
status and paved the way for both East and West Germany to enter the %@AU@%UN%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Forester, C(ecil) S(cott)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Forester, C(ecil) S(cott)%@AE@%,%@CR:FORESTER        @%%@QR:Forester, C(ecil) S(cott)@% 1899-1966, English novelist. He is best known%@EH@%
for stories of the royal navy in the days of sail, especially for those
centering on Capt. Horatio Hornblower. Forester also wrote %@AI@%The African
%@AI@%Queen%@AE@% (1935).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%forestry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%forestry%@AE@%,%@CR:FORESTRY        @%%@QR:forestry@% the management of forests for %@AU@%WOOD%@BO:          a2e197@%%@AE@%, water, wildlife, forage,%@EH@%
and recreation. Due to wood's economic importance, forestry has been
chiefly concerned with timber management, especially reforestation,
maintenance of extant forests, and fire control. The U.S. Forest Service
manages the National Forest System (federally owned forest reserves),
emphasizing sustained yield (achieved by balancing reforestation and
logging) and multiple use.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%forgery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%forgery%@AE@%,%@CR:FORGERY         @%%@QR:forgery@% in law, fabrication or alteration of a written document with%@EH@%
intent to deceive or defraud. Most instances of forgery occur in
connection with instruments for payment of money, such as checks, but the
crime may also involve documents of title (e.g., deeds) or public
documents (e.g., birth and marriage certificates). Counterfeiting (the
manufacture of false money with intent to deceive) may be regarded as a
special variety of forgery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%forging%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%forging%@AE@%:%@CR:FORGING         @%%@QR:forging@% see %@AU@%WELDING%@BO:          a05ec1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%formaldehyde%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%formaldehyde%@AE@%%@CR:FORMALDEHYDE    @%%@QR:formaldehyde@% or %@AB@%methanal%@AE@%(HCHO), a colorless, flammable, poisonous gas%@EH@%
with a suffocating odor. Pure gaseous formaldehyde is uncommon, because
it readily polymerizes into solid paraformaldehyde. Formalin, a 40% by
volume solution of formaldehyde in water, is used as an antiseptic,
disinfectant, and preservative for biological specimens. Formaldehyde is
also used to make %@AU@%DYES%@BO:          2b86bb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PLASTICS%@BO:          769462@%%@AE@% (e.g., %@AU@%BAKELITE%@BO:           b2298@%%@AE@%), and synthetic %@AU@%RESINS%@BO:          7e6390@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Forrest, Edwin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Forrest, Edwin%@AE@%,%@CR:FORREST         @%%@QR:Forrest, Edwin@% 1806-72, American actor, the nation's first theatrical%@EH@%
idol; b. Philadelphia. His New York City debut as Othello (1826)
established him as a great tragedian, noted for bold and forceful acting.
His rivalry with the English actor W.C. %@AU@%MACREADY%@BO:          591ba6@%%@AE@% resulted in a riot
(1849) in New York by Forrest partisans in which many were killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Forrestal, James Vincent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Forrestal, James Vincent%@AE@%,%@CR:FORRESTAL       @%%@QR:Forrestal, James Vincent@% 1892-1949, U.S. secretary of the navy (1944-47)%@EH@%
and secretary of defense (1947-49); b. Beacon, N.Y. After the
reorganization (1947) of the war and navy departments, Forrestal became
the first secretary of defense. Illness forced his resignation, and he
later committed suicide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Forster, E(dward) M(organ)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Forster, E(dward) M(organ)%@AE@%,%@CR:FORSTER         @%%@QR:Forster, E(dward) M(organ)@% 1879-1970, English novelist. With%@EH@%
sensitivity, subtlety, and an impeccable style, he brought new depths to
the English novel of manners. %@AI@%Where Angels Fear to Tread%@AE@% (1905) was
followed by %@AI@%The Longest Journey%@AE@% (1907), %@AI@%A Room with a View%@AE@% (1908),
%@AI@%Howards End%@AE@% (1910), and %@AI@%Maurice%@AE@% (1913-14, published 1971). His last
novel, %@AI@%A Passage to India%@AE@% (1924), is his best-known work. He also
published short stories and nonfiction, including %@AI@%Aspects of the Novel%@AE@%
(1927).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%forsythia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%forsythia%@AE@%,%@CR:FORSYTHIA       @%%@QR:forsythia@% shrub (genus %@AI@%Forsythia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%OLIVE%@BO:          6d7fe2@%%@AE@% family, native to Europe%@EH@%
and Asia. Producing abundant bell-shaped yellow flowers, which appear
before the leaves, forsythia bushes are often cultivated as ornamentals
in hedges and along borders.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fortaleza%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fortaleza%@AE@%,%@CR:FORTALEZA       @%%@QR:Fortaleza@% city (1980 pop. 648,815), NE Brazil, capital of Ceara state.%@EH@%
An Atlantic port at the mouth of the Paeju R., which bisects the city, it
ships coffee and other products of Brazil's interior and has processing
industries. It is also known for traditional handicrafts, e.g.,
lacemaking. The city first achieved importance in the 17th cent., as a
center of the great colonial sugar plantations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Collins%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Collins%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.COLLINS    @%%@QR:Fort Collins@% city (1986 est. pop. 74,140), seat of Larimer co., N Colo.,%@EH@%
on the Cache la Poudre R., at the foot of the %@AU@%ROCKY MTS%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@%.; inc. as a city
1883. The area was settled (1864) around a fortification built to protect
a trading post. The city, trade center for a rich farming area, has
diversified industries and is the seat of Colorado State Univ.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fortification%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fortification%@AE@%,%@CR:FORTIFICATION   @%%@QR:fortification@% system of defense structures for protection from enemy%@EH@%
attacks. The art developed in earliest times with the building of simple
earthworks, which soon evolved into walls, palisades, and elaborate
stockades. City walls appeared very early in the Middle East, notably in
Mesopotamia and Phoenicia. Major advances in permanent fortification were
made by the Romans, who built walls along the Danube and Rhine rivers and
in England, e.g., %@AU@%HADRIAN'S WALL%@BO:          3eee7b@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%GREAT WALL OF CHINA%@BO:          3cf598@%%@AE@% was an even
more ambitious undertaking. The advent of siegecraft, using such devices
as battering rams and catapults, reduced the effectiveness of large-scale
fortification, but in the Middle Ages %@AU@%CASTLES%@BO:          19e49e@%%@AE@% and citadels remained
defensible against all but a lengthy siege. In the 15th cent. the
development of %@AU@%ARTILLERY%@BO:           8773d@%%@AE@% further diminished the value of fixed
fortifications, and military engineers had to devise new methods of
defense based on detached forts that created an entrenched camp over a
wide area. This ring system of fortification failed in Belgium in World
War I, however, as did the French %@AU@%MAGINOT LINE%@BO:          596c60@%%@AE@% in World War II. The
development of airpower, heavy artillery, and %@AU@%MECHANIZED WARFARE%@BO:          5df1c4@%%@AE@%
eventually brought an end to such defense systems. In both the Korean and
Vietnam wars the theory of fortification returned to the idea of
temporary, even improvised, shelter, intended mainly to delay the enemy's
advance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Knox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Knox%@AE@%%@CR:FORT.KNOX       @%%@QR:Fort Knox@% for Henry %@AU@%KNOX%@BO:          5054f8@%%@AE@%, U.S. military reservation, 110,000 acres%@EH@%
(44,515 hectares), Hardin and Meade cos., N Ky.; est. 1917 as a training
camp, became a permanent post 1932. In 1940 it became the site of the
U.S. Army Armored Center. The U.S. Depository (built 1936) holds the bulk
of the nation's gold bullion in steel and concrete vaults.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Lauderdale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Lauderdale%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.LAUDERDALE @%%@QR:Fort Lauderdale@% city (1986 est. pop. 148,620), seat of Broward co., SE%@EH@%
Fla., on the Atlantic coast; settled around a fort built (c.1837) in the
Seminole War, inc. 1911. The city has more than 270 mi (435 km) of
natural and artificial waterways, and one of the largest marinas in the
world. A major beach resort, it also produces electronic devices, boats
and yachts, and various light manufactures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort McHenry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort McHenry%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.MCHENRY    @%%@QR:Fort McHenry@% U.S. military post, Baltimore harbor, Md. Its defense%@EH@%
against British bombardment in the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@% inspired Francis Scott %@AU@%KEY%@BO:          4f3b31@%%@AE@%
to write "The %@AU@%STAR-SPANGLED BANNER%@BO:          8e5498@%%@AE@%." It is now a national monument and
historic site.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%FORTRAN%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%FORTRAN%@AE@%:%@CR:FORTRAN         @%%@QR:FORTRAN@% see %@AU@%PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE%@BO:          79d2c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Sill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Sill%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.SILL       @%%@QR:Fort Sill@% U.S. military reservation, Comanche co., SW Okla., 4 mi N of%@EH@%
Lawton; est. 1869 by Gen. Philip %@AU@%SHERIDAN%@BO:          883629@%%@AE@%. Now a 95,000-acre
(38,445-hectare) field artillery and missile base, it was once (1870s) a
base of operations for Indian compaigns and for maintaining law and order
in the region. Various tribes were given land there and trained in
agriculture. %@AU@%GERONIMO%@BO:          39abe7@%%@AE@% is buried in Fort Sill's Apache cemetery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Smith%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Smith%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.SMITH      @%%@QR:Fort Smith@% city (1986 est. pop. 74,320), seat of Sebastian co., NW Ark.,%@EH@%
at the Okla. line, where the Arkansas and Poteau rivers join; inc. 1842.
A military post (est. 1817) and gold rush supply point (1848), it was a
lawless area cleansed by "Hanging Judge" Isaac Parker. The modern city is
a rail and trade center, and has diverse manufactures, including heating
and electrical equipment. The city has a 22-block historic district. Fort
Smith National Historic Site is there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Sumter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Sumter%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.SUMTER     @%%@QR:Fort Sumter@% fortification in Charleston harbor, S.C., site of the first%@EH@%
clash (Apr. 12, 1861) of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. The Confederates were victorious,
but the fort was retaken by Union forces in 1865. It is now a national
monument.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Wayne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Wayne%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.WAYNE      @%%@QR:Fort Wayne@% city (1986 est. pop. 172,900), seat of Allen co., NE Ind.,%@EH@%
where the St. Joseph and St. Mary's rivers join to form the Maumee R.;
inc. 1840. It is a railroad, wholesale, and distribution hub with
electronics and automotive industries. The %@AU@%MIAMI INDIANS%@BO:          5fe60d@%%@AE@% had their chief
town on the strategic site. A French fort (built before 1680) was
replaced by one built (1794) by Anthony %@AU@%WAYNE%@BO:          9fe652@%%@AE@%, who subdued the Indians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fort Worth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fort Worth%@AE@%,%@CR:FORT.WORTH      @%%@QR:Fort Worth@% city (1986 est. pop. 429,550), seat of Tarrant co., N Tex.,%@EH@%
30 mi (48 km) W of %@AU@%DALLAS%@BO:          261ae5@%%@AE@%; settled 1843, inc. 1873. Established as an
army post in 1847, it became a cattle town after the Civil War.
Completion (1876) of the railroad made it a meat-packing and shipping
point. Wheat (late 19th cent.) and oil (discovered 1919 west of the city)
furthered its development. Today it is a major N Texas industrial city,
with large oil and gas facilities and a huge aircraft industry. The
Dallas-Fort Worth airport (opened 1974 between the cities) is one of the
world's largest. Texas Christian Univ., the Fort Worth Art Center, and
the Amon Carter Museum of Western Art are among the city's well-known
institutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Forty-seven Runin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Forty-seven Runin%@AE@%,%@CR:FORTYSEN        @%%@QR:Forty-seven Runin@% a group of Japanese knights who avenged their lord in%@EH@%
1703 by assassinating the official responsible for his death. They
immediately surrendered to the authorities. After a year of debate at all
levels of society, the knights committed suicide as ordered. They have
since been held as great cultural heroes, who are celebrated in the
popular play by %@AU@%CHIKAMATSU MONZAEMON.%@BO:          1ce4fc@%%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foscolo, Ugo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foscolo, Ugo%@AE@%,%@CR:FOSCOLO         @%%@QR:Foscolo, Ugo@% 1778-1827, Italian writer. A novel recounting his political%@EH@%
disillusionment with Napoleon Bonaparte (see %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%), %@AI@%The Last
%@AI@%Letters of Jacopo Ortis%@AE@% (1798-1802), together with his criticism and
lyrics (e.g., %@AI@%Sepulchres,%@AE@% 1807), strongly influenced Italian letters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foss, Lukas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foss, Lukas%@AE@%,%@CR:FOSS            @%%@QR:Foss, Lukas@% 1922-, American composer, pianist, and conductor; b. Germany%@EH@%
as Lukas Fuchs. As conductor of the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra
(1963-71), he was noted for performing avant-garde compositions. His own
early works were traditional; his later interest in modern techniques is
seen in %@AI@%Elytres%@AE@% (1964) and %@AI@%Fanfare%@AE@% (1973). In 1971 he was appointed music
director of the Brooklyn Philharmonic and in 1972 conductor of the Kol
Israel Orchestra of Jerusalem.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fossil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fossil%@AE@%,%@CR:FOSSIL          @%%@QR:fossil@% remains or imprint of a plant or animal preserved from%@EH@%
prehistoric times by natural methods and found mainly in sedimentary
rock, asphalt, and coal. Fossilization of skeletal structures or other
hard parts is most common. Conditions for fossilization include quick
burial in an originally moist sediment or other material that prevents
both weathering and decay. Shells and bones embedded in hardened sediment
can be dissolved by water, leaving a natural mold. Sometimes these molds
are filled with mineral deposits, forming natural casts. Fossil
footprints and trails and coprolites, or fossil excrement, can reveal
much about the lives and feeding habits of ancient animals. Entire
animals of the late Pleistocene have been found, notably in Siberia. In
California, the %@AU@%LA BREA%@BO:          515d3b@%%@AE@% tar pits have yielded many skeletons. The study
of fossils is paleontology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fossil fuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fossil fuel%@AE@%:%@CR:FOSSIL.FUEL     @%%@QR:fossil fuel@% see %@AU@%ENERGY, SOURCES OF%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foster, Stephen Collins%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foster, Stephen Collins%@AE@%,%@CR:FOSTER          @%%@QR:Foster, Stephen Collins@% 1826-64, American songwriter and composer; b.%@EH@%
Lawrenceville, Pa. He had little training. Writing songs for the E.P.
%@AU@%CHRISTY%@BO:          1e1a95@%%@AE@% minstrel troupe, he acquired a knowledge of Negro life, but
sensing prejudice against "Ethiopian songs" he was reluctant even to put
his name to them. Because of their utter simplicity, his Negro dialect
songs are often thought of as folk music. His songs include "Oh!
Susannah," "Camptown Races," "My Old Kentucky Home," and "Old Black Joe."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foster care%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foster care%@AE@%,%@CR:FOSTER.CARE     @%%@QR:foster care@% generally, care of children on a full-time, temporary basis%@EH@%
by persons other than their own parents. Also known as boarding-home
care, foster care offers a supportive family environment to children
whose natural parents cannot raise them because of the parents' physical
or mental illness; because of the child's behavioral difficulties; or
because of problems within the family environment, e.g., abuse, neglect,
alcoholism, or crime. Children may be placed in group homes or with
individual foster families, who receive some payment toward care. In some
cases, the natural parents retain their parental rights and the child
ultimately returns home. Under permanent foster care, the agency has
guardianship; the child may then be available for adoption by the foster
parents or others. The concept of foster care has been extended in recent
years to include care for elderly persons, on a fee basis, in the homes
of people who are not members of the family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon%@AE@%%@CR:FOUCAULT        @%%@QR:Foucault, Jean Bernard Leon@%, 1819-68, French physicist. Investigating the%@EH@%
speed of light, he determined its velocity in air and found that its
speed in water and other media decreased in proportion to the index of
refraction. He originated the Foucault %@AU@%PENDULUM%@BO:          72c2f8@%%@AE@% with which he
demonstrated the earth's rotation, invented (1852) the %@AU@%GYROSCOPE%@BO:          3ed15f@%%@AE@%, and
with the physicist Armand Fizeau took the first clear photograph of the
sun.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fouche, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fouche, Joseph%@AE@%%@CR:FOUCHE          @%%@QR:Fouche, Joseph@%, b. 1759 or 1763, d. 1820, French police minister%@EH@%
(1799-1802, 1804-10). An opportunist, he sided with every party in power
from the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@% through the %@AU@%BOURBON%@BO:          12b977@%%@AE@% restoration. He was one of
the indispensable men in the empire of %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%, who created him duke
of Otranto in 1809. Sometimes considered the father of the modern police
state, he created a ruthlessly efficient system of criminal and political
police. After the second Bourbon restoration, he was exiled and died in
obscurity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foucquet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foucquet%@AE@%:%@CR:FOUCQUET        @%%@QR:Foucquet@% see %@AU@%FOUQUET%@BO:          34cc4c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foundation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foundation%@AE@%,%@CR:FOUNDATION      @%%@QR:foundation@% institution through which private wealth is contributed and%@EH@%
distributed for public purposes. Foundations have existed since Greek and
Roman times, when they honored deities. The medieval European church had
many foundations, and the Arab waqf (pious endowment) developed with the
growth of Islam. Modern European foundations are generally smaller than
those in the U.S. and are closely regulated by the state. There were a
few early American foundations, e.g., those endowed by Benjamin %@AU@%FRANKLIN%@BO:          357a50@%%@AE@%
(1791) and by James Smithson (1846; to form the %@AU@%SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION%@BO:          8a75c2@%%@AE@%).
However, foundations in the U.S. developed rapidly after the Civil War.
From 1896 to 1918 many wealthy Americans created private foundations for
the public benefit, e.g., Andrew %@AU@%CARNEGIE%@BO:          190af2@%%@AE@% and John D. %@AU@%ROCKEFELLER%@BO:          7fe344@%%@AE@%, Sr.
The larger of the modern U.S. foundations have devoted themselves to
broad areas, e.g., the Carnegie Corporation (est. 1911) concentrates on
American education and underprivileged groups; the Rockefeller Foundation
(est. 1913) works in the areas of hunger, overpopulation, education,
equal opportunity, cultural improvement, and ecology; and the Ford
Foundation (est. 1936) concentrates on world peace, democratic
government, economic well-being, education, and the scientific study of
mankind.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%founding%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%founding%@AE@%:%@CR:FOUNDING        @%%@QR:founding@% see %@AU@%CASTING%@BO:          19d9c0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fouquet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fouquet%@AE@%%@CR:FOUQUET         @%%@QR:Fouquet@%or %@AB@%Foucquet, Jean%@AE@%or %@AB@%Jehan%@AE@%, c.1420-c.1480, French painter and%@EH@%
illuminator. Court painter to %@AU@%CHARLES VII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LOUIS XI%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%, he produced
delicate religious paintings, court portraits, and an illuminated %@AU@%BOOK OF
%@AU@%HOURS%@BO:          11fc4a@%%@AE@% for Etienne Chevalier (Chantilly) that is regarded as his
masterpiece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Four Freedoms%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Four Freedoms%@AE@%.%@CR:FOUR.FREEDOMS   @%%@QR:Four Freedoms@% On Jan. 6, 1941, Pres. F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%, in a message to%@EH@%
Congress proposing %@AU@%LEND-LEASE%@BO:          53c137@%%@AE@% legislation, stated that Four Freedoms
should prevail throughout the world-freedom of speech and expression,
freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. These were
substantially incorporated (Aug. 1941) in the %@AU@%ATLANTIC CHARTER%@BO:           96473@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse%@AE@%,%@CR:FOUR.HOOCALYPS  @%%@QR:Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse@% allegorical figures in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%. Rev.%@EH@%
6. One interpretation of the rider on the white horse is that he
represents Christ. The rider on the red horse is war; on the black horse,
famine; and on the pale horse, death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fourier, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fourier, Charles%@AE@%%@CR:FOURIER1        @%%@QR:Fourier, Charles@%, 1772-1837, French social philosopher. He held social%@EH@%
harmony could be achieved in a society based on the "phalanx," an
economic unit of 1,620 people sharing a communal dwelling and dividing
work according to their natural inclinations. The many Fourierist
communities included %@AU@%BROOK FARM%@BO:          1453b0@%%@AE@%. After Fourier's death, Fourierism was
led by V.P. %@AU@%CONSIDERANT%@BO:          22659a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:FOURIER2        @%%@QR:Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron@% 1768-1830, French mathematician and%@EH@%
physicist, noted for his researches on heat diffusion and numerical
equations. He originated the Fourier series, which allowed discontinuous
functions to be represented by a trigonometric series.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Four-Power Treaty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Four-Power Treaty%@AE@%:%@CR:FOURPOWY        @%%@QR:Four-Power Treaty@% see %@AU@%NAVAL CONFERENCES%@BO:          67a599@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fourteen Points%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fourteen Points%@AE@%,%@CR:FOURTEEN.POINTS @%%@QR:Fourteen Points@% formulation of a peace program, presented (Jan. 1918) by%@EH@%
Pres. %@AU@%WILSON%@BO:          a215a5@%%@AE@% near the end of %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. The program called for a just,
unselfish peace that would offer self-government to the European national
groups and pave the way for general disarmament and open agreements
between nations. The program had two purposes: to reach the people and
liberal leaders of the Central Powers in the hope that their influence
would help shorten the war, and also to provide an actual framework for
the peace discussions. The first aim was successful; but, despite the
enormous moral authority the Fourteen Points conferred on Wilson, the
program's important points were lost in the compromises that came out of
the peace treaty (see %@AU@%VERSAILLES, TREATY OF%@BO:          9cd7bc@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fourth of July, Independence Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fourth of July, Independence Day%@AE@%,%@CR:FOURTH.OF.JULY  @%%@QR:Fourth of July, Independence Day@% or %@AB@%July Fourth,%@AE@%U.S. patriotic holiday%@EH@%
commemorating the adoption of the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%.
Celebration of it began during the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fowler, Henry Watson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fowler, Henry Watson%@AE@%,%@CR:FOWLER          @%%@QR:Fowler, Henry Watson@% 1858-1933, English lexicographer. He and his%@EH@%
brother, Francis G. Fowler (1870-1918), collaborated on %@AI@%The King's
%@AI@%English%@AE@% (1906), %@AI@%The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English%@AE@% (1911),
and %@AI@%The Pocket Oxford Dictionary%@AE@% (1924). After the death of his brother,
H.W. Fowler completed alone the invaluable reference work %@AI@%A Dictionary of
%@AI@%Modern Usage%@AE@% (1926).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fowles, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fowles, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FOWLES          @%%@QR:Fowles, John@% 1926-, English novelist. A cerebral writer, he is%@EH@%
interested in manipulating the novel form. His books include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Collector%@AE@% (1963), %@AI@%The French Lieutenant's Woman%@AE@% (1969), %@AI@%Mantissa%@AE@% (1982),
and %@AI@%A Maggot%@AE@% (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fox, Charles James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fox, Charles James%@AE@%,%@CR:FOX1            @%%@QR:Fox, Charles James@% 1749-1806, British statesman and orator, for many%@EH@%
years the outstanding parliamentary proponent of liberal reform. A %@AU@%WHIG%@BO:          a104b1@%%@AE@%,
he entered Parliament in 1768. He was a close friend of the prince of
Wales (later %@AU@%GEORGE IV%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%) and an enemy of %@AU@%GEORGE III%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@% and William %@AU@%PITT%@BO:          762e45@%%@AE@%.
Three times foreign secretary (1782, 1783, 1806), Fox opposed British
intervention in the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. He advocated legislative
independence for Ireland, enlargement of the franchise, and parliamentary
reform. Abolition of the slave trade, which he proposed and urged, was
passed in 1807.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fox, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fox, George%@AE@%,%@CR:FOX2            @%%@QR:Fox, George@% 1624-91, English religious leader, founder of the Society of%@EH@%
%@AU@%FRIENDS%@BO:          366a3e@%%@AE@%. In 1646 he underwent a mystical experience that convinced him
that Christianity was an inner light by which Christ directly illumines
the believing soul. Beginning to preach in 1647, he was often persecuted
and imprisoned, but won many followers and organized his sect in 1668.
The first London Yearly Meeting was held in 1671. His journal (1694, with
a preface by William Penn), has appeared in various editions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fox, Margaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fox, Margaret%@AE@%:%@CR:FOX3            @%%@QR:Fox, Margaret@% see %@AU@%SPIRITISM%@BO:          8da620@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fox%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fox%@AE@%,%@CR:FOX4            @%%@QR:fox@% carnivorous %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%DOG%@BO:          29c45c@%%@AE@% family, found in much of the Northern%@EH@%
Hemisphere. It has a pointed face, thick fur, and bushy tail. Most fox
species belong to the red fox group (genus %@AI@%Vulpes%@AE@%). The common red fox
(%@AI@%V. vulpes%@AE@%) of North America inhabits areas of forest mixed with open
country from the Arctic to the S U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fox terrier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fox terrier%@AE@%,%@CR:FOX.TERRIER     @%%@QR:fox terrier@% long-legged %@AU@%TERRIER%@BO:          942cc2@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.15 in. (38.1 cm);%@EH@%
weight, 15-19 lb (6.8-8.6 kg). There are two types: the smooth, with a
dense, short, flat coat, and the wirehaired, with a longer, harsh, wiry
coat. Both are white, with black or black-and-tan markings. The breed was
perfected in 19th-cent. England to hunt foxes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foxe, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foxe, John%@AE@%,%@CR:FOXE            @%%@QR:Foxe, John@% 1516-87, English clergyman, author of the noted %@AI@%Book of%@EH@%
%@AI@%Martyrs.%@AE@% A Protestant, he fled to the Continent in the reign of %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%.
There, a Latin edition of his history was published in 1559. An expanded
English edition (1563) appeared in the reign of %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%. The book
praised the Protestant martyrs of Mary's reign.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%foxhound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%foxhound%@AE@%,%@CR:FOXHOUND        @%%@QR:foxhound@% sturdy, medium-sized %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%. The %@AB@%English foxhound,%@AE@% shoulder%@EH@%
height, 21-25 in. (53.3-63.5 cm); weight, 60-70 lb (27.2-31.8 kg), has a
short, glossy coat that is usually black, tan, and white. Probably
developed from 14th-cent. French hounds, it was first used in packs to
hunt foxes in the 17th cent. The slightly smaller %@AB@%American foxhound%@AE@% was
developed over 300 years ago.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fox Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fox Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:FOX.INDIANS     @%%@QR:Fox Indians@% see %@AU@%SAC AND FOX INDIANS%@BO:          82b74e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Foyt, A.J.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Foyt, A.J.%@AE@%%@CR:FOYT            @%%@QR:Foyt, A.J.@% (Anthony Joseph Foyt, Jr.), 1935-, American auto racing%@EH@%
driver; b. Houston. Foyt was the first person to win the Indianapolis 500
race four times (1961, 1964, 1967, 1977). He has also won the Daytona 500
and, with Dan Gurney, the 24 Hours of Le Mans. He has been U.S. Auto Club
driving champion seven times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fr%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fr%@AE@%,%@CR:FR              @%%@QR:Fr@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%FRANCIUM%@BO:          355703@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fra%@AE@%:%@CR:FRA             @%%@QR:Fra@% see %@AU@%ANGELICO, FRA%@BO:           56cbc@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%LIPPI, FRA FILIPPO%@BO:          5586d6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fraction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fraction%@AE@%,%@CR:FRACTION        @%%@QR:fraction@% in arithmetic, an expression representing a part, or several%@EH@%
equal parts, of a unit. In writing a fraction, e.g., 2/5 or 2/5, the
number after or below the bar, called the denominator, indicates the
total number of equal parts into which the unit has been divided; the
number before or above the bar, called the numerator, indicates how many
of these parts are being considered. The present notation for fractions
is of Hindu origin, but Egyptians used some types of fractions before
1600 BC The %@AU@%DECIMAL SYSTEM%@BO:          27356d@%%@AE@% uses another way to represent fractions, e.g.,
0.75 for 3/4, often simplifying arithmetical computation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fragonard, Jean-Honore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fragonard, Jean-Honore%@AE@%%@CR:FRAGONARD       @%%@QR:Fragonard, Jean-Honore@%, 1732-1806, French painter. Influenced by %@AU@%BOUCHER%@BO:          129f34@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
he was admitted to the Academie royale in 1765 for %@AI@%Coresus and Callirrhoe%@AE@%
(Louvre). Thereafter he painted polished, delicately erotic scenes of
love for the court of %@AU@%LOUIS XV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. Representative works are %@AI@%Love's Vow%@AE@% and
%@AI@%The Swing%@AE@% (both: Wallace Coll., London), and the %@AI@%Music Lesson%@AE@% (Louvre).
He is esteemed for the freedom of his brush stroke, the vitality of his
portraiture and landscapes, and his virtuosity in depicting the gaiety
and charm of the age of Louis XV.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frame, Janet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frame, Janet%@AE@%,%@CR:FRAME           @%%@QR:Frame, Janet@% 1924-, New Zealand author of such complex, disturbing%@EH@%
novels as %@AI@%Owls Do Cry%@AE@% (1957), %@AI@%Faces in the Water%@AE@% (1961), %@AI@%Living in the
%@AI@%Maniototo%@AE@% (1979), and %@AI@%The Envoy from Mirror City%@AE@% (1985), and of poems,
e.g., %@AI@%The Pocket Mirror%@AE@% (1967), and short stories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%France, Anatole%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%France, Anatole%@AE@%%@CR:FRANCE1         @%%@QR:France, Anatole@%, pseud. of %@AB@%Jacques Anatole Thibault,%@AE@% 1844-1924, French%@EH@%
author, the most prominent French man of letters of his day. His early
fiction displayed allusive charm and subtle irony, as in %@AI@%The Crime of
%@AI@%Sylvestre Bonnard%@AE@% (1881), %@AI@%Thais%@AE@% (1890), and %@AI@%At the Sign of the Reine
%@AI@%Pedauque%@AE@% (1893). After the %@AU@%DREYFUS AFFAIR%@BO:          2aa834@%%@AE@% (in which he supported %@AU@%ZOLA%@BO:          a56907@%%@AE@%),
he concentrated more on political satire, notably in the novel %@AI@%Penguin
%@AI@%Island%@AE@% (1908), an allegory of French history. He was elected to the
French Academy in 1896 and received the Nobel Prize in literature in
1921.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%France%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%France%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCE2         @%%@QR:France@% officially the French Republic, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
55,632,000), 211,207 sq mi (547,026 sq km), W Europe; bordered by the
English Channel (N), the Atlantic Ocean and Bay of Biscay (W), Spain
(SW), the Mediterranean Sea (S), Switzerland and Italy (E, SE), and West
Germany, Luxembourg, and Belgium (NE). %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          713e64@%%@AE@% is the capital; other major
cities include %@AU@%MARSEILLES%@BO:          5c0db9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LYONS%@BO:          585085@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TOULOUSE%@BO:          96de8b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NICE%@BO:          69c7a1@%%@AE@%. One of the country's
major natural features is the Massif Central, a rugged mountain area
occupying south-central France. North of this and of the %@AU@%LOIRE%@BO:          5648fb@%%@AE@% R. is the
Paris basin, a fertile depression drained by the %@AU@%SEINE%@BO:          869728@%%@AE@% and Marne rivers.
To the southeast is the %@AU@%RHONE%@BO:          7ee66d@%%@AE@% valley, which widens into a plain near its
delta on the %@AU@%MEDITERRANEAN%@BO:          5e3a23@%%@AE@%. To the southwest is the great Aquitanian
plain, drained by the Garonne and Dordogne rivers. The main mountain
ranges are the French %@AU@%ALPS%@BO:           41c4e@%%@AE@%, with France's highest peak, %@AU@%MONT BLANC%@BO:          6335f3@%%@AE@%
(15,771 ft/4,807 m), the Vosges and the Jura mountains in the east, and
the %@AU@%PYRENEES%@BO:          7b57ba@%%@AE@% in the southwest.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% France is one of the world's major economic powers. Agriculture
is important, and about 60% of the land is used for farming. Over half of
the value of agricultural output derives from livestock; leading crops
are sugar beets, wheat, corn, barley, and potatoes. Only Italy produces
more wine. Iron ore and bauxite are the leading minerals. Major
industrial products include metals, chemicals, natural gas, foods
(particularly cheese), motor vehicles, aircraft, and textiles. Tourism is
important, as is the production of luxury goods. The railroads,
utilities, many banks, and some key industries are nationally owned.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%People%@AE@% France has great ethnic diversity. French is the universal
language, but Alsatian (a German dialect), Flemish, Breton, Basque, and
Catalan are still spoken in various sections. Roman Catholicism is the
dominant religion.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% Metropolitan (European) France is composed of 95 departments
(including the island-department of %@AU@%CORSICA%@BO:          238c4f@%%@AE@%), grouped into 21 regions and
subdivided into districts, municipalities, and cantons. Together with the
overseas departments and territories, they constitute the French
Republic. The Fifth French Republic is governed under a constitution
adopted in 1958 and amended in 1962. It provides for a strong president,
directly elected to a seven-year term, and a bicameral parliament.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Early History%@AE@% The area known as %@AU@%GAUL%@BO:          385229@%%@AE@% was conquered (58-51 BC) by the
Romans under Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%. Beginning in the 3d cent. AD, the Gallo-Roman
civilization that had developed was overrun by Germanic invaders,
including the %@AU@%FRANKS%@BO:          3588b6@%%@AE@% under %@AU@%CLOVIS I%@BO:          1f9c07@%%@AE@%, who defeated (486) the last Roman
governor. Under the %@AU@%MEROVINGIAN%@BO:          5f00c4@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CAROLINGIAN%@BO:          192c68@%%@AE@% dynasties the Franks
ruled Gaul until 987, when powerful feudal lords established %@AU@%HUGH CAPET%@BO:          4515ab@%%@AE@%
as king. Under the Capetian kings, who reigned until 1328, France
experienced a rebirth that reached its height in the 13th cent. Its
leading role in the %@AU@%CRUSADES%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@% established its cultural supremacy in most
of Europe, and the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@% (1337-1453) evicted the English from
French soil. The 16th cent. brought religious conflict and civil wars,
but in the 17th cent. two great statesmen, Cardinal %@AU@%RICHELIEU%@BO:          7f190c@%%@AE@% and
Cardinal %@AU@%MAZARIN%@BO:          5dbe85@%%@AE@%, reestablished French power, and under %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% (r.
1643-1715) France became the greatest power in Europe.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Ancien Regime and the New France%@AE@% Burdened by remnants of feudalism
and a system of outworn privileges, France under %@AU@%LOUIS XV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% (r. 1715-74)
hovered on the verge of bankruptcy. The %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@% (1756-63) drained
the treasury and cost France its empire in India and North America.
French support of the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% proved a financial disaster.
The result was the upheaval that shook Europe from 1789 to 1815 (see
%@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%). During this
time a constitutional monarchy was created (1791); war with much of
Europe began, accompanied by the growth of radical factions in France
(1792); %@AU@%ROBESPIERRE%@BO:          7fb6dc@%%@AE@% presided over the %@AU@%REIGN OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@% (1793-95); and a
reaction ushered in the %@AU@%DIRECTORY%@BO:          29442d@%%@AE@% (1795-99), which was terminated by
Napoleon's coup d'etat. Making himself emperor (1804), Napoleon led his
armies as far as Moscow before his final defeat in the %@AU@%WATERLOO CAMPAIGN%@BO:          9face6@%%@AE@%
(1815).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Modern France%@AE@% France emerged as a uniform, bureaucratic state, dominated
by the bourgeoisie. The Bourbon Restoration (1814-30) was shortlived. The
%@AU@%JULY REVOLUTION%@BO:          4dac3c@%%@AE@% of 1830 enthroned %@AU@%LOUIS PHILIPPE%@BO:          575921@%%@AE@%, who was overthrown in
turn by the %@AU@%FEBRUARY REVOLUTION%@BO:          3222d5@%%@AE@% of 1848. Louis Napoleon headed the Second
Republic and later (1852) made himself emperor as %@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@%. Defeat in
the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@% (1870-71) led to his downfall and the
establishment of the Third Republic. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, France, led by
%@AU@%CLEMENCEAU%@BO:          1f2e10@%%@AE@%, bore the brunt of the fighting in the West. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%,
defeat by Germany (1940) was followed by occupation; Marshal %@AU@%PETAIN%@BO:          73f3d2@%%@AE@%
headed the collaborationist %@AU@%VICHY%@BO:          9d11e0@%%@AE@% government in unoccupied France, while
Gen. Charles %@AU@%DE GAULLE%@BO:          2773ee@%%@AE@% led the "Free French" resistance. In 1944 the
Allies expelled the Germans from France. The Fourth Republic, proclaimed
in 1946, was weakened by the defeat (1954) of French troops in %@AU@%INDOCHINA%@BO:          47ba63@%%@AE@%
and a war for independence in %@AU@%ALGERIA%@BO:           3a47c@%%@AE@%. De Gaulle was returned to power as
first president (1958-69) of the Fifth Republic. Seeking to restore
French prestige in world affairs, De Gaulle stressed independence from
the U.S. and NATO in military affairs. His conservative policies were
continued by his successors, Georges %@AU@%POMPIDOU%@BO:          780481@%%@AE@% and Valery %@AU@%GISCARD
%@AU@%D'ESTAING%@BO:          3a69ad@%%@AE@%. In 1981, after 23 years of Gaullist dominance, the Socialists
elected Francois %@AU@%MITTERRAND%@BO:          61d339@%%@AE@% as president and embarked on a program that
included administrative decentralization and nationalization of banks and
industry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%RULERS OF FRANCE SINCE 987%@AE@% %@AI@%(including dates of reign)%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Capetians%@AE@%%@NL@%
Hugh Capet, 987--96%@NL@%
Robert II (the Pious), son of Hugh Capet, 996--1031%@NL@%
Henry I, son of Robert II 1031--60%@NL@%
Philip I, son of Henry I, 1060--1108%@NL@%
Louis VI (the Fat), son of Philip I,1108--37%@NL@%
Louis Vll (the Young), son of Louis VI, 1137--80%@NL@%
Philip II (Augustus), son of Louis VII, 1180--1223%@NL@%
Louis VIII, son of Philip II, 1223--26%@NL@%
Louis IX (Saint Louis), son of Louis VIII, 1226--70%@NL@%
Philip III (the Bold), son of Louis IX, 1270--85%@NL@%
Philip IV (the Fair), son of Philip III,1285--1314%@NL@%
Louis X (the Quarrelsome), son of Philip IV, 1314--16%@NL@%
John I (the Posthumous), son of Louis X, 1316%@NL@%
Philip V (the Tall), son of Philip IV, 1317--22%@NL@%
Charles IV (the Fair), son of Philip IV, 1322--28%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Valois%@AE@%%@NL@%
Philip VI, grandson of Philip III,1328--50%@NL@%
John II (the Good), son of Philip Vl, 1350--64%@NL@%
Charles V (the Wise), son of John II,1364--80%@NL@%
Charles VI (the Mad or the Well Beloved), son of Charles V, I380--I422%@NL@%
Charles VII (the Victorious or the Well Served), son of Charles VI,
1422--61%@NL@%
Louis XI, son of Charles VII, 1461--83%@NL@%
Charles VIII, son of Louis XI, 1483--98%@NL@%
Louis XII, descendant of Charles V, 1498--1515%@NL@%
Francis I, cousin and son-in-law of Louis XII, 1515--47%@NL@%
Henry II, son of Francis I,1547--59%@NL@%
Francis II, son of Henry II,1559--60%@NL@%
Charles IX, son of Henry II,1560--74%@NL@%
Henry III, son of Henry II,1574--89%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Bourbon%@AE@%%@NL@%
Henry IV (of Navarre), descendant of Louis IX, 1589--1610%@NL@%
Louis XIII, son of Henry IV, 1610--43%@NL@%
Louis XIV, son of Louis XIII, 1643--1715%@NL@%
Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, 1715--74%@NL@%
Louis XVI, grandson of Louis XV, 1774--92%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The First Republic%@AE@%%@NL@%
The National Convention, 1792--95%@NL@%
The Directory, 1795--99%@NL@%
The Consulate (Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul, I802--4), I799--I804%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The First Empire%@AE@%%@NL@%
Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte), 1804--15%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Bourbon Restoration%@AE@%%@NL@%
Louis XVIII, grandson of Louis XV, 1814--24%@NL@%
Charles X, grandson of Louis XV, 1824--30%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Bourbon-Orleans%@AE@%%@NL@%
Louis Philippe, descendant of Louis Xlll, 1830--48%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Second Republic%@AE@%%@NL@%
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I president, 1848--52%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Sevond Empire%@AE@%%@NL@%
Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon Bonaparte), 1852--70%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Third Republic%@AE@% %@AI@%(presidents)%@AE@%%@NL@%
Louis Jules Trochu (provisional), 1870--71%@NL@%
Adolphe Thiers, 1871--73%@NL@%
Marie Edme Patrice de MacMahon, 187%@NL@%
Jules Grevy, 1879--87%@NL@%
Sadi Carnot, 1887--94%@NL@%
Jean Paul Pierre Casimir-Perier, 1894--95%@NL@%
Flix Faure, 1895--99%@NL@%
Emile Francois Loubet, 1899--1906%@NL@%
Armand FalIieeres, 1906--13%@NL@%
Raymond Poincare, 1913--20%@NL@%
Paul Eugene Louis Deschanel, 1920%@NL@%
Alexandre Millerand, 1920--24%@NL@%
Gaston Doumergue, 1924--31%@NL@%
Paul Doumer, 1931--32%@NL@%
Albert Lebrun, 1932--40%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Vichy Government%@AE@%%@NL@%
Henri Philippe Petain, chief of state, 1940--44%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Provisional Government%@AE@%%@NL@%
Charles De Gaulle, president, 1944--46%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Fourth Republic%@AE@% %@AI@%(presidents)%@AE@%%@NL@%
Georges Bidault (provisional), 1946%@NL@%
Vincent Auriol, 1947--54%@NL@%
Rene Coty, 1954--58%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Fifth Republic%@AE@% %@AI@%(presidents)%@AE@%%@NL@%
Charles De Gaulle, 1958--69%@NL@%
Georges Pompidou, 1969--74%@NL@%
Valery Giscard d'Estaing, 1974--1981%@NL@%
Francois Mitterrand, 1981--%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franceschi, Piero de'%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franceschi, Piero de'%@AE@%:%@CR:FRANCESCHI      @%%@QR:Franceschi, Piero de'@% see %@AU@%PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA%@BO:          7594ee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%franchise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%franchise%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCHISE       @%%@QR:franchise@% type of business in which a group or individual receives a%@EH@%
license to conduct a commercial enterprise. Corporate franchises enable a
franchisee to market a well-known product or service in return for an
initial fee and a percentage of gross receipts. The franchiser usually
provides assistance with merchandising and advertising. Major franchise
networks, which have grown rapidly in the U.S., include fast-food
restaurants, gasoline stations, motels, automobile dealerships, and
real-estate agencies, and the system has expanded into many other fields.
Government franchises are issued to public utility and transport
companies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez%@AE@%%@CR:FRANCIA         @%%@QR:Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez@%, 1766-1840, Paraguayan dictator (1814-40).%@EH@%
Known as %@AI@%El Supremo,%@AE@% he successfully achieved %@AU@%PARAGUAY'S%@BO:          710be3@%%@AE@% independence
from Spain and ruled the country with an iron hand until his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCIS1        @%%@QR:Francis, Saint@% or %@AB@%Saint Francis of Assisi,%@AE@%1182?-1226, founder of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%FRANCISCANS%@BO:          35493e@%%@AE@%; b. Assisi, Italy. The son of a wealthy merchant, he
underwent a conversion at age 22 and became markedly devout and ascetic.
In 1209 he began to preach and was given permission by Pope %@AU@%INNOCENT III%@BO:          4854b3@%%@AE@%
to form an order of friars. The friars traveled about Italy and soon
began preaching in foreign countries, including (1219-20) the Holy Land.
In 1221 Francis gave up command of the order, and in 1224 he became the
first known person to receive the stigmata (wounds corresponding to those
of the crucified Christ). Francis exemplified humility, love of poverty,
and joyous religious fervor; he is also associated with a simple love of
nature and man and is often depicted preaching to birds. Stories about
him were collected in %@AI@%The Little Flowers of St. Francis.%@AE@% Feast: Oct. 4.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCIS2        @%%@QR:Francis@% rulers of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Francis I,%@AE@% 1708-65, emperor%@EH@%
(1745-65), duke of Lorraine (1729-37), and duke of Tuscany (1737-65),
exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany in 1735 as part of the settlement of the
War of the %@AU@%POLISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          7779cc@%%@AE@%. In 1736 he married %@AU@%MARIA THERESA%@BO:          5bae64@%%@AE@%, heiress
to the %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% lands. He became emperor at the end of the War of the
%@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%, but the real rulers were Maria Theresa and
Chancellor Kaunitz. %@AB@%Francis II,%@AE@% 1768-1835, was the last Holy Roman
emperor (1792-1806) and, as Francis I, the first emperor of Austria
(1804-35) and king of Bohemia and Hungary (1792-1835). When %@AU@%NAPOLEON%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% I
forced the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis took the title
emperor of Austria. Later he helped defeat Napoleon and, guided by
%@AU@%METTERNICH%@BO:          5f95d3@%%@AE@%, presided over the Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@%. His reign was
exceedingly reactionary and repressive.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis I, emperor of Austria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis I, emperor of Austria%@AE@%:%@CR:FRANCIS.I       @%%@QR:Francis I, emperor of Austria@% see %@AU@%FRANCIS II%@BO:          35371d@%%@AE@%, Holy Roman emperor.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCIS3        @%%@QR:Francis@% kings of France. %@AB@%Francis I,%@AE@% 1494-1547 (r.1515-47), was the%@EH@%
cousin, son-in-law, and successor of %@AU@%LOUIS XII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. He resumed the %@AU@%ITALIAN
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@% and recovered Milan by a brilliant victory at Marignano (1515). A
candidate for Holy Roman emperor (1519), Francis lost to %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, who
became his lifelong rival. A planned alliance with %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England
failed to occur at the %@AU@%FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD%@BO:          330f61@%%@AE@% (1520), and Francis was
captured in his first war (1521-25) against Charles V. To gain his
freedom, Francis renounced many territorial claims. He then created the
League of Cognac, consisting of Francis, Henry VIII, Venice, Florence,
and the papacy; they were all allied against Charles V, but a second war
(1527-29) gained little, and a third war (1536-38) proved inconclusive.
In 1542 Francis, allied with the Turkish sultan %@AU@%SULAYMAN I%@BO:          90638f@%%@AE@%, again
attacked Charles, who was supported by Henry VIII. The resulting peace
treaties only confirmed earlier French losses. Francis was a typical
Renaissance monarch, unscrupulous, spendthrift, and dissolute, but is
also known for his support of the arts. He was a patron of Francois
%@AU@%RABELAIS%@BO:          7bee41@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LEONARDO DA VINCI%@BO:          540317@%%@AE@% worked at his court. Francis was
succeeded by his son %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@%. His grandson, %@AB@%Francis II,%@AE@% 1544-60
(r.1559-60), married (1558) %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@%, and during his reign the
government was run by her relatives, the %@AU@%GUISE%@BO:          3e7bd6@%%@AE@% family. Their ruthless
persecution of the Protestants caused the %@AU@%HUGUENOTS%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@% to launch the
ill-fated Amboise Conspiracy (1560) in an effort to displace them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCIS4        @%%@QR:Francis@% 1554-84, French prince, duke of Alencon and Anjou, youngest son%@EH@%
of %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% of France. Although ill-shapen and pockmarked, he was
considered as a husband for %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% of England. Offered (1580) the
rule of the Low Countries by %@AU@%WILLIAM THE SILENT%@BO:          a1efe5@%%@AE@%, leader of the
Netherlands' revolt against Spain, he invaded the Netherlands, but
withdrew in 1583.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis, Dick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis, Dick%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCIS5        @%%@QR:Francis, Dick@% 1920-, English novelist. Formerly a professional champion%@EH@%
steeplechase jockey, he parlayed his knowledge of horse-racing into
successful mysteries, including %@AI@%Twice Shy%@AE@% (1982), %@AI@%Break In%@AE@% (1986), and
%@AI@%The Edge%@AE@% (1988).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franciscans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franciscans%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCISCANS     @%%@QR:Franciscans@% members of several Roman Catholic religious orders following%@EH@%
the rule (approved 1223) of St. %@AU@%FRANCIS%@BO:          3532e7@%%@AE@%. There are now three orders of
Franciscan friars. The Friars Minor (O.F.M.), formerly called Observants,
and the Friars Minor Conventual (O.M.C.) split (1517) as a result of a
reform. Further reform (1525) created the Capuchins (O.M.Cap.). The
Franciscans include an order of nuns, the Poor Clares, and a third order
including both laity and religious members. Franciscans are educators and
missionaries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis de Sales, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis de Sales, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCISS        @%%@QR:Francis de Sales, Saint@% 1567-1622, French Roman Catholic preacher,%@EH@%
Doctor of the Church, key figure in the Catholic Reformation in France
(see %@AU@%REFORMATION, CATHOLIC%@BO:          7d87de@%%@AE@%). He became (1602) bishop of Geneva and is
credited with many conversions of Protestants by his eloquent preaching.
With St. Jane Frances de Chantal he founded the Order of the Visitation
for women. His %@AI@%Introduction to the Devout Life%@AE@% is a religious classic,
and he is the patron saint of Roman Catholic writers. Feast: Jan. 24.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis Ferdinand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis Ferdinand%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCISND       @%%@QR:Francis Ferdinand@% 1863-1914, Austrian archduke, heir apparent to his%@EH@%
great-uncle, Emperor %@AU@%FRANCIS JOSEPH%@BO:          3550b0@%%@AE@%. He and his wife, Sophie, were
assassinated (1914) in %@AU@%SARAJEVO%@BO:          8479d9@%%@AE@% by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian
nationalist. The consequent Austrian ultimatum to Serbia led directly to
%@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis Joseph%@AE@%%@CR:FRANCIS.JOSEPH  @%%@QR:Francis Joseph@% or %@AB@%Franz Joseph,%@AE@%1830-1916, emperor of Austria (1848-1916)%@EH@%
and king of Hungary (1867-1916). He subdued Hungary (1849) but lost
(1859) Lombardy to Sardinia, and later he lost Venetia to Italy in the
%@AU@%AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:           a319f@%%@AE@% of 1866. After reorganization (1867), his empire
became the %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%. Francis Joseph joined (1879) in an
alliance with Germany (see %@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%). His reign
was disturbed by the tragic deaths of his son, %@AU@%RUDOLF%@BO:          81c559@%%@AE@%; his brother,
%@AU@%MAXIMILIAN%@BO:          5d97f3@%%@AE@%, emperor of Mexico; and his wife, %@AU@%ELIZABETH%@BO:          2e1f39@%%@AE@%. He died during
World War I and was succeeded by %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Francis Xavier, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Francis Xavier, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCIS.XAVIER  @%%@QR:Francis Xavier, Saint@% 1506-52, Basque %@AU@%JESUIT%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@% missionary, called the%@EH@%
Apostle to the Indies. A friend of St. %@AU@%IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA%@BO:          4698a9@%%@AE@%, with whom he
and five others formed the Society of Jesus, he spent the last 11 years
of his life as a missionary in India, Southeast Asia, and Japan. He is
considered one of the greatest Christian missionaries, possessing both
profound mysticism and common sense. Feast: Dec. 3.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%francium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%francium%@AE@%%@CR:FRANCIUM        @%%@QR:francium@% (Fr), radioactive element, discovered in 1939 by Marguerite%@EH@%
Perey as a disintegration product of actinium. Some of the 21 known
isotopes of this rare %@AU@%ALKALI METAL%@BO:           3cccb@%%@AE@% are prepared by bombarding thorium
with protons, deuterons, or alpha particles. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franck, Cesar Auguste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franck, Cesar Auguste%@AE@%%@CR:FRANCK          @%%@QR:Franck, Cesar Auguste@%, 1822-90, Belgian-French composer and organist. As%@EH@%
a teacher in Paris he influenced an entire generation of composers. His
distinctive music, drawing on the techniques of %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@%, includes his famous
Symphony in D minor (1886-88).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franco, Francisco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franco, Francisco%@AE@%%@CR:FRANCO          @%%@QR:Franco, Francisco@%, 1892-1975, Spanish general, %@AI@%caudillo%@AE@% leader of Spain%@EH@%
(1939-75). An army chief of staff (1934-36) and a political conservative,
he joined (1936) the Nationalist rebellion against the republic and
invaded Spain from Morocco. He became head of the rebel government (1936)
and of the fascist %@AU@%FALANGE%@BO:          319595@%%@AE@% party (1937). With German and Italian help, he
won the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@% in 1939, dealt ruthlessly with Loyalist
opponents, and established a corporate state. He kept Spain a
nonbelligerent in World War II, and in 1947 he declared Spain a kingdom
with himself regent. He named (1969) %@AU@%JUAN CARLOS%@BO:          4d6ba3@%%@AE@% as his successor and,
despite social unrest, retained power until his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franco-German War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franco-German War%@AE@%:%@CR:FRANCOGR        @%%@QR:Franco-German War@% see %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franconia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franconia%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANCONIA       @%%@QR:Franconia@% one of the five basic or stem duchies of medieval Germany, S%@EH@%
West Germany. It became (9th cent.) a duchy that included the cities of
Mainz, Wurzburg, Frankfurt, and Worms. Partitioned in 939, it remained
politically fragmented. Most of Eastern Franconia passed (1803-15) to
Bavaria.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franco-Prussian War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franco-Prussian War%@AE@%%@CR:FRANCOPWAR      @%%@QR:Franco-Prussian War@% or %@AB@%Franco-German War,%@AE@%1870-71, war provoked by%@EH@%
%@AU@%BISMARCK%@BO:          103161@%%@AE@% as part of his plan to create a unified German empire. Bismarck
surmised that his publication of the %@AU@%EMS DISPATCH%@BO:          2e9a44@%%@AE@% would goad the French
government into declaring war (on July 19, 1870) on Prussia, and that the
other German states would fall into line behind Prussia. A brilliant
campaign led by von %@AU@%MOLTKE%@BO:          626ba3@%%@AE@% brought a string of German victories,
culminating in the French rout at Sedan, where the emperor, %@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@%,
was captured (Sept. 1). In Paris, Napoleon was deposed and a provisional
government was formed, but French resistance was made useless after the
surrender of the French commander, Marshal Bazaine, at Metz (Oct. 27).
Paris, however, held out until Jan. 1871, when the Prussian siege finally
succeeded. France was forced to pay a huge indemnity and to give up most
of Alsace and Lorraine. Again Paris resisted, until the %@AU@%COMMUNE OF PARIS%@BO:          21148f@%%@AE@%
was crushed militarily by the new French government. The war had
far-reaching consequences. The German Empire was proclaimed (at
Versailles on Jan. 18, 1871), and Prussian militarism and imperialism had
triumphed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frank, Jacob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frank, Jacob%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANK           @%%@QR:Frank, Jacob@% c.1726-1791, Polish Jewish sectarian and adventurer; b.%@EH@%
Ukraine as Jacob ben Judah Leib. He founded the Frankists, a heretical
Jewish sect that was an anti-Talmudic outgrowth of the mysticism of
%@AU@%SABBATAI ZEVI%@BO:          82ad92@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frankenthaler, Helen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frankenthaler, Helen%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKENTHALER   @%%@QR:Frankenthaler, Helen@% 1928-, American painter; b. N.Y.C. A one-time%@EH@%
student of Jackson %@AU@%POLLOCK%@BO:          779e15@%%@AE@%, she is known for her lyrical and sensuous
stained canvases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frankfort%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frankfort%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKFORT       @%%@QR:Frankfort@% city (1986 est. pop. 26,920), state capital and seat of%@EH@%
Franklin co., N central Ky., cut by the Kentucky R.; est. 1786, became
capital 1792. In the bluegrass country, it is the trade center for a
tobacco and livestock area, and produces whiskey, auto parts, and other
manufactures. Many fine old homes and the graves of Daniel %@AU@%BOONE%@BO:          1213b5@%%@AE@% and his
wife are in the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frankfurt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frankfurt%@AE@%%@CR:FRANKFURT       @%%@QR:Frankfurt@% or %@AB@%Frankfurt am Main,%@AE@%city (1986 est pop. 593,400), Hesse,%@EH@%
central W Germany, on the Main R. A port and an industrial center
producing chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and other manufactures, it is the
site of major international trade fairs. Founded (1st cent AD) by the
Romans, it became a royal residence (8th cent.) under %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% and the
coronation place (1562-1792) of the Holy Roman emperors. In the 19th
cent. it was the seat of the diet of the %@AU@%GERMAN CONFEDERATION%@BO:          3971e2@%%@AE@%. The city
was the original home of the %@AU@%ROTHSCHILD%@BO:          816a61@%%@AE@% family and the birthplace of
%@AU@%GOETHE%@BO:          3b0629@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frankfurt an der Oder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frankfurt an der Oder%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKFUR.ODER   @%%@QR:Frankfurt an der Oder@% city (1980 pop. 79,679), E East Germany, a port on%@EH@%
the Oder R. It is an industrial center, agricultural market, and rail
hub. Manufactures include machinery, wood products, and frankfurter
sausages. Chartered in 1253, the city was sacked (1631) by the Swedes in
the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% and was severely damaged in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frankfurter, Felix%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frankfurter, Felix%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKFURTER     @%%@QR:Frankfurter, Felix@% 1882-1965, associate justice of the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME%@EH@%
%@AU@%COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1939-62); b. Austria; LL.B., Harvard Univ. (1906). A professor
(1914-39) at Harvard law school, he espoused liberal causes, helping to
found the %@AU@%AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION%@BO:           47906@%%@AE@% and supporting the %@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@%.
Appointed to the Court by Pres. F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%, Frankfurter tempered
liberalism with judicial restraint, holding that government could limit
civil liberties to protect itself and that the Court should not interfere
in political issues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frankfurt Parliament%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frankfurt Parliament%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKFUAMENT    @%%@QR:Frankfurt Parliament@% 1848-49, national assembly convened as a result of%@EH@%
the liberal revolution that swept Germany. Its members were popularly
elected, and its aim was the unification of Germany. It offered the
imperial crown to %@AU@%FREDERICK WILLIAM IV%@BO:          35c4d9@%%@AE@% of Prussia, but he refused the
offer because it came from a popularly elected parliament. Thereafter the
movement foundered and most members withdrew.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%frankincense%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%frankincense%@AE@%:%@CR:FRANKINCENSE    @%%@QR:frankincense@% see %@AU@%INCENSE-TREE%@BO:          471c57@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franklin, Ann Smith%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franklin, Ann Smith%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKLIN1       @%%@QR:Franklin, Ann Smith@% 1696-1763, American printer; b. Boston;%@EH@%
sister-in-law of Benjamin %@AU@%FRANKLIN%@BO:          357a50@%%@AE@%. She continued the Newport, R.I.,
business of her husband, James Franklin, after 1735, publishing almanacs,
the Newport %@AI@%Mercury,%@AE@% and colonial documents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franklin, Aretha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franklin, Aretha%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKLIN2       @%%@QR:Franklin, Aretha@% 1942-, American singer, b. Memphis. She began singing%@EH@%
in the choir of her father's church. Known as "Queen of Soul," she
recorded such hits as "Respect," "Chain of Fools," and "Who's Zoomin'
Who."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franklin, Benjamin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franklin, Benjamin%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKLIN3       @%%@QR:Franklin, Benjamin@% 1706-90, American statesman, printer, scientist, and%@EH@%
writer; b. Boston. He went (1723) to Philadelphia as a printer and won
attention for his wit and commonsense philosophy, especially as expressed
in %@AI@%Poor Richard's Almanack%@AE@% (pub. 1732-57). He helped establish (1751) an
academy that became the present Univ. of Pennsylvania, and he served as
deputy postmaster general of the colonies (1753-74). His famous
experiment with a kite in a thunderstorm proved the presence of the
electricity in lightning. Franklin proposed a plan of union for the
colonies at the %@AU@%ALBANY CONGRESS%@BO:           2d14e@%%@AE@% (1754) and was agent for several colonies
in England. Returning (1775) to America, he helped draft the %@AU@%DECLARATION
%@AU@%OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%, which he signed. During the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% he was a
successful American agent in France and was appointed (1781) a
commissioner to negotiate the peace with Britain. Franklin's last great
public service was his attendance at the %@AU@%FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL
%@AU@%CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@% (1787). His autobiography is well known. Benjamin's
illegitimate son, %@AB@%William Franklin,%@AE@% c.1730-1813, was the last royal
governor of New Jersey and a Loyalist in the American Revolution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franklin, Sir John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franklin, Sir John%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKLIN4       @%%@QR:Franklin, Sir John@% 1786-1847, British explorer in N Canada. He explored%@EH@%
the arctic coast of %@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@% on expeditions in 1819-22 and 1825-27, during
which he founded Fort Franklin. After serving as governor of Van Diemen's
Land (now %@AU@%TASMANIA%@BO:          92ffef@%%@AE@%) (1836-43) he set out to look for the %@AU@%NORTHWEST
%@AU@%PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@% in 1845. His entire expedition of 129 men was lost, their ships
apparently frozen in the ice. The tragedy inspired over 40 searches, from
which much geographical information was gained.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franklin, John Hope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franklin, John Hope%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKLIN5       @%%@QR:Franklin, John Hope@% 1915-, black American historian; b. Rentiesville,%@EH@%
Okla. Educated at Fiske University and Harvard, he was president of Phi
Beta Kappa (1973-76) and the American Historical Association (1978-79).
His works include %@AI@%From Slavery to Freedom%@AE@% (1947) and %@AI@%Racial Equality in
%@AI@%America%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franklin, State of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franklin, State of%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKLIN6       @%%@QR:Franklin, State of@% government (1784-88) formed by the inhabitants of%@EH@%
what is now E %@AU@%TENNESSEE%@BO:          93de8e@%%@AE@% after %@AU@%NORTH CAROLINA%@BO:          6b715a@%%@AE@% ceded (1784) its western
lands to the U.S. Unable to secure congressional recognition, the
government under John %@AU@%SEVIER%@BO:          876d33@%%@AE@% passed out of existence when the terms of
its officers expired. The area reverted temporarily to North Carolina.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franklin Institute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franklin Institute%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKLIUTE      @%%@QR:Franklin Institute@%  in Philadelphia, chartered in 1824 "for the%@EH@%
promotion of the mechanic arts" and noted for its lecture series, trade
exhibitions, and work on governmental, industrial, and scientific
problems. Its renowned science museum opened in 1934.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franks%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franks%@AE@%,%@CR:FRANKS          @%%@QR:Franks@% group of Germanic tribes that settled by the 3d cent. along the%@EH@%
Rhine. The Salian Franks, under %@AU@%CLOVIS I%@BO:          1f9c07@%%@AE@%, moved into %@AU@%GAUL%@BO:          385229@%%@AE@% and overthrew
(486) the Romans. Clovis united them with the Ripuarian Franks, and they
accepted Christianity and founded the %@AU@%MEROVINGIAN%@BO:          5f00c4@%%@AE@% dynasty. Their
conquests eventually encompassed most of western and central Europe,
including the kingdoms of Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy. In the 8th
cent. the rule of the %@AU@%CAROLINGIAN%@BO:          192c68@%%@AE@% dynasty was culminated by the reign of
%@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%. In 870 the kingdom of the West Franks became France and that
of the East Franks became Germany.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Franz Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Franz Joseph%@AE@%:%@CR:FRANZ.JOSEPH    @%%@QR:Franz Joseph@% see %@AU@%FRANCIS JOSEPH%@BO:          3550b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fraser, Douglas Andrew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fraser, Douglas Andrew%@AE@%,%@CR:FRASER1         @%%@QR:Fraser, Douglas Andrew@% 1916-, American labor leader; b. Scotland. He%@EH@%
began working in a Detroit auto plant at 18. After becoming active in the
United Auto Workers, he rose through the ranks as a union executive and
earned wide respect as chief negotiator with the Chrysler Corp. While
president of the UAW (1977-83), Fraser led the union in granting wage
concessions in exchange for greater job security during the severe
auto-industry slump of 1981-82. He became (1980) the first union leader
to be elected to the board of directors of an American company
(Chrysler).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fraser, John Malcolm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fraser, John Malcolm%@AE@%,%@CR:FRASER2         @%%@QR:Fraser, John Malcolm@% 1930-, Australian political leader and prime%@EH@%
minister (1975-83). In 1955 he was elected to Parliament. In 1975 he
became the leader of the opposition Liberal-Country party and prime
minister after bringing down the Labor government of Gough %@AU@%WHITLAM%@BO:          a15313@%%@AE@%.
Fraser's conservative policy included cuts in government spending.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fraser%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fraser%@AE@%,%@CR:FRASER3         @%%@QR:Fraser@% major river of British Columbia, Canada, flowing in a zigzag%@EH@%
course c.850 mi (1,370 km) from a source in the Rocky Mts. near
Yellowhead Pass, Alta., to a fertile delta on the Strait of Georgia at
Vancouver, B.C. The Fraser contains the chief spawning grounds in North
America for the Pacific salmon. Early explorers were Sir Alexander
%@AU@%MACKENZIE%@BO:          58e094@%%@AE@% (1793) and the fur trader Simon Fraser (1808).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fraternity and sorority%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fraternity and sorority%@AE@%,%@CR:FRATERNSORORITY @%%@QR:fraternity and sorority@% in American colleges, student societies formed%@EH@%
for social, literary, or religious purposes, with initiation by
invitation and occasionally by a period of trial called hazing.
Sororities are for women. Usually named with two or three Greek letters,
fraternities and sororities are also known as Greek-letter societies. %@AB@%Phi
%@AB@%Beta Kappa,%@AE@% the oldest of these societies, was founded (1776) at the
College of William and Mary (Williamsburg, Va.) and became a scholarship
honor society. Because of their entrance policies, which can be
discriminatory, fraternities and sororities are forbidden on some
campuses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fraud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fraud%@AE@%,%@CR:FRAUD           @%%@QR:fraud@% in law, willful misrepresentation intended to deprive another of%@EH@%
some right. Fraud may be actual (involving actual deceit) or constructive
(involving abuse of a relationship of trust). The remedy granted the
plaintiff in most cases of fraud is either damages for the loss incurred
or cancellation of the fraudulent %@AU@%CONTRACT%@BO:          22ea4e@%%@AE@% (or sometimes both).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frazer, Sir James George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frazer, Sir James George%@AE@%,%@CR:FRAZER          @%%@QR:Frazer, Sir James George@% 1854-1941, Scottish anthropologist. He is best%@EH@%
known for %@AI@%The Golden Bough%@AE@% (1890), a comparative study in folklore,
magic, and religion that showed parallel beliefs in primitive and
Christian cultures. The monumental work had a great impact on
early-20th-cent. thought.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERICK1      @%%@QR:Frederick@% rulers of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Frederick I%@AE@% or %@AB@%Frederick%@EH@%
%@AB@%Barbarossa,%@AE@% c.1125-90, emperor (1155-90) and German king (1152-90), was
of the %@AU@%HOHENSTAUFEN%@BO:          4375b5@%%@AE@% dynasty, but his mother was a %@AU@%GUELPH%@BO:          3e3505@%%@AE@% and Frederick
was chosen emperor in the hope that he could end the discord between the
%@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%. His coronation was delayed by unrest in Germany
and by the revolutionary commune of Rome (1143-55). He restored peace,
placated his Guelph cousin, %@AU@%HENRY THE LION%@BO:          41fc04@%%@AE@%, by restoring Bavaria to him,
and was crowned in 1155. He failed in his efforts to restore imperial
power in Italy; he was forced to recognize the %@AU@%LOMBARD LEAGUE%@BO:          5651f2@%%@AE@%, and Pope
Alexander III, whom he had opposed, excommunicated him. In Germany,
however, he succeeded in breaking the power of Henry the Lion in 1180-81.
In 1189 he joined the Third %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@% and was drowned in Cilicia, in
Turkey. %@AB@%Frederick II,%@AE@% 1194-1250, emperor (1220-50) and German king
(1212-20), king of Sicily (1197-1250), and king of Jerusalem (1229-50),
was one of the most arresting figures of the Middle Ages. He was a patron
of art and science, and greatly expanded commerce. His intense struggle
with the papacy led to the ruin of the house of Hohenstaufen. With his
rule the great days of the German empire ended and the rise of states in
Italy began. He was the son of Emperor Henry VI and Constance, heiress of
Sicily. Both died while he was an infant and the imperial crown passed
him by, but he was made king of Sicily. After %@AU@%OTTO IV%@BO:          6f695f@%%@AE@% became emperor in
1209, he alienated Pope %@AU@%INNOCENT III%@BO:          4854b3@%%@AE@% by asserting imperial authority in
Italy, and Innocent retaliated by crowning Frederick as German king
(1212). Otto was deposed (1215) and, after long negotiations, Frederick
was crowned emperor in 1220. His long-delayed crusade, when it finally
took place (1228-29), turned out to be a state visit that culminated in
Frederick's being crowned king of Jerusalem. The sporadic fighting
between emperor and pope turned into a serious breach in 1239, and
%@AU@%INNOCENT IV%@BO:          485ed5@%%@AE@% excommunicated (1245) Frederick and declared him deposed.
Just as the war had turned in his favor, Frederick died of dysentery.
%@AB@%Frederick III,%@AE@% 1415-93, emperor (1452-93) and German king (1440-93), was
generally a weak ruler, but made considerable progress toward reuniting
the %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% family lands within his own branch. His greatest success was
the acquisition of Burgundy through the marriage of his son, later
Emperor %@AU@%MAXIMILIAN I%@BO:          5d9116@%%@AE@%, to %@AU@%MARY OF BURGUNDY%@BO:          5c89e7@%%@AE@%, daughter of Charles the Bold.
After 1490 Frederick relinquished most of his duties to Maximilian. He
was the last emperor crowned at Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERICK2      @%%@QR:Frederick@% Danish kings. %@AB@%Frederick III,%@AE@% 1609-70, king of Denmark and%@EH@%
Norway (1648-70), was the son of %@AU@%CHRISTIAN IV%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@%. After disastrous wars
(1657-60) with %@AU@%CHARLES X%@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@% of Sweden, the monarchy was made hereditary and
the burghers strengthened at the expense of the nobles. Frederick's son,
%@AU@%CHRISTIAN V%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@%, succeeded him. %@AB@%Frederick IV,%@AE@% 1671-1730, king of Denmark and
Norway (1699-1730), was the son of Christian V. In the %@AU@%NORTHERN WAR%@BO:          6ba722@%%@AE@% he
failed to recover S Sweden but obtained Schleswig and Lauenburg. His son,
%@AU@%CHRISTIAN VI%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@%, succeeded him. %@AB@%Frederick V,%@AE@% 1723-66, king of Denmark and
Norway (1746-66), was Christian VI's son. He encouraged commerce and
industry, but the peasants' condition remained poor. His son, %@AU@%CHRISTIAN
%@AU@%VII%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@%, succeeded him and was the father of %@AB@%Frederick VI,%@AE@% 1768-1839, king of
Denmark (1808-39) and Norway (1808-14). In the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@%
England's attack on Denmark led him to ally himself with %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%. At
the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) he lost Norway to Sweden. His cousin
%@AU@%CHRISTIAN VIII%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@% succeeded him. The son of Christian VIII, %@AB@%Frederick VII,%@AE@%
1808-63, was king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig, Holstein, and
Lauenberg (1848-63). He accepted a constitution ending absolute monarchy.
The %@AU@%SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN%@BO:          857e77@%%@AE@% issue continued, leading to war with Prussia under
his successor, %@AU@%CHRISTIAN IX%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Frederick VIII,%@AE@% 1843-1912, king of Denmark
(1906-12), was the son of Christian IX. He fought in the 1864 war with
Prussia. His son %@AU@%CHRISTIAN X%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@% succeeded him. Another son became %@AU@%HAAKON VII%@BO:          3ed43a@%%@AE@%
of Norway. %@AB@%Frederick IX,%@AE@% 1899-1972, king of Denmark (1947-72), was the
son of Christian X. Because he had no son, the Danish constitution was
amended in 1953 to permit the succession of his daughter, Queen Margaret
II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERICK3      @%%@QR:Frederick@% German kings: see %@AU@%FREDERICK%@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick II%@AE@%%@CR:FREDERICK.II    @%%@QR:Frederick II@% or %@AB@%Frederick the Great,%@AE@% 1712-86, king of Prussia (1740-86),%@EH@%
son and successor of %@AU@%FREDERICK WILLIAM I%@BO:          35c4d9@%%@AE@%. He spent a miserable youth,
ill-treated and despised by his father, and at one time was imprisoned
for desertion. Once king, however, he displayed unexpected qualities of
leadership and decision, becoming one of the great military generals of
all time. His exploits in the War of the %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@% (1740-48)
and the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@% (1756-63) made Prussia the greatest military
power in Europe. He was the prime mover in the first Partition of %@AU@%POLAND%@BO:          7762ec@%%@AE@%
(1772), which vastly increased his kingdom. He was less successful in the
War of the %@AU@%BAVARIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           d2f9a@%%@AE@% (1778-79), in which he was thwarted by
Emperor Joseph II. A "benevolent despot," Frederick promoted important
legal and social reforms. He was a great patron of the arts and
surrounded himself with intellectuals. His taste for French culture and
his stormy friendship with %@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@% are well known. He was a champion of
religious liberty, and his philosophy was materialistic and skeptical. He
wrote mediocre poetry and excellent prose (in French); and he composed
passable music, especially for the flute, which he played well. He was
childless and was succeeded by his nephew, %@AU@%FREDERICK WILLIAM II%@BO:          35c4d9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick Augustus I and II, electors of Saxony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick Augustus I and II, electors of Saxony%@AE@%:%@CR:FREDERID.II     @%%@QR:Frederick Augustus I and II, electors of Saxony@% see %@AU@%AUGUSTUS II%@BO:           9d1b2@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%AUGUSTUS III %@BO:           9d1b2@%%@AE@%under %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9d1b2@%%@AE@%, kings of Poland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick Barbarossa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick Barbarossa%@AE@%:%@CR:FREDERIROSSA    @%%@QR:Frederick Barbarossa@% see %@AU@%FREDERICK I %@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%under %@AU@%FREDERICK, %@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%rulers of the Holy%@EH@%
Roman Empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERICK.HENRY @%%@QR:Frederick Henry@% 1584-1647, prince of Orange, son of %@AU@%WILLIAM THE SILENT%@BO:          a1efe5@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
He succeeded (1625) his brother %@AU@%MAURICE OF NASSAU%@BO:          5d661b@%%@AE@% as stadtholder of the
United Provinces. In 1635 he signed a pact with France and Sweden against
the Hapsburgs in the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@%. During his rule commerce, science,
and art (see %@AU@%HALS%@BO:          3f6361@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%REMBRANDT%@BO:          7dea0f@%%@AE@%) flourished, and his title was made
hereditary in his family. He was succeeded by his son, %@AU@%WILLIAM II%@BO:          a1cdc2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fredericksburg, battle of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fredericksburg, battle of%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERICKSBURG  @%%@QR:Fredericksburg, battle of@% in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, fought Dec. 13, 1862,%@EH@%
at Fredericksburg, Va., in which Union troops under Gen. Ambrose Burnside
were repulsed in their efforts to reach Richmond by the forces of R.E.
%@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@%, Stonewall %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4ab6a8@%%@AE@%, and James %@AU@%LONGSTREET%@BO:          56963c@%%@AE@%; it was a major Union defeat
with more than 12,000 Union casualities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick the Great%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick the Great%@AE@%:%@CR:FREDERIREAT     @%%@QR:Frederick the Great@% see %@AU@%FREDERICK II, %@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@%king of Prussia.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick the Winter King%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick the Winter King%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERING       @%%@QR:Frederick the Winter King@% 1596-1632, king of Bohemia (1619-20, or during%@EH@%
one winter; hence his sobriquet) and elector palatine (1610-20) as
Frederick V. The Protestant diet of Bohemia deposed the Catholic King
Ferdinand (Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FERDINAND II%@BO:          3276fe@%%@AE@%) and named Frederick king,
thus precipitating the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@%. When he did not receive the
expected Protestant support, he was defeated (1620) at White Mountain and
forced to give up all his lands. He was the father of Prince %@AU@%RUPERT%@BO:          81ff4d@%%@AE@% and
of the Electress %@AU@%SOPHIA%@BO:          8b9ef9@%%@AE@%, the forebear of the British ruling family the
Hanovers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick William%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERIAM1      @%%@QR:Frederick William@% kings of Prussia. %@AB@%Frederick William I,%@AE@% 1688-1740%@EH@%
(r.1713-40), created a strong, absolutist state, instituting
administrative reforms and rigid economy. He also built up the Prussian
army, but except for a brief intervention in the Northern War (1700-21)
he observed peace. He was a coarse man who had contempt for his gifted
son, who succeeded him as %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% (Frederick the Great). %@AB@%Frederick
%@AB@%William II,%@AE@% 1744-97 (r.1786-97), was the nephew and successor of
Frederick II (the Great). He was defeated in the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
%@AU@%WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@% and signed a separate peace (1795) with the French. He participated
in the second and third partition of %@AU@%POLAND%@BO:          7762ec@%%@AE@% (1793, 1795). He was a patron
of %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AB@%Frederick William III,%@AE@% 1770-1840 (r.1797-1840),
suffered crushing defeat by the French, and the Treaty of Tilsit (1807)
made Prussia virtually a French vassal. Though he was weak and
vacillating, he surrounded himself with able administrators who made
valuable reforms. He grew increasingly reactionary in his old age.
%@AB@%Frederick William IV,%@AE@% 1795-1861 (r.1840-61), was the son and successor of
Frederick William III. A romanticist, mystic, and halfhearted liberal, he
nonetheless crushed the %@AU@%REVOLUTION OF 1848%@BO:          7e9062@%%@AE@% and refused the imperial crown
because it was offered by a popularly elected body, the %@AU@%FRANKFURT
%@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          357432@%%@AE@%. In 1857 his mental imbalance necessitated the regency of his
brother and successor, William I.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frederick William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frederick William%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERIAM2      @%%@QR:Frederick William@% known as the %@AB@%Great Elector%@AE@%, 1620-88, elector of%@EH@%
Brandenburg (1640-88). He rebuilt his devastated state after the %@AU@%THIRTY
%@AU@%YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% and added greatly to his domains. He secured East Pomerania and
other territories in 1648, and secured full sovereignty over Prussia in
1660. He was succeeded by his son Frederick, who in 1701 crowned himself
"king in Prussia" and styled himself Frederick I.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fredericton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fredericton%@AE@%,%@CR:FREDERICTON     @%%@QR:Fredericton@% city (1986 pop. 44,352), capital of New Brunswick, E Canada,%@EH@%
on the St. John R. Wood products are a major manufacture. It was founded
(1783) by United Empire Loyalists at the site of Ste. Anne, an abandoned
village of French %@AU@%ACADIA%@BO:            913e@%%@AE@%. It became provincial capital in 1785.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freedom of Information Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freedom of Information Act%@AE@%%@CR:FREEDOMACT      @%%@QR:Freedom of Information Act@% (1966), law requiring that U.S. government%@EH@%
agencies release their records to the public on request, unless the
information sought falls into a category specifically exempted, such as
national security, an individual's right to privacy (see %@AU@%PRIVACY ACT OF
%@AU@%1974%@BO:          79b7c4@%%@AE@%), or internal agency management. The act provides for court review
of agency refusals to furnish identifiable records. The U.S. and some
states have also adopted so-called sunshine laws that require
governmental bodies, as a matter of general policy, to hold open
meetings, announced in advance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%freedom of the press%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%freedom of the press%@AE@%:%@CR:FREEDOMPRESS    @%%@QR:freedom of the press@% see %@AU@%PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE%@BO:          7958c6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%free fall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%free fall%@AE@%,%@CR:FREE.FALL       @%%@QR:free fall@% in physics, the state of a body moving solely under the%@EH@%
influence of gravitational forces (see %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%). A body falling
freely toward the surface of the earth undergoes an acceleration (see
%@AU@%MOTION%@BO:          64539b@%%@AE@%) equal to 32 ft/sec%@AH@%2%@AE@% (9.8 m/sec%@AH@%2%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freeman, Douglas Southall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freeman, Douglas Southall%@AE@%,%@CR:FREEMAN         @%%@QR:Freeman, Douglas Southall@% 1886-1953, American historian; b. Lynchburg,%@EH@%
Va. A retired newspaper editor, he wrote superb works on the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%,
including %@AI@%R.E. Lee%@AE@% (4 vol., 1934-35; Pulitzer) and %@AI@%Lee's Lieutenants%@AE@% (3
vol., 1942-44). He also wrote a biography of George Washington (7 vol.,
1949-57; Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freeman's Farm, battle of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freeman's Farm, battle of%@AE@%:%@CR:FREEMANS.FARM   @%%@QR:Freeman's Farm, battle of@% see %@AU@%SARATOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          847e59@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freemasonry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freemasonry%@AE@%,%@CR:FREEMASONRY     @%%@QR:Freemasonry@% teachings and practices of the secret fraternal order known%@EH@%
as the Free and Accepted Masons. There are 6 million members worldwide,
mostly in the U.S. and other English-speaking countries, and no central
authority. Its ideals include fellowship, religious toleration, and
political compromise. Drawing on guild practices of medieval
stone-masons, the order's first Grand Lodge was organized in London
(1717). In America, Masons were active in the Revolution and continued as
a force in later politics. In Europe, they included %@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GOETHE%@BO:          3b0629@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%HAYDN%@BO:          40ade8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MAZZINI%@BO:          5dc76d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GARIBALDI%@BO:          37ffaf@%%@AE@%. Freemasonry's identification with
19th-cent. bourgeois liberalism led to reaction, e.g., in the U.S., the
%@AU@%ANTI-MASONIC PARTY%@BO:           648b1@%%@AE@%; its anticlericalism brought the hostility of the
Roman Catholic Church. Totalitarian states have always suppressed
Freemasonry. Masons have a complex systems of rites and degrees,
subsidiary organizations for women and children, and lodges noted for
their parades and fraternal gatherings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freer, Charles Lang%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freer, Charles Lang%@AE@%,%@CR:FREER           @%%@QR:Freer, Charles Lang@% 1856-1919, American art collector and industrialist;%@EH@%
b. Kingston, N.Y. Retiring in 1900, he devoted himself to a collection
particularly rich in Oriental art and the works of %@AU@%WHISTLER%@BO:          a1231a@%%@AE@%. He presented
his collection and the building that houses it to the %@AU@%SMITHSONIAN
%@AU@%INSTITUTION%@BO:          8a75c2@%%@AE@%, and it became the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%freesia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%freesia%@AE@%:%@CR:FREESIA         @%%@QR:freesia@% see %@AU@%IRIS%@BO:          499e03@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%free silver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%free silver%@AE@%,%@CR:FREE.SILVER     @%%@QR:free silver@% in U.S. history, a political movement for the unlimited%@EH@%
coinage of silver. Supported by silver-mining interests, by indebted
agrarian classes of the South and West, and later by Populists (see
%@AU@%POPULIST PARTY%@BO:          7841be@%%@AE@%) and Democrats, free silver was a hotly contested issue in
the late 19th cent. Debtors believed that more money in circulation would
permit them to pay their debts with inflated dollars. The %@AU@%BLAND-ALLISON
%@AU@%ACT%@BO:          10c7a0@%%@AE@% (1878) and the %@AU@%SHERMAN SILVER PURCHASE ACT%@BO:          8842d4@%%@AE@% (1890) were compromises
that failed to satisfy the silverites. The defeat of free-silver champion
W.J. %@AU@%BRYAN%@BO:          14ce74@%%@AE@% in the presidential elections of 1896 and 1900, coupled with
increasing gold supplies and returning prosperity, minimized the issue
thereafter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Free-Soil party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Free-Soil party%@AE@%,%@CR:FREESOIL.PARTY  @%%@QR:Free-Soil party@% U.S. political party born in 1847-48 to oppose the%@EH@%
extension of %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@% into territories newly gained from Mexico. In 1848
the Free-Soil party ran Martin %@AU@%VAN BUREN%@BO:          9ba53c@%%@AE@% and C.F. Adams (see %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:            f417@%%@AE@%,
family) for president and vice president; by polling 300,000 votes it
gave New York state to the Whigs and thus made Zachary %@AU@%TAYLOR%@BO:          9336f3@%%@AE@% president.
After the %@AU@%COMPROMISE OF 1850%@BO:          2162e3@%%@AE@% seemed to settle the slavery-extension
issue, the group known as the %@AU@%BARNBURNERS%@BO:           c5c27@%%@AE@% left the Free-Soilers to return
to the Democratic party, but radicals kept the Free-Soil party alive
until 1854, when the new %@AU@%REPUBLICAN PARTY%@BO:          7e5712@%%@AE@% absorbed it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freetown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freetown%@AE@%,%@CR:FREETOWN        @%%@QR:Freetown@% city (1987 pop. 469,776), capital of Sierra Leone, W Sierra%@EH@%
Leone, on the Atlantic Ocean. It is the nation's largest city and chief
port. Industries include food processing and oil refining. A highway link
to %@AU@%MONROVIA%@BO:          631060@%%@AE@%, Liberia, was under construction in the early 1980s. Freetown
was founded in 1792 by former slaves from Nova Scotia; descendants of
liberated slaves (called Creoles), though a minority, play a leading role
in the modern city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%free trade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%free trade%@AE@%:%@CR:FREE.TRADE      @%%@QR:free trade@% see %@AU@%TRADE%@BO:          971a1e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%free verse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%free verse%@AE@%,%@CR:FREE.VERSE      @%%@QR:free verse@% loose term for verse free of conventional limitations and%@EH@%
metrical restrictions. Cadence, particularly of common speech, is often
substituted. The term comes from the %@AI@%vers libre%@AE@% of Jules Laforgue, Arthur
%@AU@%RIMBAUD%@BO:          7f56cc@%%@AE@%, and others who rejected the classical %@AU@%ALEXANDRINE%@BO:           37192@%%@AE@%. The term has
been applied to the King James translation of the Bible, and is
associated with Walt %@AU@%WHITMAN%@BO:          a1568a@%%@AE@%, Ezra %@AU@%POUND%@BO:          78c4da@%%@AE@%, T.S. %@AU@%ELIOT%@BO:          2e17ee@%%@AE@%, and other modern
poets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%free will%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%free will%@AE@%,%@CR:FREE.WILL       @%%@QR:free will@% in philosophy, the doctrine that the will of an individual can%@EH@%
and does determine some of his acts. %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@% held that actions are
determined by the extent of a person's understanding. Christian ethics
have long disputed the extent of human dependence on the power of God:
St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LUTHER%@BO:          57f60a@%%@AE@%, and John %@AU@%CALVIN%@BO:          176dba@%%@AE@% followed the doctrine of
predestination or divine grace, while St. %@AU@%THOMAS AQUINAS%@BO:          952e01@%%@AE@% held that God's
omnipotence does not include the predetermination of human will. Later
advocates of free will have referred to common practice: Individuals
believe they determine their actions and hold one another accountable for
doing so. Modern psychology has introduced the concept of the %@AU@%UNCONSCIOUS%@BO:          99a49e@%%@AE@%
as a motivating force.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%freezing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%freezing%@AE@%:%@CR:FREEZING        @%%@QR:freezing@% see %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frege, Gottlob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frege, Gottlob%@AE@%%@CR:FREGE           @%%@QR:Frege, Gottlob@%, 1848-1925, German philosopher and mathematician. Frege%@EH@%
was one of the founders of symbolic logic (see %@AU@%LOGIC%@BO:          5634cd@%%@AE@%) and a major
influence on Bertrand %@AU@%RUSSELL%@BO:          821747@%%@AE@% and Russell's student Ludwig %@AU@%WITTGENSTEIN%@BO:          a2a8ed@%%@AE@%.
He demonstrated that mathematics is derived solely from deductive logic
and is not synthetic, as Kant had posited. He also believed that verbal
conceptualizations can be translated into logical form. After Russell and
others had pointed out some serious contradictions in vol. 2 of his major
work, %@AI@%The Basic Laws of Arithmetic%@AE@% (1893-1903), Frege virtually ceased to
produce original work. Nevertheless, his contributions to the development
of modern mathematical theory and the theory of meaning are of prime
importance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fremont, John Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fremont, John Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:FREMONT1        @%%@QR:Fremont, John Charles@% 1813-90, American explorer, soldier, and political%@EH@%
leader; b. Savannah, Ga. His enthusiastic reports of his Western
explorations (1841-44) created wide interest in that region. He was a
leader (1846) in the revolt of California against Mexico until he
quarreled with S.W. %@AU@%KEARNY%@BO:          4eb657@%%@AE@% in Kearny's contest for command with Robert
Stockton. Fremont was U.S. senator from California (1850-51) and
Republican candidate for president in 1856. He commanded the Western
Dept. in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% but was removed because of his radical policy
toward slaveholders. He lost his fortune (1870) in a railroad venture.
Later, he was governor (1878-83) of Arizona Territory. He was called the
Pathfinder.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fremont%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fremont%@AE@%,%@CR:FREMONT2        @%%@QR:Fremont@% city (1986 est. pop. 153,580), W Calif., on San Francisco Bay;%@EH@%
inc. 1956. Long an agricultural center with champagne vineyards, it still
has breweries and canneries, but the 1963 opening of an
automobile-assembly plant transformed it into a fast-growing industrial
city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French, Daniel Chester%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French, Daniel Chester%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH          @%%@QR:French, Daniel Chester@% 1850-1931, American sculptor; b. Exeter, N.H.%@EH@%
After executing his first large work, %@AI@%The Minute Man%@AE@% (1875; Concord,
Mass.), he received many commissions for public statues. His most famous
is the heroic figure of Abraham Lincoln in the %@AU@%LINCOLN MEMORIAL%@BO:          5551d7@%%@AE@% (Wash.,
D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French and Indian Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French and Indian Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.AN.WARS  @%%@QR:French and Indian Wars@% 1689-1763, a series of colonial campaigns in%@EH@%
North America between England and France, corresponding to wars between
European alliances in the worldwide struggle for empire. In America,
seaboard strongholds and western forts were seized, and the settlers
suffered the horrors of Indian border warfare. %@AI@%King William's War%@AE@%
(1688-97), linked to the War of the %@AU@%GRAND ALLIANCE%@BO:          3c2b5d@%%@AE@%, consisted chiefly of
frontier attacks on the British colonies. %@AI@%Queen Anne's War%@AE@% (1702-13)
corresponded to the War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@%, and %@AI@%King George's War%@AE@%
(1744-48) to the War of the %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%. The last and most
important conflict, called simply the %@AI@%French and Indian War%@AE@% (1754-63),
was linked to the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@%. Jeffrey %@AU@%AMHERST%@BO:           4ae82@%%@AE@% took Louisbourg
(1758), and Quebec and Montreal also fell (1759-60) to the British. The
war ended French control in Canada and the West (see %@AU@%PARIS, TREATY OF%@BO:          714f41@%%@AE@%).
After the wars the American colonies felt less dependent militarily on
the British; they began to concentrate on their own problems and
institutions, and to think of themselves as American rather than British.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Community%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Community%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.Y        @%%@QR:French Community@% established in 1958 to replace the %@AU@%FRENCH UNION%@BO:          363df0@%%@AE@%. Its%@EH@%
purpose was to create a political federation for France and all its
overseas departments and territories. However, since all of France's
African colonies chose total independence, the French Community never
achieved its aims. After 1962 it operated primarily as a vehicle for
fostering military, economic, technical, and cultural cooperation among
its members.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French East India Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French East India Company%@AE@%:%@CR:FRENCH.NY       @%%@QR:French East India Company@% see %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY, FRENCH%@BO:          2beb29@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Equatorial Africa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Equatorial Africa%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.A        @%%@QR:French Equatorial Africa@% former French federation of territories in W%@EH@%
central Africa (1910-58), comprising what are now %@AU@%GABON%@BO:          3718e0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHAD%@BO:          1b2ab1@%%@AE@%, the
%@AU@%CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC%@BO:          1ae521@%%@AE@%, and the People's Republic of the %@AU@%CONGO%@BO:          21f259@%%@AE@%. It was
dissolved (1958) when the members became constituent republics within the
%@AU@%FRENCH COMMUNITY%@BO:          360495@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Guiana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Guiana%@AE@%%@CR:FRENCH.GUIANA   @%%@QR:French Guiana@%, Fr. %@AI@%La Guyane francaise,%@AE@% French overseas department (1987%@EH@%
est. pop. 89,000), 35,135 sq mi (91,000 sq km), NE South America,
bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (N), Suriname (E), and Brazil (S and E).
%@AU@%CAYENNE%@BO:          1a855a@%%@AE@% is the capital. The population, largely Creole, is concentrated
along the coast. The economy rests on the export of shrimp, timber, and
rum; there are deposits of gold and bauxite. A rocket-launching base for
communications satellites is located at Kourou, on the coast. French
settlement dates from 1604; following periods of Dutch and British rule,
French authority was restored in 1815. Guiana was made an overseas
department in 1947. French Guiana was used as a penal colony during the
French Revolution, and permanent penal camps were established under
Napoleon III; %@AU@%DEVILS ISLAND%@BO:          28718a@%%@AE@%, off the coast, was especially notorious.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French horn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French horn%@AE@%:%@CR:FRENCH.HORN     @%%@QR:French horn@% see %@AU@%WIND INSTRUMENT%@BO:          a231ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French language%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.LANGUAGE @%%@QR:French language@% member of the Romance group of the Italic subfamily of%@EH@%
the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Polynesia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Polynesia%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.A        @%%@QR:French Polynesia@% overseas territory of France (1987 est. pop. 184,600),%@EH@%
105 islands in the South Pacific. The capital is Papeete, on %@AU@%TAHITI%@BO:          924ddc@%%@AE@%. It
comprises the Society Islands; Marquesas Islands; Austral Islands;
Tuamotu Islands; and Gambier Islands. Tropical fruits are grown, vanilla
and copra exported. There is a governor, council, and elected assembly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.ON       @%%@QR:French Revolution@% political upheaval that began in France in 1789 and%@EH@%
eventually affected the whole world. Historians differ widely as to its
causes. Some see it as an intellectual movement, born from the liberal
%@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@% of the 18th cent.; some, as a rebellion of the
underprivileged classes against feudal oppression; others, as the
assertion of the new capitalist bourgeoisie against an outdated and
restricted social and economic system-in the fixed order of the ancien
regime, France was still ruled by two privileged classes, the nobility
and the clergy, who refused to give up any of their privileges and
supplemented their dwindling funds by exacting dues from the more
productive bourgeoisie. The immediate cause of the revolution was without
doubt the bankrupt state of the public treasury. The wars of the 17th and
18th cent., an iniquitous and inefficient system of taxation,
intervention in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, and waste had resulted in a
gigantic public debt, which neither %@AU@%NECKER%@BO:          67fd3c@%%@AE@%, nor %@AU@%CALONNE%@BO:          1765c1@%%@AE@%, nor Lomenie de
Brienne was able to reduce. As a last resort, %@AU@%LOUIS XVI%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% called the
%@AU@%STATES-GENERAL%@BO:          8e5ccc@%%@AE@%, which, it was hoped, would pass the necessary fiscal
reforms. It convened at %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd581@%%@AE@% on May 5, 1789, for the first time
since 1614. From the start, the deputies of the third estate-the
commons-joined by many members of the lower clergy and by a few nobles,
pressed for sweeping political and social reforms that far exceeded the
assembly's powers. Defying the king, they proclaimed themselves the
National Assembly (June 17), and, on an indoor tennis court, took an oath
not to separate until a constitution had been drawn up. The king yielded
and legalized the Assembly, but his dismissal of Necker led to the
storming of the %@AU@%BASTILLE%@BO:           cf4c5@%%@AE@% by an excited Paris mob (July 14). Louis XVI,
ever anxious to avoid bloodshed, gave in once more; Necker was recalled;
the commune was established as the city government of Paris; and the
National Guard was organized. On Aug. 4, 1789, the Assembly abolished all
feudal privileges. Meanwhile, rumors of counterrevolutionary court
intrigues were exploited by extremist demagogues, and on Oct. 5 a mob
marched to Versailles and forcibly moved the royal family and the
Assembly to Paris. There the Assembly drafted a constitution (1791) that
created a limited monarchy with a unicameral legislature (the Legislative
Assembly) elected by voters who had the requisite property
qualifications; the preamble was the famous %@AU@%DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF
%@AU@%MAN AND CITIZEN%@BO:          273eef@%%@AE@%. Earlier, anticlerical legislation had been capped when
the clergy was required to take oaths to civil authority (1790), a
measure that alienated many pious rural districts from the Revolution.
The king decided to join those nobles who had already fled abroad
(emigres), but his flight (June 20-21, 1791) was arrested at Varennes.
Brought back in humiliation to Paris, Louis accepted the new
constitution. In the Legislative Assembly, the republican %@AU@%GIRONDISTS%@BO:          3a65ee@%%@AE@% and
the extreme %@AU@%JACOBINS%@BO:          4ace57@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CORDELIERS%@BO:          234185@%%@AE@% gained the upper hand. "Liberty,
Equality, Fraternity" became a catch phrase. Elsewhere, the emigres were
inciting other European courts to intervene. The Declaration of Pillnitz
played into the hands of the Girondists, who hoped that a foreign war
would rally the nation to the republican cause. With the declaration of
war on Austria (April 20, 1792), the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@% began.
Early reverses and rumors of treason by the king and Queen %@AU@%MARIE
%@AU@%ANTOINETTE%@BO:          5bb3b5@%%@AE@% brought the lower classes, especially those in Paris, into
action. In Aug. 1792 a mob stormed the %@AU@%TUILERIES%@BO:          987ca4@%%@AE@% palace and an
insurrectionary commune replaced the legally elected one (see %@AU@%COMMUNE OF
%@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          21148f@%%@AE@%); all police power was seized by the Paris commune (dominated by
%@AU@%DANTON%@BO:          2664f9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARAT%@BO:          5b5cee@%%@AE@%); the Assembly suspended the king and ordered elections
for a National Convention to draw up yet another constitution; and
hundreds of royal prisoners were killed by "spontaneous" mobs in the
September massacres (Sept. 2-7, 1792). On Sept. 21 the Convention
abolished the monarchy, set up the First Republic, and proceeded to try
the king for treason. Louis's conviction and execution (Jan. 1793) led to
royalist uprisings, notably in the vendee, and was followed by the %@AU@%REIGN
%@AU@%OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@%, in which %@AU@%ROBESPIERRE%@BO:          7fb6dc@%%@AE@% and his associates triumphed in turn over
the more moderate Girondists and over his rivals Danton and J.R. %@AU@%HEBERT%@BO:          41125e@%%@AE@%.
The republican constitution never became active; the Committee of Public
Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal reigned supreme. Robespierre's
final excesses frightened the Convention into the coup d'etat of 9
Thermidor (July 27, 1794), which resulted in his execution and a period
of relative reaction. Under the new constitution of 1795, the %@AU@%DIRECTORY%@BO:          29442d@%%@AE@%
came into existence. Its rule was marked by corruption, intrigues,
runaway inflation, bankruptcy, and a fatal dependence on the army; it was
ended by Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire (see %@AU@%NAPOLEON
%@AU@%I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%). With the establishment of the Consulate (followed in 1804 by
Napoleon's empire), the victory of the bourgeoisie became final. With the
French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars, the French Revolution
tore down the medieval structures of Europe, opened the paths of
19th-cent. liberalism, and hastened the advent of nationalism. See also
%@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR%@BO:          362b58@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Revolutionary calendar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Revolutionary calendar%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.LENDAR   @%%@QR:French Revolutionary calendar@% the official %@AU@%CALENDAR%@BO:          170f32@%%@AE@% of France, Nov. 24,%@EH@%
1793-Dec. 31, 1805. Supposedly philosophical in its basis, it was divided
into 12 months of 30 days: Vendemiaire (vintage month); Brumaire (fog);
Frimaire (sleet); Nivose (snow); Pluviose (rain); Ventose (wind);
Germinal (seed); Floreal (blossom); Prairial (pasture); Messidor
(harvest); Thermidor or Fervidor (heat); Fructidor (fruit). The remaining
five days, called %@AI@%sans-culottides,%@AE@% were feast days named for Virtue,
Genius, Labor, Reason, and Rewards, respectively. In leap years the extra
day, the last of the year, was Revolution Day. There was no week; the
months were divided into three decades, with every 10th day %@AI@%(decadi)%@AE@% a
day of rest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Revolutionary Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Revolutionary Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.RS       @%%@QR:French Revolutionary Wars@% 1792-1802, general European war precipitated%@EH@%
by the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%, which had aroused in foreign lands the
hostility of monarchs, nobles, and clergy, all of whom feared the spread
of republican ideas to the lower classes. They looked upon war as the
only way to restore %@AU@%LOUIS XVI%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% (still nominally king of France) to his
full powers. For their part, the revolutionaries in France looked upon
war as a way of insuring permanence to their revolution by spreading it
abroad. Thus, with both sides wanting it, war seemed inevitable. In
August 1791 Austria and Prussia called for the restoration of Louis, an
act that angered French public opinion. The radical %@AU@%GIRONDISTS%@BO:          3a65ee@%%@AE@% assumed
power in March 1792, and on Apr. 20, 1792, France declared war on
Austria. Meeting little resistance at first, allied Austrian and Prussian
armies invaded France, but the cannonade at Valmay (Sept. 20) revealed
the superiority of French artillery and proved a turning point. The
French overran the Austrian Netherlands, invaded Germany, and seized
Savoy and Nice from Sardinia. Louis XVI was executed (Jan. 21, 1793), an
act that led to the formation of the First Coalition (Austria, Prussia,
Great Britain, Holland, Spain). The French, led by Lazare %@AU@%CARNOT%@BO:          1912d2@%%@AE@%, raised
new armies and by the end of 1793 had driven the allies from France.
Holland, Prussia, and Spain all made peace in 1795. Napoleon Bonaparte
contributed stunning French victories in Italy, and by 1797 only Britain
remained in the war. Bonaparte's strike against Britain in Egypt was
disastrous, and the English destroyed (1798) the French fleet at Aboukir.
In 1798 a Second Coalition was formed, consisting of Britain, Russia,
Austria, Turkey, Portugal, and Naples. The French victory over the
Russians at Zurich took Russia out of the war. Napoleon Bonaparte, back
in France, declared himself First Consul (November 1799). In 1800
Bonaparte inflicted a heavy defeat on the Austrians at Marengo, and the
Second Coalition collapsed (1801) when Austria consented to the Peace of
Luneville. Once more, only the British persevered. They expelled the
French from Egypt and destroyed the Danish fleet. (The Danes had refused
to abide by British rules of neutrality.) But the British public was
weary of fighting, and in 1802 the Treaty of %@AU@%AMIENS%@BO:           4b20a@%%@AE@% concluded the war.
The French Revolutionary Wars had transformed the political landscape of
Europe. With their victories the French had created a whole series of new
political entities: the Batavian Republic (Holland), the Helvetic
Republic (Switzerland), the Parthenopian Republic (Naples), the Cisalpine
Republic (various Italian states), and the Roman Republic (the Papal
States). Peace was short-lived, however; in 1803 the Napoleonic Wars
began (see %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Southern and Antarctic Lands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Southern and Antarctic Lands%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.ARCTIC.  @%%@QR:French Southern and Antarctic Lands@% overseas territory of France,%@EH@%
including Adelie Land, which covers c.200,000 sq mi (520,000 sq km) in
%@AU@%ANTARCTICA%@BO:           5f5e2@%%@AE@%, and a number of islands in the S Indian Ocean. The largest of
these is Kerguelen (1,318 sq mi/3,414 sq km). One of 300 islands in the
Kerguelen Archipelago, it is a base for research, seal-hunting, and
whaling. The Crozet Islands, to the west, and Saint Paul and Amsterdam
islands, to the northeast, are also part of the territory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French Union%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French Union%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.UNION    @%%@QR:French Union@% former political entity (1946-58) that comprised%@EH@%
metropolitan France (France proper and Corsica) and its overseas
territories. It replaced the colonial system and was superseded by the
%@AU@%FRENCH COMMUNITY%@BO:          360495@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%French West Africa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%French West Africa%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENCH.ICA      @%%@QR:French West Africa@% former federation of French territories in W Africa%@EH@%
(1895-1959) that comprised Dahomey, French Guinea, French Sudan, Ivory
Coast, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Burkina Faso. It was dissolved in
1959 as the territories moved toward independence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freneau, Philip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freneau, Philip%@AE@%,%@CR:FRENEAU         @%%@QR:Freneau, Philip@% 1752-1832, American writer; b. N.Y.C. America's first%@EH@%
professional journalist, he was a propagandist for the %@AU@%AMERICAN
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and Jeffersonian democracy. His fame rests on such lyrical
poems as "The Wild Honeysuckle," "The Indian Burial Ground," and "Eutaw
Springs." His poem %@AI@%The British Prison Ship%@AE@% (1781) recorded his captivity
on a British brig.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freon%@AE@%,%@CR:FREON           @%%@QR:Freon@% trade name for any of a special class of chemical compounds used%@EH@%
as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, and solvents. Freons are
%@AU@%HYDROCARBON%@BO:          45e32c@%%@AE@% derivatives that contain fluorine and often chlorine and
bromine as well. They are generally colorless, odorless, nontoxic,
noncorrosive, and nonflammable. Though usually unreactive, freons are now
suspected to undergo reactions in the upper atmosphere that may damage
the earth's %@AU@%OZONE%@BO:          6fdb76@%%@AE@% layer. The most commonly used is Freon-12, or
dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl%@AH@%2%@AE@%F%@AH@%2%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%frequency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%frequency%@AE@%:%@CR:FREQUENCY       @%%@QR:frequency@% see %@AU@%HARMONIC MOTION%@BO:          4005c8@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WAVE%@BO:          9fd548@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%frequency modulation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%frequency modulation%@AE@%:%@CR:FREQUENATION    @%%@QR:frequency modulation@% see %@AU@%MODULATION%@BO:          621997@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fresco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fresco%@AE@%,%@CR:FRESCO          @%%@QR:fresco@% the art of painting on plaster. Pure fresco is painted on damp,%@EH@%
fresh lime plaster. The binder is in the lime, which, in drying, forms a
calcium carbonate that incorporates the pigment with the material of the
wall. Fresco does not permit a large palette or delicate transitional
tones, as does oil, but its clear, luminous color and permanence make it
ideal for monumental murals. An ancient technique, fresco was employed in
the Minoan palace at Cnossos and used by the Romans for decoration,
notably at %@AU@%POMPEII%@BO:          77fbbc@%%@AE@%. It was perfected by the masters of the Italian
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%, who customarily prepared a %@AU@%CARTOON%@BO:          197dfd@%%@AE@% and transferred the
design to wet plaster. For large frescoes the plaster was applied to
small sections daily, each painted in a day. Fresco was revived in
20th-cent. Mexico with the work of Jose Clemente %@AU@%OROZCO%@BO:          6ef940@%%@AE@%, Diego %@AU@%RIVERA%@BO:          7f7b8a@%%@AE@%,
and other artists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frescobaldi, Girolamo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frescobaldi, Girolamo%@AE@%,%@CR:FRESCOBALDI     @%%@QR:Frescobaldi, Girolamo@% 1583-1643, Italian composer. He became organist at%@EH@%
St. Peter's Church, Rome, in 1608, and at the Medici Court, Florence
(1628-34). His style traveled to Germany and influenced organists through
J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@%. He wrote many %@AU@%ORGAN%@BO:          6ead26@%%@AE@% works and some instrumental and vocal
music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fresnel, Augustin Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fresnel, Augustin Jean%@AE@%%@CR:FRESNEL         @%%@QR:Fresnel, Augustin Jean@%, 1788-1827, French physicist and engineer. His%@EH@%
investigations of light, especially interference phenomena in %@AU@%POLARIZED
%@AU@%LIGHT%@BO:          776913@%%@AE@% and double refraction, supported the wave theory of light and the
concept of transverse vibrations in light waves. He also devised a way of
producing circularly polarized light.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fresno%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fresno%@AE@%,%@CR:FRESNO          @%%@QR:Fresno@% city (1986 est. pop. 284,660), seat of Fresno co., S central%@EH@%
Calif.; founded 1872, inc. 1885. It is the financial hub of the %@AU@%SAN
%@AU@%JOAQUIN%@BO:          841420@%%@AE@% Valley. Grapes, figs, cotton, and vegetables are grown in the
area, and Fresno co. leads all U.S. counties in the value of agricultural
products sold. The city is also a railroad, marketing, and processing
center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freud, Sigmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freud, Sigmund%@AE@%,%@CR:FREUD1          @%%@QR:Freud, Sigmund@% 1856-1939, Austrian psychiatrist, founder of%@EH@%
%@AU@%PSYCHOANALYSIS%@BO:          7a7b44@%%@AE@%; b. Vienna. M.D., 1881, Univ. of Vienna. Early in his
career Freud collaborated with Josef %@AU@%BREUER%@BO:          13bbfa@%%@AE@% on the use of %@AU@%HYPNOSIS%@BO:          46243d@%%@AE@% in the
treatment of %@AU@%HYSTERIA%@BO:          46302c@%%@AE@%. The therapy was based on the hypothesis that the
symptoms of hysterical patients-directly traceable to apparently
forgotten psychic traumas in early life-represented undischarged
emotional energy. The two men separated over Freud's growing conviction
that this energy was sexual in nature. Rejecting hypnosis, Freud devised
the technique of free association, which allowed material repressed in
the %@AU@%UNCONSCIOUS%@BO:          99a49e@%%@AE@% to emerge to conscious recognition. Although his early
work was poorly received, after 1906 he was joined by other
psychiatrists, including C.G. %@AU@%JUNG%@BO:          4db507@%%@AE@% and Alfred %@AU@%ADLER%@BO:           13a86@%%@AE@%. However, both
resigned, between 1911 and 1913, from the International Psychoanalytic
Association (founded 1910) in protest against Freud's emphasis on
infantile sexuality and the Oedipus complex (see %@AU@%COMPLEX%@BO:          214990@%%@AE@%). Although they
and others who broke away later objected to aspects of Freudian theory,
the basic structure of their analysis remained Freudian. With the Nazi
occupation of Austria, Freud fled (1938) to England, where he died. His
theory has had enormous impact, influencing anthropology, education, art,
and literature. His writings include %@AI@%The Interpretation of Dreams%@AE@% (1900),
%@AI@%Beyond the Pleasure Principle%@AE@% (1920), and %@AI@%Moses and Monotheism%@AE@% (1934-38).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freud, Anna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freud, Anna%@AE@%,%@CR:FREUD2          @%%@QR:Freud, Anna@% 1895-1982, Austrian-British psychoanalyst. She continued the%@EH@%
work of her father, Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@%, and was a pioneer in the
psychoanalysis of children. She received her training in Vienna before
emigrating (1938) with her father to England, where she founded and
directed a clinic for child therapy. Her writings include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Psychoanalytical Treatment of Children%@AE@% (1946), %@AI@%Normality and Pathology in
%@AI@%Childhood%@AE@% (1965), and %@AI@%The Writings of Anna Freud%@AE@% (7 vol., 1973).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Freyja%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Freyja%@AE@%%@CR:FREYJA          @%%@QR:Freyja@%, %@AB@%Freya,%@AE@% Norse goddess of love, marriage and fertility. She was%@EH@%
also a deity of the dead and was the sister of the god Frey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frick, Henry Clay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frick, Henry Clay%@AE@%,%@CR:FRICK           @%%@QR:Frick, Henry Clay@% 1849-1919, American industrialist; b. Westmoreland%@EH@%
co., Pa. In 1871 he organized Frick & Co. to operate coke ovens and soon
held a key place in the coal industry. Andrew %@AU@%CARNEGIE%@BO:          190af2@%%@AE@% acquired heavy
interests in Frick's company, and Frick in turn played a key role in
organizing (1892) the Carnegie Steel Co.; he expanded that company and
acquired railroads and iron-ore lands. His strong anti-union policies
resulted in the Homestead strike. After a struggle with Carnegie for
control, Frick resigned and became a director of U.S. Steel Corp. He
willed his mansion in New York City, housing his art collection, to the
public as a museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%friction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%friction%@AE@%,%@CR:FRICTION        @%%@QR:friction@% resistance offered to the movement of one body past another%@EH@%
body with which it is in contact. The amount of friction depends on the
nature of the contact surfaces and on the magnitude of the force pressing
the two bodies together, but not on the surface area of the contact
surface. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the force necessary
to move one body horizontally over another at a constant speed to the
weight of the body. Fluid friction, observed in the flow of liquids and
gases, is minimized in airplanes by a modern, streamlined design (see
%@AU@%AERODYNAMICS%@BO:           17a8c@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Friday%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Friday%@AE@%:%@CR:FRIDAY          @%%@QR:Friday@% see %@AU@%WEEK%@BO:          a02b23@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Friedan, Betty Naomi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Friedan, Betty Naomi%@AE@%,%@CR:FRIEDAN         @%%@QR:Friedan, Betty Naomi@% 1921-, American social reformer and feminist; b.%@EH@%
Peoria, Ill. In 1963 she galvanized the women's movement by publishing
%@AI@%The Feminine Mystique,%@AE@% an attack on the traditional notion that women
find fulfillment only through childbearing and homemaking. Founder of the
%@AU@%NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN%@BO:          66e455@%%@AE@% (1966), she also helped organize the
National Women's Political Caucus (1970) and campaigned against sexual
discrimination. In %@AI@%The Second Stage%@AE@% (1981) she evaluated the progress of
%@AU@%FEMINISM%@BO:          3261c5@%%@AE@%, remaining a moderate and criticizing its earlier radicalism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Friedman, Milton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Friedman, Milton%@AE@%,%@CR:FRIEDMAN        @%%@QR:Friedman, Milton@% 1912-, American economist and a leading spokesman for%@EH@%
the monetarist school of economics; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. A staunch
conservative and opponent of the beliefs of J.M. %@AU@%KEYNES%@BO:          4f402b@%%@AE@%, Friedman
developed the theory that changes in monetary supply precede, rather than
follow, changes in overall economic activity. A professor at the Univ. of
Chicago (1946-77), he received the 1976 Nobel Prize in economics. His
writings include %@AI@%Capitalism and Freedom%@AE@% (1962). See %@AU@%ECONOMICS%@BO:          2c2e81@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Friends, Religious Society of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Friends, Religious Society of%@AE@%,%@CR:FRIENDS         @%%@QR:Friends, Religious Society of@% religious body originating in England in%@EH@%
the 17th cent. under George %@AU@%FOX%@BO:          34e449@%%@AE@%. He believed that a person needed no
spiritual intermediary, but could find understanding and guidance through
"inward light," supplied by the Holy Spirit. Commonly called Quakers,
members refused to participate in Church of England services, take oaths,
or bear arms, and were often subject to persecution. They spread to Asia,
Africa, and America, where they found refuge in Rhode Island and a colony
established (1682) in Pennsylvania by William %@AU@%PENN%@BO:          72d85d@%%@AE@%. In the 19th cent.
American Friends split into Orthodox, Hicksite, and Conservative groups,
but the old lines of division have since grown considerably less. Their
meetings are periods of silent meditation, in which those urged by the
spirit can offer prayer or exhortation. Friends are active in education
and social welfare and believe in complete equality.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frigg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frigg%@AE@%%@CR:FRIGG           @%%@QR:Frigg@% or %@AB@%Frigga,%@AE@%Norse mother goddess and the wife of %@AU@%WODEN%@BO:          a2b58a@%%@AE@%. Of great%@EH@%
importance in %@AU@%GERMANIC RELIGION%@BO:          397856@%%@AE@%, she was queen of the heavens, a deity of
love and the household.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frisch, Karl von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frisch, Karl von%@AE@%,%@CR:FRISCH1         @%%@QR:Frisch, Karl von@% 1886-1982, Austrian zoologist. For his pioneering work%@EH@%
in comparative behaviorial psychology, particularly his studies of the
complex communication between insects, he shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in
physiology or medicine with Konrad %@AU@%LORENZ%@BO:          56bc47@%%@AE@% and Nikolaas %@AU@%TINBERGEN%@BO:          95f285@%%@AE@%. An
important implication of his work is that behavioral continuity exists
between animal communication and human language.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frisch, Max%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frisch, Max%@AE@%,%@CR:FRISCH2         @%%@QR:Frisch, Max@% 1911-, Swiss writer. His novels %@AI@%I'm Not Stiller%@AE@% (1954), %@AI@%Homo%@EH@%
%@AI@%faber%@AE@% (1957), %@AI@%A Wilderness of Mirrors%@AE@% (1964), and %@AI@%Man in the Holocene%@AE@%
(tr. 1980) deal with the individual's search for personal identity. %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Firebugs%@AE@% (1953) and %@AI@%Andorra%@AE@% (1961) are his best-known plays. His %@AI@%Journal
%@AI@%1966-1971%@AE@% was published in English in 1974.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frisch, Ragnar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frisch, Ragnar%@AE@%,%@CR:FRISCH3         @%%@QR:Frisch, Ragnar@% 1895-1973, Norwegian economist who, with Jan %@AU@%TINBERGEN%@BO:          95f0ed@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
won the first Nobel Prize in economics (1969) for pioneering work in the
development of %@AU@%ECONOMETRICS%@BO:          2c2a4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frisian language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frisian language%@AE@%,%@CR:FRISIANE        @%%@QR:Frisian language@% member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frobisher, Sir Martin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frobisher, Sir Martin%@AE@%,%@CR:FROBISHER       @%%@QR:Frobisher, Sir Martin@% 1535?-1594, English mariner. He was licensed by%@EH@%
%@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% for three expeditions to search for the %@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@%
(1576, 1577, 1578). He reached Frobisher Bay and S %@AU@%BAFFIN ISLAND%@BO:           afb59@%%@AE@% but
erroneously believed that he had found Cathay. He commanded a ship in Sir
Francis %@AU@%DRAKE'S%@BO:          2a85c8@%%@AE@% %@AU@%WEST INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@% expedition (1585) and was knighted for his
services in the defeat of the Spanish %@AU@%ARMADA%@BO:           7ed3f@%%@AE@% (1588).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August%@AE@%%@CR:FROEBEL         @%%@QR:Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August@%, 1782-1852, German educator and founder%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%KINDERGARTEN%@BO:          4fa835@%%@AE@% system. Having little formal schooling himself, he
stressed pleasant surroundings, self-activity, and physical training for
children. Influenced by %@AU@%SCHELLING%@BO:          855219@%%@AE@%, he also insisted upon spiritual
training as a fundamental principle. He founded (1816) the Universal
German Educational Institute to train teachers, and opened the first
kindergarten in 1837. The most important of his several books on
education is %@AI@%The Education of Man%@AE@% (1826).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%frog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%frog%@AE@%,%@CR:FROG            @%%@QR:frog@% tailless, freshwater %@AU@%AMPHIBIAN%@BO:           4df7b@%%@AE@% (order Anura) found worldwide. Some%@EH@%
frogs require moisture and are highly aquatic; others, such as %@AU@%TOADS%@BO:          963bdf@%%@AE@%, are
more terrestrial. Frogs have bulging eyes, short, neckless bodies, long,
muscular hind legs for jumping, webbed feet for swimming, and smooth
skin, usually green or brown. They capture insects and other food with a
sticky, forked tongue. Most frogs lay eggs in early spring, and by the
end of summer %@AU@%METAMORPHOSIS%@BO:          5f404f@%%@AE@% to a four-legged adult is complete. The true
frog belongs to the Ranidae family, which includes the bullfrog (%@AI@%Rana
%@AI@%catesbeiana%@AE@%) and other North American frogs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Froissart, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Froissart, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:FROISSART       @%%@QR:Froissart, Jean@%, c.1337-1410?, French chronicler, poet, and courtier. He%@EH@%
traveled widely and knew many important people. His famous chronicle
covers the history of Western Europe from the early 1300s to 1400,
roughly the first half of the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%. In it he describes
events with brilliance and gusto. His disregard for accuracy and highly
partisan spirit limit the chronicle as pure history, but it brings an era
to life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fromm, Erich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fromm, Erich%@AE@%,%@CR:FROMM           @%%@QR:Fromm, Erich@% 1900-1980, American psychoanalyst and author; b. Germany.%@EH@%
He emigrated (1934) to the U.S., where he practiced psychoanalysis and
lectured at various institutions, including Bennington College and New
York University. Fromm held that the individual is a product of society
and that in industrial society human beings have become estranged from
themselves. His many works include %@AI@%Escape from Freedom%@AE@% (1941), %@AI@%The Sane
%@AI@%Society%@AE@% (1955), and %@AI@%Beyond the Chains of Illusion%@AE@% (1962).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fronde%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fronde%@AE@%%@CR:FRONDE          @%%@QR:Fronde@%, 1648-53, series of outbreaks in France during the minority of%@EH@%
%@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. They were caused by the efforts of the %@AU@%PARLEMENT%@BO:          7173ce@%%@AE@% of Paris (the
chief judicial body) to limit royal authority (as championed by Cardinal
%@AU@%MAZARIN%@BO:          5dbe85@%%@AE@%), by the ambitions of discontented nobles, and by the excessive
fiscal burden on the people. The %@AB@%Fronde of the Parlement,%@AE@% 1648-49, began
with Parlement's refusal to register a fiscal edict that would have
required the magistrates of high courts to give up four years' salary.
Parlement then drew up a reform document limiting royal authority. The
royal court secretly fled Paris, and government forces under Louis II,
prince de %@AU@%CONDE%@BO:          21bece@%%@AE@%, blockaded the city until a compromise peace between
Parlement and the monarchy was arranged. The arrest of the overbearing
Conde by the order of Mazarin, his former ally, precipitated the much
more serious %@AB@%Fronde of the Princes,%@AE@% 1650-53. Although Conde was released
and Mazarin fled into exile (1651), Conde, with the support of several
powerful nobles and the provincial parlements of S France, waged open
warfare on the government and even concluded an alliance with Spain, then
at war with France. Defeated at Faubourg Saint-Antoine (1652), Conde was
given shelter in Paris. His arrogance soon alienated the Parisians, and
the Fronde disintegrated. In 1652 the king returned to Paris, followed by
Mazarin in 1653. The last attempt of the nobility to resist the king by
arms, the Fronde resulted in the strengthening of the monarchy and the
further disruption of the French economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frondizi, Arturo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frondizi, Arturo%@AE@%,%@CR:FRONDIZI        @%%@QR:Frondizi, Arturo@% 1908-, president of Argentina (1958-62). A liberal and%@EH@%
anti-Peronist, he supported a policy of economic austerity. Because he
allowed Peronists to participate in the elections of 1962, outraged
anti-Peronist elements in the army arrested him and annulled the
elections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%front%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%front%@AE@%,%@CR:FRONT           @%%@QR:front@% in meteorology, the boundary between adjacent air masses. If a%@EH@%
cold air mass pushes a warm air mass ahead of it, a cold front exists; a
warm front is the reverse situation. A stationary front is one in which
neither air mass pushes against the other. An occluded front exists when
a cold front catches up to a warm front; the warm air mass lying between
the two cold air masses is thus forced to rise.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frontenac, Louis de Buade, comte de Palluau et de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frontenac, Louis de Buade, comte de Palluau et de%@AE@%%@CR:FRONTENAC       @%%@QR:Frontenac, Louis de Buade, comte de Palluau et de@%, 1620-98, French%@EH@%
governor of New France (1672-82, 1696-98). Although his independent
policy displeased King %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% and his powers as governor were reduced,
he advanced French exploration in Canada, established new forts and
posts, subdued (1696) the %@AU@%IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY%@BO:          49c1ee@%%@AE@%, and held %@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7ba00e@%%@AE@% against
the British in the first %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Frost, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Frost, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:FROST1          @%%@QR:Frost, Robert@% 1874-1963, one of the most popular American poets of the%@EH@%
20th cent.; b. San Francisco; moved to Lawrence, Mass., 1885. He went to
England in 1912 and won his first acclaim there. After publishing %@AI@%A Boy's
%@AI@%Will%@AE@% (1913) and %@AI@%North of Boston%@AE@% (1914), he returned to the U.S. and
settled in New Hampshire. While Frost wrote movingly of the people and
landscape of New England, his lyrical, dramatic, and often deeply
symbolic verse goes far beyond regional poetry. His volumes of poetry
include %@AI@%New Hampshire%@AE@% (1923), %@AI@%A Witness Tree%@AE@% (1942), %@AI@%Steeple Bush%@AE@% (1947),
and %@AI@%In the Clearing%@AE@% (1962). Frost was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for
poetry in 1924, 1931, 1937, and 1943. His complete poems were published
in 1967.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%frost%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%frost%@AE@%%@CR:FROST2          @%%@QR:frost@% or %@AB@%hoarfrost,%@AE@%ice formed by the condensation of atmospheric water%@EH@%
vapor on a surface whose temperature is below 32 degF (0 degC). In the
formation of frost, water vapor is changed directly to a solid (see %@AU@%DEW%@BO:          28790a@%%@AE@%).
Frost appears as a light, feathery deposit of ice, often in a delicate
pattern.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%frostbite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%frostbite%@AE@%%@CR:FROSTBITE       @%%@QR:frostbite@% or %@AB@%chilblains,%@AE@%tissue injury caused by exposure to cold, usually%@EH@%
affecting the hands, feet, ears, or nose. Extreme cold causes the small
blood vessels in the extremities to constrict, resulting in slowed blood
circulation and stagnation, which deprive tissues of nutrients. The
condition is aggravated by inactivity and dampness. Severe, untreated
frostbite may result in %@AU@%GANGRENE%@BO:          37d9cf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%frozen foods%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%frozen foods%@AE@%:%@CR:FROZEN.FOODS    @%%@QR:frozen foods@% see %@AU@%FOOD PRESERVATION%@BO:          343986@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fructidor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fructidor%@AE@%:%@CR:FRUCTIDOR       @%%@QR:Fructidor@% see %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR%@BO:          362b58@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fructose, levulose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fructose, levulose%@AE@%,%@CR:FRUCTOSE        @%%@QR:fructose, levulose@% or %@AB@%fruit sugar,%@AE@%simple %@AU@%SUGAR%@BO:          904d5f@%%@AE@% found in honey and fruit.%@EH@%
Sweeter than %@AU@%SUCROSE%@BO:          902b6d@%%@AE@%, fructose is a carbohydrate with the same formula as
%@AU@%GLUCOSE%@BO:          3abd28@%%@AE@%, but with a different structure (see %@AU@%ISOMER%@BO:          4a29c0@%%@AE@%). An equimolar
mixture of fructose and glucose, called invert sugar, is obtained by the
breakdown of sucrose and is the major component of honey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fruit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fruit%@AE@%,%@CR:FRUIT           @%%@QR:fruit@% matured ovary of a %@AU@%FLOWER%@BO:          33e928@%%@AE@%, containing the seed. After%@EH@%
%@AU@%FERTILIZATION%@BO:          32c146@%%@AE@% takes place and the embryo plantlet has begun to develop,
the surrounding ovule becomes a seed, and the ovary wall around the ovule
(pericarp) becomes the fruit. Fruits are classified into four types:
simple, aggregate, multiple, and accessory. Simple fruits are either
fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruits are either berries (the entire pericarp is
fleshy, e.g., the blueberry, tomato, and banana) or drupes (the inner
layer of the pericarp becomes a pit or stone around the seed, e.g., the
peach and walnut). Dry fruits are divided into those whose hard, papery
shells either split to release the mature seeds (dehiscent), e.g., the
%@AU@%PEA%@BO:          725b6a@%%@AE@%, or do not split (indehiscent), e.g., the %@AU@%NUT%@BO:          6c618b@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%GRAIN%@BO:          3c0fe9@%%@AE@%. Aggregate
fruits (e.g., the raspberry) are masses of small drupes (drupelets), each
developed from separate ovaries of a single flower. Multiple fruits
(e.g., the pineapple) develop from ovaries of many flowers in a cluster.
Accessory fruits contain tissue derived from parts other than the ovary,
e.g., the apple, the edible portion of which is actually a swollen stem.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fruit fly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fruit fly%@AE@%,%@CR:FRUIT.FLY       @%%@QR:fruit fly@% very small, winged %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% (families Tephritidae and%@EH@%
Drosophilidae) in the order Diptera (see %@AU@%FLY%@BO:          33fd7a@%%@AE@%). Fruit flies lay their eggs
in plant tissue. In some species the larvae feed directly on the fruit
pulp; in others they feed on yeasts growing in the fruit. Some species
cause damage to important crops; e.g., the Mediterranean fruit fly
(%@AI@%Ceratitis capitata%@AE@%), a serious pest of citrus fruits. The vinegar fly
(%@AI@%Drosophila melanogaster%@AE@%), is often used in the laboratory study of
%@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@% because of its ten-day life cycle and large chromosomes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fry, Christopher%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fry, Christopher%@AE@%,%@CR:FRY1            @%%@QR:Fry, Christopher@% 1907-, English dramatist and film writer, one of the%@EH@%
few 20th-cent. playwrights to employ verse successfully. His plays
include %@AI@%The Lady's Not for Burning%@AE@% (1949), and %@AI@%A Sleep of Prisoners%@AE@%
(1951). His screenplays include %@AI@%Ben Hur%@AE@% (1959; Academy Award), and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Bible%@AE@% (1966).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fry, Elizabeth (Gurney)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fry, Elizabeth (Gurney)%@AE@%,%@CR:FRY2            @%%@QR:Fry, Elizabeth (Gurney)@% 1780-1845, English prison reformer and%@EH@%
philanthropist. A Quaker, she worked from 1813 to improve the conditions
of women in Newgate prison. Such innovations as segregation of the sexes
and education and employment programs in British prisons were largely due
to her efforts. She also founded soup kitchens in London.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuchs, Klaus Emil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuchs, Klaus Emil%@AE@%,%@CR:FUCHS           @%%@QR:Fuchs, Klaus Emil@% 1911-88, British physicist and Communist spy; b.%@EH@%
Germany. An acknowledged Communist, he passed information to the USSR
while working on the atomic bomb in the U.S. (1944-45) and in the atomic
research center at Harwell as head of the physics division. He was
arrested in 1950 and imprisoned until 1959, when he went to East Germany.
He was director of the Institute for Nuclear Physics from 1959 to 1979.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fuchsia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fuchsia%@AE@%,%@CR:FUCHSIA         @%%@QR:fuchsia@% shrub or herb (genus %@AI@%Fuchsia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%EVENING PRIMROSE%@BO:          30e7eb@%%@AE@% family, a%@EH@%
tropical American plant cultivated for its pendulous, brilliant,
red-to-purple and white flowers. Most garden fuchsias are hybrids.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fuel cell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fuel cell%@AE@%,%@CR:FUEL.CELL       @%%@QR:fuel cell@% electric %@AU@%CELL%@BO:          1ab1a5@%%@AE@% in which the chemical energy from the oxidation%@EH@%
of a gas fuel is converted directly to electrical energy in a continuous
process. In the hydrogen and oxygen fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen gas
are bubbled into separate compartments connected by a porous disk through
which an %@AU@%ELECTROLYTE%@BO:          2d82b5@%%@AE@%, such as aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH), can
pass. Inert graphite electrodes, mixed with a catalyst such as platinum,
are dipped into each compartment. When the two electrodes are
electrically connected, an %@AU@%OXIDATION AND REDUCTION%@BO:          6fc331@%%@AE@% reaction takes place
in the cell: hydrogen gas is oxidized to form water at the anode;
electrons are liberated in this process and flow through the external
circuit to the cathode, where the electrons combine with the oxygen gas
and reduce it. Fuel cells have been used to generate electricity in
spacecraft.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuentes, Carlos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuentes, Carlos%@AE@%%@CR:FUENTES         @%%@QR:Fuentes, Carlos@%, 1928-, Mexican novelist and short-story writer. He%@EH@%
synthesizes reality and fantasy in such experimental novels as %@AI@%Where the
%@AI@%Air is Clear%@AE@% (1958), %@AI@%A Change of Skin%@AE@% (1967), %@AI@%Terra Nostra%@AE@% (1975), and
%@AI@%Distant Relations%@AE@% (1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuessli, Johann Heinrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuessli, Johann Heinrich%@AE@%:%@CR:FUESSLI         @%%@QR:Fuessli, Johann Heinrich@% see %@AU@%FUSELI, HENRY%@BO:          370360@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fugard, Athol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fugard, Athol%@AE@%,%@CR:FUGARD          @%%@QR:Fugard, Athol@% 1932-, South African playwright. An Afrikaner strongly%@EH@%
opposed to %@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@%, Fugard has written of the suffering and common
humanity of blacks, Coloureds, and poor whites in his country in such
powerful plays as %@AI@%The Blood Knot%@AE@% (1961), %@AI@%Boesman and Lena%@AE@% (1969), %@AI@%A
%@AI@%Lesson from Aloes%@AE@% (1980), %@AI@%Master Harold  . . .  and the Boys%@AE@% (1981), and
%@AI@%The Road to Mecca%@AE@% (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fugitive slave laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fugitive slave laws%@AE@%,%@CR:FUGITIVLAWS     @%%@QR:fugitive slave laws@% in U.S. history, the federal acts of 1793 and 1850%@EH@%
providing for the return between states of escaped black slaves. Northern
states relaxed enforcement of the 1793 law as they abolished %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%,
greatly angering the South, and the law was circumvented by the
%@AU@%UNDERGROUND RAILROAD%@BO:          99a7c1@%%@AE@%. Many Northern states also passed personal-liberty
laws allowing fugitives jury trial; others forbade state officials to aid
in capturing or jailing fugitives. As a concession to the South, the
%@AU@%COMPROMISE OF 1850%@BO:          2162e3@%%@AE@% strengthened the fugitive slave law. "All good
citizens" were required to obey it on pain of heavy penalty; jury trial
and the right to testify were prohibited to fugitives. The %@AU@%ABOLITIONISTS%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@%
and new personal-liberty laws defied these provisions. Notable fugitive
slave trials stirred up public opinion in both the North and South.
Northern %@AU@%NULLIFICATION%@BO:          6c33c2@%%@AE@% of the fugitive slave laws was cited in 1860 by
South Carolina as a cause of secession. Congress repealed both laws in
1864, during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fugue%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fugue%@AE@%%@CR:FUGUE           @%%@QR:fugue@% [from Ital.,=flight], in music, a form of composition, originally%@EH@%
choral, in which the basic principle is imitative %@AU@%COUNTERPOINT%@BO:          23f1c0@%%@AE@% of several
voices. Its main elements are: a theme or subject, stated first in one
and then in all voices; continuation of a voice after the subject,
accompanying the subject statements in other voices; and passages built
on a %@AI@%motif,%@AE@% a short phrase derived from the subject or countersubject.
First established by Flemish composers in the 15th cent., the fugue was
highly developed by J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%CANON%@BO:          184592@%%@AE@% is a short form of fugue.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuji, Mount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuji, Mount%@AE@%,%@CR:FUJI            @%%@QR:Fuji, Mount@% or %@AB@%Fujiyama,%@AE@%volcano 12,389 ft (3,776 m) high, highest point%@EH@%
on %@AU@%HONSHU%@BO:          442784@%%@AE@%, Japan. The mountain, which last erupted in 1707, is considered
sacred to many Japanese and is a traditional goal of pilgrimage. In 1982
a wall was erected to halt erosion of the perfectly formed, snow-capped
cone, long a source of inspiration to Japanese artists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fukuoka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fukuoka%@AE@%%@CR:FUKUOKA         @%%@QR:Fukuoka@%, city (1985 est. pop. 1,160,000), capital of Fukuoka prefecture,%@EH@%
N Kyushu, Japan. Containing the area of Hakata, one of Japan's most
important ports since medieval times, the modern city is also a vital
commercial and textile producing center as well as the seat of several
universities. The city has three noted shrines, including a 16th-cent.
Shinto shrine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fulani%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fulani%@AE@%,%@CR:FULANI          @%%@QR:Fulani@% people of W Africa, numbering approximately 7 million. They are%@EH@%
of mixed African and Berber origin. First recorded as living in the
Senegambia region, they are now scattered throughout the area of the
Sudan from Senegal to Cameroon. The Fulani became zealous Muslims (11th
cent.) and from 1750 to 1900 engaged in many holy wars in the name of
Islam. In the first part of the 19th cent. the Fulani carved out two
important empires. One, based on Massina, for a time controlled %@AU@%TIMBUKTU%@BO:          95dc55@%%@AE@%;
the other, centered at Sokoto, included the %@AU@%HAUSA%@BO:          4075a0@%%@AE@% States and parts of
Bornu and W Cameroon. The Fulani emir of Sokoto continued to rule over
part of N Nigeria until the British conquest in 1903.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fulbright, J(ames) William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fulbright, J(ames) William%@AE@%,%@CR:FULBRIGHT       @%%@QR:Fulbright, J(ames) William@% 1905-, U.S. senator from Arkansas (1945-75);%@EH@%
b. Sumner, Mo. A Democrat, he was elected to the House of Representatives
(1942) and then to the Senate (1944). He became known internationally for
the Fulbright Act (1946), which provided for the exchange of students and
teachers between the U.S. and other countries. As chairman (1959-74) of
the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he opposed the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuller, Margaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuller, Margaret%@AE@%,%@CR:FULLER1         @%%@QR:Fuller, Margaret@% 1810-50, American writer and lecturer; b. Cambridge,%@EH@%
Mass. One of the most influential literary figures of her day, she was a
leading exponent of %@AU@%TRANSCENDENTALISM%@BO:          973e73@%%@AE@% and edited (1840-42) its journal,
%@AI@%The Dial. Woman in the Nineteenth Century%@AE@% (1845) expresses her feminist
views. Her essays as first literary critic of the New York %@AI@%Tribune%@AE@% are
collected in %@AI@%Papers on Literature and Art%@AE@% (1846). In 1847 she went to
Rome, where she married the Marchese Ossoli, a follower of %@AU@%MAZZINI%@BO:          5dc76d@%%@AE@%, and
with him took part in the %@AU@%REVOLUTION OF 1848-49%@BO:          7e9062@%%@AE@%, writing about it for the
%@AI@%Tribune.%@AE@% Returning to the U.S. (1850), she, her husband, and their baby
were drowned in a shipwreck.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuller, Melville Weston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuller, Melville Weston%@AE@%,%@CR:FULLER2         @%%@QR:Fuller, Melville Weston@% 1833-1910, 8th chief justice of the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME%@EH@%
%@AU@%COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1888-1910); b. Augusta, Me. He was the first chief justice with
academic legal training, having attended (1854-55), but received no
degree from, Harvard law school. On the Court, he tended toward a strict
construction of the Constitution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuller, R(ichard) Buckminster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuller, R(ichard) Buckminster%@AE@%,%@CR:FULLER3         @%%@QR:Fuller, R(ichard) Buckminster@% 1895-83, American architect and engineer;%@EH@%
b. Milton, Mass. He is noted for his revolutionary technological designs
aimed at deriving maximum output from minimum material and energy-the
%@AI@%Dymaxion%@AE@% principle. Examples are his self-contained "4-D" house (1928),
Dymaxion automobile (1933), and designs for geodesic domes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuller, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuller, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:FULLER4         @%%@QR:Fuller, Thomas@% 1608-61, English clergyman and author. He is best known%@EH@%
for %@AI@%Worthies of England%@AE@% (1662), an invaluable source of antiquarian
information on English personalities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fullerton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fullerton%@AE@%,%@CR:FULLERTON       @%%@QR:Fullerton@% city (1986 est. pop. 108,750), S Calif., SE of Los Angeles;%@EH@%
inc. 1904. Oil was discovered nearby in 1892, but the city's main growth
followed the building of the Santa Ana Freeway in the 1950s. Its
diversified manufactures include aerospace, electrical, and electronic
components.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fulton, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fulton, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:FULTON          @%%@QR:Fulton, Robert@% 1765-1815, American inventor, engineer, and painter; b.%@EH@%
near Lancaster, Pa. A man of many talents and a mechanical genius, he was
successively an expert gunsmith, a landscape and portrait painter, and a
maker of torpedoes and submarines. In 1807 his %@AI@%Clermont,%@AE@% launched on the
Hudson R. was the first commercially successful steamboat (see %@AU@%STEAMSHIP%@BO:          8e82b5@%%@AE@%)
in America; although Fulton had predecessors, e.g., John %@AU@%FITCH%@BO:          337349@%%@AE@%, he is
popularly considered the steamboat's inventor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Funafuti%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Funafuti%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNAFUTI        @%%@QR:Funafuti@% town (1988 est. pop. 900), capital of %@AU@%TUVALU%@BO:          990c57@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%function%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%function%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNCTION        @%%@QR:function@% in mathematics, a relation that assigns to each member %@AI@%x%@AE@% of%@EH@%
some set %@AI@%X%@AE@% (the domain) a unique member %@AI@%y%@AE@% of some set %@AI@%Y%@AE@% (the range); %@AI@%y%@AE@% is
said to be a function of %@AI@%x,%@AE@% usually denoted %@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%) (read "%@AI@%f%@AE@% of %@AI@%x%@AE@%"). In the
equation %@AI@%y%@AE@%=%@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%), %@AI@%x%@AE@% is called the independent variable and %@AI@%y%@AE@% the dependent
variable. Although a function %@AI@%f%@AE@% assigns a unique %@AI@%y%@AE@% to each %@AI@%x,%@AE@% several %@AI@%x'%@AE@%s
may yield the same %@AI@%y;%@AE@% e.g., if %@AI@%y%@AE@%=%@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%)=%@AI@%x%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@% (where %@AI@%x%@AE@% is a number), then
%@AI@%f%@AE@%(2)=%@AI@%f%@AE@%(-2)=4. If this never occurs, then %@AI@%f%@AE@% is called a one-to-one, or
injective, function.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%functional group%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%functional group%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNCTIOP        @%%@QR:functional group@% in organic chemistry, group of atoms within a molecule%@EH@%
that is responsible for certain properties of the molecule and reactions
in which it takes part.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fundamentalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fundamentalism%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNDAMENTALISM  @%%@QR:fundamentalism@% conservative religious movement that arose among members%@EH@%
of various Protestant denominations early in the 20th cent. Its aim is to
maintain traditional interpretations of the Bible and what its adherents
believe to be the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith. The
movement developed (1909) in reaction to the emergence of liberal
theology, which attempted to recast Christian teachings in light of the
scientific and historic thought of the time.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fundamental Orders%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fundamental Orders%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNDAMEERS      @%%@QR:Fundamental Orders@% in U.S. history, the basic law of the Connecticut%@EH@%
colony, 1639-62. A preamble and 11 orders presented a binding and compact
frame of government that put the welfare of the community above that of
individuals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fundy, Bay of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fundy, Bay of%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNDY           @%%@QR:Fundy, Bay of@% large inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, c.170 mi (270 km) long%@EH@%
and 30-50 mi (50-80 km) wide, NE Canada, between New Brunswick and Nova
Scotia. It is famous for its tidal bore and for high tides that reach
40-50 ft (12-15 m), creating the reversing falls of the St. John R.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fungi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fungi%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNGI           @%%@QR:Fungi@% division of simple plants that lack %@AU@%CHLOROPHYLL%@BO:          1db0e0@%%@AE@%, true stems,%@EH@%
roots, and leaves. Unlike %@AU@%ALGAE%@BO:           3985a@%%@AE@%, fungi cannot photosynthesize, and live
as %@AU@%PARASITES%@BO:          712f90@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%SAPROPHYTES%@BO:          8473dd@%%@AE@%. The division comprises the %@AU@%SLIME MOLDS%@BO:          8a26b6@%%@AE@% and
true fungi. True fungi are multicellular (with the exception of %@AU@%YEASTS%@BO:          a402fe@%%@AE@%);
the body of most true fungi consists of slender cottony filaments, or
hyphae. All fungi are capable of asexual %@AU@%REPRODUCTION%@BO:          7e3cff@%%@AE@% by cell division,
budding, fragmentation, or %@AU@%SPORES%@BO:          8dc177@%%@AE@%. Those that reproduce sexually
alternate a sexual generation (%@AU@%GAMETOPHYTE%@BO:          37bc43@%%@AE@%) with a spore-producing one.
The four classes of true fungi are the algaelike fungi (e.g., black bread
%@AU@%MOLD%@BO:          623fd9@%%@AE@% and downy %@AU@%MILDEW%@BO:          609054@%%@AE@%), sac fungi (e.g., yeasts, powdery mildews,
%@AU@%TRUFFLES%@BO:          9828d5@%%@AE@%, and blue and green molds such as %@AI@%Penicillium%@AE@%), basidium fungi
(e.g., %@AU@%MUSHROOMS%@BO:          656c63@%%@AE@% and puffballs) and imperfect fungi (e.g., species that
cause athlete's foot and ringworm). Fungi help decompose organic matter
(important in soil renewal), are valuable as a source of %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%,
vitamins, and various industrial chemicals; and for their role in
%@AU@%FERMENTATION%@BO:          32a1b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fungicide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fungicide%@AE@%,%@CR:FUNGICIDE       @%%@QR:fungicide@% substance used to prevent or destroy %@AU@%FUNGI%@BO:          36e36c@%%@AE@%. Made from sulfur%@EH@%
or copper compounds, organic salts of iron, zinc, and mercury, and other
chemicals, fungicides are used on seeds, soil, wood, and fabrics, and for
human fungus diseases as well as fungus diseases of plants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Funk, Casimir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Funk, Casimir%@AE@%%@CR:FUNK            @%%@QR:Funk, Casimir@%, 1884-1967, American biochemist; b. Warsaw, Poland; came to%@EH@%
U.S., 1915. Credited with discovering %@AU@%VITAMINS%@BO:          9e029b@%%@AE@%, he stirred public
interest with his 1912 paper on vitamin-deficiency diseases. He coined
the term %@AI@%vitamine%@AE@% and later posited the existence of four such materials
(B%@AH@%1%@AE@%, B%@AH@%2%@AE@%, C, and D). He contributed to knowledge of the hormones of the
pituitary and sex glands and stressed the importance of balance between
hormones and vitamins.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fur%@AE@%,%@CR:FUR             @%%@QR:fur@% hairy covering of an animal, especially that with thick, soft,%@EH@%
close-growing underfur next to the skin and a coarser protective layer of
guard hair above it. The term includes sheepskins with their hair, and
curled pelts, e.g., Persian lamb. Used for clothing since prehistoric
times, furs were traditionally luxury goods in the more populous,
temperate regions of the world, where wild animals are scarce. The most
prized furs include sable, mink, and chinchilla, but many others, e.g.,
beaver, fox, rabbit, and ocelot, are also valued, and breeding and
hunting industries are important in North America and Asia. Following the
exploitation (17th-19th cent.) of N American and Asian wilderness areas,
depleting the sea otter and threatening the fur seal, conservationists
and humane groups have protested trapping for fur. In 1969 the U.S.
government passed the %@AU@%ENDANGERED SPECIES%@BO:          2eb8ed@%%@AE@% act, banning importation or sale
of pelts of such animals as the polar bear, jaguar, and tiger. Since
World War II synthetic furs have become increasingly popular because of
their realistic appearance, their relatively low cost, and public
awareness of endangered species.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Furies%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Furies%@AE@%%@CR:FURIES          @%%@QR:Furies@%or %@AB@%Erinyes%@AE@%, in Greek mythology, goddesses of vengeance. Born from%@EH@%
the blood of %@AU@%URANUS%@BO:          9b05a7@%%@AE@%, they punished wrongs committed against blood
relatives regardless of the motivation, as in the case of %@AU@%ORESTES%@BO:          6ea70f@%%@AE@%. Named
Megaera, Tisiphone, and Alecto, they were usually represented as crones
with bats' wings, dogs' heads, and snakes for hair.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%furniture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%furniture%@AE@%,%@CR:FURNITURE       @%%@QR:furniture@% such movables as chairs, tables, beds, chests, and cabinets;%@EH@%
the term may also be used for draperies, rugs, mirrors, and lamps. Since
ancient times furniture has been made of many materials, with styles and
techniques showing great variety, but in the past most pieces were
fashioned of wood and decorated by inlaying, painting or gilding,
carving, veneering, and marquetry. Ancient Oriental furniture displays
carving and inlay on ebony and teak. Egyptian pieces 6,000 years old have
animal carvings and gold and ivory inlay. The Greeks used low couches and
curved chairs. The Romans adopted Greek and Etruscan forms. Heavily
carved Gothic furniture reflected architectural styles. Renaissance
pieces were richly decorated. Peasant furniture was solid, painted or
carved, and slow to change in style. Provincial pieces were simple and of
native woods. Period styles, such as the %@AU@%LOUIS PERIOD STYLES%@BO:          5753f8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DIRECTOIRE
%@AU@%STYLE%@BO:          294180@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%EMPIRE STYLE%@BO:          2e931a@%%@AE@%, developed in cultural centers. English period
styles include Elizabethan, Jacobean, Queen Anne, and Georgian, and were
represented by such designers as %@AU@%CHIPPENDALE%@BO:          1d918c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HEPPLEWHITE%@BO:          420e30@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SHERATON%@BO:          883469@%%@AE@%.
Early American cabinetmakers adapted English styles in utilitarian form,
using such native woods as pine, maple, and cherry; later, %@AU@%PHYFE%@BO:          7545e2@%%@AE@% and
others added walnut and mahogany. In the 19th cent. mass production of
furniture began. Early in the 20th cent. %@AU@%ART NOUVEAU%@BO:           87c26@%%@AE@% influenced furniture
design. Later, such architects as %@AU@%RIETVELD%@BO:          7f42fd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MIES VAN DER ROHE%@BO:          6077bd@%%@AE@%, and Eero
%@AU@%SAARINEN%@BO:          82a417@%%@AE@% developed functional pieces using modern materials. After World
War II, elegant, simple Scandinavian furniture of fine woods became
popular worldwide. Trends in the late 1970s to 80s included the austere,
minimal look of built-ins and a return to the opulent, padded look of %@AU@%ART
%@AU@%DECO%@BO:           8376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Furtwangler, Wilhelm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Furtwangler, Wilhelm%@AE@%,%@CR:FURTWANGLER     @%%@QR:Furtwangler, Wilhelm@% 1886-1954, German conductor, in Lubeck, Mannheim,%@EH@%
Berlin, and with the New York Philharmonic (see %@AU@%ORCHESTRA%@BO:          6e56f7@%%@AE@%,). He was
renowned for his interpretations of %@AU@%BRAHMS%@BO:          132ca7@%%@AE@% and Richard %@AU@%WAGNER%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fuse, electric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fuse, electric%@AE@%,%@CR:FUSE            @%%@QR:fuse, electric@% safety device used to protect an %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% against%@EH@%
an excessive current. A fuse consists of a low-melting-point alloy strip
enclosed in a suitable housing and connected in series with the circuit
that it protects. Because of its electrical %@AU@%RESISTANCE%@BO:          7e6737@%%@AE@%, the alloy strip
is heated by electric current; if the current exceeds the safe value for
which the fuse was designed, the strip melts, opening the circuit and
stopping the current. See also %@AU@%CIRCUIT BREAKER%@BO:          1e8133@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuseli, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuseli, Henry%@AE@%%@CR:FUSELI          @%%@QR:Fuseli, Henry@%, 1741-1825, Anglo-Swiss painter and draftsman, also known%@EH@%
as Johann Heinrich Fuessli or Fussli. His paintings were grotesque and
visionary, e.g., %@AI@%Nightmare%@AE@% (1782). His drawings reveal his romantic
fascination with the terrifying and the weird.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fusel oil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fusel oil%@AE@%,%@CR:FUSEL.OIL       @%%@QR:fusel oil@% oily, colorless liquid with a disagreeable odor and taste. A%@EH@%
mixture of %@AU@%ALCOHOLS%@BO:           310a9@%%@AE@% and fatty acids formed during the alcoholic
%@AU@%FERMENTATION%@BO:          32a1b0@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%STARCH%@BO:          8e4143@%%@AE@%, fusel oil may occur as an unwholesome impurity in
imperfectly distilled liquor. It is used as a solvent in making lacquers
and enamels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fushun%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fushun%@AE@%%@CR:FUSHUN          @%%@QR:Fushun@%, city (1986 est. pop. 1,240,000), NE Liaoning prov., NE China, in%@EH@%
a highly industrialized area 36 mi (60 km) from %@AU@%SHENYANG%@BO:          882c73@%%@AE@%. It is the
coal-mining center of China and has one of the largest opencut coal mines
in the world. Oil production and refining are also major industries. The
city was developed by Russia until 1905 and by Japan until 1945.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%fusion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%fusion%@AE@%:%@CR:FUSION          @%%@QR:fusion@% see %@AU@%HYDROGEN BOMB%@BO:          45f604@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NUCLEAR ENERGY%@BO:          6c0981@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fussli, Johann Heinrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fussli, Johann Heinrich%@AE@%:%@CR:FUSSLI          @%%@QR:Fussli, Johann Heinrich@% see %@AU@%FUSELI, HENRY%@BO:          370360@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fust%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fust%@AE@%%@CR:FUST            @%%@QR:Fust@% or %@AB@%Faust, Johann,%@AE@%d. 1466?, printer at Mainz, Germany. He loaned%@EH@%
Johann %@AU@%GUTENBERG%@BO:          3eb25c@%%@AE@% money, and took over his press and types on his default,
carrying on his work. With Peter Schoffer he was the first (1457) to
print in colors. They also produced the first dated book, a great
psalter, in 1457.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%futures market%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%futures market%@AE@%,%@CR:FUTURES.MARKET  @%%@QR:futures market@% a commodity exchange where contracts for the future%@EH@%
delivery of grain, livestock, and precious metals are bought and sold.
Speculation in futures serves to protect both the developers and the
users of the commodities from unfavorable and unpredictable price
fluctuations. The U.S. futures market now includes Treasury bills and
government guaranteed mortgages, or Ginnie Maes, thereby allowing
speculation on changes in future interest rates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%futurism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%futurism%@AE@%,%@CR:FUTURISM        @%%@QR:futurism@% Italian school of painting, sculpture, and literature that%@EH@%
flourished from 1909, when Filippo Marinetti's first manifesto of
futurism appeared, until the end of World War I. It portrayed the dynamic
character of 20th-cent. life, glorified war and the machine age, and
favored the growth of %@AU@%FASCISM%@BO:          31d7e0@%%@AE@%. The futurists' representation of forms in
motion influenced many painters, including Marcel %@AU@%DUCHAMP%@BO:          2b05b7@%%@AE@% and Robert
Delauney, and such movements as %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@% and Russian %@AU@%CONSTRUCTIVISM%@BO:          22c578@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Fuzhou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Fuzhou%@AE@%%@CR:FUZHOU          @%%@QR:Fuzhou@%or %@AB@%Foochow%@AE@%, city (1986 est. pop. 1,190,000), capital of Fujian%@EH@%
prov., E China, a port on the Min R. delta c.25 mi (40 km) from the
coast. It consists of an old walled city, dating from the T'ang dynasty,
and a modern riverside town. Its industries include food-processing (tea,
sugar, and fruit), chemicals, and textiles. The city's lacquerware and
handicrafts are famous throughout China. Long a center for China's
foreign commerce and a %@AU@%TREATY PORT%@BO:          979547@%%@AE@% following the %@AU@%OPIUM WAR%@BO:          6e1c93@%%@AE@% (1839-42), it
was designated a "special economic zone" in 1979 to spur foreign
investment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ga%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ga%@AE@%,%@CR:GA              @%%@QR:Ga@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%GALLIUM%@BO:          378d28@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gable, Clark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gable, Clark%@AE@%,%@CR:GABLE           @%%@QR:Gable, Clark@% 1901-60, American film actor; b. Cadiz, Ohio. For years a%@EH@%
box-office attraction, he made such films as %@AI@%It Happened One Night%@AE@%
(1934), %@AI@%Gone with the Wind%@AE@% (1939), and %@AI@%The Misfits%@AE@% (1960).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gabo, Naum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gabo, Naum%@AE@%%@CR:GABO            @%%@QR:Gabo, Naum@%, 1890-1977, Russian sculptor, architect, and theorist; brother%@EH@%
of Antoine %@AU@%PEVSNER%@BO:          744cfb@%%@AE@%. He wrote the %@AI@%Realist Manifesto%@AE@% (1920), proposing that
new concepts of time and space be incorporated into art. His sculptural
experiments with %@AU@%CONSTRUCTIVISM%@BO:          22c578@%%@AE@% were often transparent, geometric
abstracts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gabon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gabon%@AE@%%@CR:GABON           @%%@QR:Gabon@%, officially Gabonese Republic, republic (1988 est. pop. 1,051,937),%@EH@%
103,346 sq mi (267,667 sq km), W central Africa, bordered by the Atlantic
Ocean (W), Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon (N), and the Republic of the
Congo (E and S). %@AU@%LIBREVILLE%@BO:          54c3d5@%%@AE@% (the capital) and Port-Gentil are the only
large cities. Gabon is situated astride the equator. The coastline is a
narrow, low-lying strip; the interior is made up of mountain ranges and
high plateaus. Much of the country is drained by the Ogooue R., which
flows into the Atlantic. The economy is based on oil production, which
provides the highest per capita income in sub-Saharan Africa and accounts
for two thirds of export earnings. Other minerals extracted include
manganese, uranium, and gold. Forest products are also important.
Agricultural output is low, and much food needs to be imported. The
inhabitants of Gabon are black Africans, chiefly Fang (the most numerous
group), Omiene, Batoka, and Eshira. French is the official language. Most
of the people follow traditional beliefs, but there are many Christians
in the cities. Lambarene, on the Ogooue, is the site of the famous
hospital established by Albert %@AU@%SCHWEITZER%@BO:          85d64b@%%@AE@% in 1913.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The region that is now Gabon was inhabited in Paleolithic times.
The Omiene were living there by the 16th cent., the Fang by the 18th, and
from the 16th to 18th cent. Gabon was part of the Loango empire, which
stretched from the Ogooue to the Congo (Zaire) rivers. Portuguese
navigators arrived in the Ogooue estuary in the 1470s, and Gabon soon
became an important center of a slave trade that flourished until the
1880s. By the late 18th cent. the French had gained a dominant position
in the area, and, despite resistance from the Fang, Gabon became part of
the French Congo in 1889 and of %@AU@%FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA%@BO:          361070@%%@AE@% in 1910. Held by
the Free French in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, Gabon became an overseas territory in
1946 and self-governing in 1958. It achieved full independence in 1960,
but retained close ties with France. In 1967 the country adopted a
one-party political system. Independent candidates were permitted to run
for the first time in the 1980 legislative elections, but all seats were
won by the ruling party.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaborone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaborone%@AE@%,%@CR:GABORONE        @%%@QR:Gaborone@% city (1984 est. pop. 96,000), capital of Botswana. Primarily an%@EH@%
administrative center, it is located on the country's main rail line and
has a small international airport. The city was founded c.1890 by a black
African chief. It became the capital of newly independent %@AU@%BOTSWANA%@BO:          128b4b@%%@AE@% in
1966.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gabriel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gabriel%@AE@%,%@CR:GABRIEL1        @%%@QR:Gabriel@% archangel, the divine herald. In the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@% he appears to %@AU@%DANIEL%@BO:          265357@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(Dan. 8-9); to Zacharias, father of %@AU@%JOHN THE BAPTIST%@BO:          4cee84@%%@AE@%; and to the Virgin
%@AU@%MARY%@BO:          5c70c5@%%@AE@% in the Annunciation (Luke 1). Christian tradition makes him the
trumpeter of the Last Judgment. In Islam, Gabriel reveals the %@AU@%KORAN%@BO:          508524@%%@AE@% to
%@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@%, becoming the angel of truth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gabriel, Jacques Ange%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gabriel, Jacques Ange%@AE@%%@CR:GABRIEL2        @%%@QR:Gabriel, Jacques Ange@%, 1689-1782, French architect of the %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@%. His%@EH@%
work is characterized by classical repose, purity of form, and restraint.
He worked for 30 years for %@AU@%LOUIS XV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd581@%%@AE@%, Compiegne, and other
royal residences. He also designed Place Louis XV (now Place de la
Concorde), Paris (1753), and worked on the %@AU@%LOUVRE%@BO:          576d63@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gabrieli, Andrea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gabrieli, Andrea%@AE@%,%@CR:GABRIELI        @%%@QR:Gabrieli, Andrea@% c.1510-86, Italian organist and composer. He wrote%@EH@%
%@AU@%MADRIGALS%@BO:          594914@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MOTETS%@BO:          6446b5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MASSES%@BO:          5cc4ab@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%ricercari,%@AE@% and canzones for organ and was
important in developing multiple-choir technique, which was further
refined by his nephew %@AB@%Giovanni Gabrieli,%@AE@% c.1555-1612. Giovanni was most
important in the development of the %@AU@%CONCERTO%@BO:          21ae65@%%@AE@% style and published (1597)
the first printed music with dynamic indications.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gadda, Carlo Emilio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gadda, Carlo Emilio%@AE@%,%@CR:GADDA           @%%@QR:Gadda, Carlo Emilio@% 1893-1973, Italian novelist. His complex style%@EH@%
combined literary language, slang, dialects, deliberate misspellings,
foreign words, and imitations of various prose styles. %@AI@%That Awful Mess on
%@AI@%Via Merulana%@AE@% (1957) is considered his masterpiece.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaddi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaddi%@AE@%,%@CR:GADDI           @%%@QR:Gaddi@% celebrated family of Florentine artists. %@AB@%Gaddo Gaddi,%@AE@%%@EH@%
c.1260-c.1333, a painter and mosaicist, is thought to have produced the
%@AU@%MOSAICS%@BO:          641af7@%%@AE@% in the portico of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome. His son, %@AB@%Taddeo
%@AB@%Gaddi,%@AE@% c.1300-c.1366, was a pupil and assistant to %@AU@%GIOTTO%@BO:          3a515a@%%@AE@% and chief
Florentine painter after Giotto's death. His works include painting in
Santa Croce and Santa Felicita, Florence. Taddeo's son, %@AB@%Agnolo Gaddi,%@AE@%
c.1350-1396, possessed a somewhat rigid, Giottesque style. His frescoes
include %@AI@%Life of the Virgin%@AE@% (cathedral, Prato).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gadolinium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gadolinium%@AE@%%@CR:GADOLINIUM      @%%@QR:gadolinium@% (Gd), metallic element, extracted in oxide form by J.C.G. de%@EH@%
Marignac in 1880. This silver-white, malleable, ductile, lustrous
%@AU@%RARE-EARTH METAL%@BO:          7cc65d@%%@AE@% is found in gadolinite, %@AU@%MONAZITE%@BO:          628ae9@%%@AE@%, and bastnasite. It is
paramagnetic at room temperature but becomes strongly ferromagnetic when
cooled. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gadsden, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gadsden, James%@AE@%,%@CR:GADSDEN         @%%@QR:Gadsden, James@% 1788-1858, American railroad promoter and diplomat; b.%@EH@%
Charleston, S.C. He advocated a southern rail system and a railroad to
the Pacific. Appointed minister to Mexico (1853), he negotiated the
%@AU@%GADSDEN PURCHASE%@BO:          3734d8@%%@AE@%, but he was recalled (1856) for exceeding his
instructions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gadsden Purchase%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gadsden Purchase%@AE@%,%@CR:GADSDENE        @%%@QR:Gadsden Purchase@% strip of land bought (1853) by the U.S. from Mexico.%@EH@%
Pres. Franklin %@AU@%PIERCE%@BO:          758f4e@%%@AE@% wished to insure U.S. possession of the Mesilla
Valley near the Rio Grande-the most practicable southern route for a
railroad to the Pacific. James %@AU@%GADSDEN%@BO:          37330f@%%@AE@% negotiated the purchase for $10
million of the area of about 30,000 sq mi (77,700 sq km), which now forms
extreme S New Mexico and Arizona S of the Gila R.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaea%@AE@%,%@CR:GAEA            @%%@QR:Gaea@% in Greek mythology, the earth; daughter of %@AU@%CHAOS%@BO:          1b9487@%%@AE@%, mother and wife%@EH@%
of both %@AU@%URANUS%@BO:          9b05a7@%%@AE@% (the sky) and Pontus (the sea). She was mother, by Uranus,
of the %@AU@%CYCLOPES%@BO:          25a911@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%TITANS%@BO:          960a77@%%@AE@%, and others, and, by Pontus, of five sea
deities. She helped cause the overthrow of Uranus by the Titans and was
worshiped as the primal goddess, the mother of all things.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaelic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaelic%@AE@%%@CR:GAELIC          @%%@QR:Gaelic@%, or Goidelic, group of languages belonging to the Celtic subfamily%@EH@%
of the Indo-European family of languages. Gaelic is spoken in highland
Scotland, in Ireland, and on the Isle of Man. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaelic football%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaelic football%@AE@%:%@CR:GAELIC.FOOTBALL @%%@QR:Gaelic football@% see under %@AU@%FOOTBALL%@BO:          344211@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gagarin, Yuri Alekseyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gagarin, Yuri Alekseyevich%@AE@%,%@CR:GAGARIN         @%%@QR:Gagarin, Yuri Alekseyevich@% 1934-68, Soviet cosmonaut. He became the%@EH@%
first person to achieve orbital spaceflight when, on Apr. 12, 1961, he
circled the earth once in %@AI@%Vostok 1.%@AE@% He died (Mar. 27, 1968) in the crash
of a jet trainer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gage, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gage, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:GAGE            @%%@QR:Gage, Thomas@% 1721-87, British general, commander of the British forces%@EH@%
in North America (1763-75). As governor of Massachusetts (1774-75) he
tried to enforce the %@AU@%INTOLERABLE ACTS%@BO:          4912e0@%%@AE@%. His measures brought on the
battles of %@AU@%LEXINGTON AND CONCORD%@BO:          548491@%%@AE@%, which began the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaines's Mill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaines's Mill%@AE@%:%@CR:GAINESS.MILL    @%%@QR:Gaines's Mill@% see %@AU@%SEVEN DAYS BATTLES%@BO:          87582a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gainsborough, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gainsborough, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:GAINSBOROUGH    @%%@QR:Gainsborough, Thomas@% 1727-88, English portrait and landscape painter.%@EH@%
Greatly influenced by %@AU@%VAN DYCK%@BO:          9bc84f@%%@AE@%, he was celebrated for the elegance,
vivacity, and refinement of his portraits. His favorite subject was
landscape, and he produced some of the first great %@AU@%LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS%@BO:          51ea99@%%@AE@% in
England. Gainsborough had few English rivals as a colorist. In his last
years he excelled in fancy pictures, a pastoral genre with idealized
subjects, e.g., %@AI@%The Mall%@AE@% (1783; Frick Coll., N.Y.C.). Among his
well-known works are %@AI@%Perdita%@AE@% (Wallace Coll., London), %@AI@%The Blue Boy%@AE@%
(Huntington Art Gall., San Marino, Calif.), and %@AI@%Lady Innes%@AE@% (Frick Coll.,
N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaiseric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaiseric%@AE@%%@CR:GAISERIC        @%%@QR:Gaiseric@% or %@AB@%Genseric,%@AE@% c.390-477, king of the Vandals and Alani (428-77).%@EH@%
He left Spain for Africa (429), subdued a large territory, and took
%@AU@%CARTHAGE%@BO:          197101@%%@AE@% (439). Recognized as independent of Rome, he persecuted Roman
landowners and clergy. In 455 he sacked Rome, and he frustrated Roman
expeditions against him. By the time he made peace with %@AU@%ZENO%@BO:          a5120d@%%@AE@% (476), he
held N Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaitskell, Hugh Todd Naylor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaitskell, Hugh Todd Naylor%@AE@%,%@CR:GAITSKELL       @%%@QR:Gaitskell, Hugh Todd Naylor@% 1906-63, British statesman. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR%@EH@%
%@AU@%II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% he served in the ministry of economic warfare (1940-42) and on the
Board of Trade (1942-45). He entered Parliament as a Labour member in
1945 and later was chancellor of the exchequer (1950-51). In 1955 he
succeeded %@AU@%ATTLEE%@BO:           9a6fd@%%@AE@% as party leader. He favored moderation of party
policies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaius%@AE@%%@CR:GAIUS           @%%@QR:Gaius@%, fl. 2d cent., Roman jurist. His textbook %@AI@%Institutes%@AE@% is a major%@EH@%
source of our knowledge of early %@AU@%ROMAN LAW%@BO:          808b1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%galactic cluster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%galactic cluster%@AE@%:%@CR:GALACTIR        @%%@QR:galactic cluster@% see %@AU@%CLUSTER, STAR%@BO:          1fa5fa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galanos, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galanos, James%@AE@%:%@CR:GALANOS         @%%@QR:Galanos, James@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galapagos Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galapagos Islands%@AE@%%@CR:GALAPAGDS       @%%@QR:Galapagos Islands@% or %@AB@%Archiepielago de Colon,%@AE@% archipelago of 13 large and%@EH@%
several smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, claimed by Ecuador in 1832.
They are largely desolate lava piles with little vegetation, but are of
special interest to naturalists for their large tortoises, flightless
cormorants, and other wildlife arrested at various evolutionary stages.
Charles %@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@%, who visited the islands in 1835, gathered evidence there
that supported his theory of natural selection.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galatians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galatians%@AE@%,%@CR:GALATIANS       @%%@QR:Galatians@% epistle of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, possibly the earliest written%@EH@%
(AD c.48), 9th book in the usual order, by St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@% to Christians of
central Asia Minor. Some scholars date it after AD52. In answer to the
belief that circumcision and the Law of %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@% are essential, Paul argues,
in a passage central to Christianity, that salvation can be achieved
through faith alone.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%galaxy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%galaxy%@AE@%,%@CR:GALAXY          @%%@QR:galaxy@% large aggregation of gas, dust, and typically billions of stars.%@EH@%
It is held together by the gravitational attraction between its parts,
and its rotational motion prevents it from collapsing on itself. A
typical spiral galaxy is shaped like a flat disk, about 100,000
light-years in diameter, with a central bulge, or nucleus, containing old
stars; winding through the disk are the characteristic spiral arms of
dust, gas, and young stars. An elliptical galaxy, lacking spiral arms
entirely and containing little or no gas and dust, resembles the nucleus
of a spiral galaxy. A small minority of galaxies are classified as
irregular, i.e., showing no definite symmetry or nucleus. One theory
suggests that irregulars evolve into spirals or ellipticals depending on
the initial amount of rotational motion. Some galaxies radiate a large
fraction of their energy in forms other than visible light, such as radio
waves, X rays, and infrared and ultraviolet radiation; their optical
counterparts may be faint or undetectable. Gravitation also holds
clusters of galaxies together; the Local Group cluster includes the %@AU@%MILKY
%@AU@%WAY%@BO:          60b7f9@%%@AE@% (containing the sun and solar system) and the %@AU@%ANDROMEDA GALAXY%@BO:           55a60@%%@AE@%, both
spirals, and the irregular %@AU@%MAGELLANIC CLOUDS%@BO:          5963bb@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%HUBBLE'S LAW%@BO:          44f34a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galbraith, John Kenneth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galbraith, John Kenneth%@AE@%,%@CR:GALBRAITH       @%%@QR:Galbraith, John Kenneth@% 1908-, American economist and public official;%@EH@%
b. Ontario, Canada. He taught economics at Harvard (1934-39, 1949-75,
except for time in government service). An adviser to Pres. J.F. %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@%,
he was (1961-63) U.S. ambassador to India. A Keynesian economist (see
%@AU@%KEYNES%@BO:          4f402b@%%@AE@%), he advocated government spending to fight unemployment and using
more of the nation's wealth for public services and less for private
consumption. His widely read books include %@AI@%The Affluent Society%@AE@% (1958;
rev. ed., 1985), %@AI@%The New Industrial State%@AE@% (1967; 3d rev. ed., 1978), and
%@AI@%The Anatomy of Power%@AE@% (1983).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galdos, Benito Perez%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galdos, Benito Perez%@AE@%:%@CR:GALDOS          @%%@QR:Galdos, Benito Perez@% see %@AU@%PEREZ GALDOS, BENITO%@BO:          734c40@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galen%@AE@%,%@CR:GALEN           @%%@QR:Galen@% c.130=+-c.200, physician and writer; b. Pergamum, of Greek%@EH@%
parents. He resided chiefly in Rome and was personal physician to several
emperors. Credited with some 500 treatises (at least 83 extant), Galen
correlated earlier medical knowledge with his own discoveries (based on
experiments and animal dissections). He showed that arteries carry blood,
not air, and added greatly to knowledge of the brain, nerves, spinal
cord, and pulse. His virtually undisputed authority discouraged original
investigation and hampered medical progress until the 16th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%galena%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%galena%@AE@%%@CR:GALENA          @%%@QR:galena@% or %@AB@%lead glance,%@AE@% lustrous, blue-gray lead sulfide mineral (PbS). It%@EH@%
is the chief ore and principal source of %@AU@%LEAD%@BO:          531097@%%@AE@%. Distributed worldwide, it
frequently contains silver and other accessory metals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galicia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galicia%@AE@%%@CR:GALICIA1        @%%@QR:Galicia@%, historic region (32,332 sq mi/83,740 sq km), SE Poland and W%@EH@%
Ukraine. The Polish section covers Rzeszow and the greater part of Krakow
provinces; the Ukranian section includes Lvov, Ivano-Frankovsk, and
Tarnopol oblasts. Mainly agricultural, Galicia also has minerals, notably
oil. Originally the duchy of Galich and Vladimir, the region was annexed
to Poland in the 14th cent., passed to Austria in 1772, and won limited
autonomy in 1861. A battleground in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, after the war Galicia
was contested (1918-20) by newly independent Poland and the new Ukrainian
republic with Polish title to the region confirmed by the Polish-Soviet
Treaty of Riga (1921). In 1939 most of E Galicia was annexed to the
Ukraine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galicia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galicia%@AE@%%@CR:GALICIA2        @%%@QR:Galicia@%, region, NW Spain, on the Atlantic Ocean, S of the Bay of Biscay%@EH@%
and N of Portugal. It includes the provinces of La Coruna, Lugo, Orense,
and Pontevedra. In this largely mountainous area, fishing and
stock-raising are the major occupations. Galicia passed from Rome to the
German Suevi (5th-6th cent.), the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ASTURIAS%@BO:           93136@%%@AE@% (8th-9th cent.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galilean satellites%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galilean satellites%@AE@%:%@CR:GALILEAITES     @%%@QR:Galilean satellites@% see %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dc4a6@%%@AE@%, in astronomy.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galilee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galilee%@AE@%,%@CR:GALILEE         @%%@QR:Galilee@% region, N Israel, roughly the portion north of the plain of%@EH@%
Esdraelon. Galilee was the chief scene of the ministry of Jesus Christ.
After the destruction of Jerusalem (AD 70), it became the main center of
Judaism in %@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@%. Zionist colonization of the area began at the end
of the 19th cent. and accelerated after World War II. The chief city is
%@AU@%NAZARETH%@BO:          67cd1d@%%@AE@%. The %@AB@%Sea of Galilee%@AE@% or %@AB@%Lake Tiberias%@AE@% or %@AB@%Lake Kinneret%@AE@% is a lake
(64 sq mi/166 sq km) in NE Israel. About 700 ft (210 m) below sea level,
it has a saline character and is fed and drained by the %@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d3d82@%%@AE@% R. Some
fishing is carried on and some of its water is pumped to S Israel for
irrigation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galileo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galileo%@AE@%%@CR:GALILEO1        @%%@QR:Galileo@% (Galileo Galilei), 1564-1642, Italian astronomer, mathematician,%@EH@%
and physicist. At the age of 19 he discovered the principle of
isochronism-that each oscillation of a pendulum takes the same time
despite changes in amplitude. Soon thereafter he became known for his
invention of a hydrostatic balance and his treatise on the center of
gravity of falling bodies. He found experimentally that bodies do not
fall with velocities proportional to their weights, a conclusion received
with hostility because it contradicted the accepted teaching of
%@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@%. Galileo discovered that the path of a projectile is a
parabola, and he is credited with anticipating Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON'S%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@% laws of
motion. In 1609 he constructed the first astronomical telescope, which he
used to discover the four largest satellites of Jupiter and the stellar
composition of the Milky Way, and in 1632 he published his %@AI@%Dialogue
%@AI@%Concerning the Two Chief World Systems,%@AE@% a work that upheld the %@AU@%COPERNICAN
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          2315e8@%%@AE@% rather than the %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@% and marked a turning point in
scientific and philosophical thought. Brought (1633) before the
%@AU@%INQUISITION%@BO:          486fa4@%%@AE@% in Rome, he was made to renounce all his beliefs and writings
supporting the Copernican theory. His last book, %@AI@%Dialogues Concerning Two
%@AI@%New Sciences%@AE@% (1638), contains most of his contributions to physics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galileo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galileo%@AE@%,%@CR:GALILEO2        @%%@QR:Galileo@% in space exploration: see %@AU@%SPACE PROBE%@BO:          8ca220@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gall%@AE@%,%@CR:GALL            @%%@QR:Gall@% c.1840-94, %@AU@%SIOUX INDIAN%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@% war chief; b. South Dakota. Chief%@EH@%
lieutenant of Sitting Bull in the defeat of George %@AU@%CUSTER%@BO:          258194@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%LITTLE
%@AU@%BIGHORN%@BO:          55b845@%%@AE@% (1876), Gall later surrendered and worked for better relations
between Indians and whites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galla%@AE@%,%@CR:GALLA           @%%@QR:Galla@% Hamitic pastoral tribes of W and S Ethiopia and Kenya, numbering%@EH@%
about 10 million. They are either Muslim, Christian, or pagan. They have
inhabited the Ethiopian highlands since the 16th cent., having come there
from Somalia. A warlike people, the Galla have historically maintained
small-group autonomy from the Ethiopian government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallant, Mavis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallant, Mavis%@AE@%,%@CR:GALLANT         @%%@QR:Gallant, Mavis@% 1922-, Canadian writer. An expatriate writer living in%@EH@%
France, she has contributed to %@AI@%The New Yorker%@AE@% since the 1950s. Her
publications include short stories, two novels, %@AI@%Green Water, Green Sky%@AE@%
(1959) and %@AI@%A Fairly Good Time%@AE@% (1970), and one play, %@AI@%What Is to Be Done?%@AE@%
(1983).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallatin, Albert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallatin, Albert%@AE@%,%@CR:GALLATIN        @%%@QR:Gallatin, Albert@% 1761-1849, U.S. public official and financier; b.%@EH@%
Switzerland. An innovative secretary of the treasury (1801-14), he
reshaped U.S. financial policy to Jeffersonian principles. Under Pres.
%@AU@%MADISON%@BO:          59378d@%%@AE@% he urged the use of federal money to expand the internal economy.
A key figure in negotiating the Treaty of %@AU@%GHENT%@BO:          39ed87@%%@AE@%, he was also minister to
France (1816-23) and to Great Britain (1826-27). In 1842 he founded the
American Ethnological Society.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallaudet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallaudet%@AE@%%@CR:GALLAUDET       @%%@QR:Gallaudet@%, American family of educators of the deaf. %@AB@%Thomas Hopkins%@EH@%
%@AB@%Gallaudet,%@AE@% 1787-1851, b. Philadelphia, founded (1817) the first free
school for the deaf in the U.S. His oldest son, %@AB@%Thomas Gallaudet,%@AE@%
1822-1902, an Episcopal priest, founded St. Ann's Church for Deaf-Mutes,
N.Y.C., and the Gallaudet Home for aged deaf-mutes, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
The youngest son, %@AB@%Edward Miner Gallaudet,%@AE@% 1837-1917, opened a school for
deaf-mutes (now Gallaudet College) in Washington, D.C.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallaudet College%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallaudet College%@AE@%,%@CR:GALLAUDGE       @%%@QR:Gallaudet College@% at Washington, D.C., world-renowned institution of%@EH@%
higher education for the deaf. It was originally the upper branch of a
school for deaf-mutes and the blind. It was founded (1864) by Amos
Kendall and Edward Miner Gallaudet, who pioneered in progressive methods
of education in this field.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gall bladder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gall bladder%@AE@%,%@CR:GALL.BLADDER    @%%@QR:gall bladder@% small, pear-shaped sac attached to the %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@% by the hepatic%@EH@%
duct. The gall bladder stores and concentrates %@AU@%BILE%@BO:           fadc8@%%@AE@%, which is produced by
the liver and functions in fat digestion. Fatty foods stimulate
intestinal cells to produce a hormone that causes the gall bladder to
contract, forcing the bile into the common bile duct and the intestine,
where fats are absorbed. Components of bile sometimes crystallize in the
gall bladder, forming gallstones.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallic Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallic Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:GALLIC.WARS     @%%@QR:Gallic Wars@% campaigns in Gaul led by Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% as proconsul of Gaul%@EH@%
(58-51 BC). Caesar's first campaign was to prevent the Helvetii from
entering SW %@AU@%GAUL%@BO:          385229@%%@AE@%. Next, the Aedui asked Caesar's help against the German
Ariovistus, whom Caesar routed. In 57 BC Caesar pacified Belgica (roughly
Belgium). In 56 BC he attacked the Veneti, and in the following year he
went to the Low Countries and repelled a German invasion. He invaded (54
BC) Britain and the next winter put down a revolt of Belgian tribes led
by Ambiorix. In 53 BC all central Gaul raised a revolt, organized by
Vercingetorix. With incredible speed and brilliant tactics, Caesar
crossed the Alps and suppressed the Gauls. The prime source of the Gallic
Wars is Caesar's own commentaries, %@AI@%De bello Gallico.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallieni, Joseph Simon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallieni, Joseph Simon%@AE@%%@CR:GALLIENI        @%%@QR:Gallieni, Joseph Simon@%, 1849-1916, French general. As governor general of%@EH@%
Madagascar (1896-1905) he solidly established French rule. The military
governor of Paris in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, he contributed greatly to the French
victory at the Marne (1914) by urging Gen. %@AU@%JOFFRE%@BO:          4c5ea9@%%@AE@% to counterattack.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallipoli campaign%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallipoli campaign%@AE@%,%@CR:GALLIPOIGN      @%%@QR:Gallipoli campaign@% April 1915-January 1916, Allied expedition in Turkey%@EH@%
in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. Planned by Winston %@AU@%CHURCHILL%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@%, British first lord of the
admiralty, its purpose was to gain the Dardanelles, capture
Constantinople, and make contact with Russia. Poor Allied cooperation and
strong Turkish resistance forced the Allies into an evacuation that was
the only successful operation in a disastrous campaign.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallitzin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallitzin%@AE@%%@CR:GALLITZIN       @%%@QR:Gallitzin@%, Russian princely family. %@AB@%Vasily Vasilyevich Gallitzin,%@AE@% d.%@EH@%
1619, sent to offer the Russian throne to Prince Ladislaus of Poland, was
imprisoned by King %@AU@%SIGISMUND III%@BO:          88fb65@%%@AE@% for refusing to help him gain the
throne; he died in prison. %@AB@%Vasily Vasilyevich Gallitzin,%@AE@% 1643-1714, was
the lover and chief adviser of Sophia Alekseyevna, regent for %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@%. He
was exiled to Siberia after her downfall (1689). %@AB@%Boris Alekseyevich
%@AB@%Gallitzin,%@AE@% 1654-1714, tutor to %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@%, headed the government during
Peter's first foreign tour. %@AB@%Dmitri Mikhailovich Gallitzin,%@AE@% 1665-1737,
helped %@AU@%ANNA%@BO:           5b4eb@%%@AE@%, daughter of %@AU@%IVAN IV%@BO:          4a7fe6@%%@AE@%, gain the throne providing she agreed to
limit her power; she began to rule absolutely and sentenced him to death,
then exiled him instead. %@AB@%Dmitri Alekseyevich Gallitzin,%@AE@% 1735-1803,
Russian ambassador at Paris (1765-73), was a friend of %@AU@%DIDEROT%@BO:          28d97e@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%VOLTAIRE%@BO:          9e43e4@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Aleksandr Nikolayevich Gallitzin,%@AE@% 1773?-1844, a statesman of
liberal tendencies, was a counselor to %@AU@%ALEXANDER I%@BO:           34897@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Nikolai Dmitryevich
%@AB@%Gallitzin,%@AE@% 1856-1925, headed the council of ministers of %@AU@%NICHOLAS II%@BO:          69d0d5@%%@AE@% from
1916 until the %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@% of 1917.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gallium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gallium%@AE@%%@CR:GALLIUM         @%%@QR:gallium@% (Ga), metallic element, discovered spectroscopically by P.E.%@EH@%
Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875. Solid gallium is blue-gray; the liquid form
is silver. It is chemically similar to %@AU@%ALUMINUM%@BO:           436c3@%%@AE@%. Gallium compounds are
used in transistors, lasers, and diodes. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gallotanic acid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gallotanic acid%@AE@%:%@CR:GALLOTANIC.ACID @%%@QR:gallotanic acid@% see %@AU@%TANNIN%@BO:          92a4c0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gallup, George Horace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gallup, George Horace%@AE@%,%@CR:GALLUP          @%%@QR:Gallup, George Horace@% 1901-84, American public-opinion statistician; b.%@EH@%
Jefferson, Iowa. He founded the American Institute of Public Opinion
(1935) at Princeton, N.J., and originated the Gallup %@AU@%POLL%@BO:          778cfd@%%@AE@% to measure
voter sentiment and gauge the national mood on various issues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galois, Evariste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galois, Evariste%@AE@%%@CR:GALOIS          @%%@QR:Galois, Evariste@%, 1811-32, French mathematician. Although killed at the%@EH@%
age of 21 in a political duel, he made contributions to %@AU@%NUMBER THEORY%@BO:          6c4406@%%@AE@% and
function theory and invented Galois theory, a critical area of modern
algebra.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galsworthy, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galsworthy, John%@AE@%,%@CR:GALSWORTHY      @%%@QR:Galsworthy, John@% 1867-1933, English novelist and dramatist. He is best%@EH@%
remembered for his novels of the Forsyte family, grouped in three
trilogies, %@AI@%The Forsyte Saga%@AE@% (1922), %@AI@%A Modern Comedy%@AE@% (1928), and %@AI@%End of
%@AI@%the Chapter%@AE@% (1934). Dealing with three generations of a complacent
upper-middle-class family from the 1880s to the 1920s, the novels focus
on Soames Forsyte, the "man of property." Galsworthy also wrote highly
successful dramas on social problems, including %@AI@%The Silver Box%@AE@% (1906),
%@AI@%Strife%@AE@% (1909), and %@AI@%Justice%@AE@% (1910). He was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch%@AE@%%@CR:GALT            @%%@QR:Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch@%, 1817-93, Canadian statesman; son of the%@EH@%
novelist John Galt. After emigrating from Britain in 1835 he served in
the Canadian Legislative Assembly (1849-50, 1853-67) and House of Commons
(1867-72). Galt worked for confederation (1867) and an independent
financial policy, serving as finance minister (1867-68) in the first
dominion government. He was the first Canadian high commissioner
(1880-83) in London.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galtieri, Leopoldo Fortunato%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galtieri, Leopoldo Fortunato%@AE@%,%@CR:GALTIERI        @%%@QR:Galtieri, Leopoldo Fortunato@% 1927-, Argentine general, president of%@EH@%
Argentina (1981-82). Army commander and a member of the ruling military
junta, he assumed the presidency in Dec. 1981. He was involved in a
conflict with Britain over the British-held %@AU@%FALKLAND ISLANDS%@BO:          319e75@%%@AE@%, which
Argentina occupied in Apr. 1982. After the British recapture (June 14,
1982) of the islands, he was forced to resign, was convicted of
negligence, and was imprisoned (1986).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galton, Sir Francis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galton, Sir Francis%@AE@%,%@CR:GALTON          @%%@QR:Galton, Sir Francis@% 1822-1911, English scientist and cousin of Charles%@EH@%
%@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@%. In his %@AI@%Hereditary Genius%@AE@% (1869), he presented evidence that
talent is an inherited characteristic; this led him to found the %@AU@%EUGENICS%@BO:          308ff0@%%@AE@%
movement. His system of classifying fingerprints is basically that still
in use.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galvani, Luigi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galvani, Luigi%@AE@%,%@CR:GALVANI         @%%@QR:Galvani, Luigi@% 1737-98, Italian physician. A noted surgeon and%@EH@%
researcher in comparative anatomy, he concluded, from his observation
that a frog's leg contracted when touched by two different metals in a
moist environment, that animal tissues generate %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@%. Although he
was eventually proved wrong by Alessandro %@AU@%VOLTA%@BO:          9e3e1d@%%@AE@%, the controversy
stimulated research in electrotherapy and on electric currents. Many
electrical terms derive from his name.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%galvanizing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%galvanizing%@AE@%,%@CR:GALVANIZING     @%%@QR:galvanizing@% process of coating a metal, usually iron or steel, with a%@EH@%
protective coating of %@AU@%ZINC%@BO:          a54458@%%@AE@%. Galvanized iron is usually prepared by
dipping or electroplating. Pure iron, copper iron, and various steels are
often galvanized, because the zinc coating resists oxidation and
moisture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%galvanometer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%galvanometer%@AE@%,%@CR:GALVANOMETER    @%%@QR:galvanometer@% instrument used to determine the presence, direction, and%@EH@%
strength of electric current in a conductor. Galvanometers are based on
the discovery (1819) by Hans %@AU@%OERSTED%@BO:          6cf7b8@%%@AE@% that a magnetic needle is deflected
by the presence of an electric current in a nearby conductor. When an
electric current is passing through the conductor, the magnetic needle
tends to turn at right angles to the conductor, so that its direction is
parallel to the lines of induction around the conductor and its north
pole points in the direction in which these lines of induction flow. In
general, the extent to which the needle turns is dependent upon the
current strength. In the modern d'Arsonval galvanometer, the magnet is
fixed and the coil is movable. If a pointer is attached to the moving
coil so that it passes over a suitably calibrated scale, the galvanometer
can be used to quantitatively measure the current passing through it. A
direct current (DC) %@AU@%AMMETER%@BO:           4bd20@%%@AE@% measures direct current by allowing a known
percentage of the current to pass through a galvanometer. A DC %@AU@%VOLTMETER%@BO:          9e4ad3@%%@AE@%
measures direct voltage (see %@AU@%POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@%) between two points by
allowing current to flow through a galvanometer connected in series with
a high resistance. The current through the galvanometer is then
proportional to the voltage (see %@AU@%OHM'S LAW%@BO:          6d3048@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Galveston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Galveston%@AE@%,%@CR:GALVESTON       @%%@QR:Galveston@% city (1986 est. pop. 60,210), seat of Galveston co., on%@EH@%
Galveston Island, SE Tex.; inc. 1839. It has a fine natural harbor at the
entrance to Galveston Bay; causeways connect it with the mainland and
Texas City. Oil refining and shipbuilding lead its industries. From its
deepwater port goods are exported all over the world. Settled from the
1830s but known to Europeans centuries earlier, it is also a noted resort
center. The city was devastated by a 1900 hurricane. A massive seawall
has helped to protect it, but a 1961 storm caused much damage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gama, Vasco da%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gama, Vasco da%@AE@%,%@CR:GAMA            @%%@QR:Gama, Vasco da@% c.1469-1524, Portuguese navigator, the first European to%@EH@%
travel by sea to %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% (1497-99). At the order of %@AU@%MANUEL I%@BO:          5b397c@%%@AE@%, he commanded
four vessels, reached Calicut, and opened up a lucrative spice trade,
thus beginning the Portuguese empire. He returned with 20 ships in 1502
and established Portuguese power in India and Africa. His methods were
harsh, and he was not a good administrator. He was sent back to India as
viceroy in 1524 but soon died.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gamaliel of Jabneh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gamaliel of Jabneh%@AE@%,%@CR:GAMALIENEH      @%%@QR:Gamaliel of Jabneh@% fl. AD 100, Jewish scholar, head of the %@AU@%SANHEDRIN%@BO:          841231@%%@AE@% at%@EH@%
Jabneh. He unified the Jewish people after the destruction of Jerusalem,
e.g., by regulating the prayer ritual and standardizing the Jewish
calendar. The Romans also recognized him as a leader of his people.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gambetta, Leon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gambetta, Leon%@AE@%%@CR:GAMBETTA        @%%@QR:Gambetta, Leon@%, 1838-82, French republican leader. He opposed the Second%@EH@%
Empire of %@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@% and was prominent in the provisional government
following the empire's fall (1870) in the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@%. He
bitterly fought French capitulation and after 1871 helped to create the
Third Republic. He pursued a moderate policy between the radicals and the
monarchists and was premier (1881-82).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gambia, The%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gambia, The%@AE@%%@CR:GAMBIA          @%%@QR:Gambia, The@%, officially Republic of The Gambia, republic (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
698,000), 4,361 sq mi (11,295 sq km), W Africa, the continent's smallest
independent state. It is a narrow strip of land on both banks of the
Gambia R., bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and surrounded on
the remaining three sides by Senegal. The capital is %@AU@%BANJUL%@BO:           bd209@%%@AE@%, on St.
Mary's Island, near the mouth of the Gambia R. A low-lying country, it
ranges from sandy beaches along the coast to a swampy river valley in the
interior. The economy is overwhelmingly dependent on the export of
peanuts, which provides 90% of earnings. Rice and other grains are
produced for local consumption. The population is primarily Muslim black
African, of whom the Mandingo are the most numerous; West Indians are an
important minority. English is the official language.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Prior to the arrival of Portuguese explorers in the mid-15th
cent., the area that is now Gambia was part of the %@AU@%MALI%@BO:          5a4070@%%@AE@% empire. English
merchants won trading rights from the Portuguese in 1588, and in the
early 17th cent. British companies founded settlements along the Gambia
R. In 1816 the British purchased St. Mary's Island, where they
established Bathurst (now Banjul), and in 1843 the territory became a
crown colony. The French, who controlled the neighboring interior (now
Senegal), failed in negotiations to acquire the Gambia R. settlements,
which, in 1894, became a British protectorate. Gambia achieved
self-government in 1963 and independence in 1965, under Dauda Kairaba
Jawara; it became a republic in the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970.
Independent Gambia is notable in Africa as a bastion of parliamentary
democracy and political stability. It has close relations with %@AU@%SENEGAL%@BO:          86e39d@%%@AE@%,
and in 1981 the two nations joined in a confederation known as
Senegambia, which, while maintaining individual sovereignty, aimed at
cooperation in foreign policy, security, communications, and monetary and
economic affairs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%games, theory of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%games, theory of%@AE@%,%@CR:GAMES           @%%@QR:games, theory of@% group of mathematical theories applying statistical%@EH@%
logic to the choice of strategies in a game. A game consists of a set of
rules governing a competitive situation in which two or more individuals
or groups attempt to maximize their own winnings or minimize those of
their opponents. Game theory, first developed by John %@AU@%VON NEUMANN%@BO:          9e559a@%%@AE@%, is
applied to many fields, e.g., military problems and economics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gametophyte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gametophyte%@AE@%,%@CR:GAMETOPHYTE     @%%@QR:gametophyte@% phase of a plant life cycle in which the egg (see %@AU@%OVUM%@BO:          6f97fc@%%@AE@%) and%@EH@%
%@AU@%SPERM%@BO:          8d7783@%%@AE@% (gametes) are produced. In many lower plants the gametophyte phase
is the dominant life form; for example, the familiar %@AU@%MOSSES%@BO:          643c74@%%@AE@% are the
gametophyte form of the plant. The union of egg and sperm gives rise to
the sporophyte phase, in which spores are formed; spores, in turn, give
rise to the gametophyte. In mosses the sporophyte is a capsule atop a
slender stalk that grows out of the top of the gametophyte. The
alternation between the gametophyte and sporophyte phase is known as
alternation of generations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gamma globulin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gamma globulin%@AE@%:%@CR:GAMMA.GLOBULIN  @%%@QR:gamma globulin@% see %@AU@%GLOBULIN%@BO:          3aae8e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gamma radiation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gamma radiation%@AE@%,%@CR:GAMMA.RADIATION @%%@QR:gamma radiation@% radiation emitted in one of the three types of natural%@EH@%
%@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@%. It is the most energetic form of %@AU@%ELECTROMAGNETIC
%@AU@%RADIATION%@BO:          2d8706@%%@AE@%, with a very short wavelength of less than 10%@AH@%-10%@AE@% m. Gamma rays
are essentially very energetic %@AU@%X RAYS%@BO:          a3d2ea@%%@AE@% emitted by excited nuclei. They
often accompany alpha or beta particles, because a nucleus emitting those
particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state. Gamma-ray
sources are used in medicine for cancer treatment and for diagnostic
purposes, and in industry for the inspection of castings and welds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gamow, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gamow, George%@AE@%%@CR:GAMOW           @%%@QR:Gamow, George@%, 1904-68, Russian-American theoretical physicist and%@EH@%
author; b. Odessa; came to U.S., 1933. He is best known as an author who
popularized abstract physical theories. Gamow devised (1928) a theory of
radioactive decay and applied nuclear physics to problems of stellar
evolution. He also proposed an important theory on the organization of
genetic information in the living cell.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gandhi, Indira%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gandhi, Indira%@AE@%,%@CR:GANDHI1         @%%@QR:Gandhi, Indira@% 1917-1984, prime minister of India (1966-77, 1980-84);%@EH@%
daughter of Jawaharlal %@AU@%NEHRU%@BO:          680f1f@%%@AE@%. After serving as her father's aide and
rising through the ranks of the Congress party, she became prime minister
on the death of %@AU@%SHASTRI%@BO:          8802d9@%%@AE@%. India's defeat of Pakistan in 1971 assured
Indian dominance of the subcontinent. Gandhi's administration,
increasingly authoritarian, was marked by stress on social programs and
government planning. Faced with opposition, she declared an "emergency"
in 1975, jailing opponents and suspending civil liberties. Forced from
office in 1977, she made a triumphant return in 1980, stressing
agricultural development and stronger international relations. She was
assassinated (1984) by %@AU@%SIKH%@BO:          89083b@%%@AE@% members of her body guard unit following an
attack on the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the Sikhs' holiest shrine. Her
son, Rajiv %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37d12f@%%@AE@%, succeeded her as prime minister.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand%@AE@%,%@CR:GANDHI2         @%%@QR:Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand@% 1869-1948, Indian political and spiritual%@EH@%
leader, called the Mahatma [great souled] and regarded as the father of
independent %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@%. After practicing law in South Africa, where he fought
for the rights of the Indian population there, he returned (1915) to
India. Already regarded as a leader in the nationalist movement, he began
working for Indian Independence from Great Britain. He gave up Western
ways to lead a life of abstinence and spirituality. He asserted the unity
of mankind under one God and preached Christian and Muslim ethics along
with the Hindu. He became a proponent of satyagraha [passive resistance]
to British rule. His efforts led the British to jail him several times,
but so great was his following that his threats to fast until death
usually forced his release. In the %@AU@%INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS%@BO:          478d0e@%%@AE@%, India's
chief political party, he led the fight to rid the country of the %@AU@%CASTE%@BO:          19cfed@%%@AE@%
system; he especially defended the rights of the untouchables. In 1942
the British jailed him after he refused to cooperate in World War II. In
1944 he was released and became a major figure in the postwar
negotiations that resulted in Indian independence in 1947. He was deeply
distressed by the religious partition of the country into India and
Pakistan. When violence broke out between Hindus and Muslims, he resorted
to fasts and visits to the troubled areas in efforts to end the violence.
He was on one such prayer vigil in New Delhi when he was fatally shot by
a Hindu fanatic who objected to Gandhi's tolerance for the Muslims.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gandhi, Rajiv%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gandhi, Rajiv%@AE@%,%@CR:GANDHI3         @%%@QR:Gandhi, Rajiv@% 1944-, Indian political leader. He succeeded his mother,%@EH@%
Indira %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37c57e@%%@AE@%, as prime minister after her assassination (1984). He has
pursued a policy of reconciliation in an effort to resolve problems in
the Punjab with the Sikhs and in Assam. He has also proposed increases in
spending for education, housing, and aid to the poor in an effort to
counter criticism that his government favored the rich by its policy of
permitting more free enterprise.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ganges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ganges%@AE@%%@CR:GANGES          @%%@QR:Ganges@% or %@AB@%Ganga%@AE@%, chief river in India, c.1,560 mi (2,510 km) long,%@EH@%
considered sacred by Hindus. It rises in the Himalayas and flows
generally east-southeast through a wide and densely populated plain to
join the %@AU@%BRAHMAPUTRA%@BO:          132a38@%%@AE@% R. in Bangladesh. The combined river then continues
through a vast and fertile delta on the Bay of %@AU@%BENGAL%@BO:           e6303@%%@AE@%, which it enters as
the Padma and other distributaries. Hardwar, Allahabad, and Varanasi
(Benares) are especially holy bathing sites along its banks. The Ganges
is a major source of water for irrigation in both India and Bangladesh.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gang of Four%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gang of Four%@AE@%,%@CR:GANG.OF.FOUR    @%%@QR:Gang of Four@% term of opprobrium given by the Chinese Communist%@EH@%
authorities to four persons held responsible for the excesses of the
%@AU@%CULTURAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          2541f0@%%@AE@% (1966-69). They were also accused of trying to seize
power after the deaths (1976) of %@AU@%MAO TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CHOU EN-LAI%@BO:          1dd7ba@%%@AE@%. They were
imprisoned in 1976, tried in 1980, and sentenced in 1981. Sentences
ranged from death (to be commuted upon rehabilitation) to 20 years in
prison. The most notable of the Gang of Four was %@AU@%JIANG QING%@BO:          4c3814@%%@AE@%, Mao's widow.
The others were Wang Hongwen, Yao Wenyuan, and Zhang Qunqiao.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gangrene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gangrene%@AE@%,%@CR:GANGRENE        @%%@QR:gangrene@% local death of body tissue. Dry gangrene, the most common form,%@EH@%
follows a disturbance of blood supply to the tissues, e.g., in %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%
or destruction of tissue from injury. Moist gangrene results from an
invasion of toxin-producing bacteria that destroy tissue. Treatment
includes rest and %@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%; excision of the diseased area or, in
advanced cases, amputation of the affected part may be necessary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gannet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gannet%@AE@%:%@CR:GANNET          @%%@QR:gannet@% see %@AU@%BOOBY%@BO:          11f04e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gannett, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gannett, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:GANNETT         @%%@QR:Gannett, Henry@% 1846-1914, American geographer; b. Bath, Me. Chief%@EH@%
geographer of the U.S. Geological Survey (from 1882), he fostered
creation (1890) of the U.S. Board of Geographic Names. He helped to found
the National Geographic Society.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ganymede%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ganymede%@AE@%,%@CR:GANYMEDE1       @%%@QR:Ganymede@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dc4a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ganymede%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ganymede%@AE@%%@CR:GANYMEDE2       @%%@QR:Ganymede@%, in Greek mythology, a beautiful youth carried off by %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% to be%@EH@%
cupbearer to the gods.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaon of Vilna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaon of Vilna%@AE@%:%@CR:GAON.OF.VILNA   @%%@QR:Gaon of Vilna@% see %@AU@%ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON%@BO:          2e0e63@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gar%@AE@%,%@CR:GAR             @%%@QR:gar@% cylindrical, mostly freshwater %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% (family Lepisosteidae) with%@EH@%
hard, diamond-shaped scales, a long jaw, and long, sharp teeth, found in
the U.S. and Central America. The largest species is the 9-ft (2.7-m)
alligator gar (%@AI@%Lepisosteus spatula%@AE@%) of the Mississippi valley.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garamond, Claude%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garamond, Claude%@AE@%,%@CR:GARAMOND        @%%@QR:Garamond, Claude@% 1480-1561, French designer and maker of printing %@AU@%TYPES%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
The %@AU@%ESTIENNES%@BO:          302e50@%%@AE@%, Plantin, and %@AU@%BODONI%@BO:          115388@%%@AE@% used his types. The %@AU@%ELZEVIR%@BO:          2e609e@%%@AE@% family
based their types on his. His roman and italic types were innovative in
being designed as metal types, not as imitations of handwriting. He was a
chief influence in establishing the roman letter as standard.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%garbanzo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%garbanzo%@AE@%:%@CR:GARBANZO        @%%@QR:garbanzo@% see %@AU@%CHICK-PEA%@BO:          1cdde3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garbo, Greta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garbo, Greta%@AE@%,%@CR:GARBO           @%%@QR:Garbo, Greta@% 1905-, Swedish-American film actress; b. Sweden as Greta%@EH@%
Gustafson. She was noted for her beauty and her dramatic intensity. Her
films include %@AI@%Queen Christina%@AE@% (1933), %@AI@%Anna Karenina%@AE@% (1935), and %@AI@%Camille%@AE@%
(1936).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garcia Lorca, Federico%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garcia Lorca, Federico%@AE@%%@CR:GARCIA.LORCA    @%%@QR:Garcia Lorca, Federico@%, 1898-1936, Spanish lyric poet and dramatist. His%@EH@%
work reflects the spirit of his native Andalusia and his own passionate
response to life. %@AI@%Gypsy Ballads%@AE@% (1928) made him the most popular Spanish
poet of his generation, while %@AI@%Lament for the Death of a Bullfighter%@AE@%
(1935) and %@AI@%The Poet in New York%@AE@% (1940) evidenced his growing maturity of
thought. His plays, notably the tragedies %@AI@%Blood Wedding%@AE@% (1933) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%House of Bernarda Alba%@AE@% (1936), ensure his continuing international
reputation. Garcia Lorca was shot by %@AU@%FRANCO'S%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% soldiers at the outbreak of
the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garcia Marquez, Gabriel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garcia Marquez, Gabriel%@AE@%%@CR:GARCIA.MARQUEZ  @%%@QR:Garcia Marquez, Gabriel@%, 1928-, Colombian writer. His works, generally%@EH@%
chronicling the physical and moral collapse of Macondo, an imaginary
town, include %@AI@%Leaf Storm and Other Stories%@AE@% (1955) and the novels %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Autumn of the Patriarch%@AE@% (1975) and %@AI@%Chronicle of a Death Foretold%@AE@% (tr.
1982). He was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garcia Moreno, Gabriel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garcia Moreno, Gabriel%@AE@%%@CR:GARCIA.MORENO   @%%@QR:Garcia Moreno, Gabriel@%, 1821-75, president of %@AU@%ECUADOR%@BO:          2c3cc0@%%@AE@% (1861-65, 1869-75).%@EH@%
A fervent Roman Catholic, he guaranteed (1862) the church's independence
and granted it control over education. His despotism in crushing liberal
opposition led to his assassination.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garcia y Inigues, Calixto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garcia y Inigues, Calixto%@AE@%%@CR:GARCIA.S        @%%@QR:Garcia y Inigues, Calixto@%, 1839-98, Cuban revolutionary. A leader in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%TEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          940a3b@%%@AE@% (1868-78), he was important in the %@AU@%SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR%@BO:          8d0a1a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garcilaso de la Vega%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garcilaso de la Vega%@AE@%%@CR:GARCILA.VEGA    @%%@QR:Garcilaso de la Vega@%, 1503?-1536, Spanish lyric poet. He typified the%@EH@%
courtly poet-soldier of Spain's %@AU@%GOLDEN AGE%@BO:          3b20f6@%%@AE@%. His sonnets, elegies, odes,
and eclogues, published after his death in battle, introduced Italian
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% poetic forms into Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garden Grove%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garden Grove%@AE@%,%@CR:GARDEN.GROVE    @%%@QR:Garden Grove@% city (1986 est. pop. 134,850), S Calif., a residential%@EH@%
suburb of %@AU@%LONG BEACH%@BO:          5682f6@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LOS ANGELES%@BO:          56c905@%%@AE@%, on the Santa Ana R.; founded 1877,
inc. 1956. The city is in a citrus fruit area. Nearby defense
installations provide much employment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gardenia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gardenia%@AE@%,%@CR:GARDENIA        @%%@QR:gardenia@% evergreen shrub or tree (genus %@AI@%Gardenia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MADDER%@BO:          592e82@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to the Old World tropics. Gardenias' heavily fragrant and showy
blossoms make them popular corsage and greenhouse plants. Most of the
cultivated types are varieties of %@AI@%G. jasminoides,%@AE@% also called Cape
jasmine but unrelated to true %@AU@%JASMINE%@BO:          4b7858@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gardner, Erle Stanley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gardner, Erle Stanley%@AE@%,%@CR:GARDNER1        @%%@QR:Gardner, Erle Stanley@% 1889-1970, American writer; b. Malden, Mass. His%@EH@%
many detective novels are noted for their fast action and clever legal
devices. His most famous character, Perry Mason, is, like Gardner
himself, a lawyer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gardner, John Champlin, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gardner, John Champlin, Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:GARDNER2        @%%@QR:Gardner, John Champlin, Jr.@% 1933-82, American novelist; b. Batavia, N.Y.%@EH@%
A scholar of medieval literature, he drew on his academic knowledge and
religious concerns to create fiction that is both popular and
philosophically interesting. His works include %@AI@%Grendel%@AE@% (1971), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Sunlight Dialogues%@AE@% (1972), %@AI@%October Light%@AE@% (1976), and %@AI@%Mickelsson's Ghosts%@AE@%
(1982), novels, and %@AI@%On Moral Fiction%@AE@% (1978), criticism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gardner, Percy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gardner, Percy%@AE@%,%@CR:GARDNER3        @%%@QR:Gardner, Percy@% 1846-1937, English classical archaeologist and professor%@EH@%
of archaeology (1887-1925) at Oxford, a specialist in Greek art and
numismatics. His %@AI@%Types of Greek Coins%@AE@% (1883) shows how coinage reflects
both the history and art of a period. His brother, %@AB@%Ernest Arthur Gardner,%@AE@%
1862-1939, wrote %@AI@%Handbook of Greek Sculpture%@AE@% (1897, rev. ed. 1915).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garfield, James Abram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garfield, James Abram%@AE@%,%@CR:GARFIELD        @%%@QR:Garfield, James Abram@% 1831-81, 20th president of the U.S. (March-Sept.,%@EH@%
1881); b. Cuyahoga co., Ohio. He served in the Union army until 1863,
when he became a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives,
and followed his party's radical %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% program. Elected
president in 1880, he declared war on the leading faction of his party by
appointing James G. %@AU@%BLAINE%@BO:          10b291@%%@AE@% secretary of state (passing over the
"Stalwarts" of the influential Roscoe %@AU@%CONKLING%@BO:          222015@%%@AE@%); won a victory with his
appointment for port collector of New York; and began prosecution of
frauds in the U.S. postal service. But on July 2, 1881, he was shot by a
disappointed office seeker, Charles J. Guiteau. Garfield died Sept. 19
and was succeeded by Vice President Chester A. %@AU@%ARTHUR%@BO:           85290@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garibaldi, Giuseppe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garibaldi, Giuseppe%@AE@%,%@CR:GARIBALDI       @%%@QR:Garibaldi, Giuseppe@% 1807-82, Italian patriot and soldier, a leading%@EH@%
figure in the %@AU@%RISORGIMENTO%@BO:          7f696b@%%@AE@%; b. France. He fled to South America (1835)
after a republican plot failed and fought (1842-46) in the Uruguayan
civil war. Returning to Italy, he fought for Sardinia against Austria
(1848) and for %@AU@%MAZZINI'S%@BO:          5dc76d@%%@AE@% Roman republic (1849), then found asylum in the
U.S. Returning (1851) to Italy, he renounced his republican views and
supported a united Italy under %@AU@%VICTOR EMMANUEL II%@BO:          9d1e79@%%@AE@% of Sardinia. In 1860,
with Victor Emmanuel's connivance, Garibaldi led 1,000 volunteer "red
shirts" in a spectacular conquest of Sicily and Naples. He then
relinquished his conquests to Sardinia, and Victor Emmanuel was
proclaimed (1861) king of Italy. In 1862 and 1867 he tried unsuccessfully
to take Rome, which had remained outside the new kingdom. He was elected
(1874) to the Italian parliament.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garland, Hamlin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garland, Hamlin%@AE@%,%@CR:GARLAND1        @%%@QR:Garland, Hamlin@% 1860-1940, American author; b. near West Salem, Wis.%@EH@%
Raised in the Midwest, he wrote of the difficulties of prairie life in
tales, e.g., %@AI@%Main-Travelled Roads%@AE@% (1891); novels, e.g., %@AI@%A Little Norsk%@AE@%
(1892); and autobiographical works, e.g., %@AI@%A Daughter of the Middle Border%@AE@%
(1921; Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garland, Judy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garland, Judy%@AE@%,%@CR:GARLAND2        @%%@QR:Garland, Judy@% 1922-69, American singer and film actress; b. Grand%@EH@%
Rapids, Mich., as Frances Gumm. Her films include %@AI@%The Wizard of Oz%@AE@%
(1939), %@AI@%Meet Me in St. Louis%@AE@% (1944), and %@AI@%A Star Is Born%@AE@% (1954).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garland%@AE@%,%@CR:GARLAND3        @%%@QR:Garland@% city (1986 est. pop. 176,510), N Tex., a suburb of %@AU@%DALLAS%@BO:          261ae5@%%@AE@%; inc.%@EH@%
1891. Since World War II it has grown from an agricultural community into
a center for electronics research and the production of airplane and
missile equipment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%garlic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%garlic%@AE@%:%@CR:GARLIC          @%%@QR:garlic@% see %@AU@%ONION%@BO:          6dd595@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garneau, Francois Xavier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garneau, Francois Xavier%@AE@%,%@CR:GARNEAU         @%%@QR:Garneau, Francois Xavier@% 1809-66, French Canadian historian. His %@AI@%History%@EH@%
%@AI@%of Canada%@AE@% (3 vol., 1845-48) is a well-written, scholarly work covering
the period from the exploration and settling of Canada by the French to
the union of the two Canadas in 1841. Garneau may have written the
history to disprove Lord Durham's claim that French Canadians were
"without history and without a literature."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garner, Erroll Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garner, Erroll Louis%@AE@%,%@CR:GARNER1         @%%@QR:Garner, Erroll Louis@% 1921-77, American jazz pianist and composer; b.%@EH@%
Pittsburgh. He wrote about 200 songs, including "Misty," "Dreamy," and
"Solitaire." he developed a unique style of piano playing and toured
throughout the world from the 1940s through the 1960s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garner, John Nance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garner, John Nance%@AE@%,%@CR:GARNER2         @%%@QR:Garner, John Nance@% 1868-1967, vice president of the U.S. (1933-41); b.%@EH@%
Red River co., Tex. In Congress from 1902, he became Speaker of the House
(1931) and was vice president for Franklin D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT'S%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% first two
terms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%garnet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%garnet%@AE@%,%@CR:GARNET          @%%@QR:garnet@% name applied to a group of silicate minerals (Fe,%@EH@%
Mg,Ca,Mn)%@AH@%3%@AE@%(Al,Fe,Cr)%@AH@%2%@AE@%(SiO%@AH@%4%@AE@%)%@AH@%3%@AE@%, used chiefly as %@AU@%GEMS%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@% and abrasives. The
most common gem varieties are red, but garnets are also yellow, brown,
and green. They are found in many types of rock throughout the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garnett, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garnett, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:GARNETT         @%%@QR:Garnett, Richard@% 1835-1906, English author and distinguished librarian%@EH@%
at the British Museum (1851-99). He wrote essays, novels, and poems, and
biographies of %@AU@%MILTON%@BO:          60e6b0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CARLYLE%@BO:          18fb53@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%EMERSON%@BO:          2e7cc0@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%COLERIDGE%@BO:          202f59@%%@AE@%, and discovered
previously unknown poems by P.B. %@AU@%SHELLEY%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AB@%Edward Garnett,%@AE@%
1868-1937, was a critic who corresponded with and encouraged many
writers. Edward's wife, %@AB@%Constance (Black) Garnett,%@AE@% 1862-1946, made
important translations from Russian of %@AU@%TOLSTOY%@BO:          967364@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DOSTOYEVSKY%@BO:          2a40f7@%%@AE@%, and others.
Their son, %@AB@%David Garnett,%@AE@% 1892-1981, wrote the imaginative %@AI@%Lady into Fox%@AE@%
(1923) and other novels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garrick, David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garrick, David%@AE@%,%@CR:GARRICK         @%%@QR:Garrick, David@% 1717-79, English actor, manager, and dramatist, the%@EH@%
greatest actor of 18th-cent. England. A pupil of Samuel %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cd852@%%@AE@%, he
accompanied Johnson to London in 1737. His formal debut (1741) as Richard
III made him the idol of London, where his straightforward manner and
diction revolutionized acting styles. Noted for his versatility, he
played contemporary drama as well as Shakespearean roles; his King Lear
was especially praised. As manager (1747-76) of the Drury Lane Theatre
(see %@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@%,), he initiated many reforms in stagecraft.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garrison, William Lloyd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garrison, William Lloyd%@AE@%,%@CR:GARRISON        @%%@QR:Garrison, William Lloyd@% 1805-79, American abolitionist; b. Newburyport,%@EH@%
Mass. He founded the %@AI@%Liberator%@AE@% in 1831 and for 35 years campaigned for
immediate and complete abolition of slavery. Favoring moral persuasion
over violence or political involvement, he helped organize (1833) the
American Anti-Slavery Society and was its president (1843-65). He
advocated Northern secession from the Union because the Constitution
permitted slavery, and he opposed the Civil War until Lincoln issued the
%@AU@%EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION%@BO:          2e65d1@%%@AE@% in 1862. Although he was considered the
foremost antislavery leader during the 19th cent., evidence indicates
that less famous %@AU@%ABOLITIONISTS%@BO:            4d50@%%@AE@% were more effective.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garter, Order of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garter, Order of the%@AE@%:%@CR:GARTER          @%%@QR:Garter, Order of the@% see %@AU@%DECORATIONS, CIVIL AND MILITARY%@BO:          2746d0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Garvey, Marcus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Garvey, Marcus%@AE@%,%@CR:GARVEY          @%%@QR:Garvey, Marcus@% 1887-1940, American proponent of black nationalism; b.%@EH@%
Jamaica. In 1914 he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association
to foster worldwide unity among blacks and establish the greatness of the
African heritage. Rejecting any notion of integration in countries where
blacks were a minority, he urged a "back to Africa" movement. Garvey's
brilliant oratory and his newspaper, %@AI@%Negro World,%@AE@% made him the most
influential black leader of the early 1920s, but his influence declined
after his misuse of funds intended to establish a Negro steamship company
resulted in a mail fraud conviction. He was jailed (1925) and deported to
Jamaica (1927), dying in relative obscurity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gary, Elbert Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gary, Elbert Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:GARY1           @%%@QR:Gary, Elbert Henry@% 1846-1927, American industrialist; b. near Wheaton,%@EH@%
Ill. A lawyer (known as Judge Gary), he setup the American Steel and Wire
Co. before J.P. Morgan (see %@AU@%MORGAN%@BO:          63c3ec@%%@AE@%, family) entrusted him with the
organization of the Federal Steel Co. (1898) and the giant U.S. Steel
Corp. (1901). Chairman and the dominant personality in U.S. Steel until
his death, he adopted a policy of management cooperation that fostered
the American Iron and Steel Institute. Gary, Ind., is named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gary%@AE@%,%@CR:GARY2           @%%@QR:Gary@% city (1986 est. pop. 136,790), NW Ind., on Lake Michigan, near%@EH@%
Chicago. One of the world's great steel centers, Gary was founded by the
U.S. Steel Corp., which bought the land in 1905. Its location midway
between western iron ore sources and eastern and southeastern coal areas
made it ideal for industry. During the nationwide steel strike of 1919
federal troops occupied the city for several months.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gas, in physics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gas, in physics%@AE@%:%@CR:GAS             @%%@QR:gas, in physics@% see %@AU@%KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES%@BO:          4fae30@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%STATES OF MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gasca, Pedro de la%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gasca, Pedro de la%@AE@%%@CR:GASCA           @%%@QR:Gasca, Pedro de la@%, c.1485-1567?, Spanish colonial administrator in %@AU@%PERU%@BO:          73d93e@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1547-50). Sent by Holy Roman emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% to restore order, he
repealed the New Laws of %@AU@%LAS CASAS%@BO:          5278b0@%%@AE@%, which were meant to protect Indians,
and pardoned their violators. He put down (1548) a revolt by Gonzalo
%@AU@%PIZARRO%@BO:          7659a2@%%@AE@% and restored the semblance of order in Peru.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gascony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gascony%@AE@%,%@CR:GASCONY         @%%@QR:Gascony@% region, SW France. The sandy, swampy Landes along the ocean, the%@EH@%
Pyrenees, and the hilly Armagnac region are the main geographic areas.
Fishing, stock-raising, wine-making, and tourism are the chief
industries. Auch is the historic capital. The Vascones, or %@AU@%BASQUES%@BO:           ce4a8@%%@AE@%,
invaded the area and set up a duchy in 601. In 1154 Gascony, along with
%@AU@%AQUITAINE%@BO:           6f00a@%%@AE@%, came under English rule; and France did not recover it
completely until the end (1453) of the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%. It later passed
to Henry of Navarre (later %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% of France) and was united with the
royal domain in 1607.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (Stevenson)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (Stevenson)%@AE@%,%@CR:GASKELL         @%%@QR:Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (Stevenson)@% 1810-65, English author. In%@EH@%
addition to her excellent but controversial %@AI@%Life of Charlotte Bronte%@AE@%
(1857), she is known for her novels about social conditions, e.g., %@AI@%Mary
%@AI@%Barton%@AE@% (1848), and village life, e.g., %@AI@%Cranford%@AE@% (1853) and %@AI@%Wives and
%@AI@%Daughters%@AE@% (1866).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gas laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gas laws%@AE@%,%@CR:GAS.LAWS        @%%@QR:gas laws@% physical laws describing the behavior of a gas (see %@AU@%STATES OF%@EH@%
%@AU@%MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%) under various conditions of volume (%@AI@%V%@AE@%), pressure (%@AI@%P%@AE@%), and
absolute, or Kelvin, %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%T%@AE@%). Boyle's, or Mariotte's, gas law
states that under constant temperature %@AI@%PV%@AE@%=%@AI@%k%@AE@%%@AH@%1%@AE@%. Charles's, or Gay-Lussac's,
law states that under constant pressure %@AI@%V%@AE@%=%@AI@%k%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%%@AI@%T.%@AE@% A third law states that
under constant volume %@AI@%P%@AE@%=%@AI@%k%@AE@%%@AH@%3%@AE@%%@AI@%T.%@AE@% The constants %@AI@%k%@AE@%%@AH@%1%@AE@%, %@AI@%k%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%, and %@AI@%k%@AE@%%@AH@%3%@AE@% are dependent
on the amount of gas present and, respectively, on the temperature,
pressure, and volume of the gas. These three laws can be combined into a
single law, or equation of state: %@AI@%PV%@AE@%=%@AI@%kT%@AE@% or %@AI@%Pv%@AE@%=%@AI@%RT,%@AE@% in which %@AI@%v%@AE@% is the
specific volume equal to %@AI@%V/n, n%@AE@% is the number of moles of the gas, %@AI@%k%@AE@% is a
proportionality constant, and %@AI@%R%@AE@% is the universal gas constant, equal to
8.3149 * 10%@AH@%3%@AE@% joules/kg-mole-degree in mks units. These laws are
formulated for so-called ideal or perfect gases. Real gases are described
more accurately by the van der Waals equation: (%@AI@%P%@AE@% + %@AI@%a/v%@AE@%%@AH@%2%@AE@%) (%@AI@%v%@AE@%-%@AI@%b%@AE@%)=%@AI@%RT,%@AE@% in
which %@AI@%a%@AE@% and %@AI@%b%@AE@% are specific constants for each gas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gasohol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gasohol%@AE@%,%@CR:GASOHOL         @%%@QR:gasohol@% a gasoline extender made from a mixture of gasoline (90%) and%@EH@%
ethyl alcohol (10%), often obtained by fermenting agricultural crops or
crop wastes. Gasohol has higher octane, or "antiknock," properties than
gasoline.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gasoline%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gasoline%@AE@%,%@CR:GASOLINE        @%%@QR:gasoline@% light, volatile fuel oil; called petrol in Britain. A mixture%@EH@%
of %@AU@%HYDROCARBONS%@BO:          45e32c@%%@AE@% obtained in the fractional %@AU@%DISTILLATION%@BO:          2967f3@%%@AE@% and "cracking" of
%@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@%, it is used as a fuel for %@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@%, for
cooking, and as a solvent. The quality of gasoline used in engines is
rated by %@AU@%OCTANE NUMBER%@BO:          6cd085@%%@AE@%. To increase octane rating, lead additives were
once widely used. Because of the possible health hazard of lead as an
environmental pollutant and the harmful effect it has on
pollution-control devices, however, a program was begun in the U.S. in
the 1970s to change %@AU@%AUTOMOBILE%@BO:           a3f3e@%%@AE@% design and gasoline composition, so that
lead additives could be gradually eliminated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gasoline engine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gasoline engine%@AE@%:%@CR:GASOLINE.ENGINE @%%@QR:gasoline engine@% see %@AU@%INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE%@BO:          48d12d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaspar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaspar%@AE@%:%@CR:GASPAR          @%%@QR:Gaspar@% see %@AU@%WISE MEN OF THE EAST%@BO:          a28a24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaspee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaspee%@AE@%,%@CR:GASPEE          @%%@QR:Gaspee@% British revenue cutter, burned June 10, 1772, at Gaspee Point,%@EH@%
Narragansett Bay, R.I. Colonists burned the %@AI@%Gaspee%@AE@% in defiance of the
enforcement of revenue laws.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaspe Peninsula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaspe Peninsula%@AE@%,%@CR:GASPE.PENINSULA @%%@QR:Gaspe Peninsula@% or %@AB@%Gaspesie,%@AE@% tongue of land, E Quebec, Canada, 60-90 mi%@EH@%
(97-145 km) wide, projecting c.150 mi (240 km) E into the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. The coast is famous for its bold headlands and picturesque
coastal settlements. The interior is a mountainous wilderness, completely
forested, that reaches a high point of 4,160 ft (1,268 m) in the
Shickshock Mts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gastropod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gastropod%@AE@%,%@CR:GASTROPOD       @%%@QR:gastropod@% %@AU@%MOLLUSK%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@% of the class Gastropoda. It usually has a coiled or%@EH@%
spiraled one-piece shell (univalve), although it may be reduced or
absent. The head has sensory tentacles and a mouth with a rasplike tongue
(radula). The ventral surface of the animal is modified into a large,
flattened foot, which, along with other soft body parts, can be withdrawn
into the shell; in most cases, the opening is covered by a plate
(operculum). Most gastropods are marine, but there are forms that live in
fresh water and on land. The class includes the %@AU@%ABALONE%@BO:             fda@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CONCH%@BO:          21b274@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SNAIL%@BO:          8a8675@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%SLUG%@BO:          8a39c9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WHELK%@BO:          a1030e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LIMPET%@BO:          553d6b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PERIWINKLE%@BO:          736fd3@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SEA SLUG%@BO:          866145@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gates, William Henry, III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gates, William Henry, III%@AE@%,%@CR:GATES1          @%%@QR:Gates, William Henry, III@% 1955-, American businessman. At 19 Gates%@EH@%
founded (1974) the Microsoft Company with Paul Allen. By purchasing the
rights to convert an existing software package, Gates built Microsoft
into one of the largest microcomputer software companies in the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gates, Horatio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gates, Horatio%@AE@%,%@CR:GATES2          @%%@QR:Gates, Horatio@% 1727-1806, American Revolutionary general; b. England. A%@EH@%
colonial hero after his successful %@AU@%SARATOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          847e59@%%@AE@% (1777), he commanded
Patriot forces in the Carolinas until the disgraceful defeat (1780) at
Camden, S.C.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gates of the Arctic National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gates of the Arctic National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:GATES.OIONAL.P  @%%@QR:Gates of the Arctic National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gatling, Richard Jordan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gatling, Richard Jordan%@AE@%,%@CR:GATLING         @%%@QR:Gatling, Richard Jordan@% 1818-1903, American inventor; b. Winton, N.C. He%@EH@%
invented and manufactured agricultural implements, but is remembered as
the creator of a rapid-firing gun, the precursor of the modern machine
gun (see %@AU@%SMALL ARMS%@BO:          8a3da7@%%@AE@%). He offered it to the Union army, but it was not
accepted for use until 1866, after the Civil War had ended.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gatti-Casazza, Giulio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gatti-Casazza, Giulio%@AE@%,%@CR:GATTICASAZZA    @%%@QR:Gatti-Casazza, Giulio@% 1869-1940, Italian operatic manager. He was%@EH@%
director of La Scala, Milan (1898-1908), and the %@AU@%METROPOLITAN OPERA%@BO:          5f8daf@%%@AE@%,
N.Y.C. (1908-35).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri%@AE@%%@CR:GAUDIERBRZESKA  @%%@QR:Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri@%, 1891-1915, French sculptor. The chief exponent of%@EH@%
vorticism in sculpture, he is known for his draftsmanship, animal
figures, and abstracts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaudi i Cornet, Antonio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaudi i Cornet, Antonio%@AE@%%@CR:GAUDI.I.CORNET  @%%@QR:Gaudi i Cornet, Antonio@%, 1852-1926, Spanish architect, working mainly in%@EH@%
Barcelona. He created startling architectural forms paralleling the
development of %@AU@%ART NOUVEAU%@BO:           87c26@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%MODERNISMO%@BO:          620e80@%%@AE@%. Many of his buildings resemble
sculptural configurations. His use of color and mixed materials is seen
in his masterpiece, the Expiatory Church of the Holy Family (1882-1930).
He also made many technological innovations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gauguin, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gauguin, Paul%@AE@%%@CR:GAUGUIN         @%%@QR:Gauguin, Paul@%, 1848-1903, French painter and woodcut artist; an%@EH@%
influential founder of modern art. At 35 he left his career as a
stockbroker and devoted himself to painting. Allied with the
impressionists (see %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%), in 1888 he and Emile Bernard proposed
a synthetist theory emphasizing flat planes and bright, non-naturalistic
color with symbolic or primitive subjects. %@AI@%The Yellow Christ%@AE@%
(Albright-Knox Gall., Buffalo) is characteristic of this period. In 1891
he went to Tahiti, where he painted some of his finest works and wrote
%@AI@%Noa Noa%@AE@% (tr. 1947), an autobiographical novel. He returned to France
briefly, and died in poverty and despair in the South Seas. Gauguin
rejected the tradition of Western naturalism, using nature as a starting
point from which to abstract figures and symbols. His color harmonies and
profound sense of mystery can be seen in such paintings as %@AI@%The Day of the
%@AI@%God%@AE@% (Art Inst., Chicago), %@AI@%La Orana Maria%@AE@% (1891; Metropolitan Mus.), and
%@AI@%By the Sea%@AE@% (1892; Nat. Gall., Wash., D.C.). He also revived the art of
woodcutting and did some fine lithographs and pottery pieces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaul%@AE@%,%@CR:GAUL            @%%@QR:Gaul@% Lat. %@AI@%Gallia,%@AE@% ancient name for the land S and W of the Rhine, W of%@EH@%
the Alps, and N of the Pyrenees. The name was extended by the Romans to
include N Italy and is derived from its settlers of the 4th and 3d cent.
BC-invading %@AU@%CELTS%@BO:          1acb00@%%@AE@%, called Gauls by the Romans. Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% conquered
Gaul in the %@AU@%GALLIC WARS%@BO:          377e6e@%%@AE@% (58-51 BC). He is the best ancient source on
Gaul, and he has immortalized its three ethnic divisions: Aquitania in
the S, Gaul proper (central France), and Belgica in the N. Gaul was
rapidly Romanized.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaunt, John of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaunt, John of%@AE@%:%@CR:GAUNT           @%%@QR:Gaunt, John of@% see %@AU@%JOHN OF GAUNT%@BO:          4cab91@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gauss, Carl Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gauss, Carl Friedrich%@AE@%%@CR:GAUSS           @%%@QR:Gauss, Carl Friedrich@%, 1777-1855, German mathematician, physicist, and%@EH@%
astronomer; b. Johann Friederich Carl Gauss. Considered the greatest
mathematician of his time and the equal of %@AU@%ARCHIMEDES%@BO:           75d3d@%%@AE@% and Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@%,
Gauss made many discoveries before age twenty. His greatest work was in
%@AU@%NUMBER THEORY%@BO:          6c4406@%%@AE@%; his %@AI@%Disquisitiones Arithmeticae%@AE@% (completed 1798; pub.
1801) is a masterpiece. Extremely rigorous in his work, Gauss refused to
publish any result without a complete proof. Thus, many discoveries were
not credited to him and were remade by others later, e.g., the work of
Janos %@AU@%BOLYAI%@BO:          11ba51@%%@AE@% and Nikolai Lobachevsky in %@AU@%NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          6b0516@%%@AE@%, Augustin
%@AU@%CAUCHY%@BO:          1a6fb9@%%@AE@% in complex variable analysis, Carl Jacobi in elliptic functions,
and Sir William Rowan %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f7ff4@%%@AE@% in quaternions. Gauss early discovered,
independently of Adrien %@AU@%LEGENDRE%@BO:          537b6e@%%@AE@%, the method of least squares. In 1801,
when the asteroid Ceres was discovered by the Italian astronomer Giuseppe
Piazzi, Gauss calculated its orbit on the basis of only a few accurate
observations, and it was found the next year precisely where he had
predicted. His %@AI@%Theoria motus corporum celestium%@AE@% (1809) treats the
calculation of the orbits of planets and comets from observational data.
From 1807 until his death Gauss was director of the astronomical
observatory at Gottingen. Geodetic survey work done for the governments
of Hanover and Denmark from 1821 led him to an interest in space curves
and surfaces, as well as to the invention of the heliotrope, a device to
measure distances by means of reflected sunlight. Gauss's collaboration
with the German physicist Wilhelm Weber in research on electric and
magnetic phenomena led to his invention, in 1833, of the electric
telegraph.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gautier, Theophile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gautier, Theophile%@AE@%,%@CR:GAUTIER         @%%@QR:Gautier, Theophile@% 1811-72, French poet, novelist, and critic and%@EH@%
exponent of art for art's sake. His finely crafted poems, notably %@AI@%Enamels
%@AI@%and Cameos%@AE@% (1852), foreshadowed the revolt against %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% by the
%@AU@%PARNASSIANS%@BO:          7189f5@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gavotte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gavotte%@AE@%,%@CR:GAVOTTE         @%%@QR:gavotte@% originally a peasant %@AU@%DANCE%@BO:          263e54@%%@AE@% of the Gavots, in upper Dauphine,%@EH@%
France. A circle dance with lively, skipping steps, it was used by %@AU@%LULLY%@BO:          57ce3a@%%@AE@%
in court ballets, and by %@AU@%COUPERIN%@BO:          23f9a9@%%@AE@% and J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@% in their keyboard suites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gay, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gay, John%@AE@%,%@CR:GAY             @%%@QR:Gay, John@% 1685-1732, English playwright and poet, best known for %@AI@%The%@EH@%
%@AI@%Beggar's Opera%@AE@% (1728), about thieves and prostitutes, and satirizing
society and then-fashionable Italian opera. Its sequel, %@AI@%Polly%@AE@% (1729), was
suppressed by the government. Gay's verse appeared in %@AI@%Fables%@AE@% (1727,
1738).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis%@AE@%,%@CR:GAYLUSSAC       @%%@QR:Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis@% 1778-1850, French chemist and physicist. He and%@EH@%
the French chemist Louis Jacques Thenard were the first to isolate %@AU@%BORON%@BO:          1253ca@%%@AE@%.
Gay-Lussac discovered (1802) independently that at constant pressure the
volume of an enclosed gas is directly proportional to its temperature, a
law known as Charles's law or as Gay-Lussac's law (see %@AU@%GAS LAWS%@BO:          382cec@%%@AE@%). He was
the first to formulate (c.1808) the law of combining volumes, which
states that gases combine by volume in simple multiple proportion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gay-Lussac's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gay-Lussac's law%@AE@%:%@CR:GAYLUSSACS.LAW  @%%@QR:Gay-Lussac's law@% see %@AU@%GAS LAWS%@BO:          382cec@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gay rights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gay rights%@AE@%,%@CR:GAY.RIGHTS      @%%@QR:gay rights@% protection of the %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% of homosexuals. The modern%@EH@%
movement in the U.S. began with the Stonewall riot (June 1969), that
followed a police raid on a bar in New York City. A number of groups
formed to work for the repeal of laws prohibiting consensual homosexual
conduct; for legislation barring discrimination against gays in housing
and employment; and for greater acceptance of homosexuals among the rest
of the population. See also %@AU@%HOMOSEXUALITY%@BO:          43fd84@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gaza Strip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gaza Strip%@AE@%,%@CR:GAZA.STRIP      @%%@QR:Gaza Strip@% coastal region of the Middle East (1988 est. pop. 493,700),%@EH@%
c.140 sq mi (370 sq km), on the Mediterranean Sea, adjoining Egypt and
Israel; largely inhabited by Arab refugees from Israel. It was part of
the British mandate for %@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@% from 1917 to 1948, passed to Egyptian
control in 1949, and was occupied by Israel from the time of the 1967
%@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WAR%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%. Autonomy for the region was promised by the %@AU@%CAMP DAVID
%@AU@%ACCORDS%@BO:          17c878@%%@AE@% (1978) and the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty (1979) but has yet
to be granted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gazelle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gazelle%@AE@%,%@CR:GAZELLE         @%%@QR:gazelle@% delicate, graceful %@AU@%ANTELOPE%@BO:           604e5@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Gazella%@AE@%) inhabiting arid,%@EH@%
open country, usually in Africa. Standing 2 to 3 ft (60 to 90 cm) high at
the shoulder, the fawn-colored gazelle often has heavily ringed horns
that curve back and inward. Gazelles are powerful jumpers and very swift.
Closely related is the reddish-brown %@AB@%impala%@AE@% (%@AI@%Aepyceros melampus%@AE@%), the
most powerful jumper of all antelopes, able to leap 10 ft (3 m) into the
air and travel 30 ft (9 m) in a single bound.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gazira%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gazira%@AE@%:%@CR:GAZIRA          @%%@QR:Gazira@% see %@AU@%GEZIRA%@BO:          39d393@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gd%@AE@%,%@CR:GD              @%%@QR:Gd@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%GADOLINIUM%@BO:          3730c1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gdansk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gdansk%@AE@%%@CR:GDANSK          @%%@QR:Gdansk@% or %@AB@%Danzig,%@AE@% city (1985 est. pop. 467,000), N Poland, on a branch of%@EH@%
the Vistula R. and on the Gulf of Gdansk. It is a major port on the
%@AU@%BALTIC SEA%@BO:           b9526@%%@AE@%, with some of the world's largest shipyards. Its other
industries include metallurgy and sawmilling. An old Slavic settlement,
it was the capital of Pomerelia (see %@AU@%POMERANIA%@BO:          77efac@%%@AE@%) from the 10th cent. and a
member of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% from the 13th cent. The city was later
ruled by Poland and Prussia and in 1919 was made a free city. %@AU@%HITLER'S%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@%
demand (1939) for Danzig's return to Germany and his subsequent invasion
of Poland began %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. The city was restored to Poland in 1945. In
both 1970 and 1980 workers' strikes in Gdansk spread to other cities,
causing major political changes in Poland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ge%@AE@%,%@CR:GE              @%%@QR:Ge@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%GERMANIUM%@BO:          397ec0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gear%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gear%@AE@%,%@CR:GEAR            @%%@QR:gear@% toothed wheel, cylinder, or cone, usually mounted on a shaft, that%@EH@%
transmits motion from one part of a machine to another. When the teeth of
two gears are meshed, the turning of one shaft will cause the other shaft
to rotate. By meshing two gears of different diameters, a variation in
both speed and torque is obtained.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geddes, Norman Bel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geddes, Norman Bel%@AE@%,%@CR:GEDDES          @%%@QR:Geddes, Norman Bel@% 1893-1958, American designer; b. Adrian, Mich. He was%@EH@%
known for imaginative designs for the New York City stage, notably %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Miracle%@AE@% (1924), and for numerous industrial products. His daughter,
%@AB@%Barbara Bel Geddes,%@AE@% 1922-, b. N.Y.C., is an actress. She has appeared in
the play %@AI@%Cat on a Hot Tin Roof%@AE@% (1955), the film %@AI@%Vertigo%@AE@% (1959), and the
television series %@AI@%Dallas%@AE@% (1978-).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geelong%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geelong%@AE@%,%@CR:GEELONG         @%%@QR:Geelong@% city (1986 est. pop. 148,300), Victoria, SE Australia, on an%@EH@%
inlet of Port Phillip Bay, near Melbourne. One of Australia's chief ports
and industrial centers, its manufactures include refined oil,
automobiles, aluminum, glass, and carpets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gegenschein%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gegenschein%@AE@%,%@CR:GEGENSCHEIN     @%%@QR:gegenschein@% brightening of the night sky in the region of the %@AU@%ECLIPTIC%@BO:          2c1f99@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
directly opposite the sun's position at the time of observation. It is
caused by reflection of sunlight by small particles that lie in the plane
of the solar system.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gehrig, Lou(is)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gehrig, Lou(is)%@AE@%,%@CR:GEHRIG          @%%@QR:Gehrig, Lou(is)@% 1903-41, American baseball player; b. N.Y.C. As first%@EH@%
baseman (1925-39) for the New York Yankees, he had a lifetime batting
average of .340, hit 493 home runs, and batted .361 in seven World
Series. Known as the "Iron Horse," he set a record by playing in 2,130
consecutive league games. His career was ended by a rare disease,
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which took his life at 37.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geiger counter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geiger counter%@AE@%:%@CR:GEIGER.COUNTER  @%%@QR:Geiger counter@% see %@AU@%PARTICLE DETECTOR%@BO:          71bcdd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geisel, Theodor Seuss%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geisel, Theodor Seuss%@AE@%:%@CR:GEISEL          @%%@QR:Geisel, Theodor Seuss@% see %@AU@%SEUSS, DR.%@BO:          874c8c@%%@AE@%%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gelatin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gelatin%@AE@%%@CR:GELATIN         @%%@QR:gelatin@% or %@AB@%animal jelly,%@AE@% foodstuff obtained from connective tissue (found%@EH@%
in hoofs, bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage) of vertebrate animals
by the action of boiling water or dilute acid. It is largely composed of
the protein collagen. Pure gelatin is brittle, transparent, colorless,
tasteless, and odorless. It dissolves in hot water and congeals when
cooled. Gelatin is widely used to give food a proper consistency, in
photographic emulsions, and as a coating for pills. Vegetable gelatin, or
%@AU@%AGAR%@BO:           1fb56@%%@AE@%, is made from seaweed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gelee, Claude%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gelee, Claude%@AE@%:%@CR:GELEE           @%%@QR:Gelee, Claude@% see %@AU@%CLAUDE LORRAIN%@BO:          1f0c07@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gell-Mann, Murray%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gell-Mann, Murray%@AE@%,%@CR:GELLMANN        @%%@QR:Gell-Mann, Murray@% 1929-, American theoretical physicist; b. N.Y.C. In%@EH@%
1953 he and, independently, the Japanese team of T. Nakano and Kazuhiko
Nishijima proposed the concept of "strangeness" to account for certain
particle-decay patterns. In 1961 Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman
independently introduced the "eightfold way," or SU(3) symmetry, a table
like ordering of all subatomic particles. The 1964 discovery of the
omega-minus particle, which filled a gap in this ordering, brought the
theory wide acceptance, and led to Gell-Mann's being awarded the 1969
Nobel Prize for physics. In 1963 Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently
postulated the existence of the %@AU@%QUARK%@BO:          7b8f3c@%%@AE@%, an even more fundamental particle
with a fractional electric charge.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gem%@AE@%,%@CR:GEM             @%%@QR:gem@% commonly, a mineral or organic substance that is cut and polished%@EH@%
and used as an ornament. The qualities sought in gems are beauty, rarity,
and durability. The unit of weight used for gems is the metric carat (200
mg). Gems are usually cut to bring out their color and brilliance and to
remove flaws, and gem cutting is a distinct trade. The precious stones
are %@AU@%DIAMOND%@BO:          28a6e2@%%@AE@%, some forms of %@AU@%CORUNDUM%@BO:          23a472@%%@AE@% (e.g., %@AU@%RUBY%@BO:          81bffb@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SAPPHIRE%@BO:          846dff@%%@AE@%), and
%@AU@%EMERALD%@BO:          2e7af0@%%@AE@%. The chief semiprecious stones include %@AU@%AMETHYST%@BO:           4ab54@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AQUAMARINE%@BO:           6e159@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%GARNET%@BO:          380ed8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JADE%@BO:          4adaf0@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MOONSTONE%@BO:          638ef8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OPAL%@BO:          6def2f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%QUARTZ%@BO:          7b9548@%%@AE@%,
@AU@%TOPAZ%@BO:          96a16a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TOURMALINE%@BO:          96e633@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TURQUOISE%@BO:          98f560@%%@AE@%. The organic gems are %@AU@%AMBER%@BO:           45ef7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CORAL%@BO:          2334a9@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%PEARL%@BO:          7277a8@%%@AE@%, and jet. Synthetic gems produced using the chemical elements of
natural stones include diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. See
also %@AU@%AGATE%@BO:           1ffe9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BERYL%@BO:           f1867@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%BLOODSTONE%@BO:          110a9c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%JASPER%@BO:          4b7e5b@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%LAPIS LAZULI%@BO:          525799@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SERPENTINE
%@AU@%%@BO:          872d47@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gemara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gemara%@AE@%:%@CR:GEMARA          @%%@QR:Gemara@% see %@AU@%TALMUD%@BO:          9278f3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gemayel, Amin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gemayel, Amin%@AE@%,%@CR:GEMAYEL         @%%@QR:Gemayel, Amin@% 1942-, president of %@AU@%LEBANON%@BO:          533da4@%%@AE@% (1982- ). A lawyer and a%@EH@%
member of the Christian Phalange party, he served in the Lebanese
parliament from 1970. In 1982, after the assassination of his brother,
President-elect Bashir Gemayel, Amin Gemayel was elected president and
pledged to work for a united Lebanon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gemini, Project%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gemini, Project%@AE@%:%@CR:GEMINI          @%%@QR:Gemini, Project@% see %@AU@%SPACE EXPLORATION%@BO:          8c5d37@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gender%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gender%@AE@%%@CR:GENDER          @%%@QR:gender@% [from Lat. %@AI@%genus%@AE@%=kind], in grammar, subclassification of nouns or%@EH@%
nounlike words, not usually considered to include the classification of
number. A two-gender distinction between animate and inanimate is
widespread, as in the North American Indian languages. A number of
Indo-European languages, such as German, Russian, and Latin, have three
genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. The modern Romance languages
such as French, Italian, and Spanish, have only two. In such languages,
many nouns referring to males are masculine, e.g., German %@AI@%der Mann,%@AE@% the
man, and many referring to females are feminine, e.g., German %@AI@%die Frau,%@AE@%
the woman. This is the classification of natural gender. Other words are
assigned grammatical gender, a distinction that does not derive from sex
classes, e.g., German %@AI@%das Madchen,%@AE@% the girl (neuter). By the grammatical
device of concord or agreement, a word bears a formal signal to show its
relationship to the word it accompanies or modifies, as in the agreement
of article with noun, e.g., French %@AI@%la femme,%@AE@% the woman, or of adjective
with noun, e.g., French %@AI@%la vielle femme,%@AE@% the old woman. Although gender
is present in many languages, it is far from universal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gene%@AE@%,%@CR:GENE            @%%@QR:gene@% ultimate unit by which inheritable characteristics are transmitted%@EH@%
to succeeding generations in all living organisms. Genes are contained
by, and arranged along the length of, the %@AU@%CHROMOSOME%@BO:          1e23ec@%%@AE@%. The gene is
composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (see %@AU@%DNA%@BO:          29a6bd@%%@AE@%). Each chromosome of each
species has a definite number and arrangement of genes, which govern both
the structure and metabolic functions of the cells and thus of the entire
organism. They provide information for the synthesis of enzymes and other
proteins and specify when these substances are to be made. Alteration of
either gene number or arrangement can result in %@AU@%MUTATION%@BO:          65b679@%%@AE@%, a change in the
inheritable traits. See %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GENETIC ENGINEERING%@BO:          38b080@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%genealogy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%genealogy%@AE@%,%@CR:GENEALOGY       @%%@QR:genealogy@% the study of family lineage. Genealogies have existed since%@EH@%
ancient times. Family lineage was originally transmitted through oral
tradition and later through written records. Genealogies flourished in
the Middle Ages because feudalism made status and the transference of
possessions dependent on family lines. Since the 18th cent. genealogy has
developed into a subsidiary discipline, serving sociology, genetics,
history, and the law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade%@AE@%:%@CR:GENERALRIFFS.A  @%%@QR:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%General Assembly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%General Assembly%@AE@%:%@CR:GENERALY        @%%@QR:General Assembly@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%generator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%generator%@AE@%,%@CR:GENERATOR       @%%@QR:generator@% electrical device used to convert mechanical energy to%@EH@%
electrical energy. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic
%@AU@%INDUCTION%@BO:          47d40f@%%@AE@%. The generator moves a conductor through a magnetic field and
directs the current produced by the induced voltage to an external
circuit. In the simplest generator, the conductor is an open coil of wire
rotating between the poles of a permanent magnet. During a single
rotation, one side of the coil passes through the magnetic field first in
one direction and then in the other, so that the induced current is
alternating current (AC), moving first in one direction, then in the
other. Each end of the coil is attached to a separate metal slip ring
that rotates with the coil. Brushes resting on the slip ring pass the
current to the external circuit. To obtain direct current (DC), i.e.,
current that flows in only one direction, a commutator is used in place
of slip rings. The commutator is a single slip ring split into left and
right halves that are insulated from each other and attracted to opposite
ends of the coil. Current leaves the generator through the brushes in
only one direction and pulsates from no flow to maximum flow and back
again. In practice, generators have many coils and several magnets. The
whole assembly carrying the coils is called the armature, or rotor; the
stationary parts constitute the stator. Except for magnetos, which use
permanent magnets, AC and DC generators use electromagnets. AC generators
are often called alternators.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Genesis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Genesis%@AE@%,%@CR:GENESIS         @%%@QR:Genesis@% first book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@% and of the %@AU@%PENTATEUCH%@BO:          730045@%%@AE@%, ascribed%@EH@%
by tradition to %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@%. It tells of the origin of the world and of man
(1-11), including the stories of man's disobedience and fall, %@AU@%CAIN%@BO:          16d5bb@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%ABEL%@BO:            2f17@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@%; the career of God's special servant %@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@% (12-24),
including the story of Hagar and %@AU@%ISHMAEL%@BO:          49f9a4@%%@AE@%, the sacrifice of %@AU@%ISAAC%@BO:          49e349@%%@AE@%, and
Abraham's journey to %@AU@%CANAAN%@BO:          17dfc7@%%@AE@% and God's promises to him; the career of
Isaac (25-26); and the life of %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@%, called Israel (27-50), with the
story of his son %@AU@%JOSEPH%@BO:          4d49f2@%%@AE@% and the migration of the family to Egypt. Sources
of Genesis include Babylonian and Egyptian folklore. Controversy over its
interpretation and literary history has been extensive.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gene splicing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gene splicing%@AE@%:%@CR:GENE.SPLICING   @%%@QR:gene splicing@% see %@AU@%GENETIC ENGINEERING%@BO:          38b080@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Genet, Edmond Charles Edouard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Genet, Edmond Charles Edouard%@AE@%%@CR:GENET1          @%%@QR:Genet, Edmond Charles Edouard@%, 1763-1834, French Revolutionary minister%@EH@%
to the U.S. (1793-94), known as Citizen Genet. His plans to raise troops
against Spanish %@AU@%FLORIDA%@BO:          33d075@%%@AE@% and to commission privateers against Britain were
not approved by Pres. %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@%, and the U.S. demanded (1793) his
recall. Genet remained in the U.S. rather than face a changed political
situation in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Genet, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Genet, Jean%@AE@%,%@CR:GENET2          @%%@QR:Genet, Jean@% 1910-86, French dramatist. While in prison, he attracted%@EH@%
attention with his autobiographical narratives about homosexuality and
crime, e.g., %@AI@%Our Lady of the Flowers%@AE@% (1943). He was pardoned (1948) from
a sentence of life imprisonment through the intervention of French
literary figures. His plays %@AI@%The Balcony%@AE@% (1956), %@AI@%The Blacks%@AE@% (1958), and
%@AI@%The Screens%@AE@% (1961) are classic examples of the theater of the absurd.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%genetic engineering%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%genetic engineering%@AE@%,%@CR:GENETICRING     @%%@QR:genetic engineering@% group of new research techniques that manipulate the%@EH@%
DNA (genetic material) of cells. The gene-splicing technique, which
produces recombinant DNA, is a method of transporting selected genes from
one species to another. In this technique, the genes, which are actually
portions of molecules of DNA, are removed from the donor (insect, plant,
mammal, or other organism) and spliced into the genetic material of a
virus; then the virus is allowed to infect recipient bacteria. In this
way the bacteria become recipients of both viral and foreign genetic
material. When the virus replicates within the bacteria, large quantities
of the foreign as well as viral material are made. The introduction into
bacteria of foreign genetic material is an important tool for the study
of gene structure and regulation, but it also presents risks that some
genetic material would no longer be under natural control. The recipient
bacterium in use is a modified form of %@AI@%E. coli,%@AE@% a natural inhabitant of
human intestines. Other techniques include cell fusion, which has made
the mapping of human genes possible, and nuclear transplantation,
valuable to the study of factors controlling embryological development.
The enzymes used in gene splicing were first studied by microbiologists
Werner Arber, of the Univ. of Basel, Switzerland, and Daniel Nathan and
Hamilton O. Smith, both of Johns Hopkins Univ., Baltimore, who shared the
1978 Nobel Prize in medicine for their work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%genetics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%genetics%@AE@%,%@CR:GENETICS        @%%@QR:genetics@% scientific study of heredity. The science arose in 1900, with%@EH@%
rediscovery of Gregor %@AU@%MENDEL'S%@BO:          5e9ae1@%%@AE@% work on traits that are inherited as if
each were a separate, independent unit. Geneticists probing the physical
basis of the transmission of inherited characteristics have studied the
unit of inheritance, the %@AU@%GENE%@BO:          389794@%%@AE@%; the small chemical differences in genes
that are expressed as different versions of the same trait (alleles); the
array of genes along the %@AU@%CHROMOSOME%@BO:          1e23ec@%%@AE@% in the cell nucleus; and the set of
genes characteristic of each species (the genome). Since the discovery
(1953) of the structure of %@AU@%DNA%@BO:          29a6bd@%%@AE@%, work on %@AU@%NUCLEIC ACIDS%@BO:          6c2767@%%@AE@% has explained how
genes determine all life processes by directing the synthesis of all cell
proteins. It has also explained %@AU@%MUTATION%@BO:          65b679@%%@AE@% as alterations in gene or
chromosome structure. See also %@AU@%GENETIC ENGINEERING%@BO:          38b080@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geneva%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geneva%@AE@%,%@CR:GENEVA          @%%@QR:Geneva@% city (1985 est. pop. 159,900), capital of Geneva canton, SW%@EH@%
Switzerland, on the Lake of Geneva, divided by the Rhone R. A cultural,
financial, and administrative center, it manufactures watches, jewelry,
and precision instruments. The city was settled by the Celts and later
held by the Romans. In the 16th cent. it was the focal point of the
Reformation under John %@AU@%CALVIN%@BO:          176dba@%%@AE@%; by the 18th cent. it had become an
intellectual center, the residence of J.J. %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@% and others. Geneva
joined (1815) the Swiss Confederation. The %@AU@%LEAGUE OF NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@% and the
%@AU@%GENEVA CONFERENCES%@BO:          38bf43@%%@AE@% met there. It is the seat of such bodies as the World
Health Organization and the International Red Cross.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geneva Conference%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geneva Conference%@AE@%.%@CR:GENEVA.CE       @%%@QR:Geneva Conference@% %@AB@%1%@AE@% International conference held Apr.-July 1954 to%@EH@%
bring peace to %@AU@%KOREA%@BO:          5089c6@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%INDOCHINA%@BO:          47ba63@%%@AE@%. The chief participants were the U.S.,
the USSR, Great Britain, France, China, the two Koreas, and various
factions from Indochina. No permanent agreement on Korea resulted, but
three agreements were reached on Indochina (see %@AU@%VIETNAM%@BO:          9d6182@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%). %@AB@%2%@AE@%
So-called summit conference, held in July 1955, attended by the leaders
of the U.S., the USSR, Britain, and France. A wide agenda of issues was
discussed (e.g., disarmament, unification of Germany, increased cultural
and economic ties). Although no substantive agreements resulted, the
conference ended on a note of optimism and is regarded as a major step in
the ending of the %@AU@%COLD WAR%@BO:          202276@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%3%@AE@% Conference, beginning Oct. 1958, attended
by the U.S., the USSR, and Britain; its purpose was to reach an accord on
the banning of nuclear testing. Since then, most international meetings
at Geneva have been concerned with the general problem of nuclear arms.
See %@AU@%DISARMAMENT%@BO:          29478e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NUCLEAR%@BO:          6c08a5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geneva Conventions%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geneva Conventions%@AE@%,%@CR:GENEVA.ONS      @%%@QR:Geneva Conventions@% series of treaties signed (1864-1949) in Geneva,%@EH@%
Switzerland, providing for humane treatment of combatants and civilians
in wartime. The first convention, signed by 16 nations, covered the
protection of sick and wounded soldiers and medical personnel and
facilities. Later conventions extended (1906) the first to naval warfare
and covered (1929) the treatment of prisoners of war. As a result of
World War II, particularly of the conduct of Germany and Japan, four
conventions were adopted in 1949 to strengthen and codify earlier
treaties and safeguard civilians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Genghis Khan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Genghis Khan%@AE@%:%@CR:GENGHIS.KHAN    @%%@QR:Genghis Khan@% see %@AU@%JENGHIZ KHAN%@BO:          4bcac6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%genie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%genie%@AE@%:%@CR:GENIE           @%%@QR:genie@% see %@AU@%JINNI%@BO:          4c4957@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%genitive%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%genitive%@AE@%:%@CR:GENITIVE        @%%@QR:genitive@% see %@AU@%CASE%@BO:          199b65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gennesaret%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gennesaret%@AE@%:%@CR:GENNESARET      @%%@QR:Gennesaret@% see Galilee, Sea of, under %@AU@%GALILEE%@BO:          3764bd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Genoa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Genoa%@AE@%,%@CR:GENOA           @%%@QR:Genoa@% city (1986 pop. 727,427), capital of Liguria, NW Italy, on the%@EH@%
Italian %@AU@%RIVIERA%@BO:          7f8474@%%@AE@%. Italy's chief port, it handles heavy passenger and
freight traffic. Iron and steel, chemicals, oil refineries, and shipyards
lead the economy. It became (10th cent.) a free commune and its maritime
power grew; rivalry with Pisa ended (1284) in naval victory. In decline,
it fell to many, including Napoleon (1805-14). The medieval Cathedral of
San Lorenzo and the doges' palace are noted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%genocide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%genocide%@AE@%,%@CR:GENOCIDE        @%%@QR:genocide@% systematic destruction by a government of a racial, religious,%@EH@%
or ethnic group. The term was coined in 1944, with particular reference
to the attempt of Nazi %@AU@%GERMANY%@BO:          398bcc@%%@AE@% in the 1930s and 40s to destroy European
Jewry (see %@AU@%HOLOCAUST%@BO:          43adfc@%%@AE@%; National %@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@%). Other instances of genocide
exist, however, such as the massacre of Armenians in Ottoman Turkey
(1894-96). A 1949 UN convention defines the crime of genocide and
provides for prosecution by national or international courts. The U.S.
has never ratified the convention, claiming that the provision for
international tribunals and the principle of personal liability for
national actions violate the concept of %@AU@%SOVEREIGNTY%@BO:          8c3f4b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%genre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%genre%@AE@%,%@CR:GENRE           @%%@QR:genre@% type of painting dealing with unidealized subjects from everyday%@EH@%
life. Genre was not seen as worthy independent subject matter until it
was popularized by Pieter Bruegel, the Elder (see %@AU@%BRUEGEL%@BO:          14a0ed@%%@AE@%, family), in
16th-cent. Flanders. It flourished in 17th-cent. Holland in the work of
%@AU@%TER BORCH%@BO:          9416de@%%@AE@%, de %@AU@%HOOCH%@BO:          442aab@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VERMEER%@BO:          9caf56@%%@AE@%, and others, and extended into France and
England, where, in the 18th and 19th cent., its practitioners included
%@AU@%WATTEAU%@BO:          9fcc02@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHARDIN%@BO:          1bab21@%%@AE@%, and Morland. The French impressionists (see
%@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%) often painted genre scenes, as did members of the %@AU@%EIGHT%@BO:          2d0fec@%%@AE@% in
the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gentile da Fabriano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gentile da Fabriano%@AE@%%@CR:GENTILEIANO     @%%@QR:Gentile da Fabriano@%, c.1370-1427, Italian painter, a foremost exponent of%@EH@%
the international Gothic style. His elegant, lavishly gilt Strozzi
altarpiece (Uffizi) exhibits his jewellike colors and courtly style. He
worked throughout Italy. His later paintings reflect Florentine realism,
e.g., %@AI@%John the Baptist%@AE@% (Lateran Basilica, Rome).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gentileschi, Orazio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gentileschi, Orazio%@AE@%%@CR:GENTILESCHI     @%%@QR:Gentileschi, Orazio@%, c.1562-1647, Tuscan painter. Influenced by%@EH@%
%@AU@%CARAVAGGIO%@BO:          18acf4@%%@AE@%, he developed a cooler, more lyrical style. In 1626 he settled
in England, at the invitation of %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@%. His principal works include
%@AI@%The Annunciation%@AE@% (San Siro, Genoa) and %@AI@%Flight into Egypt%@AE@% (Louvre). His
daughter, %@AB@%Artemisia Gentileschi,%@AE@% c.1597-c.1651, was known for her
spirited execution, e.g., %@AI@%Judith and Holofernes%@AE@% (Uffizi) and %@AI@%Mary
%@AI@%Magdalen%@AE@% (Pitti Gall., Florence).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gentlemen's agreement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gentlemen's agreement%@AE@%,%@CR:GENTLEMEMENT    @%%@QR:gentlemen's agreement@% in U.S. history, an agreement between the U.S. and%@EH@%
Japan in 1907 that Japan should stop the emigration of its laborers to
the U.S. and that the U.S. should stop discrimination against the
Japanese. This agreement was ended in 1924 by the act of Congress
excluding immigration from Japan, just as immigration from China had been
previously excluded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gentrification%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gentrification%@AE@%,%@CR:GENTRIFICATION  @%%@QR:gentrification@% the rehabilitation and settlement of decaying urban areas%@EH@%
by middle- and high-income people. Increasingly, in the 1970s and 80s,
higher-income professionals, drawn by low-cost housing and easy
accessibility to downtown business areas, began to renovate deteriorating
city buildings. This led to the rebirth of many neighborhoods and a rise
in property values, but it also caused displacement problems among the
area's poor residents, many of them elderly and unable to afford higher
rents and taxes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geocentric system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geocentric system%@AE@%:%@CR:GEOCENTEM       @%%@QR:geocentric system@% see %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geochemistry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geochemistry%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOCHEMISTRY    @%%@QR:geochemistry@% study of the chemistry of the earth, especially the study%@EH@%
of the absolute and relative abundances of the elements and their
distribution and movement. Such studies have provided insights into the
evolution of the oceans and atmosphere, the ages of rocks, the chemical
evolution of life, and, more recently, the effects of the massive
introduction of pollutants into the environment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geodesy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geodesy%@AE@%%@CR:GEODESY         @%%@QR:geodesy@% or %@AB@%geodetic surveying,%@AE@% subdivision of %@AU@%GEOPHYSICS%@BO:          3929e6@%%@AE@% that determines%@EH@%
the earth's size and shape, the position of points on the earth's
surface, and the dimensions of areas so large that the curvature of the
earth must be taken into account. In a process called triangulation, a
base line between two points, many miles apart, is measured, and a third
point is determined by the angle it makes with each end of the base line.
In recent years, triangulation has been done increasingly with geodetic
satellites in space.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geoffrey IV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geoffrey IV%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOFFREY.IV     @%%@QR:Geoffrey IV@% known as %@AB@%Geoffrey Plantagenet%@AE@%, 1113-51, count of Anjou%@EH@%
(1129-51). He married (1128) %@AU@%MATILDA%@BO:          5d30cc@%%@AE@%, daughter of %@AU@%HENRY I%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England. On
Henry's death (1135), he claimed and conquered (1144) Normandy in his
wife's name. After 1139, Matilda tried to conquer England from her cousin
King %@AU@%STEPHEN%@BO:          8ecf78@%%@AE@%. Her son by Geoffrey became %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England. In 1147
Geoffrey went on a crusade with %@AU@%LOUIS VII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geoffrey of Monmouth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geoffrey of Monmouth%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOFFREMOUTH    @%%@QR:Geoffrey of Monmouth@% c.1100-1154, English author. His %@AI@%Historia Regum%@EH@%
%@AI@%Britanniae%@AE@% (c.1135), a supposed chronicle of the kings of Britain, is a
major source of %@AU@%ARTHURIAN LEGEND%@BO:           855f0@%%@AE@%, giving the first coherent account of
Arthur.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne%@AE@%%@CR:GEOFFROILAIRE   @%%@QR:Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne@%, 1772-1844, French zoologist. He was%@EH@%
professor (1793-1840) at the Museum of Natural History in Paris and a
member of Napoleon's scientific staff in Egypt. His theory that all
animals conform to a single plan of structure was strongly opposed by the
naturalist Georges %@AU@%CUVIER%@BO:          2587c4@%%@AE@%, and they held a widely publicized debate in
1830.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geologic eras%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geologic eras%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOLOGIC.ERAS   @%%@QR:geologic eras@% major units of geologic time. For the purpose of dating%@EH@%
rock formations and the fossils contained within them, the earth's
history has been divided into eras, which are further subdivided into
periods and, in some cases, epochs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@TH:  115 12223 03 46 46 46 @%%@AB@%GEOLOGIC ERAS%@AE@%%@AI@%Time%@AE@%                                          %@AI@%Geologic Development%@AE@%                          %@AI@%Life Forms%@AE@%%@AB@%──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────%@AE@%%@NL@%%@AB@%Azoic Time.%@AE@% From the formation of the earth.4,550--3,800 million years ago                Crust and oceans forming.  Lack of %@AU@%%@AE@%           No life forms                                              %@AU@%ATMOSPHERE%@BO:           9710e@%%@AE@% allows meteorite bombardment.      %@AB@%Precambrian Time.%@AE@% Traditionally divided intotwo eras, Archeozoic and Proterozoic.3,800--700 million years ago                  Permanent crust formed, with vast deposits    Earliest life marine (blue-green %@AU@%ALGAE%@BO:           3985a@%%@AE@%). %@AU@%%@AE@%                                              of metallic minerals. Metomorphic rocks       %@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@% begins to develop                                              inmassive formations, e.g., %@AU@%CANADIAN SHIELD%@BO:          1810c9@%%@AE@%.  oxygen-rich atmosphere.  Wormlike forms                                              Erosion, sedimentation begin.                 possible.  First recognizable fossils.%@AB@%Paleozoic Era.%@AE@%  Age of %@AU@%INVERTEBRATES%@BO:          49196f@%%@AE@% and marine forms.  Six periods.Cambrian:  700--500 million years ago         Sedimentary rock (sandstone, shale,           First %@AU@%FOSSILS%@BO:          34b3a3@%%@AE@% of animals with hard parts,                                               limestone, conglomerate) forms in shallow     e.g., shells, skeletons.  All fauna marine;                                               seas over continents. Climate generally mild, every invertebrate phylum represented.                                                but North America tropical.                   Animal ability to secrete %@AU@%CALCIUM%@BO:          16e8ab@%%@AE@% leads to                                                                                             shell, skeleton formation.  %@AU@%TRILOBITE%@BO:          97d3ef@%%@AE@%                                                                                             dominant.Ordovician:  500--435 million years ago       North America, Europe, Africa moving          Marine ecosystems develop; fossil evidence                                               together (see %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CONTINENTAL %@AE@%   of deepwater lifeforms.  %@AU@%MOLLUSKS%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@%, some %@AU@%%@AE@%                                              %@AU@%DRIFT%@BO:          22e22c@%%@AE@%).  Seasat greatest extent over North    %@AU@%CORALS%@BO:          2334a9@%%@AE@%. Fishlike %@AU@%VERTEBRATES%@BO:          9ce5a4@%%@AE@% appear.                                              America.  Rocks chiefly sedimentary.          Silurian:  435--395 million years ago         Shallow flooding deposits sediments.  Later   Earliest land plants.  In seas, coral reefs,                                              withdrawal of waterleaves oxidized "red       %@AU@%ARTHROPODS%@BO:           84a10@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRINOIDS%@CF:CRINOIDS        @%%@AE@%.  Fish develop                                              beds," salt deposits.                         first vertebrate jaw.  %@AU@%SHARKS%@BO:          87fc06@%%@AE@% appear.Devonian:  395--345 million years ago         Continents drier at beginning.  Europe,       Fish dominant:  armored fish, lungfish.                                               North America collide, causing mountain       Toward end of period first land animals, %@AU@%%@AE@%                                              building (orogeny).  South pole in central    %@AU@%AMPHIBIANS%@BO:           4df7b@%%@AE@%.  Plant life, including lowland                                              Africa.                                       forests of giant %@AU@%PSILOPHYTA%@CF:PSILOPHYTA      @%%@AE@% plants, highly                                                                                            developed, uniformover planet.Carboniferous:  345--280 million years ago    Climate warm, moist; %@AU@%COAL%@BO:          1fb074@%%@AE@%-forming sediments   %@AU@%FERNS%@BO:          32ae2e@%%@AE@%, fernlike trees, primitive %@AU@%CONIFERS%@BO:          2218e9@%%@AE@%                                               laid down in vast swamps.  Severe             among flora in swamps.  %@AU@%INSECTS%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@%, e.g.,                                               continental collisions cause orogeny, e.g.,   cock-roaches, flourish.  First %@AU@%REPTILES%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@%                                               in %@AU@%URALS%@BO:          9af6db@%%@AE@%.                                     appear toward end.Permian:  280--230 million years ago          Land, e.g., E North America, rising.          Insects evolve toward modern types.                                                Atmosphere, oceans cooler.  Glaciation in     Reptiles flourish.  Ferns, conifers persist                                              southern hemisphere.  General aridity.        in coolair.                                              Appalachians thrust up at end.                %@AB@%Mesozoic Era.%@AE@% Age of reptiles.  Three periods.Triassic:  230--195 million years ago         Climate warming; semiarid to arid.            Fewer species, higher populations.                                                Continental plates, joined c.200 million      Ammonites, clams, snails present.  First %@AU@%%@AE@%                                              years ago insupercontinent Pangaea, begin to  %@AU@%DINOSAURS%@BO:          291d0d@%%@AE@%.  First %@AU@%MAMMALS%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% may have evolved.                                              break into continents; %@AU@%FAULTS%@BO:          320db3@%%@AE@%, tilting                                                      widespread.                                   Jurassic:  195--140 million years ago         North America, Africa separate; ocean basins  Climate warmer than present.  %@AU@%CYCADS%@BO:          259a8a@%%@AE@% appear.                                              open.  Erosion reduces Appalachians.          %@AU@%GINKGOES%@BO:          3a43cc@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HORSETAILS%@BO:          448cf3@%%@AE@% among flora.                                                Plate subduction (Pacific under North         Reptiles dominant on land, in sea and air.                                                American) causes folding, orogeny in W North  Archaeopteryx, first %@AU@%BIRD%@CF:BIRD            @%%@AE@%, appears.  First                                              America.                                      mammal fossils.Cretaceous:  140--65 million years ago        Extensive submergence of continents leaves    Dinosaurs, large reptiles climax, then                                               overlapping marine rocks.  Chalk deposits.    disappear.  Snakes, lizards appear.                                               South America,  Africa separate; North        Revolution inplants:  flowering plants (%@AU@%%@AE@%                                              Atlantic widening.  Cycles of orogeny.        %@AU@%ANGIOSPERMS%@BO:           576a3@%%@AE@%); modern trees.                                                                                              Floral uniformity that lasts in Eocene.%@AB@%Cenozoic Era.%@AE@% Age of mammals, modern seed plants. Traditionally divided into two periods,Tertiary (Paleocene/Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Plioceneepochs) and Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene epochs).Paleocene/Eocene:  65--37 million years ago   Seas withdraw; Europe emergent.  Volcanism    Most common modern plants present.  Modern                                               forms Rockies, other ranges.  Erosion         birds.  Early horses, pigs, rodents,                                              fills basins, laying %@AU@%BAUXITE%@BO:           d28a0@%%@AE@% deposits in W    whales. Number of %@AU@%PRIMATE%@BO:          797deb@%%@AE@% types greatly                                              North America.  Greenland, North America      increases.  Hardwoods, redwoods in W North                                               split.                                        America.  Climate warm, humid.Oligocene:  37--23 million years ago          North America largely dry; red bed            Archaic mammals disappearing.  Modern horses,                                              sedimentation; erosion in Rockies.  African,  pigs, true %@AU@%CARNIVORES%@BO:          190f88@%%@AE@%, rhinoceroses,                                               European plates collide, causing Alpine       elephants begin to appear.  Cats, dogs                                              orogeny.  Arabia, Africa split at Red         evolving.  Modern grasses.                                              Sea rift.  California collides with                                                           mid-Pacific ridge.                            Miocene:  23--5 million years ago             Coastal submergence; volcanism raises %@AU@%%@AE@%        Climate cooler; forests reduced, grassy                                               %@AU@%CASCADES%@BO:          199970@%%@AE@%, western North American plateaus.    plains increase.  Mammals include hyena, bear,                                              Himalayas, Alps, Andes built up.  South       seal, raccoon.  Giant ape widespread.  Giant                                              America, Antarctica separate;                 hog develops, then disappears.                                              cold transantarctic current isolates southern                                               continent.                                    Pliocene:  5--1.8 million years ago           Volcanism creates isthmus between North and   Cooler, drier climate.  Life forms begin to                                               South America. Outlines of North              take on modern appearance.  Climax,                                              America roughly modern.  Polar, Alpine ice    maybe initial decline, of mammals.  Manlike                                              caps sizable.  Uplifting, tilting in W North  apes.  Earliest human artifacts, %@AU@%OLDUVAI %@AE@%                                              America continues.                            %@AU@%GORGE%@BO:          6d7bd9@%%@AE@% skeletal finds from this epoch.Pleistocene:  1.8 million-10,000 years ago    Great age of %@AU@%GLACIERS%@BO:          3a778c@%%@AE@%.  Polar, Alpine ice     Extinction of mammals, including mastodon,                                               advances in 4 or 5 separate glacial periods.  mammoth, sabertooth carnivores.  Rise of                                              Glacial %@AU@%DRIFT%@BO:          2ab119@%%@AE@% widespread.  Land               man (Homo sapiens) c.100,000 years ago;                                               forms altered; lakes created by ice retreats. Cromagnon c.35,000 years ago.  Horse, camel                                                                                            disappear from Americas.  See also %@AU@%STONE AGE%@BO:          8f4c47@%%@AE@%.Holocene or Recent:  10,000 years ago to      Glaciers retreat.  Climate warmer; %@AU@%DESERTS%@BO:          283f36@%%@AE@%    Human civilization; mankind begins to affectpresent                                       form in some areas.  Many scientists argue    climate, geology.  Extinction of other                                               that Holocene is only another interglacial    species continues.                                              episode of the Pleistocene.                   %@TE:  115 12223 03 46 46 46 @%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geology%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOLOGY         @%%@QR:geology@% science of the %@AU@%EARTH'S%@BO:          2bc16b@%%@AE@% history, composition, and structure.%@EH@%
Branches include mineralogy (see %@AU@%MINERAL%@BO:          6106d9@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%PETROLOGY%@BO:          744542@%%@AE@%, geomorphology (the
origin of landforms and their modification by dynamic processes),
%@AU@%GEOCHEMISTRY%@BO:          38debb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GEOPHYSICS%@BO:          3929e6@%%@AE@%, sedimentation, structural geology, economic
geology, and engineering geology. Historical geology includes
stratigraphy (the interrelationships of layered %@AU@%ROCKS%@BO:          7fd8d8@%%@AE@%) and paleontology
(the study of %@AU@%FOSSILS%@BO:          34b3a3@%%@AE@%). Geological observations have been made since
ancient times, but modern geology began in the 18th cent., notably with
James %@AU@%HUTTON'S%@BO:          45b928@%%@AE@% doctrine of %@AU@%UNIFORMITARIANISM%@BO:          99be44@%%@AE@%, which, in its opposition to
%@AU@%CATASTROPHISM%@BO:          1a1948@%%@AE@%, laid the groundwork for much of modern geological science.
The systematic survey in the mid-20th cent. of the %@AU@%OCEAN%@BO:          6caf5e@%%@AE@% floors brought
radical changes in concepts of crustal evolution (see %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geometric progression%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geometric progression%@AE@%:%@CR:GEOMETRESSION   @%%@QR:geometric progression@% see %@AU@%PROGRESSION%@BO:          79e1a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geometry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geometry%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOMETRY        @%%@QR:geometry@% branch of %@AU@%MATHEMATICS%@BO:          5d1200@%%@AE@% concerned with the properties of and%@EH@%
relationships between points, lines, planes, figures, solids, and
surfaces. Elementary %@AU@%EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          30812d@%%@AE@% of two and three dimensions
(plane and solid geometry) is based largely on %@AU@%EUCLID'S%@BO:          307edd@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Elements%@AE@% (c.300
BC), a systematic presentation of the geometry of its time. Although
Euclid's basic assumptions have been judged insufficiently rigorous by
David %@AU@%HILBERT%@BO:          42c952@%%@AE@% and others, his axiomatic method of proof has been adopted
throughout mathematics and in other fields as well. In the 17th cent.,
Rene %@AU@%DESCARTES%@BO:          28372d@%%@AE@% invented %@AU@%CARTESIAN COORDINATES%@BO:          196b6e@%%@AE@% to express geometric
relations in algebraic form; he thus founded %@AU@%ANALYTIC GEOMETRY%@BO:           51332@%%@AE@%, from
which developed algebraic geometry, concerned with geometrical objects
defined by algebraic relations between their coordinates. Other branches
of geometry include descriptive geometry, which is concerned with the
two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional objects; differential
geometry, in which the concepts of the %@AU@%CALCULUS%@BO:          16f391@%%@AE@% are applied to curves,
surfaces, and other geometrical entities; projective geometry, which is
concerned with those properties of geometrical figures that remain
unchanged under projection, e.g., from one plane to another; and
%@AU@%NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          6b0516@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%TOPOLOGY%@BO:          96a57a@%%@AE@%, perhaps the most general type of
geometry, is often considered a separate branch of mathematics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geomorphology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geomorphology%@AE@%:%@CR:GEOMORPHOLOGY   @%%@QR:geomorphology@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGY%@BO:          391b8b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geophysics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geophysics%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOPHYSICS      @%%@QR:geophysics@% study of the structure, composition, and dynamic changes of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%EARTH%@BO:          2bc16b@%%@AE@% and its %@AU@%ATMOSPHERE%@BO:           9710e@%%@AE@%, based on the principles of physics. Applied
geophysics uses seismic, electrical, gravimetric, magnetic, and
radiometric techniques for geological exploration and prospecting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geopolitics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geopolitics%@AE@%,%@CR:GEOPOLITICS     @%%@QR:geopolitics@% method of political analysis stressing the importance of%@EH@%
geographical factors (e.g., natural boundaries and access to waterways)
in determining national interests and international relations. The term
received wide attention through the works of the German geographer Karl
Haushofer, who popularized H.J. %@AU@%MACKINDER'S%@BO:          58f23a@%%@AE@% theory of a Eurasian
"heartland" central to world dominance. The %@AU@%NAZIS%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% used Haushofer's ideas
to justify their expansion in central Europe. Geopolitical considerations
have been used to justify other expansionist policies, such as %@AU@%MANIFEST
%@AU@%DESTINY%@BO:          5ae3c2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%George, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%George, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:GEORGE1         @%%@QR:George, Saint@% 4th cent.?, patron of England. Possibly a soldier in the%@EH@%
Roman army who died a martyr in Asia Minor, he was adopted by England in
the Middle Ages. In legend he is the slayer of a dragon. Feast: Apr. 23.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%George%@AE@%,%@CR:GEORGE2         @%%@QR:George@% kings of Great Britain and Ireland. %@AB@%George I%@AE@% (George Louis),%@EH@%
1660-1727 (r.1714-27), was the great-grandson of %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%. He was the
first British sovereign of the house of %@AU@%HANOVER%@BO:          3fc844@%%@AE@% under the Act of
%@AU@%SETTLEMENT%@BO:          8747df@%%@AE@%. His dual role as elector of Hanover and king of England, his
German manners, and his inability to speak English made him unpopular.
His indifference to government led to the first real cabinet and the rise
of the %@AU@%WHIGS%@BO:          a104b1@%%@AE@% to power. In 1718 the %@AU@%QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE%@BO:          7b7810@%%@AE@% guaranteed the
Hanoverian succession. His son, %@AB@%George II%@AE@% (George Augustus), 1683-1760
(r.1727-60), was more active in government than his father. In the War of
the %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%, he personally led his troops in battle, the last
British monarch to do so. His wife, Caroline of Ansbach, furthered the
dominancy of Robert %@AU@%WALPOLE%@BO:          9ee071@%%@AE@%. During his reign, the Whigs united behind
the policy of William %@AU@%PITT%@BO:          762e45@%%@AE@% (the elder) in the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@%. His
grandson, %@AB@%George III,%@AE@% 1738-1820 (r.1760-1820), ended the long Whig
control of government by securing Pitt's resignation in 1761. George
wanted to rule personally, and he found an amenable minister (1770-82) in
Lord %@AU@%NORTH%@BO:          6b3ad7@%%@AE@%, whose policy of coercion led to the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. The
notable %@AU@%TORY%@BO:          96cefe@%%@AE@% ministry of the younger William %@AU@%PITT%@BO:          762e45@%%@AE@% (1783-1801) saw the end
of royal attempts to control the ministry. George III's reign witnessed a
great expansion of empire and trade, the beginning of the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%, and a flowering of arts and letters. The king's insanity led
to the regency (1811) of his son %@AB@%George IV,%@AE@% 1762-1830 (r.1820-30). Ruling
through Tory ministers, he was hated for his extravagance and dissolute
habits. He aroused particular hostility when he attempted (1820) to
divorce his long-estranged wife, %@AU@%CAROLINE OF BRUNSWICK%@BO:          19236e@%%@AE@%. He was succeeded
by his brother, %@AU@%WILLIAM IV%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%George V%@AE@% (George Frederick Ernest Albert),
1865-1936 (r.1910-36), was the second son of %@AU@%EDWARD VII%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@%. He was always
interested in the affairs of the British empire and in 1911 traveled to
India. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% (1917) he gave up all his German titles and
changed the name of the royal house from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to %@AU@%WINDSOR%@BO:          a245b9@%%@AE@%.
His second son, %@AB@%George VI%@AE@% (Albert Frederick Arthur George), 1895-1952,
king of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (r.1936-52), became king on
the abdication of his brother, %@AU@%EDWARD VIII%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@%. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he
worked to keep up British morale by visiting bombed areas, war plants,
and theaters of war. He and his wife, %@AU@%ELIZABETH%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, had two daughters:
%@AU@%ELIZABETH II%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% and Princess %@AU@%MARGARET%@BO:          5b8d87@%%@AE@%. Like his father, he was held in deep
affection by his people.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%George%@AE@%,%@CR:GEORGE3         @%%@QR:George@% kings of the Hellenes (Greece). %@AB@%George I,%@AE@% 1845-1913%@EH@%
(r.1863-1913), was the second son of Christian IX of Denmark and was
elected king of Greece after the deposition (1862) of %@AU@%OTTO I%@BO:          6f746a@%%@AE@%. He
introduced (1864) a democratic constitution and expanded the Greek
domain. He was assassinated. %@AB@%George II,%@AE@% 1890-1947 (r.1922-23, 1935-47),
did not succeed his father, %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227fe2@%%@AE@%, but was passed over (1917)
because of his pro-German sympathies. The crown fell to his younger
brother %@AU@%ALEXANDER%@BO:           3513d@%%@AE@%. In 1922 he did become king, but hostility towards the
dynasty forced him into exile in 1923 and Greece was declared a republic.
He was restored in 1935 and instituted a dictatorship under John %@AU@%METAXAS%@BO:          5f4e99@%%@AE@%.
George was in exile during World War II, and his return to Greece in 1946
failed to halt the civil war then raging. He was succeeded by his brother
%@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          72313b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%George, David Lloyd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%George, David Lloyd%@AE@%:%@CR:GEORGE4         @%%@QR:George, David Lloyd@% see %@AU@%LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID%@BO:          55f3eb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%George, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%George, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:GEORGE5         @%%@QR:George, Henry@% 1839-97, American economist, founder of the single-tax%@EH@%
movement; b. Philadelphia. His own poverty and his observation of avarice
as a newspaperman bolstered his reformist ideas. Believing that the great
contrast between poverty and wealth lay in the fact that the rental of
land and the unearned increase in land values profited only a few
individuals, not the community, George proposed a single tax on land to
meet all costs of government. His theories, published in %@AI@%Progress and
%@AI@%Poverty%@AE@% (1879), have influenced tax legislation in many countries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%George, Stefan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%George, Stefan%@AE@%%@CR:GEORGE6         @%%@QR:George, Stefan@%, 1868-1933, German poet. He was influenced poetically by%@EH@%
Greek classical forms and the French %@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@% and intellectually by
%@AU@%NIETZSCHE%@BO:          69fce1@%%@AE@%. His esoteric, pure verse appeared in such volumes as %@AI@%Algabal%@AE@%
(1892), %@AI@%Book of the Shepherds%@AE@% (1895), %@AI@%The Soul's Year%@AE@% (1897), and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Seventh Ring%@AE@% (1907). George's aesthetic ideal called for a controlled
humanism. He devoted himself to the purifying of German language and
culture and had great influence on younger poets through his verse and
through %@AI@%Blatter fur die Kunst%@AE@% (founded 1892), the literary organ of his
circle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Georgetown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Georgetown%@AE@%,%@CR:GEORGETOWN      @%%@QR:Georgetown@% city (1983 est. pop. 188,000), N Guyana, capital of Guyana,%@EH@%
on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the Demerara R. Guyana's largest
city, it exports bauxite and other products of the interior. Settled in
the 1600s by the Dutch, who called it Stabroek, it was taken and renamed
by the British in 1812. It still has canals and other Dutch features.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Georgia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Georgia%@AE@%,%@CR:GEORGIA1        @%%@QR:Georgia@% state in the SE U.S.; bordered by Florida (S), Alabama (W),%@EH@%
Tennessee and North Carolina (N), and South Carolina and the Atlantic
Ocean (E).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 58,876 sq mi (152,489 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 6,104,000, an 11.7%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Atlanta. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Jan. 2, 1788 (fourth
of original 13 states to ratify the Constitution). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Brasstown
Bald, 4,784 ft (1,459 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@% sea level. %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Empire State
of the South. %@AI@%Motto,%@AE@% Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% brown
thrasher. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% Cherokee rose. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% live oak. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Ga.;
GA.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% The mountains of the north, part of the %@AU@%APPALACHIAN
%@AU@%MOUNTAINS%@BO:           6bff1@%%@AE@% system, give way to the transitional Piedmont Plateau and its
fertile, gently rolling hills. The southern half of the state is covered
by the low-lying coastal plain; just offshore are the popular resorts of
the Georgia %@AU@%SEA ISLANDS%@BO:          864f2a@%%@AE@%. Along the border with Florida is the %@AU@%OKEFENOKEE
%@AU@%SWAMP%@BO:          6d3f1d@%%@AE@%, a huge wilderness area with unique flora and fauna. The climate is
temperate but variable throughout the state. About 57% of the population
lives in metropolitan areas; %@AU@%ATLANTA%@BO:           95c60@%%@AE@%, the largest city, is the major
commercial and financial center of the southeast. Other major cities are
%@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20c347@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MACON%@BO:          5913af@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SAVANNAH%@BO:          84fb47@%%@AE@%. In 1984, 72% of the population was white
and the rest predominately black.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Industry, the most important economic sector, is dominated by the
manufacturing of cotton textiles, apparel, and carpets. Other major
manufactures include transportation equipment, processed foods, and
paper. The heavily wooded state is a leading producer of lumber,
pulpwood, and resins and turpentine. Georgia also provides 60% of the
world's kaolin. Principal crops are peanuts, tobacco, corn, and cotton.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution (adopted 1945) provides for a governor
serving a four-year term. The general assembly consists of a 56-seat
senate and a 180-seat house, both of whose members serve two-year terms.
Georgia sends 10 representatives and 2 senators to the U.S. Congress and
has 12 electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The region was inhabited by %@AU@%CREEK%@BO:          247e6b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CHEROKEE INDIANS%@BO:          1c9148@%%@AE@% when it
was visited (c.1540) by Hernando %@AU@%DE SOTO%@BO:          28496d@%%@AE@%. Subsequently, both England and
Spain claimed control of the area, and British settlers led by James E.
%@AU@%OGLETHORPE%@BO:          6d07de@%%@AE@% arrived in 1733. The British captured much of Georgia during
the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. Following the war, cotton cultivation, based on
the plantation system and slavery, began to dominate the economy. In 1861
Georgia seceded from the Union and joined the %@AU@%CONFEDERACY%@BO:          21d5d7@%%@AE@%. The state
suffered considerable damage during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, with the burning of
Atlanta (1864) and Gen. W.T. %@AU@%SHERMAN'S%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@% destructive march to the sea. By
the 1880s the textile industry was transforming the state's economy from
agriculture to manufacturing. In the early 1960s Georgia was the first
state of the deep South to proceed with integration without a major
curtailment of its public-school system. In 1976 Jimmy %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% became the
state's first native son to be elected U.S. president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Georgia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Georgia%@AE@%%@CR:GEORGIA2        @%%@QR:Georgia@% or %@AB@%Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic,%@AE@% constituent republic (1987%@EH@%
est. pop. 5,300,000), c.26,900 sq mi (69,700 sq km), SE European USSR, in
W Transcaucasia. It borders the Black Sea (W); the Azerbaijan Republic
(E); Turkey and the Armenian Republic (S); and the Russian Soviet
Federated Socialist Republic (N). The capital is %@AU@%TBILISI%@BO:          933f16@%%@AE@%. A mountainous
region rich in minerals and coal, Georgia grows most of the USSR's tea
and citrus fruits. Manufactures include iron and steel, machinery, and
chemicals. The %@AU@%BLACK SEA%@BO:          10a43e@%%@AE@% coast is a popular resort area. In addition to
the Georgian majority, there are Armenian, Russian, and other minorities.
The kingdom of Georgia, dating from the 4th cent. BC, reached its height
in the 12th and 13th cent. AD In 1555 W Georgia fell to Turkey and E
Georgia to Persia. Under Russian sway after 1783, Georgia was briefly
independent (1918-21).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Georgian style%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Georgian style%@AE@%,%@CR:GEORGIAN.STYLE  @%%@QR:Georgian style@% several trends in English architecture during the reigns%@EH@%
(1714-1820) of George I, George II, and George III. The first half of the
period (c.1710-c.1760) was dominated by Neo-Palladianism (see %@AU@%PALLADIO%@BO:          7052b6@%%@AE@%).
Colin Campbell's %@AI@%Vitruvius Brittanicus%@AE@% (1715) inspired a return to
%@AU@%CLASSICISM%@BO:          1efbdb@%%@AE@%, based on the works of Inigo %@AU@%JONES%@BO:          4d0ca6@%%@AE@% and Palladio. His Mereworth
Castle, Kent, epitomizes the style. A second generation of architects
carried the Palladian tradition through the Georgian period. In the first
half of the 18th cent., a %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@% countercurrent, stemming from
Christopher %@AU@%WREN'S%@BO:          a36a96@%%@AE@% designs, was carried on by Sir John %@AU@%VANBRUGH%@BO:          9ba2d2@%%@AE@%, Nicholas
%@AU@%HAWKSMOOR%@BO:          409fbf@%%@AE@%, and James %@AU@%GIBBS%@BO:          3a0b35@%%@AE@%. In the second half, the %@AU@%CLASSIC REVIVAL%@BO:          1f0097@%%@AE@% was
led by Sir William %@AU@%CHAMBERS%@BO:          1b54f1@%%@AE@%, Robert %@AU@%ADAM%@BO:            f161@%%@AE@%, and Sir John Soane. A standard
type of house construction, red brick with white stone courses and
cornices and white painted trim, came to be known as Georgian. Notable
buildings of the period include Soane's Bank of England and Gibbs's St.
Martin's-in-the-Fields. American builders of the period followed British
models closely.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geothermal energy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geothermal energy%@AE@%:%@CR:GEOTHERGY       @%%@QR:geothermal energy@% see %@AU@%ENERGY, SOURCES OF%@BO:          2ed030@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gepidae%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gepidae%@AE@%:%@CR:GEPIDAE         @%%@QR:Gepidae@% see %@AU@%GERMANS%@BO:          39833f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geranium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geranium%@AE@%,%@CR:GERANIUM        @%%@QR:geranium@% herb or shrub of the family Geraniaceae. More specifically, the%@EH@%
name refers to the popular garden and greenhouse geranium (genus
%@AI@%Pelargonium%@AE@%), grown for its colorful flowers and ornamental, sometimes
scented foliage. Its long, beak-shaped fruits give it the name
stork's-bill. The family also includes the true geraniums (genus
%@AI@%Geranium%@AE@%) and the heron's-bills (genus %@AI@%Erodium%@AE@%). Geraniums are also
cultivated for the aromatic oils extracted from their foliage and
flowers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gerbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gerbert%@AE@%:%@CR:GERBERT         @%%@QR:Gerbert@% see %@AU@%SYLVESTER II%@BO:          91c4db@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gerbil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gerbil%@AE@%,%@CR:GERBIL          @%%@QR:gerbil@% desert %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% (subfamily Gerbillinae) found in the hot, arid%@EH@%
regions of Africa and Asia. Gerbils have large eyes and powerful,
elongated limbs upon which they can spring. Sandy, gray, or red-brown,
gerbils are 3 to 5 in. (7.6 to 12.7 cm) long, excluding the long tail,
and are popular pets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geriatrics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geriatrics%@AE@%,%@CR:GERIATRICS      @%%@QR:geriatrics@% study of the medical problems of the aged. Aging cells are%@EH@%
more susceptible to the accumulation of %@AU@%CALCIUM%@BO:          16e8ab@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHOLESTEROL%@BO:          1dbe42@%%@AE@%, and other
substances that may cause tissue deterioration, and thus the elderly are
more prone to disease and decreased physiological functioning. Many
disabilities of aging are related to %@AU@%CIRCULATORY SYSTEM%@BO:          1e85bb@%%@AE@% deterioration,
but studies have shown that proper nutrition and exercise contribute to
prolonging good health and circulation. The study of old age is known as
%@AU@%GERONTOLOGY%@BO:          39ae34@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gericault, Jean Louis Andre Theodore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gericault, Jean Louis Andre Theodore%@AE@%%@CR:GERICAULT       @%%@QR:Gericault, Jean Louis Andre Theodore@%, 1791-1824, French painter. After%@EH@%
studying in Rome he exhibited in Paris his famous %@AI@%Raft of the Medusa%@AE@%
(Louvre), a turbulent painting of shipwrecked men at sea that ushered in
French %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%. He later went to England, where he did such fine
horse paintings as %@AI@%The Village Forge%@AE@% (Louvre). He also modeled small
figures and made excellent lithographs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%German Confederation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%German Confederation%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMAN.ATION    @%%@QR:German Confederation@% 1815-66, union of 39 German states created by the%@EH@%
Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@% to replace the old %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. It comprised 35
monarchies and 4 free cities. It was little more than a loose union for
the purpose of mutual defense, with its main organ a central diet under
the presidency of Austria. The confederation was dominated by the strong
influence of Austria and Prussia. The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
destroyed the confederation, and the North German Confederation that
replaced it was under the sole leadership of Prussia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Germanic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Germanic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMANIGES      @%%@QR:Germanic languages@% subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages,%@EH@%
of which English, Dutch, and German, are members. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Germanic law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Germanic law%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMANIC.LAW    @%%@QR:Germanic law@% customary laws of the ancient Germans, codified (5th-9th%@EH@%
cent.) after the Germanic tribes invaded the Roman Empire. Enacted
cooperatively by ruler and people, they deal chiefly with penal law and
legal procedure, although there are many laws pertaining to landholding.
The Germans regarded law as personal, not territorial, and therefore
continued to govern the Romans under their rule by %@AU@%ROMAN LAW%@BO:          808b1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Germanic religion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Germanic religion%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMANION       @%%@QR:Germanic religion@% pre-Christian religious practices among the tribes of%@EH@%
W Europe, Germany, and Scandinavia. There was no one religion common to
all the Scandinavian and Teutonic peoples, but descriptions from %@AU@%TACITUS%@BO:          9232b4@%%@AE@%
and the %@AU@%EDDAS%@BO:          2c4da2@%%@AE@% point to certain basic polytheistic features. In early
times two groups of gods were worshiped, the Aesir and the Vanir; later
they coalesced to form a single pantheon of 12 principal deities, headed
by %@AU@%WODEN%@BO:          a2b58a@%%@AE@% (Odin) and including Tiw (Tyr), Thor (Donar), Balder, Frey,
%@AU@%FREYJA%@BO:          365c73@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%FRIGG%@BO:          366ea5@%%@AE@%. Their home was Asgard. There, in the palace Valhalla,
Woden and his warrior maidens (the Valkyries) gave banquets to dead
heroes. Unlike the gods of most religions, the ancient Nordic deities
were subject to Fate (the Norns) and tradition held that they were doomed
to eventual destruction by the forces of evil in the form of giants and
demons, led by Loki. After a ferocious battle at Ragnarok, the universe
would end in a blaze of fire; but a new cosmos was to rise from the ashes
of the old, and a new generation of gods and men would dwell in harmony.
The Germanic temples were attended by priests, who oversaw magic rites
(e.g., divination) and prayer. Conversion of the Germans to Christianity
began as early as the 4th cent. AD, but it took many centuries for the
new religion to spread throughout N Europe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%germanium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%germanium%@AE@%%@CR:GERMANIUM       @%%@QR:germanium@% (Ge), semimetallic element, isolated from argyrodite by Clemens%@EH@%
Winkler in 1886. Gray-white, lustrous, and brittle, it is chemically and
physically similar to %@AU@%SILICON%@BO:          8922b6@%%@AE@%. It is used as a %@AU@%SEMICONDUCTOR%@BO:          86c028@%%@AE@% in
%@AU@%TRANSISTORS%@BO:          97552b@%%@AE@% and integrated circuits. The oxide, transparent to infrared
radiation, is used in optical instruments. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%German language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%German language%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMAN.LANGUAGE @%%@QR:German language@% member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%German measles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%German measles%@AE@%:%@CR:GERMAN.MEASLES  @%%@QR:German measles@% see %@AU@%RUBELLA%@BO:          81ad3f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Germans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Germans%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMANS         @%%@QR:Germans@% a large ethnic complex of ancient Europe, a basic stock in the%@EH@%
composition of the modern peoples of Scandinavia, Germany, Austria,
Switzerland, the Low Countries, and England. They lived in N Germany and
along the Baltic Sea, expanding south, southeast, and west in the early
Christian era. %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TACITUS%@BO:          9232b4@%%@AE@% wrote of their warlike attributes,
culture, and distribution. The Teutons and Cimbri, whom the Roman general
Marius defeated (102-101 BC), may have been Germans. German tribes
increasingly troubled the Roman Empire, with Vandal attacks in the west
and %@AU@%OSTROGOTH%@BO:          6f50a2@%%@AE@% attacks in the east. Among the tribes were the Alemanni,
the %@AU@%FRANKS%@BO:          3588b6@%%@AE@%, the Angles, the Burgundii, the %@AU@%LOMBARDS%@BO:          565551@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%SAXONS%@BO:          851803@%%@AE@%, and the
%@AU@%VISIGOTHS%@BO:          9dfd40@%%@AE@%. The Scandinavians included the Icelanders, who produced the
first Germanic literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%German shepherd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%German shepherd%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMAN.SHEPHERD @%%@QR:German shepherd@% large, muscular %@AU@%WORKING DOG%@BO:          a324a5@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.25 in.%@EH@%
(64 cm); weight, 60-85 lb (27.2-38.5 kg). It has a dense undercoat and a
harsh outercoat that is usually black, gray, or black and tan. Developed
as a sheepherder and perfected in Germany c.1900, it has been used in
war, in police work, and as a %@AU@%GUIDE DOG%@BO:          3e59ff@%%@AE@% for the blind.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%German wirehaired pointer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%German wirehaired pointer%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMAN.ER       @%%@QR:German wirehaired pointer@% large %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.24 in.%@EH@%
(61 cm); weight, c.60 lb (27 kg). It has a woolly undercoat and a harsh,
wiry, flat-lying outercoat of liver and white. An all-purpose retrieving
pointer, it was developed in Germany in the mid-19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Germany%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Germany%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMANY         @%%@QR:Germany@% country of central Europe, divided since 1949 into two%@EH@%
independent republics, West and East Germany. In antiquity, Rome
conquered (1st cent. BC-1st cent. AD) SW Germany but was stopped from
further conquest by Germanic tribes who lived to the northeast. Germanic
tribes later (4th-5th cent.) overran most of the Roman Empire, and by the
6th cent. one of these tribes, the %@AU@%FRANKS%@BO:          3588b6@%%@AE@%, had created a vast empire in
Germany and Gaul (see %@AU@%MEROVINGIANS%@BO:          5f00c4@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CAROLINGIANS%@BO:          192c68@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%). In the
8th cent. Christianity was spread among the Germans by St. %@AU@%BONIFACE%@BO:          11d586@%%@AE@%. A
successor state, the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%, was founded in the 10th cent.,
but Germany remained a loose federation of small principalities and
cities. The Holy Roman Empire, weakened by the Protestant %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%
(16th cent.) and the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% (1618-48), was finally swept aside
(1806) by %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%. The Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@% (1814-15) created the %@AU@%GERMAN
%@AU@%CONFEDERATION%@BO:          3971e2@%%@AE@%, another loose federation of German states, in which
%@AU@%PRUSSIA%@BO:          7a630c@%%@AE@% and Austria emerged as rivals. Prussia, under Otto von %@AU@%BISMARCK%@BO:          103161@%%@AE@%,
finally achieved the unification of Germany after victories in the
%@AU@%AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:           a319f@%%@AE@% (1866) and the %@AU@%FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR%@BO:          3560e4@%%@AE@% (1870-71). In 1871
King %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1d3b9@%%@AE@% of Prussia was proclaimed emperor of Germany, and the new
German empire rapidly became the chief economic and military power on the
Continent. Its industrial, colonial, and naval expansion threatened
British and French interests and helped bring about %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. Badly
defeated, Germany accepted (1919) the harsh Treaty of %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd7bc@%%@AE@% and
established the Weimar Republic. This was beset from the beginning by
extremist agitation, mass unemployment, and severe inflation. In 1933
Adolf %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% was appointed chancellor, and within a year he had
established an absolute dictatorship. %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% began with Germany's
invasion of Poland (1939) and ended, in Europe, with the German surrender
in 1945. The defeated country was divided into four Allied occupation
zones, but dissension between the USSR and the West led to the formation
(1949) of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) in the U.S.,
French, and British zones, and of the German Democratic Republic (East
Germany) in the Soviet zone. The precise legal status of West %@AU@%BERLIN%@BO:           eda75@%%@AE@% has
remained in dispute.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%West Germany,%@AE@% republic (1986 est. pop. 61,140,000), 95,742 sq mi (247,973
sq km); bordered by Austria and Switzerland (S), France, Luxembourg,
Belgium, and the Netherlands (W), the North Sea and Denmark (N), the
Baltic Sea (NE), and East Germany and Czechoslovakia (E). %@AU@%BONN%@BO:          11e424@%%@AE@% is the
seat of government; other important cities include %@AU@%FRANKFURT%@BO:          356b83@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HAMBURG%@BO:          3f6fb9@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%MUNICH%@BO:          651f07@%%@AE@%. Geographically, West Germany is made up of parts of the N
German plain, the central German uplands, and, in the south, the ranges
of the Bavarian %@AU@%ALPS%@BO:           41c4e@%%@AE@%, which rise to the Zugspitze (9,721 ft/2,963 m).
There are many important rivers, including the %@AU@%RHINE%@BO:          7ec150@%%@AE@%, Weser, %@AU@%ELBE%@BO:          2d3ee9@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%DANUBE%@BO:          266955@%%@AE@%, and Main. Virtually all the people speak German, and the country
is fairly evenly divided between Protestants (in the north) and Roman
Catholics (in the west and south). Aided by the %@AU@%MARSHALL PLAN%@BO:          5c2681@%%@AE@%, West
Germany recovered quickly from World War II, and by 1970 was one of the
world's primary industrial powers. In the late 1970s it maintained the
highest growth rate among the major industrial nations, as well as a
comparatively low rate of inflation. Leading industrial products include
iron and steel, cement, chemicals, motor vehicles, electric and
electronic equipment, precision instruments, textiles, refined petroleum,
and foodstuffs. Natural resources are limited, with hard coal, potash,
and lignite the chief minerals. West Germany carries on a very large
foreign trade and usually enjoys a trade surplus. The Federal Republic of
Germany was established in 1949, with Konrad %@AU@%ADENAUER%@BO:           12f0d@%%@AE@% as its first
chancellor. The country gained most of the attributes of national
sovereignty in 1952 and full independence in 1955. Politics in the early
years were dominated by insistence on reunification, to be achieved
through democratic elections, and nonrecognition of East Germany. The
government (1969-74) of Willy %@AU@%BRANDT%@BO:          135bea@%%@AE@%, while upholding the goal of a
united Germany, made significant steps toward improving relations with
Eastern Europe, including the signing of a nonaggression pact with the
USSR (1970) and a treaty with East Germany (1973). Brandt was succeeded
(1974) by Helmut %@AU@%SCHMIDT%@BO:          8587ab@%%@AE@% (reelected 1976 and 1980). Over a decade of
political dominance by the Social Democrats ended when the Christian
Democrat Helmut Kohl became chancellor in 1982.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%East Germany,%@AE@% republic (1987 est. pop. 16,641,000), 41,610 sq mi (107,771
sq km); bordered by Czechoslovakia (S), West Germany (S and W), the
Baltic Sea (N), and Poland (E). East Berlin is the capital; other major
cities are %@AU@%LEIPZIG%@BO:          53a661@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DRESDEN%@BO:          2a9ec4@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%MAGDEBURG%@BO:          595b71@%%@AE@%. East Germany is made up
largely of a low-lying plain, but there are mountains in the west and
south. The chief rivers are the Elbe and the Oder, which, with its
tributary, the Neisse, forms most of the eastern boundary. Virtually all
the people speak German, and the majority are Protestant.
Industrialization has been rapid in the postwar era, and East Germany is
now the largest producer of industrial goods, after the USSR, in Eastern
Europe. Principal manufactures include steel, chemicals, machinery, and
electric and electronic equipment. Lignite and potash are the only
important mineral resources. The German Democratic Republic was
established in 1949, with Otto Grotewohl as its first prime minister.
Economic hardships led (1953) to a workers' uprising that was suppressed
by Soviet forces. Under Walter %@AU@%ULBRICHT%@BO:          9988bf@%%@AE@%, who emerged as leader in the
1950s, the Berlin wall was erected (1961) to halt the flow of millions of
East Germans to the West. Beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s,
significant steps were taken toward improving relations with the rest of
the world; a treaty with West Germany was signed in 1973, and East
Germany was accorded diplomatic recognition by a number of non-Communist
countries, including the U.S. (1974).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%germination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%germination%@AE@%,%@CR:GERMINATION     @%%@QR:germination@% process by which the plant embryo within the %@AU@%SEED%@BO:          868ba1@%%@AE@% resumes%@EH@%
growth after a period of dormancy and the seedling emerges. Food stored
in the endosperm or in the cotyledons (see %@AU@%ANGIOSPERM%@BO:           576a3@%%@AE@%) provides energy in
the early stages of growth until the seedling can make its own.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%germ warfare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%germ warfare%@AE@%:%@CR:GERM.WARFARE    @%%@QR:germ warfare@% see %@AU@%BIOLOGICAL WARFARE%@BO:           fe8bf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Geronimo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Geronimo%@AE@%,%@CR:GERONIMO        @%%@QR:Geronimo@% c.1829-1909, leader of the Chiricahua %@AU@%APACHE INDIANS%@BO:           68af4@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
Arizona. After the Chiricahua Reservation was abolished (1876) he
repeatedly led raids, was captured, and escaped. Finally surrendering in
1886, he and his followers were deported as prisoners of war to Florida.
Geronimo was removed to Fort Sill, Okla.; became a Christian and a
prosperous farmer; and appeared in Pres. Theodore Roosevelt's inaugural
procession.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gerontology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gerontology%@AE@%,%@CR:GERONTOLOGY     @%%@QR:gerontology@% study of old age and the aging process, concerned with the%@EH@%
physical aspects of aging as well as with the special economic and social
problems of the elderly. Gerontology emerged as a major field of study in
the 20th cent. as the steady increase in average life expectancy swelled
the numbers of older people in the population, especially in developed
countries. The medical specialty that focuses on the health and diseases
of the elderly is called %@AU@%GERIATRICS%@BO:          396c5b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gerry, Elbridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gerry, Elbridge%@AE@%%@CR:GERRY           @%%@QR:Gerry, Elbridge@%, 1744-1814, vice president of the U.S. (1813-14); b.%@EH@%
Marblehead, Mass. He supported patriotic activities before and during the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, and sat in the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% (1766-85) and
the %@AU@%FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@% (1787), where he opposed a strong
central government. Elected governor of Massachusetts in 1810, he won
again in 1811. His second term was marked by the grotesque rearrangement
of election districts, called a %@AU@%GERRYMANDER%@BO:          39b5ad@%%@AE@% after him. He was elected
vice president on the ticket with James %@AU@%MADISON%@BO:          59378d@%%@AE@%. His grandson %@AB@%Elbridge
%@AB@%Thomas Gerry,%@AE@% 1837-1927, b. N.Y.C., was a reformer. A position as legal
advisor to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
led to his founding (1875), with the help of Henry Bergh, the New York
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (sometimes called the
Gerry Society). He devoted most of his life to this cause, which became
national in scope.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gerrymander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gerrymander%@AE@%,%@CR:GERRYMANDER     @%%@QR:gerrymander@% in U.S. politics, rearrangement of lines and boundaries of%@EH@%
voting districts to favor the party in power. The term, which described
this political art as practiced by Massachusetts Jeffersonians,
originated while Elbridge %@AU@%GERRY%@BO:          39b0b4@%%@AE@% was governor. Gerrymandering was limited
somewhat by the Supreme Court in 1964.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gershwin, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gershwin, George%@AE@%,%@CR:GERSHWIN        @%%@QR:Gershwin, George@% 1898-1937, American composer; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. His%@EH@%
scores to %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@%, including %@AI@%Lady, Be Good!%@AE@% (1924) and %@AI@%Of Thee I Sing%@AE@%
(1931; Pulitzer), made him famous. In his extended compositions, e.g.,
%@AI@%Rhapsody in Blue%@AE@% (1923) and %@AI@%An American in Paris%@AE@% (1928), he blended
traditional with folk and %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% elements. Gershwin wrote the music for the
folk opera %@AI@%Porgy and Bess%@AE@% (1935). His brother, %@AB@%Ira Gershwin,%@AE@% 1896-1983,
wrote lyrics to many of his compositions. After George's death, he
collaborated with Harold Arlen on the film %@AI@%A Star is Born%@AE@% (1954).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gesner, Konrad von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gesner, Konrad von%@AE@%,%@CR:GESNER          @%%@QR:Gesner, Konrad von@% 1516-65, Swiss scientist and bibliographer. He was an%@EH@%
important reviver of the classical school of zoological description that
culminated in the work of Carolus %@AU@%LINNAEUS%@BO:          5570cf@%%@AE@%. His illustrated %@AI@%Historia
%@AI@%animalium%@AE@% (5 vol., 1551-58, 1587), influenced biology and the arts and is
considered the foundation of zoology as a science.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gesneria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gesneria%@AE@%,%@CR:GESNERIA        @%%@QR:gesneria@% herb or shrub, chiefly tropical and subtropical, of the family%@EH@%
Gesneriaceae, cultivated for its showy, often tubular blossoms. The
family includes the %@AU@%AFRICAN VIOLETS%@BO:           1ef96@%%@AE@%; the African Cape primrose (genus
%@AI@%Streptocarpus%@AE@%); and the gloxinia (%@AI@%Sinningia speciosa%@AE@%) of Brazil, not to
be confused with the genus %@AI@%Gloxinia,%@AE@% which is not cultivated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gestalt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gestalt%@AE@%,%@CR:GESTALT         @%%@QR:Gestalt@% school of psychology that interprets phenomena as organized%@EH@%
wholes, rather than as aggregates of distinct parts. It maintains that
the significance of a structured whole (e.g., in visual perception) does
not depend on its specific constituent elements; thus a drawn figure
still has meaning when there are gaps in the drawing. Gestalt, which has
made substantial contributions to the study of learning, memory,
thinking, and human personality and motivation, was brought to the U.S.
in the 1930s by refugee psychologists from Germany. There the movement
had received impetus from psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler,
and Kurt Koffka, in protest against the prevailing scientific approach to
analysis, with its detachment from human values. %@AI@%Gestalt therapy%@AE@% draws in
part on %@AU@%PSYCHOANALYSIS%@BO:          7a7b44@%%@AE@% and existential philosophy, although it focuses on
present experience rather than exploration of the past. By emphasizing
newly emerging patterns (%@AI@%gestalten%@AE@%) that could become central to
attention as part of a new whole of experience, it aims at changing the
patient's habitual ways of perceiving and responding to needs. Much
attention is given to nonverbal aspects of behavior.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gesta Romanorum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gesta Romanorum%@AE@%,%@CR:GESTA.ROMANORUM @%%@QR:Gesta Romanorum@% medieval collection of Latin stories, each with a moral,%@EH@%
probably older than the extant 14th-cent. manuscript. %@AU@%CHAUCER%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@% and others
used it as a source.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gethsemane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gethsemane%@AE@%%@CR:GETHSEMANE      @%%@QR:Gethsemane@%, olive grove or garden, E of Jerusalem, near the foot of the%@EH@%
Mount of %@AU@%OLIVES%@BO:          6d8644@%%@AE@%. It was the scene of the agony and betrayal of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Getty, J(ean) Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Getty, J(ean) Paul%@AE@%,%@CR:GETTY           @%%@QR:Getty, J(ean) Paul@% 1892-1976, American business executive, one of the%@EH@%
richest men in the world; b. Minneapolis, Minn. After inheriting his
father's oil business he became (1956) director and principal owner. His
personal worth was estimated at $3 billion. An ardent art collector, he
founded (1954) the J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu, Calif., and bequeathed
it an endowment of $750 million, making it the richest museum in the
world. Getty lived in Britain from the early 1950s until his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gettysburg Address%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gettysburg Address%@AE@%,%@CR:GETTYSBESS      @%%@QR:Gettysburg Address@% Nov. 19, 1863, famous speech by Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% at%@EH@%
the dedication of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% cemetery at Gettysburg, Pa. Lincoln
eloquently stated his grief for the fallen soldiers and the principles
for which they had given their lives. The brief address is perhaps the
most quoted speech of all time, including among many memorable phrases:
"and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall
not perish from the earth."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gettysburg campaign%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gettysburg campaign%@AE@%,%@CR:GETTYSBAIGN     @%%@QR:Gettysburg campaign@% June-July 1863, a series of battles that marked the%@EH@%
turning point of the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. After his victory at
%@AU@%CHANCELLORSVILLE%@BO:          1b71d8@%%@AE@%, Confederate Gen. Robert E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% undertook a second
invasion of the North, crossing the Potomac into Pennsylvania and
fighting at Harrisburg and Chambersburg. Union forces under George G.
%@AU@%MEADE%@BO:          5dd7e1@%%@AE@% were massing N of the Potomac. The two forces met just W of
Gettysburg in the greatest battle of the war (July 1-3, 1863). On July 1
the Union was driven to Cemetery Hill, south of the town. On July 2 the
Confederates took the Peach Orchard but were repulsed in assaults on
Cemetery Ridge and Cemetery Hill; they briefly held Culp's Hill. On July
3 Lee ordered George E. %@AU@%PICKETT'S%@BO:          7582ee@%%@AE@% division forward in its famous but
disastrous charge against the Union center. Tremendous losses resulted
and on July 4 Lee withdrew. Union losses totaled 23,000 killed or
wounded; Confederate, 25,000.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%geyser%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%geyser%@AE@%,%@CR:GEYSER          @%%@QR:geyser@% %@AU@%HOT SPRING%@BO:          44a43e@%%@AE@% from which water and steam are ejected periodically to%@EH@%
heights ranging from a few to several hundred feet. The generally
accepted explanation is that rainwater, collected under pressure in hot
rocks below ground, turns partly to steam and causes the water above it
to overflow, thereby reducing the pressure and forcing an eruption.
Notable geysers are found in Iceland; North Island, New Zealand; and
Yellowstone National Park, U.S. (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gezira, Gazira%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gezira, Gazira%@AE@%,%@CR:GEZIRA          @%%@QR:Gezira, Gazira@% or %@AB@%Al Jazirah,%@AE@% region in the Sudan, NE Africa, between%@EH@%
the White Nile and the Blue Nile, just south of their convergence, at
Khartoum. A massive irrigation scheme, begun in 1925, includes two dams
and a series of canals that have put nearly 2.5 million acres (1 million
hectares) into cultivation. Cotton and wheat are the chief crops.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghana%@AE@%,%@CR:GHANA           @%%@QR:Ghana@% officially Republic of Ghana, republic (1984 pop. 12,205,574),%@EH@%
92,099 sq mi (238,536 sq km), W Africa, bordered by the Gulf of Guinea
(S), the Ivory Coast (W), Burkina Faso (N), and Togo (E). Major cities
include %@AU@%ACCRA%@BO:            9e8f@%%@AE@% (the capital) and %@AU@%KUMASI%@BO:          51049d@%%@AE@%. The coastal region and the far
north are savanna areas; in between is a forest zone. Lake Volta, in
central Ghana, is one of the world's largest man-made lakes. Cocoa is the
principal crop in Ghana's predominantly agricultural economy; other
exports include minerals (gold, diamonds, and bauxite) and timber.
Aluminum smelting, food-processing, and lumber production are the
principal industries, and coffee and tobacco are widely grown. The
population includes various tribal groups, chiefly the Akan (Ashanti and
Fanti), Mole-Dagbani, Ewe, and Ga-Adangme. English is the official
language. About 40% of the people are Christians, 10% are Muslims (mainly
in the north), and the rest follow traditional religions.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% In precolonial times the region comprised a number of independent
kingdoms, including the %@AU@%ASHANTI%@BO:           89ddb@%%@AE@% confederation in the interior and the
Fanti states along the coast. The first European fort was established by
the Portuguese at Elmina in 1482, and for more than three centuries
European nations engaged in a brisk but highly competitive trade in gold
and slaves. The expanding Ashanti kingdom forced the withdrawal of the
Danes (1850) and the Dutch (1872), but the British allied themselves with
the Fanti, defeated the Ashanti in 1874, and organized the coastal region
as the Gold Coast colony. After renewed fighting between the British and
the Ashanti, Britain made the kingdom a colony in 1901, at the same time
declaring a protectorate over the Northern Territories, a region north of
Ashanti. After World War I part of the German colony of %@AU@%TOGOLAND%@BO:          96573d@%%@AE@%,
mandated to Britain, was administered with the Gold Coast. In 1951, in
the face of rising nationalist activity, Britain granted a new
constitution and held general elections, from which Kwame %@AU@%NKRUMAH%@BO:          6a66a3@%%@AE@%, the
colony's leading nationalist figure, emerged as premier. The state of
Ghana, named after a medieval African empire (see separate article) and
including British Togoland, which had voted to join it, became an
independent country within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1956. In 1969
Nkrumah transformed Ghana into a republic and named himself president for
life. Increasingly repressive and beset by a deteriorating economy,
Nkrumah was overthrown by a coup in 1966. The ensuing years have seen a
succession of coups. By the late 1970s the economy had slid into chaos,
and corruption was rife at all levels of society. Elections in 1979
marked a return to civilian government, but conditions failed to improve,
and in 1981 the military led by Jerry %@AU@%RAWLINGS%@BO:          7cf236@%%@AE@% again seized power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghats%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghats%@AE@%,%@CR:GHATS           @%%@QR:Ghats@% two mountain ranges, S India, forming the eastern and western%@EH@%
edges of the %@AU@%DECCAN%@BO:          272df9@%%@AE@% plateau. Anai Mudi (8,841 ft/ 2,695 m) is the highest
point. The %@AB@%Western Ghats,%@AE@% c.1,000 mi (1,600 km) long, extend southeast
from near Bombay to the southern tip of India. Their densely forested
western slopes receive abundant rainfall from onshore monsoon winds and
are the source of many easterly-flowing rivers, including the Godavari,
Kistna, and Caudery. The %@AB@%Eastern Ghats,%@AE@% facing the Bay of Bengal, form a
series of hills extending c.900 mi (1,450 km) southwest from the Mahanadi
valley.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghazali, al-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghazali, al-%@AE@%,%@CR:GHAZALI         @%%@QR:Ghazali, al-@% 1058-1111, Islamic philosopher, considered the greatest%@EH@%
theologian in %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%, well known in medieval Europe as Algazel. Of Persian
origin, he abandoned teaching to wander for 10 years as a Sufi mystic
(see %@AU@%SUFISM%@BO:          9049cf@%%@AE@%), attempting to reconcile %@AU@%MYSTICISM%@BO:          65e341@%%@AE@% with orthodox Islam. His
great compendium of Muslim thought, %@AI@%Restoration of the Sciences of
%@AI@%Religion,%@AE@% outlines an orthodox system for the attainment of unity with
God.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ghee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ghee%@AE@%:%@CR:GHEE            @%%@QR:ghee@% see %@AU@%BUTTER%@BO:          1620d7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghelderode, Michel de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghelderode, Michel de%@AE@%%@CR:GHELDERODE      @%%@QR:Ghelderode, Michel de@%, 1898-1962, Belgian dramatist. A satirist and%@EH@%
exquisite poet, he is considered one the most original French-language
playwrights of modern times. A wide variety of influences-%@AU@%MAETERLINCK%@BO:          595241@%%@AE@%,
medieval morality plays, Flemish painting, puppet theater, %@AU@%COMMEDIA
%@AU@%DELL'ARTE%@BO:          20f700@%%@AE@%, the Elizabethans, and Edgar Allan %@AU@%POE%@BO:          771ab5@%%@AE@%-reveal themselves in
such masterpieces as %@AI@%Chronicles of Hell%@AE@% (1929), %@AI@%Pantagleize%@AE@% (1929), and
%@AI@%Hop Signore!%@AE@% (1935).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghent%@AE@%,%@CR:GHENT1          @%%@QR:Ghent@% city (1987 est. pop. 233,856), W Belgium, at the confluence of the%@EH@%
Scheldt and Leie rivers. It is a major port and a textile- and
steel-manufacturing center. One of Belgium's oldest cities, founded in
the 7th cent., it was the capital of %@AU@%FLANDERS%@BO:          3393a4@%%@AE@%. It was a medieval
wool-producing city and was virtually independent until 1584. Thereafter
it was ruled by the %@AU@%HAPSBURGS%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%, until the French Revolution. It is noted
for its many medieval and Renaissance buildings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghent, Treaty of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghent, Treaty of%@AE@%,%@CR:GHENT2          @%%@QR:Ghent, Treaty of@% 1814, agreement ending the %@AU@%WAR OF%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@% 1812 between the U.S.%@EH@%
and Great Britain. Stipulating the restoration of territory taken by
either party during hostilities, it was a diplomatic victory for the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ghetto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ghetto%@AE@%,%@CR:GHETTO          @%%@QR:ghetto@% section of a city where members of a racial group are segregated.%@EH@%
The term is also used to describe any physically segregated minority
group. Compulsory Jewish ghettos originated in 14th-cent. Spain and
Portugal. Within the ghetto Jews generally had autonomy in all but
economic matters, but outside it they were severely restricted. Abolished
in W Europe by the 19th cent., ghettos were reinstituted by the Nazis in
World War II (see %@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@%). In the U.S., social and economic
factors, rather than laws, have segregated minorities into ghettos, e.g.,
New York's %@AU@%HARLEM%@BO:          3ffcc3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghibellines%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghibellines%@AE@%:%@CR:GHIBELLINES     @%%@QR:Ghibellines@% see %@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghiberti, Lorenzo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghiberti, Lorenzo%@AE@%%@CR:GHIBERTI        @%%@QR:Ghiberti, Lorenzo@%, c.1378-1455, Florentine sculptor. In 1401 he won the%@EH@%
competition to produce a bronze portal for the %@AU@%BAPTISTERY%@BO:           bff80@%%@AE@% in Florence,
defeating %@AU@%BRUNELLESCHI%@BO:          14b271@%%@AE@%. He designed the north portal to match Andrea
%@AU@%PISANO'S%@BO:          760f7f@%%@AE@% earlier Gothic portal and was constrained by its rigid
quatrefoil framework. The reliefs, executed between 1403 and 1424, depict
the life of Christ, the Evangelists, and the Church Fathers. Ghiberti
also produced sculptural figures for the Church of Or San Michele before
he began work on the baptistery's east portal, a task that took him 23
years. These later reliefs were more modern in form and structure. His
%@AI@%Comentarii%@AE@% is the earliest known autobiography of an artist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghirlandaio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghirlandaio%@AE@%%@CR:GHIRLANDAIO     @%%@QR:Ghirlandaio@%or %@AB@%Ghirlandajo, Domenico%@AE@% , 1449-94, Florentine painter whose%@EH@%
family name was Bigordi. His religious narrative paintings, e.g., %@AI@%Madonna
%@AI@%with the Vespucci Family%@AE@% (Church of the Ognissanti, Florence), reveal
superlative technique and a keen eye for contemporary detail. With
%@AU@%BOTTICELLI%@BO:          129636@%%@AE@% in Rome he decorated parts of the %@AU@%SISTINE CHAPEL%@BO:          89ad6d@%%@AE@%. Among his
pupils was %@AU@%MICHELANGELO%@BO:          5ffcb6@%%@AE@%, who probably assisted with Ghirlandaio's great
%@AU@%FRESCO%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% cycle of the life of Mary and St. John the Baptist in Santa Maria
Novella, Florence. His famous realistic portrait %@AI@%Grandfather and Grandson%@AE@%
is in the Louvre.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ghose, Aurobindo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ghose, Aurobindo%@AE@%%@CR:GHOSE           @%%@QR:Ghose, Aurobindo@%, 1872-1950, Indian mystic philosopher, known as Sri%@EH@%
Aurobind. He spent his early years as an agitator for Indian
independence. He experienced mystic visions, retired from political
activism, and formulated what became Purna, or Integral, Yoga. In 1926 he
retired into seclusion in his ashram at Pondicherry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ghost dance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ghost dance%@AE@%,%@CR:GHOST.DANCE     @%%@QR:ghost dance@% ritual central to the messianic religion instituted c.1870%@EH@%
among the %@AU@%PAIUTE INDIANS%@BO:          701487@%%@AE@% by their prophet %@AU@%WOVOKA%@BO:          a36696@%%@AE@%. The religion, which
prophesied the end of white expansion westward and the return of land to
the Indians, spread to most of the western Indians. The ritual was danced
for five successive days and was accompanied by hypnotic trances. The
%@AU@%SIOUX%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@% performed the ritual prior to their massacre at %@AU@%WOUNDED KNEE%@BO:          a36473@%%@AE@% in
1890-wearing "ghost shirts" that they thought would protect them from
bullets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giacometti, Alberto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giacometti, Alberto%@AE@%%@CR:GIACOMETTI      @%%@QR:Giacometti, Alberto@%, 1901-66, Swiss sculptor and painter. Associated with%@EH@%
%@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@%, he is known for his bronze sculptures of elongated human
figures, e.g., %@AI@%Man Walking%@AE@% (Albright-Knox Gall., Buffalo).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giambologna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giambologna%@AE@%:%@CR:GIAMBOLOGNA     @%%@QR:Giambologna@% see %@AU@%BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI%@BO:          11aa24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%giant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%giant%@AE@%,%@CR:GIANT           @%%@QR:giant@% in mythology, manlike being of great size and strength; a brutish%@EH@%
power of nature, lacking the stature of gods and the civilization of
humanity. In many cultures, e.g., Greek, Scandinavian, and American
Indian, giants were believed to be the first race of people that
inhabited the earth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%giant schnauzer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%giant schnauzer%@AE@%:%@CR:GIANT.SCHNAUZER @%%@QR:giant schnauzer@% see %@AU@%SCHNAUZER%@BO:          858bdf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%giant sequoia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%giant sequoia%@AE@%:%@CR:GIANT.SEQUOIA   @%%@QR:giant sequoia@% see %@AU@%SEQUOIA%@BO:          870eef@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibbon, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibbon, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBBON1         @%%@QR:Gibbon, Edward@% 1734-94, English historian. He is the author of %@AI@%The%@EH@%
%@AI@%History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire%@AE@% (6 vol., 1776-88),
one of the most influential historical works of modern times. Gibbon also
wrote a subtle and interesting autobiography, %@AI@%Memoirs of His Life and
%@AI@%Writings%@AE@% (1796). He served in Parliament from 1774 to 1783.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gibbon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gibbon%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBBON2         @%%@QR:gibbon@% small %@AU@%APE%@BO:           69885@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Hyloblates%@AE@%) found in the forests of SE Asia.%@EH@%
Gibbons are highly adapted to arboreal life. Their arms are extremely
long, and they swing through the trees with great speed and agility.
Gibbons live in permanent families consisting of a male, a female, and
their young; they are very territorial.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibbons v. Ogden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibbons v. Ogden%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBBONS.V.OGDEN @%%@QR:Gibbons v. Ogden@% case decided in 1824 by the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%, which%@EH@%
ruled that New York's grant of a steamboat monopoly on the Hudson R.
interfered with congressional power over interstate commerce under
Article I of the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%. Chief Justice %@AU@%MARSHALL%@BO:          5c1a39@%%@AE@%, rejecting the
idea that the states and the federal government are equal sovereignties,
held that although federal power is limited, within its sphere Congress
is supreme. The decision was highly influential in explicating the
federal structure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibbs, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibbs, James%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBBS1          @%%@QR:Gibbs, James@% 1682-1754, English architect. An exponent of the %@AU@%GEORGIAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%STYLE%@BO:          395f8f@%%@AE@%, he is noted for London churches, e.g., St. Mary-le-Strand
(1714-17) and St. Martin's-in-the-Fields (1721-26); the latter inspired
steepled churches in the American colonies. He also designed the circular
Radcliffe Camera, Oxford.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibbs, Josiah Willard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibbs, Josiah Willard%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBBS2          @%%@QR:Gibbs, Josiah Willard@% 1839-1903, American mathematical physicist; b. New%@EH@%
Haven, Conn. A professor of mathematical physics at Yale, his studies in
physical chemistry and thermodynamics have profoundly affected industry,
notably in the production of ammonia. He formulated the concept of
chemical potential, was influential in developing vector analysis, and
did work in statistical mechanics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibraltar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibraltar%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBRALTAR       @%%@QR:Gibraltar@% British dependency (1986 est. pop. 29,166), 2.25 sq mi (5.8 sq%@EH@%
km), on a narrow, rocky peninsula extending into the Mediterranean Sea
from SW Spain. The town of Gibraltar lies at the northwest end of the
Rock of Gibraltar. Although Gibraltar is a free port with some transit
trade, its major importance is strategic, and its status has long been a
subject of dispute between Great Britain (which has maintained possession
since 1704) and Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibran, Kahlil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibran, Kahlil%@AE@%%@CR:GIBRAN          @%%@QR:Gibran, Kahlil@%, 1883-1931, Lebanese poet and novelist. He wrote in both%@EH@%
English and Arabic. Fusing elements of Eastern and Western mysticism, he
achieved lasting fame with such aphoristic, poetic works as %@AI@%The Prophet%@AE@%
(1923) and %@AI@%The Garden of the Prophet%@AE@% (1934).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibson, Althea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibson, Althea%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBSON1         @%%@QR:Gibson, Althea@% 1927-, American tennis player; b. Silver, S.C. In 1948%@EH@%
she won the first of 10 straight national Negro women's singles titles.
The first black to play in the U.S. nationals (1950) and at Wimbledon
(1951), she captured both of those championships in 1957 and 1958.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gibson, Charles Dana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gibson, Charles Dana%@AE@%,%@CR:GIBSON2         @%%@QR:Gibson, Charles Dana@% 1867-1944, American illustrator; b. Roxbury, Mass.%@EH@%
As an illustrator of various contemporary magazines, he delineated
aristocratic social ideals and created an ideal woman, the famous "Gibson
Girl."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gide, Andre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gide, Andre%@AE@%%@CR:GIDE            @%%@QR:Gide, Andre@%, 1869-1951, French author. A leader of French liberal%@EH@%
thought, he was one of the founders (1909) of the influential %@AI@%Nouvelle
%@AI@%revue francaise.%@AE@% He was controversial for his frank defense of
homosexuality and for his espousal (and later disavowal) of communism. In
his major novels-%@AI@%The Immoralist%@AE@% (1902), %@AI@%Lafcadio's Adventures%@AE@% (1914), and
%@AI@%The Counterfeiters%@AE@% (1926)-he shows individuals seeking out their own
natures, which may be at odds with prevailing ethical concepts. He was
also known for his journals (1889-1949). Gide received the Nobel Prize in
literature in 1947.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gideon, Gedeon, Jerubbaal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gideon, Gedeon, Jerubbaal%@AE@%,%@CR:GIDEON          @%%@QR:Gideon, Gedeon, Jerubbaal@% or %@AB@%Jerubbesheth,%@AE@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, one of the%@EH@%
greater judges of Israel, a strong opponent of the %@AU@%BAAL%@BO:           a8dc4@%%@AE@% cult. He refused
the kingship because of his belief that God was the king of Israel. He
also defeated the Midianite (see %@AU@%MIDIAN%@BO:          606941@%%@AE@%) oppressors and appeased the
rival Emphramites (see %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%). Judges 6-8.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gideon v. Wainwright%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gideon v. Wainwright%@AE@%,%@CR:GIDEON.IGHT     @%%@QR:Gideon v. Wainwright@% case decided in 1963 by the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Florida had denied Clarence Gideon free counsel in a criminal trial, and
he had defended himself. The Court held that the right to counsel,
guaranteed in federal trials by the 6th amendment to the U.S.
%@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          2294b6@%%@AE@%, is fundamental to a fair trial, and that the state's
failure to provide counsel for a %@AU@%FELONY%@BO:          325e1c@%%@AE@% defendant violated due process
under the 14th amendment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gielgud, Sir John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gielgud, Sir John%@AE@%,%@CR:GIELGUD         @%%@QR:Gielgud, Sir John@% 1904-, English actor. He excelled in plays by%@EH@%
%@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@% (notably %@AI@%Hamlet%@AE@%), %@AU@%WILDE%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PINTER%@BO:          75eda7@%%@AE@%, and won praise for film
and television roles, e.g., %@AI@%Arthur%@AE@% (1981; Academy Award) and %@AI@%Brideshead
%@AI@%Revisited%@AE@% (1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gierek, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gierek, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:GIEREK          @%%@QR:Gierek, Edward@% 1913-, Polish Communist leader. He replaced Wladyslaw%@EH@%
%@AU@%GOMULKA%@BO:          3b62ad@%%@AE@% as first secretary of the party in 1970, after food riots had
broken out. A failing economy and labor unrest led to his ouster in 1980
(see %@AU@%SOLIDARITY%@BO:          8b3850@%%@AE@%). In 1981 he was expelled from the Communist party and
interned after martial law was declared.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gift tax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gift tax%@AE@%:%@CR:GIFT.TAX        @%%@QR:gift tax@% see under %@AU@%INHERITANCE TAX%@BO:          483b4b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gila monster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gila monster%@AE@%,%@CR:GILA.MONSTER    @%%@QR:gila monster@% venomous %@AU@%LIZARD%@BO:          55e360@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Heloderma suspectum%@AE@%) found in the deserts%@EH@%
of the SW U.S. and NW Mexico. It averages 18 in. (45 cm) in length, with
a large head, stout body, and thick tail that acts as a food reservoir;
its skin is covered with beadlike scales. It and the beaded lizard (%@AI@%H.
%@AI@%horridum%@AE@%) are the only known venomous lizards.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilbert, Cass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilbert, Cass%@AE@%,%@CR:GILBERT1        @%%@QR:Gilbert, Cass@% 1859-1934, American architect; b. Zanesville, Ohio. His%@EH@%
60-story Woolworth Building (1913) in New York City exerted great
influence on the growth of the %@AU@%SKYSCRAPER%@BO:          89f1f1@%%@AE@%. Among his other conspicuous
works are the Federal Courts Building (N.Y.C.) and the Supreme Court
building (Wash., D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilbert, Sir Humphrey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilbert, Sir Humphrey%@AE@%,%@CR:GILBERT2        @%%@QR:Gilbert, Sir Humphrey@% 1537?-1583, English soldier, navigator, and%@EH@%
explorer; half brother of Sir Walter %@AU@%RALEIGH%@BO:          7c7f53@%%@AE@%. He was knighted (1570) for
services in Ireland. His %@AI@%Discourse%@AE@% (1576), arguing the existence of the
%@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@%, long motivated English exploration. In 1583 he reached
%@AU@%NEWFOUNDLAND%@BO:          68d0bf@%%@AE@% and claimed it for England. He disappeared at sea near the
%@AU@%AZORES%@BO:           a7f8a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilbert, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilbert, William%@AE@%,%@CR:GILBERT3        @%%@QR:Gilbert, William@% 1544-1603, English scientist and physician. Noted for%@EH@%
his studies of %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MAGNETISM%@BO:          59882f@%%@AE@%, he coined the word %@AI@%electricity%@AE@%
and was the first to distinguish between electric and magnetic phenomena.
In his %@AI@%De Magnete%@AE@% (1600) he described methods for strengthening natural
magnets (lodestones) and for using them to magnetize steel rods by
stroking, and he concluded that the earth acts like a giant magnet with
its poles near the geographic poles. From 1600 he was president of the
College of Physicians and court physician to Elizabeth I and James I.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck%@AE@%,%@CR:GILBERT4        @%%@QR:Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck@% 1836-1911, English playwright and poet.%@EH@%
With the composer Sir Arthur %@AU@%SULLIVAN%@BO:          9078a3@%%@AE@% he wrote a series of popular,
satiric operettas, including %@AI@%Trial by Jury%@AE@% (1875), %@AI@%H.M.S. Pinafore%@AE@%
(1878), %@AI@%The Pirates of Penzance%@AE@% (1879), %@AI@%Patience%@AE@% (1881), %@AI@%Iolanthe%@AE@% (1882),
%@AI@%Princess Ida%@AE@% (1884), %@AI@%The Mikado%@AE@% (1885), %@AI@%Ruddigore%@AE@% (1887), %@AI@%The Yeomen of
%@AI@%the Guard%@AE@% (1888), and %@AI@%The Gondoliers%@AE@% (1889). Gilbert was a metrical
craftsman, and his lyrics are often scintillatingly funny.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilbert Islands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilbert Islands%@AE@%,%@CR:GILBERT.ISLANDS @%%@QR:Gilbert Islands@% group of islands in the Pacific Ocean; now part of%@EH@%
%@AU@%KIRIBATI%@BO:          4ff42f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gildersleeve, Virginia Crocheron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gildersleeve, Virginia Crocheron%@AE@%,%@CR:GILDERSLEEVE    @%%@QR:Gildersleeve, Virginia Crocheron@% 1877-1965, American educator; b. N.Y.C.%@EH@%
Dean of Barnard College (1911-47), she was an early supporter of the
%@AU@%LEAGUE OF NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@%, founder of the International Federation of University
Women, and chairman of the American Council on Education. Her works
include %@AI@%Many a Good Crusade%@AE@% (1954).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gilds%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gilds%@AE@%:%@CR:GILDS           @%%@QR:gilds@% see %@AU@%GUILDS%@BO:          3e5db5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gill%@AE@%,%@CR:GILL            @%%@QR:gill@% external respiratory organ of most aquatic animals, the basic%@EH@%
function of which is oxygen-carbon-dioxide exchange. Gill structure and
location vary among animals of different groups. In fishes, gills are
located at the rear of the mouth and contain capillaries; in higher
aquatic invertebrates, they protrude from the body surface and contain
extensions of the vascular system; in mollusks, they are inside the
mantle cavity; in aquatic insects, they occur as projections from the
walls of the air tubes. In amphibians, gills are usually present only in
the larval stage; in higher vertebrates, they occur merely as
rudimentary, nonfunctional gill slits, which disappear during embryonic
development.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gillespie, Dizzy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gillespie, Dizzy%@AE@%%@CR:GILLESPIE       @%%@QR:Gillespie, Dizzy@% (John Birks Gillespie), 1917-, black American musician;%@EH@%
b. Cheraw, S.C. With Charlie %@AU@%PARKER%@BO:          7161e2@%%@AE@% he led the bop movement in %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% in
the 1940s. His trumpet style blends spectacular facility with taste and
intelligence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilman, Charlotte Perkins%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilman, Charlotte Perkins%@AE@%,%@CR:GILMAN1         @%%@QR:Gilman, Charlotte Perkins@% 1860-1935, American feminist and writer; b.%@EH@%
Hartford, Conn. She lectured on social reform and edited %@AI@%The Forerunner%@AE@%
(1909-16), which consisted almost entirely of her own writing. Her works
include %@AI@%Women and Economics%@AE@% (1898), an attack on women's economic
dependence on man, and the semiautobiographical %@AI@%The Yellow Wallpaper%@AE@%
(1890). See also %@AU@%FEMINISM%@BO:          3261c5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilman, Daniel Coit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilman, Daniel Coit%@AE@%,%@CR:GILMAN2         @%%@QR:Gilman, Daniel Coit@% 1831-1908, American educator; b. Norwich, Conn.%@EH@%
President (1872) of the newly organized Univ. of California, in 1875 he
accepted an offer to establish and become first president of Johns
Hopkins Univ., in Baltimore. His primary interest was advanced
instruction and research, and he developed the first great American
graduate university in the German tradition. He founded Johns Hopkins
hospital (1889) and medical school (1893).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gilson, Etienne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gilson, Etienne%@AE@%,%@CR:GILSON          @%%@QR:Gilson, Etienne@% 1894-1978, French philosopher and historian. After%@EH@%
teaching in Paris, Gilson founded (1929) the Institute of Medieval
Studies at the Univ. of Toronto and was long a member of its faculty. He
was also one of the leaders of the neo-Thomist movement in Catholic
philosophy. His works include %@AI@%The Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas%@AE@% (1919)
and %@AI@%The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy%@AE@% (2 vol., 1932).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ginger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ginger%@AE@%,%@CR:GINGER          @%%@QR:ginger@% common name for perennial herbs of the tropical and subtropical%@EH@%
family Zingiberaceae. Many are important for their aromatic oils. Ginger
(%@AI@%Zingiber officinale%@AE@%) is cultivated for its root, which is candied or
dried for medicines and spice. Turmeric (%@AI@%Curcuma longa%@AE@%) and the seeds of
cardamom (%@AI@%Elettaria cardamomum%@AE@%) are similarly used, and often combined
with ginger to make a curry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gingivitis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gingivitis%@AE@%,%@CR:GINGIVITIS      @%%@QR:gingivitis@% inflammation of the gums, characterized by red, swollen,%@EH@%
spongy gums that bleed easily. It may be acute, chronic, or recurrent.
Chronic gingivitis usually results from bacteria, although other factors,
such as poor dentition, prolonged use of the drug phenytoin, vitamin C
deficiency, or %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%, may also contribute to it. If left untreated,
gingivitis can lead to %@AU@%PERIODONTITIS%@BO:          736b02@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ginkgo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ginkgo%@AE@%%@CR:GINKGO          @%%@QR:ginkgo@% or %@AB@%maidenhair tree,%@AE@% deciduous tree (%@AI@%Ginkgo biloba%@AE@%) with fan-shaped%@EH@%
leaves. A sacred plant in its native China and Japan, ginkgo is a "living
fossil," the only remaining species of a large order (Ginkgoales) of
%@AU@%GYMNOSPERMS%@BO:          3ec417@%%@AE@% that existed in the Triassic period. Today the ginkgo is
valued in the U.S. and Europe as an avenue tree because of its
exceptional tolerance for smoke, low temperatures, and minimal water
supply (although the female plant, with its malodorous fruit, is not as
desirable an ornamental as the male). Ginkgo seeds are esteemed as a food
in the Orient.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ginsberg, Allen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ginsberg, Allen%@AE@%,%@CR:GINSBERG        @%%@QR:Ginsberg, Allen@% 1926-, American poet of the beat generation; b.%@EH@%
Paterson, N.J. He is best known for %@AI@%Howl%@AE@% (1956), a long poem attacking
American values. Other volumes include %@AI@%Kaddish and Other Poems%@AE@% (1961),
%@AI@%Collected Poems, 1947-1980%@AE@% (1984), and %@AI@%White Shroud: Poems 1980-1985%@AE@%
(1986).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ginseng%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ginseng%@AE@%,%@CR:GINSENG         @%%@QR:ginseng@% plant (genus %@AI@%Panax%@AE@%) of the family Araliaceae. True ginseng (%@AI@%P.%@EH@%
%@AI@%schinseng%@AE@%) is prized by the Chinese for its curative properties. It and a
North American ginseng (%@AI@%P. quinquefolius%@AE@%), used as a substitute for true
ginseng, have been nearly exterminated by commercial exploitation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giono, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giono, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:GIONO           @%%@QR:Giono, Jean@%, 1895-1970, French novelist. His works-particularly the%@EH@%
pastoral trilogy %@AI@%Hill of Destiny%@AE@% (1920), %@AI@%Lovers Are Never Losers%@AE@% (1929),
and %@AI@%Harvest%@AE@% (1930)-describe Provencal life, emphasizing closeness to
nature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giordano, Luca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giordano, Luca%@AE@%%@CR:GIORDANO        @%%@QR:Giordano, Luca@%, 1632-1705, Italian decorative painter. A pupil of Pietro%@EH@%
da %@AU@%CORTONA%@BO:          23a2b0@%%@AE@%, he is known for his airy, luminous frescoes in the %@AU@%ESCORIAL%@BO:          2fefc8@%%@AE@%
(Madrid) and %@AI@%The Story of Judith%@AE@% (San Martino, Naples), also a %@AU@%FRESCO%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giorgione%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giorgione%@AE@%%@CR:GIORGIONE       @%%@QR:Giorgione@%, c.1478-1510, Venetian painter. With %@AU@%TITIAN%@BO:          9614b9@%%@AE@% he was a student of%@EH@%
Giovanni Bellini (see %@AU@%BELLINI%@BO:           e247d@%%@AE@%, family). Few details remain of his life.
He undertook important commissions in oil and %@AU@%FRESCO%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% and died of the
plague in his 30s. He was a major innovator, greatly influencing the
principal painters of his time. His frescoes are virtually destroyed, and
only a few oils are ascribed to him with certainty. Luminous colors, a
liberated, self-expressive style, and the poetic rendition of a bucolic
fantasy world are the chief hallmarks of his works, which include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Three Philosophers%@AE@% (Vienna), %@AI@%Tempesta%@AE@% (Acad., Venice), and %@AI@%Concert
%@AI@%Champetre%@AE@% (Louvre).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giotto (Giotto di Bondone)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giotto (Giotto di Bondone)%@AE@%%@CR:GIOTTO1         @%%@QR:Giotto (Giotto di Bondone)@%, c.1266-c.1337, Florentine painter and%@EH@%
architect. More than any other artist he may be said to have determined
the course of painting in Europe. Giotto turned from the formulas of
Byzantine painting to the study of nature, achieving lifelike, expressive
faces and the illusion of movement. He designed a great number of works,
many of which have disappeared. In Rome in 1300 he executed the %@AU@%MOSAIC%@BO:          641af7@%%@AE@% of
the %@AI@%Navicella%@AE@% (now in St. Peter's, Rome), and in 1304 began the 38
%@AU@%FRESCOES%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% in the Scrovegni (Arena) Chapel (Padua). Among the greatest
works in Italian art, these scenes from the %@AI@%Life of the Virgin,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Life
%@AI@%of Christ,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Last Judgment,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Virtues and Vices%@AE@% illustrate Giotto's
dramatic sense and power of narration. Returning to Florence, he did the
frescoes of %@AI@%St. John the Baptist%@AE@% and %@AI@%St. John the Evangelist%@AE@% (Peruzzi
Chapel, Church of Santa Croce) and the %@AI@%Life of St. Francis%@AE@% (Bardi
Chapel). He achieved a remarkable representation of space, allying
figures and background harmoniously, without using a system of
perspective, e.g., in %@AI@%Madonna in Glory%@AE@% (Uffizi) and %@AI@%Death of the Virgin%@AE@%
and %@AI@%Crucifixion%@AE@% (both: Berlin). Chief architect of the cathedral in
Florence, in his last years he designed the %@AU@%CAMPANILE%@BO:          17bb79@%%@AE@% called "Giotto's
Tower." His reforms in painting were carried throughout Italy by his many
pupils and followers, and his popularity is attested in literature by
%@AU@%DANTE%@BO:          265f4e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PETRARCH%@BO:          7432a8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BOCCACCIO%@BO:          114347@%%@AE@%, and others. His well-known %@AI@%Wedding of St.
%@AI@%Catherine%@AE@% (Uffizi) was badly damaged in the flood of 1966.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giotto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giotto%@AE@%,%@CR:GIOTTO2         @%%@QR:Giotto@% in space exploration: see %@AU@%SPACE PROBE%@BO:          8ca220@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giovanni Bologna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giovanni Bologna%@AE@%:%@CR:GIOVANNA        @%%@QR:Giovanni Bologna@% see %@AU@%BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI%@BO:          11aa24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giovanni da Fiesole%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giovanni da Fiesole%@AE@%:%@CR:GIOVANNSOLE     @%%@QR:Giovanni da Fiesole@% see %@AU@%ANGELICO, FRA%@BO:           56cbc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giovanni di Paolo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giovanni di Paolo%@AE@%%@CR:GIOVANNLO       @%%@QR:Giovanni di Paolo@%, c.1403-1483, major Italian painter of the Sienese%@EH@%
school. Like other Sienese painters of his era, he paid scant attention
to the artistic innovations made in Florence. He had an inclination
toward fantasy and a disregard for perspective. %@AI@%Paradise%@AE@% and %@AI@%Creation of
%@AI@%the World%@AE@% (both: Metropolitan Mus.) and six expressive scenes from the
life of St. John the Baptist (Art Inst., Chicago) are typical of his
work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giovanni Gondola%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giovanni Gondola%@AE@%:%@CR:GIOVANNA        @%%@QR:Giovanni Gondola@% see %@AU@%GUNDULIC, IVAN%@BO:          3e9769@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%giraffe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%giraffe%@AE@%,%@CR:GIRAFFE         @%%@QR:giraffe@% African ruminant %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Giraffa camelopardalis%@AE@%) living in open%@EH@%
%@AU@%SAVANNA%@BO:          84f9da@%%@AE@% S of the %@AU@%SAHARA%@BO:          82ec0a@%%@AE@%. The tallest animal (up to 18 ft/5.5 m), the
giraffe browses in the tops of %@AU@%ACACIA%@BO:            8c6f@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MIMOSA%@BO:          60f9a3@%%@AE@% trees. The legs and neck
are elongated; the skin is patterned in large, sandy-to-chestnut spots on
a lighter background. Giraffes travel in small herds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giraudoux, Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giraudoux, Jean%@AE@%%@CR:GIRAUDOUX       @%%@QR:Giraudoux, Jean@%, 1882-1944, French dramatist and novelist. Mostly%@EH@%
imaginative interpretations of Greek myths, his plays include %@AI@%Tiger at
%@AI@%the Gates%@AE@% (1935) and %@AI@%Electra%@AE@% (1937). %@AI@%The Madwoman of Chaillot%@AE@% (1945) is a
bitter satire on 20th-cent. materialism. Among his novels are %@AI@%Les
%@AI@%Provinciales%@AE@% (1909) and %@AI@%My Friend from Limousin%@AE@% (1922).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Girl Scouts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Girl Scouts%@AE@%,%@CR:GIRL.SCOUTS     @%%@QR:Girl Scouts@% recreational and service organization est. 1912 in Savannah,%@EH@%
Ga., by Juliette Gordon Low, originally modeled on the %@AU@%BOY SCOUTS%@BO:          12fbc5@%%@AE@% and
Girl Guides of Sir Robert %@AU@%BADEN-POWELL%@BO:           ae8e9@%%@AE@%. The membership is divided into
four age groups between 6 and 17. Activities stress good citizenship,
service to others, health, international friendship, and the arts. There
are nearly 3 million members in 68 countries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Girondists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Girondists%@AE@%%@CR:GIRONDISTS      @%%@QR:Girondists@% or %@AB@%Girondins%@AE@%, group of moderate republicans in the %@AU@%FRENCH%@EH@%
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%, so called because their early leaders were mostly from the
Gironde dept. Notable members were Jacques Brissot de Warville, Charles
%@AU@%DUMOURIEZ%@BO:          2b2f73@%%@AE@%, and Jean Marie Roland de la Platiere. Representing the
educated, provincial middle class, they favored a constitutional
government and a continental war, splitting with the %@AU@%JACOBINS%@BO:          4ace57@%%@AE@% on the
second issue. They were unable to prevent the execution of the king, and
their position was weakened after the treason of Dumouriez. In June 1793
many Girondists were arrested and executed; the leftist %@AU@%MOUNTAIN%@BO:          648743@%%@AE@% was thus
assured of complete control.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giscard d'Estaing, Valery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giscard d'Estaing, Valery%@AE@%%@CR:GISCARDG        @%%@QR:Giscard d'Estaing, Valery@%, 1926-, president of France (1974-81). A member%@EH@%
of the national assembly from 1955, he was finance minister (1962-66,
1969-74) under %@AU@%DE GAULLE%@BO:          2773ee@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%POMPIDOU%@BO:          780481@%%@AE@%. As president, he was unsuccessful
in dealing with inflation and rising unemployment. He lost the 1981
election to Francois %@AU@%MITTERRAND%@BO:          61d339@%%@AE@%, but was later reelected to the National
Assembly (1984).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gish, Lillian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gish, Lillian%@AE@%,%@CR:GISH            @%%@QR:Gish, Lillian@% 1896-, American actress; b. Springfield, Ohio. She is best%@EH@%
known for such silent films as %@AI@%The Birth of a Nation%@AE@% (1915), %@AI@%Broken
%@AI@%Blossoms%@AE@% (1919), and, with her sister, Dorothy Gish (1898-1968), %@AI@%Orphans
%@AI@%of the Storm%@AE@% (1921).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gissing, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gissing, George%@AE@%,%@CR:GISSING         @%%@QR:Gissing, George@% 1857-1903, English novelist. Influenced by Charles%@EH@%
%@AU@%DICKENS%@BO:          28be2c@%%@AE@%, he wrote grim treatments of social issues that reflect his own
unhappy life, as in %@AI@%The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft%@AE@% (1903). His
best-known work is %@AI@%New Grub Street%@AE@% (1891), depicting the plight of the
poor, alienated artist.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giulini, Carlo Maria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giulini, Carlo Maria%@AE@%,%@CR:GIULINI         @%%@QR:Giulini, Carlo Maria@% 1914-, Italian conductor. A disciple of %@AU@%TOSCANINI%@BO:          96d352@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
he was first known as a conductor of opera, chiefly in Milan and Rome. In
1968 he made his orchestral debut, with the New York Philharmonic. After
holding posts with the Chicago Symphony and Vienna Symphony he became
(1978) musical director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic (see %@AU@%ORCHESTRA%@BO:          6e56f7@%%@AE@%,).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giulio Romano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giulio Romano%@AE@%,%@CR:GIULIO.ROMANO   @%%@QR:Giulio Romano@% c.1492-1546, Italian painter, architect, and decorator, a%@EH@%
founder of %@AU@%MANNERISM%@BO:          5b052e@%%@AE@%; b. Giulio Pippi. A favorite pupil of %@AU@%RAPHAEL%@BO:          7cbdba@%%@AE@%,
Giulio painted many %@AU@%FRESCOES%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% from Raphael's designs. In the service of
the duke of Mantua, he designed the Church of San Benedetto and rebuilt
the Palazzo del Te, decorating it with illusionistic and somewhat
melodramatic frescoes. His well-known oils include %@AI@%The Stoning of St.
%@AI@%Stephen%@AE@% (Church of Santo Stefano, Genoa).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Givenchy, Hubert de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Givenchy, Hubert de%@AE@%:%@CR:GIVENCHY        @%%@QR:Givenchy, Hubert de@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Giza%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Giza%@AE@%%@CR:GIZA            @%%@QR:Giza@% or %@AB@%Jizah, Al%@AE@% , city (1976 pop. 1,230,446 N Egypt, a suburb of %@AU@%CAIRO%@BO:          16daab@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
It is a manufacturing and agricultural trade center, the seat of Egypt's
motion-picture industry, and a resort. Nearby are the Great %@AU@%SPHINX%@BO:          8d817c@%%@AE@% and
the %@AU@%PYRAMID%@BO:          7b502c@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%KHUFU%@BO:          4f6f87@%%@AE@% (Cheops).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glacier%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glacier%@AE@%,%@CR:GLACIER         @%%@QR:glacier@% mass of ice formed in high mountains and polar regions by the%@EH@%
compacting of snow and kept in constant movement by the pressure of the
accumulated mass. The four main types are %@AI@%valley,%@AE@% or %@AI@%mountain, glaciers,%@AE@%
tongues of ice moving from mountain snowfields into stream valleys;
%@AI@%piedmont glaciers,%@AE@% formed by the spread of one or the convergence of
several valley glaciers; %@AI@%ice caps,%@AE@% flattened, somewhat dome-shaped
glaciers covering mountains and valleys alike; and %@AI@%continental glaciers,%@AE@%
huge ice sheets that give rise to %@AU@%ICEBERGS%@BO:          465897@%%@AE@%. Glaciers alter topography
greatly by their erosive action, by their transport of various debris,
and by the various forms of %@AU@%DRIFT%@BO:          2ab119@%%@AE@% they leave behind.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glacier Bay National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glacier Bay National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:GLACIERRK       @%%@QR:Glacier Bay National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glacier National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glacier National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:GLACIERL.PARK   @%%@QR:Glacier National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glackens, William James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glackens, William James%@AE@%,%@CR:GLACKENS        @%%@QR:Glackens, William James@% 1870-1938, American painter; b. Philadelphia. An%@EH@%
illustrator for various periodicals, Glackens first showed his paintings
with the %@AU@%EIGHT%@BO:          2d0fec@%%@AE@% and is known for his portrayals of the contemporary scene.
His dark early style yielded to a brighter palette influenced by French
%@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%Parade, Washington Square%@AE@% (Whitney Mus., N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gladden, Washington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gladden, Washington%@AE@%,%@CR:GLADDEN         @%%@QR:Gladden, Washington@% 1836-1918, American clergyman, writer, and lecturer;%@EH@%
b. Pottsgrove, Pa. Pastor (1882-1918) of the First Congregational Church,
in Columbus, Ohio, he helped to popularize modernist views through his
writings. He was an early proponent of the %@AU@%SOCIAL GOSPEL%@BO:          8ac22b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gladiators%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gladiators%@AE@%%@CR:GLADIATORS      @%%@QR:gladiators@% [Lat.,=swordsmen], in ancient Rome, class of professional%@EH@%
fighters, who performed for exhibition. There were various types of
gladiators, armed and armored differently. Gladiators fought each other
and also wild beasts. They were slaves or prisoners, including
Christians, or impoverished freedmen. Forbidden by %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@%,
gladiatorial games continued nonetheless until AD 405.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gladiolus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gladiolus%@AE@%:%@CR:GLADIOLUS       @%%@QR:gladiolus@% see %@AU@%IRIS%@BO:          499e03@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gladstone, William Ewart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gladstone, William Ewart%@AE@%,%@CR:GLADSTONE       @%%@QR:Gladstone, William Ewart@% 1809-98, British statesman, the dominant%@EH@%
personality of the %@AU@%LIBERAL PARTY%@BO:          549497@%%@AE@% from 1868 to 1894. As chancellor of the
exchequer (1852-55, 1859-66), he secured measures for economic
retrenchment and free trade. He was prime minister four times (1868-74,
1880-85, 1886, 1892-94) and achieved notable reforms: passage of the
Irish land act; establishment of competitive examinations for the civil
service, and of vote by secret ballot; abolition of the sale of army
commissions; parliamentary reform; and educational expansion. His
advocacy of %@AU@%HOME RULE%@BO:          43ee9a@%%@AE@% for Ireland wrecked his third ministry. A great
orator and master of finance, he was deeply religious and brought a high
moral tone to politics; nonetheless, he was passionately disliked by
Queen %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gland%@AE@%,%@CR:GLAND           @%%@QR:gland@% organ that manufactures chemical substances. A gland may vary from%@EH@%
a single cell to a complex system. The glands of the %@AU@%ENDOCRINE SYSTEM%@BO:          2ebe7a@%%@AE@%,
e.g., the thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary, secrete hormones directly
into the bloodstream. Sweat, salivary, and other so-called exocrine
glands secrete substances onto external or internal body surfaces,
usually through ducts. Mixed glands such as the %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PANCREAS%@BO:          708218@%%@AE@% have
both endocrine and exocrine functions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glanders%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glanders%@AE@%,%@CR:GLANDERS        @%%@QR:glanders@% highly contagious, fatal bacterial disease of horses, mules,%@EH@%
and donkeys that can be transmitted to humans. The bacterium,
%@AI@%Actinobacillus mallei,%@AE@% primarily infects the skin, lungs, and nasal
membranes, causing lumps, or nodules, to form in the infected area. These
nodules enlarge, form ulcers, and release bacteria-laden pus to other
parts of the body. Infected animals must be destroyed to prevent the
spread of the disease.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glaser, Milton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glaser, Milton%@AE@%,%@CR:GLASER          @%%@QR:Glaser, Milton@% 1929-, American graphic designer; b. N.Y.C. His%@EH@%
constantly changing style, which draws widely on art history, has had
enormous international influence. Glaser's work includes the design of
posters, e.g., Bob Dylan (1966); book and record covers; periodicals;
type; and interiors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glasgow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glasgow%@AE@%,%@CR:GLASGOW         @%%@QR:Glasgow@% city (1985 est. pop. 733,794), Strathclyde, S central Scotland,%@EH@%
on the River Clyde. It is Scotland's leading seaport and largest city,
and the center of the Clydeside industrial belt. Manufactures include
ships, metals, machinery, and textiles. Economically depressed in the
early 1980s, by the late 1980s it had become a lively cultural center.
Founded in the late 6th cent. by St. Mungo (St. Kentigern), Glasgow began
its modern commercial growth with the tobacco trade in the 18th cent.
Nearby coal fields and its location on the Clyde contributed to its
industrial growth in the early 19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glaspell, Susan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glaspell, Susan%@AE@%,%@CR:GLASPELL        @%%@QR:Glaspell, Susan@% 1882-1948, American author; b. Davenport, Iowa. She and%@EH@%
her husband, George Cram Cook, organized (1915) the Provincetown Players.
Glaspell wrote novels, short stories, and plays, e.g., %@AI@%Alison's House%@AE@%
(1930; Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glass, Carter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glass, Carter%@AE@%,%@CR:GLASS1          @%%@QR:Glass, Carter@% 1858-1946, U.S. secretary of the treasury (1918-20), U.S.%@EH@%
senator (1920-46); b. Lynchburg, Va. He was active in framing the %@AU@%FEDERAL
%@AU@%RESERVE SYSTEM%@BO:          32461d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glass, Philip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glass, Philip%@AE@%,%@CR:GLASS2          @%%@QR:Glass, Philip@% 1937-, American composer; b. Baltimore. He was influenced%@EH@%
by Eastern music, and in 1968 he formed the Philip Glass Ensemble. His
music, blending standard notation and tonality with electronics, is
repetitive and of great duration. His best-known works are the operas
%@AI@%Einstein on the Beach%@AE@% (1976; with Robert Wilson) and %@AI@%Satyagraha%@AE@% (1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glass%@AE@%,%@CR:GLASS3          @%%@QR:glass@% hard substance, usually brittle and transparent, composed chiefly%@EH@%
of silicates and an alkali fused at high temperatures. Metallic oxides
impart color. In prehistoric times objects were fashioned from natural
glass such as obsidian (a volcanic substance) and rock crystal (a
transparent quartz). The oldest extant manufactured glass is from Egypt,
c.2000 BC Many types were made in Roman times, but little is known of
European glassmaking from the fall of Rome until the 10th cent., when
%@AU@%STAINED GLASS%@BO:          8e03fd@%%@AE@% appeared. Methods have changed little since ancient times.
The materials are fused at high temperatures in seasoned fireclay
containers, boiled down, skimmed, and cooled several degrees; then the
molten glass is ladled or poured into molds and pressed, or it is blown
or drawn. The shaped glass is annealed to relieve stresses caused by
manipulation, then slowly cooled. Until the 17th cent. the finest glass
was made in Venice; later France and England became centers of
glassmaking. In the 20th cent. many new types have been developed,
including fiberglass and safety glass, but in some uses glass has been
superseded by %@AU@%PLASTIC%@BO:          769462@%%@AE@%. Despite mass production, glassmaking by hand
remains a valued art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glaucoma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glaucoma%@AE@%,%@CR:GLAUCOMA        @%%@QR:glaucoma@% disease of the %@AU@%EYE%@BO:          315c49@%%@AE@% characterized by an excess of fluid within%@EH@%
the eyeball, causing increased pressure on the retina and impairment of
vision ranging from slight abnormalities to %@AU@%BLINDNESS%@BO:          10e446@%%@AE@%. It most commonly
develops gradually after the age of 40 but can sometimes occur abruptly.
It is treated with drugs (such as pilocarpine) that decrease intraocular
pressure.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich%@AE@%,%@CR:GLAZUNOV        @%%@QR:Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich@% 1865-1936, Russian composer. With%@EH@%
%@AU@%RIMSKY-KORSAKOV%@BO:          7f5af7@%%@AE@% he completed %@AU@%BORODIN'S%@BO:          12512e@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Prince Igor.%@AE@% His own early works
reflected nationalism, but Western influences became more prominent
later.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gleizes, Albert Leon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gleizes, Albert Leon%@AE@%%@CR:GLEIZES         @%%@QR:Gleizes, Albert Leon@%, 1881-1953, French cubist painter, illustrator, and%@EH@%
writer. A leading cubist, he used a rich palette and wrote the first
tract on the principles of %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%Du Cubisme%@AE@% (1912), with Jean
%@AU@%METZINGER%@BO:          5f99bd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glen Canyon Dam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glen Canyon Dam%@AE@%,%@CR:GLEN.CANYON.DAM @%%@QR:Glen Canyon Dam@% 710 ft (216 m) high, 1,560 ft (475 m) long, N Arizona,%@EH@%
on the %@AU@%COLORADO%@BO:          2096c3@%%@AE@% R. Completed in 1964, it is one of the world's largest
concrete dams and impounds Lake Powell.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glendale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glendale%@AE@%,%@CR:GLENDALE        @%%@QR:Glendale@% city (1986 est. pop. 153,660), Los Angeles co., S Calif., a%@EH@%
suburb of Los Angeles; inc. 1906. It has an aerospace industry and other
defense-oriented manufactures, as well as a film industry. Forest Lawn
Memorial Park, a large cemetery containing numerous art reproductions, is
located in Glendale.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glendower%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glendower%@AE@%:%@CR:GLENDOWER       @%%@QR:Glendower@% see %@AU@%OWEN GLENDOWER%@BO:          6fa359@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glenn, John Herschel, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glenn, John Herschel, Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:GLENN           @%%@QR:Glenn, John Herschel, Jr.@% 1921-, American astronaut; b. Cambridge, Ohio.%@EH@%
He was the first American and the third person to be put into orbital
spaceflight when, on Feb. 20, 1962, he circled the earth three times in
%@AI@%Friendship 7%@AE@% (%@AI@%Mercury-Atlas 6%@AE@%). After retiring (1964) from NASA and the
U.S. marine corps, he was elected (1974, 1980, 1986) to the U.S. Senate
as a Democrat from Ohio. He made unsuccessful bids to be the Democratic
presidential candidate in 1984 and 1988.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glider%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glider%@AE@%,%@CR:GLIDER          @%%@QR:glider@% type of aircraft resembling an airplane but having at most a%@EH@%
small auxiliary propulsion plant and often no means of propulsion at all.
Modern gliders have very slender wings and streamlined bodies. The
unpowered glider is usually launched by an elastic shock cord, a rope, or
a cable attached to its front and pulled by a launching crew, a tow car,
or a tow plane; its relative low weight and large wing area permit it to
keep flying for long periods and updrafts of air are used to gain
altitude. The type of craft built especially for soaring and sustained
flight is called a sailplane. See %@AU@%HANG GLIDING%@BO:          3fb57c@%%@AE@%; Lilienthal, Otto.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich%@AE@%%@CR:GLINKA          @%%@QR:Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich@%, 1804-57, first of the nationalistic school of%@EH@%
Russian composers. His operas %@AI@%A Life for the Czar%@AE@% (1836) and %@AI@%Russlan and
%@AI@%Ludmilla%@AE@% (1842) introduced a characteristically Russian style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Globe Theatre%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Globe Theatre%@AE@%,%@CR:GLOBE.THEATRE   @%%@QR:Globe Theatre@% London playhouse, built 1598, where most of %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE'S%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
plays were presented. It burned down in 1613, was rebuilt, and was
destroyed by the Puritans in 1644.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%globular cluster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%globular cluster%@AE@%:%@CR:GLOBULAR        @%%@QR:globular cluster@% see %@AU@%CLUSTER, STAR%@BO:          1fa5fa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%globulin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%globulin%@AE@%,%@CR:GLOBULIN        @%%@QR:globulin@% any of a very large family of %@AU@%PROTEINS%@BO:          7a2e5b@%%@AE@% widely distributed in%@EH@%
animals and plants. The gamma globulins, isolated from mammalian blood
serum, are the antibodies of the immune system (see %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%). Gamma
globulin injections are given to people exposed to a disease (e.g.,
infectious hepatitis) to create a temporary immunity to the disease or
reduce its severity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glockenspiel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glockenspiel%@AE@%:%@CR:GLOCKENSPIEL    @%%@QR:glockenspiel@% see %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glorious Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glorious Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:GLORIOUTION     @%%@QR:Glorious Revolution@% in English history, the events of 1688-89 leading to%@EH@%
the deposition of %@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% and the accession of %@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARY II%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%.
James's overt Catholicism and the birth of a Catholic heir united Whigs
and Tories against him. Seven Whig and Tory leaders sent an invitation to
the Dutch prince, William of Orange, and his consort, Mary, the
Protestant daughter of James, to come to England. When William and Mary
landed, James's army deserted him and he fled to France (Dec. 1688).
William and Mary accepted the %@AU@%BILL OF RIGHTS%@BO:           fbc47@%%@AE@% (1689), which assured the
ascendancy of Parliamentary power over royal power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gloucester%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gloucester%@AE@%,%@CR:GLOUCESTER      @%%@QR:Gloucester@% city (1986 est. pop. 28,230), NE Mass., on Cape Ann; settled%@EH@%
1623, inc. as a city 1873. Its fine harbor has been used by fishing ships
for over three centuries, and it is still a great fishing port with many
related industries. The picturesque city is a resort center and artists'
colony. Points of interest include the bronze %@AI@%Fisherman,%@AE@% a memorial to
Gloucester men lost at sea, and Hammond Castle Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gloxinia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gloxinia%@AE@%:%@CR:GLOXINIA        @%%@QR:gloxinia@% see %@AU@%GESNERIA%@BO:          39bcf5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glucagon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glucagon%@AE@%,%@CR:GLUCAGON        @%%@QR:glucagon@% polypeptide %@AU@%HORMONE%@BO:          446acb@%%@AE@% secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the%@EH@%
%@AU@%PANCREAS%@BO:          708218@%%@AE@%. It tends to counteract the action of %@AU@%INSULIN%@BO:          48925b@%%@AE@%, i.e., it raises
the concentration of glucose in the blood, essentially by promoting
%@AU@%GLYCOLYSIS%@BO:          3ac4b3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gluck, Christoph Willibald von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gluck, Christoph Willibald von%@AE@%%@CR:GLUCK           @%%@QR:Gluck, Christoph Willibald von@%, 1714-87, German-born operatic composer.%@EH@%
With %@AI@%Orfeo ed Euridice%@AE@% (1762) he revolutionized %@AU@%OPERA%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@%, establishing
lyrical tragedy as a vital form that unified dramatic, emotional, and
musical elements. %@AI@%Alceste%@AE@% (1767) followed. In Paris he produced (1774)
%@AI@%Iphigenie en Aulide,%@AE@% his first serious opera with a French %@AU@%LIBRETTO%@BO:          54c160@%%@AE@%. His
last important work, %@AI@%Iphigenie en Tauride%@AE@% (1779), is often considered his
masterpiece. Gluck's emphasis on dramatic impact and musical simplicity
became incorporated into French operatic tradition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glucose, dextrose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glucose, dextrose%@AE@%,%@CR:GLUCOSE         @%%@QR:glucose, dextrose@% or %@AB@%grape sugar%@AE@% (empirical formula: C%@AH@%6%@AE@%H%@AH@%12%@AE@%O%@AH@%6%@AE@%), white%@EH@%
crystalline %@AU@%SUGAR%@BO:          904d5f@%%@AE@%; somewhat less sweet-tasting than %@AU@%SUCROSE%@BO:          902b6d@%%@AE@% (table
sugar), it is found in fruits and honey. Glucose is the major source of
energy in animal metabolism. It requires no digestion prior to absorption
into the bloodstream. A monosaccharide (see %@AU@%CARBOHYDRATE%@BO:          18b1c3@%%@AE@%), glucose can be
obtained by %@AU@%HYDROLYSIS%@BO:          4600f5@%%@AE@% of a variety of more complex carbohydrates, e.g.,
%@AU@%MALTOSE%@BO:          5a763a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@%, or %@AU@%GLYCOGEN%@BO:          3ac24c@%%@AE@%. It is commercially made from cornstarch
(see %@AU@%STARCH%@BO:          8e4143@%%@AE@%) and is used in sweetening candy, chewing gum, jellies, and
various foods. Glucose present in urine may be a symptom of %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glutton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glutton%@AE@%:%@CR:GLUTTON         @%%@QR:glutton@% see %@AU@%WOLVERINE%@BO:          a2d374@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glycogen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glycogen%@AE@%,%@CR:GLYCOGEN        @%%@QR:glycogen@% highly branched %@AU@%POLYMER%@BO:          77c908@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%GLUCOSE%@BO:          3abd28@%%@AE@% that is made and stored in%@EH@%
the %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MUSCLE%@BO:          65562c@%%@AE@% cells of humans and the higher animals and in the
cells of lower animals. During short periods of strenuous activity,
energy is released in the muscles by direct conversion of glycogen to
lactic acid. See also %@AU@%CARBOHYDRATE%@BO:          18b1c3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%glycolysis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%glycolysis%@AE@%,%@CR:GLYCOLYSIS      @%%@QR:glycolysis@% process in all higher animals and most microorganisms for the%@EH@%
degradation of glucose. Beginning with a single molecule of glucose,
glycolysis is a series of chemical reactions requiring eleven different
%@AU@%ENZYMES%@BO:          2f4a84@%%@AE@% and eventually yielding two molecules of lactic acid, which then
enter the %@AU@%CITRIC ACID CYCLE%@BO:          1ea319@%%@AE@%. The reactions of glycolysis also generate
the high-energy substance %@AU@%ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE%@BO:           13245@%%@AE@% (ATP).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Glyndebourne Festivals%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Glyndebourne Festivals%@AE@%:%@CR:GLYNDEBSTIVALS  @%%@QR:Glyndebourne Festivals@% see %@AU@%MUSIC FESTIVAL%@BO:          657e38@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gnat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gnat%@AE@%,%@CR:GNAT            @%%@QR:gnat@% small, two-winged %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% (suborder Nematocera) of the order Diptera%@EH@%
(see %@AU@%FLY%@BO:          33fd7a@%%@AE@%). Gnats include crane flies, midges, black flies, %@AU@%MOSQUITOES%@BO:          6439d4@%%@AE@%,
and others. Gnats often assemble in large mating swarms. Some gnats are
suspected carriers of pinkeye and yaws.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gneiss%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gneiss%@AE@%,%@CR:GNEISS          @%%@QR:gneiss@% coarse-grained, imperfectly layered metamorphic %@AU@%ROCK%@BO:          7fd8d8@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
characterized by alternating dark and light bands that differ in mineral
content. Gneisses result from the metamorphism of many igneous or
sedimentary rocks and are the most common types of rocks found in
Precambrian regions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gnosticism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gnosticism%@AE@%,%@CR:GNOSTICISM      @%%@QR:Gnosticism@% dualistic religious and philosophical movement of the late%@EH@%
Hellenistic and early Christian eras. The term designates a variety of
sects, all promising salvation through an occult knowledge Gr. %@AI@%gnosis%@AE@%
that they claimed was revealed to them alone. Christian ideas were
quickly incorporated into these syncretistic systems, and by the 2d cent.
AD several posed a serious threat to Christianity; much of early
Christian doctrine was formulated in reaction to this danger. Gnosticism
taught that the spirit was held captive by evil archons, but that through
the use of secret formulas it could be freed at death and restored to the
heavenly abode. Gnosticism eventually merged with %@AU@%MANICHAEISM%@BO:          5ae0b2@%%@AE@%, which
adopted many of its ideas. The Mandaeans, in modern Iran and Iraq, are
the only Gnostic sect extant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%GNP%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%GNP%@AE@%:%@CR:GNP             @%%@QR:GNP@% see %@AU@%GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT%@BO:          3de3d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gnu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gnu%@AE@%%@CR:GNU             @%%@QR:gnu@% or %@AB@%wildebeest,%@AE@% large %@AU@%ANTELOPE%@BO:           604e5@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Connochaetes%@AE@%) living in herds on%@EH@%
African grasslands. A swift runner, it has hindquarters like those of a
horse and a head and humped shoulders like those of a buffalo. A beard,
mane, long tail, and large curving horns are characteristic of both
sexes. The brindled gnu, or blue wildebeest (%@AI@%C. taurinus%@AE@%), weighs c.500
lb (225 kg) and stands 41/2 ft (135 cm) at the shoulder.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%goat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%goat%@AE@%,%@CR:GOAT            @%%@QR:goat@% ruminant %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Capra%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%CATTLE%@BO:          1a63a4@%%@AE@% family, with hollow%@EH@%
horns, coarse hair, and a characteristic "beard," closely related to the
%@AU@%SHEEP%@BO:          881850@%%@AE@%. Found in mountainous terrain and arid climates worldwide, goats
live in herds and feed on grass and shrubs. They have been bred for
centuries for their highly nutritious milk and valuable hair and wool,
the source of mohair and cashmere. Wild goats include the %@AU@%IBEX%@BO:          463e4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%goatsucker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%goatsucker%@AE@%,%@CR:GOATSUCKER      @%%@QR:goatsucker@% medium-sized primarily nocturnal %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (order%@EH@%
Caprimulgiformes) found in temperate and tropical regions, including the
whippoorwill. Goatsuckers have long, pointed wings, weak feet, and small,
gaping bills fringed with bristles. Most are brown, gray, or black and
have monotonous songs. They feed mainly on insects. All fly at night
except the nighthawk, which is active at dawn and dusk. The whippoorwill,
common in the E U.S., hibernates during the winter instead of migrating.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gobelins, Manufacture nationale des%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gobelins, Manufacture nationale des%@AE@%%@CR:GOBELINS        @%%@QR:Gobelins, Manufacture nationale des@%, state-con trolled %@AU@%TAPESTRY%@BO:          92ccd6@%%@AE@% workshop%@EH@%
in Paris. Begun as a dye works in the 15th. cent., then merged with a
tapestry works, it was bought in 1662 by Louis XIV. The firm is still in
operation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gobi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gobi%@AE@%,%@CR:GOBI            @%%@QR:Gobi@% one of the world's great deserts, c.500,000 sq mi (1,295,000 sq%@EH@%
km), extending c.1,000 mi (1,610 km) east to west across Central Asia, in
SE Mongolia and N China. It is from 3,000 to 5,000 ft (910 to 1,520 m)
high, with cold winters, short hot summers, and fierce sand and wind
storms. Grassy fringe areas support a small population of nomadic Mongol
herders, and there are important deposits of oil at Yumen (China) and
Saynshand (Mongolia) and coal at Tawan-Tolgoi (Mongolia). The Kerulen R.
is the largest permanent stream.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%God%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%God%@AE@%,%@CR:GOD             @%%@QR:God@% divinity of the three great monotheistic religions, %@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHRISTIANITY%@BO:          1df35f@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%. In the Old Testament various names for God are
used, %@AI@%Elohim%@AE@% most commonly. The four-letter form Yhwh is the most
celebrated; the Hebrews considered it ineffable and in reading
substituted the name %@AI@%Adonai%@AE@% [my Lord]. The reconstruction %@AI@%Jehovah%@AE@% was
based on a mistake, and the form %@AI@%Yahweh%@AE@% is not now regarded as reliable.
The general conception of God is that of an infinite being (often a
personality but not necessarily anthropomorphic) who is supremely good,
who created the world, who knows all and can do all, who is transcendent
over and immanent in the world, and who loves all human beings. (The Old
Testament concept of God is less unified and consistent.) The majority of
Christians believe God lived on earth in the flesh as Jesus Christ (see
%@AU@%TRINITY%@BO:          97db50@%%@AE@%). The several famous arguments for the existence of God are based
on causality, design and purpose in the universe, and the nature of
divine being; many have held, however, that God's existence must be
accepted on faith. Some philosophers have extended the name God to such
concepts as world soul, cosmic energy, and mind.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godard, Jean-Luc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godard, Jean-Luc%@AE@%%@CR:GODARD          @%%@QR:Godard, Jean-Luc@%, 1930-, French film director. His highly personal films%@EH@%
are marked by a free-wheeling approach to content and style. %@AI@%Breathless%@AE@%
(1959), noted for its elliptical editing, was followed by films like %@AI@%My
%@AI@%Life to Live%@AE@% (1962), %@AI@%Weekend%@AE@% (1967), and %@AI@%Every Man for Himself%@AE@% (1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goddard, Robert Hutchings%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goddard, Robert Hutchings%@AE@%,%@CR:GODDARD         @%%@QR:Goddard, Robert Hutchings@% 1882-1945, American physicist and rocket%@EH@%
expert; b. Worcester, Mass. In 1926 he completed and successfully fired
the world's first liquid-fuel rocket. Goddard designed and built early
high-altitude rockets, the first practical automatic steering device for
rockets, and many other rocket devices. He was one of the first persons
to develop a general theory of rocket action and to prove experimentally
the efficiency of rocket propulsion in a vacuum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godden, Rumer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godden, Rumer%@AE@%,%@CR:GODDEN          @%%@QR:Godden, Rumer@% 1907-, English novelist. Subtle characterization marks her%@EH@%
novels, which include %@AI@%Black Narcissus%@AE@% (1939), %@AI@%The River%@AE@% (1946), %@AI@%In This
%@AI@%House of Brede%@AE@% (1969), and %@AI@%The Dark Horse%@AE@% (1982). Her sister %@AB@%Jon Godden,%@AE@%
1908-, is a novelist whose works include %@AI@%In the Sun%@AE@% (1965).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godel, Kurt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godel, Kurt%@AE@%%@CR:GODEL           @%%@QR:Godel, Kurt@%, 1906-78, Czech-American mathematician and logician. He came%@EH@%
to the U.S. in 1940. Godel is best known for his work in mathematical
logic, particularly his proof (1931) of a theorem stating that the
various branches of mathematics are based in part on propositions that
are not provable within mathematics itself, although they maybe proved by
means of logical systems external to mathematics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godfrey of Bouillon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godfrey of Bouillon%@AE@%%@CR:GODFREYLLON     @%%@QR:Godfrey of Bouillon@%, c.1058-1100, crusader, duke of Lower Lorraine. He%@EH@%
was prominent in the First %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@% at the siege of Jerusalem (1099) and
was elected ruler of the city after its capture. Known for piety and
simplicity, he was the subject of many legends and %@AU@%CHANSONS DE GESTE%@BO:          1b8d0d@%%@AE@%. He
was succeeded by his brother %@AU@%BALDWIN I%@BO:           b51ac@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godfrey of Strasbourg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godfrey of Strasbourg%@AE@%:%@CR:GODFREYSBOURG   @%%@QR:Godfrey of Strasbourg@% see %@AU@%GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG%@BO:          3bcc78@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godiva, Lady%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godiva, Lady%@AE@%%@CR:GODIVA          @%%@QR:Godiva, Lady@%, fl. c.1040-c.1080, wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia.%@EH@%
According to legend, she rode naked through the town of Coventry to
persuade her husband to lower the heavy taxes. The only person who looked
at her as she rode became known as Peeping Tom.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godolphin, Sidney Godolphin, 1st earl of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godolphin, Sidney Godolphin, 1st earl of%@AE@%,%@CR:GODOLPHIN       @%%@QR:Godolphin, Sidney Godolphin, 1st earl of@% 1645-1712, English statesman.%@EH@%
Possessed of considerable financial knowledge, he early established a
friendship with the duke of %@AU@%MARLBOROUGH%@BO:          5be6d7@%%@AE@%, and their political fortunes
were closely linked. He was first lord of the treasury under %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% (1689-96, 1700-1701), and Queen %@AU@%ANNE%@BO:           5c5d9@%%@AE@% (1702-10).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godoy, Manuel de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godoy, Manuel de%@AE@%%@CR:GODOY           @%%@QR:Godoy, Manuel de@%, 1767-1851, Spanish statesman. As chief minister%@EH@%
(1792-97, 1801-8) of %@AU@%CHARLES IV%@BO:          1bfc56@%%@AE@%, he made peace with France (1795) and led
the Spanish army to victory over Portugal (1801). His alliance with
%@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% against England resulted in the Franco-Spanish naval defeat at
%@AU@%TRAFALGAR%@BO:          972441@%%@AE@% (1805). An unscrupulous, corrupt politician, he was overthrown
(1808) when France invaded Spain in the %@AU@%PENINSULAR WAR%@BO:          72d325@%%@AE@% and went into
exile in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godunov, Boris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godunov, Boris%@AE@%%@CR:GODUNOV         @%%@QR:Godunov, Boris@%, c.1551-1605, czar of Russia (1598-1605). A favorite of%@EH@%
%@AU@%IVAN IV%@BO:          4a7fe6@%%@AE@%, Boris was regent for Feodor I, Ivan's son, and probably had
Ivan's younger son, %@AU@%DMITRI%@BO:          29a354@%%@AE@%, murdered. On Feodor's death an assembly of
the ruling class made Boris czar. He ruled capably, but popular distrust
and famine (1602-4) undermined his reign. In 1604 a pretender claiming to
be Dmitri invaded Russia; Boris died, and his son, Feodor II, could not
defend the throne.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godwin, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godwin, William%@AE@%,%@CR:GODWIN          @%%@QR:Godwin, William@% 1756-1836, English author and political philosopher.%@EH@%
Rationalism, materialism, and anarchism mark his %@AI@%Enquiry Concerning
%@AI@%Political Justice%@AE@% (1793) and his novels, including %@AI@%The Adventures of
%@AI@%Caleb Williams%@AE@% (1794) and %@AI@%Fleetwood%@AE@% (1805). In 1797 he married the
feminist Mary %@AU@%WOLLSTONECRAFT%@BO:          a2ccea@%%@AE@%. Their daughter, Mary %@AU@%SHELLEY%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@%, married the
poet P.B. %@AU@%SHELLEY%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@%, who was influenced by Godwin's works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Godwin-Austen, Mount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Godwin-Austen, Mount%@AE@%,%@CR:GODWINAUSTEN    @%%@QR:Godwin-Austen, Mount@% or %@AB@%K%@AE@%-%@AB@%2,%@AE@% one of the world's highest peaks, 29,064 ft%@EH@%
(8,859 m) high, in the Karakorum range, N Kashmir, at the China-India
border. It was discovered in 1856 and first climbed in 1954 by an Italian
team led by Ardito Desio. A 1983 measurement, using signals from a
navigation satellite, suggest that K-2 may be taller than Everest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goebbels, Paul Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goebbels, Paul Joseph%@AE@%%@CR:GOEBBELS        @%%@QR:Goebbels, Paul Joseph@%, 1897-1945, German %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% propagandist. One of%@EH@%
%@AU@%HITLER'S%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% original followers, he became propaganda minister in 1933, which
gave him complete control over the German radio, press, cinema, and
theater; later he also regimented all German culture. A master of the
"big lie," he directed his most virulent propaganda against the %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%. He
killed himself and his family after Germany's defeat in World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goering%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goering%@AE@%%@CR:GOERING         @%%@QR:Goering@%or %@AB@%Goring, Hermann Wilhelm%@AE@%, 1893-1946, German %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% leader. One of%@EH@%
%@AU@%HITLER'S%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% earliest followers, Goering founded and headed (1933-36) the
Gestapo (secret police) after Hitler came to power. He was air minister
after 1937, and he directed the German economy as a virtual dictator.
Hitler designated him as his successor in 1939. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% he was
responsible for the total air war. He was severely criticized for not
being able to counter the Allies' bombing raids, and in 1943 Hitler
relieved him of all duties and offices. He was sentenced to death for his
%@AU@%WAR CRIMES%@BO:          9f0651@%%@AE@% at the Nuremberg trials, but he killed himself two hours
before he was to be hanged.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goes, Hugo van der%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goes, Hugo van der%@AE@%%@CR:GOES            @%%@QR:Goes, Hugo van der@%, d.1482, Flemish painter. His %@AI@%Monforte Altarpiece%@AE@%%@EH@%
(c.1472; Berlin) reveals a classic sonority in color and serenity. Later
works, e.g., the great %@AI@%Portinari Altarpiece%@AE@% (c.1476; Uffizi), show
tension and dissonance in color and spatial arrangement. His %@AI@%Death of the
%@AI@%Virgin%@AE@% (c.1480; Bruges) is remarkable for its staring, melancholy
apostles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goethals, George Washington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goethals, George Washington%@AE@%%@CR:GOETHALS        @%%@QR:Goethals, George Washington@%, 1858-1928, American army engineer; b.%@EH@%
Brooklyn, N.Y. After serving on inland water projects, he became (1907)
chief engineer of the %@AU@%PANAMA CANAL%@BO:          707a5d@%%@AE@%. After overcoming geological,
climatic, and labor problems, he completed (1919) the canal ahead of
schedule. For the next two years he was governor of the Canal Zone.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von%@AE@%%@CR:GOETHE          @%%@QR:Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von@%, 1749-1832, German poet, dramatist, novelist,%@EH@%
and scientist whose genius embraced most fields of human endeavor. His
autobiography, %@AI@%Poetry and Truth%@AE@% (1811-13), describes his happy childhood.
He studied law at Leipzig (1765) and at Strasbourg (1770-71), where he
met %@AU@%HERDER%@BO:          423964@%%@AE@% and began his lifelong study of plants and animals. Lasting
influences from this period were J.J. %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SPINOZA%@BO:          8d99f9@%%@AE@%, who appealed
to his mystic feeling for nature. Goethe first won attention with the
drama %@AI@%Gotz von Berlichingen,%@AE@% a product of %@AU@%STURM UND DRANG%@BO:          900686@%%@AE@%, and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Sorrows of Young Werther%@AE@% (1774), an epistolary novel of morbid
sensibility written after his unrequited love for Charlotte Buff. In
1775, Goethe was invited to visit Charles Augustus, duke of Saxe-Weimar,
at whose court he was to spend the rest of his life. For 10 years Goethe
was chief minister of state at Weimar. A trip to Italy (1786-88) fired
his enthusiasm for the classical ideal. Written under this impact were
%@AI@%Egmont%@AE@% (1788), %@AI@%Roman Elegies%@AE@% (1788), %@AI@%Torquato Tasso%@AE@% (1789), %@AI@%Hermann and
%@AI@%Dorothea%@AE@% (1797), and the final version of the drama %@AI@%Iphigenia in Tauris%@AE@%
(1787). A major work, %@AI@%The Apprenticeship of Wilhelm Meister%@AE@% (1796),
became the prototype of the German novel of character development; also
acclaimed is Goethe's psychological novel %@AI@%Elective Affinities%@AE@% (1809). The
first part of his dramatic poem %@AI@%Faust,%@AE@% one of the great works of world
literature, was published in 1808; the second, after his death. The
friendship of %@AU@%SCHILLER%@BO:          855cf2@%%@AE@% made a deep impression on Goethe. His many
relationships with women inspired some of his finest lyrics. The
collection %@AI@%West-Eastern Divan%@AE@% (1819) also reflects his readings of the
Persian poet %@AU@%HAFIZ%@BO:          3ef3d0@%%@AE@%. Increasingly aloof in his later years from national
or literary partisanship, Goethe became more and more the Olympian
divinity to whose shrine at Weimar all Europe flocked. His approach to
science combined sensuous experience with poetic intuition; well known is
his stubborn attack on Newton's theory of light (1810). Most of his works
have been translated into English, notably by Thomas %@AU@%CARLYLE%@BO:          18fb53@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goffman, Erving%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goffman, Erving%@AE@%,%@CR:GOFFMAN         @%%@QR:Goffman, Erving@% 1922-88, American sociologist; b. Manville, Alba. He%@EH@%
developed a performance-oriented theory of behavior in %@AI@%The Presentation
%@AI@%of Self in Everyday Life%@AE@% (1959). %@AI@%Asylums%@AE@% (1961), which dealt with
personality changes among inmates of a mental asylum, led to his study of
other institutions. He taught at the universities of California and
Pennsylvania.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gogh, Vincent Van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gogh, Vincent Van%@AE@%:%@CR:GOGH            @%%@QR:Gogh, Vincent Van@% see %@AU@%VAN GOGH, VINCENT%@BO:          9bd194@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gogol, Nikolai Vasilyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gogol, Nikolai Vasilyevich%@AE@%%@CR:GOGOL           @%%@QR:Gogol, Nikolai Vasilyevich@%, 1809-52, Russian writer. His first success%@EH@%
was %@AI@%Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka%@AE@% (1831-32), a collection of fanciful
tales set in his native Ukraine. %@AI@%Mirgorod%@AE@% (1835) included "Taras Bulba,"
a novella of 17th cent. %@AU@%COSSACK%@BO:          23c00b@%%@AE@% life. He next wrote several tales of St.
Petersburg; the most famous is "The Overcoat." His fame as a dramatist
rests on %@AI@%The Inspector-General%@AE@% (1836), a satire on provincial folly. The
culmination of his inventive gift was %@AI@%Dead Souls%@AE@% (1842), a picaresque
novel about a rogue who buys the names of dead serfs in order to mortgage
them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goidelic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goidelic%@AE@%:%@CR:GOIDELIC        @%%@QR:Goidelic@% see %@AU@%GAELIC%@BO:          373989@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golan Heights%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golan Heights%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLAN.HEIGHTS   @%%@QR:Golan Heights@% strategic upland region, c.500 sq mi (1,250 sq km),%@EH@%
between S Lebanon and S Syria, formally annexed by Israel in 1981.
Elevations range from c.6,500 ft (2,000 m) in the north to below sea
level along the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias) and the Yarmuk R. in the
south. Formerly part of Syria, the Golan Heights were fortified and used
for artillery attacks on Israeli settlements after the creation of Israel
(1948) and were captured and placed under military rule by Israel during
the 1967 %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WAR%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gold%@AE@%%@CR:GOLD            @%%@QR:gold@% (Au), metallic element, known since prehistoric times. Chemically%@EH@%
inactive, this very ductile and most malleable %@AU@%METAL%@BO:          5f2d7a@%%@AE@% can be beaten into
thin sheets of gold leaf. Only silver and copper conduct electricity
better. Gold is usually hardened by alloying with other metals; it also
often occurs in nature as an alloy. The gold content of an alloy is
stated in carats; by definition, pure gold is 24 carats, and thus a 75%
gold alloy is 18 carats. Gold is found widely distributed, mostly in
metallic form as dust, grains, flakes, or nuggets. It occurs in quartz
veins or lodes, usually in association with silver or other metals, and
in alluvial placer deposits. Possibly the first metal used by humans,
gold was valued for ornaments, and magical powers were attributed to it.
Alchemists of the Middle Ages tried to transmute baser metals into gold
(see %@AU@%ALCHEMY%@BO:           309bc@%%@AE@%). The search for gold stimulated European exploration of the
Western Hemisphere. For discussion of its monetary function, see
%@AU@%BIMETALLISM%@BO:           fc47d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%COIN%@BO:          201225@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goldberg, Rube%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goldberg, Rube%@AE@%%@CR:GOLDBERG        @%%@QR:Goldberg, Rube@% (Reuben Lucius Goldberg), 1883-1970, American cartoonist;%@EH@%
b. San Francisco. A humorous and political cartoonist, he is known for
drawings of wildly intricate machines that perform simple tasks. He was
also a sculptor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golden Age%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golden Age%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.AGE      @%%@QR:Golden Age@% [Span. %@AI@%Siglo de Oro%@AE@%], in Spanish literature, the period%@EH@%
between c.1500 and c.1680 when many of the masterpieces of Spanish
literature were produced. During the 16th cent. Spain became a dominant
European power, and the spirit of the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% invaded its life and
letters. Spanish writers assimilated the foreign influences to produce a
distinctive literature characterized by patriotism, realism, and,
occasionally, mysticism. The greatest single work of the period was %@AI@%Don
%@AI@%Quixote de la Mancha%@AE@% (1605, 1615), by %@AU@%CERVANTES%@BO:          1b152d@%%@AE@%. Other important writers
of the Golden Age were %@AU@%ALARCON Y MENDOZA%@BO:           2a5b7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CALDERON%@BO:          1708aa@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ERCILLA%@BO:          2fbace@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ESPINEL%@BO:          300903@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%GARCILASO DE LA VEGA%@BO:          37f001@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GONGORA%@BO:          3b6aa1@%%@AE@%, Gracian, St. %@AU@%JOHN OF THE CROSS%@BO:          4cb50d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LOPE DE
%@AU@%VEGA%@BO:          56a6b4@%%@AE@%, Moreto, %@AU@%QUEVEDO%@BO:          7bc644@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROJAS ZORILLA%@BO:          804ca2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ST. THERESA%@BO:          94d8ba@%%@AE@% of Avila, and %@AU@%TIRSO DE
%@AU@%MOLINA%@BO:          9603ea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golden Ass, The%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golden Ass, The%@AE@%:%@CR:GOLDEN.ASS      @%%@QR:Golden Ass, The@% see %@AU@%APULEIUS, LUCIUS%@BO:           6dcea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%golden calf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%golden calf%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.CALF     @%%@QR:golden calf@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, an idol erected by the Israelites on several%@EH@%
occasions. %@AU@%AARON%@BO:             863@%%@AE@% made one while %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@% was on Mt. Sinai. Ex. 32. %@AU@%JEROBOAM
%@AU@%I%@BO:          4bdd1b@%%@AE@% made two, and %@AU@%HOSEA%@BO:          44995c@%%@AE@% denounced a calf in Samaria. 1 Kings 12; Hosea 8. A
bull cult was widespread in %@AU@%CANAAN%@BO:          17dfc7@%%@AE@% at the time of the Israelite invasion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golden Fleece%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golden Fleece%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.FLEECE   @%%@QR:Golden Fleece@% in Greek mythology, magic fleece of the ram that carried%@EH@%
Phrixus and Helle from Boeotia. Helle fell into the sea (which became the
Hellespont), but Phrixus arrived safely in Colchis. He then sacrificed
the ram, which became the constellation Aries. Its fleece, hung in a wood
guarded by a dragon, was later sought by %@AU@%JASON%@BO:          4b7a26@%%@AE@% and the Argonauts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golden Gate Bridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golden Gate Bridge%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.DGE      @%%@QR:Golden Gate Bridge@% one of the world's longest suspension bridges, built%@EH@%
(1933-37) across the entrance (Golden Gate) of San Francisco Bay, Calif.
It has a main span of 4,200 ft (1,280 m) and a total length of 9,266 ft
(2,824 m).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golden Horde, Empire of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golden Horde, Empire of the%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.HORDE    @%%@QR:Golden Horde, Empire of the@% Mongol state comprising most of Russia,%@EH@%
founded in the mid-13th cent. by the Mongol leader Batu Khan (see
%@AU@%TATARS%@BO:          930c06@%%@AE@%). The name derives from the magnificence of the Mongol camp on the
Volga, where the empire had its capital. The Russian principalities were
tributaries of the khan, who confirmed princely succession and exacted
taxes. In the early 14th cent. Islam became the official religion of the
empire. Warfare among its leaders, and attempts by the Russian princes to
end tributary payments, weakened the empire. %@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@% conquered it in
the late 14th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%golden parachute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%golden parachute%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.E        @%%@QR:golden parachute@% a contract given to top executives to provide benefits%@EH@%
in case of job loss because of a takeover by another firm or a merger.
The unusually generous benefits may include substantial severance pay, a
one-time bonus payment when employment ends, or stock options.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%golden retriever%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%golden retriever%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.R        @%%@QR:golden retriever@% large %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.23 in. (58 cm);%@EH@%
weight, 60-75 lb (27.2-34.1 kg). Its water-repellent double coat is
golden-brown. Developed in Scotland in the 19th cent. mainly to hunt
waterfowl, this hardy breed is also used as a %@AU@%GUIDE DOG%@BO:          3e59ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%goldenrod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%goldenrod%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDENROD       @%%@QR:goldenrod@% any species of the genus %@AI@%Solidago%@AE@% of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
chiefly North American weedy herbs with small, mostly yellow flowers
growing along a slender stem. Once incorrectly thought to cause hay
fever, it grows wild in many parts of the U.S. and is the state flower of
Kentucky and Nebraska. Goldenrod has been used in dyes and teas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golden Rule%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golden Rule%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDEN.RULE     @%%@QR:Golden Rule@% saying of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%, "As ye would that men should do to you, do%@EH@%
ye also to them likewise." Mat. 7.12; Luke 6.31.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%goldfish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%goldfish%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDFISH        @%%@QR:goldfish@% freshwater %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Carassius%@AE@%) popular in home aquariums.%@EH@%
Native to China, it was domesticated centuries ago from its wild form, an
olive-colored carplike fish up to 16 in. (40 cm) long. Marketed goldfish
are 1 to 4 in. (2.5 to 10 cm) long and most commonly orange in color;
breeders have developed bizarre varieties with unusual tails, double or
triple fins, bulging eyes, and a range of colors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golding, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golding, William%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDING         @%%@QR:Golding, William@% 1911-, English novelist. His novels, concerned%@EH@%
especially with the dark side of human nature, include the nightmarish
%@AI@%Lord of the Flies%@AE@% (1954), %@AI@%The Spire%@AE@% (1964), and %@AI@%Rites of Passage%@AE@% (1980).
He was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize for literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goldman, Emma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goldman, Emma%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDMAN         @%%@QR:Goldman, Emma@% 1869-1940, American anarchist; b. Russia; emigrated to the%@EH@%
U.S. in 1886. With the anarchist Alexander %@AU@%BERKMAN%@BO:           ed222@%%@AE@% she published the
paper %@AI@%Mother Earth.%@AE@% Between 1893 and 1917 she was imprisoned several
times on such charges as inciting to riot, publicly advocating birth
control, and obstructing the draft. She and Berkman were deported (1919)
to the USSR; disagreeing with the Soviet government, she left in 1921.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goldoni, Carlo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goldoni, Carlo%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDONI         @%%@QR:Goldoni, Carlo@% 1707-93, Italian dramatist, author of over 260 works,%@EH@%
including opera. He created a new Italian %@AU@%COMEDY%@BO:          20dac0@%%@AE@% of character, an advance
on the %@AU@%COMMEDIA DELL'ARTE%@BO:          20f700@%%@AE@%. Among his most notable plays are %@AI@%The Mistress
%@AI@%of the Inn%@AE@% (1753), %@AI@%The Accomplished Maid%@AE@% (1756), and %@AI@%The Fan%@AE@% (1763).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gold rush%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gold rush%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLD.RUSH       @%%@QR:gold rush@% influx of prospectors, merchants, and adventurers to newly%@EH@%
discovered gold fields. One of the most famous was the California Gold
Rush in 1848, when the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill brought more
than 40,000 prospectors to California within two years. Although few of
them struck it rich, their presence stimulated economic growth. Other
large gold rushes took place in Australia (1851-53); %@AU@%WITWATERSRAND%@BO:          a2af22@%%@AE@%, South
Africa (1884); and the %@AU@%KLONDIKE%@BO:          502e72@%%@AE@%, Canada (1897-98).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goldsmith, Oliver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goldsmith, Oliver%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDSMITH       @%%@QR:Goldsmith, Oliver@% 1730?-74, Anglo-Irish author. One of Samuel %@AU@%JOHNSON'S%@BO:          4cd852@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
circle, he made his name with %@AI@%Citizen of the World%@AE@% (1762), a series of
whimsical essays; the philosophical poem %@AI@%The Traveler%@AE@% (1764); and the
nostalgic pastorale %@AI@%The Deserted Village%@AE@% (1770). His reputation, however,
rests on two comedies, %@AI@%The Good-natur'd Man%@AE@% (1768) and %@AI@%She Stoops to
%@AI@%Conquer%@AE@% (1773), and on his novel %@AI@%The Vicar of Wakefield%@AE@% (1766). The
comedies injected realism into the dull, sentimental theater of the day
and, like the novel, are imbued with humor and warm humanity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gold standard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gold standard%@AE@%:%@CR:GOLD.STANDARD   @%%@QR:gold standard@% see %@AU@%BIMETALLISM%@BO:           fc47d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL MONETARY SYSTEM%@BO:          48fb21@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MONEY%@BO:          62a2a0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goldwater, Barry Morris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goldwater, Barry Morris%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDWATER       @%%@QR:Goldwater, Barry Morris@% 1909-, U.S. senator (1953-65, 1969-); b.%@EH@%
Phoenix, Ariz. He was the leader of the extreme conservative wing of the
Republican party during the 1950s and 1960s. He ran for president in
1964, but was decisively defeated by Lyndon B. %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4ccc58@%%@AE@%. His son %@AB@%Barry
%@AB@%Morris Goldwater, Jr.,%@AE@% 1938-, b. Los Angeles, was a U.S. congressman from
California (1968-83).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goldwyn, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goldwyn, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLDWYN         @%%@QR:Goldwyn, Samuel@% 1882-1974, American film producer; b. Poland as Samuel%@EH@%
Goldfish. In 1916 he formed Goldwyn Pictures, which merged with L.B.
Mayer's company to become Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1924. Goldwyn also
produced films independently, e.g., %@AI@%The Best Years of Our Lives%@AE@% (1946).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%golem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%golem%@AE@%%@CR:GOLEM           @%%@QR:golem@% [Heb.,=something shapeless], in medieval Jewish legend, a robotlike%@EH@%
servant made of clay and given life by means of a charm, particularly the
name of God.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%golf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%golf%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLF            @%%@QR:golf@% game in which players hit a small, hard ball with specially%@EH@%
designed clubs over an outdoor course (links). The object is to deposit
the ball in a cup, or hole, using as few strokes as possible. The
standard course, usually more than 6,000 yd (about 5,500 m) in length, is
divided into 18 holes, each consisting of a tee, from which the ball is
initially driven; the fairway, bounded by tall grass (the rough) and
containing natural or artificial obstacles (hazards) such as water and
sand traps; and the green, a smooth surface on which the cup (4.5
in/11.43 cm in diameter) is located. A set of golf clubs includes 3 or 4
woods, 9 or 10 irons, and a putter for use on the green. Although its
origin is unknown, golf is identified with Scotland, where it was played
as early as 1457. The British Open Tournament was established in 1860.
The game may have been played in America in the 17th cent., but the first
permanent club, at Yonkers, N.Y., was not organized until 1888. In the
20th cent. golf experienced a tremendous increase in popularity. The
professional tour, led by such stars as Arnold %@AU@%PALMER%@BO:          705fd0@%%@AE@% and Jack %@AU@%NICKLAUS%@BO:          69e7a2@%%@AE@%,
emerged as a major attraction after World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golgi, Camillo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golgi, Camillo%@AE@%%@CR:GOLGI           @%%@QR:Golgi, Camillo@%, 1844-1926, Italian physician. For his work on the%@EH@%
structure of the nervous system he shared with Santiago Ramon y Cajal the
1906 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. Golgi stained nerve tissue
with silver nitrate to delineate (1883) certain nerve cells (Golgi cells)
in the central nervous system; observed (1909) the Golgi apparatus, a
part of the cytoplasm distinguishable by staining; and recognized that
the three types of malaria are caused by different protozoan organisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Golgotha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Golgotha%@AE@%:%@CR:GOLGOTHA        @%%@QR:Golgotha@% see %@AU@%CALVARY%@BO:          176a17@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goliad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goliad%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLIAD          @%%@QR:Goliad@% city (1980 pop. 1,990), seat of Goliad co., S Tex., on the San%@EH@%
Antonio R., a market town in a farm area. During the Texas Revolution
(1836) it was the scene of the infamous "Goliad massacre" of Texan
prisoners by Mexican troops. A Spanish mission (est. 1749) and presidio
are tourist attractions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goliardic songs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goliardic songs%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLIARDIC.SONGS @%%@QR:Goliardic songs@% Late Latin poetry (11th-13th cent.) of the "wandering%@EH@%
scholars," or Goliards, who included university students, poor scholars,
unfrocked priests, runaway monks, and clerks who begged and sang their
way from place to place. Their existence is seen as a reaction against
the medieval ascetic ideal and the strictures of the church. Their songs,
in lilting bastard Latin verse with stressed rhymes, mimic the form of
medieval hymns and include lusty paeans to love, wine, and the vagabond
life as well as skillful attacks on the immorality of church life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goliath%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goliath%@AE@%,%@CR:GOLIATH         @%%@QR:Goliath@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, gigantic Philistine who challenged the Israelites.%@EH@%
The young %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% accepted the challenge and killed him with a stone from a
sling. 1 Sam. 17.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gombrowicz, Witold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gombrowicz, Witold%@AE@%%@CR:GOMBROWICZ      @%%@QR:Gombrowicz, Witold@%, 1904-69, Polish writer. He lived in Argentina%@EH@%
(1939-63) and France (1964-69). His reputation as a satirist and
existential innovator with a highly personal vision rests on such novels
as %@AI@%Ferdydurke%@AE@% (1937), %@AI@%Trans-Atlantyk%@AE@% (1953), and %@AI@%Cosmos%@AE@% (1965).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gomez, Juan Vicente%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gomez, Juan Vicente%@AE@%%@CR:GOMEZ           @%%@QR:Gomez, Juan Vicente@%, 1857-1935, dictator of %@AU@%VENEZUELA%@BO:          9c6904@%%@AE@% (1908-35). A%@EH@%
guerrilla leader, he seized power (1908) as president and ruled the
country as an absolute tyrant until his death. His secret police crushed
opponents by means of imprisonment and torture. Gomez brought economic
stability to Venezuela and attracted foreign investment in order to build
a modern country of railroads, highways, and other public works. He
enriched himself as well as the nation, which he tried to make a personal
fief.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gomorrah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gomorrah%@AE@%:%@CR:GOMORRAH        @%%@QR:Gomorrah@% see %@AU@%SODOM AND GOMORRAH%@BO:          8b07cb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gompers, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gompers, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:GOMPERS         @%%@QR:Gompers, Samuel@% 1850-1924, American labor leader; b. England. After%@EH@%
emigrating to the U.S. in 1863, he worked as a cigar maker and joined the
local union. In 1881 he helped found the labor organization that became
the American Federation of Labor in 1886. From 1886 until his death
(except during 1895) he was president of the AFL. He directed the
successful battle with the %@AU@%KNIGHTS OF LABOR%@BO:          503ff9@%%@AE@% and kept the AFL free of
radical and socialistic elements; he also won higher wages, shorter
hours, and more freedom for workers. A man of great personal integrity
and the leading spokesman of the labor movement, he did much to make
organized labor respected. See %@AU@%AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS
%@AU@%OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS%@BO:           47e73@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gomulka, Wladyslaw%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gomulka, Wladyslaw%@AE@%,%@CR:GOMULKA         @%%@QR:Gomulka, Wladyslaw@% 1905-82, Polish Communist leader. As first secretary%@EH@%
of the Communist party (1956-70) he liberalized Poland while retaining
close ties to the USSR. He resigned as the result of food riots.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goncharov, Ivan Aleksandrovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goncharov, Ivan Aleksandrovich%@AE@%%@CR:GONCHAROV       @%%@QR:Goncharov, Ivan Aleksandrovich@%, 1812-91, Russian novelist. A government%@EH@%
official, he wrote the satirical novel %@AI@%Oblomov%@AE@% (1859), a classic study of
indolence. Other novels are %@AI@%A Common Story%@AE@% (1847) and %@AI@%The Precipice%@AE@%
(1869).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goncourt, Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goncourt, Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de%@AE@%%@CR:GONCOURT        @%%@QR:Goncourt, Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de@%, 1822-96, and %@AB@%Jules Alfred Huot de%@EH@%
%@AB@%Goncourt,%@AE@% 1830-70, French authors, brothers. Together they wrote social
history, art criticism, and influential naturalistic novels, e.g., %@AI@%Renee
%@AI@%Mauperin%@AE@% (1864) and %@AI@%Mme Gervaisais%@AE@% (1869). From 1851 they published the
highly successful %@AI@%Journal des Goncourt,%@AE@% for 40 years providing an
intimate account of Parisian society. Their work paved the way for both
%@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          4709aa@%%@AE@%. In his will, Edmond provided for the
founding of the Goncourt Academy and its annual prize for fiction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gondwanaland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gondwanaland%@AE@%:%@CR:GONDWANALAND    @%%@QR:Gondwanaland@% see %@AU@%CONTINENTAL DRIFT%@BO:          22e22c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gong%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gong%@AE@%:%@CR:GONG            @%%@QR:gong@% see %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gongora y Argote, Luis de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gongora y Argote, Luis de%@AE@%%@CR:GONGORAE        @%%@QR:Gongora y Argote, Luis de@%, 1561-1627, Spanish poet. A major figure of%@EH@%
Spain's %@AU@%GOLDEN AGE%@BO:          3b20f6@%%@AE@%, he wrote sonnets, ballads, and the long pastoral
%@AI@%Solitudes%@AE@% (1613), his masterpiece. His complex, artificial style,
characterized by innovative use of metaphor, latinate vocabulary, and
classical and mythological allusions, exemplifies the baroque tendencies
that came to be known as %@AI@%Gongorism.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gonorrhea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gonorrhea%@AE@%,%@CR:GONORRHEA       @%%@QR:gonorrhea@% infectious disease involving chiefly the mucous membranes of%@EH@%
the genitourinary tract, caused by the gonococcus %@AI@%Neisseria gonorrheae.%@AE@% A
%@AU@%VENEREAL DISEASE%@BO:          9c653d@%%@AE@%, gonorrhea causes inflammation of the genital organs and
urethra, and, if untreated, sterility. The disease is treated with
%@AU@%ANTIBIOTICS%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@%, especially %@AU@%PENICILLIN%@BO:          72cacf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gonzaga%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gonzaga%@AE@%%@CR:GONZAGA         @%%@QR:Gonzaga@%, Italian princely house that ruled Mantua (1328-1708), Montferrat%@EH@%
(1536-1708), and Guastalla (1539-1746). %@AB@%Francesco Gonzaga,%@AE@% 1466-1519,
marquis of Mantua, married Isabella d'%@AU@%ESTE%@BO:          302085@%%@AE@% and made numerous alliances in
the %@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AB@%Federico Gonzaga,%@AE@% 1500-40, was made (1530)
duke of Mantua and acquired Montferrat. In 1627 this senior branch became
extinct, and the succession was disputed by a cadet line that had
acquired the French duchies of Nivernais and Rethel, and by another
junior branch that ruled Guastalla. War broke out between France and
Spain over the issue, and the Nivernais branch won (1631). It in turn
became extinct in 1708.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gonzales, Pancho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gonzales, Pancho%@AE@%%@CR:GONZALES        @%%@QR:Gonzales, Pancho@% (Richard Alonzo Gonzales), 1928-, American tennis%@EH@%
player; b. Los Angeles. Known for his powerful service, he won (1948-49)
two U.S. national singles titles. His early professional career was
unsuccessful, but he rose to prominence in 1954, remaining the
professional champion (except for 1960) until 1961.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gonzalez Marquez, Felipe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gonzalez Marquez, Felipe%@AE@%,%@CR:GONZALEZ        @%%@QR:Gonzalez Marquez, Felipe@% 1942-, prime minister of Spain (1982-). A%@EH@%
lawyer and first secretary (1974-79, 1979-) of the Spanish Socialist
party, Gonzalez led the Socialists to a landslide victory in the 1982
parliamentary elections to become head of Spain's first leftist
government since the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@%. In 1986, he led Spain into the
European Common Market.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Good Friday%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Good Friday%@AE@%,%@CR:GOOD.FRIDAY     @%%@QR:Good Friday@% anniversary of %@AU@%JESUS'%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% death on the cross, the Friday before%@EH@%
Easter. Among Christians it is a day of mourning and penitence. In the
Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican churches, the saying of Mass is
suspended.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goodman, Benny%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goodman, Benny%@AE@%%@CR:GOODMAN         @%%@QR:Goodman, Benny@% (Benjamin David Goodman), 1909-86, American clarinetist%@EH@%
and bandleader; b. Chicago. He formed (1934) a big band and went on to
become the King of Swing, performing for radio, motion pictures, and
records. He also led small ensembles, e.g., with Teddy Wilson (piano),
Gene Krupa (drums), and Lionel Hampton (vibraphone). He was also
successful as a classical clarinetist. See also %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goodyear, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goodyear, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:GOODYEAR        @%%@QR:Goodyear, Charles@% 1800-60, American inventor and originator of%@EH@%
vulcanized %@AU@%RUBBER%@BO:          81a003@%%@AE@%; b. New Haven, Conn. He experimented for years to find
a way to keep rubber from sticking and melting in hot weather; in 1839 he
discovered vulcanization, patenting it in 1844. Goodyear worked and died
in poverty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%goose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%goose%@AE@%,%@CR:GOOSE           @%%@QR:goose@% large, wild or domesticated swimming %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% related to the %@AU@%DUCK%@BO:          2b0ad4@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%SWAN%@BO:          915c73@%%@AE@%. Strictly speaking, the term %@AI@%goose%@AE@% applies to the female and %@AI@%gander%@AE@%
to the male. In North America the wild, or Canada, goose (%@AI@%Branta
%@AI@%canadensis%@AE@%) is known by its honking call and V-shaped, migrating flocks
in spring and fall. Geese have been domesticated since ancient times; the
popular Toulouse, or gray, goose is descended from the European graylag
(%@AI@%Anser anser%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gooseberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gooseberry%@AE@%:%@CR:GOOSEBERRY      @%%@QR:gooseberry@% see %@AU@%CURRANT%@BO:          256c20@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gopher%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gopher%@AE@%%@CR:GOPHER          @%%@QR:gopher@% or %@AB@%pocket gopher,%@AE@%burrowing %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% (family Geomyidae) found in%@EH@%
North and Central America. The gopher is gray, buff, or dark brown; its
combined head and body length is 5 to 12 in. (13 to 30 cm). It has
extremely long teeth and large claws. The name %@AI@%pocket gopher%@AE@% refers to
the fur-lined pouches that open on the outsides of its cheeks, used to
carry food and nesting material.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich%@AE@%,%@CR:GORBACHEV       @%%@QR:Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich@% 1931-, Soviet political leader. He moved%@EH@%
up in the Stavropol local leadership of the Communist party during the
1950s and 1960s. In 1970, he was elected to the Supreme Soviet of the
USSR. After moving (1978) to Moscow, he became (1980) a full member of
the %@AU@%POLITBURO%@BO:          777d17@%%@AE@%, and served as General Secretary of the Central Committee,
Chairman of the Council of Defense, and a member of the Presidium. He
initiated a policy of restructuring (%@AI@%perestroika%@AE@%) and a climate of
openness (%@AI@%glasnost%@AE@%). In Dec. 1987, he visited the U.S., where he and
Pres. %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@% signed the inf treaty. See %@AU@%DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR%@BO:          29478e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gorboduc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gorboduc%@AE@%,%@CR:GORBODUC        @%%@QR:Gorboduc@% legendary early British king mentioned by %@AU@%GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH%@BO:          38e653@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
He divided his kingdom between his sons Ferrex and Porrex, causing great
strife. %@AI@%Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex%@AE@% (1561), was the first English
blank-verse tragedy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gordian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gordian%@AE@%,%@CR:GORDIAN         @%%@QR:Gordian@% name of three Roman emperors. %@AB@%Gordian I%@AE@% (Marcus Antonius%@EH@%
Gordianus Africanus), d. 238, was made coemperor (238) with his son.
After a reign of only 22 days, he committed suicide after learning that
his son and colleague, %@AB@%Gordian II,%@AE@% 192-238, had been killed in battle.
The latter's son, %@AB@%Gordian III,%@AE@% c.223-244, became emperor in 238. Philip
the Arabian had him murdered in 244.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gordian knot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gordian knot%@AE@%:%@CR:GORDIAN.KNOT    @%%@QR:Gordian knot@% see %@AU@%GORDIUS%@BO:          3b8d08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gordimer, Nadine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gordimer, Nadine%@AE@%,%@CR:GORDIMER        @%%@QR:Gordimer, Nadine@% 1923-, South African writer. Her novels, often bleak%@EH@%
studies of South African life, include %@AI@%The Voice of the Serpent%@AE@% (1953), %@AI@%A
%@AI@%Guest of Honour%@AE@% (1970), %@AI@%Burger's Daughter%@AE@% (1979), and %@AI@%July's People%@AE@%
(1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gordin, Jacob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gordin, Jacob%@AE@%,%@CR:GORDIN          @%%@QR:Gordin, Jacob@% 1853-1909, American Yiddish playwright; b. Russia. In%@EH@%
Russia he founded (1880) the Bible Brotherhood, a reform movement of
Judaism; when it broke up (1891) he moved to New York City, where he
wrote plays for the Yiddish theater, including %@AI@%The Jewish King Lear.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gordius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gordius%@AE@%,%@CR:GORDIUS         @%%@QR:Gordius@% in Greek mythology, king of Phrygia. The pole of his wagon was%@EH@%
fastened to the yoke with a knot that defied efforts to untie it. An
oracle stated that he who untied this Gordian knot would rule Asia.
According to legend, %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% simply cut the knot with his
sword.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gordon, Charles George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gordon, Charles George%@AE@%,%@CR:GORDON          @%%@QR:Gordon, Charles George@% 1833-85, British soldier and administrator. After%@EH@%
serving in the %@AU@%CRIMEAN WAR%@BO:          24a5c9@%%@AE@%, he commanded the Chinese army that suppressed
the %@AU@%TAIPING REBELLION%@BO:          92562d@%%@AE@%; afterwards he was popularly known as "Chinese
Gordon." He was governor of the Egyptian Sudan (1877-80). Later (1885),
while trying to crush the power of the %@AU@%MAHDI%@BO:          59b70c@%%@AE@%, he was killed in the siege
of %@AU@%KHARTOUM%@BO:          4f5121@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gordon setter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gordon setter%@AE@%,%@CR:GORDON.SETTER   @%%@QR:Gordon setter@% large %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, 23-27 in. (58.4-68.6%@EH@%
cm); weight, 45-75 lb (20.4-34.1 kg). Its long, shiny coat is black, with
tan markings. Developed in Scotland and popularized there by the fourth
duke of Gordon in the early 1800s, it was brought to the U.S. in 1842.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goren, Charles Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goren, Charles Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:GOREN           @%%@QR:Goren, Charles Henry@% 1901-, American expert on contract %@AU@%BRIDGE%@BO:          13d191@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
Philadelphia. He wrote the first of his books on the game, %@AI@%Winning Bridge
%@AI@%Made Easy,%@AE@% in 1936, later giving up his law practice to concentrate on
bridge. He won 2 world championships (1950, 1957) and 26 U.S. titles, and
his point-count bidding system became standard.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gorgon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gorgon%@AE@%,%@CR:GORGON          @%%@QR:Gorgon@% in Greek myth, one of three hideous sisters, Stheno, Euryale, and%@EH@%
Medusa (the only mortal one, killed by %@AU@%PERSEUS%@BO:          739a4c@%%@AE@%). Winged and snake-haired,
they turned all who looked at them to stone. They were much represented
in Greek art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gorilla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gorilla%@AE@%,%@CR:GORILLA         @%%@QR:gorilla@% largest %@AU@%APE%@BO:           69885@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Gorilla gorilla%@AE@%), native to the forests of%@EH@%
equatorial W Africa. Males range from 5 to 6 ft (150 to 190 cm) in height
and weigh c.450 lb (200 kg) in the wild; they have prominent sagittal
crests and brow ridges and enormous canine teeth. Females are about half
the size of males and their features are less developed. Their shaggy
coats are brown or black. Though extremely muscular and powerful,
gorillas are quiet and retiring; they are chiefly vegetarian.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goring, Hermann Wilhelm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goring, Hermann Wilhelm%@AE@%:%@CR:GORING          @%%@QR:Goring, Hermann Wilhelm@% see %@AU@%GOERING, HERMANN WILHELM%@BO:          3afe39@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gorky, Arshile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gorky, Arshile%@AE@%%@CR:GORKY1          @%%@QR:Gorky, Arshile@%, 1904-48, American painter; b. Armenia. His early work is%@EH@%
figurative and refined. Later he was influenced by %@AU@%SURREALISM%@BO:          912621@%%@AE@% and began
(c.1940) to create abstractions of mysterious organic forms. His work was
influential in the development of %@AU@%ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:            754d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gorky, Maxim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gorky, Maxim%@AE@%%@CR:GORKY2          @%%@QR:Gorky, Maxim@%or %@AB@%Maksim%@AE@% [Rus.,=bitter], pseud. of %@AB@%Aleksey Maximovich%@EH@%
%@AB@%Pyeshkov,%@AE@% 1868-1936, Russian writer. Born in poverty, he wandered the
Volga region, educating and supporting himself, from the age of eight. %@AI@%My
%@AI@%Childhood%@AE@% (1913), %@AI@%In the World%@AE@% (1916), and %@AI@%My Universities%@AE@% (1923)
describe his early years. His first story appeared in 1892. In %@AI@%Sketches
%@AI@%and Stories%@AE@% (1898) he wrote of the vigor and nobility of peasants,
workers, and vagabonds. In 1902 %@AI@%The Lower Depths,%@AE@% the first and greatest
of his 15 plays, was performed by the Moscow Art Theater. Gorky's
friendships with the writers %@AU@%ANDREYEV%@BO:           551e5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHEKHOV%@BO:          1c6bd5@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TOLSTOY%@BO:          967364@%%@AE@% date from
this time; he later published memoirs of all three. When the 1905
Revolution failed he was forced into exile. %@AI@%Mother%@AE@% (1906), which became
the prototype of the revolutionary novel, was written in the U.S. After
living in Capri (1907-13) Gorky returned to Russia in 1914. In the period
of turmoil after the %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@% (1917) he used his friendship
with %@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@% and his post as head of the state publishing house to aid
writers and artists. In 1921 he went abroad again, returning in 1928. %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Life of Klim Samgin%@AE@% (1927-36), a four-part novel often considered his
masterpiece, was unfinished at his death. Gorky's work, vital and
optimistic, combines realism with a strong poetic strain. He is
considered the father of Soviet literature and the founder of the
doctrine of %@AU@%SOCIALIST REALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gorky%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gorky%@AE@%,%@CR:GORKY3          @%%@QR:Gorky@% formerly Nizhny Novgorod, city (1987 est. pop. 1,425,000), E%@EH@%
European USSR, on the Volga and Oka rivers. A major river port, it has
the largest automobile plant in the USSR, as well as steel-making and
other industries. Founded in 1221, it was a center of trade with the
East. In 1932 it was renamed for Maxim %@AU@%GORKY%@BO:          3b9c13@%%@AE@%, who was born there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gospel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gospel%@AE@%%@CR:GOSPEL          @%%@QR:Gospel@% [M.E.,=good news; cf. %@AI@%evangel%@AE@% from Gr.,=good news], one of the%@EH@%
four biographies of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% in the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%: %@AU@%MATTHEW%@BO:          5d4238@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MARK%@BO:          5bdcd6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LUKE%@BO:          57c990@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c9632@%%@AE@%. The first three are called Synoptic Gospels because they present a
comprehensive view, agreeing in subject matter and order. Many church
liturgies include a solemn reading of the Gospel for the day. The honor
paid to the Gospels resulted in some of the glories of book %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@%,
e.g., the Book of Kells.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gospel music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gospel music%@AE@%,%@CR:GOSPEL.MUSIC    @%%@QR:gospel music@% American musical form that developed in Protestant churches%@EH@%
of the South. It is performed today by blacks and whites, but black
gospel music is much more important. Rooted in field and work songs, and
owing less to the Protestant hymns than do American Negro %@AU@%SPIRITUALS%@BO:          8da8cc@%%@AE@%,
gospel is an intense, joyful music. Its form derives from the
call-and-response singing of preacher and congregation in black churches;
the message is conveyed with tight control, at other times with abandon.
Gospel and %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% were considered antithetical in black society until both
forms gained general acceptance by the mid-20th cent.; together they
influence "soul" and %@AU@%ROCK MUSIC%@BO:          800289@%%@AE@%. Major gospel performers include Mahalia
%@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4ab357@%%@AE@%, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, the Clouds of Joy, and the Dixie
Hummingbirds. Popular artists influenced by gospel music include Ray
%@AU@%CHARLES%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% and Aretha %@AU@%FRANKLIN%@BO:          3578ee@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goteborg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goteborg%@AE@%%@CR:GOTEBORG        @%%@QR:Goteborg@%, city (1986 pop. 429,339), capital of Goteborg och Bohus co., SW%@EH@%
Sweden, on the %@AU@%KATTEGAT%@BO:          4e988b@%%@AE@%. Sweden's most important seaport, it has
shipyards and fisheries as well as such manufactures as iron and steel,
and ball bearings. Founded in 1604 by %@AU@%CHARLES IX%@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@%, it was a major
commercial center from the 17th cent. Early in the 20th cent. it became
the terminus of an important transatlantic shipping service.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gothic architecture and art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gothic architecture and art%@AE@%.%@CR:GOTHIC..ART     @%%@QR:Gothic architecture and art@% The character of the Gothic visual aesthetic%@EH@%
was one of immense vitality; it was spikily linear and restlessly active.
Informed by the scholasticism and mysticism of the Middle Ages, it
reflected the exalted religious hysteria, the pathos, and the
self-intoxication with logical formalism that were the essence of the
medieval. The Gothic style was the dominant structural and aesthetic mode
in Europe for 400 years. Making its appearance (c.1140) in the I
le-de-France, the style owes much to prior experimentation in Normandy
(see %@AU@%NORMAN ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          6b1d6f@%%@AE@%). Ribbed vaulting (see %@AU@%VAULT%@BO:          9c1f87@%%@AE@%) and pointed %@AU@%ARCHES%@BO:           74d6d@%%@AE@%
had been used in Romanesque construction but without such purposeful and
constant application. The important Gothic rib delineated the vaults and
clarified the entire structure. Unlike the Romanesque, Gothic
construction emphasized light and soaring spaces. The introduction
(c.1180) of flying %@AU@%BUTTRESSES%@BO:          162eec@%%@AE@% reduced wall surfaces by relieving them of
part of their structural function, making possible the huge stained glass
windows that gave High Gothic church walls the appearance of curtains.
The High Gothic cathedral was based on the traditional basilican plan,
but single units were integrated into a unified spatial scheme. The
exterior view was dominated by twin towers crowning a facade decorated
with sculptures. Additional towers, a profusion of flying buttresses, and
pinnacles rose around the upper part of the edifice. The first landmark
Gothic structure is the ambulatory of the abbey of Saint-Denis (1140-44).
The influence of its large areas of glass and use of space was imitated
in such cathedrals as those of Sens, Noyon, Laon, and Paris. The High
Gothic phase is marked by the Cathedral of Chartres (begun after 1194).
In the mid-13th cent., the Rayonnant style further reduced opaque wall
surfaces for windows and stone tracery, e.g., Sainte-Chapelle, Paris.
Interesting variations on Gothic style appeared in Western Europe. The
early English style (late 12th-early 13th cent.) retained much of the
ponderous mural style of Norman architecture, e.g., Salisbury Cathedral.
Romanesque proportions were dominant in Italy, but the French style
inspired German churches, e.g., in Cologne, as well as Spanish Gothic
architecture. The latter was also influenced by Moorish tradition, e.g.,
in Toledo. In the 14th and 15th cent. these trends culminated in the
flamboyant style, e.g., The Church of Saint-Maclou, Rouen; the decorated
style in England, e.g., Ely Cathedral; and the even more flamboyant
perpendicular style, e.g., the choir of the cathedral at Gloucester.
After the 14th-cent. economic crises and the Black Death, building
slowed, but the Gothic tradition never completely died. It was revived in
the 19th cent. (see %@AU@%GOTHIC REVIVAL%@BO:          3bc246@%%@AE@%). All the other arts of the Gothic
period were dominated by architecture. Sculpture and stained glass were
integrated into the churches. By the 13th cent., sculpture became more
important, more humanized, and less united with architecture. The
tendency toward mannerisms in gesture and greater realism reached
monumental form in the %@AI@%Well of Moses%@AE@% (1395-1403; Dijon) by Claus Sluter.
Monumental fresco painting was rare in the Gothic period, though %@AU@%STAINED
%@AU@%GLASS%@BO:          8e03fd@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TAPESTRY%@BO:          92ccd6@%%@AE@% assumed great importance and showed a stylistic
development parallel to that of sculpture. The Paris school was the
center of Gothic painting and manuscript %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@%. The %@AI@%Pieta%@AE@% of the
Avignon school (Louvre; c.1460) is noted for its originality of
expression. The elegant International Style was developed at this time,
and panel painting dominated all other forms of painting. The culmination
of Gothic art in the 15th cent. was marked by %@AU@%SCHONGAUER%@BO:          85a393@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LOCHNER%@BO:          560a5d@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%FOUQUET%@BO:          34cc4c@%%@AE@%, and the van %@AU@%EYCKS%@BO:          31564b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gothic language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gothic language%@AE@%,%@CR:GOTHIC.LANGUAGE @%%@QR:Gothic language@% dead language belonging to the Germanic subfamily of the%@EH@%
Indo-European family of languages. One of the earliest literary remains
in any Germanic tongue is the Gothic Bible of Ulfilas. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gothic revival%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gothic revival%@AE@%,%@CR:GOTHIC.REVIVAL  @%%@QR:Gothic revival@% term designating a return to building styles of the%@EH@%
Middle Ages, most important in the U.S. and England. Early works were in
the late %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@% manner of Horace %@AU@%WALPOLE'S%@BO:          9edba9@%%@AE@% "gothick" house, Strawberry
Hill (1770). By 1830, architects were copying the originals more
literally. A.W.N. Pugin's %@AI@%Contrasts%@AE@% (1836) and %@AI@%True Principles of Pointed
%@AI@%or Christian Architecture%@AE@% (1841) were basic texts. Pugin advocated
adherence to the methods of medieval builders to achieve structural
clarity. John %@AU@%RUSKIN%@BO:          821308@%%@AE@% elaborated on these ideas. The movement came into
conflict with the %@AU@%CLASSIC REVIVAL%@BO:          1f0097@%%@AE@%. The Church of England, supporting the
Gothic style, provided for the restoration of many medieval religious
buildings. In 1840 Pugin and Sir Charles Barry won a competition with
Gothic designs for the houses of parliament. %@AU@%VIOLLET-LE-DUC%@BO:          9db73a@%%@AE@% led the
exponents of Gothic design in France. In the U.S. the picturesque aspect
of the style dominated. Gothic works include James Renwick's %@AU@%ST.
%@AU@%PATRICK'S%@BO:          720fde@%%@AE@% %@AU@%CATHEDRAL%@BO:          1a296f@%%@AE@% (N.Y.C.). The revival foundered because of the
impossibility of reproducing Gothic buildings without a medieval economy
or technology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gothic romance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gothic romance%@AE@%,%@CR:GOTHIC.ROMANCE  @%%@QR:Gothic romance@% type of novel that flourished in%@EH@%
late-18th-early-19th-cent. England. Horror-tinged mysteries often
involving the supernatural, they were set among ruins and haunted
castles. Horace %@AU@%WALPOLE'S%@BO:          9edba9@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Castle of Otranto%@AE@% (1765) established the type,
which included the works of Ann %@AU@%RADCLIFFE%@BO:          7c1620@%%@AE@%, M.L. "Monk" %@AU@%LEWIS%@BO:          54724a@%%@AE@%, and Mary
%@AU@%SHELLEY%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@%. Since the 1960s romantic "Gothic novels," seemingly based on
Charlotte %@AU@%BRONTE'S%@BO:          143871@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Jane Eyre%@AE@% (1847) and Daphne du Maurier's %@AI@%Rebecca%@AE@%
(1938), have become popular.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goths%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goths%@AE@%:%@CR:GOTHS           @%%@QR:Goths@% see %@AU@%OSTROGOTHS%@BO:          6f50a2@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VISIGOTHS%@BO:          9dfd40@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gottfried von Strassburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gottfried von Strassburg%@AE@%%@CR:GOTTFRIG        @%%@QR:Gottfried von Strassburg@%(Godfrey of Strasbourg) , fl. 13th cent., German%@EH@%
poet. His unfinished Middle High German epic %@AI@%Tristan%@AE@% (c.1210) ranks him
among the great medieval poets. See %@AU@%TRISTRAM AND ISOLDE%@BO:          97f02e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gotthelf, Jeremias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gotthelf, Jeremias%@AE@%,%@CR:GOTTHELF        @%%@QR:Gotthelf, Jeremias@% 1797-1854, Swiss writer and clergyman; b. Albert%@EH@%
Bitzius. His pen name was that of the hero of his autobiographical novel
%@AI@%Bauernspiegel%@AE@% (1837). Christian fervor, humor, sincerity, and vigor
characterize his many prose works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gottschalk, Louis Moreau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gottschalk, Louis Moreau%@AE@%,%@CR:GOTTSCHALK      @%%@QR:Gottschalk, Louis Moreau@% 1829-69, American pianist and composer; b. New%@EH@%
Orleans. He achieved extraordinary international success as a performer.
His compositions often use black and Creole rhythms and Spanish subjects.
They include the piano pieces %@AI@%The Last Hope%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Dying Poet.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gottwald, Klement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gottwald, Klement%@AE@%%@CR:GOTTWALD        @%%@QR:Gottwald, Klement@%, 1896-1953, Czechoslovakian Communist leader and%@EH@%
president (1948-53). He became president after the Communist coup of 1948
and dominated the party and government through brutal purges and trials.
He made Czechoslovakia a satellite of the Soviet Union.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gouache%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gouache%@AE@%:%@CR:GOUACHE         @%%@QR:gouache@% see %@AU@%WATERCOLOR PAINTING%@BO:          9f938d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gould, George Jay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gould, George Jay%@AE@%:%@CR:GOULD1          @%%@QR:Gould, George Jay@% see under %@AU@%GOULD, JAY%@BO:          3bd5f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gould, Glenn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gould, Glenn%@AE@%,%@CR:GOULD2          @%%@QR:Gould, Glenn@% 1932-82, Canadian pianist and composer. A prodigy, he was%@EH@%
noted for his interpretations of J.S. %@AU@%BACH%@BO:           ac28f@%%@AE@% and the romantic composers.
After 1964 he concentrated on recording rather than performing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gould, Jay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gould, Jay%@AE@%,%@CR:GOULD3          @%%@QR:Gould, Jay@% 1836-92, American speculator; b. Delaware co., N.Y. From%@EH@%
country-store clerk he rose to control half the railroad mileage in the
Southwest, New York City's elevated lines, and the Western Union
Telegraph Co. Aided by James %@AU@%FISK%@BO:          336f75@%%@AE@%, he defeated Cornelius %@AU@%VANDERBILT%@BO:          9bb5e4@%%@AE@% for
control of the Erie RR, but public protest over Gould's stock
manipulations resulted in his expulsion in 1872. He then bought into the
Union Pacific and other Western roads, and by sharp practice gained
control of four lines that made up the Gould system. His scheming with
Fisk to corner the gold market in 1869 caused the %@AU@%BLACK FRIDAY%@BO:          10855d@%%@AE@% panic, and
Gould's name became synonymous with autocratic business practice. His
son, %@AB@%George Jay Gould,%@AE@% 1864-1923, b. N.Y.C., inherited his holdings. To
compete with E.H. %@AU@%HARRIMAN%@BO:          4022eb@%%@AE@% he bought or built railroads from coast to
coast, but his unsound financing collapsed in the panic of 1907.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gould, Stephen Jay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gould, Stephen Jay%@AE@%,%@CR:GOULD4          @%%@QR:Gould, Stephen Jay@% 1941-, American paleontologist and popularizer of%@EH@%
science; b. N.Y.C. With Niles Eldredge, Gould proposed (1972) an
evolutionary theory of "punctured equilibrium" stating that many species
may evolve relatively quickly, rather than through a continuous slow
accretion of tiny species variations (see %@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NATURAL SELECTION%@BO:          679366@%%@AE@%),
and then persist virtually unchanged for perhaps millions of years. The
"missing links" in evolutionary development sought since the time of
Charles %@AU@%DARWIN%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@% may thus not exist. Elaboration of these concepts has led
to extensive scientific debate. Gould has taught at Harvard Univ. since
1967.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gounod, Charles Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gounod, Charles Francois%@AE@%%@CR:GOUNOD          @%%@QR:Gounod, Charles Francois@%, 1818-93, French composer of the romantic operas%@EH@%
%@AI@%Faust%@AE@% (1859) and %@AI@%Romeo and Juliet%@AE@% (1867). He also wrote %@AU@%ORATORIOS%@BO:          6e4380@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%CANTATAS%@BO:          184e95@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gourd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gourd%@AE@%,%@CR:GOURD           @%%@QR:gourd@% common name for some members of the Cucurbitaceae family, of%@EH@%
tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. The family is known for its
many edible and otherwise useful plants, almost all annual herbs that
grow as vines. Among these are %@AI@%Cucurbita%@AE@% species, including the %@AU@%PUMPKIN%@BO:          7afc45@%%@AE@%
and summer squashes (varieties of %@AI@%C. pepo%@AE@%) and the winter squashes (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%maxima%@AE@%); and %@AI@%Cucumis%@AE@% species, including the %@AU@%CUCUMBERS%@BO:          253690@%%@AE@%, gherkins (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%anguria%@AE@%), and all %@AU@%MELONS%@BO:          5e7db2@%%@AE@% except the %@AU@%WATERMELON%@BO:          9fb052@%%@AE@%. The edible fruit of the
loofah, or California okra (%@AI@%Luffa cylindrica%@AE@%), is dried for the inner
fibrous network, which is used as a scrubbing sponge. The term %@AI@%gourd%@AE@% is
applied to those members of the family whose fruits have hard, durable
shells used for ornament and as utensils, e.g., cups, dippers, and bowls.
The Old World genus %@AI@%Lagenaria%@AE@% includes the calabash, dipper, and bottle
gourds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gourlay, Robert Fleming%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gourlay, Robert Fleming%@AE@%%@CR:GOURLAY         @%%@QR:Gourlay, Robert Fleming@%, 1778-1863, Scottish writer and agitator in%@EH@%
Canada. After emigrating to %@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6ddb6d@%%@AE@% in 1817, he opposed the control of
land grants by the %@AU@%FAMILY COMPACT%@BO:          31aa2a@%%@AE@% clique, and was imprisoned and banished
(1819) by it. His conviction was nullified (1842), and he returned
briefly (1856-60) to Canada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gout%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gout%@AE@%,%@CR:GOUT            @%%@QR:gout@% condition that manifests itself as recurrent attacks of acute%@EH@%
%@AU@%ARTHRITIS%@BO:           846a1@%%@AE@%, distinguished from other forms of arthritis by the presence of
increased uric acid in the body. It may become chronic and deforming.
Gout usually begins with an acute attack of pain, inflammation, extreme
tenderness, and redness in the affected joint. Treatment includes high
liquid intake and medication that increases uric acid excretion by the
kidneys.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gower, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gower, John%@AE@%,%@CR:GOWER           @%%@QR:Gower, John@% 1330?-1408, English poet, a friend of %@AU@%CHAUCER%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@%. His three%@EH@%
major works are %@AI@%Speculum meditantis%@AE@% or %@AI@%Miroir de l'omme,%@AE@% an allegorical
manual in French; %@AI@%Vox clamantis,%@AE@% in Latin; and %@AI@%Confessio amantis%@AE@%
(c.1390), in English, a collection of stories illustrating the Seven
Deadly Sins.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gowon, Yakubu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gowon, Yakubu%@AE@%,%@CR:GOWON           @%%@QR:Gowon, Yakubu@% 1934-, Nigerian head of state (1966-75). In 1966 he was%@EH@%
appointed commander in chief of the armed forces and head of the military
government. He led (1967-70) the fight against secessionist %@AU@%BIAFRA%@BO:           f6a6e@%%@AE@%, and
after the Nigerian victory he attempted a policy of reconciliation. He
was deposed in a bloodless coup in 1975 and went to England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de%@AE@%,%@CR:GOYA.Y.S        @%%@QR:Goya y Lucientes, Francisco Jose de@% 1746-1828, Spanish painter and%@EH@%
graphic artist, the greatest painter of his age. After studying in
Zaragoza, Madrid, and Rome, Goya designed a series of %@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@% tapestries
full of gaiety and charm, enhanced by earthy realism. The candor of
observation revealed in these early works was later to make him the most
graphic and savage of satirists. He became court painter to %@AU@%CHARLES III%@BO:          1bfc56@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%CHARLES IV%@BO:          1bfc56@%%@AE@%, and his royal portraits, painted with extraordinary
realism, show his contempt for his subjects. In 1793 a severe illness
left him deaf, and thereafter his works were cheerless. Two of his most
celebrated paintings, %@AI@%Maja Nude%@AE@% and %@AI@%Maja Clothed%@AE@% (both: Prado) are from
this period, as was his chief religious work, %@AU@%FRESCOES%@BO:          3647c0@%%@AE@% for the Church of
San Antonio de la Florida, Madrid. It is in his %@AU@%ETCHINGS%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%AQUATINTS%@BO:           6e84e@%%@AE@%
that his disillusionment is clearly seen. His %@AI@%Caprichos%@AE@% are a grotesque
social satire; his %@AI@%Disasters of War,%@AE@% a series of etchings suggested by
the Napoleonic invasions of Spain, are an indictment of human evil and
corruption. Also inspired by the Napoleonic invasions is his compelling
painting, %@AI@%The Third of May 1808%@AE@% (1814-15; Prado). At 70 Goya retired to
his villa, decorating it with "Black Paintings" of macabre subjects,
e.g., %@AI@%Satan Devouring His Children, Witches' Sabbath,%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Three Fates%@AE@%
(all: Prado).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Goytisolo, Juan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Goytisolo, Juan%@AE@%%@CR:GOYTISOLO       @%%@QR:Goytisolo, Juan@%, 1931-, Spanish writer. His novels, often realistic%@EH@%
portrayals of post-civil war Spanish society, include %@AI@%The Young Assassins%@AE@%
(1954), %@AI@%The Party's Over%@AE@% (1962), and %@AI@%Makbara%@AE@% (tr. 1981).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gozzoli, Benozzo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gozzoli, Benozzo%@AE@%%@CR:GOZZOLI         @%%@QR:Gozzoli, Benozzo@%, 1420-97, Florentine painter; b. Benozzo di Lese. He was%@EH@%
apprenticed to Fra %@AU@%ANGELICO%@BO:           56cbc@%%@AE@%. His famous %@AI@%Journey of the Magi%@AE@% (Medici
Palace) depicts a magnificent cavalcade, with Lorenzo de' Medici as one
of the Magi.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gracchi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gracchi%@AE@%%@CR:GRACCHI         @%%@QR:Gracchi@%, two Roman statesmen and social reformers, brothers. %@AB@%Tiberius%@EH@%
%@AB@%Sempronius Gracchus,%@AE@% d. 133 BC, the elder brother, became alarmed at the
growth of wealth of the few. He stood for the tribunate of the people in
133 BC as an avowed reformer and was the author of the Sempronian Law to
redistribute the public lands. At the next election Tiberius renominated
himself, but the senate had the election postponed. In a great riot on
the following day Tiberius was killed. His brother, %@AB@%Caius Sempronius
%@AB@%Gracchus,%@AE@% d. 121 BC, became the organizer of the reform movement begun by
Tiberius. Elected (123) tribune of the people, he initiated a series of
remarkable social reforms. Caius was reelected (122) tribune, but the
following year was defeated for reelection. Repeal of his measures was
proposed, and in the ensuing riots Caius was killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grace%@AE@%,%@CR:GRACE1          @%%@QR:Grace@% 1929-82, princess consort of Monaco; b. Philadelphia as Grace%@EH@%
Patricia Kelly. She was a major film star until 1956, when she married
%@AU@%RAINIER III%@BO:          7c7387@%%@AE@%, the ruling prince of Monaco. She won the 1954 Academy Award
for her performance in %@AI@%The Country Girl.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grace%@AE@%,%@CR:GRACE2          @%%@QR:grace@% in Christian theology, the free favor of God toward people,%@EH@%
necessary for their salvation. Differing conceptions of grace led to
challenges by the 5th-cent. heresy Pelagianism and by 16th-cent.
%@AU@%CALVINISM%@BO:          177395@%%@AE@%. There is also cleavage in Christianity about the role of
sacraments. Roman Catholics and Orthodox hold that sacraments confer
grace; Protestants, that they are merely signs, not sources, of grace.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Graces%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Graces%@AE@%,%@CR:GRACES          @%%@QR:Graces@% in Greek mythology, personifications of beauty and charm;%@EH@%
daughters of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and the oceanid %@AU@%NYMPH%@BO:          6c6b8e@%%@AE@% Eurynome. Also known as the
Charites, they were named Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne. The Romans
called them the Gratiae.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grackle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grackle%@AE@%,%@CR:GRACKLE         @%%@QR:grackle@% New World %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Icteridae, which includes the%@EH@%
%@AU@%BLACKBIRD%@BO:          107409@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BOBOLINK%@BO:          113c42@%%@AE@%. The common grackle of the Atlantic coast is black
with metallic hues. It eats grains and insects but is also a
cannibalistic nest robber.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%graffito%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%graffito%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAFFITO        @%%@QR:graffito@% or %@AB@%sgraffito,%@AE@% decorative medium in which a plaster surface is%@EH@%
scratched to uncover a darker, contrasting color. The technique was known
to the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. During the Renaissance, Italian
architects used graffito to decorate the surfaces of buildings. A
graffito (pl. graffiti) also refers to an irreverent inscription on a
wall in a public space. Archaeologists used the term to designate
informal writings on ancient monuments. In the second half of the 20th
cent. the term has been applied to many acts of property defacement
involving paint and other graphic media.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grafting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grafting%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAFTING        @%%@QR:grafting@% horticultural practice of uniting the cambial layers, or%@EH@%
%@AU@%CAMBIUM%@BO:          1782c7@%%@AE@%, of two closely related plants so that they grow as one. The
scion (the piece grafted onto the stock or rooted part) may be a single
bud or a cutting with several buds; the stock may be a whole plant or a
root. The primary reason for grafting is to propagate %@AU@%HYBRIDS%@BO:          45cca3@%%@AE@% that do not
bear seed or do not grow true from seed. It is also used to increase
fruit tree productivity by adding to the numbers of buds, to grow a plant
in an unfamiliar environment by using a stock adapted to that
environment, and to combat diseases and pests by using resistant stock.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Graham, Billy (William Franklin Graham)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Graham, Billy (William Franklin Graham)%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAHAM1         @%%@QR:Graham, Billy (William Franklin Graham)@% 1918-, American evangelist; b.%@EH@%
Charlotte, N.C. Ordained (1939) a minister in the Southern Baptist
Church, he began his career as an evangelist in 1944. A fiery and
persuasive preacher, he has had highly successful evangelistic campaigns
that have brought him international attention. The Billy Graham
Evangelical Association publishes %@AI@%Decision%@AE@% magazine and produces material
for radio, television, and films.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Graham, Martha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Graham, Martha%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAHAM2         @%%@QR:Graham, Martha@% 1894-, American dancer, teacher, and choreographer; b.%@EH@%
Pittsburgh, Pa. She studied and made her debut (1920) with the Denishawn
companies, and then formed (1929) her own troupe. She is a leading figure
in %@AU@%MODERN DANCE%@BO:          620430@%%@AE@%; her works include %@AI@%Appalachian Spring%@AE@% (1944) and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Archaic Hours%@AE@% (1969).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Graham, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Graham, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAHAM3         @%%@QR:Graham, Thomas@% 1805-69, Scottish chemist. His research in diffusion in%@EH@%
both gases and liquids led to his formulation of Graham's law. The first
to work in colloidal chemistry, he observed that some substances pass
through a membrane more slowly than others, thus discovering %@AU@%DIALYSIS%@BO:          28a2fc@%%@AE@%.
His studies of phosphoric acid led to the present chemical concept of
polybasic acids.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grahame, Kenneth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grahame, Kenneth%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAHAME         @%%@QR:Grahame, Kenneth@% 1859-1931, English author. His humorous works include%@EH@%
%@AI@%The Golden Age%@AE@% (1895) and, his children's classic, %@AI@%The Wind in the
%@AI@%Willows%@AE@% (1908).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grain%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAIN           @%%@QR:grain@% in agriculture, the caryopsis, or dry %@AU@%FRUIT%@BO:          369f0d@%%@AE@%, of a cereal %@AU@%GRASS%@BO:          3c64a1@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
the seedlike fruits of %@AU@%BUCKWHEAT%@BO:          150af1@%%@AE@% and other plants, and the plants bearing
such fruits. Grains, whole or ground into meal or flour, are the main
food of humans and domestic animals. The food content is mostly
carbohydrate, but some protein, oil, and vitamins are present. Low in
water content, grains can be stored for long periods. The primary grain
crops-including %@AU@%WHEAT%@BO:          a0f688@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RICE%@BO:          7efbe8@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%CORN%@BO:          23669d@%%@AE@%-together occupy about half of total
world cropland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grainger, Percy Aldridge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grainger, Percy Aldridge%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAINGER        @%%@QR:Grainger, Percy Aldridge@% 1882-1961, Australian-American pianist and%@EH@%
composer. He settled in the U.S. in 1914. A friend of %@AU@%GRIEG%@BO:          3db9ec@%%@AE@%, he is noted
for settings of folk melodies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gram%@AE@%:%@CR:GRAM            @%%@QR:gram@% see %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WEIGHTS AND MEASURES%@BO:          a0404d@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grammar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grammar%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAMMAR         @%%@QR:grammar@% description of the structure of a language, consisting of the%@EH@%
sounds (see %@AU@%PHONETICS%@BO:          75008d@%%@AE@%); the meaningful combination of these sounds into
words or parts of words, called morphemes; and the arrangement of the
morphemes into phrases and sentences, called syntax. The list of
morphemes and their meanings (see %@AU@%SEMANTICS%@BO:          86b92a@%%@AE@%) in a language is usually not
part of a grammar but is isolated in a %@AU@%DICTIONARY%@BO:          28cf59@%%@AE@%. Syntax is also
concerned with agreement in a phrase or sentence between concomitant
entries, e.g., agreement of subject and verb in number and %@AU@%GENDER%@BO:          389227@%%@AE@%. Also
studied are sentence transformations such as negativization,
interrogation, and passivization. The earliest study of grammar began
about the 5th cent. BC in India with Panini's descriptive grammar of
Sanskrit and in Greece with %@AU@%PLATO'S%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@% dialogue %@AI@%Cratylus.%@AE@% Early traditional
grammars were devoted primarily to defining the parts of speech
semantically. The scientific analysis of language began in the 19th cent.
with the genealogical classification of languages by comparative
linguists. Grammatical analysis was advanced greatly in the 20th cent. by
the theories of structural linguistics and of %@AU@%TRANSFORMATIONAL-GENERATIVE
%@AU@%GRAMMAR%@BO:          974aba@%%@AE@%. School grammar books are prescriptive, that is, they provide
rules of what is considered correct and do not take into account common
usage and differences, such as those of %@AU@%DIALECT%@BO:          289aaf@%%@AE@% or those in styles and
levels of language (such as formal and informal; standard, substandard,
and nonstandard).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gramme, Zenobe-Theophile%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gramme, Zenobe-Theophile%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAMME          @%%@QR:Gramme, Zenobe-Theophile@% 1826-1901, Belgian electrical engineer.%@EH@%
Model-maker for a Parisian manufacturer of electrical devices, he
developed (1869), with little knowledge of electrical theory, an
improved, practical direct-current dynamo. By reversing its principle, he
invented the electric engine. In 1872, working with others, he
transmitted direct-current electricity over a long distance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gramm-Rudman Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gramm-Rudman Act%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAMMRUDMAN.ACT @%%@QR:Gramm-Rudman Act@% U.S. budget deficit reduction measure of 1985. The law%@EH@%
provides for automatic spending cuts to take effect if Congress fails to
reach established targets. It aims to reduce the deficit in installments,
approaching zero by 1991; the cuts are divided equally between defense
and domestic programs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gramsci, Antonio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gramsci, Antonio%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAMSCI         @%%@QR:Gramsci, Antonio@% 1891-1937, Italian political theorist. After rejecting%@EH@%
Socialism, Gramsci helped found (1921) the Italian Communist Party. As
party chief (1924), he was elected to the chamber of deputies (1924-26).
When %@AU@%MUSSOLINI%@BO:          65a8c6@%%@AE@% outlawed the party, Gramsci was arrested (1926) and spent
his remaining years in prison (1926-37), where his writings, %@AI@%Letters from
%@AI@%Prison%@AE@% (1947), %@AI@%The Modern Prince%@AE@% (1949), and %@AI@%Prison Notebooks%@AE@% (1971)
proved him to be one of the leading Marxist thinkers of the century.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gram's stain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gram's stain%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAMS.STAIN     @%%@QR:Gram's stain@% laboratory staining technique that distinguishes between%@EH@%
two groups of bacteria, gram-negative and gram-positive, by identifying
differences in their cell-wall structure. Pinpointing the type of
bacterial pathogens involved in disease (see %@AU@%BACTERIA%@BO:           adab7@%%@AE@%) can be valuable in
determining treatment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Granada%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Granada%@AE@%,%@CR:GRANADA         @%%@QR:Granada@% city (1981 est. pop. 262,182), capital of Granada prov., S%@EH@%
Spain, in Andalusia, at the confluence of the Darro and Genil rivers and
at the foot of the Sierra Nevada. Now the center of a mineral-rich
agricultural region, Granada flourished as the seat (1238-1492) of the
kingdom of Granada, the last refuge of the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%, driven south by the
Christian reconquest of Spain. The city is dominated by the Alhambra, a
Moorish citadel and palace, and also contains a cathedral and the palace
of Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Granados, Enrique%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Granados, Enrique%@AE@%%@CR:GRANADOS        @%%@QR:Granados, Enrique@%, 1867-1916, Spanish composer and pianist; b. Cuba. He%@EH@%
created the Spanish piano manner later used by %@AU@%FALLA%@BO:          31a1b1@%%@AE@%. %@AI@%Goyescas%@AE@% (1912-14),
a set of piano pieces, is his outstanding work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gran Chaco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gran Chaco%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAN.CHACO      @%%@QR:Gran Chaco@% lowland plain, c.250,000 sq mi (647,500 sq km), in Paraguay%@EH@%
and adjacent parts of Bolivia and Argentina. It is sparsely populated and
one of the hottest places in South America, with alternating flood and
drought seasons. Resources include oil (in the east) and quebracho, a
source of tannin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Alliance, War of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Alliance, War of the%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAND.ALLIANCE  @%%@QR:Grand Alliance, War of the@% 1688-97, war between France and members of%@EH@%
the League of Augsburg (known as the Grand Alliance after 1689). League
members included the Holy Roman emperor, the German states, Spain,
Sweden, the Dutch Netherlands, Savoy, and England (after %@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%
ascended the throne). They attempted to thwart the territorial incursions
of %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. Despite some English victories, France was generally
successful. But as the war dragged on, both sides wearied of it. The
Treaty of Ryswick, which ended the war, forced France to give up most of
its conquests. See %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Army of the Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Army of the Republic%@AE@%%@CR:GRAND.ALIC      @%%@QR:Grand Army of the Republic@% (GAR), organization established by Union%@EH@%
veterans of the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% in 1866. At its peak in 1890 it had more
than 400,000 members. Its principal goals were to aid fellow veterans and
their families, obtain pension increases, and preserve the memory of
fallen comrades (they secured the adoption of %@AU@%MEMORIAL DAY%@BO:          5e8cb0@%%@AE@% in 1868). They
exerted a strong influence on the %@AU@%REPUBLICAN PARTY%@BO:          7e5712@%%@AE@% until 1900. The last
member died in 1956.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Banks%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Banks%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAND.BANKS     @%%@QR:Grand Banks@% submarine plateau off SE Newfoundland, Canada. Shallow and%@EH@%
frequently fog-bound, the waters in the area are rich in cod, halibut,
haddock, and other marine life, making it one of the most important
fishing grounds in the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Canal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Canal%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAND.CANAL     @%%@QR:Grand Canal@% world's longest and oldest man-made waterway, extending%@EH@%
c.1,000 mi (1,600 km) from Tianjin (the port for Peking) in N China to
Hangzhou and the %@AU@%YANGTZE%@BO:          a3f3de@%%@AE@% R. valley in the south. The canal, which was
started in the 6th cent. BC, was lengthened AD c.610 and again extended
in the 13th cent. Long in decline, it was dredged, widened, and renovated
after 1958.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Canary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Canary%@AE@%:%@CR:GRAND.CANARY    @%%@QR:Grand Canary@% see %@AU@%CANARY ISLANDS%@BO:          181e1b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Canyon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Canyon%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAND.CANYON    @%%@QR:Grand Canyon@% world-famous gorge cut by the %@AU@%COLORADO%@BO:          2096c3@%%@AE@% R., NW Arizona. It%@EH@%
is up to 1 mi (1.6 km) deep, 4-18 mi (6-29 km) wide, and more than 200 mi
(320 km) long. Multicolored layers of rock in the canyon wall record more
than 2 million years of geologic time. Trails wind from the rim of the
gorge to its floor. The most spectacular section of the canyon is part of
Grand Canyon National Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,) and is one of the
principal tourist attractions in the U.S., visited each year by more than
2 million people.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Canyon National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Canyon National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:GRAND.CARK      @%%@QR:Grand Canyon National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Coulee Dam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Coulee Dam%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAND.CM        @%%@QR:Grand Coulee Dam@% concrete dam, 550 ft (168 m) high and 4,173 ft (1,272%@EH@%
m) long, on the %@AU@%COLUMBIA%@BO:          20b32b@%%@AE@% R., Washington. Built 1933-42, it impounds
%@AB@%Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake%@AE@% (130 sq mi/337 sq km), one of the largest
reservoirs in the U.S., and supports a hydroelectric installation that
was being expanded during the early 1980s into one of the largest in the
world (more than 9.7 Mw capacity).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grandfather clause%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grandfather clause%@AE@%,%@CR:GRANDFAUSE      @%%@QR:grandfather clause@% provision in constitutions of seven Southern states%@EH@%
(adopted 1895-1910) exempting from rigid economic and literacy
requirements those persons eligible to vote on Jan. 1, 1867, and their
descendants. Since blacks had not yet been enfranchised on that date, the
provision effectively barred them from the polls while granting voting
rights to poor and illiterate whites. The clause was ruled
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1915. The term %@AI@%grandfather
%@AI@%clause%@AE@% is now applied to any kind of legal exemption based on prior
status.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grand jury%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grand jury%@AE@%:%@CR:GRAND.JURY      @%%@QR:grand jury@% see under %@AU@%JURY%@BO:          4dd121@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Rapids%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Rapids%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAND.RAPIDS    @%%@QR:Grand Rapids@% city (1986 est. pop. 186,530), seat of Kent co., W central%@EH@%
Mich., on the Grand R.; inc. 1850. The commercial center for a farm and
orchard area, the city is famous for furniture manufacturing (begun
1859), which is still one of its leading industries. Gravel, gypsum, and
appliances are among other products. Grand Rapids is the gateway to a
large recreational area of Michigan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grand Teton National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grand Teton National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:GRAND.TRK       @%%@QR:Grand Teton National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grange, Red%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grange, Red%@AE@%%@CR:GRANGE          @%%@QR:Grange, Red@% (Harold Edward Grange), 1903-, American football player; b.%@EH@%
Forksville, Pa. As an All-American halfback (1923-25) at the Univ. of
Illinois, he scored 31 touchdowns and gained 3,367 yards. In his
professional career with the Chicago Bears (1925-35) he scored 1,058
points. Later he became a radio and television sportscaster.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Granger movement%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Granger movement%@AE@%,%@CR:GRANGERT        @%%@QR:Granger movement@% American agrarian movement named for the National%@EH@%
Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, founded in 1867. Its local units were
called granges and its members grangers. Originally established for
social and educational purposes, the granges became political forums
seeking to correct economic abuses through cooperative enterprise. The
"Granger laws," regulating railroads and grain storage facilities,
established the constitutional principle of public regulation of private
utilities. After 1876 other groups adopted the agrarian protest, and the
granges reverted to their social role.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%granite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%granite%@AE@%,%@CR:GRANITE         @%%@QR:granite@% coarse-grained %@AU@%ROCK%@BO:          7fd8d8@%%@AE@% composed chiefly of %@AU@%QUARTZ%@BO:          7b9548@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%FELDSPARS%@BO:          3256f7@%%@AE@%, of%@EH@%
varying color. It is commonly believed to be igneous (having solidified
from a molten state), but some granites show evidence of being
metamorphic in origin (see %@AU@%METAMORPHISM%@BO:          5f3c5b@%%@AE@%). Formed at depth, granite masses
are exposed at the earth's surface by crustal movements or erosion of
overlying rocks. Very coarse-grained granite, called pegmatite, may
contain minerals and gems of economic value.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grant, Cary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grant, Cary%@AE@%,%@CR:GRANT1          @%%@QR:Grant, Cary@% 1904-86, American film actor; b. England as Archibald Leach.%@EH@%
Debonair and charming, he appeared in such films as %@AI@%Bringing Up Baby%@AE@%
(1938), %@AI@%The Philadelphia Story%@AE@% (1940), and %@AI@%North by Northwest%@AE@% (1959). In
1970, he received the Academy Award for general excellence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grant, Ulysses Simpson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grant, Ulysses Simpson%@AE@%,%@CR:GRANT2          @%%@QR:Grant, Ulysses Simpson@% 1822-85, commander in chief of the Union army in%@EH@%
the U.S. Civil War, 18th president of the U.S. (1869-77); b. Point
Pleasant, Ohio, as Hiram Ulysses Grant. He graduated from West Point in
1843. Upon the outbreak of the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, he was commissioned colonel,
then brigadier general, of a regiment of volunteers, and fought his first
battle at Belmont, Mo., on Nov. 9, 1861. In Feb. 1862 he captured Fort
Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee, providing the first major Union
victory, and he was at once promoted to major general. In Apr. 1862 he
barely escaped defeat at the Battle of %@AU@%SHILOH%@BO:          885e93@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN%@BO:          9d151b@%%@AE@%
(1862-63), which ended Confederate control of the Mississippi, was one of
his greatest successes. Called to the supreme command in the West (Oct.
1863), he thoroughly defeated the Confederate forces under Braxton %@AU@%BRAGG%@BO:          131ec8@%%@AE@%
at %@AU@%CHATTANOOGA%@BO:          1c3e61@%%@AE@%. Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% made him commander in chief, with the rank
of lieutenant general in Mar. 1864. He directed the Union army in the
%@AU@%WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN%@BO:          a18e43@%%@AE@% (May-June 1864), wearing out the Confederates by
sheer attrition; he received Robert E. %@AU@%LEE'S%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% surrender at %@AU@%APPOMATTOX%@BO:           6d04a@%%@AE@% on
Apr. 9, 1865. He was made full general in 1866, the first U.S. citizen
after Washington to hold that rank. Grant was elected president in 1868,
defeating Horatio Seymour, and reelected in 1872, defeating Horace
%@AU@%GREELEY%@BO:          3d392c@%%@AE@%. His administration was characterized by corruption,
special-interest legislation, and vigorous pursuit of a punitive
%@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% program; in foreign affairs, however, much was
accomplished by his able secretary of state, Hamilton %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336209@%%@AE@%. Grant's
%@AI@%Personal Memoirs%@AE@% (2 vol., 1885-86) rank among the great military
narratives of history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Granville-Barker, Harley Granville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Granville-Barker, Harley Granville%@AE@%,%@CR:GRANVILLEBARKER @%%@QR:Granville-Barker, Harley Granville@% 1877-1946, English dramatist and%@EH@%
critic. A major avant-garde producer of plays in the early 1900s, he also
wrote realistic plays, e.g., %@AI@%Waste%@AE@% (1907), and %@AI@%The Madras House%@AE@% (1910),
and the monumental %@AI@%Prefaces to Shakespeare%@AE@% (6 vol., 1927-74).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grape%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grape%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAPE           @%%@QR:grape@% common name for the family Vitaceae, mostly climbing shrubs of%@EH@%
tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones. The %@AU@%WINE%@BO:          a252dd@%%@AE@% grape (%@AI@%Vitis
%@AI@%vinifera%@AE@%), known since ancient times, probably originated around the
Mediterranean and in W Asia; it is now grown in temperate regions of the
Americas. Grapes grown east of the Rockies are usually hybrids of this
species and disease-resistant American grapes, or varieties of native
species. Raisins are dried grapes. The genus %@AI@%Parthenocissus,%@AE@% native to
the U.S., includes the %@AU@%VIRGINIA CREEPER%@BO:          9dd78c@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%P. quinquefolia%@AE@%) and Boston %@AU@%IVY%@BO:          4a9b1f@%%@AE@%
(%@AI@%P. tricuspidata%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grapefruit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grapefruit%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAPEFRUIT      @%%@QR:grapefruit@% evergreen tree (%@AI@%Citrus paradisi%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%RUE%@BO:          81c863@%%@AE@% family, and its%@EH@%
globular %@AU@%CITRUS FRUIT%@BO:          1ea893@%%@AE@%, which grows in grapelike bunches and weighs from
one to five pounds (0.45 to 2.27 kg). It is believed that the pomelo (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%maxima%@AE@%), long a popular fruit in parts of Asia, was introduced into the
West Indies, where a mutation produced the grapefruit.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%graph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%graph%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAPH           @%%@QR:graph@% figure that shows relationships between quantities. In a bar graph%@EH@%
the lengths of bars indicate the quantities to be compared. In a line
graph the relationship to be studied is treated as a %@AU@%FUNCTION%@BO:          36d8ee@%%@AE@% and is
plotted on a coordinate system (for an example, see %@AU@%CARTESIAN
%@AU@%COORDINATES%@BO:          196b6e@%%@AE@%). The graph of a function %@AI@%y%@AE@%=%@AI@%f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%), where %@AI@%x%@AE@% and %@AI@%y%@AE@% are numbers,
is the set of points in the %@AI@%xy%@AE@%-plane with coordinates %@AI@%x, f%@AE@%(%@AI@%x%@AE@%). Statistics
makes use of both bar graphs and line graphs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%graphics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%graphics%@AE@%:%@CR:GRAPHICS        @%%@QR:graphics@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER GRAPHICS%@BO:          21858e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ENGRAVING%@BO:          2f1ed9@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ETCHING%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@EH@%
%@AU@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WOODCUT AND WOOD ENGRAVING%@BO:          a2eb1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%graphite, plumbago%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%graphite, plumbago%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAPHITE        @%%@QR:graphite, plumbago@% or %@AB@%black lead,%@AE@%mineral, one of two crystalline forms%@EH@%
of the element %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@%, occurring in various parts of the world. Dark gray
or black, greasy, and soft, with a metallic luster, it is a good
conductor of electricity. It is used to make crucibles and electrodes;
mixed with clay, it is the so-called lead of pencils.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grass, Gunter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grass, Gunter%@AE@%%@CR:GRASS1          @%%@QR:Grass, Gunter@%, 1927-, German writer and artist; b. Danzig (Gdansk,%@EH@%
Poland). Antimilitarism and social criticism are expressed in his novels
%@AI@%The Tin Drum%@AE@% (1959) and %@AI@%Dog Years%@AE@% (1963). His early works are symbolic;
later writings, such as %@AI@%From the Diary of a Snail%@AE@% (1973), reflect his
political activism. %@AI@%The Flounder%@AE@% (1977) is a highly acclaimed novel
treating politics, feminism, and the art of cooking.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grass%@AE@%,%@CR:GRASS2          @%%@QR:grass@% any plant of the family Gramineae, a widely distributed group of%@EH@%
mostly annual and perennial herbs. The grass family is of far greater
economic importance than any other. It includes the cereal grasses, e.g.,
%@AU@%WHEAT%@BO:          a0f688@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RICE%@BO:          7efbe8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CORN%@BO:          23669d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OATS%@BO:          6c800a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BARLEY%@BO:           c466e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%RYE%@BO:          8296b0@%%@AE@%,
hich provide the %@AU@%GRAIN%@BO:          3c0fe9@%%@AE@% that is the staple food in most countries and the
major type of feed; most hay and pasture plants, e.g., %@AU@%SORGHUM%@BO:          8baa56@%%@AE@% and
bluegrass; %@AU@%SUGARCANE%@BO:          9050cd@%%@AE@%; and species of %@AU@%REED%@BO:          7d71d0@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BAMBOO%@BO:           ba81b@%%@AE@% used for thatching
and construction. In addition, plants of the grass family provide raw
material for the production of many liquors and %@AU@%PAPER%@BO:          70e477@%%@AE@% items, form climax
vegetation (see %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%) in areas of low rainfall (see %@AU@%PAMPAS%@BO:          706b0f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PRAIRIE%@BO:          79096e@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%SAVANNA%@BO:          84f9da@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%STEPPE%@BO:          8edcef@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%VELDT%@BO:          9c5f78@%%@AE@%), and help to prevent %@AU@%EROSION%@BO:          2fdc1a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte de%@AE@%%@CR:GRASSE          @%%@QR:Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, comte de@%, 1722-88, French admiral. His%@EH@%
blockade of the York and James rivers during the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%
effectively bottled up Gen. %@AU@%CORNWALLIS%@BO:          23795a@%%@AE@% at Yorktown and led to the great
American victory of the %@AU@%YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN%@BO:          a45544@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grasshopper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grasshopper%@AE@%,%@CR:GRASSHOPPER     @%%@QR:grasshopper@% slender, winged, singing %@AU@%INSECT%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% of two families in the order%@EH@%
Orthoptera, having powerful hind legs, adapted for jumping and initiating
flight, and chewing mouthparts. Usually only the males produce a song,
but both sexes possess auditory organs. They range from 1/2 to 4 in.
(1-10 cm) in length. The long-horned grasshopper family includes the
%@AU@%KATYDID%@BO:          4e99b5@%%@AE@%; the smaller, short-horned family includes the %@AU@%LOCUST%@BO:          5622bb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grassmann, Hermann Gunther%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grassmann, Hermann Gunther%@AE@%%@CR:GRASSMANN       @%%@QR:Grassmann, Hermann Gunther@%, 1809-77, German mathematician and scholar. He%@EH@%
translated the Rig-Veda (1876-77) and reformulated the linguistic law
(named for him) stating that in Indo-European bases, successive syllables
may not begin with aspirates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grasso, Ella Tambussi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grasso, Ella Tambussi%@AE@%,%@CR:GRASSO          @%%@QR:Grasso, Ella Tambussi@% 1919-81, American politician, governor of%@EH@%
Connecticut (1975-81); b. Windsor Locks, Conn. She served Connecticut in
the legislature (1952-56) and as secretary of state (1958-70). She was
elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1970. Elected governor in
1974, she was the first American woman to achieve the office of governor
in her own right.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gratiae%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gratiae%@AE@%:%@CR:GRATIAE         @%%@QR:Gratiae@% see %@AU@%GRACES%@BO:          3bfe96@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grattan, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grattan, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:GRATTAN         @%%@QR:Grattan, Henry@% 1746-1820, Irish statesman. Entering the Irish Parliament%@EH@%
in 1775, he became known as a brilliant orator. He helped achieve nominal
legislative independence for the Irish Parliament, and he helped gain
Catholics the right to vote in Ireland. When hopes that Catholics could
sit in Parliament were dashed, he retired (1797). He sat in the British
Parliament from 1805, but took little part.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Graves, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Graves, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAVES          @%%@QR:Graves, Robert@% 1895-1985, English poet, novelist, and critic. He was%@EH@%
first successful with his war memoir %@AI@%Good-bye to All That%@AE@% (1929). Best
known for his poetry and for novels on Roman history, %@AI@%I, Claudius%@AE@% (1934)
and %@AI@%Claudius the God%@AE@% (1934), he has also written studies of myth, e.g.,
%@AI@%Greek Myths%@AE@% (2 vol., 1955), criticism, and translations of %@AU@%APULEIUS%@BO:           6dcea@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gravitation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gravitation%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAVITATION     @%%@QR:gravitation@% the attractive %@AU@%FORCE%@BO:          34505b@%%@AE@% existing between any two particles of%@EH@%
matter. Because this force acts throughout the universe, it is often
called universal gravitation. Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@% was the first to recognize
that the force holding any object to the earth is the same as the force
holding the moon and planets in their orbits. According to Newton's law
of universal gravitation, the force between any two bodies is directly
proportional to the product of their %@AU@%MASSES%@BO:          5ccc02@%%@AE@% and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. The constant of proportionality
is known as the gravitational constant (symbol %@AI@%G%@AE@%) and equals 6.670 *
10%@AH@%-11 %@AE@%newton-M%@AH@%2%@AE@%/kg%@AH@%2%@AE@% in the mks system of units. The measure of the force
of gravitation on a given body on earth is the %@AU@%WEIGHT%@BO:          a03985@%%@AE@% of that body. In
the general theory of %@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@%, gravitation is explained geometrically:
matter in its immediate neighborhood causes the curvature of the
four-dimensional %@AU@%SPACE-TIME%@BO:          8cd776@%%@AE@% continuum. See also %@AU@%CELESTIAL MECHANICS%@BO:          1a9fb7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gravitational collapse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gravitational collapse%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAVITAOLLAPSE  @%%@QR:gravitational collapse@% in astronomy, theoretically predicted final stage%@EH@%
in the life history of a star (see %@AU@%STELLAR EVOLUTION%@BO:          8eb6b0@%%@AE@%). Gravitational
collapse may begin when a star has depleted its steady sources of nuclear
energy and can no longer produce the expansive force, which is a result
of normal gas pressure, that supports the star against the compressive
force of its own %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%. As the star shrinks in size (and increases
in density), it may assume one of several forms depending upon its mass.
A low-mass star may become a %@AU@%WHITE DWARF%@BO:          a13e74@%%@AE@%; an intermediate-mass star may
explode as a %@AU@%SUPERNOVA%@BO:          90da76@%%@AE@% and become a %@AU@%NEUTRON STAR%@BO:          689099@%%@AE@%. If a star is too
massive, however, its evolution will not stop at one of these stable
configurations. According to present knowledge, nothing remains to
prevent the star from collapsing without limit to an indefinitely small
size. According to the general theory of %@AU@%RELATIVITY%@BO:          7dc915@%%@AE@%, space becomes curved
in the vicinity of matter; the greater the concentration of matter, the
greater the curvature. When the radius of a star decreases below a
certain limit (the Schwarzschild radius, or event horizon) determined by
its mass, the extreme curvature of space seals off contact with the
outside world. The former star is now a %@AB@%black hole.%@AE@% Because light and
other forms of energy and matter are permanently trapped inside a black
hole by the enormous pull of gravitation, a black hole can be observed
only indirectly. For example, in some %@AU@%BINARY-STAR%@BO:           fc804@%%@AE@% systems, such as the
X-ray source Cygnus X-1, the smaller and invisible companions are strong
emitters of X-rays and are suspected of being black holes. Gas flows from
the larger component of the binary and forms an accretion disk around the
black hole. As the gas from this disk spirals into the black hole, it is
accelerated by the collapsed star's enormous gravitational pull; as this
happens, the matter becomes compressed and heated to the extreme
temperatures at which X rays are emitted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gray, Asa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gray, Asa%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAY1           @%%@QR:Gray, Asa@% 1810-88, leading American botanist and taxonomist; b. Oneida,%@EH@%
N.Y. Professor of natural history at Harvard and a prolific author, he
(with the botanist John Torrey) helped to revise %@AU@%LINNAEUS'S%@BO:          5570cf@%%@AE@% taxonomy,
basing his version mainly on fruit anatomy rather than gross morphology.
His writings include the %@AI@%Manual of Botany%@AE@% (8th centennial ed. 1950), the
standard reference for E U.S. flora; %@AI@%Structural Botany%@AE@% (6th ed. 1879);
and %@AI@%The Elements of Botany%@AE@% (1887).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gray, Elisha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gray, Elisha%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAY2           @%%@QR:Gray, Elisha@% 1835-1901, American inventor; b. Barnesville, Ohio. He%@EH@%
patented many electrical devices, most having to do with the telegraph.
In 1875, experimenting with transmitting musical notes, he hit on the
idea of transmitting the human voice. In early 1876 he filed for a patent
caveat, just hours after the registration of Alexander Graham %@AU@%BELL'S%@BO:           e1238@%%@AE@%
final telephone patent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gray, Hanna Holborn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gray, Hanna Holborn%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAY3           @%%@QR:Gray, Hanna Holborn@% 1930-, American historian, president of the Univ. of%@EH@%
Chicago (1978-); b. Germany. Her father, the eminent historian Hajo
Holborn, fled the Nazis in 1934 and settled in the U.S. A Renaissance and
Reformation scholar, Gray became provost of Yale in 1974 and acting
president in 1977. Her appointment to Chicago made her the first woman to
head a major American university.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gray, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gray, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:GRAY4           @%%@QR:Gray, Thomas@% 1716-71, English poet. A scholar of Greek and history, he%@EH@%
spent a secluded life at Cambridge. His first important poems, written in
1742, include "Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College." The meditative
"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1751) is probably the most
quoted poem in English. Horace %@AU@%WALPOLE%@BO:          9edba9@%%@AE@% published Gray's Pindaric odes in
1757. Gray's verse illustrates the evolution of 18th-cent. English poetry
from %@AU@%CLASSICISM%@BO:          1efbdb@%%@AE@% to early %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Graz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Graz%@AE@%%@CR:GRAZ            @%%@QR:Graz@%, city (1981 pop. 243,405), capital of Styria prov., SE Austria, on%@EH@%
the Mur R. Probably founded in the 12th cent., it was built around the
Schlossberg, a mountain peak, on which stand the famous Uhrturm clock
tower and the ruins of a 15th-cent. fortress. The second largest city in
Austria, Graz has iron and steel, paper, and machinery works. Noteworthy
are its Gothic structures and the Johanneum museum. The astronomer
Johannes %@AU@%KEPLER%@BO:          4f24d5@%%@AE@% taught at the university.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Awakening%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Awakening%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.AWAKENING @%%@QR:Great Awakening@% series of religious revivals that swept over the%@EH@%
American colonies about the middle of the 18th cent. Beginning in the
1720s, Theodorus Frelinghuysen and Gilbert %@AU@%TENNENT%@BO:          93dbc0@%%@AE@% made local stirrings
in New Jersey. In New England the movement was started (1734) by Jonathan
%@AU@%EDWARDS%@BO:          2c9bf9@%%@AE@%. It was spread by a tour (1739-41) of George %@AU@%WHITEFIELD%@BO:          a14104@%%@AE@% and
reached the South with the preaching (1748-59) of Samuel Davies. The
Great Awakening led to bitter doctrinal disputes, but it also resulted in
missionary work among the Indians and in the founding of new educational
institutions. It encouraged a democratic spirit in religion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Barrier Reef%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Barrier Reef%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.BEEF      @%%@QR:Great Barrier Reef@% largest coral reef in the world, in the %@AU@%CORAL SEA%@BO:          233a62@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
off the coast of Queensland, NE Australia. It is c.1,250 mi (2,000 km)
long and is separated from the mainland by a shallow lagoon up to 100 mi
(161 km) wide. The reef is composed of hundreds of individual reefs and
has many islets, coral gardens, and unusual marine life. In some places
it is more than 400 ft (122 m) thick.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Basin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Basin%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.BASIN     @%%@QR:Great Basin@% desert region, in Nevada, Utah, and parts of adjoining%@EH@%
states, forming the northern half of the %@AB@%Basin and Range%@AE@% physiographic
province. It was explored (1843-45) and named by J.C. %@AU@%FREMONT%@BO:          35f794@%%@AE@%, who
recognized it as a basin of interior drainage (i.e., without outlet to
the sea). %@AU@%GREAT SALT LAKE%@BO:          3cee0b@%%@AE@%, Sevier, and Utah are the chief lakes. The
basin is sparsely populated. Industries include mining (copper, silver,
gold) and ranching.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Bear Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Bear Lake%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.BEAR.LAKE @%%@QR:Great Bear Lake@% largest lake of Canada and fourth largest of North%@EH@%
America, c.12,275 sq mi (31,800 sq km), on the Arctic Circle in the
Mackenzie district of the Northwest Territories. The lake, which is
ice-bound for eight months of the year, is 190 mi (310 km) long, 25-110
mi (40-177 km) wide, and drains west through the Great Bear R. to the
%@AU@%MACKENZIE%@BO:          58e949@%%@AE@% R. Port Radium, in the east, was a radium-mining boom town in
the 1930s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Britain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Britain%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.BRITAIN   @%%@QR:Great Britain@% officially the United Kingdom of Great Britain and%@EH@%
Northern Ireland, constitutional monarchy (1988 est. pop. 57,142,000),
94,226 sq mi (244,044 sq km), on the British Isles, off the W European
continent. It comprises England, Wales, and Scotland on the island of
Great Britain, and Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland. The capital
is %@AU@%LONDON%@BO:          5664e6@%%@AE@%. Great Britain is one of the world's leading industrial
nations. However, it lacks most of the raw materials needed for industry
and must also import about half of its food supplies. Thus its prosperity
is heavily dependent on the export of manufactured goods in exchange for
raw materials and foodstuffs, and it is the third most active trading
nation in the world. Manufacturing is the largest sector of the economy
and employs more than one third of the total work force. Major industries
include food processing, iron and steel, engineering, motor vehicles,
chemicals, textiles, and aircraft. Production of oil from %@AU@%NORTH SEA%@BO:          6baec2@%%@AE@% wells
began in 1975, and by 1979 the country was self-sufficient in petroleum.
Coal is also mined in large quantities. Almost 75% of the land is devoted
to agriculture, with dairy products and beef cattle the chief
commodities. Large numbers of sheep are raised for meat and wool. The
coal, gas, electricity, railroad, shipbuilding, nuclear energy, and, in
part, aerospace industries are publicly owned. Great Britain is the fifth
most densely populated nation in Europe, and the greatest population
concentration is in England. English is the universal language, but Welsh
is widely spoken in Wales and some Gaelic in Scotland. The Church of
England is the established church in England; the Presbyterian Church is
legally established in Scotland. There are large numbers of Roman
Catholics and Methodists. Immigration has made Great Britain a
multiracial society; immigrants from India, Pakistan, the West Indies,
and other Commonwealth countries number at least 1,500,000. The
hereditary monarch plays a largely ceremonial role in the government.
Sovereignty rests in Parliament, which consists of a 650-member House of
Commons and a House of Lords. Effective power resides in the Commons,
where the leading party usually provides the executive-the cabinet,
headed by the prime minister. For physical geography, see %@AU@%ENGLAND%@BO:          2eed7e@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%IRELAND, NORTHERN%@BO:          498630@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SCOTLAND%@BO:          85fcaa@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WALES%@BO:          9eabfb@%%@AE@%; for the early history of Scotland (to
1707) and Wales (to 1536), prior to incorporation in Great Britain, see
separate articles.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Early English History%@AE@% Little is known of the earliest inhabitants of
Britain, but the great structure at %@AU@%STONEHENGE%@BO:          8f56e3@%%@AE@% is evidence of their
advanced %@AU@%BRONZE AGE%@BO:          144216@%%@AE@% culture. The first Celtic invaders arrived in Britain
in the early 5th cent. BC In AD 43 the emperor %@AU@%CLAUDIUS I%@BO:          1f0f37@%%@AE@% began the Roman
conquest of Britain, which prospered and grew under four centuries of
Roman rule. With the disintegration of the empire by the early 5th cent.,
Germanic peoples-the %@AU@%ANGLO-SAXONS%@BO:           58e42@%%@AE@% and the Jutes-initiated waves of
invasion and settlement that gradually coalesced into a group of small
kingdoms. Raids by %@AU@%VIKINGS%@BO:          9d7ed5@%%@AE@% (Danes), begun in the late 8th cent., turned
into full-scale invasion in 865, and by 1016 the Dane %@AU@%CANUTE%@BO:          185c3b@%%@AE@% ruled all of
England. The conquest of England in 1066 by the Norman %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1d3b9@%%@AE@% (see
%@AU@%NORMAN CONQUEST%@BO:          6b2271@%%@AE@%) ushered in a new era in English history with the
introduction of %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@%. Conflict between the kings and the nobles over
abuse of royal power came to a head under King %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%, whose unprecedented
financial demands and unpopular church and foreign policies resulted in
the %@AU@%MAGNA CARTA%@BO:          596ecc@%%@AE@% (1215), a landmark in English constitutional history. The
%@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@% with France, which began in 1337, and the Black Death
(see %@AU@%PLAGUE%@BO:          76648a@%%@AE@%), which first arrived in Britain in 1348, hastened the
breakdown of the feudal system. Dynastic wars (see %@AU@%ROSES, WARS OF THE%@BO:          813180@%%@AE@%)
weakened both the nobility and the monarchy and ended with the accession
(1485) of the %@AU@%TUDOR%@BO:          986ea3@%%@AE@% family. Under the Tudors, England flourished and was
introduced to %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@% learning. %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% (r.1509-47) began the
English Reformation by breaking with the papacy and establishing the
Church of England. He also brought about the union (1536) of England and
Wales. The English Renaissance reached its peak during the reign of
%@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, a time of great artistic achievement and overseas expansion.
At her death (1603) the crowns of England and Scotland were united by the
accession to the English throne of the Stuart %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% (James VI of
Scotland). Under the %@AU@%STUARTS%@BO:          8fe31b@%%@AE@% a bitter power struggle between the monarchy
and Parliament culminated in the %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@% (1642-48). The victory
of the parliamentarians led to the execution (1649) of %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@%,
abolition of the monarchy, and establishment of the Commonwealth and the
Protectorate under Oliver %@AU@%CROMWELL%@BO:          24d49f@%%@AE@%. Following Cromwell's death, %@AU@%CHARLES
%@AU@%II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% was invited (1660) to become king (see %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@%). The old issues of
religion, money, and royal prerogative were not laid to rest, however,
until the %@AU@%GLORIOUS REVOLUTION%@BO:          3ab198@%%@AE@% (1688) ousted %@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% and placed (1689)
%@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARY II%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@% on the throne. The %@AU@%BILL OF RIGHTS%@BO:           fbc47@%%@AE@% confirmed that
sovereignty resided in Parliament. In 1707 the Act of Union legally
united the kingdoms of Scotland and England.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The Empire%@AE@% In the 18th cent. Britain began to play a more active role in
world affairs, emerging from the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@% (1756-63) as possessor
of the world's greatest empire (see %@AU@%BRITISH EMPIRE%@BO:          13f956@%%@AE@%). It suffered a
serious loss in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% (1775-83), but it was preeminent
in %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@%, settled %@AU@%AUSTRALIA%@BO:           9f239@%%@AE@%, and acquired still more territories in the
wars against %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%. A vain attempt to solve the longstanding Irish
problem (see %@AU@%IRELAND%@BO:          499009@%%@AE@%) brought about the union (1801) of Great Britain and
Ireland. The %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@%, in the late 18th and early 19th
cent., transformed social and economic life. Under Queen %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@%
(r.1837-1901) Britain reached the height of its commercial, political,
and economic leadership. The country's aggressive diplomacy in Europe
culminated in the %@AU@%CRIMEAN WAR%@BO:          24a5c9@%%@AE@%, and social and political reforms were also
begun. The dominant figures on the political scene were the prime
ministers Benjamin %@AU@%DISRAELI%@BO:          295ef2@%%@AE@% and William %@AU@%GLADSTONE%@BO:          3a840b@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%The 20th Century%@AE@% In the early 20th cent., growing military and economic
rivalry with Germany led Britain to ally itself with France and Russia
(see %@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND TRIPLE ENTENTE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%) and in 1914 Britain entered
%@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. Despite British victory, the war drained the nation of
wealth and manpower, and in the postwar years Britain faced severe
economic problems. In an effort to settle the thorny Irish problem,
Northern Ireland was created in 1920 and the Irish Free State in 1921-22.
Prime Min. Neville %@AU@%CHAMBERLAIN%@BO:          1b47e8@%%@AE@% pursued a policy of appeasement toward the
rising tide of German and Italian aggression, but this failed. In 1939
the Germans invaded Poland, and Britain entered %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% by declaring
war on Germany. The nation sustained intensive bombardment in the Battle
of Britain, but the British people, inspired by Prime Min. Winston
%@AU@%CHURCHILL%@BO:          1e3df1@%%@AE@%, rose to a supreme war effort. Following the defeat (1945) of
Germany, the Labour party, led by Clement %@AU@%ATTLEE%@BO:           9a6fd@%%@AE@%, gained power and
launched a program, including nationalization of industry, to revive the
war-damaged economy. The postwar years brought independence to many
former colonies, and Britain's status as a world military and economic
power gradually declined. In the early 1970s the country underwent its
worst economic crisis since World War II, and although the situation
eased somewhat with the discovery of oil in the North Sea, the 1980s saw
a continuation of the problems of inflation and unemployment accompanied
by a weakening currency. Conservative Margaret %@AU@%THATCHER%@BO:          948b6f@%%@AE@% became (1979)
Britain's first woman prime minister. In 1982 she led the nation in a
successful undeclared war with Argentina over the disputed %@AU@%FALKLAND
%@AU@%ISLANDS%@BO:          319e75@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%RULERS OF ENGLAND AND GREAT BRITAIN%@AE@% %@AI@%(including dates of reign)%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Saxons and Danes%@AE@%%@NL@%
Egbert, 802--39%@NL@%
AEthelwulf, son of Egbert, 839--58%@NL@%
AEthelbald, son of AEthelwulf, 858--60%@NL@%
AEthelbert, 2d son of AEthelwulf, 860--65%@NL@%
AEthelred, 3d son of AEthelwulf, 865--71%@NL@%
Alfred, 4th son of AEthelwulf, 871--99%@NL@%
Edward (the Elder), son of Alfred, 899--924%@NL@%
Athelstan, son of Edward, 924--39%@NL@%
Edmund, 3d son of Edward, 939--46%@NL@%
Edred, 4th son of Edward, 946--55%@NL@%
Edwy, son of Edmund, 955--59%@NL@%
Edgar, younger son of Edmund, 959--75%@NL@%
Edward (the Martyr), son of Edgar, 975--78%@NL@%
AEthelred (the Unready), younger son of Edgar, 978--1016%@NL@%
Edmund (Ironside), son of AEthelred, 1016%@NL@%
Canute, by conquest, 1016--35%@NL@%
Harold I (Harefoot), illegitimate son of Canute, 1037--40%@NL@%
Harthacanute, son of Canute, 1040--42%@NL@%
Edward (the Confessor), younger son of AEthelred, 1042--66%@NL@%
Harold II, brother-in-law of Edward the Confessor, 1066%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Normandy%@AE@%%@NL@%
William I (the Conqueror), by conquest, 1066--87%@NL@%
William II (Rufus), 3d son of William I,1087--1100%@NL@%
Henry I, youngest son of William I,1100--1135%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Blois%@AE@%%@NL@%
Stephen, grandson of William I,1135--54%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Plantagenet%@AE@%%@NL@%
Henry II, grandson of Henry I,1154--89%@NL@%
Richard I (Coeur de Lion), 3d son of Henry II,1189--99%@NL@%
John, youngest son of Henry II,1199--1216%@NL@%
Henry III, son of John, 1216--72%@NL@%
Edward I, son of Henry III,1272--1307%@NL@%
Edward II, son of Edward I,1307--27%@NL@%
Edward III, son of Edward II,1327--77%@NL@%
Richard II, grandson of Edward III,1377--99%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Lancaster%@AE@%%@NL@%
Henry IV, grandson of Edward III,1399--1413%@NL@%
Henry V, son of Henry IV, 1413--22%@NL@%
Henry VI, son of Henry V, 1422--61,1470--71%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of York%@AE@%%@NL@%
Edward IV, great-grandson of Edward III,1461--70,1471--83%@NL@%
Edward V, son of Edward IV, 1483%@NL@%
Richard III, brother of Edward IV, 1483--85%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Tudor%@AE@%%@NL@%
Henry VII, descendant of Edward III,1485--1509%@NL@%
Henry VIII, son of Henry VII, 1509--47%@NL@%
Edward VI, son of Henry VIII, 1547--53%@NL@%
Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII, 1553--58%@NL@%
Elizabeth I, younger daughter of Henry VIII, 1558--1603%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Stuart%@AE@%%@NL@%
James I (James VI of Scotland), descendant of Henry VII, 1603--25%@NL@%
Charles I, son of James I,1625--49%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Commonwealth and Protectorate%@AE@%%@NL@%
Council of State, 1649--53%@NL@%
Oliver Cromwell, lord protector, 1653--58%@NL@%
Richard Cromwell, lord protector, 1658--59%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Stuart%@AE@% %@AI@%(restored)%@AE@%%@NL@%
Charles II, son of Charles I,1660--85%@NL@%
James II, younger son of Charles I,1685--88%@NL@%
William III, grandson of Charles I; ruled jointly with Mary II, 1689--94;
ruled alone, 1694--1702%@NL@%
Mary II, daughter of James II; ruled jointly with William III,1689--94%@NL@%
Anne, younger daughter of James II,1702--14%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Hanover%@AE@%%@NL@%
George I, great-grandson of James I,1714--27%@NL@%
George II, son of George I,1727--60%@NL@%
George III, grandson of George II,1760--1820%@NL@%
George IV, son of George III,1820--30%@NL@%
William IV, 3d son of George III,1830--37%@NL@%
Victoria, granddaughter of George III, 1837--1901%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Saxe--Coburg%@AE@%%@NL@%
Edward VII, son of Victoria, 1901--10%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%House of Windsor%@AE@% %@AI@%(family name changed during World War I)%@AE@%%@NL@%
George V, son of Edward VII, 1910--36%@NL@%
Edward VIII, son of George V, 1936%@NL@%
George VI, 2d son of George V, 1936--52%@NL@%
Elizabeth II, daughter of George VI, 1952--%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Dane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Dane%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.DANE      @%%@QR:Great Dane@% very large, powerful %@AU@%WORKING DOG%@BO:          a324a5@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, up to 36%@EH@%
in. (91.4 cm); weight, up to 150 lb (68.1 kg). Its short coat may be
brindle, fawn, black, or white with black patches. Developed in Germany
over 400 years ago, it was used as a boarhound.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Depression%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Depression%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.DN        @%%@QR:Great Depression@% the severe U.S. economic crisis of the 1930s,%@EH@%
supposedly precipitated by the 1929 stock market crash. Certain causative
factors are generally accepted: overproduction of goods; a tariff and
war-debt policy that curtailed foreign markets for American goods; and
easy money policies that led to overexpansion of credit and fantastic
speculation on the stock market. At the depth (1933) of the Depression,
16 million people-one third of the labor force-were unemployed. The
effects were felt in Europe, and contributed to Adolph %@AU@%HITLER'S%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% rise in
Germany. The policies of the %@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@% relieved the situation, but
complete recovery came only with the heavy defense spending of the 1940s.
See also %@AU@%DEPRESSION%@BO:          28177a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Dividing Range%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Dividing Range%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.DRANGE    @%%@QR:Great Dividing Range@% crest line of the Eastern Highlands of Australia,%@EH@%
forming most of that continent's drainage or continental divide. It is
also widely used as an alternate name for the %@AU@%EASTERN HIGHLANDS%@BO:          2bdaf3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Elector, the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Elector, the%@AE@%:%@CR:GREAT.ELECTOR   @%%@QR:Great Elector, the@% see %@AU@%FREDERICK WILLIAM%@BO:          35cc10@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greater Antilles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greater Antilles%@AE@%:%@CR:GREATERS        @%%@QR:Greater Antilles@% see %@AU@%WEST INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Falls%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Falls%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.FALLS     @%%@QR:Great Falls@% city (1986 est. pop. 57,310), seat of Cascade co., N central%@EH@%
Mont., at the confluence of the Missouri and Sun rivers, near the falls
that gave the city its name; inc. 1888. A hydroelectric power center and
farm market, it produces oil, copper, zinc, and flour, as well as solar
panels and other manufactures. Malmstrom Air Force Base is nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Lakes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Lakes%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.LAKES     @%%@QR:Great Lakes@% group of five connected freshwater lakes, E central North%@EH@%
America, together covering c.95,000 sq mi (246,000 sq km). The
lakes-%@AU@%SUPERIOR%@BO:          90d84a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MICHIGAN%@BO:          6022dd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HURON%@BO:          458ddd@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ERIE%@BO:          2fc8e5@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6de5b2@%%@AE@%-and their connecting
waterways extend 1,160 mi (1,876 km) along the U.S.-Canadian border. With
the %@AU@%SAINT LAWRENCE SEAWAY%@BO:          833671@%%@AE@% they form the %@AB@%St. Lawrence & Great Lakes
%@AB@%Waterway,%@AE@% a major shipping artery that is navigable (except from December
to April, when blocked by ice) for 2,342 mi (3,770 km) by ocean-going
vessels of 27-ft (8.2-m) draft. The lakes range in elevation from 602 ft
(183 m) in the west to 246 ft (75 m) in the east, the greatest drop (167
ft/51 m) occurring between lakes Erie and Ontario at %@AU@%NIAGARA FALLS%@BO:          69ad74@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Mother of the Gods%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Mother of the Gods%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.MS        @%%@QR:Great Mother of the Gods@% in ancient Middle Eastern religion (and later%@EH@%
in Greece, Rome, and W Asia), mother goddess, the great symbol of the
earth's fertility. As the creative force in nature she was worshiped
under many names, including %@AU@%ASTARTE%@BO:           8ea4a@%%@AE@% (Syria), %@AU@%CERES%@BO:          1b10b0@%%@AE@% (Rome), %@AU@%CYBELE%@BO:          2595c7@%%@AE@%
(Phrygia), %@AU@%DEMETER%@BO:          27c701@%%@AE@% (Greece), %@AU@%ISHTAR%@BO:          49fbe8@%%@AE@% (Babylon), and %@AU@%ISIS%@BO:          49fdb5@%%@AE@% (Egypt). The
later forms of her cult involved the worship of a male deity (her son or
lover, e.g., %@AU@%ADONIS%@BO:           144c1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OSIRIS%@BO:          6f28d0@%%@AE@%), whose death and resurrection symbolized the
regenerative power of the earth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Plains%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Plains%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.PLAINS    @%%@QR:Great Plains@% semiarid region of level and rolling terrain, located E of%@EH@%
the Rocky Mts. and extending more than 1,500 mi (2,415 km) from Texas N
into Canada. Elevations range from c.6,000 ft (1,829 m) in the west to
c.1,500 ft (457 m) at the eastern boundary, which coincides roughly with
the 100th meridian of longitude (running from E Oklahoma through the
central Dakotas). Ranching and wheat farming, begun in the late 1800s,
ended centuries of habitation by Indians and buffalo. Coal, oil, and
natural gas deposits underlie the Plains.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Rift Valley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Rift Valley%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.REY       @%%@QR:Great Rift Valley@% huge depression, currently thought to be the product%@EH@%
of %@AU@%PLATE TECTONICS%@BO:          76a864@%%@AE@%, extending c.3,000 mi (4,830 km) across most of E
Africa and into SW Asia. In Africa it consists of an eastern arm,
occupied in part by Lakes Rudolf and %@AU@%NYASA%@BO:          6c6793@%%@AE@% (Malawi), and a western arm,
occupied in part by Lakes %@AU@%TANGANYIKA%@BO:          9298ed@%%@AE@%, Kivu, Edward, and Mobuto Sese Seko
(Albert). In SW Asia it forms the %@AU@%RED SEA%@BO:          7d62c7@%%@AE@%, the Gulf of %@AU@%AQABA%@BO:           6de88@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%DEAD
%@AU@%SEA%@BO:          26f723@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d3d82@%%@AE@% and Al %@AU@%BIQA%@BO:          1004c6@%%@AE@% valleys. Flanked in places by high cliffs
and volcanoes (Mts. %@AU@%KENYA%@BO:          4f2156@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%KILIMANJARO%@BO:          4f9a9e@%%@AE@%), the floor of the rift ranges
in elevation from c.1,300 ft (395 m) below sea level, in the Dead Sea, to
c.6,000 ft (1,830 m) above sea level, in S Kenya.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Salt Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Salt Lake%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.SALT.LAKE @%%@QR:Great Salt Lake@% largest salt lake in North America, c.1,000 sq mi (2,590%@EH@%
sq km), in NW Utah. The shallow lake (c.13 ft/4 m deep) is generally
decreasing in size and depth as the Weber, Jordan, and Bear rivers, which
feed it, are diverted for use farther east. The lake's waters have a salt
content of c.276 parts per thousand (greater than sea water) and support
no life except brine shrimp and colonial algae.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Slave Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Slave Lake%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.SE        @%%@QR:Great Slave Lake@% second largest lake of Canada, c.10,980 sq mi (28,400%@EH@%
sq km), in the Mackenzie district of the Northwest Territories. The
deepest lake (2,015 ft/614 m) in North America, it is c.300 mi (480 km)
long, 12-68 mi (19-109 km) wide, and drains W through the %@AU@%MACKENZIE%@BO:          58e949@%%@AE@% R.
Gold is mined at %@AU@%YELLOWKNIFE%@BO:          a4125a@%%@AE@%, in the north, and some lead and zinc on the
southern shore.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Smoky Mountains%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Smoky Mountains%@AE@%%@CR:GREAT.SNTAINS   @%%@QR:Great Smoky Mountains@% (or Great Smokies), range of the %@AU@%APPALACHIAN MTS%@BO:           6bff1@%%@AE@%.,%@EH@%
on the North Carolina-Tennessee border, named for a smokelike haze that
frequently envelops them. They rise to a high point of 6,642 ft (2,024 m)
at Clingmans Dome and are partly within Great Smoky Mountains National
Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Smoky Mountains National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Smoky Mountains National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:GREAT.SATIONAL  @%%@QR:Great Smoky Mountains National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Great Wall of China%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Great Wall of China%@AE@%,%@CR:GREAT.WHINA     @%%@QR:Great Wall of China@% fortifications, winding c.1,500 mi (2,400 km) across%@EH@%
N China from Gansu prov. to the Yellow Sea. It is an amalgamation of many
walls, first united (3d cent. BC) by the Ch'in dynasty. The present form
dates substantially from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) and averages 25 ft
(7.6 m) in height. Successive invasions of China by northern nomads
proved the wall to be of little military utility.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grebe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grebe%@AE@%,%@CR:GREBE           @%%@QR:grebe@% swimming %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% found on or near quiet waters in much of the world.%@EH@%
Resembling both the related %@AU@%LOON%@BO:          56a4e6@%%@AE@% and unrelated %@AU@%DUCK%@BO:          2b0ad4@%%@AE@%, it has short wings,
a vestigial tail, and long, individually webbed toes on feet that are set
far back on a short, stubby body. Grebes are poor fliers and clumsy on
land. They have complex courtship rituals, including dancing in pairs on
the water.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greco, El%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greco, El%@AE@%%@CR:GRECO           @%%@QR:Greco, El@%, c.1541-1614, Greek painter in Spain; b. Candia, Crete, as%@EH@%
Domenicos Theotocopoulos. By 1577, he was established in Toledo after
having painted in Rome and studied in Venice under %@AU@%TITIAN%@BO:          9614b9@%%@AE@%. He left
portraits of Toledo's proud nobility; their ascetic faces are seen in the
foreground of the %@AI@%Burial of the Count Orgaz%@AE@% (Church of San Tome, Toledo).
El Greco's flamelike lines, accentuated by vivid highlights, elongated
and distorted figures, and full, vibrant color produced dynamic
representations of religious ecstasy. Among his great works are %@AI@%Baptism,
%@AI@%Crucifixion,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Resurrection%@AE@% (all: Prado) and a long series of paintings
of St. %@AU@%FRANCIS%@BO:          3532e7@%%@AE@%. To his last period belong such works as the %@AI@%Adoration%@AE@% and
%@AI@%View of Toledo%@AE@% (both: Metropolitan Mus.). El Greco undoubtedly influenced
%@AU@%VELAZQUEZ%@BO:          9c57bc@%%@AE@% and is ranked among the great inspired, visionary artists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greece%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greece%@AE@%,%@CR:GREECE          @%%@QR:Greece@% Gr. %@AI@%Hellas%@AE@% or %@AI@%Ellas,%@AE@% officially the Hellenic Republic, republic%@EH@%
(1985 pop. 9,970,000), 50,944 sq. mi (131,945 sq km), SE Europe.
Occupying the S Balkan Peninsula, it is bordered by the Ionian Sea (W),
the Mediterranean Sea (S), the Aegean Sea (E), Turkey and Bulgaria (NE),
Yugoslavia (N), and Albania (NW). %@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@% is the capital and largest city;
other major cities include %@AU@%THESSALONIKI%@BO:          94f626@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PIRAIEVS%@BO:          75fedc@%%@AE@%. About 75% of the
country is mountainous, the major range being the Pindus Mts., in the
north. Central Greece includes the low-lying plains of Thessaly, Attica,
and Boeotia, as well as Greece's highest point, Mt. %@AU@%OLYMPUS%@BO:          6dabd3@%%@AE@% (9,570
ft/2,917 m). The southern portion of the country is the %@AU@%PELOPONNESUS%@BO:          72b660@%%@AE@%. Of
the total land area, almost 20% is in islands, notably %@AU@%CRETE%@BO:          248b02@%%@AE@%, the
%@AU@%DODECANESE%@BO:          29b874@%%@AE@% (including %@AU@%RHODES%@BO:          7edb32@%%@AE@%), and the %@AU@%CYCLADES%@BO:          259dd0@%%@AE@%. Industry has replaced
agriculture as the leading source of income. Principal manufactures
include construction materials, textiles, food products, chemicals, and
ships. The chief farm products are wheat, fruits, olives and olive oil,
grapes, tobacco, sugar beets, and tomatoes; large numbers of sheep and
goats are raised. Tourism is important. Modern Greek is the official
language, and the established religion is Greek Orthodox. Government is
by a unicameral parliament of 200 to 300 members, who elect a president
for a 5-year term. Greece became a full member of the %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@% in
1981. The country left the military wing of NATO in 1974, but rejoined it
in 1980.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Ancient Greece%@AE@% The region had seen the rise and fall of splendid
cultures, e.g., the %@AU@%MINOAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          613426@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          65cb03@%%@AE@%,
before the arrival of Greek-speaking peoples. By 1000 BC Achaeans,
Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians had settled in the region that is modern
Greece, where they developed many independent, often warring,
%@AU@%CITY-STATES%@BO:          1eaf77@%%@AE@%. Taking to the sea, by the 8th cent. BC they had created a
network of colonies from Asia Minor to Spain (see %@AU@%MAGNA GRAECIA%@BO:          5973a1@%%@AE@%). The 5th
cent. BC began with attempted invasions of Greece by the Persians. Greek
success in the %@AU@%PERSIAN WARS%@BO:          73c21f@%%@AE@% (500-449 BC) ushered in the golden age of
Greek history. Athens, in particular, grew dramatically and, in the age
of %@AU@%PERICLES%@BO:          7355f8@%%@AE@% (c.495-429 BC), experienced a surge of cultural development
rarely equaled in world history. Although Athens succumbed to %@AU@%SPARTA%@BO:          8d347b@%%@AE@% in
the %@AU@%PELOPONNESIAN WAR%@BO:          72ae2e@%%@AE@% (431-404 BC), Athenian thought prevailed, and the
culture that was to be the fountainhead of Western civilization lived on.
When %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          7492ec@%%@AE@% of Macedon conquered Greece (338 BC) at Chaeronea, he
paved the way for his son, %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%, who spread Greek
civilization across the known world. By 146 BC the remnants of the Greek
states had fallen to Rome, but when the Roman Empire was split (AD 395),
the %@AU@%BYZANTINE EMPIRE%@BO:          165ae5@%%@AE@%, formed from the eastern portion, was thoroughly
Greek in tradition. %@AU@%HELLENISTIC CIVILIZATION%@BO:          416f8e@%%@AE@%, centered at Alexandria and
other cities, also preserved the Greek heritage.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Modern Greece%@AE@% Turkish incursions and Norman attacks began in the 11th
cent., and Greece was absorbed into the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% in 1456. Under
Ottoman rule, Greece languished in obscurity and poverty until the
successful Greek War of Independence (1821-32) and the establishment of a
constitutional monarchy. Greece acquired the Ionian Islands (1864),
Thessaly and part of Epirus (1881), and Crete (1913); in the %@AU@%BALKAN WARS%@BO:           b70f4@%%@AE@%
(1912-13) it obtained SE %@AU@%MACEDONIA%@BO:          58a8d3@%%@AE@% and W %@AU@%THRACE%@BO:          955dae@%%@AE@%. Pressured by the Allies,
Greece entered %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% in 1917 and after the war was awarded most of
European Turkey and the Bulgarian coast. The period between the world
wars was marked by political turmoil: monarchs were enthroned and
dethroned; a republic proclaimed in 1924 collapsed in 1935; and in 1936 a
right-wing dictatorship was established under George %@AU@%METAXAS%@BO:          5f4e99@%%@AE@%. During
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Greece was occupied (1941-44) by the German army. Civil war
erupted in 1946, but massive U.S. military and economic aid ensured the
victory of royalist forces over Communist rebels. A coup d'etat by
rightist army officers in 1967 resulted in the rise to power of George
%@AU@%PAPADOPOULOS%@BO:          70d4ae@%%@AE@%, who abolished (1973) the monarchy and who was, in turn,
overthrown by another military coup. Civilian government was restored in
1974 and a new constitution adopted in 1975. In 1981 the electoral
victory of Andreas Papandreou (see under %@AU@%PAPANDREOU, GEORGE%@BO:          70ddf2@%%@AE@%) and the
Pan-hellenic Socialist Movement (Pasok) ended 35 years of pro-Western,
conservative rule and gave Greece its first socialist government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greek Anthology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greek Anthology%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEK.ANTHOLOGY @%%@QR:Greek Anthology@% collection of epigrammatic poems representing Greek%@EH@%
literature from the 7th cent. BC to the 10th cent. AD It began with
Meleager's %@AI@%Garland%@AE@% (c.90-80 BC) and was added to by others. A 10th-cent.
version, the %@AI@%Palatine Anthology,%@AE@% is the chief modern source.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greek architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greek architecture%@AE@%%@CR:GREEK.AURE      @%%@QR:Greek architecture@% arose on the shores of the Aegean Sea. When the%@EH@%
Dorians migrated into Greece (c.1000 BC) true Hellenic culture began; by
the 6th cent. BC, a definite Dorian system of construction existed. All
the great works were produced between 700 BC and the Roman occupation
(146 BC). The major masterpieces were erected between 480 BC and 323 BC,
including the reign of %@AU@%PERICLES%@BO:          7355f8@%%@AE@%, when %@AU@%CALLICRATES%@BO:          175760@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MNESICLES%@BO:          61dbfb@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ICTINUS%@BO:          46762c@%%@AE@%
flourished. Of the three great styles or %@AU@%ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          6e82e2@%%@AE@%, the
Doric was earliest and the one in which most of the monuments were
erected. Early examples (6th cent. BC) are found in Sicily and Paestum in
Italy; after 500 BC the Doric was perfected at Athens in the Hephaesteum
(465 BC), the %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@% (c.447-432 BC), and the Propylaea (437-432 BC).
The Greek colonies of Asia Minor evolved the second great order, the
Ionic order, stamped with oriental influences. After 500 BC it appeared
in Greece proper, challenging with its slender columns and carved
enrichments the sturdy, simple Doric. The most important Ionic buildings
were at Miletus. In Greece, the %@AU@%ERECHTHEUM%@BO:          2fbc7a@%%@AE@% was the one major Ionic
structure. The third, or Corinthian order, appeared in this period. Even
more ornate, it was little used. Examples are the Choragic monument
(c.335 BC) and the Tower of the Winds (100 BC-35 BC), both at Athens. The
Greeks used finely cut stone joints rather than mortar. Marble was used
after the 5th cent. BC Earlier, rough stone was covered with a marble
dust and lime coating. Although Greek buildings were long thought to have
been left white, traces of decorative coloring have been found. Cities
often had an acropolis, a citadel and temple site built on a steep hill.
The standard Greek temple had a simple rectangular chamber with an
entrance porch flanked by columns. The sides and ends would then be
surrounded with a colonnade, sometimes doubled. A body of traditional
mathematical formulas was developed to ensure harmony of proportions. The
Greeks built temples; monumental tombs; agoras, or public meeting places;
stoas, or colonnaded shelters; stadiums; palaestrae, or gymnasiums;
propylaeas, or city gates; and amphitheaters. After Athens and Sparta
declined, the more opulent and florid Hellenistic architecture arose
(4th-3d cent. BC), from which the Romans doubtless acquired their
concepts of monumental architecture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greek art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greek art%@AE@%.%@CR:GREEK.ART       @%%@QR:Greek art@% The Aegean basin was a center of artistic activity from early%@EH@%
times (see %@AU@%AEGEAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:           16c2e@%%@AE@%). Two great cultures-the %@AU@%MINOAN
%@AU@%CIVILIZATION%@BO:          613426@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          65cb03@%%@AE@%-had developed complex and
delicate art forms. After the invasion of the Dorians and other
barbarians (before 1000 BC), the curvilinear designs and naturalistic
representations of the Mycenean age were replaced by geometric schemes
with linear patterns. The transformation is seen in late geometric
(c.900-700 BC) pottery. Between 700 and 600 BC Oriental influence led to
the use of floral and arabesque patterns and monster and animal themes.
Then, during the archaic period (c.660-480 BC), sculpture became the
principle form of artistic expression. The statues of nude walking
youths, %@AI@%kouroi,%@AE@% suggesting Egyptian prototypes but distinct in
stylization and tension of movement, e.g., %@AI@%Kouros%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.),
date from this period. Draped female figures show Near Eastern influence,
e.g., %@AI@%Hera of Samos%@AE@% (Louvre). The outstanding Athenian school of
black-figure vase painting led by Execias depicted mythological and
contemporary scenes. A greater concern with three-dimensional space and
naturalistic detail emerged with red-figure vase painting (c.525).
Euthymides and Euphronius were early masters. The early classical period
revealed new insight into the structure of the human form (c.480-450 BC).
e.g., the sculptures from the temple of Zeus at Olympia, the bronze
%@AI@%Charioteer%@AE@% (museum; Delphi), and the %@AI@%Zeus%@AE@% or %@AI@%Poseidon%@AE@% (Athens, National
Mus.). During the Golden Age, the height of the classical period (450-400
BC), Polykleitos arrived at a rational norm for the ideal figure. The
magnificent sculptures from the %@AU@%ACROPOLIS%@BO:            d98a@%%@AE@% and its %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@%, thought to
have been designed by %@AU@%PHIDIAS%@BO:          74742e@%%@AE@%, exemplify this ideal. In the late
classical period (400-300 BC) there was more emphasis on emotion in art.
The works attributed to %@AU@%PRAXITELES%@BO:          790f35@%%@AE@% are elegant and graceful; to %@AU@%SCOPAS%@BO:          85f3f1@%%@AE@%,
strongly emotional; and to %@AU@%LYSIPPOS%@BO:          585e62@%%@AE@%, individualized, though all are
largely adduced through fragments or Roman copies. The works of the
painters of the period, e.g., Apollodorus and %@AU@%APELLES%@BO:           69c15@%%@AE@%, are known only
through description. The Hellenistic period began with the conquests of
Alexander the Great. Masterpieces of the period include the %@AI@%Nike%@AE@%
(%@AI@%Victory%@AE@%) %@AI@%of Samothrace%@AE@% and %@AI@%Aphrodite of Melos%@AE@% (both: Louvre); the
%@AI@%Pergamum Frieze%@AE@% (Berlin Mus.); the Roman copies of the %@AI@%Odyssey Landscape%@AE@%
(Vatican), a painting with great spatial illusionism; and the %@AI@%Laocoon and
%@AI@%his Sons%@AE@% (Vatican). Despite its decline, Greek culture and art inspired
Western art throughout history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greek language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greek language%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEK.LANGUAGE  @%%@QR:Greek language@% member of the Indo-European family of languages. Modern%@EH@%
Greek is derived from the standard Greek or koine of the Hellenistic
world. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greek music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greek music%@AE@%.%@CR:GREEK.MUSIC     @%%@QR:Greek music@% The music of ancient Greece was inseparable from poetry and%@EH@%
dancing. It was monodic (without %@AU@%HARMONY%@BO:          4009d5@%%@AE@% in the modern sense). The
musical culture of the Homeric period was looked upon as a golden age. In
the 6th cent. BC choral music was used in the drama (see %@AU@%TRAGEDY%@BO:          97260f@%%@AE@%). The
phorminx, a lyre, and later (6th cent. BC) the oboelike %@AI@%aulos%@AE@% and the
kithara, a large lyre, were the main instruments. Few fragments of
ancient Greek music survive. The physical relationships of tones, the
basis of harmony, was a Greek discovery, usually attributed to
%@AU@%PYTHAGORAS%@BO:          7b633f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greek religion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greek religion%@AE@%.%@CR:GREEK.RELIGION  @%%@QR:Greek religion@% Although its exact origins are lost in time, Greek%@EH@%
religion is thought to date from about the 2d millennium BC, when the
culture of Aryan invaders fused with those of the Aegean and Minoan
peoples who had inhabited the region of Greece from Neolithic times. As
portrayed in Homer's %@AI@%Iliad,%@AE@% the classical Greek pantheon, also called
Homeric or Olympian (for Mt. Olympus, home of the gods), was a blend of
Minoan, Egyptian, Asian, and other elements. The Greek deities had
supernatural powers, particularly over human life, but were severely
limited by the relentless force of fate (Moira). The gods were most
important in their role as guardians of the city-states and as those who
could provide information, through divination rites, about one's future
on earth. Often the favorable response or reward expected did not
materialize, and the civil strife that followed the classical period
(from c.500 BC) placed the old gods on trial. The popular religion of the
Greek countryside rose, emphasizing the promise of afterlife and
elaborate rites offered by such cults as the Eleusinian and %@AU@%ORPHIC
%@AU@%MYSTERIES%@BO:          6efe8c@%%@AE@%. The Dionysian excesses of these mystery rites were offset by
the virtues of moderation ascribed to Apollo. Later Greek philosophical
inquiry sought a more logical connection between nature and mankind,
leading to the rationalization of the early myths and the final
destruction of the Homeric pantheon. The vacuum was eventually filled by
Christianity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greeley, Horace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greeley, Horace%@AE@%,%@CR:GREELEY         @%%@QR:Greeley, Horace@% 1811-72, American newspaper editor; b. Amherst, N.H. He%@EH@%
founded the New York %@AI@%Tribune%@AE@% in 1841. As editor for over 30 years, he
advocated a protective tariff, the organization of labor, temperance, a
homestead law, and women's rights, and opposed monopoly, land grants to
railroads, and %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@%. His editorials were widely quoted, and thousands
acted on his advice, "Go West, young man, go West." He was one of the
first members of the new %@AU@%REPUBLICAN PARTY%@BO:          7e5712@%%@AE@%, although he denounced Pres.
%@AU@%LINCOLN'S%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% border-state policy and embarrassed the administration by his
antiwar sentiments. Following the Civil War, he favored black suffrage
and amnesty for all Southerners; he defied public opinion by signing the
bail bond to release Jefferson %@AU@%DAVIS%@BO:          26cecd@%%@AE@% from prison. He ran for president in
1872 as the candidate of the %@AU@%LIBERAL REPUBLICAN PARTY%@BO:          549985@%%@AE@%, but was soundly
defeated by the incumbent, U.S. %@AU@%GRANT%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greely, Adolphus Washington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greely, Adolphus Washington%@AE@%,%@CR:GREELY          @%%@QR:Greely, Adolphus Washington@% 1844-1935, American army officer and%@EH@%
explorer; b. Newburyport, Mass. Between 1881 and 1884 he commanded the
Lady Franklin Bay Expedition to establish one of a chain of arctic
meteorological stations. He and his party mapped a stretch of Greenland's
coast, crossed Ellesmere Island, and achieved a northern record of 83
deg24'. After two relief efforts failed, a ship found only Greely and six
others alive. Later, as the army's chief signal officer, he built
telegraph communications in U.S. possessions. He directed relief
operations after the San Francisco earthquake in 1906.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Green, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Green, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEN1          @%%@QR:Green, Henry@% 1905-74, English novelist; b. Henry Vincent Yorke. His%@EH@%
enigmatic, comic novels include %@AI@%Living%@AE@% (1929), %@AI@%Caught%@AE@% (1943), %@AI@%Loving%@AE@%
(1945), and %@AI@%Concluding%@AE@% (1948).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Green, Julian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Green, Julian%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEN2          @%%@QR:Green, Julian@% 1900-, French novelist, of American parentage. Such novels%@EH@%
as %@AI@%The Closed Garden%@AE@% (1927) and %@AI@%The Dark Journey%@AE@% (1929) concern vice and
madness. Others are %@AI@%Moira%@AE@% (1950) and %@AI@%Each in His Darkness%@AE@% (1960). In
1971, he was elected to the Academie Francaise.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Green, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Green, William%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEN3          @%%@QR:Green, William@% 1872-1952, American labor leader; b. Coshocton, Ohio. He%@EH@%
rose through the ranks of the United Mine Workers of America (UMW),
serving (1912-24) as secretary-treasurer. In 1924 he was elected
president of the AFL (see %@AU@%AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF
%@AU@%INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS%@BO:           47e73@%%@AE@%), a post he held until his death. He organized
skilled labor into craft unions, and he led the AFL in the struggle with
the CIO after the groups split in 1935. Green wrote %@AI@%Labor and Democracy%@AE@%
(1939).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenaway, Kate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenaway, Kate%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENAWAY       @%%@QR:Greenaway, Kate@% 1846-1901, English illustrator. Her fanciful colored%@EH@%
drawings of child life influenced children's clothing and illustrated
books. She provided text and pictures for many books, e.g., %@AI@%Under the
%@AI@%Window%@AE@% (1879).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%greenback%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%greenback%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENBACK       @%%@QR:greenback@% popular name for legal tender notes, unsecured by specie,%@EH@%
first issued in 1861 by the U.S. government during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. By
1865, greenbacks in circulation totaled more than $450 million.
Originally issued as temporary, the notes were to be recalled following
the war, but the hard times of 1867 led to demands, particularly by
Western farmers, for an inflated currency through the creation of more
greenbacks. A compromise was finally reached in 1869, whereby greenbacks
to the amount of $356 million were left in circulation; the law creating
them was made constitutional in the Legal Tender Cases (1868, 1870,
1871). The issue reappeared during the Panic of 1873, with hard-hit
agrarians, intensely opposed by conservatives, once again demanding
creation of more greenbacks. The conservatives triumphed, and the
Resumption Act of 1875 fixed Jan. 1, 1879, as the date for redeeming
greenbacks. With returning prosperity, however, confidence in the
government began to soar, and few greenbacks were surrendered. In 1879
Congress provided that greenbacks then outstanding ($346,681,000) remain
a permanent part of the nation's currency.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenback party%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenback party%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENBACK.PARTY @%%@QR:Greenback party@% a U.S. political organization founded (1874-76) to%@EH@%
promote currency expansion. Its principal members were Southern and
Western farmers stricken by the Panic of 1873. They nominated Peter
%@AU@%COOPER%@BO:          23066d@%%@AE@% for president in 1876, but he received only 81,737 votes. Uniting
with labor in the Greenback-Labor party (1878), they polled over 1
million votes and elected 14 representatives to Congress. Thus
encouraged, and with a broadened program that included woman suffrage,
federal regulation of interstate commerce, and a graduated income tax,
they nominated James B. %@AU@%WEAVER%@BO:          9ff6fc@%%@AE@% for president (1880). But the return of
prosperity had allayed discontent, and their vote declined to a little
over 300,000. Following the 1884 election the party dissolved. Many
members later joined the Populists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Green Bay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Green Bay%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEN.BAY       @%%@QR:Green Bay@% city (1986 est. pop. 93,470), seat of Brown co., NE Wis., at%@EH@%
the mouth of the Fox R., on Green Bay; inc. 1854. A major %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@%
port and rail center, it is on the site of a French trading post and
mission (1634); permanent settlement, the state's oldest, dates from
1701. It was a fur-trading center and gateway to the upper Midwest
occupied by the French (1717), British (1761), and Americans (1816).
Today it produces paper, food products, and machinery. It is home to the
Packers professional football team.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greene, Charles Sumner%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greene, Charles Sumner%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENE1         @%%@QR:Greene, Charles Sumner@% 1868-57, and %@AB@%Henry Mather Greene,%@AE@%1870-1954,%@EH@%
American architects; b. Brighton, Ohio. The Greene brothers modified
aspects of the %@AU@%ARTS AND CRAFTS%@BO:           880d2@%%@AE@% movement, the shingle style, and Oriental
architecture to fit the relaxed climate and lifestyle of California. They
were pioneers in the development of the bungalow style residence in
southern California, e.g., the Gamble House (1908) in Pasadena.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greene, Graham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greene, Graham%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENE2         @%%@QR:Greene, Graham@% 1904-, English novelist. A Catholic convert with intense%@EH@%
moral concerns, he writes novels that are essentially parables of the
damned. Those that are thrillers, e.g., %@AI@%Orient Express%@AE@% (1932), he calls
"entertainments." His major works are %@AI@%Brighton Rock%@AE@% (1938) and %@AI@%The Heart
%@AI@%of the Matter%@AE@% (1948). A superb journalist, he has set novels in sites of
topical interest, e.g. %@AI@%The Quiet American%@AE@% (1955), in Indochina. He is
also known for his short stories, plays, film criticism, and film
scripts, including %@AI@%The Third Man%@AE@% (1950).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%greenhouse effect%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%greenhouse effect%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENHOCT       @%%@QR:greenhouse effect@% process whereby heat is trapped at the surface of the%@EH@%
earth by the atmosphere. Energy from the sun passes through the
atmosphere, warming the earth and providing the wavelengths used in
%@AU@%PHOTOSYNTHESIS%@BO:          7538d6@%%@AE@%. Much of the incoming energy is reradiated in the form of
heat, some directly and some as a result of either the %@AU@%METABOLISM%@BO:          5f2b14@%%@AE@% of
living things or human industrial activities. This heat (infrared
radiation) is prevented from leaving the earth by atmospheric carbon
dioxide, water vapor, and ozone (acting like the glass in a greenhouse),
and much of it goes back into the ground. An increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide of 10% over the past century has led some authorities to
predict a long-term warming of the earth's climate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenland%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENLAND       @%%@QR:Greenland@% officially Kalatdlit Nunat (1988 pop. 54,790), largest island%@EH@%
in the world, c.840,000 sq mi (2,175,600 sq km), semi-autonomous overseas
state of Denmark, lying largely within the Arctic Circle off NE Canada.
The capital is Nuuk (formerly Godthaz.angstb). An ice sheet c.14,000 ft
(4,300 m) deep in places covers more than four fifths of the land area.
Most people live along the coast in the SW where the climate is warmed by
the North Atlantic Drift. About 10% are Europeans; the others are of
mixed Eskimo and Danish ancestry. Fishing, shrimping, and sealing are the
principal economic activities. Greenland was named and settled (c.982) as
a self-governing colony by %@AU@%ERIC THE RED%@BO:          2fc50b@%%@AE@%, a Norseman. The colony was
neglected by Norway in the 14th and 15th cent., and the colonists had
either died out or had been assimilated with the Eskimos when Greenland
was rediscovered, with no trace of the Norsemen, in the 16th cent. by the
British explorers Martin %@AU@%FROBISHER%@BO:          367763@%%@AE@% and John Davis. It was recolonized,
beginning in 1721, by Norway and became a Danish colony in 1815.
Greenland became an integral part of Denmark in 1953 with representatives
in the %@AI@%Folketing%@AE@% (Parliament), and was granted home rule in 1979.
Greenlandic names came into common use in 1979, and the island
independently withdrew from the Common Market in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%greenmail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%greenmail%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENMAIL       @%%@QR:greenmail@% payment by a corporation that is a takeover target to stop the%@EH@%
takeover by purchasing at a premium shares acquired by the potential
buyer. In exchange, the potential acquirer stops the takeover bid.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Green Mountain Boys%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Green Mountain Boys%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEN.MBOYS     @%%@QR:Green Mountain Boys@% popular name of armed bands led by Ethan %@AU@%ALLEN%@BO:           3dcd2@%%@AE@% that,%@EH@%
by threats, intimidation, and violence, prevented the New Hampshire
Grants (land that is now Vermont) from becoming part of New York state.
In the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, under Allen, they captured Fort %@AU@%TICONDEROGA%@BO:          95b53f@%%@AE@%
(1775) and won an important victory at Bennington (1777).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenough, Horatio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenough, Horatio%@AE@%%@CR:GREENOUGH       @%%@QR:Greenough, Horatio@%, 1805-52, American sculptor and writer; b. Boston. As%@EH@%
a writer, he heralded modern concepts of functionalism in architecture.
As a sculptor, he is famous for a colossal statue of George Washington
(Smithsonian Inst.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Green Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Green Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:GREEN.RN        @%%@QR:Green Revolution@% popular term referring mainly to the large increases%@EH@%
achieved in %@AU@%GRAIN%@BO:          3c0fe9@%%@AE@% production in certain underdeveloped areas-especially
India, Pakistan, and the Philippines in the late 1960s. It was
accomplished through the use of high-yielding %@AU@%HYBRIDS%@BO:          45cca3@%%@AE@%, chemical
%@AU@%FERTILIZERS%@BO:          32c4ec@%%@AE@%, and new crop strategies and harvesting methods.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greensboro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greensboro%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENSBORO      @%%@QR:Greensboro@% city (1986 est. pop. 176,650), seat of Guilford co., N%@EH@%
central N.C.; settled 1749, inc. 1808. The state's second-largest city,
it has an important textile industry, produces tobacco and machinery, and
is a regional financial, insurance, and distribution center. The
Revolutionary War battle of Guilford Courthouse was fought nearby. The
city has several colleges. It is the birthplace of Dolley %@AU@%MADISON%@BO:          59378d@%%@AE@% and O.
%@AU@%HENRY%@BO:          41f289@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenville%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENVILLE      @%%@QR:Greenville@% city (1986 est. pop. 58,370), seat of Greenville co., NW%@EH@%
S.C., on the Reedy R., in the Piedmont; laid out 1797, inc. as a city
1907. A major industrial and commercial center of the SE U.S., in the
heart of a region of mill towns, it has huge textile mills and diverse
manufactures, and processes farm products. Textile Hall is the scene of
the biennial Southern Textile Exposition. Furman Univ. and Bob Jones
Univ. are in the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenwich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenwich%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENWICH       @%%@QR:Greenwich@% borough (1986 est. pop. 217,800) of Greater London, SE%@EH@%
England, on the Thames R. The system of geographic longitude and
time-keeping worked out at its old Royal Observatory (1675-1958) have
become standard in most of the world; the prime meridian (zero longitude)
passes through the observatory. Other points of interest are the Royal
Naval College (begun 17th cent.) and the National Maritime Museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenwich Mean Time%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenwich Mean Time%@AE@%%@CR:GREENWITIME     @%%@QR:Greenwich Mean Time@% (GMT): see %@AU@%SOLAR TIME%@BO:          8b25eb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenwich meridian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenwich meridian%@AE@%:%@CR:GREENWIIAN      @%%@QR:Greenwich meridian@% see %@AU@%PRIME MERIDIAN%@BO:          798450@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greenwich Village%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greenwich Village%@AE@%,%@CR:GREENWIGE       @%%@QR:Greenwich Village@% district of lower Manhattan, N.Y.C. An influx of%@EH@%
artists and freethinkers in the early 1900s established the area's
reputation for bohemianism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greer, Germaine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greer, Germaine%@AE@%,%@CR:GREER           @%%@QR:Greer, Germaine@% 1939-, Australian feminist and writer. She moved to%@EH@%
England (1964), earned a Ph.D. from Cambridge, and taught at the Univ. of
Warwick (1967-73). Her book %@AI@%The Female Eunich%@AE@% (1970), an analysis of
attitudes toward women and a call for an end to sexual repression, made
her a leading spokeswoman for %@AU@%FEMINISM%@BO:          3261c5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregorian chant%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregorian chant%@AE@%:%@CR:GREGORIAN.CHANT @%%@QR:Gregorian chant@% see %@AU@%PLAINSONG%@BO:          766c01@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory I, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory I, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:GREGORY.I       @%%@QR:Gregory I, Saint@% (Saint Gregory the Great), c.540-604, pope (590-604),%@EH@%
Doctor of the Church. A Roman prefect, he became a monk and, although he
resisted promotion, eventually pope. His rule was notable for the
enforcement of papal supremacy and the establishment of the temporal
position of the pope. He attacked Donatism in Africa, refused to
recognize the title %@AI@%ecumenical%@AE@% of the patriarch of Constantinople (an act
that helped split East and West), and treated (592) with the invading
%@AU@%LOMBARDS%@BO:          565551@%%@AE@% after the Byzantine exarch failed to defend Rome. Gregory
encouraged monasticism, made laws for the lives of the clergy, and sent
missionaries to England. His writings include letters, commentaries on
the Book of Job, saints' lives, and %@AI@%Pastoral Care.%@AE@% He also contributed to
the development of Gregorian chant or %@AU@%PLAINSONG%@BO:          766c01@%%@AE@%. Feast: Sept. 3.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory VII, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory VII, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORY.VII     @%%@QR:Gregory VII, Saint@% d. 1085, pope (1073-85), an Italian named Hildebrand.%@EH@%
A Benedictine, he became notable under Pope Gregory VI and under %@AU@%LEO IX%@BO:          53ec65@%%@AE@%
launched his reform program, aimed at correcting corruption and laxity in
the church. As chief figure in the curia under Leo's successors, he
transferred the papal election from the Romans to the college of
cardinals and formed an alliance with the Normans of S Italy. As pope he
pressed his reforms by condemning clerical marriage, simony, and lay
%@AU@%INVESTITURE%@BO:          491c94@%%@AE@%, and he sent papal legates throughout Europe to enforce his
actions. Opposition was widespread, and a powerful antireform party grew
among laymen who feared church domination. In Germany, %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41ef0a@%%@AE@% joined
the antireform party and was excommunicated (1076) by Gregory. Losing
support, Henry humbled himself before Gregory at Canossa, but in 1080 the
two again fell out. Henry, again excommunicated, set up Guibert of
Ravenna (Clement III) as antipope, and Gregory's appeal to the Christian
world failed. When the German civil war ended, Henry marched into Italy
and took Rome (1083). Gregory retired into the Castel Sant' Angelo until
the Normans under %@AU@%ROBERT GUISCARD%@BO:          7fa683@%%@AE@% rescued him, then followed the Norman
withdrawal and died in Salerno after a year of exile. His reform was a
turning point in church history. It elevated the moral level of the
church and began the successful struggle against lay investiture. Feast:
May 25.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory IX%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory IX%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORY.IX      @%%@QR:Gregory IX@% 1143?-1241, pope (1227-41), an Italian named Ugolino di%@EH@%
Segni. Elected at age 84, he excommunicated (1227) Holy Roman Emperor
%@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% for not undertaking a crusade. Imperialists in Rome revolted
and forced Gregory into exile until 1230. In a dispute over Italian
liberties, he again excommunicated (1239) Frederick and ordered him
dethroned. Frederick blocked Gregory's call for a general council and was
preparing to attack Rome when Gregory died at age 98.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory XI%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory XI%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORY.XI      @%%@QR:Gregory XI@% 1330-78, pope (1370-78), a Frenchman named Pierre Roger de%@EH@%
Beaufort. After receiving prophetic admonitions from St. Bridget of
Sweden and St. %@AU@%CATHERINE OF SIENA%@BO:          1a4079@%%@AE@%, he determined to move the papacy from
Avignon back to Rome. But the Avignon court was opposed, and the papal
states were in chaos. After sanctioning a foray into Italy by Robert of
Geneva, Gregory returned to Rome (Jan. 1377), thus ending the Babylonian
Captivity of the popes. The elections after his death began the Great
%@AU@%SCHISM%@BO:          85642a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory XII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory XII%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORY.XII     @%%@QR:Gregory XII@% c.1327-1417, pope (1406-15), a Venetian named Angelo Correr.%@EH@%
Gregory negotiated with the Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII (see %@AU@%LUNA,
%@AU@%PEDRO DE%@BO:          57dad1@%%@AE@%), to end the Great %@AU@%SCHISM%@BO:          85642a@%%@AE@%, but failed, whereupon the Council of
Pisa elected a second antipope. The Council of Constance accepted
Gregory's resignation (1415), deposed the two antipopes, and elected
%@AU@%MARTIN V%@BO:          5c3f7b@%%@AE@% pope (1417).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory XIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory XIII%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORY.XIII    @%%@QR:Gregory XIII@% 1502-85, pope (1572-85), an Italian named Ugo Buoncompagni,%@EH@%
best known for the reformed or Gregorian %@AU@%CALENDAR%@BO:          170f32@%%@AE@%. He was prominent at
the Council of %@AU@%TRENT%@BO:          97a7e3@%%@AE@% (1545, 1559-63). As pope he proposed the deposition
of Queen Elizabeth I of England and took an interest in the education of
the clergy and the conversion of Protestants. He issued a new edition of
the canon law and patronized the Jesuits.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory, Lady Augusta (Persse)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory, Lady Augusta (Persse)%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORY1        @%%@QR:Gregory, Lady Augusta (Persse)@% 1859-1932, Irish dramatist, a founder and%@EH@%
director of the Abbey Theatre, Dublin. Her plays include %@AI@%Spreading the
%@AI@%News%@AE@% (1904), %@AI@%The Gaol Gate%@AE@% (1906), %@AI@%The Rising of the Moon%@AE@% (1907), and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Workhouse Ward%@AE@% (1908). Her %@AI@%Our Irish Theater%@AE@% (1913) is a key document of
the %@AU@%IRISH LITERARY RENAISSANCE%@BO:          49aa05@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory, Horace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory, Horace%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORY2        @%%@QR:Gregory, Horace@% 1898-1982, American author; b. Milwaukee. His dramatic%@EH@%
poetry, noted for its insights into contemporary life, include %@AI@%Rooming
%@AI@%House%@AE@% (1930) and %@AI@%Medusa in Gramercy Park%@AE@% (1961). Gregory also wrote many
works of literary criticism and published translations of Latin poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory Nazianzen, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory Nazianzen, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:GREGORYEN       @%%@QR:Gregory Nazianzen, Saint@%, c.330-390, Cappadocian theologian, Doctor of%@EH@%
the Church, one of the Four Fathers of the Greek Church. Active in the
struggle against %@AU@%ARIANISM%@BO:           7a0af@%%@AE@%, he was chosen bishop of Constantinople (379),
but he retired after the First Council of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          22895d@%%@AE@%. Feast: Jan. 2.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory of Nyssa, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory of Nyssa, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORYA        @%%@QR:Gregory of Nyssa, Saint@% c. 330-95, Christian theologian. Influenced by%@EH@%
his brother Saint Basel and friend Saint Gregory of Nazianzus, he entered
monastic life and became Bishop of Cappadocia in E central Turkey.
Against Arian opponents, he championed the Nicene doctrine of the single
substance (ousia) of the members of the Trinity at the First Council of
%@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          22895d@%%@AE@% (381). His writings include many anti-Arian tracts and
apologies for rigorous Christian asceticism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gregory of Tours, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gregory of Tours, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:GREGORYS        @%%@QR:Gregory of Tours, Saint@% 538-94, French historian, bishop of Tours (from%@EH@%
573). His masterpiece, %@AI@%History of the Franks,%@AE@% is a universal history with
an important account of contemporary events. Feast: Nov. 17.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grenada%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grenada%@AE@%%@CR:GRENADA         @%%@QR:Grenada@%, island nation (1987 est. pop. 92,000), in the West Indies,%@EH@%
consisting of the main island of Grenada (120 sq mi/311 sq km), the
southernmost of the Windward Islands; and the southern group of the
sparsely settled archipelago known as the Grenadines. The capital and
main port, Saint George's, is on Grenada, which is a volcanic,
mountainous island on which bananas, sugar, coconuts, cotton, and limes
are grown for export. The people, mainly blacks or mulattos, mostly speak
English (the official language). Settlement of Grenada, delayed by
hostile Carib Indians, was begun by the French in 1650, but the island
was taken over in 1783 by the British, who established sugar plantations
and imported African slaves. Grenada became self-governing in 1967 and an
independent state within the Commonwealth in 1974. A coup in 1979
installed a Marxist government, which allied the nation with Cuba. A 1983
invasion by the U.S., with token forces from other Caribbean nations,
restored democratic rule.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grenade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grenade%@AE@%,%@CR:GRENADE         @%%@QR:grenade@% small bomb designed to be thrown by hand or shot from a modified%@EH@%
rifle or a grenade launcher. It may be filled with gas or chemicals but
more often holds an explosive charge that fractures the casing into
lethal fragments. First used in the 15th cent. (by "grenadiers"), the
grenade later fell into disuse until the 20th cent., when it became a
standard %@AU@%INFANTRY%@BO:          48046e@%%@AE@% weapon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grenfell, Sir Wilfred Thomason%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grenfell, Sir Wilfred Thomason%@AE@%,%@CR:GRENFELL        @%%@QR:Grenfell, Sir Wilfred Thomason@% 1865-1940, English physician and%@EH@%
missionary. After serving as missionary to North Sea fishermen, he spent
over 40 years in Labrador and Newfoundland, building hospitals and
nursing stations and establishing cooperative stores, agricultural
centers, schools, libraries, and orphanages. He also opened (1912) a
seamen's institute in Newfoundland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grenoble%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grenoble%@AE@%,%@CR:GRENOBLE        @%%@QR:Grenoble@% city (1982 pop. 159,503), capital of Isere dept., SE France. A%@EH@%
leading resort at the foot of the Alps and site of the 1968 winter
Olympics, it is important for its nuclear-research center, hydroelectric
power, and science-based industries and research institutes, linked to
the noted University of Grenoble (est. 1339). It passed from the dauphins
of Viennois to the crown in 1349.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grenville, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grenville, George%@AE@%,%@CR:GRENVILLE1      @%%@QR:Grenville, George@% 1712-70, British statesman. While prime minister%@EH@%
(1763-65), he provoked reformers by persecuting John %@AU@%WILKES%@BO:          a1a01c@%%@AE@% and aroused
opposition by attempting to tax the American colonies through the %@AU@%STAMP
%@AU@%ACT%@BO:          8e2098@%%@AE@%. His son %@AB@%George Nugent Temple Grenville,%@AE@% 1st %@AB@%marquess of Buckingham,%@AE@%
1753-1813, was lord lieutenant of Ireland (1782-83, 1787-89). His brother
%@AB@%William Wyndham Grenville, Baron Grenville,%@AE@% 1759-1834, was foreign
secretary to William %@AU@%PITT%@BO:          762e45@%%@AE@% (1791-1801). In 1806 he formed the "ministry of
all talents," which abolished the slave trade (1807).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grenville, Sir Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grenville, Sir Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:GRENVILLE2      @%%@QR:Grenville, Sir Richard@% 1542?-1591, English naval hero. In 1585 he%@EH@%
commanded the fleet carrying the first colonists to Roanoke Island. On an
expedition to capture Spanish treasure ships off the Azores in 1591, his
ship, the %@AI@%Revenge,%@AE@% became separated from the rest of the fleet. He tried
to break through the Spanish line, but he was mortally wounded and died
in Spanish captivity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gresham, Sir Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gresham, Sir Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:GRESHAM         @%%@QR:Gresham, Sir Thomas@% 1519?-1579, English merchant and financier. Founder%@EH@%
of the Royal Exchange, he accumulated a private fortune while serving as
an adviser to %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%. His name was given to %@AB@%Gresham's law,%@AE@% the
economic principle (formulated long before his time) that "bad money
drives out good." When depreciated, mutilated, or debased coinage (or
currency) circulates concurrently with money of high value in terms of
precious metals, the good money automatically disappears because of
hoarding.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gresham's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gresham's law%@AE@%:%@CR:GRESHAMS.LAW    @%%@QR:Gresham's law@% see under %@AU@%GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS%@BO:          3da5bb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gretzky, Wayne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gretzky, Wayne%@AE@%,%@CR:GRETZKY         @%%@QR:Gretzky, Wayne@% 1961-, Canadian ice hockey player. Gretzky joined the%@EH@%
Edmonton (Alta.) Oilers in 1978 and first set National Hockey League
(NHL) scoring records in 1979. In 1981-82, he set single-season NHL marks
for goals scored (92), assists (120), and points (212), becoming the
first player to achieve more than 200 points. In 1984-85 he set the
record for most assists in one season (135). He was traded to the Los
Angeles Kings in 1988.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Greuze, Jean-Baptiste%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Greuze, Jean-Baptiste%@AE@%%@CR:GREUZE          @%%@QR:Greuze, Jean-Baptiste@%, 1725-1805, French genre and portrait painter. He%@EH@%
is best known for his moralizing pictures, e.g., %@AI@%The Broken Pitcher%@AE@%
(Louvre). His portraits, e.g., that of his wife, (%@AI@%The Milkmaid%@AE@%), and that
of Napoleon I (both: Versailles), are more interesting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grevy, Jules%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grevy, Jules%@AE@%,%@CR:GREVY           @%%@QR:Grevy, Jules@% 1807-91, president of France (1879-87). He opposed the%@EH@%
Second Empire of %@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@%. A moderate republican, he resigned as
president because of a scandal over his son-in-law's traffic in
decorations of honor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grey, Charles Grey, 2d Earl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grey, Charles Grey, 2d Earl%@AE@%,%@CR:GREY1           @%%@QR:Grey, Charles Grey, 2d Earl@% 1764-1835, British statesman. In 1796 he%@EH@%
became foreign secretary in the "ministry of all talents" and %@AU@%WHIG%@BO:          a104b1@%%@AE@% leader
of the House of Commons, putting through the measure to abolish the slave
trade (1807). As prime minister (1830-34), he secured passage of the
%@AU@%REFORM BILL%@BO:          7d8dfe@%%@AE@% of 1832 by threatening to force %@AU@%WILLIAM IV%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% to create enough
Whig peers to carry it in the House of Lords. His grandson, %@AB@%Albert Henry
%@AB@%George Grey,%@AE@% 4th %@AB@%Earl Grey,%@AE@% 1851-1917, was a Liberal member of the House
of Commons (1880-86). Later he was a successful governor general of
Canada (1904-11).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grey, Sir George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grey, Sir George%@AE@%,%@CR:GREY2           @%%@QR:Grey, Sir George@% 1812-98, British colonial administrator. He was%@EH@%
governor of South Australia (1841-45), New Zealand (1845-53), and the
Cape Colony (1854-60). Recalled to New Zealand as governor (1861-68), he
failed to halt warfare between English settlers and %@AU@%MAORI%@BO:          5b421f@%%@AE@% natives. He was
later premier (1877-79) of New Zealand.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grey, Lady Jane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grey, Lady Jane%@AE@%,%@CR:GREY3           @%%@QR:Grey, Lady Jane@% 1537-54, queen of England for nine days; grandniece of%@EH@%
%@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. She was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland, who
persuaded %@AU@%EDWARD VII%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% to make her his successor. She was proclaimed queen
in 1553, but the English people rallied behind %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@% and Jane was
imprisoned. Her life might have been spared, but her father, the duke of
Suffolk, joined Thomas Wyatt's rebellion, and she was beheaded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grey, Zane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grey, Zane%@AE@%,%@CR:GREY4           @%%@QR:Grey, Zane@% 1875-1939, American writer; b. Zanesville, Ohio. He is known%@EH@%
for his enormously popular melodramatic tales of the West, especially
%@AI@%Riders of the Purple Sage%@AE@% (1912).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%greyhound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%greyhound%@AE@%,%@CR:GREYHOUND       @%%@QR:greyhound@% tall, swift sight %@AU@%HOUND%@BO:          44ade1@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.26 in. (66 cm);%@EH@%
weight, c.65 lb (29.5 kg). Its short, smooth coat maybe any of various
colors. Developed in Egypt c.5,000 years ago, the breed was known before
the 9th cent. in England, where it was bred by aristocrats to hunt such
small game as hares. Today it is widely used in racing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grieg, Edvard Hagerup%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grieg, Edvard Hagerup%@AE@%%@CR:GRIEG           @%%@QR:Grieg, Edvard Hagerup@%, 1843-1907, Norwegian composer who developed a%@EH@%
strongly nationalistic style. He founded (1867) the Norwegian Academy of
Music. His best-known works are the Concerto in A Minor for piano and
orchestra (1869); the %@AU@%CANTATA%@BO:          184e95@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Olav Trygvason%@AE@% (1873); the %@AU@%SUITE%@BO:          905cf1@%%@AE@% of
incidental dramatic music, %@AI@%Peer Gynt%@AE@% (1876); and settings of Norwegian
%@AU@%FOLK SONGS%@BO:          342065@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grien, Hans Baldung%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grien, Hans Baldung%@AE@%:%@CR:GRIEN           @%%@QR:Grien, Hans Baldung@% see %@AU@%BALDUNG, HANS%@BO:           b4caa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Griffenfeld, Peder Schumacher, Count%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Griffenfeld, Peder Schumacher, Count%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIFFENFELD     @%%@QR:Griffenfeld, Peder Schumacher, Count@% 1635-99, Danish politician. As%@EH@%
secretary to %@AU@%FREDERICK III%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% he drew up (1665) a law making the monarchy
absolute. His power under %@AU@%CHRISTIAN V%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@% was resented by the army and
nobles, who had him sentenced to death for treason, a sentence changed to
life imprisonment by the king.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Griffes, Charles Tomlinson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Griffes, Charles Tomlinson%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIFFES         @%%@QR:Griffes, Charles Tomlinson@% 1884-1920, American composer; b. Elmira, N.Y.%@EH@%
His impressionistic compositions include %@AI@%The Pleasure-Dome of Kubla Khan%@AE@%
(1920) and %@AI@%Roman Sketches%@AE@% (1915-16), including %@AI@%The White Peacock.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%griffin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%griffin%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIFFIN         @%%@QR:griffin@% in ancient and medieval legend, creature with an eagle's head%@EH@%
and wings and a lion's body. Originating in Middle Eastern legend, it is
often found in Persian art. It is thought to have symbolized strength and
vigilance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Griffith, Arthur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Griffith, Arthur%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIFFITH1       @%%@QR:Griffith, Arthur@% 1872-1922, Irish statesman, founder of %@AU@%SINN FEIN%@BO:          8989c1@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Through his newspaper, the %@AI@%United Irishmen,%@AE@% he advocated the creation of
an Irish assembly. He was the first president (1922) of the Irish Free
State.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Griffith, D(avid) W(ark)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Griffith, D(avid) W(ark)%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIFFITH2       @%%@QR:Griffith, D(avid) W(ark)@% 1875-1948, American film director. A cinematic%@EH@%
genius, he innovated cross-cutting, close-ups, long shots, moving-camera
shots, and flashbacks in such films as %@AI@%The Birth of a Nation%@AE@% (1915) and
%@AI@%Intolerance%@AE@% (1916).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grillparzer, Franz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grillparzer, Franz%@AE@%%@CR:GRILLPARZER     @%%@QR:Grillparzer, Franz@%, 1791-1872, Austrian dramatist. His works, combining%@EH@%
German classicism and exuberant lyricism, include the plays %@AI@%A Dream Is
%@AI@%Life%@AE@% (1817-34), %@AI@%Hero and Leander%@AE@% (1831), and %@AI@%The Jewess of Toledo%@AE@% (1855)
and the partly autobiographical novella %@AI@%The Poor Minstrel%@AE@% (1844).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grimke, Angelina Emily%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grimke, Angelina Emily%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIMKE          @%%@QR:Grimke, Angelina Emily@% 1805-79, and %@AB@%Grimke, Sarah Moore,%@AE@% 1792-1873,%@EH@%
American abolitionists and feminists; b. Charleston, S.C. Sisters from an
aristocratic slaveholding family, they were converted to the Quaker
faith, moved north, and became the first women to speak publicly on the
issues of slavery and women's rights. Angelina became a persuasive
orator, and Sarah published influential works on abolition (1836) and the
equality of the sexes (1838).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grimm, Jakob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grimm, Jakob%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIMM           @%%@QR:Grimm, Jakob@% 1785-1863, German philologist and folklorist, a founder of%@EH@%
comparative philology. Aside from his study of Germanic languages (see
%@AU@%GRIMM'S LAW%@BO:          3dcd79@%%@AE@%) and his writings on German grammar and mythology, he is best
known for the collection of folk tales known as %@AI@%Grimm's Fairy Tales%@AE@%
(1812-15), compiled with his brother, %@AB@%Wilhelm Grimm,%@AE@% 1786-1859.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grimmelshausen, Hans Jakob Christoffel von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grimmelshausen, Hans Jakob Christoffel von%@AE@%%@CR:GRIMMELSHAUSEN  @%%@QR:Grimmelshausen, Hans Jakob Christoffel von@% , 1625-76, German novelist.%@EH@%
His satirical %@AI@%Adventuresome Simplicius Simplicissimus%@AE@% (1669) is a
picaresque romance, noted for its vigor, humor, and realism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grimm's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grimm's law%@AE@%,%@CR:GRIMMS.LAW      @%%@QR:Grimm's law@% principle of relationships in Indo-European languages, first%@EH@%
formulated by Jakob %@AU@%GRIMM%@BO:          3dc9d1@%%@AE@% in 1822. It demonstrates that the regular
shifting of consonants in groups took place once in the development of
English and the other Low German languages, and twice in German and the
other High German languages. Thus the unaspirated voiceless stops %@AI@%(k, t,
%@AI@%p)%@AE@% of the ancient, or classical, Indo-European languages (Sanskrit,
Greek, Latin) became voiceless aspirates %@AI@%(h, th, f)%@AE@% in English and mediae
%@AI@%(h, d, f)%@AE@% in German; unaspirated voiced stops %@AI@%(g, d, b)%@AE@% became voiceless
stops %@AI@%(k, t, p)%@AE@% in English and voiceless aspirates %@AI@%(kh, ts, f)%@AE@% in German;
and aspirated voiced stops %@AI@%(gh, dh, bh)%@AE@% became unaspirated voiced stops
%@AI@%(g, d, b)%@AE@% in English and voiceless stops %@AI@%(k, t, p)%@AE@% in German.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gris, Juan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gris, Juan%@AE@%%@CR:GRIS            @%%@QR:Gris, Juan@%, 1887-1927, Spanish cubist painter; b. Jose Victoriano%@EH@%
Gonzalez. A developer of synthetic %@AU@%CUBISM%@BO:          252eae@%%@AE@%, he painted simple forms that
reflect an architectonic design. His later works were more sumptuous and
decorative. Most of his works are %@AU@%STILL LIFE%@BO:          8f19c7@%%@AE@% oils and %@AU@%COLLAGES%@BO:          203c7f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Griswold v. Connecticut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Griswold v. Connecticut%@AE@%,%@CR:GRISWOLECTICUT  @%%@QR:Griswold v. Connecticut@% case decided in 1965 by the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
establishing a right to privacy in striking down a Connecticut ban on the
sale of contraceptives. The Court, through Justice %@AU@%DOUGLAS%@BO:          2a5db0@%%@AE@%, found a "zone
of privacy" created by several amendments to the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%
guaranteeing against governmental intrusion into the homes and lives of
citizens. The %@AI@%Griswold%@AE@% decision was important in later cases, such as %@AU@%ROE
%@AU@%V. WADE%@BO:          803a6a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grolier de Servieres, Jean, vicomte d'Aguisy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grolier de Servieres, Jean, vicomte d'Aguisy%@AE@%,%@CR:GROLIERIERES    @%%@QR:Grolier de Servieres, Jean, vicomte d'Aguisy@% 1479-1565, French%@EH@%
bibliophile. Of his collection of some 3,000 finely bound books, about
350 are known to be in existence, many in the Bibliotheque nationale (see
%@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%,).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gromyko, Andrei Andreyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gromyko, Andrei Andreyevich%@AE@%%@CR:GROMYKO         @%%@QR:Gromyko, Andrei Andreyevich@%, 1909-89, Soviet diplomat. After holding such%@EH@%
posts as ambassador to the U.S. (1943-46) he became foreign minister
(1957-85). In the 1970s he helped arrange U.S.-Soviet summit talks. He
became (1973) a member of the ruling politburo, taking the position of
first deputy premier (1983-85) and president (from 1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gronchi, Giovanni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gronchi, Giovanni%@AE@%%@CR:GRONCHI         @%%@QR:Gronchi, Giovanni@%, 1887-1978, Italian politician. He broke (1922) with%@EH@%
%@AU@%MUSSOLINI%@BO:          65a8c6@%%@AE@%. A founder of the Christian Democratic party, he was minister
for commerce, industry, and labor (1944-46); speaker of the chamber of
deputies (1948-55); and president of Italy (1955-62).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grooms, Red%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grooms, Red%@AE@%,%@CR:GROOMS          @%%@QR:Grooms, Red@% 1937-, American artist; b. Nashville. A painter and%@EH@%
filmmaker, he pioneered in the theatrical art form known as the
happening. He is best known for his witty environmental constructions,
e.g., %@AI@%Ruckus Manhattan%@AE@% (1975).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gropius, Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gropius, Walter%@AE@%%@CR:GROPIUS         @%%@QR:Gropius, Walter@%, 1883-1969, German-American architect, a leader of modern%@EH@%
functional architecture. In Germany his glass-wall Fagus factory
buildings (1910-11) at Alfeld were among the most advanced works in
Europe. In 1918 he became director of the Weimar School of Art and
reorganized it as the %@AU@%BAUHAUS%@BO:           d21f4@%%@AE@%. He designed (1926) a complete new set of
buildings for it in Dessau, as well as the Staattheater in Jena (1923),
residences, and industrial buildings. In the U.S. after 1937, he taught
at Harvard until 1952.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grosseteste, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grosseteste, Robert%@AE@%%@CR:GROSSETESTE     @%%@QR:Grosseteste, Robert@%, c.1175-1253, English prelate. A founder of the%@EH@%
Oxford Franciscan school, he made Oxford a center of learning. As bishop
(1235) of Lincoln, he resisted the efforts of %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% to control church
appointments and supported the reforms of Simon de %@AU@%MONTFORT%@BO:          635618@%%@AE@%. He also
censured Pope %@AU@%INNOCENT IV%@BO:          485ed5@%%@AE@% for excessive exactions and for appointing
foreigners to English sees. His writings include treatises on the
sciences, pastoral works, and poems. His studies of %@AU@%ARISTOTLE%@BO:           7b220@%%@AE@% were the
basis for the %@AU@%SCHOLASTICISM%@BO:          8598cc@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%THOMAS AQUINAS%@BO:          952e01@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ALBERTUS MAGNUS%@BO:           2f122@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gross national product (GNP)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gross national product (GNP)%@AE@%,%@CR:GROSS.NGNP      @%%@QR:gross national product (GNP)@% a nation's total output of goods and%@EH@%
services in a given period, usually one year. The GNP, a closely watched
barometer of the national economy, is reported quarterly in the U.S. In
estimating the GNP, only the final value of a product is counted (e.g.,
automobiles, but not the steel that they contain). The three major
components of GNP are consumer purchases, private investment, and
government spending.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gros Ventre Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gros Ventre Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:GROS.VEIANS     @%%@QR:Gros Ventre Indians@% name used by the French for two distinct bands of%@EH@%
%@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Plains. The nomadic Atsina band of %@AU@%ARAPAHO
%@AU@%INDIANS%@BO:           73541@%%@AE@% spoke an Algonquian language of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock;
the settled Hidatsa Indians, speaking a Siouan branch of Hokan-Siouan,
were closely allied with the %@AU@%MANDAN INDIANS%@BO:          5ab25d@%%@AE@%, an agricultural people with
whom they live on a reservation in North Dakota.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grosz, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grosz, George%@AE@%%@CR:GROSZ           @%%@QR:Grosz, George@%, 1893-1959, German-American painter; b. Germany. Early%@EH@%
associated with %@AU@%DADA%@BO:          25ec61@%%@AE@%, he was famous for savage post-World War I
caricatures of bourgeois society. He became a U.S. citizen in 1938 and
painted traditional landscapes and figures. Deeply affected by the
horrors of World War II, he created a symbolic series of ravaged figures,
e.g., %@AI@%Street Scene%@AE@% (Philadelphia Mus. Art).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grotefend, Georg Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grotefend, Georg Friedrich%@AE@%%@CR:GROTEFEND       @%%@QR:Grotefend, Georg Friedrich@%, 1775-1853, German archaeologist and%@EH@%
philologist. His greatest achievement was deciphering inscriptions of
Persian %@AU@%CUNEIFORM%@BO:          255082@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grotius, Hugo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grotius, Hugo%@AE@%%@CR:GROTIUS         @%%@QR:Grotius, Hugo@%, 1583-1645, Dutch jurist and humanist. His %@AI@%Concerning the%@EH@%
%@AI@%Law of War and Peace%@AE@% (1625) is considered the first definitive text on
%@AU@%INTERNATIONAL LAW%@BO:          48f092@%%@AE@%. Drawing on the Bible and classical history, he argued
that natural law prescribes rules of conduct for nations, as for
individuals. While not condemning all war, he maintained that only
certain causes justified it, and he devoted much attention to the concept
of more humane warfare.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Groton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Groton%@AE@%,%@CR:GROTON          @%%@QR:Groton@% town (1980 pop. 41,062), SE Conn., on the Thames R., opposite New%@EH@%
London; settled c.1650, inc. 1705. Shipbuilding and pharmaceuticals are
its major industries; it is famous for the construction of submarines.
The %@AI@%Nautilus,%@AE@% the first nuclear submarine, was launched there in 1954.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ground-effect machine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ground-effect machine%@AE@%:%@CR:GROUNDECHINE    @%%@QR:ground-effect machine@% see %@AU@%AIR-CUSHION VEHICLE%@BO:           24e8a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%groundhog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%groundhog%@AE@%:%@CR:GROUNDHOG       @%%@QR:groundhog@% see %@AU@%WOODCHUCK%@BO:          a2e681@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ground laurel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ground laurel%@AE@%:%@CR:GROUND.LAUREL   @%%@QR:ground laurel@% see %@AU@%TRAILING ARBUTUS%@BO:          973641@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grouper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grouper%@AE@%,%@CR:GROUPER         @%%@QR:grouper@% large, carnivorous %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% of the sea %@AU@%BASS%@BO:           cec0d@%%@AE@% family, abundant in%@EH@%
tropical and subtropical seas and highly valued as food. Most have bright
markings that change in color and pattern to match the background. The
largest is the spotted jewfish (up to 600 lb/270 kg). The red grouper and
black grouper form the bulk of the commercial catch.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%group psychotherapy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%group psychotherapy%@AE@%,%@CR:GROUP.PRAPY     @%%@QR:group psychotherapy@% a means of altering behavior and emotions that is%@EH@%
based on the use of group interactions. The technique was developed in
the 1930s and received further impetus during World War II, when there
was a great need for a prompt method of treating many patients
simultaneously. The therapy can take many forms, depending upon the
predisposition and training of the therapist, but is generally carried
out in formal groups of 5 to 12 people; the members may be heterogeneous
or homogeneous. The group becomes a "sample" social setting, reproducing
conditions of interpersonal relationships in general; its members jointly
participate in observing personal motivation and styles of interaction.
Members can also try new behaviors and learn to deal with the
consequences of these within the group. Group therapy may be combined
with individual treatment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grouse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grouse%@AE@%,%@CR:GROUSE          @%%@QR:grouse@% henlike terrestrial %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Tetraonidae, found in the%@EH@%
colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere. It is protectively plumaged in
reds, browns, and grays. The American ruffed grouse (%@AI@%Bonasa umbellus%@AE@%),
often miscalled %@AU@%PARTRIDGE%@BO:          71cf36@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%PHEASANT%@BO:          746b83@%%@AE@%, is a forest bird noted for the
drumming sound made by the courting male. The ptarmigan (%@AI@%Lagopus lagopus%@AE@%)
is an arctic species that migrates to the NW U.S. in winter, when its
rusty brown plumage changes to white.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grove, Sir George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grove, Sir George%@AE@%,%@CR:GROVE1          @%%@QR:Grove, Sir George@% 1820-1900, English musicologist. His %@AI@%Dictionary of%@EH@%
%@AI@%Music and Musicians%@AE@% (1879-89; 6th ed. 1980) became a standard reference
work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grove, Lefty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grove, Lefty%@AE@%%@CR:GROVE2          @%%@QR:Grove, Lefty@% (Robert Moses Grove), 1900-1975, American baseball player;%@EH@%
b. Lonaconing, Md. He won 300 games and struck out over 2,200 batters as
a right-handed pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics (1925-33) and
Boston Red Sox (1934-41). In 1931 he won 31 games and lost 4 for a
winning percentage of .866, a record that stood for many years.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%growth hormone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%growth hormone%@AE@%,%@CR:GROWTH.HORMONE  @%%@QR:growth hormone@% glycoprotein hormone released by the anterior %@AU@%PITUITARY%@EH@%
%@AU@%GLAND%@BO:          7638ed@%%@AE@% that is necessary for normal skeletal growth in humans (see
%@AU@%PROTEIN%@BO:          7a2e5b@%%@AE@%). Evidence suggests that the secretion of growth hormone is
regulated by the release of certain peptides by the %@AU@%HYPOTHALAMUS%@BO:          462adf@%%@AE@% of the
brain. One such substance, called somatostatin, has been shown to inhibit
the secretion of growth hormone. Somatotropin is known to act on many
aspects of cellular metabolism, but its most obvious effect is the
stimulation of the growth of cartilage and bone in children. A deficiency
of growth hormone before puberty results in pituitary dwarfism; an excess
results in gigantism. Excess growth hormone after puberty has little
effect on skeletal growth, but results in a disease known as acromegaly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grun, Hans Baldung%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grun, Hans Baldung%@AE@%:%@CR:GRUN            @%%@QR:Grun, Hans Baldung@% see %@AU@%BALDUNG, HANS%@BO:           b4caa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grundtvig, Nikolai Frederik Severin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grundtvig, Nikolai Frederik Severin%@AE@%%@CR:GRUNDTVIG       @%%@QR:Grundtvig, Nikolai Frederik Severin@%, 1783-1872, Danish writer, churchman,%@EH@%
and educator. He founded the folk high school, a form of adult education
designed to foster patriotism and religious conviction in young adults.
His many literary works include the epoch-making %@AI@%Northern Mythology%@AE@%
(1808), a loose retelling of the Old Norse myths. In his poems, songs,
and hymns, he treated historical, mythological, and religious subjects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Grunewald, Mathias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Grunewald, Mathias%@AE@%%@CR:GRUNEWALD       @%%@QR:Grunewald, Mathias@%, c.1475-1528, German religious painter; b. Mathis%@EH@%
Gothart Neithart. Possessed of unique expressive power, he used stylistic
components such as silhouette and unusual color, the striking contrast of
light and shadow, and the exaggeration of the human form to convey
anguish and terror. His most frequent subject was the crucifixion of
Christ, and his masterpiece is the %@AI@%Isenheim Altarpiece%@AE@% (1515; Colmar,
France).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%grunion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%grunion%@AE@%:%@CR:GRUNION         @%%@QR:grunion@% see %@AU@%SILVERSIDES%@BO:          894862@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guadalajara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guadalajara%@AE@%,%@CR:GUADALAJARA     @%%@QR:Guadalajara@% city (1980 est. pop. 2,000,000), SW Mexico, capital of%@EH@%
Jalisco state. A spacious, beautiful city (called the "Pearl of the
West"), it is Mexico's second-largest city. Although it is a modern
metropolis with varied manufactures, it retains many old colonial
structures, notably a cathedral and a governor's palace. Its location on
a plain more than 5,000 ft (1,524 m) high and its mild, dry climate have
made it a popular health resort. Founded c.1530, Guadalajara was a center
of the movement for independence from Spain. It has suffered several
earthquakes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guadalcanal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guadalcanal%@AE@%,%@CR:GUADALCANAL     @%%@QR:Guadalcanal@% island c.2,510 sq mi (6,500 sq km), in the SW Pacific Ocean,%@EH@%
largest of the %@AU@%SOLOMON ISLANDS%@BO:          8b445c@%%@AE@% and site of the national capital, Honiara.
The largely mountainous and forested island is of volcanic origin.
Coconuts are grown, and some gold is mined. In bitter fighting during
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, U.S. forces seized (1942-43) the island and its airstrip,
Henderson Field, from Japanese troops.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of%@AE@%,%@CR:GUADALUGO       @%%@QR:Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of@% 1848, peace treaty between the U.S. and%@EH@%
Mexico that ended the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%. It confirmed U.S. claims to %@AU@%TEXAS%@BO:          94505d@%%@AE@%.
Mexico ceded most of the present SW U.S. for $15 million and the
assumption by the U.S. government of claims against Mexico by U.S.
citizens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guadalupe Mountains National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guadalupe Mountains National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:GUADALUIONAL.P  @%%@QR:Guadalupe Mountains National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guadalupe Victoria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guadalupe Victoria%@AE@%,%@CR:GUADALURIA      @%%@QR:Guadalupe Victoria@% 1786?-1843, first president of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@% (1824-29); b.%@EH@%
Manuel Felix Fernandez. A general, he fought against Spanish rule, and
after Mexican independence (1821) he and %@AU@%SANTA ANNA%@BO:          84360c@%%@AE@% overthrew the
%@AU@%ITURBIDE%@BO:          4a7b96@%%@AE@% regime. His administration was marred by factional strife.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guadeloupe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guadeloupe%@AE@%,%@CR:GUADELOUPE      @%%@QR:Guadeloupe@% overseas department of France (1987 est. pop. 335,200), 687%@EH@%
sq mi (1,779 sq km), in the Leeward Islands; comprising Basse-Terre,
Grande-Terre, and smaller islands. Discovered (1493) by Columbus, it was
settled (17th cent.) by the French, who eliminated the native Caribs,
imported African slaves, and made it a major sugar producer. Tourism,
bananas, and sugar are important.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guam%@AE@%%@CR:GUAM            @%%@QR:Guam@%, island (1987 est. pop. 130,400), 209 sq mi (541 sq km), W Pacific,%@EH@%
southernmost of the Marianas islands; an unincorporated U.S. territory.
Agana is the seat of government. Guam is tropical and partly mountainous.
Discovered (1521) by %@AU@%MAGELLAN%@BO:          595e8a@%%@AE@%, it belonged to Spain until it was
surrendered to the U.S. in 1898. A major military base, Guam was occupied
by the Japanese from 1941 to 1944. Military installations provide much
employment, and subsistence agriculture is practiced. There is enormous
tourism (largely from Japan) and some light industry. Guamanians, who are
chiefly of Chamorros (mixed Spanish, Filipino, and Micronesian) stock,
are U.S. citizens but cannot vote in U.S. elections. Administered by the
U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Guam has an appointed governor and an elected
legislature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guangzhou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guangzhou%@AE@%:%@CR:GUANGZHOU       @%%@QR:Guangzhou@% see %@AU@%CANTON%@BO:          1855fa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guantanamo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guantanamo%@AE@%,%@CR:GUANTANAMO      @%%@QR:Guantanamo@% city (1986 pop. 174,400), SE Cuba, in Oriente prov. Founded%@EH@%
in the 19th cent. by Frenchmen from Haiti, it is now a sugar-processing
center. It is c.20 mi (32 km) inland from its port, Caimanera, on
well-protected %@AB@%Guantanamo Bay,%@AE@% which is also the site of a large U.S.
naval station established in 1903. Since the revolution of 1959, Cuba has
refused to accept the token annual U.S. rent for the naval base and has
pressed for its surrender.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guarani Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guarani Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:GUARANI.INDIANS @%%@QR:Guarani Indians@% people in N and E South America (see %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%) of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Those who live in S Brazil and Paraguay are called Guarani;
those in the Amazon region are called Tupi or Tupinamba. At the time of
the Spanish conquest (16th cent.) communities of both groups had a chief
and a powerful %@AU@%SHAMAN%@BO:          87e595@%%@AE@%. The Guarani grew maize and manioc. In ancient
times they practiced ritual %@AU@%CANNIBALISM%@BO:          1831ac@%%@AE@%. Although their material culture
was not advanced, they had a rich body of folklore. Early Jesuit
missionaries founded among them the agricultural settlements called
reductions, using Indian labor under the absolute, but usually
benevolent, rule of priests. Guarani is widely spoken in Paraguay; most
Tupi have been assimilated into European culture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guardi, Francesco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guardi, Francesco%@AE@%%@CR:GUARDI          @%%@QR:Guardi, Francesco@%, 1712-93, Venetian painter of landscapes and%@EH@%
architectural scenes. A follower of %@AU@%CANALETTO%@BO:          181950@%%@AE@%, he developed a freer
style. His work ranges from architectural scenes to delightful,
spontaneous %@AI@%capricci%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guardia, Tomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guardia, Tomas%@AE@%%@CR:GUARDIA         @%%@QR:Guardia, Tomas@%, 1832-82, president of %@AU@%COSTA RICA%@BO:          23c2ac@%%@AE@%. He led an army revolt%@EH@%
and largely ruled the country from 1870 to 1882. Although basically a
military strong man, he laid the foundation for the country's stability.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guatemala%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guatemala%@AE@%,%@CR:GUATEMALA1      @%%@QR:Guatemala@% officially Republic of Guatemala, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
8,439,000), 42,042 sq mi (108,889 sq km), Central America; bordered by
Mexico (N and W), Belize and the Caribbean Sea (E), Honduras and El
Salvador (SE), and the Pacific Ocean (SW). The capital is %@AU@%GUATEMALA CITY%@BO:          3e29f1@%%@AE@%.
A highland region occupies the southern half of the country and is the
most densely populated area. Much of northern Guatemala is covered by a
vast tropical forest, the Peten. Coffee accounts for more than half of
the nation's revenue. Sugar, cotton, tobacco, vegetables, fruit, and beef
are also exported, and industry is being expanded. The mainly Roman
Catholic population is about evenly divided between Maya Indians and
mestizos. The language is Spanish, although many Indians speak only
Indian dialects. The literacy rate and per capita income are extremely
low.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% After defeat of the Quiche (%@AU@%MAYA%@BO:          5da103@%%@AE@%) Indians in 1523-24, Spain
established a prosperous colony in the area, with its capital (from 1542)
at %@AU@%ANTIGUA%@BO:           6405c@%%@AE@%. After independence (1821), Guatemala became the nucleus of
the %@AU@%CENTRAL AMERICAN FEDERATION%@BO:          1af48e@%%@AE@% and, after dissolution of the federation
in 1839, a separate republic. Ruled through the 19th cent. by a series of
usually repressive dictators, Guatemala alternated in the 20th cent.
between economic reform and reaction. A conservative coup in 1954 owed
its success to U.S. military intervention. From 1970 into the early 1980s
the country was dominated by conservative military elements.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guatemala%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guatemala%@AE@%,%@CR:GUATEMALA2      @%%@QR:Guatemala@% city (1983 est. pop. 1,300,000), S central Guatemala, capital%@EH@%
of Guatemala. The largest city in Central America, it is the nation's
commercial and industrial center, with a cosmopolitan atmosphere and many
modern public buildings, as well as Spanish colonial structures and large
Indian markets. It was constructed in a highland valley in 1779, after
the former capital, %@AU@%ANTIGUA%@BO:           6405c@%%@AE@%, was destroyed by earthquakes. Guatemala City
itself suffered that fate in 1917-18 and has since been completely
rebuilt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guava%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guava%@AE@%,%@CR:GUAVA           @%%@QR:guava@% small evergreen tree or shrub (genus %@AI@%Psidium%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MYRTLE%@BO:          65dbcc@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family, native to tropical America and grown for its ornamental flowers
and edible fruit. Species include the common tropical guava (%@AI@%P. guajava%@AE@%)
and the strawberry guava (%@AI@%P. cattleyanum%@AE@%). The guava is grown
commercially in Florida and California and is made into jellies and
beverages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guayaquil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guayaquil%@AE@%,%@CR:GUAYAQUIL       @%%@QR:Guayaquil@% city (1982 pop. 1,300,868), capital of Guayas prov., W%@EH@%
Ecuador, on the Guayas R. near its mouth on the Gulf of Guayaquil, an
inlet of the Pacific Ocean. It is Ecuador's largest city and its chief
port and manufacturing center. Founded by Sebastian de Benalcazar in
1535, it was liberated from Spain by Antonio Jose de %@AU@%SUCRE%@BO:          9025ac@%%@AE@% in 1821, and
in 1822 was the site of a meeting between Simon %@AU@%BOLIVAR%@BO:          119482@%%@AE@% and Jose de %@AU@%SAN
%@AU@%MARTIN%@BO:          842164@%%@AE@% that determined the course of South American independence. The
climate is hot and humid, and yellow fever was a problem until the early
20th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guemundsson, Kristmann%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guemundsson, Kristmann%@AE@%%@CR:GUOMUNDSSON     @%%@QR:Guemundsson, Kristmann@%, 1902-, Icelandic novelist who wrote in%@EH@%
both Norwegian and Icelandic. His psychologically insightful works
include %@AI@%The Bridal Gown%@AE@% (1927) and %@AI@%The Square%@AE@% (1965).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gudrun%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gudrun%@AE@%%@CR:GUDRUN          @%%@QR:Gudrun@% or %@AB@%Kudrun%@AE@% , in Germanic literature. %@AB@%1+%@AE@%Heroine of the %@AU@%VOLSUNGASAGA%@BO:          9e3956@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
%@AB@%2+%@AE@%Heroine of a Middle High German epic influenced by the Nibelungenlied
(see %@AU@%NIBELUNGEN%@BO:          69b73c@%%@AE@%). %@AB@%3+%@AE@%Principal character of the Icelandic %@AI@%Laxdaelasaga.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guelphs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guelphs%@AE@%%@CR:GUELPHS         @%%@QR:Guelphs@%, German dynasty of the Middle Ages. It traced its descent from%@EH@%
the Swabian count Guelph, or Welf, in the 9th cent. Eventually the
Guelphs became the dukes of Bavaria and Saxony, and were the rivals of
the house of %@AU@%HOHENSTAUFEN%@BO:          4375b5@%%@AE@%. In Italy, the dynasty was represented by the
%@AU@%ESTE%@BO:          302085@%%@AE@% family. The Guelphs came to represent the papal faction in the
longtime struggle between the %@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guelphs and Ghibellines%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guelphs and Ghibellines%@AE@%%@CR:GUELPHSBELLINES @%%@QR:Guelphs and Ghibellines@%, opposing political factions in Germany and Italy%@EH@%
in the later Middle Ages. The names designated the papal (Guelph) party
and the imperial (Ghibelline) party during the long struggle between the
papacy and the Holy Roman emperors; they also designated two rival German
families, the Welfs or %@AU@%GUELPHS%@BO:          3e3505@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%HOHENSTAUFEN%@BO:          4375b5@%%@AE@%. In Germany the
rivalry began under Emperor %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@% and last flared at the election of
Emperor %@AU@%OTTO IV%@BO:          6f695f@%%@AE@%. In Italy the terms were used from the 13th to the 15th
cent., and the rival factions plunged the country into internal warfare.
Among the Ghibellines were Ezzelino da Romano and the %@AU@%VISCONTI%@BO:          9ded73@%%@AE@% family of
Milan. Milan itself was Guelph, as were, generally, Florence and Genoa.
Cremona, Pisa, and Arezzo were usually Ghibelline. Venice remained
neutral.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guernica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guernica%@AE@%%@CR:GUERNICA        @%%@QR:Guernica@%, town (1981 pop. 17,836), in the Basque prov. of Vizcaya, N%@EH@%
Spain. The Guernica oak, under which the diet of Vizcaya met, symbolizes
the Basques' lost liberty. One of %@AU@%PICASSO'S%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@% greatest paintings
commemorates the 1937 destruction of Guernica by German bombers aiding
%@AU@%FRANCO%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% during the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guernsey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guernsey%@AE@%:%@CR:GUERNSEY        @%%@QR:Guernsey@% see %@AU@%CHANNEL ISLANDS%@BO:          1b86a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guerrero, Vicente%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guerrero, Vicente%@AE@%%@CR:GUERRERO        @%%@QR:Guerrero, Vicente@%, 1782-1831, Mexican revolutionary leader. He won%@EH@%
guerrilla victories over Spanish forces but accepted %@AU@%ITURBIDE'S%@BO:          4a7b96@%%@AE@%
conservative leadership of the Mexican independence movement. He and
%@AU@%SANTA ANNA%@BO:          84360c@%%@AE@% led (1828) a successful revolt against Iturbide, and Guerrero
served briefly (1829) as president, but he was forced to retreat and was
finally captured and shot.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guerrilla warfare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guerrilla warfare%@AE@%,%@CR:GUERRILRE       @%%@QR:guerrilla warfare@% fighting by groups of irregular troops (guerrillas),%@EH@%
usually in enemy-held territory. Tactics stress sabotage, unpredictable
hit-and-run attacks, and ambush rather than mass confrontation. Guerrilla
strategy often relies on a sympathetic population, sometimes won over by
propaganda. Such tactics were developed during the American Revolution,
but the term %@AI@%guerrilla%@AE@% was first applied to Spanish partisans in the
%@AU@%PENINSULAR WAR%@BO:          72d325@%%@AE@% (1808-14). Guerrilla warfare has played an important part
in almost every major conflict since that time (e.g., resistance
movements in Nazi-occupied Europe in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, such as the %@AI@%maquis,%@AE@% in
France), and has increasingly been used in peacetime by nationalist
groups to challenge governments in power-e.g., Al Fatah, in the Middle
East (see %@AU@%PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@%); the South-West African
People's Organization (SWAPO), in %@AU@%NAMIBIA%@BO:          661ef0@%%@AE@%; and the %@AU@%IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY%@BO:          49acb2@%%@AE@%
provisionals. Notable guerrilla leaders have included Fidel %@AU@%CASTRO%@BO:          19f33d@%%@AE@%;
Ernesto ("Che") %@AU@%GUEVARA%@BO:          3e4ada@%%@AE@%; Thomas Edward %@AU@%LAWRENCE%@BO:          52f50d@%%@AE@%; and %@AU@%MAO TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@%, often
called the leading guerrilla theorist in the 20th cent. Such modern
"urban guerrilla" activities as hijacking and %@AU@%KIDNAPPING%@BO:          4f7e70@%%@AE@% are frequently
inspired by ideology rather than patriotism and are often tinged with
elements of %@AU@%TERRORISM%@BO:          9434cd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gueux%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gueux%@AE@%%@CR:GUEUX           @%%@QR:Gueux@% [Fr.,=beggars], 16th-cent. Dutch revolutionary party. In 1566 over%@EH@%
2,000 nobles and burghers vowed to resist Spanish repression in the
%@AU@%NETHERLANDS%@BO:          687111@%%@AE@%. Called "these beggars" at the court of the Spanish regent,
%@AU@%MARGARET OF PARMA%@BO:          5b9afb@%%@AE@%, they adopted the sobriquet. The "Beggars of the Sea,"
crews of Dutch privateers chartered in 1569 by %@AU@%WILLIAM THE SILENT%@BO:          a1efe5@%%@AE@% to
harass Spanish shipping, raised the siege of %@AU@%LEIDEN%@BO:          539ff3@%%@AE@% in 1574.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guevara, Ernesto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guevara, Ernesto%@AE@%,%@CR:GUEVARA         @%%@QR:Guevara, Ernesto@% 1928-67, Cuban revolutionary leader; b. Argentina. A%@EH@%
physician and political activist, "Che" Guevara became (1956) Fidel
%@AU@%CASTRO'S%@BO:          19f33d@%%@AE@% chief lieutenant and a guerrilla leader in the Cuban revolution
(1959). He served as minister of industry (1961-65), then left Cuba to
foster revolutions in other countries. Captured in Bolivia (1967), he was
executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guggenheim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guggenheim%@AE@%,%@CR:GUGGENHEIM      @%%@QR:Guggenheim@% family of American industrialists and philanthropists. %@AB@%Meyer%@EH@%
%@AB@%Guggenheim,%@AE@% 1828-1905; b. Aargau canton, Switzerland, emigrated (1847) to
the U.S. and prospered as a merchant in Philadelphia. His real fortune
came from metal smelting and refining, beginning when he was nearly 60.
Seven sons-Isaac, Daniel, Murry, Solomon, Benjamin, Simon, and
William-contributed to the expansion of the family enterprises. %@AB@%Daniel
%@AB@%Guggenheim,%@AE@% 1856-1930, b. Philadelphia, combined (1901) the Guggenheim
interests with the American Smelting and Refining Co. The Daniel and
Florence Guggenheim Foundation for aeronautical research represented his
main philanthropy. %@AB@%Simon Guggenheim,%@AE@% 1867-1941, established (1925), with
his wife, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation to assist
scholars, writers, and artists. %@AB@%Solomon Robert Guggenheim,%@AE@% 1861-1949,
created a foundation that established (1937) the %@AU@%SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM
%@AU@%MUSEUM%@BO:          8b49d6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guggenheim Museum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guggenheim Museum%@AE@%:%@CR:GUGGENHUM       @%%@QR:Guggenheim Museum@% see %@AU@%SOLOMON R. GUGGENHEIM MUSEUM%@BO:          8b49d6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guicciardini, Francesco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guicciardini, Francesco%@AE@%%@CR:GUICCIARDINI    @%%@QR:Guicciardini, Francesco@%, 1483-1540, Italian historian and statesman. He%@EH@%
served in the Florentine government and under Pope %@AU@%LEO X%@BO:          53f60e@%%@AE@% before taking up
writing. Breaking with medieval tradition, he removed history from the
realm of literature and related it to the development of states. His
history of Italy (1492-1534) is the masterwork of Italian historical
literature of the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guidance and counseling%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guidance and counseling%@AE@%,%@CR:GUIDANCUNSELING @%%@QR:guidance and counseling@% in education, service provided in schools,%@EH@%
usually by a specially trained counselor, to assist students in making
intelligent and realistic personal, social, educational, and vocational
decisions. It sometimes includes counseling in such areas as drug abuse
and teenage pregnancy, and referrals to other professionals (e.g.,
psychologists, social workers, and learning-disability specialists) when
necessary. Although the need for attention to the whole individual was
long recognized by educators, it was not until the early 20th cent. that
researchers began to study and accumulate information about guidance.
Fostered by the popularity of the educational philosophy of John %@AU@%DEWEY%@BO:          2880b3@%%@AE@%,
with its emphasis on development of the individual's potential, the
concept of guidance as the responsibility of the school began to take
hold in the U.S. By the 1950s guidance had come to be regarded as a
continuous process to be conducted throughout school life, and guidance
and counseling had become a specialized field of study at colleges and
universities. The U.S. Dept. of Labor has been active in establishing
standards and methods of vocational guidance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guide dog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guide dog%@AE@%,%@CR:GUIDE.DOG       @%%@QR:guide dog@% dog trained to lead a blind person. Guide dogs were first%@EH@%
trained to lead blinded veterans in post-World War I Germany. Schools to
train such dogs now exist in several European countries and the U.S.
Although the %@AU@%GERMAN SHEPHERD%@BO:          3987dc@%%@AE@% is the most widely used breed, other breeds,
e.g., %@AU@%BOXER%@BO:          12e4f7@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GOLDEN RETRIEVER%@BO:          3b323c@%%@AE@%, are also employed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guidi, Tommaso%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guidi, Tommaso%@AE@%:%@CR:GUIDI           @%%@QR:Guidi, Tommaso@% see %@AU@%MASACCIO%@BO:          5c9a69@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guido Reni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guido Reni%@AE@%:%@CR:GUIDO.RENI      @%%@QR:Guido Reni@% see %@AU@%RENI, GUIDO%@BO:          7e24ed@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guilds%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guilds%@AE@%%@CR:GUILDS          @%%@QR:guilds@% or %@AB@%gilds,%@AE@% economic and social associations of persons engaged in%@EH@%
the same business or craft, typical of Western Europe in the Middle Ages.
Membership was never by class but by profession or trade. The primary
function of guilds was to establish local control over a profession or
craft by setting standards of workmanship and price, by protecting the
business from competition, and by gaining status in society for guild
members. Merchant guilds in some cases developed into intercity leagues
for the promotion of trade, such as the medieval %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. By the
17th cent. the power of the guilds had withered in England. They were
abolished in France in 1791 and elsewhere in Western Europe during the
19th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guild socialism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guild socialism%@AE@%,%@CR:GUILD.SOCIALISM @%%@QR:guild socialism@% form of socialism in Great Britain that advocated%@EH@%
industrial self-government through national worker-controlled guilds. The
theory began (1906) with Arthur J. Penty, who sought to revive the spirit
of medieval craft guilds and argued that workers should strive for
control of industry rather than for political reform. Several guilds were
started, but the movement ended after the collapse (1922) of the National
Building Guild, its most powerful component.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guillen, Jorge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guillen, Jorge%@AE@%%@CR:GUILLEN         @%%@QR:Guillen, Jorge@%, 1893-1984, Spanish poet. He settled in the U.S. in 1939.%@EH@%
His difficult, classic verse appears in %@AI@%Cantico%@AE@% (1928), %@AI@%Clamor%@AE@% (1957),
and %@AI@%Affirmation: A Bilingual Anthology%@AE@% (1968). He also wrote the essays
in %@AI@%Language and Poetry%@AE@% (1961).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guinea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guinea%@AE@%,%@CR:GUINEA          @%%@QR:Guinea@% Fr. %@AI@%Guinee,%@AE@% officially People's Revolutionary Republic of Guinea,%@EH@%
republic (1987 est. pop. 6,339,000), 94,925 sq mi (245,856 sq km), W
Africa, bordered by Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Mali (N), the Ivory Coast
(E), Sierra Leone and Liberia (S), and the Atlantic Ocean (W). %@AU@%CONAKRY%@BO:          21a04a@%%@AE@% is
the capital. A humid and tropical country, Guinea comprises an alluvial
coastal plain; the mountainous Fouta Jallon region; a savanna interior;
and the forested Guinea Highlands, which rise to c.5,800 ft (1,770 m) in
the Nimba Mts. Guinea is predominantly agricultural. Coffee, bananas,
palm kernels, and pineapples are the leading cash crops; the main
subsistence crop is rice. Some of the world's largest bauxite deposits
lie in Guinea, the world's third largest producer; iron ore, gold, and
diamonds are also mined. Poor transportation has hampered
industrialization. Most sectors of the economy are under state control.
The main ethnic groups are the pastoral Fulani and the agrarian Malinke
and Susu. Islam is the chief religion, but there are animist and Roman
Catholic minorities. French is the principal language.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Part of present-day Guinea belonged to medieval %@AU@%GHANA%@BO:          39d57b@%%@AE@% and later
to the %@AU@%MALI%@BO:          5a4070@%%@AE@% empire. As in other W African states, Portuguese exploration
of the Guinea coast in the mid-15th cent. led to the development of a
slave trade involving also the French and British. France proclaimed a
protectorate over the Boke area of Guinea in 1849 and, after extending
its control over much of the rest of Guinea, annexed it under the name
Rivieres du Sud (rivers of the south). In 1895, as French Guinea, it
became part of French West Africa. Exploitation of Guinea's rich bauxite
deposits began just before World War II, accompanied by the growth of a
radical labor movement led by Sekou %@AU@%TOURE%@BO:          96e41e@%%@AE@%. Under his leadership, Guinea
was the only French colony to reject (1958) self-government within the
%@AU@%FRENCH COMMUNITY%@BO:          360495@%%@AE@% and voted instead for full independence. Toure created a
one-party socialist state in which he, as head of the government and the
ruling party, had ultimate authority. Having demonstrated its
determination to pursue a nonaligned stance, in the 1980s Guinea enjoyed
good relations with most Western, Arab, and African states. When Toure
died (1984), a military clique seized power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guinea-Bissau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guinea-Bissau%@AE@%%@CR:GUINEABISSAU    @%%@QR:Guinea-Bissau@%, officially Republic of Guinea-Bissau, formerly Portuguese%@EH@%
Guinea, republic (1988 est. pop. 950,742), 13,948 sq mi (36,125 sq km), W
Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (W), Senegal (N), and Guinea (E
and S), and including the Bijagos Archipelago and several islands in the
Atlantic. The capital is %@AU@%BISSAU%@BO:          1040b2@%%@AE@%. Guinea-Bissau is largely a low-lying
coastal plain, with many rivers and swampy estuaries. Farming is the
leading occupation, producing rice, palm oil, coconuts, and peanuts.
Fishing is an increasingly important industry. Most of the people hold
animist beliefs, but about one third are Muslim.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% First visited by the Portuguese in 1446-47, the area that is now
Guinea-Bissau developed in the 16th cent. as a slave-trading center. It
was administered as part of the %@AU@%CAPE VERDE %@BO:          187c88@%%@AE@%islands until 1879, when it
became the separate colony of Portuguese Guinea. In 1951 it was
constituted an overseas province. A nationalist movement was organized in
1956, and a war for independence began in the early 1960s. After more
than 10 years of fighting, independence was proclaimed in 1973 and
recognized by Portugal in 1974. The following year, some 100,000 refugees
of the war returned. Ties with Cape Verde had been close, with eventual
union a goal. However, a coup in 1980, which killed Pres. Luis de Almeida
Cabral and brought to power Joao Bernardo Vieira led to a breakdown of
relations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guinea pig%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guinea pig%@AE@%,%@CR:GUINEA.PIG      @%%@QR:guinea pig@% domesticated form of the cavy (%@AI@%Cavia porcellus%@AE@%), a South%@EH@%
American %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% unrelated to the pig. Guinea pigs have rounded bodies and
large heads, are 6 to 10 in. (15 to 25 cm) long, and weigh 1 to 2 lb (450
to 900 grams). There are short- and long-haired varieties and many color
combinations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guinevere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guinevere%@AE@%:%@CR:GUINEVERE       @%%@QR:Guinevere@% see %@AU@%ARTHURIAN LEGEND%@BO:           855f0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guinness, Sir Alec%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guinness, Sir Alec%@AE@%,%@CR:GUINNESS        @%%@QR:Guinness, Sir Alec@% 1914-, English actor. Noted for his versatility, he%@EH@%
has appeared in such films as %@AI@%Kind Hearts and Coronets%@AE@% (1949; he
performed eight parts); %@AI@%The Bridge on the River Kwai%@AE@% (1957; Academy
Award); and, for television, %@AI@%Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy%@AE@% (1980) and
%@AI@%Smiley's People%@AE@% (1982), dramatizations of novels by John le Carre.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guiraldes, Ricardo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guiraldes, Ricardo%@AE@%%@CR:GUIRALDES       @%%@QR:Guiraldes, Ricardo@%, 1886-1927, Argentine novelist and short-story writer.%@EH@%
His major work, the novel %@AI@%Shadows on the Pampas%@AE@% (1926), celebrates the
life of the gaucho (Argentine cowboy).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guise%@AE@%,%@CR:GUISE           @%%@QR:Guise@% French ducal family, founded as a cadet branch of the house of%@EH@%
Lorraine by %@AB@%Claude de Lorraine,%@AE@% 1st %@AB@%duc de Guise,%@AE@% 1496-1550. His
daughter, %@AU@%MARY OF GUISE%@BO:          5c8d8e@%%@AE@%, married %@AU@%JAMES V%@BO:          4b0314@%%@AE@% of Scotland and was the mother
of %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@%. His sons %@AB@%Francois de Lorraine,%@AE@% 2d %@AB@%duc de Guise,%@AE@%
1519-63, and %@AB@%Charles de Guise, Cardinal de Lorraine,%@AE@% c.1525-74,
controlled French politics in the reign of %@AU@%FRANCIS II%@BO:          353d30@%%@AE@%, the first husband
of Mary Queen of Scots. They championed the Roman Catholic cause against
the Protestant %@AU@%HUGUENOTS%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@% and harshly suppressed the Huguenot conspiracy
of Amboise (1560). After Francis's death, they opposed the tolerant
policies of the regent, %@AU@%CATHERINE DE' MEDICI%@BO:          1a3aee@%%@AE@%, and provoked the Wars of
Religion (see %@AU@%RELIGION, WARS OF%@BO:          7ddea5@%%@AE@%). Francois's son %@AB@%Henri de Lorraine,%@AE@% 3d
%@AB@%duc de Guise,%@AE@% 1550-88, helped Catherine de' Medici plan the massacre of
Huguenots on %@AU@%SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY%@BO:          8305e7@%%@AE@% (1572). He formed the Catholic
League to oppose Protestantism and revived the League in 1585 to block
the accession of the Protestant Henry of Navarre (later %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@%).
Because of Guise's designs on the throne, King %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% brought about
the assassinations of Guise and his brother %@AB@%Louis de Lorraine, Cardinal
%@AB@%de Guise,%@AE@% 1555-88. Henri was succeeded by his son, %@AB@%Charles de Lorraine,%@AE@%
4th %@AB@%duc de Guise,%@AE@% 1571-1640. Charles's son %@AB@%Henri de Lorraine,%@AE@% 5th %@AB@%duc de
%@AB@%Guise,%@AE@% 1614-64, was the archbishop of Rheims. He conspired against
Cardinal %@AU@%RICHELIEU%@BO:          7f190c@%%@AE@% (1641) and fought in Naples against Spain (1647-48;
1654). He was grand chamberlain at the court of %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%guitar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%guitar%@AE@%:%@CR:GUITAR          @%%@QR:guitar@% see %@AU@%STRINGED INSTRUMENT%@BO:          8fbf78@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guitry, Lucien Germain%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guitry, Lucien Germain%@AE@%%@CR:GUITRY          @%%@QR:Guitry, Lucien Germain@%, 1860-1925, the most versatile French actor of his%@EH@%
day. His son, %@AB@%Sacha Guitry,%@AE@% 1885-1957, was an actor; popular playwright,
e.g., %@AI@%Nono%@AE@% (1905); and film director.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guiyang%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guiyang%@AE@%%@CR:GUIYANG         @%%@QR:Guiyang@%or %@AB@%Kweiyang%@AE@%, city (1986 est. pop. 1,380,000), capital of Guizhou%@EH@%
prov., SW China. A major transport and industrial center, it produces
textiles, fertilizers, machine tools, and petroleum products. The city's
population includes numerous minority nationalities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guizot, Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guizot, Francois%@AE@%%@CR:GUIZOT          @%%@QR:Guizot, Francois@%, 1787-1874, French statesman and historian. A university%@EH@%
professor, he served %@AU@%LOUIS PHILIPPE%@BO:          575921@%%@AE@% as minister of public instruction
(1832-37). Becoming the chief power in the ministry (1840), he was named
premier in 1847, but his acceptance of the established order led to his
overthrow in the %@AU@%FEBRUARY REVOLUTION%@BO:          3222d5@%%@AE@% of 1848. He devoted the rest of his
life to writing. His %@AI@%History of the Revolution in England%@AE@% (6 vol.,
1826-56) illustrates his critical approach and his admiration for the
British experience.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%GULAG%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%GULAG%@AE@%,%@CR:GULAG           @%%@QR:GULAG@% system of forced-labor prison camps in the USSR, from the Russian%@EH@%
acronym for Chief Administration of Corrective Labor Camps, a department
of the KGB (Soviet %@AU@%SECRET POLICE%@BO:          86765a@%%@AE@%). Established in 1918, the vast penal
network reached its peak under %@AU@%STALIN%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@%, when deaths of political prisoners
from starvation and other forms of maltreatment were estimated in the
millions. The system, which continues on a much-reduced scale today, has
been publicized in the writings of %@AU@%SOLZHENITSYN%@BO:          8b57d8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gulf Stream%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gulf Stream%@AE@%,%@CR:GULF.STREAM     @%%@QR:Gulf Stream@% warm ocean current of the N Atlantic Ocean off E North%@EH@%
America, originating in the Gulf of Mexico, passing through the Straits
of Florida, and moving northeastward until it merges with the %@AU@%NORTH
%@AU@%ATLANTIC DRIFT%@BO:          6b6b4f@%%@AE@% at lat. 40 degN and long. 60 degW. The Gulf Stream has an
average speed of 4 mi (6.4 km) per hour. At its beginning the water
temperature is 80 degF (27 degC), but it decreases as it moves north.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gull%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gull%@AE@%,%@CR:GULL            @%%@QR:gull@% aquatic %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Laridae, which also includes the %@AU@%TERN%@BO:          9423e7@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
found near all oceans and many inland waters. White with gray or black
plumage, gulls are larger and bulkier than terns, and their tails are
squared rather than forked. They have long, narrow wings adapted for
soaring, webbed feet for swimming, and hooked bills.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gullah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gullah%@AE@%,%@CR:GULLAH          @%%@QR:Gullah@% a creole language spoken by the Gullah blacks of the Carolina Sea%@EH@%
Islands and the Middle Atlantic coast of the U.S. It is a mixture of
17th- and 18th-cent. English and a number of West African languages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gum tree%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gum tree%@AE@%,%@CR:GUM.TREE        @%%@QR:gum tree@% name for the %@AU@%EUCALYPTUS%@BO:          307ba8@%%@AE@% and for other trees, e.g., sweet gum%@EH@%
(%@AU@%WITCH-HAZEL%@BO:          a293fe@%%@AE@% family) and %@AU@%BLACK GUM%@BO:          1087d6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gun%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gun%@AE@%,%@CR:GUN             @%%@QR:gun@% a device that discharges shot, shells, or bullets from a straight%@EH@%
tube. A gun using the explosion of %@AU@%GUNPOWDER%@BO:          3e9c83@%%@AE@% or some other explosive
substance to propel the projectile is called a firearm; types include
%@AU@%ARTILLERY%@BO:           8773d@%%@AE@% (large firearms), %@AU@%MORTAR%@BO:          64146c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SMALL ARMS%@BO:          8a3da7@%%@AE@%. Certain other guns
use compressed air produced by a spring-operated plunger (e.g., BB gun)
or a lever-and-pump system (e.g., air rifle) to propel the projectile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gundulic, Ivan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gundulic, Ivan%@AE@%%@CR:GUNDULIC        @%%@QR:Gundulic, Ivan@%or %@AB@%Giovanni Gondola%@AE@% , 1588-1638, Croatian poet. His finest%@EH@%
work, %@AI@%Osman%@AE@% (1626), an epic of the Polish wars against the Turks, shows
early Slavic nationalism and the influence of ancient song.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gunmetal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gunmetal%@AE@%,%@CR:GUNMETAL        @%%@QR:gunmetal@% a %@AU@%BRONZE%@BO:          143e1d@%%@AE@%, an %@AU@%ALLOY%@BO:           3f294@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%COPPER%@BO:          2321a6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TIN%@BO:          95ed7b@%%@AE@%, and a small%@EH@%
amount of %@AU@%ZINC%@BO:          a54458@%%@AE@%. Originally used to make guns, it is now employed in
casting machine parts. The percentages of the three elements are varied,
depending on the intended use.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gunnarsson, Gunnar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gunnarsson, Gunnar%@AE@%%@CR:GUNNARSSON      @%%@QR:Gunnarsson, Gunnar@%, 1889-1975, Icelandic novelist. His early works, in%@EH@%
Danish, helped interest Europeans in Icelandic culture. His masterpiece,
%@AI@%The Church on the Mountain%@AE@% (5 vol., 1923-28), about rural life in
Iceland, demonstrates his rich imagination and poetic skill.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gunpowder%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gunpowder%@AE@%,%@CR:GUNPOWDER       @%%@QR:gunpowder@% explosive mixture of saltpeter (75%), sulfur (10%), and%@EH@%
charcoal (15%). It is believed to have originated as early as the 9th
cent. in China, where it was used for making fireworks, and to have been
introduced into Europe in the 14th cent. Its use revolutionized warfare.
Gunpowder was the only explosive in wide use until the mid-19th cent.,
when it was superseded by %@AU@%NITROGLYCERIN%@BO:          6a54e4@%%@AE@%-based %@AU@%EXPLOSIVES%@BO:          313262@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gunpowder Plot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gunpowder Plot%@AE@%,%@CR:GUNPOWDER.PLOT  @%%@QR:Gunpowder Plot@% conspiracy to blow up the English Parliament and %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
on Nov. 5, 1605, the opening day of Parliament. An uprising of English
Catholics was to follow. In preparation, gunpowder was stored in the
cellar of the House of Lords. The plot was exposed when a conspirator
warned a relative not to attend Parliament that day. One of the plotters,
Guy Fawkes, was arrested as he entered the cellar. The others were either
seized and killed outright or imprisoned and executed. The plot only
worsened the plight of English Catholics. Guy Fawkes Day is celebrated
today in England on Nov. 5.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gupta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gupta%@AE@%%@CR:GUPTA           @%%@QR:Gupta@% (gop'ta, Indian dynasty (c.320-c.550) founded by %@AU@%CHANDRAGUPTA I%@BO:          1b7947@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(r.c.320-c.330). At its height, the dynasty ruled much of what is modern
India.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gurkha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gurkha%@AE@%,%@CR:GURKHA          @%%@QR:Gurkha@% ethnic group of %@AU@%NEPAL%@BO:          6830bb@%%@AE@%. Predominantly Tibeto-Mongolians, they%@EH@%
speak Khas, a Rajasthani dialect of Sanskritic origin; practice Hinduism;
and claim descent from the %@AU@%RAJPUTS%@BO:          7c77d0@%%@AE@% of N India. By the 18th cent. they had
expanded east from their small state of Gurkha throughout Nepal. Many
Gurkha soldiers have served in Indian and British armies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gustavus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gustavus%@AE@%,%@CR:GUSTAVUS        @%%@QR:Gustavus@% kings of Sweden. %@AB@%Gustavus I,%@AE@% 1496-1560 (r.1523-60), was the%@EH@%
founder of the modern Swedish state and the %@AU@%VASA%@BO:          9c0440@%%@AE@% dynasty. After his
father, a Swedish senator, was killed (1520) in a massacre ordered by the
Danish king, %@AU@%CHRISTIAN II%@BO:          1de4ff@%%@AE@%, Gustavus escaped from prison and defeated the
Danes. His election as king by the Riksdag (1523) ended the %@AU@%KALMAR UNION%@BO:          4e0eb5@%%@AE@%
of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. In 1527 he founded a national Protestant
Church. With a newly strengthened navy he defeated %@AU@%LUBECK%@BO:          57a090@%%@AE@% (1537), freeing
Swedish commerce from the power of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. In 1544 he made
the throne hereditary in the Vasa family, ending the election of Swedish
kings. His son Eric XIV succeeded him. %@AB@%Gustavus II%@AE@% (Gustavus Adolphus),
1594-1632 (r.1611-32), was the son of %@AU@%CHARLES IX%@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@%. Aided by his
chancellor, %@AU@%OXENSTIERNA%@BO:          6fac8e@%%@AE@%, he ended the Kalmar War with Denmark (1613) and
forced Russia to cede Ingermanland (1617). In the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% he
obtained much of Polish Livonia and several Baltic ports (1629), then
invaded German Pomerania, defeating %@AU@%TILLY%@BO:          95d827@%%@AE@% near Leipzig (1631). At Lutzen
(1632) the Swedes defeated %@AU@%WALLENSTEIN%@BO:          9ecdba@%%@AE@%, but Gustavus was killed. His
daughter, %@AU@%CHRISTINA%@BO:          1e069b@%%@AE@%, succeeded him. %@AB@%Gustavus III,%@AE@% 1746-92 (r.1771-92),
was the son of Adolphus Frederick. To quell civil strife, he imposed
(1772) a new constitution restoring the royal prerogatives lost by his
successors. In a war with Russia and Denmark (1788-90) he was victorious.
He planned a coalition to aid the French royalists but was assassinated
by an agent of the nobles. His son, %@AB@%Gustavus IV,%@AE@% 1778-1837 (r.1792-1809),
succeeded him under the regency of his uncle, later %@AU@%CHARLES XIII%@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@%. After
he joined (1805) the Third Coalition against %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% he lost Swedish
Pomerania to France and Finland to Russia (1808). His despotism, mental
imbalance, and disastrous policies led to his forced abdication when the
Russians threatened Stockholm (1809). Charles XIII became king and made
peace with Russia. Gustavus was exiled and his descendants barred from
succession. %@AB@%Gustavus V,%@AE@% 1858-1950 (r.1907-50), was the son of Oscar II.
During his reign Sweden prospered and avoided involvement in two world
wars. He was succeeded by his son, %@AB@%Gustavus VI%@AE@% (Gustaf Adolf), 1882-1973
(r.1950-73). He participated in archaeological expeditions in Sweden,
Greece, and China, and his work as a botanist earned him admission (1958)
to the British Royal Academy. His grandson, Carl Gustaf, succeeded him as
%@AU@%CHARLES XVI GUSTAVUS%@BO:          1c0333@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gustavus Adolphus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gustavus Adolphus%@AE@%%@CR:GUSTAVUUS       @%%@QR:Gustavus Adolphus@% (Gustavus II): see %@AU@%GUSTAVUS%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%, kings of Sweden.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gutenberg, Johann%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gutenberg, Johann%@AE@%,%@CR:GUTENBERG       @%%@QR:Gutenberg, Johann@% c.1397-1468, German printer, believed to have been the%@EH@%
first European to print with movable %@AU@%TYPE%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@%. Laurens Janszoon Koster of
Holland and Pamfilo Castaldi of Italy are thought by some to have
preceded him. Gutenberg's name did not appear on any of his work, and
details of his life are scant. He is thought to have trained as a
goldsmith. He may have invented %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@AE@% in Strasbourg in 1436 or 1437,
but the work attributed to him, including the %@AU@%MAZARIN BIBLE%@BO:          5dc214@%%@AE@% (1455), was
done in Mainz. He had to give up his press and types to Johann %@AU@%FUST%@BO:          370ab9@%%@AE@% for
debt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guthrie, Sir Tyrone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guthrie, Sir Tyrone%@AE@%,%@CR:GUTHRIE1        @%%@QR:Guthrie, Sir Tyrone@% 1900-1971, English director and producer. Noted for%@EH@%
his experimental Shakespearean productions, he headed the Old Vic (see
%@AU@%THEATER%@BO:          948fd7@%%@AE@%,) and Canada's Shakespeare Festival before founding (1963) the
Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guthrie, Woody%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guthrie, Woody%@AE@%%@CR:GUTHRIE2        @%%@QR:Guthrie, Woody@% (Woodrow Wilson Guthrie), 1912-67, American folk singer,%@EH@%
guitarist, and composer; b. Okemah, Okla. He wrote over 1,000 songs,
chiefly on social and political themes, and strongly influenced younger
performers like Bob %@AU@%DYLAN%@BO:          2b8a45@%%@AE@%. His son, %@AB@%Arlo Guthrie,%@AE@% 1947-, b. N.Y.C., is
also a folk singer and composer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guyana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guyana%@AE@%%@CR:GUYANA          @%%@QR:Guyana@%, officially Cooperative Republic of Guyana, formerly %@AB@%British%@EH@%
%@AB@%Guiana,%@AE@% republic (1987 est. pop. 812,000), 83,000 sq mi (214,969 sq km),
NE South America, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (N), Surinam (E), Brazil
(S and W), and Venezuela (W). %@AU@%GEORGETOWN%@BO:          3949e9@%%@AE@% is the capital. The climate is
hot and humid, and rainfall is heavy. There is a cultivated coastal plain
and a forested, hilly interior. Agriculture and mining are the principal
economic activities, with the processing of bauxite (nationalized in the
1970s) and sugarcane the largest industries. The population, primarily
East Indian and black, with about 4% native Indian, is concentrated along
the coast. English is the official language, and Christianity, Hinduism,
and Islam are the main religions. Originally settled by the Dutch in the
17th cent., the region was awarded to the British in 1815 and united as
British Guiana in 1831. Full independence was gained in 1966, and Guyana
became a republic in 1970. In 1979 the Guyana jungle was the site of a
mass suicide involving over 900 American exiles who were members of Rev.
Jim Jones's People's Temple.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Guzman Blanco, Antonio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Guzman Blanco, Antonio%@AE@%%@CR:GUZMAN.BLANCO   @%%@QR:Guzman Blanco, Antonio@%, 1829-99, Venezuelan dictator (1870-88).%@EH@%
Instrumental in deposing (1863) %@AU@%PAEZ%@BO:          6fffea@%%@AE@% as dictator, he served (1863-68) as
Liberal vice president, and led a counterrevolution (1870) that made him
president. A benevolent despot, he reformed government administration and
brought about material progress. His regime was overthrown in 1888.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gwyn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gwyn%@AE@%%@CR:GWYN            @%%@QR:Gwyn@% or %@AB@%Gwynn, Nell%@AE@%(Eleanor), 1650-87, English actress, notable for her%@EH@%
charm in comic roles. From 1669 she was the mistress of %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@%, and
bore him two sons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gymnastics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gymnastics%@AE@%,%@CR:GYMNASTICS      @%%@QR:gymnastics@% exercises for the balanced development of the body, usually%@EH@%
practiced in a gymnasium, so named for the training place for the %@AU@%OLYMPIC
%@AU@%GAMES%@BO:          6d9e8f@%%@AE@% of ancient Greece. Modern gymnastics date from the early 19th
cent., when several %@AI@%Turnplatze%@AE@% were established in Berlin, then spread on
the Continent, to England, and to the U.S. Now part of the school
curriculum, gymnastics include free calisthenics, the horse, bars, rings,
tumbling, and trampoline.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gymnosperm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gymnosperm%@AE@%,%@CR:GYMNOSPERM      @%%@QR:gymnosperm@% plant in which the %@AU@%SEEDS%@BO:          868ba1@%%@AE@% are exposed to the air during all%@EH@%
stages of development, in contrast to %@AU@%ANGIOSPERMS%@BO:           576a3@%%@AE@%. Gymnosperms, which
include the %@AU@%PINES%@BO:          75d24e@%%@AE@%, are woody plants with %@AU@%STEMS%@BO:          8ebe4e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROOTS%@BO:          810b7d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LEAVES%@BO:          53195d@%%@AE@%, and
vascular, or conducting, tissue (xylem and phloem). Gymnosperms are
always pollinated by wind, and many have their seed-bearing structures
organized into cones. Constituting the plant division Pinophyta, they
comprise the %@AU@%CYCADS%@BO:          259a8a@%%@AE@% (subdivision Cycadicae); the %@AU@%CONIFERS%@BO:          2218e9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%YEWS%@BO:          a438a7@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%GINKGOS%@BO:          3a43cc@%%@AE@% (subdivision Pini cae); and the subdivision Gneticae, which
contains three families in separate orders, all of evolutionary interest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gynecology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gynecology%@AE@%,%@CR:GYNECOLOGY      @%%@QR:gynecology@% branch of medicine specializing in disorders of the female%@EH@%
%@AU@%REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM%@BO:          7e46bf@%%@AE@%. Modern gynecology deals with disorders of
%@AU@%MENSTRUATION%@BO:          5ec656@%%@AE@%, menopause, disease and maldevelopment of reproductive
organs, hormonal and fertility problems, and %@AU@%BIRTH CONTROL%@BO:          101f6d@%%@AE@% devices. A
related branch of medicine is %@AB@%obstetrics,%@AE@% which specializes in the
treatment of women during %@AU@%PREGNANCY%@BO:          7934db@%%@AE@% and childbirth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gypsies%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gypsies%@AE@%%@CR:GYPSIES         @%%@QR:gypsies@% or %@AB@%gipsies,%@AE@%nomadic people found on every continent, but prominent%@EH@%
in Spain and the Balkans. Despite much wandering they still cling to
their identity and customs. They travel in small caravans, earning a
living as metalworkers, musicians, horse-dealers, auto mechanics, and
fortune-tellers. Most are Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox Christian.
Their Indo-Iranian language, Romany, and their blood groupings are
related to those found in India, where they are probably originated. They
went to Persia in the 1st millennium AD and divided into the Gitanos,
Kalderash, and Manush. They had spread throughout Europe by the 16th
cent. and appeared in North America in the late 1800s. Gypsies today are
estimated at 5 million; half a million died in Nazi %@AU@%CONCENTRATION CAMPS%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@%
during World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gypsum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gypsum%@AE@%%@CR:GYPSUM          @%%@QR:gypsum@%%@AH@%4%@AE@%2H%@AH@%2%@AE@%O, the most common sulfate mineral, occurring in many places%@EH@%
and forms. It is very soft; the massive variety %@AU@%ALABASTER%@BO:           29b33@%%@AE@% and the
lustrous variety satin spar are easily worked into decorative objects.
Plaster of Paris, used to make casts, molds, and wallboard, is made from
gypsum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Gypsy language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Gypsy language%@AE@%:%@CR:GYPSY.LANGUAGE  @%%@QR:Gypsy language@% see %@AU@%ROMANY%@BO:          80bbd9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%gyroscope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%gyroscope%@AE@%,%@CR:GYROSCOPE       @%%@QR:gyroscope@% symmetrical mass, usually a wheel, mounted so that it can spin%@EH@%
about an axis in any direction. A spinning gyroscope will resist changes
in the orientation of its spin axis. Gyroscopes are used in ship
stabilizers to counteract rolling, and a gyroscope is the nucleus of most
automatic steering systems, such as those used in airplanes, missiles,
and torpedoes. See also %@AU@%COMPASS%@BO:          2146cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%H%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%H%@AE@%,%@CR:H               @%%@QR:H@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%HYDROGEN%@BO:          45f01f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haakon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haakon%@AE@%,%@CR:HAAKON          @%%@QR:Haakon@% kings of Norway. %@AB@%Haakon I%@AE@% (ha'kan, Nor. ho'kon (the Good),%@EH@%
c.915-61 (r. c.935-61), was the son of %@AU@%HAROLD I%@BO:          401664@%%@AE@%. Raised as a Christian in
England, he tried unsuccessfully to introduce Christianity into Norway
after seizing power from his brother Eric Bloodyaxe. Eric's sons
succeeded him. %@AB@%Haakon IV%@AE@% (Haakon Haakonsson), 1204-63 (r.1217-63), was
the illegitimate son of Haakon III. Under him medieval Norway reached its
zenith. Iceland and Greenland were acquired, legal reforms were carried
out, and Old Norse literature flowered (see %@AU@%SNORRI STURLUSON%@BO:          8a98ea@%%@AE@%). His son,
%@AU@%MAGNUS VI%@BO:          59a3a2@%%@AE@%, succeeded him. %@AB@%Haakon VII,%@AE@% 1872-1957 (r.1905-57), was born
Prince Charles, second son of %@AU@%FREDERICK VIII%@BO:          35a77a@%%@AE@% of Denmark. He was chosen
king when Norway separated from Sweden. During the German occupation of
Norway (1940-45) he headed a government in exile in London. He was
succeeded by his son %@AU@%OLAF V%@BO:          6d5b90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haarlem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haarlem%@AE@%,%@CR:HAARLEM         @%%@QR:Haarlem@% city (1987 pop. 149,009), capital of N Holland prov., W%@EH@%
Netherlands. It has heavy industry but is best known as a flower-growing
center and exporter of bulbs, chiefly tulips. Leading masters, e.g.,
%@AU@%HALS%@BO:          3f6361@%%@AE@%, van %@AU@%OSTADE%@BO:          6f3ea4@%%@AE@%, and van %@AU@%RUISDAEL%@BO:          81d510@%%@AE@%, painted there. Among its many
historic buildings are the 15th-cent Groote Kerk (church) and the city
hall (begun 1250).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Habacuc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Habacuc%@AE@%,%@CR:HABACUC         @%%@QR:Habacuc@% variant of %@AU@%HABAKKUK%@BO:          3edbfb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Habakkuk, Habacuc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Habakkuk, Habacuc%@AE@%,%@CR:HABAKKUK        @%%@QR:Habakkuk, Habacuc@%or %@AB@%Habbacuc%@AE@%, book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 35th in the%@EH@%
Authorized Version, 8th of the Minor %@AU@%PROPHETS%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@%. It is a set of poems on
the punishment of the wicked by God, using the Chaldaeans (Babylonians)
as His instrument, and on the triumph of divine justice and mercy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%habeas corpus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%habeas corpus%@AE@%%@CR:HABEAS.CORPUS   @%%@QR:habeas corpus@% [Lat.,=you should have the body], in law, a writ issued by%@EH@%
a court commanding that a person held in custody be brought before a
court so that it may determine whether the detention is lawful. Meant to
ensure that a prisoner is accorded due process of law, it does not
determine guilt or innocence. Habeas corpus originated in medieval
England and was regarded highly by the British colonists in America as a
safeguard against illegal imprisonment. It is guaranteed by the U.S.
%@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@% and may be suspended only in time of rebellion or invasion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haber, Fritz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haber, Fritz%@AE@%,%@CR:HABER           @%%@QR:Haber, Fritz@% 1868-1934, German chemist. During World War I he directed%@EH@%
Germany's chemical warfare activities, which included the introduction of
poison gas. After the Nazi rise to power (1933), he went into exile in
England. For his discovery of the Haber process for synthesizing ammonia
from its elements he won the 1918 Nobel Prize in chemistry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Habib, Philip C.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Habib, Philip C.%@AE@%,%@CR:HABIB           @%%@QR:Habib, Philip C.@% 1920-, American diplomat; b. N.Y.C. A career foreign%@EH@%
service officer (1949-80), he was a special envoy to the Middle East,
where he negotiated a highly praised cease-fire in Lebanon (1982). He
later served in the Philippines (1986) and Central America (1986-87).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Habsburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Habsburg%@AE@%,%@CR:HABSBURG        @%%@QR:Habsburg@% family: see %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%haddock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%haddock%@AE@%:%@CR:HADDOCK         @%%@QR:haddock@% see %@AU@%COD%@BO:          1fef5a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hades%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hades%@AE@%%@CR:HADES           @%%@QR:Hades@%, in Greek mythology.%@AB@%1%@AE@%The ruler of the underworld, commonly called%@EH@%
%@AU@%PLUTO%@BO:          76f8e7@%%@AE@%.%@AB@%2%@AE@%The world of the dead, ruled by Pluto and %@AU@%PERSEPHONE%@BO:          739443@%%@AE@%. Guarded by
%@AU@%CERBERUS%@BO:          1b0c71@%%@AE@%, it was either underground or in the far west, and was separated
from the land of the living by five rivers. One of these was the %@AU@%STYX%@BO:          901214@%%@AE@%,
across which the dead were ferried. Three judges decided the fate of
souls; heroes went to the %@AU@%ELYSIAN FIELDS%@BO:          2e5de2@%%@AE@%, evildoers to %@AU@%TARTARUS%@BO:          92f86d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hadewijch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hadewijch%@AE@%%@CR:HADEWIJCH       @%%@QR:Hadewijch@%, fl. early 13th cent., Dutch mystical poet, a nun. Her works%@EH@%
are a monument both to early Dutch literature and to Roman Catholic
mysticism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hadrian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hadrian%@AE@%.%@CR:HADRIAN1        @%%@QR:Hadrian@% For popes of that name, see %@AU@%ADRIAN%@BO:           1560f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hadrian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hadrian%@AE@%%@CR:HADRIAN2        @%%@QR:Hadrian@% or %@AB@%Adrian,%@AE@%AD 76-138, Roman emperor (117-138); b. Spain. His name%@EH@%
in full was Publius Aelius Hadrianus. A ward of %@AU@%TRAJAN%@BO:          973856@%%@AE@%, Hadrian
distinguished himself as a commander and as an administrator. He was
chosen as Trajan's successor. Hadrian's reign was vigorous and judicious.
Abandoning the aggressive policy of Trajan in Asia, he withdrew to the
boundary of the Euphrates in Palestine. In 132 he put down the
insurrection of the Hebrew leader %@AU@%BAR KOKBA%@BO:           c4324@%%@AE@% with great severity. Hadrian
traveled extensively in the empire, stabilizing government and adorning
the cities. In Germany he built great protective walls, and in Britain he
had Hadrian's Wall built. He also patronized the arts; his regard for the
youth Antinous was recorded by sculptors and architects. As his successor
he chose Antoninus Pius.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hadrian's Wall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hadrian's Wall%@AE@%,%@CR:HADRIANS.WALL   @%%@QR:Hadrian's Wall@% ancient Roman wall, 73.5 mi (118.3 km) long, across Great%@EH@%
Britain from Wallsend to Bowness. Built (AD c.122-26) by Emperor %@AU@%HADRIAN%@BO:          3eea85@%%@AE@%
and extended by Emperor %@AU@%SEVERUS%@BO:          876b4c@%%@AE@% a century later, the wall demarcated the
northern boundary and defense line of Roman Britain. Fragments of it
remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haeckel, Ernst von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haeckel, Ernst von%@AE@%%@CR:HAECKEL         @%%@QR:Haeckel, Ernst von@%, 1834-1919, German biologist and philosopher. He was%@EH@%
an early exponent in Germany of Charles %@AU@%DARWIN'S%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@% theory of %@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@%.
Based on his interpretations of Darwin's theory, he evolved a mechanistic
form of %@AU@%MONISM%@BO:          62cb9a@%%@AE@%. His theory of recapitulation postulated a hypothetical
ancestral form represented by the gastrula stage of individual
development. Although many were later proved incorrect, his theories
attracted a following and stimulated research.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%haemo-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%haemo-%@AE@%.%@CR:HAEMO           @%%@QR:haemo-@% For words beginning thus, see hemo-.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hafiz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hafiz%@AE@%%@CR:HAFIZ           @%%@QR:Hafiz@%, d. 1389?, Persian poet; b. Shams ad-Din Muhammad. Traditionally%@EH@%
interpreted allegorically by Muslims, his poems are passionate lyrics,
usually ghazals (groups of rhyming couplets), on such themes as love and
drink.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hafnium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hafnium%@AE@%%@CR:HAFNIUM         @%%@QR:hafnium@% (Hf), metallic element, discovered by X-ray spectroscopy in 1923%@EH@%
by Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy. Lustrous, silvery, and ductile, it
is chemically similar to %@AU@%ZIRCONIUM%@BO:          a559e3@%%@AE@%; the two elements are among the most
difficult to separate. Hafnium is used for nuclear-reactor control rods.
See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hagar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hagar%@AE@%:%@CR:HAGAR           @%%@QR:Hagar@% see %@AU@%ISHMAEL%@BO:          49f9a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hagen, Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hagen, Walter%@AE@%,%@CR:HAGEN           @%%@QR:Hagen, Walter@% 1892-1969, American golfer; b. Rochester, N.Y. He won 11%@EH@%
major championships: the U.S. Open twice (1914, 1919) and, during the
1920s, the British Open four times and the Professional Golfers'
Association five times. He played on five Ryder Cup teams.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haggai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haggai%@AE@%%@CR:HAGGAI          @%%@QR:Haggai@% or %@AB@%Aggeus%@AE@% , book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 37th in the Authorized%@EH@%
Version, 10th of the Minor Prophets. Dated 520-519 BC, it calls on the
%@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%, newly returned from the Babylonian exile, to renew work on
restoring the Temple.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haggard, Sir Henry Rider%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haggard, Sir Henry Rider%@AE@%,%@CR:HAGGARD         @%%@QR:Haggard, Sir Henry Rider@% 1856-1925, English novelist. He is known for%@EH@%
his highly popular romantic adventure stories, particularly %@AI@%King
%@AI@%Solomon's Mines%@AE@% (1885) and %@AI@%She%@AE@% (1887).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hagia Sophia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hagia Sophia%@AE@%%@CR:HAGIA.SOPHIA    @%%@QR:Hagia Sophia@% [Gr.,=Holy Wisdom] or %@AB@%Santa Sophia,%@AE@% Turkish %@AI@%Aya Sofia,%@AE@%%@EH@%
originally a Christian church at Constantinople (now Istanbul), later a
%@AU@%MOSQUE%@BO:          64310e@%%@AE@%, now a museum of Byzantine art. The supreme masterpiece of
Byzantine architecture, the present structure was built (AD 532-37) by
Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus for the emperor %@AU@%JUSTINIAN I%@BO:          4ddb31@%%@AE@%.
After the Turkish conquest of Constantinople (1453) it became a mosque.
The interior mosaics were obscured under layers of plaster and painted
ornament, and Christian symbols were obliterated. Four %@AU@%MINARETS%@BO:          60fc27@%%@AE@% were
added at the outer corners. The nave is covered by a lofty %@AU@%DOME%@BO:          29e93e@%%@AE@% carried
on pendentives; its weight thus rests on four huge arches and their
piers. The east and west arches are extended by half-domes and domed
exedrae. A vast oblong interior is thus created. The dome is 102 ft (31
m) in diameter and 184 ft (56 m) high, with a corona of 40 arched windows
flooding the interior with light. The original decorations and gold
mosaics have been largely restored.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hague, The%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hague, The%@AE@%,%@CR:HAGUE           @%%@QR:Hague, The@% city ( 1986 est. pop. 440,000), capital of S Holland; seat of%@EH@%
the Dutch government, the Dutch supreme court, and the International
Court of Justice (see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%). It grew around a palace begun
c.1250 by William, count of Holland. Seat (from 1586) of the States
General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands and residence
(17th-18th cent.) of their stadtholders, it became a major diplomatic and
intellectual center. It was the Dutch royal residence from 1815 to 1948.
Site of the %@AU@%HAGUE CONFERENCES%@BO:          3f0531@%%@AE@%, the city is known as a center for the
promotion of peace. Landmarks include the 14th-cent. Gevangenenpoort
prison, the 17th-cent. Mauritshuis, and the Peace Palace (1913).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hague Conferences%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hague Conferences%@AE@%,%@CR:HAGUE.CES       @%%@QR:Hague Conferences@% two international conferences (1899, 1907), held at%@EH@%
The Hague, the Netherlands, on the problems of armaments and the rules of
modern warfare. They adopted various conventions that were later ratified
by many nations. Although they failed to prevent %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, they were
an example for both the %@AU@%LEAGUE OF NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@% and the UN. The first
conference created the %@AU@%HAGUE TRIBUNAL%@BO:          3f07ac@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hague Tribunal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hague Tribunal%@AE@%,%@CR:HAGUE.TRIBUNAL  @%%@QR:Hague Tribunal@% popular name for the Permanent Court of Arbitration,%@EH@%
established by the first %@AU@%HAGUE CONFERENCE%@BO:          3f0531@%%@AE@% (1899). Headquartered in The
%@AU@%HAGUE%@BO:          3f01b0@%%@AE@%, it consists of a permanent group of jurists from which a panel is
selected whenever contending nations agree to submit a dispute to
arbitration. It has ruled in more than 20 international disputes,
including the %@AU@%VENEZUELA CLAIMS%@BO:          9c7a0b@%%@AE@% (1904). After World War I it was largely
eclipsed in importance by the %@AU@%WORLD COURT%@BO:          a32fb6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hahn, Otto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hahn, Otto%@AE@%,%@CR:HAHN            @%%@QR:Hahn, Otto@% 1879-1968, German chemist and physicist. Noted for important%@EH@%
work on radioactivity, he received the 1944 Nobel Prize in chemistry for
splitting (1939) the uranium atom and discovering the possibility of
chain reactions. The development of the atomic bomb was based on this
work.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hahnium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hahnium%@AE@%:%@CR:HAHNIUM         @%%@QR:hahnium@% see %@AU@%UNNILPENTIUM%@BO:          9ae387@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haida Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haida Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:HAIDA.INDIANS   @%%@QR:Haida Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Northwest Coast who live on%@EH@%
islands off British Columbia and speak a language of the Nadene stock
(see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Before the arrival (early 19th cent.) of
white fur traders, their clan society practiced the %@AU@%POTLATCH%@BO:          78ac21@%%@AE@%. The Haida
are noted for their artwork and dugout canoes. By 1880 disease had
reduced 8,000 Haida to 2,000. Today many have left their islands for
mainland life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haidar Ali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haidar Ali%@AE@%%@CR:HAIDAR.ALI      @%%@QR:Haidar Ali@% or %@AB@%Hyder Ali,%@AE@%1722-82, Indian Muslim ruler. A peasant by birth,%@EH@%
he rose through army ranks and by 1761 was the virtual ruler of the state
of Mysore. His efforts to expand his domain met with British opposition.
He defeated the British in 1769, but in 1781 he was defeated near Madras.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haifa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haifa%@AE@%%@CR:HAIFA           @%%@QR:Haifa@%, city (1986 est. pop. 223,400), NW Israel, on the Mediterranean%@EH@%
Sea. It is a major industrial center, a railroad hub, and one of the main
ports of Israel. Haifa is known to have existed by the 3d cent. AD and
was destroyed (1191) by %@AU@%SALADIN%@BO:          8376ff@%%@AE@%. The city's revival began in the late
18th cent., development of its port in the 20th cent. led to its main
growth. It is the world center of %@AU@%BAHA'ISM%@BO:           b0885@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haig, Alexander Meigs, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haig, Alexander Meigs, Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:HAIG1           @%%@QR:Haig, Alexander Meigs, Jr.@% 1924-, U.S. general and public official, U.S.%@EH@%
secretary of state (1981-82); b. Philadelphia. A career military officer,
he served as Pres. %@AU@%NIXON'S%@BO:          6a5b4d@%%@AE@% civilian chief of staff during the %@AU@%WATERGATE
%@AU@%AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@%. Later he was (1974-79) NATO commander and in 1981 became Pres.
%@AU@%REAGAN'S%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@% secretary of state. His sudden resignation (1982) was attributed
to disagreements over foreign policy. In 1988, he ran unsuccessfully for
the Republican party's nomination for president of the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haig, Douglas Haig, 1st earl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haig, Douglas Haig, 1st earl%@AE@%,%@CR:HAIG2           @%%@QR:Haig, Douglas Haig, 1st earl@% 1861-1928, British field marshal. In %@AU@%WORLD%@EH@%
%@AU@%WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% he became (1915) commander in chief of the British expeditionary
force in France, but received little support from %@AU@%LLOYD GEORGE%@BO:          55f3eb@%%@AE@%. He was
much criticized for the staggering losses suffered in the battle of the
Somme and the Passchendaele campaign (see %@AU@%YPRES, BATTLES OF%@BO:          a486d6@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%haikai no renga%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%haikai no renga%@AE@%:%@CR:HAIKAI.NO.RENGA @%%@QR:haikai no renga@% see %@AU@%BASHO%@BO:           cc896@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%haiku%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%haiku%@AE@%,%@CR:HAIKU           @%%@QR:haiku@% unrhymed Japanese poem recording the essence of a keenly perceived%@EH@%
moment linking nature and human nature. Usually consisting of 17
symbol-sounds, it was adapted by the %@AU@%IMAGISTS%@BO:          46d50a@%%@AE@% and other Western writers
as a three-line poem of five, seven, and five syllables.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hail%@AE@%,%@CR:HAIL1           @%%@QR:hail@% solid form of precipitation that can occur at any time of year,%@EH@%
usually in a cumulonimbus cloud and often during a %@AU@%THUNDERSTORM%@BO:          957cc2@%%@AE@%. Large
hailstones are spherical or irregularly spherical in shape and are
composed of alternate hard and soft layers of ice. Hail usually forms
when raindrops are blown up to high (cold) areas in a cloud and freeze.
As they fall, they become coated with more water drops; they are then
blown back up and refrozen, adding an additional layer. This process is
repeated until the wind currents can no longer support the weight of the
hailstone. Hailstones are generally less than 0.5 in. (1.3 cm) in
diameter, although larger ones are occasionally observed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haile Selassie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haile Selassie%@AE@%%@CR:HAILE.SELASSIE  @%%@QR:Haile Selassie@%, 1891-1975, emperor of %@AU@%ETHIOPIA%@BO:          3053a6@%%@AE@% (1930-74). The grandnephew%@EH@%
of Emperor %@AU@%MENELIK II%@BO:          5eaeaf@%%@AE@%, and a Coptic Christian, he forced (1916) the
abdication of Lij Yasu, a Muslim convert, and placed Menelik's daughter,
Zauditu, on the throne. In 1928 he was crowned king, and after Zauditu's
mysterious death in 1930 he became emperor. During the Italian invasion
(1935-36) he personally led the troops against the enemy. He lived in
exile in England until 1941, when he returned and claimed the throne.
After World War II he instituted social and political reforms, such as
establishing a national assembly in 1955. In 1974, however, he was
deposed by an army coup, and he died in captivity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hail, Mary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hail, Mary%@AE@%,%@CR:HAIL2           @%%@QR:Hail, Mary@% prayer to the Virgin Mary, universal among Roman Catholics.%@EH@%
Its first lines are from Luke 1.28, 42. The prayer is much used in
private and public devotions, e.g., in the rosary. Known in Latin as the
%@AI@%Ave Maria,%@AE@% it has many musical settings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hainan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hainan%@AE@%%@CR:HAINAN          @%%@QR:Hainan@%, island in the %@AU@%SOUTH CHINA SEA%@BO:          8c1399@%%@AE@%, administratively part of Guangdong%@EH@%
prov., China, 30 mi (50 km) off S China. Hainan is the second largest
island (after %@AU@%TAIWAN%@BO:          9258a0@%%@AE@%) off the China coast. Haikou is its largest city.
The island is the home of the Li and Miao nationalities. Rubber
production and fishing are major industries, and rice, sugar, tobacco,
coffee, and fruit are cultivated during a year-round tropical growing
season. Incorporated into China in the 13th cent., Hainan was occupied by
Japan during World War II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haiphong%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haiphong%@AE@%%@CR:HAIPHONG        @%%@QR:Haiphong@%, city (1979 pop. 1,279,067) NE Vietnam, on a large branch of the%@EH@%
Red R. delta c.10 mi (16 km) from the Gulf of Tonkin. One of the largest
ports in Southeast Asia, it was developed (1874) by the French and became
their chief naval base in %@AU@%INDOCHINA%@BO:          47ba63@%%@AE@%. During the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% Haiphong was
severely bombed (1965-68, 1972) and its harbor mined. Its shipyards,
textile mills, cement factories, and other industrial installations have
since been rebuilt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hair%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hair%@AE@%,%@CR:HAIR            @%%@QR:hair@% slender, threadlike outgrowth from the skin of mammals. Some%@EH@%
animals grow a dense profusion of hair known as %@AU@%FUR%@BO:          36ee65@%%@AE@% or %@AU@%WOOL%@BO:          a304be@%%@AE@%. Insulation
from cold, protection against dust and sand, and camouflage are among the
functions of hair. Each hair originates in a deep, pouchlike hair
follicle, which contains the bulb-shaped root of the hair. The papilla, a
net of nerves and capillaries that supplies the hair, extends into an
indentation at the base of the root. Here newly dividing cells force
older cells upward, where they die and harden into the hair shaft. The
shaft has two layers, the colorless cuticle and the cortex, which
contains pigment and the protein keratin. Hair is lubricated by sebaceous
glands in the follicle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haiti%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haiti%@AE@%,%@CR:HAITI           @%%@QR:Haiti@% Fr. %@AI@%Haiti,%@AE@% officially Republic of Haiti, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
5,438,000), 10,700 sq mi (27,713 sq km), West Indies, on the western
third of the island of %@AU@%HISPANIOLA%@BO:          431c41@%%@AE@%, which it shares with the %@AU@%DOMINICAN
%@AU@%REPUBLIC%@BO:          29fd97@%%@AE@%. The capital and main seaport is %@AU@%PORT-AU-PRINCE%@BO:          784fea@%%@AE@%. The densely
populated, mostly mountainous country has the lowest per-capita income in
Latin America. It has few manufacturing industries and a high rate of
emigration. Subsistence farming (cassava, rice, yams) is the principal
occupation; coffee is the main export. About 95% of the population is
black, and French and Creole (a French dialect) are spoken. Haiti is a
Roman Catholic nation in which some %@AI@%vodun%@AE@% (voodoo) rites are still
practiced.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Nominally part of the Spanish colony of %@AU@%SANTO DOMINGO%@BO:          845846@%%@AE@% from the
early 1500s, eastern Hispaniola remained virtually unsettled until the
mid-17th cent., when French colonists, importing African slaves,
developed sugar plantations in the north. Under French rule from 1697,
Haiti (then called Saint-Domingue) became one of the world's richest
sugar and coffee producers. However, after the 1780s, rebellion; class
war among black, mulatto, and white Haitians; and invasions by French and
British forces shredded the nation's social and economic fabric. In 1801
a former slave, %@AU@%TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE%@BO:          96ee3b@%%@AE@%, conquered the whole island and
abolished slavery; in 1804 Haiti became the second independent nation in
the Americas. Ruled until 1859 by self-styled emperors, it lost control
of western Hispaniola in 1844. Haiti's subsequent history is one of
economic poverty, dictatorship, and occasional anarchy, with a period of
U.S. military occupation (1915-34). In 1957 Francois "Papa Doc" %@AU@%DUVALIER%@BO:          2b784b@%%@AE@%
was elected president. Supported by a personal police force (%@AI@%tontons
%@AI@%macoutes%@AE@%), he imposed an especially repressive rule, relaxed to some
degree only after his death (1971), when he was succeeded by his son,
Jean-Claude Duvalier, who fled the country in 1986. Free elections
followed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hakluyt, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hakluyt, Richard%@AE@%%@CR:HAKLUYT         @%%@QR:Hakluyt, Richard@%, 1552?-1616, English geographer. He promoted English%@EH@%
discovery and colonization, especially in North America, and published
many accounts of exploration and travel. His chief work is %@AI@%The Principal
%@AI@%Navigations, Voyages, Traffics, and Discoveries of the English Nation%@AE@% (3
vol., 1598-1600). The Hakluyt Society (founded 1846) continues to publish
narratives of early exploration.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%halakah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%halakah%@AE@%%@CR:HALAKAH         @%%@QR:halakah@% or %@AB@%halacha,%@AE@%legal portion of the %@AU@%TALMUD%@BO:          9278f3@%%@AE@% and of post-Talmudic%@EH@%
literature concerned with personal, communal, and international
activities, as well as with religious observance. The term usually refers
to the Oral Law, as codified in the %@AU@%MISHNA%@BO:          617113@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haldimand, Sir Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haldimand, Sir Frederick%@AE@%%@CR:HALDIMAND       @%%@QR:Haldimand, Sir Frederick@%, 1718-91, British general and colonial governor%@EH@%
of %@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7ba00e@%%@AE@% (1778-84). From 1756 he served as an officer in British North
America and commanded (1773-74) all British forces there. As governor
during the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% he kept the loyalty of French Canadians
and provided for Loyalist refugees.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hale, Edward Everett%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hale, Edward Everett%@AE@%,%@CR:HALE1           @%%@QR:Hale, Edward Everett@% 1822-1909, American author; b. Boston. A Unitarian%@EH@%
minister, he was a social reformer and chaplain of the U.S. Senate
(1903-9). His best known work is the short novel %@AI@%The Man without a
%@AI@%Country%@AE@% (1863).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hale, George Ellery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hale, George Ellery%@AE@%,%@CR:HALE2           @%%@QR:Hale, George Ellery@% 1868-1938, American astronomer; b. Chicago. He was%@EH@%
the founder of the Yerkes, Mt. Wilson, and %@AU@%PALOMAR OBSERVATORIES%@BO:          7068be@%%@AE@% (and
director of the first two), each in its time housing the largest
telescope in the world. His observatories also employed the latest in
photographic and spectrographic techniques. He invented (1890) the
spectroheliograph, which led to the discovery of magnetic fields and
vortices in sunspots, and founded (1895) the %@AI@%Astrophysical Journal,%@AE@% still
the leading publication in its field.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hale, Nathan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hale, Nathan%@AE@%,%@CR:HALE3           @%%@QR:Hale, Nathan@% 1755-76, American Revolutionary soldier; b. Coventry, Conn.%@EH@%
Sent to Long Island to get information on the British, he was captured
and hanged without trial. On the gallows he is said to have declared, "I
only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hale, Sarah Josepha (Buell)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hale, Sarah Josepha (Buell)%@AE@%,%@CR:HALE4           @%%@QR:Hale, Sarah Josepha (Buell)@% 1788-1879, American author, editor, and%@EH@%
feminist; b. near Newport, N.H. Editor of %@AI@%Godey's Lady's Book%@AE@% for over 40
years, she is best known as the author of the poem "Mary Had a Little
Lamb" (1830).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haleakala National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haleakala National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:HALEAKANAL.PARK @%%@QR:Haleakala National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%half-life%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%half-life%@AE@%:%@CR:HALFLIFE        @%%@QR:half-life@% see %@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haliburton, Thomas Chandler%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haliburton, Thomas Chandler%@AE@%,%@CR:HALIBURTON      @%%@QR:Haliburton, Thomas Chandler@% pseud. %@AB@%Sam Slick,%@AE@% 1796-1865, Canadian%@EH@%
author. A judge and historian, he is known for his series about Sam
Slick, Yankee peddler, collected in %@AI@%The Clockmaker%@AE@% (1836) and later
volumes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%halibut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%halibut%@AE@%:%@CR:HALIBUT         @%%@QR:halibut@% see %@AU@%FLATFISH%@BO:          339794@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Halicarnassus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Halicarnassus%@AE@%%@CR:HALICARNASSUS   @%%@QR:Halicarnassus@%, ancient city of Caria, SW Asia Minor (modern Bodrum,%@EH@%
Turkey). In the 4th cent. BC the widow of King Mausolus built him a tomb
there that was one of the %@AU@%SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD%@BO:          87605b@%%@AE@%. The historians
%@AU@%HERODOTUS%@BO:          425c9f@%%@AE@% and Dionysius of Halicarnassus were born there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Halifax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Halifax%@AE@%,%@CR:HALIFAX         @%%@QR:Halifax@% city (1986 pop. 113,577), capital of Nova Scotia, E Canada,%@EH@%
overlooking one of the world's great natural harbors. It is the largest
city in the Atlantic provinces and Canada's principal ice-free port and
naval base on the eastern seaboard. Much of E Canada's trade passes
through the port when the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway is closed by
ice in winter. Founded in 1749 by the British as a rival to France's
naval stronghold at %@AU@%LOUISBURG%@BO:          573c81@%%@AE@%, Halifax played a major role in the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%. It continued to be used by the
British fleet until 1906 and was a naval base during both world wars. In
1917 a munitions ship was rammed in the harbor and exploded, killing
1,800 and destroying the northern part of the city. Major landmarks in
Halifax include the Citadel, a massive fortress (built 1794-97), and St.
Paul's Church (1750), the oldest Anglican church in Canada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hall, G(ranville) Stanley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hall, G(ranville) Stanley%@AE@%,%@CR:HALL            @%%@QR:Hall, G(ranville) Stanley@% 1844-1924, American psychologist and educator;%@EH@%
b. Ashfield, Mass. He organized (1882) at Johns Hopkins Univ. a leading
psychological laboratory and founded the %@AI@%American Journal of Psychology%@AE@%
(1887). As first president (1889-1920) of Clark Univ. he developed its
education courses. His most important work is %@AI@%Adolescence%@AE@% (2 vol., 1904).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haller, Albrecht von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haller, Albrecht von%@AE@%,%@CR:HALLER          @%%@QR:Haller, Albrecht von@% 1708-77, Swiss scientist and poet. Haller's%@EH@%
research at the Univ. of Gottingen in experimental physiology, on which
he based his theory of irritability, or contractility, of muscle tissue,
is set forth in %@AI@%A Dissertation on the Sensible and Irritable Parts of
%@AI@%Animals%@AE@% (1732). Back in his native Bern, he wrote extensively, notably
%@AI@%Elementa physiologiae corporis humani%@AE@% (8 vol., 1757-66).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Halley, Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Halley, Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:HALLEY          @%%@QR:Halley, Edmund@% 1656-1742, English astronomer. He was the first to%@EH@%
predict the return of a comet, using Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON'S%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@% gravitational theory
to calculate the orbit of the great comet of 1682 (now known as %@AU@%HALLEY'S
%@AU@%COMET%@BO:          3f5441@%%@AE@%). He was also the first to point out the use of a transit of Venus
in determining the sun's parallax. Halley financed the publication (1687)
of Newton's %@AI@%Principia.%@AE@% In 1720 he became astronomer royal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Halley's comet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Halley's comet%@AE@%,%@CR:HALLEYS.COMET   @%%@QR:Halley's comet@% periodic %@AU@%COMET%@BO:          20e87e@%%@AE@% named for Edmund %@AU@%HALLEY%@BO:          3f51c1@%%@AE@%, who observed it%@EH@%
in 1682 and identified it with those seen in 1531 and 1607. It returned
in 1759, close to the time Halley predicted, as well as in 1835 and 1910.
It was sighted again in late 1982 and returned to its closest approach to
the sun early in 1986.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Halloween%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Halloween%@AE@%:%@CR:HALLOWEEN       @%%@QR:Halloween@% see %@AU@%ALL SAINTS' DAY%@BO:           3f7fe@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hallucinogenic drug%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hallucinogenic drug%@AE@%,%@CR:HALLUCIDRUG     @%%@QR:hallucinogenic drug@% %@AU@%ALKALOID%@BO:           3d40e@%%@AE@% substance that alters consciousness; also%@EH@%
called psychotomimetic, or, popularly, psychedelic or mind-expanding
drug. Hallucinogens include mescaline, or %@AU@%PEYOTE%@BO:          7451f7@%%@AE@%; psilocin and
psilocybin, from the mushrooms %@AI@%Psilocybe mexicana%@AE@% and %@AI@%Stropharia
%@AI@%cubensis;%@AE@% %@AU@%LSD%@BO:          579995@%%@AE@% (lysergic acid diethylamide); %@AU@%BELLADONNA%@BO:           e1c35@%%@AE@%; and %@AU@%MANDRAKE%@BO:          5ac1eb@%%@AE@%.
%@AU@%MARIJUANA%@BO:          5bc2ca@%%@AE@% has hallucinogenic properties but is pharmacologically
distinct. Hallucinogens have been used by primitive societies in both the
Old and New Worlds to facilitate meditation, cure illness, placate evil
spirits, and enhance mystical and magical powers. They produce a wide
range of effects, from pleasant to very disturbing, depending on dosage,
potency, and the personality and environment of the drug taker. Effects
include altered perception of time and space and of the color, detail,
and size of objects; also the experience of imaginary conversations,
music, odors, tastes, and other sensations. Hallucinogens are not
physically habit-forming, but tolerance, i.e., the need to take increased
quantities to induce the original effect, may develop.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%halo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%halo%@AE@%,%@CR:HALO1           @%%@QR:halo@% in art: see %@AU@%NIMBUS%@BO:          6a3b01@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%halo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%halo%@AE@%,%@CR:HALO2           @%%@QR:halo@% in meteorology, circle of light surrounding the moon or sun. A halo%@EH@%
occurs when sunlight or moonlight is refracted or reflected by ice
crystals in the atmosphere, usually in a thin layer of high cirrostratus
clouds. In general, a white halo results when the light is reflected, and
colored rings (showing the colors of the spectrum, with red on the
inside) result when the light is refracted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%halogen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%halogen%@AE@%,%@CR:HALOGEN         @%%@QR:halogen@% any of the five chemical elements in group VIIa of the %@AU@%PERIODIC%@EH@%
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%FLUORINE%@BO:          33f746@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CHLORINE%@BO:          1dace4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BROMINE%@BO:          1432ca@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%IODINE%@BO:          4928e6@%%@AE@%, and the radioactive %@AU@%ASTATINE
%@AU@%%@BO:           8ebf9@%%@AE@% are nonmetallic, monovalent negative ions and exist in pure form as
diatomic molecules. The first four elements exhibit an almost perfect
gradation of physical properties. Fluorine is the least dense and
chemically the most active, displacing other halogens from their
compounds and oxygen from water. Iodine is the least active. The halogens
form numerous compounds with each other, and with other elements, such as
hydrogen halides, metal halides (%@AU@%SALTS%@BO:          83a8e6@%%@AE@%), and halocarbons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hals, Frans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hals, Frans%@AE@%,%@CR:HALS            @%%@QR:Hals, Frans@% c.1580-1666, Dutch painter of portraits and %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% scenes; b.%@EH@%
Belgium. Although his reputation was established early, Hals spent most
of his life in poverty. His scenes from everyday life were painted in the
first half of his career. In the 1620s and 30s he painted group
portraits, e.g., %@AI@%Banquet of the Officers of the St. George Militia%@AE@% (1616;
Haarlem) with vivacity and informality, and some important single
portraits, e.g., %@AI@%Lucas de Clercq%@AE@% (Rijks Mus., Amsterdam). He worked
rapidly, employing Caravaggesque lighting to capture momentary effects
(see %@AU@%CARAVAGGIO%@BO:          18acf4@%%@AE@%). At 84 he painted two masterpieces, %@AI@%The Governors of the
%@AI@%Almshouse%@AE@% and %@AI@%Lady Regents of the Almshouse%@AE@% (both: Haarlem), which have
the same brilliant lighting and cool clarity as his gayer canvases. His
notable paintings include %@AI@%The Merry Drinker%@AE@% (Rijks Mus.) and %@AI@%The Smoker%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.). Five of his sons were painters, the foremost being
%@AB@%Frans Hals,%@AE@% c.1618-c.1669, a painter of %@AU@%STILL LIFES%@BO:          8f19c7@%%@AE@% and rustic scenes.
%@AB@%Dirk Hals,%@AE@% c.1591-1656, brother of the elder Frans Hals, specialized in
festivals and drinking scenes, e.g., his %@AI@%Merry Party%@AE@% (National Gall.,
London).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Halston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Halston%@AE@%:%@CR:HALSTON         @%%@QR:Halston@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ham%@AE@%:%@CR:HAM             @%%@QR:Ham@% see %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hamadryads%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hamadryads%@AE@%:%@CR:HAMADRYADS      @%%@QR:hamadryads@% see %@AU@%NYMPH%@BO:          6c6b8e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamah%@AE@%%@CR:HAMAH           @%%@QR:Hamah@% or %@AB@%Hama,%@AE@%city (1981 est. pop. 176,640), W central Syria, on the%@EH@%
Orontes R. It is the market center for an irrigated farm region where
cotton, wheat, and barley are grown. Manufactures include textiles,
carpets, and dairy products. As Hamath, it is often mentioned in the
Bible as the northernmost location of the Israelites. Points of interest
include a Roman aqueduct and the Great Mosque of al-Nuri (until 638 a
Christian basilica).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haman%@AE@%:%@CR:HAMAN           @%%@QR:Haman@% see %@AU@%ESTHER%@BO:          302b9e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamasa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamasa%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMASA          @%%@QR:Hamasa@% anthology of %@AU@%ARABIC LITERATURE%@BO:           7021b@%%@AE@%, compiled in the 9th cent. by %@AU@%ABU%@EH@%
%@AU@%TAMMAM%@BO:            8895@%%@AE@%. Consisting of 10 books of poems grouped by subject, it is one of
the treasures of early Arabic poetry. The poems are of exceptional
beauty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamburg%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMBURG         @%%@QR:Hamburg@% city (1986 est. pop. 1,575,700), coextensive with, and capital%@EH@%
of, Hamburg state, N West Germany, on the Elbe and Alster rivers. It is
West Germany's largest city and busiest port. Manufactures include ships
and machinery. Founded in the 9th cent., it formed (13th cent.) an
alliance with %@AU@%LUBECK%@BO:          57a090@%%@AE@% that became the basis of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. The
city was largely destroyed by fire in 1842. Severely damaged during %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, it has been rebuilt and is now a modern cultural center. Felix
%@AU@%MENDELSSOHN%@BO:          5ea4fa@%%@AE@% and Johannes %@AU@%BRAHMS%@BO:          132ca7@%%@AE@% were born in Hamburg.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamilcar Barca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamilcar Barca%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMILCAR.BARCA  @%%@QR:Hamilcar Barca@% d. 229 or 228 BC, Carthaginian general, father of%@EH@%
%@AU@%HANNIBAL%@BO:          3fbbe1@%%@AE@%. In the First %@AU@%PUNIC WAR%@BO:          7b0708@%%@AE@%, he gave a good account of himself in
Sicily. He ruthlessly put down (238) a revolt of mercenaries and became
virtual dictator of %@AU@%CARTHAGE%@BO:          197101@%%@AE@%. In 237 he set out to conquer Spain but fell
in battle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamilton, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamilton, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMILTON1       @%%@QR:Hamilton, Alexander@% 1755-1804, U.S. statesman; b. West Indies. In the%@EH@%
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% he was Gen. %@AU@%WASHINGTON'S%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% secretary and aide-de-camp,
and served brilliantly in the %@AU@%YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN%@BO:          a45544@%%@AE@%. As a delegate (1782-83)
to the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@%, he pressed for a strong national government.
After serving as a New York delegate to the %@AU@%FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL
%@AU@%CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@% (1787) he did much to get the Constitution ratified,
particularly by his contributions to %@AI@%The Federalist.%@AE@% As secretary of the
treasury (1789-95) under Pres. Washington, Hamilton sponsored legislation
to pay off the debt of the Continental Congress and to charter the %@AU@%BANK
%@AU@%OF THE UNITED STATES%@BO:           be57f@%%@AE@%. To raise revenue he advocated a tariff on imported
manufactures and excise taxes. By these measures he hoped to strengthen
the federal government and tie it to men of wealth. In foreign affairs,
Hamilton sought close ties with Britain and opposed the %@AU@%FRENCH
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. Opposition to Hamilton and his supporters, who were known as
Federalists, gathered around Thomas %@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%FEDERALIST PARTY%@BO:          32412f@%%@AE@%
was swept under in the election of 1800. Hamilton was killed in a duel by
Aaron %@AU@%BURR%@BO:          15e4e7@%%@AE@%, whose bids for the presidency (1800) and for New York
governor (1804) Hamilton had thwarted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamilton, Alice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamilton, Alice%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMILTON2       @%%@QR:Hamilton, Alice@% 1869-1970, American toxicologist; b. N.Y.C. On the%@EH@%
faculty of Harvard Medical School (1919-35) and a pioneer in the study of
industrial diseases and hygiene, she was sought out as an authority by
political and governmental groups, including the state of Illinois, the
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, and the League of Nations health committee.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamilton, Emma, Lady%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamilton, Emma, Lady%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMILTON3       @%%@QR:Hamilton, Emma, Lady@% c.1765-1815, English beauty. She was the mistress%@EH@%
and, later, wife of Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador to
Naples. After 1798 she was the mistress of Horatio %@AU@%NELSON%@BO:          6814da@%%@AE@%, whose daughter
she bore in 1801. George %@AU@%ROMNEY%@BO:          80e4d0@%%@AE@% painted many portraits of her.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamilton, Sir William Rowan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamilton, Sir William Rowan%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMILTON4       @%%@QR:Hamilton, Sir William Rowan@% 1805-65, Irish mathematician. A child%@EH@%
prodigy, he had mastered 13 languages by the age of 13. Hamilton was one
of the most creative mathematicians of his time. In %@AI@%Theory of Systems of
%@AI@%Rays%@AE@% (1828) he unified the field of optics under the principle of varying
action, which he later extended to dynamics and which is of fundamental
importance in modern physics, particularly quantum theory. His later
years were devoted to the development of his theory of quaternions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamilton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamilton%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMILTON5       @%%@QR:Hamilton@% city (1985 est. pop. 307,690), S Ontario, Canada, on Lake%@EH@%
Ontario, part of Hamilton-Wentworth municipality (1979 est. pop.
407,758). A major %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@% shipping port, it is Canada's chief iron
and steel center, and manufactures automobiles and heavy machinery. The
city, hemmed into the narrow coastal plain by the Niagara escarpment, was
founded in 1778 by United Empire Loyalists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamites%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamites%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMITES         @%%@QR:Hamites@% African people of Caucasoid descent, inhabiting the Horn of%@EH@%
Africa (chiefly Somalia and Ethiopia), the W Sahara, and parts of Algeria
and Tunisia. They are believed to have been the original settlers of N
Africa, having come from S Arabia and farther east. Eastern Hamites
include the ancient and modern Egyptians, the %@AU@%GALLA%@BO:          37715e@%%@AE@%, the Somali, and most
Ethiopians. Northern Hamites include the %@AU@%BERBERS%@BO:           ea52f@%%@AE@%, the Tuareg of the
Sahara, and other groups.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamitic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamitic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMITICES       @%%@QR:Hamitic languages@% subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages.%@EH@%
See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamito-Semitic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamito-Semitic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMITOSANGUAGES @%%@QR:Hamito-Semitic languages@% family of languages, spoken by people in N%@EH@%
Africa, much of the Sahara, parts of E central and W Africa, and W Asia
(especially the Arabian peninsula). See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@% ; %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hammarskjold, Dag%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hammarskjold, Dag%@AE@%%@CR:HAMMARSKJOLD    @%%@QR:Hammarskjold, Dag@%, 1905-61, Swedish statesman, secretary general%@EH@%
(1953-61) of the %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%. He was chairman of the board of the Bank
of Sweden (1941-48) and deputy foreign minister (1951) before joining
Sweden's UN delegation. As secretary general he greatly extended the
influence of the UN with his peacekeeping efforts, particularly in the
Middle East and Africa. He was on a mission to the Congo (now %@AU@%ZAIRE%@BO:          a4c756@%%@AE@%) when
his plane crashed in northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) in 1961.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hammer, Armand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hammer, Armand%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMMER          @%%@QR:Hammer, Armand@% 1898-, American business executive; b. N.Y.C. He worked%@EH@%
for his father's pharmaceutical business in the U.S. and in the USSR. On
his return (1930), he invested in whiskey, cattle, and broadcasting. He
expanded the Occidental Petroleum Corporation into a multibillion dollar
business. In the 1980s, he agreed to build the world's largest open-pit
coal mine in China. His distinguished art collection is to be housed in
Los Angeles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hammerstein, Oscar, 2d%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hammerstein, Oscar, 2d%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMMERSTEIN     @%%@QR:Hammerstein, Oscar, 2d@% 1895-1960, American lyricist and librettist; b.%@EH@%
N.Y.C. He collaborated on many %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@% with Vincent Youmans; Rudolf
Friml; Sigmund Romberg; Jerome %@AU@%KERN%@BO:          4f31ba@%%@AE@%; and Richard %@AU@%RODGERS%@BO:          8028be@%%@AE@%. His grandfather
%@AB@%Oscar Hammerstein,%@AE@% 1846-1919, was a German-American operatic impresario.
He built the Harlem Opera House (1888) and the Manhattan Opera House
(1906), in New York City, and introduced many singers to the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hammett, Dashiell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hammett, Dashiell%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMMETT         @%%@QR:Hammett, Dashiell@% 1894-1961, American writer; b. St. Mary's co., Md. He%@EH@%
originated the "hard-boiled" detective novel-realistic, fast-paced,
sophisticated. His novels include %@AI@%The Maltese Falcon%@AE@% (1930) and %@AI@%The Thin
%@AI@%Man%@AE@% (1932).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hammurabi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hammurabi%@AE@%%@CR:HAMMURABI       @%%@QR:Hammurabi@%, fl. 1792-1750 BC, king of %@AU@%BABYLONIA%@BO:           aad2b@%%@AE@%. He founded an empire that%@EH@%
was eventually destroyed by raids from Asia Minor. His code of laws found
on a column at Susa, is one of the greatest of the ancient codes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hampton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hampton%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMPTON1        @%%@QR:Hampton@% part of the Greater London borough of Richmond upon Thames, SE%@EH@%
England, on the Thames R. It is the site of %@AB@%Hampton Court Palace,%@AE@% begun
by Cardinal %@AU@%WOLSEY%@BO:          a2cf4c@%%@AE@% in 1514. After his fall it was taken by %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%,
and it remained a royal residence until the time of %@AU@%GEORGE II%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%. Much of it
is open to the public. Although the palace was partially destroyed by
fire in 1986, restoration is underway. The %@AB@%Hampton Court Conference,%@AE@% held
in 1604 in the reign of %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%, considered reforms of the Established
Church for which its Puritan clergy had petitioned, but few concessions
were made. The conference authorized the King James version of the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hampton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hampton%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMPTON2        @%%@QR:Hampton@% city (1986 est. pop. 126,000), SE Va., a port of %@AU@%HAMPTON ROADS%@BO:          3f9c1c@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
at the mouth of the James R.; settled 1610 by colonists from %@AU@%JAMESTOWN%@BO:          4b1f2c@%%@AE@%,
inc. 1849. Seafood packing and shipping, light industry, and nearby
military installations contribute to the economy. On the site of an
Indian village, Hampton is one of the oldest English settlements in the
U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hampton Institute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hampton Institute%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMPTONTE       @%%@QR:Hampton Institute@% at Hampton, Va.; founded 1868. Chartered as a normal%@EH@%
and agricultural school, it was among the first colleges for blacks; it
also pioneered in Indian education. Its library is noted for its George
Foster Peabody Collection of materials on black history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hampton Roads%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hampton Roads%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMPTON.ROADS   @%%@QR:Hampton Roads@% channel, 4 mi (6.4 km) long, SE Va., through which the%@EH@%
James, Nansemond, and Elizabeth rivers pass into %@AU@%CHESAPEAKE BAY%@BO:          1ca1ee@%%@AE@%. A superb
natural harbor, it houses the largest naval complex in the world. %@AU@%NEWPORT
%@AU@%NEWS%@BO:          692de6@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HAMPTON%@BO:          3f9858@%%@AE@% are on its north shore, %@AU@%NORFOLK%@BO:          6b1314@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PORTSMOUTH%@BO:          786c42@%%@AE@% on the
south.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hamster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hamster%@AE@%,%@CR:HAMSTER         @%%@QR:hamster@% nocturnal %@AU@%RODENT%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% with external cheek pouches for holding food.%@EH@%
The common, or European, hamster (%@AI@%Cricetus cricetus%@AE@%), about 12 in. (30
cm) long, is reddish brown with white patches on the nose, cheeks,
throat, and flanks. The Syrian, or golden, hamster (%@AI@%Mesocricetus auratus%@AE@%)
of E Europe and W Asia is familiar as a laboratory animal and pet.
Hamsters are serious agricultural pests in much of their range.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hamsun, Knut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hamsun, Knut%@AE@%%@CR:HAMSUN          @%%@QR:Hamsun, Knut@%, 1859-1952, Norwegian novelist. His youthful wanderings,%@EH@%
including two visits to the U.S., provided the theme for many of his
novels, especially %@AI@%Hunger%@AE@% (1890), which established him. He is best known
for the lyrically beautiful %@AI@%Pan%@AE@% (1894), expressing his interest in
irrational forces, and for his masterpiece, %@AI@%The Growth of the Soil%@AE@%
(1917), reflecting his love of nature and concern for the effect of
material conditions on the individual spirit. He was awarded the 1920
Nobel Prize in literature, but lost popularity during World War II
because of his %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% sympathies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Han%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Han%@AE@%,%@CR:HAN             @%%@QR:Han@% dynasty: see %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hancock, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hancock, John%@AE@%,%@CR:HANCOCK1        @%%@QR:Hancock, John@% 1737-93, political leader of the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
Braintree, Mass. He opposed the %@AU@%STAMP ACT%@BO:          8e2098@%%@AE@% (1765) and advocated resistance
to the British. Hancock was a member (1775-80) and president (1775-77) of
the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@%, and he was the first to sign the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF
%@AU@%INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%. He was later governor of Massachusetts (1780-85, 1787-93).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hancock, Winfield Scott%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hancock, Winfield Scott%@AE@%,%@CR:HANCOCK2        @%%@QR:Hancock, Winfield Scott@% 1824-86, Union general in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
near Norristown, Pa. He fought in the %@AU@%GETTYSBURG CAMPAIGN%@BO:          39cc27@%%@AE@% and repulsed
Gen. %@AU@%PICKETT'S%@BO:          7582ee@%%@AE@% Confederate charge. In 1880 he was the Democratic
presidential candidate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hand, Learned%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hand, Learned%@AE@%,%@CR:HAND            @%%@QR:Hand, Learned@% 1872-1961, American jurist; b. Albany, N.Y. A federal%@EH@%
judge from 1909 to 1951, Hand, a noted defender of free speech, was often
known as the "tenth justice of the Supreme Court." He published %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Spirit of Liberty%@AE@% (1952) and %@AI@%Bill of Rights%@AE@% (1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Handel, George Frideric%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Handel, George Frideric%@AE@%,%@CR:HANDEL          @%%@QR:Handel, George Frideric@% 1685-1759, English composer; master of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c7c40@%%@AE@%, celebrated for his %@AU@%ORATORIO%@BO:          6e4380@%%@AE@% %@AI@%The Messiah;%@AE@% b. Germany as Georg
Friedrich Handel. By 1705 he had produced two %@AU@%OPERAS%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@% in Hamburg; he spent
the next four years in Italy, where he absorbed Italian style. Moving to
England in 1712, he wrote music, including the celebrated %@AI@%Water Music%@AE@%
(1717), for %@AU@%GEORGE I%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%. He presented operas in London until 1741. Among his
46 operas are %@AI@%Julius Caesar%@AE@% (1724), %@AI@%Atalanta%@AE@% (1736), and %@AI@%Serse%@AE@% (1738),
with its tenor %@AU@%ARIA%@BO:           79b9f@%%@AE@% now known as %@AI@%Largo. The Messiah%@AE@% was presented in
Dublin in 1742. Its contemplative character sets it apart from the rest
of his 32 oratorios, which include %@AI@%Acis and Galatea%@AE@% (1720), %@AI@%Esther%@AE@%
(1732), %@AI@%Saul%@AE@% (1739), and %@AI@%Judas Maccabeus%@AE@% (1747). He also composed about
100 Italian solo %@AU@%CANTATAS%@BO:          184e95@%%@AE@%; numerous orchestral works, among them the
Twelve Grand Concertos (1739); harpsichord %@AU@%SUITES%@BO:          905cf1@%%@AE@%; organ %@AU@%CONCERTOS%@BO:          21ae65@%%@AE@%; and
the %@AU@%ANTHEM%@BO:           61000@%%@AE@% "Zadok, the Priest" (1727), used at all British coronations
since that of George II.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Handke, Peter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Handke, Peter%@AE@%,%@CR:HANDKE          @%%@QR:Handke, Peter@% 1942-, Austrian novelist and playwright. His%@EH@%
controversial, avant-garde works often reflect his ironical sense of the
constricting limitations of language and of reason. They include the
plays %@AI@%Kaspar%@AE@% (1968) and %@AI@%They Are Dying Out%@AE@% (1973) and the novels %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Goalie's Anxiety at the Penalty Kick%@AE@% (1972), %@AI@%A Sorrow Beyond Dreams%@AE@%
(1974), and %@AI@%The Left-Handed Woman%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Handy, W(illiam) C(hristopher)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Handy, W(illiam) C(hristopher)%@AE@%,%@CR:HANDY           @%%@QR:Handy, W(illiam) C(hristopher)@% 1873-1958, black American songwriter and%@EH@%
bandleader; b. Florence, Ala. He was among the first to set down the
blues (see %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%), and became famous with "Memphis Blues" and "St. Louis
Blues."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hangchow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hangchow%@AE@%:%@CR:HANGCHOW        @%%@QR:Hangchow@% see %@AU@%HANGZHOU%@BO:          3fb71e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hang gliding%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hang gliding%@AE@%,%@CR:HANG.GLIDING    @%%@QR:hang gliding@% form of gliding in which a pilot jumps off an elevated%@EH@%
point while suspended from a kitelike wing. The hang glider consists of a
Rogallo wing about 18 ft (5.5 m) across and weighing about 35 lb (15.9
kg). Also called sky surfing, the sport began in California in the late
1960s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hangzhou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hangzhou%@AE@%%@CR:HANGZHOU        @%%@QR:Hangzhou@%or %@AB@%Hangchow%@AE@%, city (1986 est. pop. 1,250,000), capital of Zhejiang%@EH@%
prov., E China. Long a famous silk-and tea-producing center, Hangzhou has
become an important regional industrial complex. Manufactures include
textiles, iron and steel products, and motor vehicles. The city is also
one of China's most popular tourist centers. The scenic West Lake, wooded
hills, and shrines and monasteries dating from the 10th cent. AD are all
located in the city. As the capital (1132-1276) of the Southern Sung
dynasty, it was a famous cosmopolitan center of commerce and culture.
Almost destroyed (1861) in the %@AU@%TAIPING REBELLION%@BO:          92562d@%%@AE@%, it was rebuilt as a
modern city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hanna, Marcus Alonzo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hanna, Marcus Alonzo%@AE@%%@CR:HANNA           @%%@QR:Hanna, Marcus Alonzo@% (Mark Hanna), 1837-1904, American capitalist and%@EH@%
politician; b. Lisbon, Ohio. He managed in 1896 presidential campaign of
William %@AU@%MCKINLEY%@BO:          58f4bb@%%@AE@% and was a Republican senator from Ohio (1897-1904).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hannibal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hannibal%@AE@%,%@CR:HANNIBAL        @%%@QR:Hannibal@% b. 247 BC, d. 183 or 182 BC, Carthaginian general, one of the%@EH@%
great military geniuses of all time; son of %@AU@%HAMILCAR BARCA%@BO:          3f7317@%%@AE@%, of the great
Barca family. In 221 BC he succeeded his brother-in-law, %@AU@%HASDRUBAL%@BO:          405d11@%%@AE@%, as
commander in Spain. During the second %@AU@%PUNIC WAR%@BO:          7b0708@%%@AE@%, he set out to invade
Italy with a small force of picked troops, crossed the Alps with a full
baggage train and elephants, and with his cavalry overran the Po valley.
He wiped out a Roman force and in 217 set out toward Rome. After
defeating the Romans again at Lake Trasimeno, he went to S Italy and
gained many allies. At Cannae (216 BC), he won one of the most brilliant
victories in history, but he failed to get proper support from %@AU@%CARTHAGE%@BO:          197101@%%@AE@%
and could not take Rome. In 207 BC his brother Hasdrubal was defeated on
the Metaurus R., and Hannibal had to draw back. Recalled (203) to defend
Carthage against Scipio Africanus Major (see %@AU@%SCIPIO%@BO:          85eb9c@%%@AE@%, family), he was
decisively beaten at the battle of %@AU@%ZAMA%@BO:          a4d822@%%@AE@% (202). After peace was concluded
(201 BC), he was chief ruler in Carthage, governing well, but Rome
demanded him as a prisoner, and he went into exile, finally poisoning
himself to avoid being given to the Romans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hanoi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hanoi%@AE@%,%@CR:HANOI           @%%@QR:Hanoi@% city (1979 pop. 2,570,905), capital of Vietnam, N Vietnam, on the%@EH@%
Red R. A major transportation and industrial center, it produces such
manufactures as locomotives, machine tools, and chemicals. It became the
seat of the Chinese rulers of Vietnam in the 7th cent. and the capital of
French %@AU@%INDOCHINA%@BO:          47ba63@%%@AE@% in 1887. When the French withdrew in 1954 Hanoi became
the capital of North Vietnam. It was heavily bombed during the %@AU@%VIETNAM
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%, after which it became the capital of united Vietnam. A cultural
center with several universities and institutes, it is noted for its
European-style buildings and tree-lined avenues.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hanover%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hanover%@AE@%,%@CR:HANOVER1        @%%@QR:Hanover@% city (1986 est. pop. 506,400), capital of Lower Saxony, N West%@EH@%
Germany, on the Leine R. and the Midland Canal. A transshipment and
industrial center with such manufactures as iron and steel, it is noted
for its annual industrial fair. It was chartered in 1241 and became a
member (1386) of the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% and the capital (1692) of the
electorate of %@AU@%HANOVER%@BO:          3fc4f1@%%@AE@%. Badly damaged during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, the city has
been rebuilt since 1945. Historic buildings include the 14th-cent.
Marktkirche and the 17th-cent. Leineschloss, which now houses the
parliament of %@AU@%LOWER SAXONY%@BO:          578c8e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hanover, house of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hanover, house of%@AE@%,%@CR:HANOVER2        @%%@QR:Hanover, house of@% ruling dynasty of Hanover, which descended from the%@EH@%
%@AU@%GUELPHS%@BO:          3e3505@%%@AE@% and in 1714 acceded to the British throne in the person of %@AU@%GEORGE
%@AU@%I%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%, elector of Hanover, through a claim based on descent from %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%.
George I's succession was based on the Act of %@AU@%SETTLEMENT%@BO:          8747df@%%@AE@%. There were five
Hanoverian British kings. With %@AU@%VICTORIA%@BO:          9d2319@%%@AE@% the crowns of Hanover and Britain
were separated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hansa towns%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hansa towns%@AE@%:%@CR:HANSA.TOWNS     @%%@QR:Hansa towns@% see %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hansberry, Lorraine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hansberry, Lorraine%@AE@%,%@CR:HANSBERRY       @%%@QR:Hansberry, Lorraine@% 1930-65, American playwright; b. Chicago. Her famous%@EH@%
play %@AI@%A Raisin in the Sun%@AE@% (1959) deals with the problems of a black family
in modern America. Many of her writings were collected in %@AI@%To Be Young,
%@AI@%Gifted, and Black%@AE@% (1969).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hanseatic League%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hanseatic League%@AE@%,%@CR:HANSEATE        @%%@QR:Hanseatic League@% mercantile league of medieval N German towns. It came%@EH@%
into existence gradually as the Hansas-companies of merchants dealing
with foreign lands-and the cities from which they operated drew closer
together as a way of protecting themselves from foreign competition and
piracy. In the 13th cent. more than 70 German cities joined in treaties
of mutual protection. The Hanseatic League was formally organized in
1358, and in 1370 it won a trade monopoly in all of Scandinavia. The
league prospered in the following centuries but went out of existence in
the 17th cent. %@AU@%BREMEN%@BO:          13a849@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HAMBURG%@BO:          3f6fb9@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LUBECK%@BO:          57a090@%%@AE@% are still known as Hanseatic
cities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hansen's disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hansen's disease%@AE@%:%@CR:HANSENS.DISEASE @%%@QR:Hansen's disease@% see %@AU@%LEPROSY%@BO:          542a81@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hanson, Howard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hanson, Howard%@AE@%,%@CR:HANSON          @%%@QR:Hanson, Howard@% 1896-1981, American composer, teacher, and conductor; b.%@EH@%
Wahoo, Nebr. He directed the Eastman School of Music, Rochester, N.Y.
(1924-64). His romantic works include symphonies and the opera %@AI@%Merry
%@AI@%Mount%@AE@% (1934).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hanukkah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hanukkah%@AE@%:%@CR:HANUKKAH        @%%@QR:Hanukkah@% see under %@AU@%JEWISH HOLIDAYS%@BO:          4c1c13@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hapsburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hapsburg%@AE@%%@CR:HAPSBURG        @%%@QR:Hapsburg@%or %@AB@%Habsburg%@AE@%, ruling house of %@AU@%AUSTRIA%@BO:           a113f@%%@AE@% (1282-1918). The family%@EH@%
originally held lands in Alsace and NW Switzerland, and Otto (d. 1111)
took the name Hapsburg when he was made count. In 1273 Count Rudolf IV
became king of the Germans as %@AU@%RUDOLF I%@BO:          81c25a@%%@AE@%; his war with Ottocar II of
Bohemia resulted in Ottocar's defeat (1278) and confirmation of Hapsburg
possession of Austria, Carniola, and Styria. These lands and the Austrian
ducal title were declared hereditary in 1282, and in 1335 Carinthia too
was claimed. The possessions were divided (1365) between the Albertine
and the Leopoldine lines but were reunited under Holy Roman Emperor
%@AU@%MAXIMILIAN I%@BO:          5d9116@%%@AE@% in the late 15th cent. Tyrol (1363), NE Istria (1374), and
Trieste (1382) were added to the Hapsburg domain. From the election
(1438) of Albert II as German king, the head of the Hapsburgs, with one
exception, was chosen German king and Holy Roman emperor. Through
marriage the Hapsburgs gained most of the Low Countries, and Hapsburg
power reached its zenith under Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, who had inherited
(1516) the crown of Spain. Charles was succeeded in Spain by his son,
%@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@%, and in Austria by his brother, Emperor %@AU@%FERDINAND I%@BO:          3276fe@%%@AE@%. The
Spanish Hapsburgs died out in 1700. In Austria the %@AU@%PRAGMATIC SANCTION%@BO:          78f6f5@%%@AE@%
(1713) guaranteed the indivisibility of the Hapsburg domains and the
succession of %@AU@%MARIA THERESA%@BO:          5bae64@%%@AE@%. Her son, Emperor %@AU@%JOSEPH II%@BO:          4d42fc@%%@AE@%, began the line
of %@AB@%Hapsburg-Lorraine.%@AE@% In 1806 Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FRANCIS II%@BO:          35371d@%%@AE@% abdicated and
assumed the title emperor of Austria. In 1867 the Hapsburg empire was
reorganized into the %@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@%, which was dissolved at
the end of %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hara-kiri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hara-kiri%@AE@%,%@CR:HARAKIRI        @%%@QR:hara-kiri@% [Jap.,=belly-cutting], traditional Japanese form of suicide,%@EH@%
performed in cases of disloyalty to the emperor. Obligatory hara-kiri was
abolished in 1868, but voluntary forms have persisted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harald%@AE@%:%@CR:HARALD          @%%@QR:Harald@% see %@AU@%HAROLD%@BO:          40121f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harare%@AE@%,%@CR:HARARE          @%%@QR:Harare@% formerly %@AB@%Salisbury,%@AE@% largest city (1982 est. pop. 656,100) and%@EH@%
capital of Zimbabwe. One of Africa's most modern cities, it is the
country's commercial and communications center and the market for an
agricultural region. Industries include textiles, steel, chemicals, and
consumer goods. The city is connected by rail with %@AU@%BULAWAYO%@BO:          1541ff@%%@AE@% and the
Mozambique port of Beira. Founded by the British in 1890, it was the
capital of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63). In 1982 it
was renamed Harare (after a 19th-cent. tribal chief).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harbin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harbin%@AE@%,%@CR:HARBIN          @%%@QR:Harbin@% city (1986 est. pop. 2,630,000), capital of Heilongjiang prov, NE%@EH@%
China, on the Sungari R. It is the main trade, industrial, and
transportation center of NE China and the main port on the Sungari.
Harbin is part of the great Manchurian complex of metallurgical,
machinery, chemical, oil, and coal industries. It is also an important
producer of tractors, paper, and aircraft. Harbin's strong resemblance to
Russian cities is due to settlers who came to the city after Russia was
granted (1896) a concession there and after the %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@%
(1917). Most of its European population, once one of the largest in the
Far East, left the city following the rise to power of the Chinese
Communists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hardenberg, Friedrich von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hardenberg, Friedrich von%@AE@%:%@CR:HARDENBERG1     @%%@QR:Hardenberg, Friedrich von@% see %@AU@%NOVALIS%@BO:          6be314@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hardenberg, Karl August, Furst von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hardenberg, Karl August, Furst von%@AE@%,%@CR:HARDENBERG2     @%%@QR:Hardenberg, Karl August, Furst von@% 1750-1822, Prussian minister of%@EH@%
foreign affairs (1804-06) and chancellor (1810-22). Continuing the reform
programs begun by Karl vom und zum %@AU@%STEIN%@BO:          8ea439@%%@AE@%, he abolished trade monopolies,
turned feudal land into freeholds, and emancipated the %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%. Hardenberg
persuaded King William Frederick III to join (1813) the anti-%@AU@%NAPOLEON%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%
coalition. He became increasingly reactionary in his later years.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harding, Warren Gamaliel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harding, Warren Gamaliel%@AE@%,%@CR:HARDING         @%%@QR:Harding, Warren Gamaliel@% 1865-1923, 29th president of the U.S.%@EH@%
(1921-23); b. Blooming Grove (now Corsica), Ohio. An Ohio Republican,
Harding was elected (1914) to the U.S. Senate and was a compromise choice
as Republican presidential candidate in 1920. His administration had one
achievement-the calling (1921) of the Washington %@AU@%NAVAL CONFERENCE%@BO:          67a599@%%@AE@%. He had
promised to appoint a cabinet of the "best minds," but in 1923 came
rumors of government scandals. Harding died suddenly (Aug. 1923) in San
Francisco on his way back from Alaska. He thus was spared the public
exposure of the %@AU@%TEAPOT DOME%@BO:          9357db@%%@AE@% scandal and the humiliation of seeing his
cabinet appointees, Albert B. Fall and Harry M. Daugherty, brought to the
bar of justice. Harding's administration has been called one of the most
corrupt in U.S. history. He was succeeded by Calvin %@AU@%COOLIDGE%@BO:          22f96d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hardouin, Jules%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hardouin, Jules%@AE@%:%@CR:HARDOUIN        @%%@QR:Hardouin, Jules@% see under %@AU@%MANSART, FRAN[CCEDIL]OIS HARDOUIN%@BO:          5b15d0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hardware%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hardware%@AE@%:%@CR:HARDWARE        @%%@QR:hardware@% see %@AU@%COMPUTER%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hardwick, Elizabeth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hardwick, Elizabeth%@AE@%,%@CR:HARDWICK        @%%@QR:Hardwick, Elizabeth@% 1916-, American writer; b. Lexington, Ky. A founder%@EH@%
and editor of the %@AI@%New York Review of Books,%@AE@% she has published two
autobiographical novels;%@AI@% A View of My Own: Essays in Literature and
%@AI@%Society%@AE@% (1962); and %@AI@%Seduction and Betrayal: Women and Literature%@AE@% (1974).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hardy, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hardy, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HARDY           @%%@QR:Hardy, Thomas@% 1840-1928, English novelist and poet, one of the great%@EH@%
English writers of the 19th cent. He won success with %@AI@%Far from the
%@AI@%Madding Crowd%@AE@% (1874). His other major novels are %@AI@%The Return of the Native%@AE@%
(1878), %@AI@%The Mayor of Casterbridge%@AE@% (1886), %@AI@%Tess of the d'Urbervilles%@AE@%
(1891), and %@AI@%Jude the Obscure%@AE@% (1896), the last two his masterpieces. Set
in the harsh landscape of Hardy's native Dorsetshire ("Wessex" in the
books), they are generally gloomy, naturalistic studies of character and
environment. Adverse criticism led Hardy to turn to poetry after 1896,
and he expressed his pessimism in books such as %@AI@%Wessex Poems%@AE@% (1898);
%@AI@%Moments of Vision%@AE@% (1917); and %@AI@%The Dynasts%@AE@% (written 1903-8), an epic
historical drama in verse.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hare%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hare%@AE@%,%@CR:HARE            @%%@QR:hare@% herbivorous %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the family Leporidae, which also includes the%@EH@%
%@AU@%RABBIT%@BO:          7beaa1@%%@AE@%, native to Eurasia, Africa, and North and Central America. The
term %@AI@%hare%@AE@% is especially applied to the genus %@AI@%Lepus,%@AE@% sometimes called true
hares. Hares generally have longer ears and hind legs than rabbits and
move by jumping rather than running. They are usually brown or grayish in
color, but northern species acquire a white coat in winter. Most North
American hares are very large and are called jackrabbits.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hare Krishna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hare Krishna%@AE@%,%@CR:HARE.KRISHNA    @%%@QR:Hare Krishna@% popular name for a Hindu sect, the International Society%@EH@%
for Krishna Consciousness, that gained prominence in the U.S. and Canada
after its founding (1966) by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
(1896-1977). Claiming thousands of followers, the movement teaches
devotion to Krishna (see %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%) as a means of attaining spiritual
enlightenment, particularly through the practice of chanting the %@AU@%MANTRA%@BO:          5b2d6c@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Hare Krishna%@AE@% [O Lord Krishna]. See also %@AU@%CULT%@BO:          253cf7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hargreaves, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hargreaves, James%@AE@%,%@CR:HARGREAVES      @%%@QR:Hargreaves, James@% 1720?-78, English engineer. His 1764 invention of the%@EH@%
spinning jenny doubled production in carding, a process preparatory to
%@AU@%SPINNING%@BO:          8d93cc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hari, Mata%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hari, Mata%@AE@%:%@CR:HARI            @%%@QR:Hari, Mata@% see %@AU@%MATA HARI%@BO:          5d0a4a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-Kasim al-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-Kasim al-%@AE@%%@CR:HARIRI          @%%@QR:Hariri, Abu Muhammad al-Kasim al-@%, 1054-1122, Arab writer. %@AI@%Assemblies of%@EH@%
%@AI@%al-Hariri,%@AE@% his principal work and one of the most popular Arabic books,
is an eposidic tale of an old rogue, Abu Zaid, who earns his living by
his wits.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harlem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harlem%@AE@%,%@CR:HARLEM          @%%@QR:Harlem@% section of the New York City. Established (1658) as Nieuw Haarlem%@EH@%
by the Dutch, Harlem remained rural until the 19th cent., when it became
a fashionable residental district. A rapid influx of blacks beginning
c.1910 made it one of the largest black communities in the U.S., and in
the 1920s it became a center of art and literature (see %@AU@%HARLEM
%@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          3fff4c@%%@AE@%). Harlem deteriorated after World War II into an area
economically depressed and with a high rate of unemployment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harlem Renaissance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harlem Renaissance%@AE@%,%@CR:HARLEM.NCE      @%%@QR:Harlem Renaissance@% term used to describe a flowering of black American%@EH@%
literature in the 1920s. During the great migration of blacks from the
rural South to the industrial North (1914-18), some settled in the %@AU@%HARLEM%@BO:          3ffcc3@%%@AE@%
district of New York City, as did the musicians who brought %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% from the
South, and Harlem became a sophisticated artistic and literary center. In
his magazine %@AI@%Crisis%@AE@%, W.E.B. %@AU@%DUBOIS%@BO:          2afbb4@%%@AE@% urged racial pride among blacks, and
writers, many living in Harlem, began producing fine original works about
black life. Their work constituted a fresh, new subject that attracted
white readers and publishers. Writers associated with the Harlem
Renaissance include Arna %@AU@%BONTEMPS%@BO:          11ee3f@%%@AE@%, Langston %@AU@%HUGHES%@BO:          451dc1@%%@AE@%, Claude %@AU@%MCKAY%@BO:          58dd15@%%@AE@%, Countee
%@AU@%CULLEN%@BO:          253b53@%%@AE@%, James Weldon %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cca44@%%@AE@%, Zora Neale %@AU@%HURSTON%@BO:          45993f@%%@AE@%, and Jean %@AU@%TOOMER%@BO:          969fae@%%@AE@%. The
Renaissance faded with the onset of the Great Depression of the 1930s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harmodius and Aristogiton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harmodius and Aristogiton%@AE@%%@CR:HARMODION       @%%@QR:Harmodius and Aristogiton@%%@AU@%ATHENS%@BO:           94f26@%%@AE@% and were given public recognition after%@EH@%
the expulsion (510 BC) of Hippias.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%harmonic motion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%harmonic motion%@AE@%,%@CR:HARMONIC.MOTION @%%@QR:harmonic motion@% regular vibration, or back-and-forth motion, in which%@EH@%
the acceleration of the vibrating object is directly proportional to the
displacement of the object from its equilibrium position, but oppositely
directed. A single object vibrating in this manner is said to exhibit
simple harmonic motion; examples are a %@AU@%PENDULUM%@BO:          72c2f8@%%@AE@% swinging in a small arc,
a mass bouncing at the end of a spring, and the motion of air molecules
when a sound wave passes. Simple harmonic motion is periodic, i.e., it
repeats itself at regular intervals. The time required for one complete
vibration of the object is the period of the motion. The inverse of the
period is the frequency, or the number of vibrations per unit of time.
The maximum displacement of the object from its central position of
equilibrium is the amplitude of the motion. See %@AU@%WAVE%@BO:          9fd548@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%harmony%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%harmony%@AE@%,%@CR:HARMONY         @%%@QR:harmony@% in music, simultaneous sounding of two or more tones and,%@EH@%
especially, the study of chords and their relations. %@AU@%POLYPHONY%@BO:          77dbc0@%%@AE@%, or the
interweaving of several independent melodic lines, prevailed in
composition until the 16th cent., when interest centered on harmonic
chord construction, or the relationship between one tone and the tone or
tones being played at the same time. In 1722 Jean Philippe %@AU@%RAMEAU%@BO:          7c931e@%%@AE@%
presented the idea that different groupings of the same notes were
inversions of the same chord. In the 18th cent. the concept of %@AU@%TONALITY%@BO:          9686b9@%%@AE@%
became firmly established. Using the principle of %@AU@%MODULATION%@BO:          621f71@%%@AE@%, later
composers developed freer concepts of tonality, until some in the 20th
cent. discarded traditional tonality altogether. See also %@AU@%ATONALITY%@BO:           99916@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%SERIAL MUSIC%@BO:          8723fc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harmsworth, Alfred Charles William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harmsworth, Alfred Charles William%@AE@%:%@CR:HARMSWORTH1     @%%@QR:Harmsworth, Alfred Charles William@% see %@AU@%NORTHCLIFFE, ALFRED CHARLES%@EH@%
%@AU@%WILLIAM HARMSWORTH, VISCOUNT%@BO:          6b85ff@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harmsworth, Harold Sidney%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harmsworth, Harold Sidney%@AE@%:%@CR:HARMSWORTH2     @%%@QR:Harmsworth, Harold Sidney@% see %@AU@%ROTHERMERE, HAROLD SIDNEY HARMSWORTH, 1ST%@EH@%
%@AU@%VISCOUNT%@BO:          8166dd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harnett, William Michael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harnett, William Michael%@AE@%,%@CR:HARNETT         @%%@QR:Harnett, William Michael@% 1848-1892, American painter; b. Ireland. He is%@EH@%
known for the spectacular %@AI@%trompe l'oeil%@AE@% (eye-deceiving) realistic effects
he achieved in his still lifes, e.g., %@AI@%After the Hunt%@AE@% (Calif. Palace of
the Legion of Honor, San Francisco).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harold%@AE@%,%@CR:HAROLD1         @%%@QR:Harold@% 1022?-1066, king of England (1066). The son of Godwin, earl of%@EH@%
Wessex, he belonged to the most powerful noble family in the reign of
%@AU@%EDWARD THE CONFESSOR%@BO:          2ca577@%%@AE@%. After Harold's succession in 1053 to the earldom of
Wessex, he aspired to the throne. In c.1064 he was shipwrecked on the
French coast and was forced to take an oath (which he later renounced)
supporting %@AU@%WILLIAM I'S%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% claim to the English throne. In 1065 he sided with
the Northumbrians against his brother Tostig. The family was thus divided
at the death of the king, who named Harold his heir. William at once
invaded England from the south and Tostig, with %@AU@%HAROLD III%@BO:          401664@%%@AE@% of Norway,
invaded from the north. Harold defeated them in a battle in which both
Harold III and Tostig were killed. The king then met William in the
battle of %@AU@%HASTINGS%@BO:          406c3e@%%@AE@%, fought valiantly, and was killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harold%@AE@%,%@CR:HAROLD2         @%%@QR:Harold@% kings of Norway. %@AB@%Harold I%@AE@% or %@AB@%Harold Fairhair,%@AE@% c.850-c.933%@EH@%
(r.872-c.933), was the son of Halfdan the Black, king of Vestfold (SE
Norway). He became Norway's first king by defeating other petty kings.
During his reign, raids on Europe and migration to Iceland reached their
peak. His son %@AU@%HAAKON I%@BO:          3ed43a@%%@AE@% succeeded him by defeating another son. %@AB@%Harold III%@AE@%
or %@AB@%Harold Hardrada%@AE@% [stern council], d. 1066 (r.1046-66), half brother of
%@AU@%OLAF II%@BO:          6d5b90@%%@AE@%. He joined (1042) the revolt against %@AU@%MAGNUS I%@BO:          59a3a2@%%@AE@% and was made joint
king (1046), becoming sole king at Magnus's death (1047). After invading
N England, he died in battle with %@AU@%HAROLD%@BO:          40121f@%%@AE@% of England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%harp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%harp%@AE@%,%@CR:HARP            @%%@QR:harp@% %@AU@%STRINGED INSTRUMENT%@BO:          8fbf78@%%@AE@% of ancient origin, the strings of which are%@EH@%
plucked with the fingers. During the 15th cent. the harp came to be made
in three parts, as it is today: sound box, neck, and pillar. The strings
are stretched between the sound box and the neck, into which are fastened
the tuning pegs. The diatonic harp was perfected c.1810 with the
invention of double-action pedals, which can raise pitch by a semitone or
a tone.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harper, William Rainey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harper, William Rainey%@AE@%,%@CR:HARPER          @%%@QR:Harper, William Rainey@% 1856-1906, American educator and Hebrew scholar;%@EH@%
b. New Concord, Ohio. A professor of Hebrew and author of many texts on
Hebrew language and literature, he became (1891) the first president of
the Univ. of Chicago. There he recruited an outstanding faculty, fostered
advanced instruction and research, and maintained a policy of promotion
for scholarly research.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harpers Ferry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harpers Ferry%@AE@%,%@CR:HARPERS.FERRY   @%%@QR:Harpers Ferry@% town (1980 pop. 361), Jefferson co., easternmost W. Va.,%@EH@%
at the confluence of the Shenandoah and Potomac rivers; inc. 1763. The
U.S. Arsenal (est. 1796) was seized in the famous raid by John %@AU@%BROWN%@BO:          1477b2@%%@AE@% on
Oct. 16, 1859. Because of its strategic %@AU@%SHENANDOAH VALLEY%@BO:          8829e3@%%@AE@% location and
its arms production, its industry was repeatedly destroyed by both sides
during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; the town never recovered. The Harpers Ferry
National Historical park preserves Civil War historical sites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%harpsichord%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%harpsichord%@AE@%:%@CR:HARPSICHORD     @%%@QR:harpsichord@% see %@AU@%PIANO%@BO:          7566bd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harpy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harpy%@AE@%,%@CR:HARPY           @%%@QR:Harpy@% in Greek mythology, a predatory monster with the head of a woman%@EH@%
and the body, wings, and claws of a bird.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harriman, Edward Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harriman, Edward Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRIMAN1       @%%@QR:Harriman, Edward Henry@% 1848-1909, American railroad executive; b.%@EH@%
Hempstead, N.Y. A stockbroker, he gained positions of power in the
Illinois Central RR (1883) and Union Pacific (1898). After securing
control of the Southern Pacific and the Central Pacific, he tried to
seize the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy but was blocked by J.J. %@AU@%HILL%@BO:          42ccff@%%@AE@% in a
famous financial struggle. He later joined with Hill and J.P. Morgan (see
%@AU@%MORGAN%@BO:          63c3ec@%%@AE@%, family) to organize the Northern Securities Co., a holding
company formed to prevent railroad competition; in 1904 the trust was
ordered dissolved by the U.S. Supreme Court. His son was W. Averell
Harriman.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harriman, W(illiam) Averell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harriman, W(illiam) Averell%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRIMAN2       @%%@QR:Harriman, W(illiam) Averell@% 1891-1986, U.S. businessman and public%@EH@%
official; b. N.Y.C. A Democrat, he was ambassador to the USSR (1943-46),
secretary of commerce (1946-48), governor of New York state (1955-59),
undersecretary of state (1963-65), and ambassador-at-large (1965-68). He
was also (1968) chief U.S. negotiator at the Paris peace talks on
Vietnam.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harrington, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harrington, James%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRINGTON      @%%@QR:Harrington, James@% 1611-77, English political philosopher. His%@EH@%
%@AI@%Commonwealth of Oceana%@AE@% (1656) described a utopian society in which
political power rested with the landed gentry. He advocated a written
constitution and limitations on the amount of land one individual could
hold. His ideas foreshadowed doctrines of the American and French
revolutions.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harris, Frank%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harris, Frank%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRIS1         @%%@QR:Harris, Frank@% 1856-1931, British-American author; b. Galway, Ireland. He%@EH@%
is best known for his scandalously frank, highly unreliable
autobiography, %@AI@%My Life and Loves%@AE@% (3 vol., 1923-27). He also wrote novels,
a series of biographical sketches of literary figures (1915-27), and a
biography of Oscar %@AU@%WILDE%@BO:          a1852b@%%@AE@% (1916).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harris, Joel Chandler%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harris, Joel Chandler%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRIS2         @%%@QR:Harris, Joel Chandler@% 1848-1908, American regionalist writer; b.%@EH@%
Eatonton, Ga. His popular tales, narrated by the former slave Uncle
Remus, drew upon black folklore, dialect, and humor to capture the
authentic life of Southern blacks. Volumes include %@AI@%Uncle Remus: His Songs
%@AI@%and His Sayings%@AE@% (1881), %@AI@%The Tar Baby%@AE@% (1904), and %@AI@%Uncle Remus and Br'er
%@AI@%Rabbit%@AE@% (1906).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harris, Patricia Roberts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harris, Patricia Roberts%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRIS3         @%%@QR:Harris, Patricia Roberts@% 1924-, black U.S. public official; b. Mattoon,%@EH@%
Ill. Named secretary of housing and urban development (1977) by Pres.
%@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@%, she was the first black woman to serve in the cabinet. From 1979
to 1981 she was secretary of health, education, and welfare (since 1980
health and human services).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harris, Roy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harris, Roy%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRIS4         @%%@QR:Harris, Roy@% 1898-1979, American composer; b. Lincoln co., Okla. Vital,%@EH@%
melodic, and personal expression is characteristic of his works,
including his First Symphony (1934); %@AI@%When Johnny Comes Marching Home%@AE@%
(1934), a choral work; Cumberland Concerto (1951); and his Piano Quintet
(1936).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harris, William Torrey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harris, William Torrey%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRIS5         @%%@QR:Harris, William Torrey@% 1835-1909, American educator and philosopher; b.%@EH@%
Windham co., Conn. Founder and editor (1867-93) of the %@AI@%Journal of
%@AI@%Speculative Philosophy,%@AE@% he wrote several books on the psychology of
education. He opened (1873) the first permanent public-school
%@AU@%KINDERGARTEN%@BO:          4fa835@%%@AE@% in the U.S. and served as U.S. commissioner of education
(1889-1906).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harrisburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harrisburg%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRISBURG      @%%@QR:Harrisburg@% city (1986 est. pop. 51,530), state capital and seat of%@EH@%
Dauphin co., SE Pa., on the Susquehanna R.; settled c.1710 as a trading
post; inc. 1791. A commercial and transportation center, it produces
steel and processed foods. Iron and coal mines are nearby. Harrisburg
became the state capital in 1812; its capitol building (1906) is
noteworthy. A 1979 nuclear accident at nearby %@AU@%THREE MILE ISLAND%@BO:          9565cc@%%@AE@% focused
national attention on the area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harrison, Benjamin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harrison, Benjamin%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRISON1       @%%@QR:Harrison, Benjamin@% 1833-1901, 23d president of the U.S. (1889-93); b.%@EH@%
North Bend, Ohio. A grandson of William Henry %@AU@%HARRISON%@BO:          403aaf@%%@AE@%, he commanded an
Indiana volunteer regiment in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, became a corporate lawyer,
and served (1881-87) as U.S. senator from Indiana. The Republicans chose
him (1888) as presidential candidate against Grover %@AU@%CLEVELAND%@BO:          1f5521@%%@AE@%. After what
has been called the most corrupt campaign in U.S. history, he was elected
by the electoral college, though Cleveland had won the popular vote. He
approved all regular Republican measures, including the highly protective
McKinley Tariff Act. The first Pan-American Conference was held (1889)
during his administration. Defeated (1892) for reelection by Cleveland,
he later represented Venezuela in the %@AU@%VENEZUELA BOUNDARY DISPUTE%@BO:          9c765c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harrison, William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harrison, William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HARRISON2       @%%@QR:Harrison, William Henry@% 1773-1841, 9th president of the U.S. (Mar.%@EH@%
4-Apr. 4, 1841); b. Charles co., Va. Following service against the
Indians in the Old Northwest, Harrison was governor (1800-1812) of the
Indiana Territory and engaged the Indians under %@AU@%TECUMSEH%@BO:          9362ba@%%@AE@% in the battle of
Tippecanoe (1811). In the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@% he recaptured Detroit from the
British and defeated a combined force of British and Indians in the
battle of the Thames (1813). He was a U.S. congressman (1816-19) and
senator (1825-28) from Ohio. Gaining the %@AU@%WHIG PARTY%@BO:          a109c5@%%@AE@% presidential
nomination in 1840, he and his running mate, John %@AU@%TYLER%@BO:          992b6c@%%@AE@%, ran a
"rip-roaring" campaign with the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler too." On
becoming president he selected a brilliant Whig cabinet, but he died
after only a month in office. He was the grandfather of Benjamin
%@AU@%HARRISON%@BO:          40367a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hart, Basil Henry Liddell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hart, Basil Henry Liddell%@AE@%:%@CR:HART1           @%%@QR:Hart, Basil Henry Liddell@% see %@AU@%LIDDELL HART, BASIL HENRY%@BO:          54ddb7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hart, Lorenz Milton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hart, Lorenz Milton%@AE@%,%@CR:HART2           @%%@QR:Hart, Lorenz Milton@% 1895-1943, American lyricist; b. N.Y.C. His lyrics%@EH@%
were witty, literate, and expressive. He collaborated with Richard
%@AU@%RODGERS%@BO:          8028be@%%@AE@% on such %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@% as %@AI@%Connecticut Yankee%@AE@% (1927) and %@AI@%Pal Joey%@AE@%
(1940).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hart, Moss%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hart, Moss%@AE@%,%@CR:HART3           @%%@QR:Hart, Moss@% 1904-61, American dramatist; b. N.Y.C. He collaborated with%@EH@%
George S. %@AU@%KAUFMAN%@BO:          4ea052@%%@AE@% on such comedies as %@AI@%You Can't Take It with You%@AE@% (1936;
Pulitzer) and %@AI@%The Man Who Came to Dinner%@AE@% (1939), and with Kurt %@AU@%WEILL%@BO:          a04701@%%@AE@% and
Ira %@AU@%GERSHWIN%@BO:          39b794@%%@AE@% on the musical %@AI@%Lady in the Dark%@AE@% (1941).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harte, (Francis) Bret(t)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harte, (Francis) Bret(t)%@AE@%,%@CR:HARTE           @%%@QR:Harte, (Francis) Bret(t)@% 1836-1902, American author; b. Albany, N.Y. At%@EH@%
19 he went to California, where he helped establish the %@AI@%Overland Monthly,%@AE@%
in which his short stories and poems first appeared. Harte is best known
for his picturesque stories of Western local color, e.g., "The Luck of
Roaring Camp" and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat." He was U.S. consul in
Germany and Scotland (1878-85) and spent his last years in England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hartebeest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hartebeest%@AE@%:%@CR:HARTEBEEST      @%%@QR:hartebeest@% see %@AU@%ANTELOPE%@BO:           604e5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hartford%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hartford%@AE@%,%@CR:HARTFORD        @%%@QR:Hartford@% city (1986 est. pop. 137,980), state capital, central Conn., on%@EH@%
the Connecticut R.; settled as Newtown 1635-36 on the site of a Dutch
trading post (1633), inc. 1784. It is a world-famous insurance center,
and a commercial, industrial, and cultural hub. Manufactures include
firearms, typewriters, and computers. Part of the Connecticut colony
(1639), Hartford was an important depot in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and
was the scene of the 1814-15 %@AU@%HARTFORD CONVENTION%@BO:          404ac1@%%@AE@%. The old statehouse
(1796), the capitol (1878), and the Wadsworth Atheneum are noteworthy.
Harriet Beecher %@AU@%STOWE%@BO:          8f6e3b@%%@AE@%, Mark %@AU@%TWAIN%@BO:          9911cd@%%@AE@%, and Wallace %@AU@%STEVENS%@BO:          8efde1@%%@AE@% were among its
notable residents.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hartford Convention%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hartford Convention%@AE@%,%@CR:HARTFORTION     @%%@QR:Hartford Convention@% Dec. 15, 1814-Jan. 4, 1815, meeting held in%@EH@%
Hartford, Conn., to consider the problems of New England in the %@AU@%WAR OF
%@AU@%1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%. It was an outgrowth of the disaffection of New England Federalists
with government policy and with the expenses of the war. The sessions
were held in secret, and the moderates prevailed. The proposal to secede
from the Union was discussed and rejected, and New England's grievances
were aired, but the war's successful conclusion made any recommendation a
dead letter. The convention continued the view of %@AU@%STATES' RIGHTS%@BO:          8e68df@%%@AE@% as the
refuge of sectional groups and sealed the destruction of the %@AU@%FEDERALIST
%@AU@%PARTY%@BO:          32412f@%%@AE@%, which never regained its lost prestige.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hartford Wits%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hartford Wits%@AE@%:%@CR:HARTFORD.WITS   @%%@QR:Hartford Wits@% see %@AU@%CONNECTICUT WITS%@BO:          222f83@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hartmann von Aue%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hartmann von Aue%@AE@%%@CR:HARTMANE        @%%@QR:Hartmann von Aue@%, c.1170-c.1220, German poet whose name is also spelled%@EH@%
von Ouwe. Among his works are the chivalric romances %@AI@%Erec%@AE@% and %@AI@%Iwain,%@AE@% the
religious legend %@AI@%Gregorius,%@AE@% and the idyl %@AI@%Poor Henry,%@AE@% used by %@AU@%LONGFELLOW%@BO:          5685c5@%%@AE@%
for his %@AI@%Golden Legend.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harun ar-Rashid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harun ar-Rashid%@AE@%,%@CR:HARUN.ARRASHID  @%%@QR:Harun ar-Rashid@% c.764-809, 5th and most famous %@AU@%ABBASID%@BO:            1519@%%@AE@% caliph (786-809).%@EH@%
His empire included all of SW Asia and the northern part of Africa. He
was a patron of the arts, and during his reign Baghdad was at its apogee.
He figures prominently in the %@AI@%Thousand and One Nights.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harunobu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harunobu%@AE@%%@CR:HARUNOBU        @%%@QR:Harunobu@% (Suzuki Harunobu), 1725-70, Japanese color-print artist of the%@EH@%
%@AI@%ukiyo-e%@AE@% school (see %@AU@%JAPANESE ART%@BO:          4b5acd@%%@AE@%). He was the first to use a wide range
of colors effectively in printing, and in 1765 he developed multicolored
calendar prints from wood blocks. His subjects include actors,
courtesans, and domestic life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harvard University%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harvard University%@AE@%,%@CR:HARVARDITY      @%%@QR:Harvard University@% mainly at Cambridge, Mass. The oldest American%@EH@%
college, Harvard College was founded (1636) with a grant from the
Massachusetts Bay Colony and named (1638) for its first benefactor, John
Harvard. Intended as a training ground for Puritan ministers, it evolved
a more generalized program of education. Supported largely by private
gifts, Harvard's expansion into one of the world's great universities
occurred mainly during the administration (1869-1910) of Charles W.
%@AU@%ELIOT%@BO:          2e1081@%%@AE@%, when the elective system was introduced and graduate education was
developed. Besides Harvard College, the university has many graduate
schools. The Harvard University Library is among the nation's largest and
finest (see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@%, ). Affiliated with the university is Radcliffe
College for women (est. 1879), whose students are instructed by the
Harvard faculty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harvard University Library%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harvard University Library%@AE@%:%@CR:HARVARDARY      @%%@QR:Harvard University Library@% see %@AU@%LIBRARY%@BO:          54ad23@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%harvestman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%harvestman%@AE@%:%@CR:HARVESTMAN      @%%@QR:harvestman@% see %@AU@%DADDY LONGLEGS%@BO:          25f1a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Harvey, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Harvey, William%@AE@%,%@CR:HARVEY          @%%@QR:Harvey, William@% 1578-1657, English physician, considered by many to have%@EH@%
laid the foundation for modern medicine. A physician at St. Bartholomew's
Hospital in London and at the court, he was the first to demonstrate the
function of the heart and the complete circulation of the blood. His
renowned %@AI@%On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals%@AE@% (1628)
describes his theories, which were not fully substantiated until 1827.
Harvey also contributed greatly to comparative anatomy and embryology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hasdrubal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hasdrubal%@AE@%%@CR:HASDRUBAL       @%%@QR:Hasdrubal@%, d. 221 BC, Carthaginian general. He succeeded his%@EH@%
father-in-law, %@AU@%HAMILCAR BARCA%@BO:          3f7317@%%@AE@%, as commander in Spain, increased the
Carthaginian empire, and founded Cartagena. He was succeeded by his
brother-in-law %@AU@%HANNIBAL%@BO:          3fbbe1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hasidim%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hasidim%@AE@%%@CR:HASIDIM         @%%@QR:Hasidim@% [Heb.,=the pious], term used by the rabbis to describe those Jews%@EH@%
who maintained the highest standard of religious observance and moral
action. The term has been applied to three distinct movements. %@AB@%1%@AE@% The
first Hasidim, also called the Assideans or Hasideans, were members of a
sect that developed between 300 BC and 175 BC Rigid adherents of Judaism,
they led the resistance to the Hellenizing campaign of Antiochus IV of
Syria and were important in the revolt of the %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%2%@AE@% In 12th- and
13th-cent. Germany there arose the Hasidei Ashkenaz, a group with
messianic and mystical elements, influenced by %@AU@%SAADIA BEN JOSEPH%@BO:          82a230@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%3%@AE@% The
third movement of Hasidim was that founded in the 18th cent. by
%@AU@%BAAL-SHEM-TOV%@BO:           a902a@%%@AE@% and known as %@AU@%HASIDISM%@BO:          4062bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hasidism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hasidism%@AE@%,%@CR:HASIDISM        @%%@QR:Hasidism@% Jewish movement founded in Poland in the 18th cent. by%@EH@%
%@AU@%BAAL-SHEM-TOV%@BO:           a902a@%%@AE@%. Its name derives from %@AU@%HASIDIM%@BO:          405eae@%%@AE@%. The movement arose in
reaction to persecutions and to the academic formalism of rabbinical
Judaism. It encouraged joyous religious expression through music and
dance, and taught that purity of heart was more pleasing to God than
learning. Although the Talmudists pronounced Hasidism heretical in 1781,
it continues to be a strong force in Jewish life. In the U.S. today,
Hasidic communities live in the manner of the early Hasidim.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hasmoneans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hasmoneans%@AE@%:%@CR:HASMONEANS      @%%@QR:Hasmoneans@% see %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hassam, Childe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hassam, Childe%@AE@%,%@CR:HASSAM          @%%@QR:Hassam, Childe@% 1859-1935, American painter and etcher; b. Boston.%@EH@%
Hassam, who studied in Paris, produced sprightly landscapes and interiors
that show the strong influence of %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%Isles of Shoals%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hassan II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hassan II%@AE@%,%@CR:HASSAN.II       @%%@QR:Hassan II@% 1929-, king of Morocco (1961-). He succeeded his father,%@EH@%
%@AU@%MUHAMMAD V%@BO:          64e907@%%@AE@%. An abortive coup (1971) led him to yield some of his powers
to parliament. After 1976 his country fought for control of %@AU@%WESTERN
%@AU@%SAHARA%@BO:          a0a74d@%%@AE@%; in 1982, bolstered by U.S. military support, Morocco began the
economic development of Western Sahara.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hastings, Warren%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hastings, Warren%@AE@%,%@CR:HASTINGS1       @%%@QR:Hastings, Warren@% 1732-1818, first governor general of British India%@EH@%
(1774-1784). His aggressive policy of judicial and economic reform
rebuilt British prestige in India but created powerful enemies at home,
including Edmund %@AU@%BURKE%@BO:          15a76f@%%@AE@% and Charles James %@AU@%FOX%@BO:          34e0d3@%%@AE@%. He was impeached (1787) on
charges of extortion and other crimes. After a long and costly trial he
was acquitted (1795).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hastings%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hastings%@AE@%,%@CR:HASTINGS2       @%%@QR:Hastings@% borough (1986 est. pop. 81,100), E Sussex, SE England. Today a%@EH@%
seaside resort and residential city, it was occupied in Roman times and
probably earlier. The battle of Hastings (1066) between the Norman
invaders of England and the Anglo-Saxon defenders, the first and most
decisive victory of the %@AU@%NORMAN CONQUEST%@BO:          6b2271@%%@AE@%, took place nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hatteras, Cape%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hatteras, Cape%@AE@%,%@CR:HATTERAS        @%%@QR:Hatteras, Cape@% promontory on Hatteras Island, N.C. The site of frequent%@EH@%
storms and shipwrecks, it is known as the "Graveyard of the Atlantic."
The cape is part of %@AB@%Cape Hatteras National Seashore,%@AE@% one of the longest
stretches of undeveloped shoreline on the U.S. Atlantic coast.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haughey, Charles James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haughey, Charles James%@AE@%,%@CR:HAUGHEY         @%%@QR:Haughey, Charles James@% 1925-, Irish political leader and prime minister%@EH@%
(1979-81, Mar.-Dec. 1982). In 1970 Haughey, a member of the %@AU@%FIANNA FAIL%@BO:          32e1fb@%%@AE@%
party and finance minister, was charged with smuggling arms to Northern
Ireland, but he was later acquitted. After the resignation (1979) of
Prime Min. John %@AU@%LYNCH%@BO:          5844eb@%%@AE@%, Haughey was named as his successor. Considered a
strong nationalist, he resigned after Fianna Fail's defeat in the 1981
elections, but was briefly returned to office in 1982. He was succeeded
as prime minister by Garret FitzGerald of the Fine Gael party.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hauptmann, Gerhart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hauptmann, Gerhart%@AE@%%@CR:HAUPTMANN       @%%@QR:Hauptmann, Gerhart@%, 1862-1946, German dramatist, novelist, and poet. He%@EH@%
inaugurated the naturalist movement in German theater with his plays
%@AI@%Before Dawn%@AE@% (1889) and %@AI@%The Weavers%@AE@% (1892), then turned to the romantic
with %@AI@%Hannele%@AE@% (1893) and %@AI@%The Sunken Bell%@AE@% (1897). His prose works include
the novels %@AI@%The Fool in Christ, Emanuel Quint%@AE@% (1910) and %@AI@%The Heretic of
%@AI@%Soana%@AE@% (1918). A leading figure in German literature for three
generations, he was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hausa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hausa%@AE@%,%@CR:HAUSA           @%%@QR:Hausa@% black African ethnic group numbering about 9 million, chiefly in N%@EH@%
Nigeria and S Niger. The Hausa, who are almost exclusively Muslim,
practice agriculture and carry on a widespread trade. Their language is a
lingua franca of W Africa. Formerly organized as the %@AB@%Hausa States,%@AE@% they
were long vassals of the Muslim state of Bornu and were conquered by
%@AU@%SONGHAI%@BO:          8b8750@%%@AE@% (1513) and by the %@AU@%FULANI%@BO:          36c4cc@%%@AE@% (early 19th cent.). The Hausa are a
major force in Nigerian politics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hausa language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hausa language%@AE@%,%@CR:HAUSA.LANGUAGE  @%%@QR:Hausa language@% member of the Chad group of languages, frequently%@EH@%
assigned to the Hamitic subfamily of the Hamito-Semitic family of
languages. See %@AU@%AFRICAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           1ca72@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haussmann, Georges Eugene, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haussmann, Georges Eugene, Baron%@AE@%%@CR:HAUSSMANN       @%%@QR:Haussmann, Georges Eugene, Baron@%, 1809-91, French civic official and city%@EH@%
planner. Noted for his bold plan for %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          713e64@%%@AE@% under %@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@%, he is
largely responsible for the city's appearance, its wide streets, broad
vistas, parks, and avenues radiating from focal points.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Havana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Havana%@AE@%,%@CR:HAVANA          @%%@QR:Havana@% Span. %@AI@%La Habana,%@AE@% city (1986 est. pop. 2,014,800), W Cuba, capital%@EH@%
of Cuba and La Habana prov. The largest city and chief port of the %@AU@%WEST
%@AU@%INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%, it is Cuba's political and industrial center, with oil and sugar
refineries, rum distilleries, tobacco factories, and some heavy
manufacturing. It is a popular winter resort, although tourism from the
U.S. ended after the Cuban revolution of 1959. One of the oldest cities
in the Americas, Havana was founded by the Spanish before 1520. It has
often been invaded and held by foreign forces. The sinking of the U.S.
battleship %@AI@%Maine%@AE@% in its harbor sparked (1898) the %@AU@%SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR%@BO:          8d0a1a@%%@AE@%.
The modern part of Havana has wide avenues and impressive public
buildings. Much of the old colonial city has been preserved. A major
landmark is Morro Castle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawaii%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawaii%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWAII          @%%@QR:Hawaii@% 50th state of the U.S., a group of eight major islands and%@EH@%
numerous islets in the central Pacific Ocean, c.2,100 mi (3,380 km) SW of
San Francisco.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 6,450 sq mi (16,706 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 1,062,000, a 10.1%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Honolulu. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Aug. 21, 1959 (50th
state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Mauna Kea, 13,796 ft (4,208 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@% sea
level. %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Aloha State. %@AI@%Motto, Ua Mau Ke Ea O Ka Aina I Ka Pono%@AE@% The
Life of the Land Is Perpetuated in Righteousness. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% Hawaiian
goose. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% hibiscus. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% candlenut. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% HI.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% The islands, of volcanic origin, are ringed with coral
reefs. Oahu, site of %@AU@%HONOLULU%@BO:          441cfd@%%@AE@%, the capital and only large city, is the
most populous and economically important island. On Hawaii Island are
located %@AU@%MAUNA KEA%@BO:          5d5610@%%@AE@%, a huge extinct volcano, and %@AU@%MAUNA LOA%@BO:          5d5893@%%@AE@%, a large active
volcano in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Haleakala, one of the world's
largest volcanic craters, on Maui Island, is part of Haleakala National
Park. (See %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%, .) Other principal islands are Kahoolawe,
Kauai, Lanai, Molokai, and Nihau. The islands are generally fertile, are
largely covered in luxuriant vegetation, and enjoy a mild climate. About
60% of Hawaii's ethnically diverse population is of Asian descent,
including people of Japanese, Chinese, and Filipino origin; there is a
small minority of indigenous Hawaiians; nearly 33% of the population is
white; and 7% is of other races.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Service industries, especially tourism and military
installations, dominate the economy of Hawaii. The leading agricultural
products are sugarcane and pineapples-both cultivated on large corporate
plantations-and cattle and dairy products. Sugar refining and pineapple
canning are the basis of the leading industry, food processing, which is
supplemented by petroleum refining and printing and publishing.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution (adopted 1950) provides for a governor
serving a four-year term. The legislature consists of a senate with 25
members elected to four-year terms and a house with 51 members serving
two-year terms. Hawaii sends two representatives and two senators to the
U.S. Congress and has four electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% It is believed that the Polynesians who first settled the islands
had arrived by c.750 AD The first European to discover (1778) the islands
was Capt. James %@AU@%COOK%@BO:          22f2d1@%%@AE@%. In 1810 King %@AU@%KAMEHAMEHA I%@BO:          4e1538@%%@AE@% united the islands under
his sovereignty, ushering in a prosperous period of agriculture and
trade. However, American and European traders introduced devastating
infectious diseases that greatly reduced the native population.
Missionaries and American planters who arrived in 1820 established sugar
plantations and increasingly dominated the islands' economy and
government. The monarchy was overthrown in 1893, and Hawaii became a U.S
territory in 1900. On Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese aircraft made a surprise
attack on the naval base at %@AU@%PEARL HARBOR%@BO:          727da8@%%@AE@%, plunging the U.S. into %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. Since the war's end and statehood (1959) Hawaii has enjoyed
sustained economic and population growth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawaii Volcanoes National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawaii Volcanoes National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:HAWAII.AL.PARK  @%%@QR:Hawaii Volcanoes National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% .%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hawk%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hawk%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWK            @%%@QR:hawk@% name for smaller members of the Accipitridae family, diurnal %@AU@%BIRDS%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
of prey, distinguished from the related %@AU@%FALCONS%@BO:          319aa8@%%@AE@% by their broader, rounded
wings. Hawks have keen sight, sharply hooked bills, and powerful feet
with curved talons. The hunting hawks, or accipiters, include the
goshawk, which feeds on small %@AU@%MAMMALS%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% and birds, and the destructive
chicken hawk. Buteos, or %@AU@%BUZZARDS%@BO:          1633ad@%%@AE@%, are a diverse group of larger hawks;
they feed on %@AU@%RODENTS%@BO:          801f30@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%REPTILES%@BO:          7e4fea@%%@AE@%. The term %@AI@%hawk%@AE@% is also applied to many
falcons and a number of unrelated birds, e.g., the nighthawk (a
%@AU@%GOATSUCKER%@BO:          3ad536@%%@AE@%), and certain %@AU@%GULLS%@BO:          3e9020@%%@AE@% and jaegers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawke, Robert (Bob) James Lee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawke, Robert (Bob) James Lee%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWKE           @%%@QR:Hawke, Robert (Bob) James Lee@% 1929-, Australian prime minister. A former%@EH@%
president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (1970-80), a leader
of the Australian Labor Party, and a member of Parliament, he has won
three successive terms as prime minister. He pledged to decrease
Australia's dependence on the export of raw materials and make the nation
internationally competitive in exporting manufactured goods.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawkes, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawkes, John%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWKES          @%%@QR:Hawkes, John@% 1925-, American writer; b. Stamford, Conn. His novels often%@EH@%
mix everyday reality with menacing hallucinations. They include %@AI@%The Lime
%@AI@%Twig%@AE@% (1951), %@AI@%Blood Oranges%@AE@% (1971), and %@AI@%The Passion Artist%@AE@% (1979).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawking, Stephen William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawking, Stephen William%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWKING         @%%@QR:Hawking, Stephen William@% 1942-, British theoretical physicist. His key%@EH@%
area is astronomical bodies known as black holes (see %@AU@%GRAVITATIONAL
%@AU@%COLLAPSE%@BO:          3c7d9e@%%@AE@%). Hawking worked on the formation, size, and radiation of black
holes as well as research supporting the big bang theory (see %@AU@%COSMOLOGY%@BO:          23b30e@%%@AE@%).
He wrote %@AI@%A Brief History of Time%@AE@% (1988).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawkins, Coleman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawkins, Coleman%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWKINS1        @%%@QR:Hawkins, Coleman@% 1904-69, black American musician; b. St. Joseph, Mo. He%@EH@%
established the tenor saxophone as a major %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% instrument. His huge
tone, vigorous attack, and evolving improvisatory style made his
influence pervasive, even among avant-garde musicians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawkins%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawkins%@AE@%%@CR:HAWKINS2        @%%@QR:Hawkins@% or %@AB@%Hawkyns, Sir John,%@AE@%1532-95, English admiral. As a slave-trader,%@EH@%
he sold native Africans at a profit in Spanish ports. As treasurer and
comptroller of the navy, he improved ship construction. In the great
defeat of the Spanish %@AU@%ARMADA%@BO:           7ed3f@%%@AE@%, he commanded the %@AI@%Victory%@AE@% and was knighted
for his services. His son, %@AB@%Sir Richard Hawkins,%@AE@% 1562-1622, served under
his father and Sir Francis %@AU@%DRAKE%@BO:          2a85c8@%%@AE@%. While on a raiding expedition in South
America, he was captured and sent to a Spanish prison (1597-1602). He
later served in Parliament.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawks, Howard Winchester%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawks, Howard Winchester%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWKS           @%%@QR:Hawks, Howard Winchester@% 1896-1977, American film director; b. Goshen,%@EH@%
Ind. He directed his first film in 1926 and is noted for crisp dialogue
and visual clarity. His credits include %@AI@%Scarface%@AE@% (1932), %@AI@%Bringing Up Baby%@AE@%
(1938), %@AI@%To Have and Have Not%@AE@% (1944), %@AI@%The Big Sleep%@AE@% (1946), %@AI@%Red River%@AE@%
(1948), and %@AI@%Gentlemen Prefer Blondes%@AE@% (1953).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawksmoor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawksmoor%@AE@%%@CR:HAWKSMOOR       @%%@QR:Hawksmoor@% or %@AB@%Hawksmore, Nicholas,%@AE@%1661-1736, English architect involved in%@EH@%
the development of most of the great English %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@% buildings. He
assisted Christopher %@AU@%WREN%@BO:          a36a96@%%@AE@% at Chelsea Hospital and St. Paul's, and Sir
John %@AU@%VANBRUGH%@BO:          9ba2d2@%%@AE@% at Castle Howard and Blenheim Palace. His London churches
(1714-30) include St. George's, Bloomsbury, and Christ Church,
Spitalfields.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWLEYSIFF.ACT  @%%@QR:Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act@% enacted 1930 by the U.S. Congress. It brought%@EH@%
the U.S. tariff to its highest point in history. The retaliatory tariffs
of foreign nations caused a sharp decline in U.S. foreign trade. The act
was sponsored by Rep. Willis C. Hawley (Oreg.) and Sen. Reed Smoot
(Utah).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hawthorne, Nathaniel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hawthorne, Nathaniel%@AE@%,%@CR:HAWTHORNE       @%%@QR:Hawthorne, Nathaniel@% 1804-64, a master of American fiction; b. Salem,%@EH@%
Mass. Hawthorne created highly symbolic fiction that penetratingly
explored complex moral and spiritual conflicts. In early life he wrote
the unsuccessful novel %@AI@%Fanshawe%@AE@% (1829) and the acclaimed short-story
collection %@AI@%Twice-Told Tales%@AE@% (1837; 2d series, 1842). He lived briefly
(1841) at %@AU@%BROOK FARM%@BO:          1453b0@%%@AE@%, basing his later novel %@AI@%The Blithedale Romance%@AE@%
(1852) on the experience. After his marriage (1842) to Sophia Peabody he
settled in Concord, where he wrote the tales collected in %@AI@%Mosses from an
%@AI@%Old Manse%@AE@% (1846). In the novels %@AI@%The Scarlet Letter%@AE@% (1850), his
masterpiece, and %@AI@%The House of the Seven Gables%@AE@% (1851) he examined the
gloomy, brooding spirit of Puritanism. His last novel, %@AI@%The Marble Faun%@AE@%
(1860), is set in Italy. His works include two juvenile books, %@AI@%A Wonder
%@AI@%Book%@AE@% (1852) and %@AI@%Tanglewood Tales%@AE@% (1853). He also helped establish the
American short story as an art form.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hay, John (Milton)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hay, John (Milton)%@AE@%,%@CR:HAY             @%%@QR:Hay, John (Milton)@% 1838-1905, American author and statesman; b. Salem,%@EH@%
Ind. After serving as assistant private secretary to Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@%, Hay
wrote %@AI@%Pike County Ballads%@AE@% (1871) and, with John G. Nicolay, %@AI@%Abraham
%@AI@%Lincoln: A History%@AE@% (10 vol., 1890). As secretary of state (1898-1905)
under presidents %@AU@%MCKINLEY%@BO:          58f4bb@%%@AE@% and Theodore %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80ff43@%%@AE@%, he was responsible for
the %@AU@%OPEN DOOR%@BO:          6df6de@%%@AE@% policy in China and for the %@AU@%HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATIES%@BO:          40c0fc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul%@AE@%%@CR:HAYA.DEE        @%%@QR:Haya de la Torre, Victor Raul@%, Peruvian politician. He founded (1924) the%@EH@%
reformist APRA party to champion social and economic reforms, especially
for Indians, and spent much of his life in exile or in prison. He was
elected president of %@AU@%PERU%@BO:          73d93e@%%@AE@% (1962) but was prevented from taking office by
a military coup. APRA won the 1978 elections shortly before his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haydn, Franz Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haydn, Franz Joseph%@AE@%%@CR:HAYDN           @%%@QR:Haydn, Franz Joseph@%, 1732-1809, Austrian composer, one of the great%@EH@%
masters of classical music. After early struggles, he worked 29 years for
the princes Esterhazy, received commissions, traveled, and formed a close
friendship with %@AU@%MOZART%@BO:          64c201@%%@AE@%, a bond that influenced the music of both. Haydn
wrote over 100 %@AU@%SYMPHONIES%@BO:          91d836@%%@AE@%, establishing the basic form. Many are called
by names, e.g., The Clock Symphony (1794). His string quartets and
symphonies expanded C.P.E. %@AU@%BACH'S%@BO:           abad1@%%@AE@% three-part form, affecting the
development of classical %@AU@%SONATA%@BO:          8b73bf@%%@AE@% form. Two great %@AU@%ORATORIOS%@BO:          6e4645@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%The Creation%@AE@%
(1798) and %@AI@%The Seasons%@AE@% (1801), were written in old age. He wrote over 80
string quartets, over 50 sonatas, and many other pieces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hayek, Friedrich August von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hayek, Friedrich August von%@AE@%%@CR:HAYEK           @%%@QR:Hayek, Friedrich August von@%, 1899-, British economist; b. Austria. He%@EH@%
taught at the universities of London (1931-50), Chicago (1950-62), and
Freiburg (1962-70). He shared the 1974 Nobel Prize in economics with
Gunnar %@AU@%MYRDAL%@BO:          65d555@%%@AE@% for his work in the theory of money and economic
fluctuations. Hayek became a British subject in 1938.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hayes, Helen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hayes, Helen%@AE@%,%@CR:HAYES1          @%%@QR:Hayes, Helen@% 1900-, American actress; b. Washington, D.C., as Helen%@EH@%
Hayes Brown. Called the First Lady of the American Theater, she starred
in %@AI@%Dear Brutus%@AE@% (1918), %@AI@%Victoria Regina%@AE@% (1936), and %@AI@%A Touch of the Poet%@AE@%
(1958).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hayes, Rutherford Birchard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hayes, Rutherford Birchard%@AE@%,%@CR:HAYES2          @%%@QR:Hayes, Rutherford Birchard@% 1822-93, 19th president of the U.S.%@EH@%
(1877-81); b. Delaware, Ohio. A lawyer, he became (1858) city solicitor
of Cincinnati. In the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% he took part in some 50 engagements and
rose in rank to a major general of volunteers (1865). Hayes served
(1865-67) as a Republican in Congress and was three times elected (1867,
1869, 1875) governor of Ohio. In 1876, chosen as the Republican candidate
for president, he ran against Democrat Samuel J. %@AU@%TILDEN%@BO:          95d12e@%%@AE@%. In the election
the returns of South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida, and Oregon were
disputed, and Congress created an electoral commission to decide the
result. The commission awarded all the disputed returns to Hayes, thus
giving him a majority of one in the electoral college. Indignation over
this partisan decision affected Hayes's administration, which was
generally conservative and efficient and no more. He withdrew federal
troops from Louisiana and South Carolina, ending the %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% era.
An advocate of hard money, he vetoed the %@AU@%BLAND-ALLISON ACT%@BO:          10c7a0@%%@AE@%, which was
passed nonetheless.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hay-Herran Treaty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hay-Herran Treaty%@AE@%,%@CR:HAYHERRY        @%%@QR:Hay-Herran Treaty@% 1903, aborted agreement between the U.S. and Colombia%@EH@%
that concerned the prospective %@AU@%PANAMA CANAL%@BO:          707a5d@%%@AE@%. Signed by U.S. Secy. of
State John %@AU@%HAY%@BO:          40a8b8@%%@AE@% and Colombian foreign minister Tomas Herran, the treaty
stipulated that the New Panama Canal Co. might sell its properties to the
U.S.; that Colombia lease to the U.S. a strip of land across the Isthmus
of Panama; and that the U.S. pay Colombia $10 million and, after nine
years, an annuity of $250,000. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, but
the Colombian congress rejected it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haymarket Square riot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haymarket Square riot%@AE@%,%@CR:HAYMARKE.RIOT   @%%@QR:Haymarket Square riot@% outbreak of violence in Chicago on May 4, 1886.%@EH@%
Amid American labor's drive for an eight-hour working day, a
demonstration was staged by anarchists in Haymarket Square. A crowd of
some 1,500 people gathered; when police attempted to disperse them, a
bomb exploded and rioting ensued. Eleven people were killed and more than
100 others wounded. Eight anarchists were tried, but no evidence was
found to link them to the bomb. They were, however, convicted of inciting
violence. Four were hanged, one committed suicide, and three-after having
served seven years in prison-were pardoned (1893) by Gov. John P.
%@AU@%ALTGELD%@BO:           42abd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hay-Pauncefote Treaties%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hay-Pauncefote Treaties%@AE@%,%@CR:HAYPAUNREATIES  @%%@QR:Hay-Pauncefote Treaties@% negotiated in 1899 and 1901 by U.S. Secy. of%@EH@%
State John %@AU@%HAY%@BO:          40a8b8@%%@AE@% and Lord Pauncefote of Preston, British ambassador to the
U.S. The first treaty was amended (1900) by the U.S. Senate and was
rejected by the British. The second treaty, superseding the
%@AU@%CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY%@BO:          1f27a9@%%@AE@%, gave the U.S. the right to construct and fully
control an Isthmian canal in %@AU@%CENTRAL AMERICA%@BO:          1aef13@%%@AE@%. It retained nominally the
principle of neutrality under the sole guarantee of the U.S. and provided
that the canal be open to ships of all nations on equal terms, but it
omitted a clause contained in the first draft forbidding fortifications.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Haywood, William Dudley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Haywood, William Dudley%@AE@%,%@CR:HAYWOOD         @%%@QR:Haywood, William Dudley@% 1869-1928, American labor leader, known as Big%@EH@%
Bill Haywood; b. Salt Lake City, Utah. At age 15 he began work as a
miner, and in 1900 he became secretary-treasurer of the Western
Federation of Miners. In 1905 he helped organize the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL WORKERS
%@AU@%OF THE WORLD%@BO:          47ef08@%%@AE@%. Forced out of the Socialist party because of his militancy,
he preached the doctrines of class struggle and mass action. Haywood was
convicted of sedition during World War I, but escaped to the Soviet
Union. He wrote an autobiography, %@AI@%Bill Haywood's Book%@AE@% (1929).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hazel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hazel%@AE@%,%@CR:HAZEL           @%%@QR:hazel@% shrub or small tree (genus %@AI@%Corylus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%BIRCH%@BO:          100720@%%@AE@% family, grown as%@EH@%
an ornamental and for its edible nuts. Species include the American hazel
(%@AI@%C. americana%@AE@%) and European hazels (%@AI@%C. maxima%@AE@% and %@AI@%C. avellena%@AE@%);
hazelnuts, usually known as filberts, are chiefly from the European
trees. %@AU@%WITCH HAZEL%@BO:          a293fe@%%@AE@% is not related to hazel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hazlitt, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hazlitt, William%@AE@%,%@CR:HAZLITT         @%%@QR:Hazlitt, William@% 1778-1830, English essayist and critic. His penetrating%@EH@%
literary criticism is collected in %@AI@%Characters of Shakespeare's Plays%@AE@%
(1817), %@AI@%Lectures on the English Poets%@AE@% (1818), %@AI@%Lectures on the English
%@AI@%Comic Writers%@AE@% (1819), %@AI@%Table Talk%@AE@% (1821-22), and %@AI@%The Spirit of the Age%@AE@%
(1825). His %@AI@%Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth%@AE@% (1820) renewed
interest in %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@% and Elizabethan drama. Among his masterful essays
are "On Going a Journey" and "On the Feeling of Immortality in Youth."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hazzard, Shirley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hazzard, Shirley%@AE@%,%@CR:HAZZARD         @%%@QR:Hazzard, Shirley@% 1931-, Australian novelist. She has lived in the U.S.%@EH@%
since 1951. Noted for her insight, sensitivity, and poetic style, she has
published two collections of short stories and three novels, %@AI@%The Evening
%@AI@%of the Holiday%@AE@% (1966), %@AI@%The Bay of Noon%@AE@% (1970), and %@AI@%The Transit of Venus%@AE@%
(1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%H.D.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%H.D.%@AE@%:%@CR:HD              @%%@QR:H.D.@% see %@AU@%DOOLITTLE, HILDA%@BO:          2a2b40@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%He%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%He%@AE@%,%@CR:HE              @%%@QR:He@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%HELIUM%@BO:          4163ab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Head, Edith%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Head, Edith%@AE@%:%@CR:HEAD1           @%%@QR:Head, Edith@% see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Head, Sir Francis Bond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Head, Sir Francis Bond%@AE@%,%@CR:HEAD2           @%%@QR:Head, Sir Francis Bond@% 1793-1875, British lieutenant governor of Upper%@EH@%
Canada (1835-37). He allied himself with the %@AU@%FAMILY COMPACT%@BO:          31aa2a@%%@AE@% clique and
drove radical reformers to revolt (1837). He quelled the revolt but was
forced to leave (1838) Canada.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%head-hunting%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%head-hunting%@AE@%,%@CR:HEADHUNTING     @%%@QR:head-hunting@% widespread practice of taking and preserving the head of a%@EH@%
slain enemy, occurring from ancient times into the 20th cent. It may have
evolved from %@AU@%CANNIBALISM%@BO:          1831ac@%%@AE@%. Taking a head was believed to strengthen one's
own tribe and weaken the enemy's. Heads were also secured as tokens of
courage and manhood. North American Indians took only the scalp; the
%@AU@%JIVARO%@BO:          4c4af9@%%@AE@% of South America preserve the skin to make so-called shrunken
heads.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Head Start%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Head Start%@AE@%,%@CR:HEAD.START      @%%@QR:Head Start@% U.S. educational program for disadvantaged preschool%@EH@%
children, established under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The
program was initially aimed at preparing poor children for elementary
school, but it was later extended to children above the poverty level,
whose parents paid according to their income.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%healers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%healers%@AE@%,%@CR:HEALERS         @%%@QR:healers@% people who treat illness or suffering by calling forth divine%@EH@%
help or by attempting to control the body with the mind and spirit. Since
prehistoric times healers have used such techniques as anointing with
oil, the laying on of hands, and prayer. The term also refers to
%@AU@%CHRISTIAN SCIENCE%@BO:          1dfd58@%%@AE@% practitioners.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Health and Human Services, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Health and Human Services, United States Department of%@AE@%,%@CR:HEALTH.ES       @%%@QR:Health and Human Services, United States Department of@% federal executive%@EH@%
department that administers government health and %@AU@%SOCIAL SECURITY%@BO:          8ad2a2@%%@AE@%
programs. It is the reorganized successor (1979) to the Dept. of Health,
Education, and Welfare. It includes the Public Health Service, the Office
of Child Support Enforcement, the Social Security Administration, and the
Health Care Financing Administration, which administers the Medicare and
Medicaid programs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Health, Education, and Welfare, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Health, Education, and Welfare, United States Department of%@AE@%:%@CR:HEALTH          @%%@QR:Health, Education, and Welfare, United States Department of@% see%@EH@%
%@AU@%EDUCATION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF%@BO:          2c7e14@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, UNITED
%@AU@%STATES DEPARTMENT OF%@BO:          40d85f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%health insurance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%health insurance%@AE@%,%@CR:HEALTH.E        @%%@QR:health insurance@% prepayment plan providing medical services or cash%@EH@%
indemnities for medical care; it may be voluntary or compulsory.
Compulsory accident and sickness insurance was initiated (1883-84) in
Germany by Bismarck and adopted by Britain, France, Chile, the USSR, and
other nations after World War I. In 1948 Britain instituted the most
comprehensive compulsory health plan to date, including free medical care
from any doctor participating in the system; a small charge for some
services has been instituted since then. Canada has provided nearly free
hospital service since 1958 and more comprehensive coverage since 1967.
National health insurance has been widely adopted in Europe and parts of
Asia. In the U.S., where the medical profession opposed government health
insurance, voluntary cooperative or commercial programs developed,
offering limited benefits to group or individual subscribers. Blue Cross
and Blue Shield, the largest such insurers, covering hospital care and
doctors' fees respectively, are community-sponsored, nonprofit agencies.
In 1965 the federal government established two plans: Medicare, for
persons age 65 and over, providing basic hospital insurance and
supplementary insurance for doctors' and other health-care bills; and
Medicaid, for low-income persons, operated by the states and covering
hospital, physician, and other services. The U.S. is the only Western
industrial nation without some form of comprehensive national health
insurance.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Health Maintenance Organization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Health Maintenance Organization%@AE@%%@CR:HEALTH.NIZATIO  @%%@QR:Health Maintenance Organization@% (HMO), type of prepaid medical service in%@EH@%
which members pay a monthly or yearly fee for all health care, including
hospitalization. Most HMOs involve physicians engaged in group practice.
Because costs to patients are fixed in advance, preventive medicine is
stressed to avoid costly hospitalization. At the end of 1986, there were
595 HMOs in the U.S. serving 23.5 million subscribers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heaney, Seamus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heaney, Seamus%@AE@%%@CR:HEANEY          @%%@QR:Heaney, Seamus@%, 1939-, Northern Irish poet. Rooted in his own life and in%@EH@%
that of Ireland, balanced between the personal and the topical, Heaney's
carefully crafted poems are extremely evocative, yet clear and direct.
His volumes of verse include %@AI@%North%@AE@% (1975), %@AI@%Field Work%@AE@% (1979), and %@AI@%Station
%@AI@%Island%@AE@% (1985). Many of his critical and autobiographical pieces in prose
were collected in %@AI@%Preoccupations%@AE@% (1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hearing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hearing%@AE@%:%@CR:HEARING         @%%@QR:hearing@% see %@AU@%EAR%@BO:          2bae06@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hearn, Lafcadio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hearn, Lafcadio%@AE@%,%@CR:HEARN           @%%@QR:Hearn, Lafcadio@% 1850-1904, American author; b. Ionian Islands; came to%@EH@%
U.S., 1869. Partially blind and discontented, he wrote about the macabre
and exotic, e.g., %@AI@%Stray Leaves from Strange Literature%@AE@% (1884). In 1890 he
went to Japan, where he became a citizen and wrote 12 books.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hearne, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hearne, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:HEARNE          @%%@QR:Hearne, Samuel@% 1745-92, British fur trader and explorer of N Canada.%@EH@%
Working for the %@AU@%HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY%@BO:          45078d@%%@AE@%, he explored the Coppermine River
area in 1770. He opened up unknown territory and proved that there was no
short %@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hearst, William Randolph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hearst, William Randolph%@AE@%,%@CR:HEARST          @%%@QR:Hearst, William Randolph@% 1863-1951, American journalist and publisher;%@EH@%
b. San Francisco. During his lifetime Hearst established a vast
publishing empire that included 18 newspapers in 12 cities and 9
successful magazines (including %@AI@%Good Housekeeping%@AE@% and %@AI@%Harper's Bazaar%@AE@%).
His use of flamboyant pictures, shrieking typography, and mass-appeal
news coverage, together with a policy of buying distinctive talent from
other papers and selling papers at a penny, made him the leader in "penny
journalism" by 1900. His papers' wild reports of Cuba's struggle for
independence from Spain helped bring about the %@AU@%SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR%@BO:          8d0a1a@%%@AE@%. A
flamboyant figure, he later in life became stridently conservative. His
huge castle at San Simeon, Calif., is now a state museum.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heart%@AE@%,%@CR:HEART1          @%%@QR:heart@% muscular organ that pumps blood to all parts of the body. The%@EH@%
pear-shaped human heart is about the size of a fist and lies just left of
center within the chest cavity. The contractions of heart muscle, or
myocardium, are entirely self-stimulated. The heart is divided into two
cavities by a wall of muscle; each cavity is divided in turn into two
chambers, the upper ones called atria, the lower ones ventricles. Blood
from the veins, high in carbon dioxide but low in oxygen, returns to the
right atrium. It enters the right ventricle, which contracts, pumping the
blood through the pulmonary artery to the %@AU@%LUNGS%@BO:          57e24d@%%@AE@%. Blood rich in oxygen and
poor in carbon dioxide returns from the lungs to the left atrium and
enters the left ventricle, which contracts, forcing the blood into the
aorta, from which it is distributed throughout the body. The blood is
prevented from backing up by a series of valves. See %@AU@%CIRCULATORY SYSTEM%@BO:          1e85bb@%%@AE@%;
see also %@AU@%CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE%@BO:          237d8d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TRANSPLANTATION, MEDICAL%@BO:          976ffa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heart, artificial%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heart, artificial%@AE@%,%@CR:HEART2          @%%@QR:heart, artificial@% an external or surgically implanted mechanical device%@EH@%
designed to replace a patient's diseased heart. The first one used on a
human being, the Jarvik-7, was implanted (1972) in Dr. Barney Clark, who
lived for 112 days. Another patient, William Schroeder, lived 620 days.
By 1989, the device had become a bridge to human heart transplants and
major funding for a possible long-term artificial heart had stopped. See
also %@AU@%TRANSPLANTATION, MEDICAL%@BO:          976ffa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heart disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heart disease%@AE@%,%@CR:HEART.DISEASE   @%%@QR:heart disease@% any of several abnormalities of the %@AU@%HEART%@BO:          40ef87@%%@AE@% and its function%@EH@%
in maintaining blood circulation. Among the most common causes of heart
disease are %@AU@%BIRTH DEFECTS%@BO:          1026a9@%%@AE@% of the heart; infectious diseases, such as
%@AU@%RHEUMATIC FEVER%@BO:          7eb95d@%%@AE@%; degenerative changes due to %@AU@%CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE%@BO:          237d8d@%%@AE@%; and
%@AU@%HYPERTENSION%@BO:          461f08@%%@AE@%. These and other forms of cardiovascular disease, alone or
in combination, can lead to congestive heart failure, a condition in
which the heart cannot pump sufficient blood to meet the demands of the
body. The various forms of heart disease may also cause disturbances in
normal heartbeat, called arrhythmias.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heart-lung machine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heart-lung machine%@AE@%,%@CR:HEARTLUNE       @%%@QR:heart-lung machine@% device that maintains the circulation and oxygen%@EH@%
content of the %@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% when connected with the arteriovenous system. Used
in open-heart surgery to bypass the %@AU@%CIRCULATORY SYSTEM%@BO:          1e85bb@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%HEART%@BO:          40ef87@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%LUNGS%@BO:          57e24d@%%@AE@%, the oxygenator repeatedly draws off blood from the veins,
reoxygenates it, and pumps it into the arterial system.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heat%@AE@%,%@CR:HEAT            @%%@QR:heat@% internal %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@% of a substance, associated with the positions and%@EH@%
motions of its component molecules, atoms, and ions. The average kinetic
energy of the molecules or atoms, which is due to their motions, is
measured by the %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@% of the substance; the potential energy is
associated with the state, or phase, of the substance (see %@AU@%STATES OF
%@AU@%MATTER%@BO:          8e616d@%%@AE@%). Heat energy is commonly expressed in %@AU@%CALORIES%@BO:          176748@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BRITISH THERMAL
%@AU@%UNITS%@BO:          1413c9@%%@AE@% (Btu), or joules (see %@AU@%WORK%@BO:          a320e8@%%@AE@%). Heat maybe transferred from one
substance to another by three means: %@AU@%CONDUCTION%@BO:          21d297@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CONVECTION%@BO:          22efa6@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%RADIATION%@BO:          7c1c4c@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%HEAT CAPACITY%@BO:          410177@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SPECIFIC HEAT%@BO:          8d4a75@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%THERMODYNAMICS%@BO:          94e3ba@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heat capacity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heat capacity%@AE@%%@CR:HEAT.CAPACITY   @%%@QR:heat capacity@% or %@AB@%thermal capacity,%@AE@%ratio of the change in %@AU@%HEAT%@BO:          40fcdf@%%@AE@% energy of a%@EH@%
unit mass of a substance to the change in %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@% of the substance.
The heat capacity is a characteristic of a substance; it is often
expressed in %@AU@%CALORIES%@BO:          176748@%%@AE@% per gram per degree Celsius or %@AU@%BRITISH THERMAL
%@AU@%UNITS%@BO:          1413c9@%%@AE@% per pound per degree Fahrenheit. See also %@AU@%SPECIFIC HEAT%@BO:          8d4a75@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heath, Edward Richard George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heath, Edward Richard George%@AE@%,%@CR:HEATH1          @%%@QR:Heath, Edward Richard George@% 1916-, British statesman. A Conservative,%@EH@%
he was prime minister from 1970 to 1974. His attempts to reduce soaring
inflation by enforcing wage controls led to bad relations with the trade
unions and a confrontation with the miners' union (Nov. 1973-Feb. 1974)
that forced the nation into a three-day workweek. In 1975 Heath
relinquished party leadership to Margaret %@AU@%THATCHER%@BO:          948b6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heath%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heath%@AE@%,%@CR:HEATH2          @%%@QR:heath@% common name for some plants of the family Ericaceae, composed%@EH@%
chiefly of evergreen shrubs native to the Old World. Heaths form the
characteristic vegetation of many regions with acid soils, particularly
moors, swamps, and mountain slopes. They are valued for their edible
fruit, e.g., %@AU@%BLUEBERRY%@BO:          111c12@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRANBERRY%@BO:          2449b8@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HUCKLEBERRY%@BO:          44f80c@%%@AE@%; as a source of
flavoring, e.g., %@AU@%WINTERGREEN%@BO:          a263d7@%%@AE@%; and for their showy blossoms, e.g.,
%@AU@%RHODODENDRON%@BO:          7ee2d5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AZALEA%@BO:           a7537@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TRAILING ARBUTUS%@BO:          973641@%%@AE@%. The names %@AI@%heath%@AE@% and %@AI@%heather%@AE@%
are often used interchangeably, although true heaths (genus %@AI@%Erica%@AE@%) have
needlelike foliage and white, rose, or yellow flowers, and heathers, such
as the common heather of Scotland (%@AI@%Calluna vulgaris%@AE@%), have scalelike
foliage and rose-colored flowers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heather%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heather%@AE@%:%@CR:HEATHER         @%%@QR:heather@% see %@AU@%HEATH%@BO:          410664@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heaven%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heaven%@AE@%,%@CR:HEAVEN          @%%@QR:heaven@% in Judaeo-Christian belief, the state of bliss in which the just%@EH@%
see God face to face. Many Christians believe that after the %@AU@%RESURRECTION%@BO:          7e7e9d@%%@AE@%
the glorified human body will be reunited forever with the soul in
heaven, a realm popularly thought to contain material delights. Islam is
accused of teaching of a heaven filled with delights of the flesh, but
the passages in the Koran describing it may be allegorical.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heavy spar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heavy spar%@AE@%:%@CR:HEAVY.SPAR      @%%@QR:heavy spar@% see %@AU@%BARITE%@BO:           c399f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heavy water%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heavy water%@AE@%:%@CR:HEAVY.WATER     @%%@QR:heavy water@% see %@AU@%HYDROGEN%@BO:          45f01f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebbel, Christian Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebbel, Christian Friedrich%@AE@%%@CR:HEBBEL          @%%@QR:Hebbel, Christian Friedrich@%, 1813-63, German tragic dramatist. Linking%@EH@%
romantic and realist drama, his plays often portray the struggle between
old and new values. They include %@AI@%Judith%@AE@% (1840), %@AI@%Maria Magdalena%@AE@% (1844),
%@AI@%Agnes Bernauer%@AE@% (1852), and the trilogy %@AI@%The Nibelungs%@AE@% (1862).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebe%@AE@%%@CR:HEBE            @%%@QR:Hebe@%, in Greek religion, goddess of youth; daughter of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HERA%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
wife of %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebert, Jacques Rene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebert, Jacques Rene%@AE@%%@CR:HEBERT1         @%%@QR:Hebert, Jacques Rene@%, 1757-94, French revolutionary. The editor of a%@EH@%
virulent paper, %@AI@%Le Pere Duchesne,%@AE@% he led the %@AU@%CORDELIERS%@BO:          234185@%%@AE@% after %@AU@%MARAT'S%@BO:          5b5cee@%%@AE@%
death. He was largely responsible for the price ceilings during the %@AU@%REIGN
%@AU@%OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@%. His power over the Paris commune threatened %@AU@%ROBESPIERRE%@BO:          7fb6dc@%%@AE@%, who
had him and his followers guillotined on a concocted charge of
conspiracy. His fall marked the triumph of the propertied middle class.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebert, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebert, Louis%@AE@%,%@CR:HEBERT2         @%%@QR:Hebert, Louis@% 1575-1627, French Canadian pioneer. In 1623 he became the%@EH@%
first permanent settler and farmer in Canada, settling at the site of
Upper Town, %@AU@%QUEBEC%@BO:          7bac2d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebrew language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebrew language%@AE@%,%@CR:HEBREW.LANGUAGE @%%@QR:Hebrew language@% member of the Canaanite group of the Semitic subdivision%@EH@%
of the Hamito-Semitic family of languages. In 1948 it became the official
language of Israel. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebrews%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebrews%@AE@%.%@CR:HEBREWS1        @%%@QR:Hebrews@% For history, see %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%; for religion, see %@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebrews%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebrews%@AE@%,%@CR:HEBREWS2        @%%@QR:Hebrews@% epistle of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, 19th book in the usual order,%@EH@%
traditionally ascribed to St. %@AU@%PAUL%@BO:          721b97@%%@AE@%; few modern scholars accept his
authorship. It was written before AD 96. Most modern scholars feel it is
addressed to Christians lapsing into indifference. The first part
(1.1-4.13) argues Christ's superiority to the angels and to %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@%; the
second (4.14-10.18) treats Christ's ministry and sacrifice, which
supersedes all other sacrifices and serves to expiate sin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebrides, the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebrides, the%@AE@%,%@CR:HEBRIDES        @%%@QR:Hebrides, the@% group of more than 500 islands, W and NW Scotland. Less%@EH@%
than a fifth of the islands are inhabited. They form two groups: the
Outer Hebrides (known administratively as the Western Isles) and the
Inner Hebrides, including %@AU@%SKYE%@BO:          89eeb3@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%IONA%@BO:          492f9a@%%@AE@%. The main economic activities are
fishing, farming, sheep-grazing, and the manufacture of tweeds and other
woolens. The islands were ruled by the Norwegians (8th-13th cent.) and by
Scottish chiefs (13th-16th cent.) until they were acquired by the
Scottish crown.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hebron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hebron%@AE@%,%@CR:HEBRON          @%%@QR:Hebron@% city (1971 est. pop. 43,000, Jordan, on the %@AU@%WEST BANK%@BO:          a09c00@%%@AE@%, near%@EH@%
Jerusalem. Grapes, grains, and vegetables are grown in the area, and the
main industries include tanning, food processing, and glass blowing.
According to the Bible, the cave of Machpelah in Hebron is the burial
place of %@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@% and his family, and the city was King %@AU@%DAVID'S%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% capital
for seven years. Hebron has been occupied by Israel since the 1967
%@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WAR%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hecate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hecate%@AE@%,%@CR:HECATE          @%%@QR:Hecate@% in Greek mythology, goddess of ghosts and witchcraft. An%@EH@%
attendant of %@AU@%PERSEPHONE%@BO:          739443@%%@AE@%, she was a spirit of black magic, able to conjure
up dreams and the spirits of the dead. She haunted graveyards and
crossroads.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hecht, Ben%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hecht, Ben%@AE@%,%@CR:HECHT           @%%@QR:Hecht, Ben@% 1894-1964, American writer; b. N.Y.C. A controversial figure,%@EH@%
he worked on Chicago newspapers and in the film industry in Hollywood. He
wrote novels, stories, and plays. His best-known work, written with
Charles MacArthur, is %@AI@%The Front Page%@AE@% (1928), an irreverent drama of
newspaper life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hecker, Isaac Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hecker, Isaac Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HECKER          @%%@QR:Hecker, Isaac Thomas@% 1819-88, American Roman Catholic priest, founder of%@EH@%
the Paulist Fathers; b. N.Y.C. He was converted (1844) to Roman
Catholicism and ordained (1849) a Redemptorist priest. A successful
missionary, he worked among immigrants in the U.S. In 1858 he founded the
Paulist Fathers, a society of missionary priests, and their magazine,
%@AI@%Catholic World.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hector%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hector%@AE@%,%@CR:HECTOR          @%%@QR:Hector@% in Greek mythology, greatest Trojan hero of the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
eldest son of Priam and %@AU@%HECUBA%@BO:          412808@%%@AE@%, and husband of Andromache. In %@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Iliad%@AE@% he was killed by %@AU@%ACHILLES%@BO:            b6d3@%%@AE@% in revenge for the death of Patroclus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hecuba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hecuba%@AE@%,%@CR:HECUBA          @%%@QR:Hecuba@% in Greek mythology, queen of %@AU@%TROY%@BO:          981d40@%%@AE@%; wife of Priam, to whom she%@EH@%
bore 19 children including %@AU@%HECTOR%@BO:          41262a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          7146d2@%%@AE@%, Troilus, and %@AU@%CASSANDRA%@BO:          19bb2d@%%@AE@%. After
the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@% she was taken as a slave by %@AU@%ODYSSEUS%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@%. She is an important
character in %@AU@%EURIPIDES'%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@% plays %@AI@%Hecuba%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Trojan Women.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hedgehog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hedgehog%@AE@%,%@CR:HEDGEHOG        @%%@QR:hedgehog@% usually brown or yellow Old World %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the family%@EH@%
Erinaceidae, related to %@AU@%MOLES%@BO:          624ace@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SHREWS%@BO:          88a025@%%@AE@%. Spiny hedgehogs, of Africa and
Eurasia, are covered with stiff spines; they can roll into a ball when
attacked, becoming invulnerable to predators. The European hedgehog
(%@AI@%Erinaceus eropaeus%@AE@%) is nocturnal, living in a burrow (often in
hedgerows) and hibernating in winter. It is about 9 in. (23 cm) in
length. Like a hog, it roots in the ground for food; it eats worms,
insects, mice, frogs, and poisonous snakes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hedonism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hedonism%@AE@%,%@CR:HEDONISM        @%%@QR:hedonism@% in philosophy, the doctrine that pleasure is the highest good.%@EH@%
Ancient hedonism equated pleasure variously with the gratification of
sensual desire (as in the teaching of Aristippus and the Cyreniacs,
c.435-360 BC) and with the intellectual serenity brought on by the
rational control of desire (as in the teaching of %@AU@%EPICURUS%@BO:          2f629a@%%@AE@%). Modern
British hedonism, expressed first in %@AU@%UTILITARIANISM%@BO:          9b46d8@%%@AE@%, represents a social
universalism, stressing that the aim of life is the greatest happiness
for the greatest number.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich%@AE@%,%@CR:HEGEL           @%%@QR:Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich@% 1770-1831, German philosopher. His%@EH@%
all-embracing philosophical system, set forth in such works as
%@AI@%Phenomenology of Mind%@AE@% (1807), %@AI@%Science of Logic%@AE@% (1812-16), and
%@AI@%Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences%@AE@% (1817), includes theories of
ethics, aesthetics, history, politics, and religion. At the center of the
universe Hegel posited an enveloping absolute spirit that guides all
reality, including human reason. His absolute %@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@% envisages a
world-soul, evident throughout history, that develops from, and is known
through, a process of change and progress now known universally as the
Hegelian dialectic. According to its laws, one concept (thesis)
inevitably generates its opposite (antithesis); their interaction leads
to a new concept (synthesis), which in turn becomes the thesis of a new
triad. Thus philosophy enables human beings to comprehend the historical
unfolding of the absolute. Hegel's application of the dialectic to the
concept of conflict of cultures stimulated historical analysis and, in
the political arena, made him a hero to those working for a unified
Germany. He was a major influence on subsequent idealist thinkers and on
such philosophers as %@AU@%KIERKEGAARD%@BO:          4f8884@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SARTRE%@BO:          84ab54@%%@AE@%; perhaps his most
far-reaching effect was his influence on Karl %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@%, who substituted
materialism for idealism in his formulation of %@AU@%DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM%@BO:          289f2f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hegira%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hegira%@AE@%%@CR:HEGIRA          @%%@QR:hegira@% or %@AB@%hejira%@AE@% [Arab. %@AI@%hijra,%@AE@%=breaking off of relations], flight of the%@EH@%
Prophet %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64eaab@%%@AE@% in Sept. 622 from his native city, %@AU@%MECCA%@BO:          5de8a1@%%@AE@% (because of its
hostility), to Yathrib (later renamed %@AU@%MEDINA%@BO:          5e3244@%%@AE@%). The Muslim era is dated
from the first day of the lunar year in which the hegira took place. The
abbreviation AH is used before years of the hegira, as AD is in
Christendom.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heiberg, Johan Ludvig%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heiberg, Johan Ludvig%@AE@%%@CR:HEIBERG         @%%@QR:Heiberg, Johan Ludvig@%, 1791-1860, Danish dramatist, critic, and director%@EH@%
of the National Theater. He composed many musical comedies, and his play
%@AI@%The Hill of the Elves%@AE@% (1829) is still often performed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heidegger, Martin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heidegger, Martin%@AE@%,%@CR:HEIDEGGER       @%%@QR:Heidegger, Martin@% 1889-1976, German philosopher. A student of %@AU@%HUSSERL%@BO:          45a95a@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
whom Heidegger succeeded as professor of philosophy at Freiburg, he was
also influenced by %@AU@%KIERKEGAARD%@BO:          4f8884@%%@AE@%, Dilthey, and %@AU@%NIETZSCHE%@BO:          69fce1@%%@AE@%. Heidegger's
analysis in his major work, %@AI@%Being and Time%@AE@% (1927), of the concepts of
"care," "mood," and the individual's relationship to death, relates
authenticity of being as well as the anguish of modern society to the
individual's confrontation with his own temporality. Although he rejected
the title, Heidegger is regarded as one of the founders of 20th-cent.
%@AU@%EXISTENTIALISM%@BO:          311d9f@%%@AE@%, and he influenced the work of %@AU@%SARTRE%@BO:          84ab54@%%@AE@%. His later work
included studies of poetry and of dehumanization in modern society.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heidelberg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heidelberg%@AE@%,%@CR:HEIDELBERG      @%%@QR:Heidelberg@% city (1986 est. pop. 135,800), Baden-Wurttemberg, SW West%@EH@%
Germany, on the Neckar R. Its manufactures include printing presses and
precision instruments. First mentioned in the 12th cent., it was the
residence of the electors and capital of the %@AU@%PALATINATE%@BO:          702e0e@%%@AE@% until the 18th
cent. Its famous university (est. 1386) is the oldest in Germany. Since
1952 the city has been the headquarters of the U.S. army in Europe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heidenstam, Verner von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heidenstam, Verner von%@AE@%%@CR:HEIDENSTAM      @%%@QR:Heidenstam, Verner von@%, 1859-1940, Swedish lyric poet. An opponent of%@EH@%
%@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@%, he was noted for his personal and subjective style, e.g.,
%@AI@%Pilgrimage and Wander years%@AE@% (1888) and %@AI@%Poems%@AE@% (1895). Other works include
historical novels, e.g., %@AI@%The Tree of the Folkungs%@AE@% (1905-17), and essays,
e.g., "Renascence" (1889). He received the 1916 Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heifetz, Jascha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heifetz, Jascha%@AE@%,%@CR:HEIFETZ         @%%@QR:Heifetz, Jascha@% 1901-87, Russian-American violinist; b. Lithuania. A%@EH@%
child prodigy in Europe, he emigrated (1917) to the U.S., becoming a
greater artist in maturity. He combined reasoned interpretation with
virtuoso technique.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heilbroner, Robert L.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heilbroner, Robert L.%@AE@%,%@CR:HEILBRONER      @%%@QR:Heilbroner, Robert L.@% 1929-, American economist; b. N.Y.C. He has%@EH@%
successfully popularized economics and explained economic theory to the
layreader. His works include %@AI@%The Worldly Philosophers%@AE@% (1953), %@AI@%The Limits
%@AI@%of American Capitalism%@AE@% (1966), and %@AI@%The Nature and Logic of Capitalism%@AE@%
(1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heimlich maneuver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heimlich maneuver%@AE@%,%@CR:HEIMLICER       @%%@QR:Heimlich maneuver@% emergency procedure used to treat choking victims%@EH@%
whose airway is obstructed by food or another substance. It forces air
from the lungs through the windpipe, pushing the obstruction out. If the
victim is standing, the rescuer wraps his (or her) arms around the
victim's waist; making a fist with one hand and placing the thumb side of
the fist against the abdomen just above the navel, the rescuer grasps his
fist with the other hand and presses in with firm, quick, upward thrusts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heine, Heinrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heine, Heinrich%@AE@%%@CR:HEINE           @%%@QR:Heine, Heinrich@%, 1797-1856, German poet. His early poems, e.g., %@AI@%Book of%@EH@%
%@AI@%Songs%@AE@% (1827), established him as a romantic, and his travel sketches,
beginning with %@AI@%Harz Journey%@AE@% (1826), reveal a mixture of poignant emotion
and barbed wit. A supporter of the social ideals of the %@AU@%FRENCH
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%, he left Germany for Paris in 1831. From there he continued to
disseminate French revolutionary ideas in Germany and was the leading
figure in the literary movement Young Germany. Heine worked in Paris as a
correspondent for German newspapers and died there after years of severe
illness. His lyrics have been used in some 3,000 compositions by
%@AU@%SCHUMANN%@BO:          85c058@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCHUBERT%@BO:          85b3ce@%%@AE@%, and many others; his best-known song is "Die
Lorelei." His later verse satires %@AI@%Atta Troll%@AE@% (1843) and %@AI@%Deutschland%@AE@%
(1844) reflect his reaction, as a German of Jewish descent, to German
anti-Semitism. Virtually all his work has been translated into English.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heisenberg, Werner%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heisenberg, Werner%@AE@%,%@CR:HEISENBERG      @%%@QR:Heisenberg, Werner@% 1901-76, German physicist. A founder of the %@AU@%QUANTUM%@EH@%
%@AU@%THEORY%@BO:          7b8379@%%@AE@%, he is famous for his uncertainty principle, which states that it
is impossible to determine both the position and momentum of a subatomic
particle (such as the electron) with arbitrarily high accuracy. The
effect of this principle is to convert the laws of physics into
statements about relative, instead of absolute, certainties. Heisenberg's
matrix mechanics, a form of the quantum theory, was shown to be
equivalent to Erwin %@AU@%SCHRODINGER'S%@BO:          85b1d1@%%@AE@% wave mechanics. Heisenberg received the
1932 Nobel Prize in physics for his work in nuclear physics and quantum
theory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hekla%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hekla%@AE@%%@CR:HEKLA           @%%@QR:Hekla@%, active volcano, c.4,900 ft (1,490 m) high, SW Iceland, on the%@EH@%
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Hekla regularly emits steam and has several craters.
The most destructive known eruption occurred in 1766; a recent one
happened in 1947.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helen%@AE@%,%@CR:HELEN           @%%@QR:Helen@% in Greek mythology, the most beautiful of women; daughter of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and %@AU@%LEDA%@BO:          535750@%%@AE@%, sister of %@AU@%CLYTEMNESTRA%@BO:          1fa977@%%@AE@% and of %@AU@%CASTOR AND POLLUX%@BO:          19ee7f@%%@AE@%. Courted by
many suitors, she married %@AU@%MENELAUS%@BO:          5eaca6@%%@AE@%. When %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          7146d2@%%@AE@% awarded the apple of
discord to %@AU@%APHRODITE%@BO:           6a3b4@%%@AE@%, the goddess gave him Helen; he carried her off to
Troy, precipitating the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%. After the war she returned to Sparta
with Menelaus, by whom she bore Hermione.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helena, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helena, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:HELENA1         @%%@QR:Helena, Saint@% c.248-328?, mother of %@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@%. Converted to%@EH@%
Christianity in 313, she is said to have discovered the True Cross and
the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Feast: Aug. 18.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helena%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helena%@AE@%,%@CR:HELENA2         @%%@QR:Helena@% city (1986 est. pop. 24,670), state capital and seat of Lewis and%@EH@%
Clark co., W central Mont., on the eastern slope of the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL
%@AU@%DIVIDE%@BO:          22e092@%%@AE@%; inc. 1870. A commercial center in a ranching and mining area, its
manufactures include machine parts and paints. Helena's main street is
the site of Last Chance Gulch, where gold was discovered in 1864.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%helicopter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%helicopter%@AE@%,%@CR:HELICOPTER      @%%@QR:helicopter@% type of aircraft in which the lift is obtained by means of%@EH@%
one or more power-driven horizontal propellers called rotors. In a
single-rotor helicopter the reaction torque from the spinning rotor is
compensated by a small vertical rotor near the tail. On twin-rotor craft
the rotors spin in opposite directions so that their reaction torques
cancel each other. The helicopter is steered in any direction by
inclining the axis of the main rotor in that direction. Because of its
maneuverability and ability to land and take off in small areas, the
helicopter is used in warfare and in a wide range of services, e.g.,
air-sea rescue, fire fighting, crop sowing, and traffic control. See
%@AU@%SIKORSKY%@BO:          891400@%%@AE@%, Igor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heliocentric system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heliocentric system%@AE@%:%@CR:HELIOCESTEM     @%%@QR:heliocentric system@% see %@AU@%COPERNICAN SYSTEM%@BO:          2315e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heliopolis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heliopolis%@AE@%%@CR:HELIOPOLIS      @%%@QR:Heliopolis@% [Gr.,=city of the sun], ancient city, N %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%, in the Nile%@EH@%
delta, 6 mi (10 km) below Cairo. It was the center of sun worship, and
its god %@AU@%RA%@BO:          7be2c1@%%@AE@% or Re was the state deity until %@AU@%THEBES%@BO:          94aa0e@%%@AE@% became the capital
(c.2100 BC), when the gods %@AU@%AMON%@BO:           4d29f@%%@AE@% and Ra were combined as Amon-Ra. Its
famous schools declined after the founding of Alexandria (332 BC)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helios%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helios%@AE@%%@CR:HELIOS1         @%%@QR:Helios@%, in Greek mythology, the sun god; son of the %@AU@%TITANS%@BO:          960a77@%%@AE@% Hyperion and%@EH@%
Theia; father of %@AU@%PHAETHON%@BO:          745b7e@%%@AE@%. Each morning he left a palace in the east and
crossed the sky in a golden chariot, then returned along the river
Oceanus. He was a national god in Rhodes, where a %@AU@%COLOSSUS%@BO:          20a904@%%@AE@% represented
him. In Rome, he was known as Sol and was an important god.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helios%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helios%@AE@%,%@CR:HELIOS2         @%%@QR:Helios@% in space exploration: see %@AU@%SPACE PROBE%@BO:          8ca220@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heliotrope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heliotrope%@AE@%,%@CR:HELIOTROPE      @%%@QR:heliotrope@% in mineralogy: see %@AU@%BLOODSTONE%@BO:          110a9c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%helium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%helium%@AE@%%@CR:HELIUM          @%%@QR:helium@% (He), gaseous element, first observed spectroscopically in the %@AU@%SUN%@BO:          90aa28@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
during a solar eclipse in 1868. Its noncombustibility and buoyancy make
this extremely unreactive, %@AU@%INERT GAS%@BO:          47f9ba@%%@AE@% the most suitable of gases for
%@AU@%BALLOONS%@BO:           b8ced@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%AIRSHIPS%@BO:           26d33@%%@AE@%. Deep-sea divers often breathe a helium-and-oxygen
mixture; because helium is less soluble in human blood than nitrogen, its
use reduces the risk of the bends (see %@AU@%DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS%@BO:          27432a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%DIVING,
%@AU@%DEEP-SEA%@BO:          29816e@%%@AE@%). Liquid helium is essential for low-temperature work (see
%@AU@%LOW-TEMPERATURE PHYSICS%@BO:          57939a@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SUPERFLUIDITY%@BO:          90d57f@%%@AE@%). Helium is also used in arc
welding and gas-discharge lasers. Abundant in outer space, helium is the
end product of fusion processes in %@AU@%STARS%@BO:          8e38c5@%%@AE@%. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hell%@AE@%,%@CR:HELL            @%%@QR:hell@% in Christian theology, eternal abode of those damned by God. Souls%@EH@%
in hell are led by %@AU@%SATAN%@BO:          84bfa4@%%@AE@% and deprived forever of the sight of God. In
legend it is a place of fire and brimstone, where the damned undergo
physical torment. Islam has a similar hell. In the ancient Jewish Sheol
or Tophet, souls wander about unhappily, but Sheol later became much like
the Christian hell. The ancient Greeks believed souls went to an
underworld called Hades.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helladic culture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helladic culture%@AE@%:%@CR:HELLADIE        @%%@QR:Helladic culture@% see %@AU@%MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          65cb03@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hellen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hellen%@AE@%,%@CR:HELLEN          @%%@QR:Hellen@% in Greek mythology, ancestor of the Hellenes, or Greeks; son of%@EH@%
%@AU@%DEUCALION%@BO:          28638d@%%@AE@% and Pyrrha. His sons Dorus, Xuthus, and Aeolus were the
progenitors of the principal Greek nations-the %@AU@%DORIANS%@BO:          2a35cf@%%@AE@%, Ionians, Achaeans
(see under %@AU@%ACHAEA%@BO:            ad69@%%@AE@%), and Aeolians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hellenism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hellenism%@AE@%,%@CR:HELLENISM       @%%@QR:Hellenism@% the culture, ideals and pattern of life of classical Greece,%@EH@%
especially of Athens during the age of %@AU@%PERICLES%@BO:          7355f8@%%@AE@%; also, later thought and
writing drawing on these ideals. It is often contrasted with austere,
monotheistic Hebraism. The Hellenic period ended in the 4th cent. BC and
was followed by %@AU@%HELLENISTIC CIVILIZATION%@BO:          416f8e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hellenistic civilization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hellenistic civilization%@AE@%,%@CR:HELLENIN        @%%@QR:Hellenistic civilization@% spread of %@AU@%HELLENISM%@BO:          416d74@%%@AE@% through the Mediterranean%@EH@%
and Near East and into Asia after %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% conquests. While
the Greek city-states stagnated, their culture flourished elsewhere,
notably at %@AU@%ALEXANDRIA%@BO:           36971@%%@AE@%. The city's influence on art, letters, and commerce
was so great that the era is sometimes called the Alexandrian age.
%@AU@%PERGAMUM%@BO:          735264@%%@AE@% and other cities were also important. Navigators extended the
known world and commercial wealth was reflected in ornate, grandiose
architecture. Social divisions were extreme, but education was more
widespread than ever before, with Greek the language of culture. A
division between popular and learned writing appeared. The libraries of
Alexandria and Pergamum were great learning centers, and writers like
%@AU@%CALLIMACHUS%@BO:          175cd1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LUCIAN%@BO:          57af1b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%THEOCRITUS%@BO:          94b2ac@%%@AE@% flourished. Philosophical disputation
abounded, with %@AU@%STOICISM%@BO:          8f364c@%%@AE@% and Epicureanism (see %@AU@%EPICURUS%@BO:          2f629a@%%@AE@%) especially
important. The highest achievement of the age may have been the
preservation of Greek culture for the Romans. As Rome overshadowed the
Mediterranean world, Hellenistic civilization was absorbed rather than
extinguished.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heller, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heller, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:HELLER1         @%%@QR:Heller, Joseph@% 1923-, American writer; b. Brooklyn, N.Y. He is best%@EH@%
known for the novel %@AI@%Catch-22%@AE@% (1961), a wildly comic tale of military
absurdities. He has also written a play and the novels %@AI@%Something Happened%@AE@%
(1974) and %@AI@%God Knows%@AE@% (1984).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heller, Walter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heller, Walter%@AE@%,%@CR:HELLER2         @%%@QR:Heller, Walter@% 1915-87, American economist; b. Buffalo, N.Y. Professor%@EH@%
at the Univ. of Minnesota since 1946, he was chairman (1961-64) of the
Council of Economic Advisers under Pres. J.F. %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@% and consultant to
Pres. L.B. %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4ccc58@%%@AE@% until 1969. He advocated deficit spending to spur
economic growth, and federal revenue sharing with the states. His
writings include %@AI@%Monetary vs. Fiscal Policy%@AE@% (1969; with Milton %@AU@%FRIEDMAN%@BO:          366773@%%@AE@%)
and %@AI@%The Economy%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hellman, Lillian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hellman, Lillian%@AE@%,%@CR:HELLMAN         @%%@QR:Hellman, Lillian@% 1905-84, American dramatist; b. New Orleans. Her finely%@EH@%
crafted plays include %@AI@%The Children's Hour%@AE@% (1934), %@AI@%The Little Foxes%@AE@%
(1939), and %@AI@%Watch on the Rhine%@AE@% (1941). She is also noted for her
autobiographical works, e.g., %@AI@%An Unfinished Woman%@AE@% (1969), %@AI@%Pentimento%@AE@%
(1973), %@AI@%Scoundrel Time%@AE@% (1976).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von%@AE@%,%@CR:HELMHOLTZ       @%%@QR:Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von@% 1821-94, German scientist. An%@EH@%
investigator of thermodynamics, electrodynamics, and vortex motion in
fluids, he extended the application of the law of conservation of energy
and in 1847 formulated it mathematically. A pioneer in physiological
optics, Helmholtz invented (1851) the ophthalmoscope. He was professor of
physics at the Univ. of Berlin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helmont, Jan Baptista van%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helmont, Jan Baptista van%@AE@%,%@CR:HELMONT         @%%@QR:Helmont, Jan Baptista van@% 1577-1644, Flemish physician, chemist, and%@EH@%
physicist. He attributed physiological changes to chemical causes, but
his work was colored by his belief in mysticism. He introduced the term
%@AI@%gas%@AE@% in its present scientific sense and discovered carbon dioxide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helms, Richard McGarrah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helms, Richard McGarrah%@AE@%,%@CR:HELMS           @%%@QR:Helms, Richard McGarrah@% 1913-, U.S. government official; b. St. David's,%@EH@%
Pa. Helms was a chief architect of the legislation creating (1947) the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and served (1966-73) as the agency's
director. He was (1973-77) ambassador to Iran. In 1977 Helms pleaded no
contest to charges of failing to testify fully and accurately to a Senate
committee about covert CIA activities in Chile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%helots%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%helots%@AE@%:%@CR:HELOTS          @%%@QR:helots@% see %@AU@%SPARTA%@BO:          8d347b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helpmann, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helpmann, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:HELPMANN        @%%@QR:Helpmann, Robert@% 1909-, Australian dancer and choreographer. He danced%@EH@%
(from 1933) with Sadler's Wells Ballet (now the Royal Ballet), often with
Margot %@AU@%FONTEYN%@BO:          343291@%%@AE@%. His works include %@AI@%Comus%@AE@% (1942) and %@AI@%Miracle in the Gorbals%@AE@%
(1944).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helsingoor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helsingoor%@AE@%%@CR:HELSINGOR       @%%@QR:Helsingoor@% or %@AB@%Elsinore,%@AE@%city (1987 est. pop. 56,618), E Denmark, on the%@EH@%
Oresund. It is an industrial center, fishing port, and summer resort.
Known since the 13th cent., it served as a toll port from the 15th to the
18th cent. Kronborg castle (now a maritime museum), the setting of
Shakespeare's %@AI@%Hamlet,%@AE@% is used to stage performances of the play.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Helsinki%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Helsinki%@AE@%,%@CR:HELSINKI        @%%@QR:Helsinki@% city (1986 pop. 487,581), capital of Finland, S Finland, on the%@EH@%
Gulf of Finland. Though blocked by ice from January to May, it is a
natural seaport and the nation's administrative, cultural, and commercial
center, with machine shops, shipyards, and textile mills. Founded in 1550
by %@AU@%GUSTAVUS I%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@% of Sweden, it was devastated by fire in 1808 but was
rebuilt and became the capital in 1812. Its university became (19th
cent.) a center for Finnish nationalist activity against Russian rule.
Landmarks include the railway station (designed by Eliel %@AU@%SAARINEN%@BO:          82a417@%%@AE@%) and
the sports stadium, site of the 1952 %@AU@%OLYMPIC GAMES%@BO:          6d9e8f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hemingway, Ernest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hemingway, Ernest%@AE@%,%@CR:HEMINGWAY       @%%@QR:Hemingway, Ernest@% 1899-1961, one of the great American writers of the%@EH@%
20th cent.; b. Oak Park, Ill. With the publication of his novel %@AI@%The Sun
%@AI@%Also Rises%@AE@% (1926), he was recognized as a leading spokesman of the "lost
generation" of American expatriates in post-World War I Paris. Writing in
a direct, terse style, Hemingway focused on courageous people living
essential, dangerous lives. His other major novels include %@AI@%A Farewell to
%@AI@%Arms%@AE@% (1929), a tragic wartime love story, and %@AI@%For Whom the Bell Tolls%@AE@%
(1940), based on an incident in the %@AU@%SPANISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          8d10f2@%%@AE@%, in which he was a
correspondent. He is also famous for his vigorous short stories, e.g.,
"The Killers" and "The Snows of Kilimanjaro." In 1945 he settled in Cuba,
where he wrote the novella %@AI@%The Old Man and the Sea%@AE@% (1952; Pulitzer). His
other writings include the nonfiction works %@AI@%Death in the Afternoon%@AE@% (1932)
and %@AI@%Green Hills of Africa%@AE@% (1935). In 1954 he was awarded the Nobel Prize
in literature. He later moved to Idaho, where, plagued by illness, he
committed suicide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hemlock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hemlock%@AE@%,%@CR:HEMLOCK         @%%@QR:hemlock@% coniferous evergreen tree (genus %@AI@%Tsuga%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PINE%@BO:          75d24e@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to North America and Asia. The common hemlock of E North America
(%@AI@%T. canadensis%@AE@%) has small cones and short, dark-green leaves that give
the branchlets a flat appearance. It is grown as an ornamental and has
been valued as a source of tanbark. The wood of a Western hemlock (%@AI@%T.
%@AI@%heterophylla%@AE@%) is used for construction. %@AU@%POISON HEMLOCK%@BO:          773f3b@%%@AE@% is an herb of the
%@AU@%CARROT%@BO:          194bab@%%@AE@% family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hemoglobin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hemoglobin%@AE@%,%@CR:HEMOGLOBIN      @%%@QR:hemoglobin@% respiratory pigment found in the red blood cells of all%@EH@%
vertebrates and some invertebrates (see %@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@%). It is produced in the
bone marrow and carries oxygen to the body from the %@AU@%LUNGS%@BO:          57e24d@%%@AE@%. An inadequate
amount of circulating hemoglobin results in a condition called %@AU@%ANEMIA%@BO:           56094@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hemophilia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hemophilia%@AE@%,%@CR:HEMOPHILIA      @%%@QR:hemophilia@% hereditary disorder in which the clotting ability of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% is impaired and excessive bleeding results. The hemophiliac bleeds
uncontrollably after a small cut or bruise, after rigorous exertion, or
even spontaneously, unable to form or maintain a sufficient blood clot
and occasionally needing a %@AU@%BLOOD TRANSFUSION%@BO:          110bf4@%%@AE@% containing the missing
clotting factor. The disease is genetically transmitted through females
but usually affects only males.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hemorrhoids%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hemorrhoids%@AE@%%@CR:HEMORRHOIDS     @%%@QR:hemorrhoids@% or %@AB@%piles,%@AE@%dilation of the veins in or about the anus, often%@EH@%
producing itching, bleeding, and pain. A common disorder associated with
conditions such as constipation, pregnancy, and diarrhea, hemorrhoids can
be treated with warm baths and suppositories; in severe cases, surgery
may be necessary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hemp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hemp%@AE@%,%@CR:HEMP            @%%@QR:hemp@% annual herb (%@AI@%Cannabis sativa%@AE@%) native to Asia and widely cultivated%@EH@%
in Europe. It is often grown for the fiber made from its stems and for
the narcotic drugs hashish and %@AU@%MARIJUANA%@BO:          5bc2ca@%%@AE@%, made primarily from the female
flowers. Of major importance in many kinds of cord, hemp fiber is used in
making paper, cloth, and other products. Hemp seed is used as bird food,
and oil from the seeds is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes,
and soap.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heng Samrin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heng Samrin%@AE@%,%@CR:HENG.SAMRIN     @%%@QR:Heng Samrin@% 1934-, Cambodian Communist leader. In 1979, after the%@EH@%
Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia ousted the regime of %@AU@%POL POT%@BO:          77b77e@%%@AE@% and the
%@AU@%KHMER ROUGE%@BO:          4f5c04@%%@AE@%, Heng became head of the new Vietnamese-backed government in
Phnom Penh. His government has faced continued armed resistance from the
Khmer Rouge and other forces, and has failed to gain widespread
diplomatic recognition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henie, Sonja%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henie, Sonja%@AE@%%@CR:HENIE           @%%@QR:Henie, Sonja@%, 1912-69, Norwegian-American figure skater; b. Norway. Ten%@EH@%
times the world's figure-skating champion, she won Olympic championships
in 1928, 1932, and 1936. She later became a popular professional skater
and movie actress.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henley, William Ernest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henley, William Ernest%@AE@%,%@CR:HENLEY          @%%@QR:Henley, William Ernest@% 1849-1903, English poet, critic, and editor, best%@EH@%
known as the author of the poems "Invictus" and "England, My England." He
also wrote plays with R.L. %@AU@%STEVENSON%@BO:          8f03c6@%%@AE@% and edited literary reviews.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henri, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henri, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRI           @%%@QR:Henri, Robert@% 1865-1929, American painter; b. Cincinnati. A member of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%EIGHT%@BO:          2d0fec@%%@AE@%, he rebelled against academic art and excelled in dramatic
portraits, e.g., %@AI@%Spanish Gypsy%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.) and %@AI@%Young Woman in
%@AI@%Black%@AE@% (Art Inst., Chicago). One of the foremost American art teachers, he
imbued such students as George %@AU@%BELLOWS%@BO:           e2ee3@%%@AE@%, Rockwell %@AU@%KENT%@BO:          4efc5c@%%@AE@%, and Edward %@AU@%HOPPER%@BO:          446194@%%@AE@%
with his dynamic concepts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henrietta Maria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henrietta Maria%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRIETTA.MARIA @%%@QR:Henrietta Maria@% 1609-69, queen consort of %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@% of England, daughter%@EH@%
of %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% of France. Her dealings with the pope, foreign powers, and
army officers increased the suspicion of Charles and fear of a Catholic
uprising that helped to precipitate (1642) the %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY1          @%%@QR:Henry@% rulers of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Henry I%@AE@% or %@AB@%Henry the Fowler,%@AE@%%@EH@%
876?-936, German king (919-36), was the first of the Saxon line,
precursors to the Holy Roman emperors. After succeeding %@AU@%CONRAD I%@BO:          223a10@%%@AE@% as
German king, he won %@AU@%LOTHARINGIA%@BO:          56daf7@%%@AE@% from its allegiance to France (925),
defeated the %@AU@%MAGYARS%@BO:          59affb@%%@AE@% (933), and fortified his frontiers. St. Matilda, his
queen, founded many monasteries. %@AB@%Henry II,%@AE@% 973-1024, emperor (1014-24)
and German king (1002-24), was the last of the Saxon line. He was duke of
Bavaria and succeeded his third cousin, %@AU@%OTTO III%@BO:          6f695f@%%@AE@%. In 1004 he entered
Italy and was crowned king of Lombardy. He carried on a long warfare with
%@AU@%BOLESLAUS I%@BO:          118e0b@%%@AE@% of Poland. After being crowned (1014) emperor, Henry was
forced to assert his control over Italy. Both he and his empress,
Kunigonde, are saints of the Roman Catholic Church. %@AB@%Henry III,%@AE@% 1017-56,
emperor (1046-56) and German king (1039-56), served jointly as king with
his father, %@AU@%CONRAD II%@BO:          223a10@%%@AE@%, and acceeded after his father's death. Under Henry
the medieval Holy Roman Empire probably attained its greatest power and
solidity. He defeated (1041) the Bohemians and maintained control over
%@AU@%SAXONY%@BO:          851b31@%%@AE@% and Lotharingia. The four Germans he named to the papal throne
greatly increased the power of the papacy. His son, %@AB@%Henry IV,%@AE@% 1050-1106,
emperor (1084-1105) and German king (1056-1105), was the central figure
in the long struggle between the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy, which
had been greatly strengthened by his father. His appointment of bishops
in 1075 was condemned by Pope %@AU@%GREGORY VII%@BO:          3d7af2@%%@AE@%. Henry declared Gregory
deposed, and Gregory in turn excommunicated Henry. Even though Henry
recanted, an antiking, Rudolf of Swabia, was named by a faction of German
nobles, and civil war broke out. Henry was again excommunicated, but he
invaded Italy, defeated the pope's forces, and was crowned emperor (1084)
by the antipope, Guibert of Ravenna. His continuing battles with the pope
endangered the monarchy, however, and in 1105 he was deposed by his
rebellious son, Henry V. %@AB@%Henry V,%@AE@% 1081-1125, emperor (1111-25) and German
king (1105-25), forced his father to abdicate with the blessing of Pope
%@AU@%PASCHAL II%@BO:          71daa1@%%@AE@%, but he soon fell out with the pope and in 1111 took Paschal
and his cardinals prisoner. To secure his release, the pope crowned Henry
emperor and made other concessions. The conflict continued, but was
finally resolved by the Concordat of Worms (1122). %@AB@%Henry VI,%@AE@% 1165-97,
emperor (1191-97) and German king (1190-97), was the son and successor of
%@AU@%FREDERICK I%@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%. As the husband of Constance, heiress of Sicily, he gained
control (1194) of that kingdom. He also took %@AU@%RICHARD I%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% of England
prisoner and forced him to swear fealty. He died while preparing to lead
a Crusade. %@AB@%Henry VII,%@AE@% c.1275-1313, emperor (1312-13) and German king
(1308-13), was a count of Luxembourg when he was named king. As emperor
he tried vainly to end the strife between the %@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%. He
died while on a futile campaign to secure imperial authority in S Italy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY2          @%%@QR:Henry@% kings of England. %@AB@%Henry I,%@AE@% 1068-1135 (r.1100-1135), was the%@EH@%
youngest son of %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%. On the death of his brother %@AU@%WILLIAM II%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%, he had
himself elected and crowned king while his older brother, %@AU@%ROBERT II%@BO:          7fa1fb@%%@AE@%, duke
of Normandy, was on crusade. In 1101 Robert invaded England, but Henry
bought him off. Henry invaded Normandy in 1105, defeated his brother, and
became duke of Normandy. In the meantime, he had been involved in a
struggle with %@AU@%ANSELM%@BO:           5e8da@%%@AE@% overlay investiture. His later years were marked by
his attempts to obtain the succession for his daughter %@AU@%MATILDA%@BO:          5d30cc@%%@AE@%. Under
Henry's reign of order and progress, royal justice was strengthened.
%@AB@%Henry II,%@AE@% 1133-89 (r.1154-89), was the son of Matilda and %@AU@%GEOFFREY IV%@BO:          38e378@%%@AE@%,
count of Anjou. Founder of the Angevin, or Plantagenet, line, he became
duke of Normandy in 1150 and in 1152 married %@AU@%ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE%@BO:          2d478c@%%@AE@%, thus
gaining vast territories in France. In 1153 he invaded England and forced
%@AU@%STEPHEN%@BO:          8ecf78@%%@AE@% to acknowledge him as his heir. As king he restored order to
war-ravaged England, subdued the barons, centralized the power of
government in royalty, and strengthened royal courts. Henry's desire to
increase royal authority brought him into conflict with %@AU@%THOMAS A BECKET%@BO:          952656@%%@AE@%,
whom he had made (1162) archbishop of Canterbury. The quarrel, which
focused largely on the jurisdiction of the church courts, came to a head
when Henry issued (1163) the Constitutions of %@AU@%CLARENDON%@BO:          1ee5d3@%%@AE@%, defining the
relationship between church and state, and ended (1170) with Becket's
murder, for which Henry was forced by public indignation to do penance.
During his reign he gained northern counties from Scotland and increased
his French holdings. He was also involved in family struggles. Encouraged
by their mother and %@AU@%LOUIS VI%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France, his three oldest sons, Henry,
%@AU@%RICHARD I%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@%, and Geoffrey, rebelled (1173-74) against him. The rebellion
collapsed, but at the time of Henry's death, Richard and the youngest
son, %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%, were in the course of another rebellion. %@AB@%Henry III,%@AE@% 1207-72
(r.1216-72), was the son of John. He became king under a regency and was
granted full powers of kingship in 1227. In 1230, against the advice of
the chief justiciar, Hubert de Burgh, he led an unsuccessful expedition
to Gascony and Brittany. He dismissed Hubert in 1232 and began a reign of
extravagance and general incapacity, spending vast sums on futile wars in
France. Henry's absolutism, his reliance on French favorites, and his
subservience to the papacy aroused the hostility of the barons. His
attempt to put his son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster, on the throne of
Sicily (given to Henry by the pope) eventually led to the %@AU@%BARONS' WAR%@BO:           c6d4f@%%@AE@%.
Simon de %@AU@%MONT FORT%@BO:          635618@%%@AE@%, the barons' leader, won at Lewes and summoned (1265)
a famous %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%, but Henry's son %@AU@%EDWARD I%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% led royal troops to victory
at Evesham (1265), where de Mont fort was killed. By 1267 the barons had
capitulated, Prince Edward ruled the realm, and Henry was king in name
only. %@AB@%Henry IV,%@AE@% 1367-1413, (r.1399-1413), was the son of %@AU@%JOHN OF GAUNT%@BO:          4cab91@%%@AE@%.
In 1387 he joined the opposition to %@AU@%RICHARD II%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% and was one of the five
"lords appellant" who ruled England from 1388 to 1389. In 1398 Richard
banished Henry and, after John's death in 1399, seized his vast
Lancastrian holdings. Counting on the king's unpopularity and his absence
in Ireland, Henry invaded England and successfully claimed the throne,
thus establishing the Lancastrian dynasty. His reign was spent
suppressing rebellions, notably by Richard's followers; by the Scots; by
the Welsh under %@AU@%OWEN GLENDOWER%@BO:          6fa359@%%@AE@%; and by Sir Henry %@AU@%PERCY%@BO:          7335e9@%%@AE@%. He left the
kingdom militarily secure but in debt. His son, %@AB@%Henry V,%@AE@% 1387-1422
(r.1413-22), presided over the privy council during his father's illness.
As prince of Wales (Shakespeare's "Prince Hal"), he led armies against
Owen Glendower and figured largely in the victory over the Percys. The
early years of his reign were troubled by the rebellion of the Lollards
(see %@AU@%LOLLARDRY%@BO:          564c71@%%@AE@%). Determined to regain lands he believed to be his, he
invaded France in 1415, thus reopening the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%. After
announcing his claim to the French throne, he met and defeated a superior
French force at the famous battle of %@AU@%AGINCOURT%@BO:           20cdb@%%@AE@%. By 1420 he had conquered
Normandy, married %@AU@%CATHERINE OF VALOIS%@BO:          1a4376@%%@AE@%, and persuaded her father, %@AU@%CHARLES
%@AU@%VI%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of France, to name him his successor. He fell ill and died in 1422. As
king he ruled with justice and industry, restoring civil order and the
national spirit. Though his wars left the crown in debt, his charm,
military genius, and care for his less fortunate subjects made him a
popular hero. His son, %@AB@%Henry VI,%@AE@% 1421-71 (r.1422-61, 1470-71), became
king when he was not yet nine months old. During his early years England
was under the protectorate of two of his uncles. After their defeat at
Orleans by %@AU@%JOAN OF ARC%@BO:          4c4f3a@%%@AE@%, the English attempted to protect their French
interests by crowning Henry king of France at Paris in 1431, but their
cause was hopeless. Henry's rule was dominated by factions, and there
were many riots and uprisings indicating public dissatisfaction with the
government. The struggle between the faction headed by Henry's wife,
%@AU@%MARGARET OF ANJOU%@BO:          5b93ea@%%@AE@%, and Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and that headed
by Richard, duke of York, developed into the dynastic battle between the
%@AU@%LANCASTERS%@BO:          51d2e3@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%YORKS%@BO:          a45021@%%@AE@% known as the Wars of the %@AU@%ROSES%@BO:          813180@%%@AE@%. Henry went insane in
1453. In 1455 Somerset was killed in the battle of St. Albans, and the
Yorkists gained control of the government. Margaret had control from 1456
to 1460, when the Yorkists won a victory at Northampton, and Henry was
taken prisoner. York, who had been named Henry's successor, was killed at
Wakefield in 1460, but his son %@AU@%EDWARD IV%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% defeated the Lancastrians and
was proclaimed king. Later he fled to Holland, and Henry was briefly
(1470-71) restored. In 1471 Edward retook the throne, and Henry was
murdered in the Tower. Henry was a mild, honest, pious man, a patron of
literature and the arts, and the founder (1440) of Eton College. He was
also unstable, weak-willed, and politically naive. %@AB@%Henry VII,%@AE@% 1457-1509
(r.1485-1509), became head of the house of Lancaster at Henry VI's death.
In 1485 he invaded England from France and defeated the forces of %@AU@%RICHARD
%@AU@%III%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% at the battle of Bosworth Field. The next year he married Edward IV's
daughter, Elizabeth, thus uniting the houses of York and Lancaster and
founding the %@AU@%TUDOR%@BO:          986ea3@%%@AE@% dynasty. Although his accession marked the end of the
Wars of the Roses, the early years of his reign were disturbed by Yorkist
attempts to regain the throne, e.g., the impersonations of Lambert %@AU@%SIMNEL%@BO:          895413@%%@AE@%
and Perkin %@AU@%WARBECK%@BO:          9f0011@%%@AE@%. He consolidated English rule in Ireland (1494) and
effected a peace treaty with Scotland (1499), which was followed by the
marriage of his daughter Margaret to %@AU@%JAMES IV%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% of Scotland. He established
the Tudor tradition of autocratic rule tempered by justice and increased
the powers of the %@AU@%STAR CHAMBER%@BO:          8e44fd@%%@AE@% court. His son %@AB@%Henry VIII,%@AE@% 1491-1547
(r.1509-47), married his brother Arthur's widow, %@AU@%KATHARINE OF ARAGON%@BO:          4e9070@%%@AE@%, who
bore him a daughter, %@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%. His chief minister, Thomas %@AU@%WOLSEY%@BO:          a2cf4c@%%@AE@%, concluded
an alliance with %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@% of France but Henry (despite the %@AU@%FIELD OF THE
%@AU@%CLOTH OF GOLD%@BO:          330f61@%%@AE@%), joined (1522) Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% in a war against France.
England prospered internally under Wolsey, who had almost complete
control. The court became a center of learning and the pope gave Henry
the title "Defender of the Faith" for a treatise he wrote against Martin
%@AU@%LUTHER%@BO:          57f60a@%%@AE@%. By 1527 Henry, desiring a male heir, wished to marry Anne %@AU@%BOLEYN%@BO:          119162@%%@AE@%,
but Pope %@AU@%CLEMENT VII%@BO:          1f393b@%%@AE@%, under the control of Katharine's nephew, Charles V,
resisted his demands for a divorce. Wolsey's failure in this affair
caused his downfall, and Thomas Cromwell became chief minister. An
anti-ecclesiastical policy was adopted, and the subservient Thomas
%@AU@%CRANMER%@BO:          24543b@%%@AE@% became archbishop of Canterbury. He immediately pronounced
Henry's marriage to Katharine invalid. Papal powers were transferred to
the king, who became the supreme head of the English church. The break
with Rome was now complete, and the Church of %@AU@%ENGLAND%@BO:          2ef54b@%%@AE@% was established.
Anne, whom Henry immediately married, had one daughter, %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%. The
marriage ended in 1536 when Anne was convicted of adultery and beheaded.
Ten days later Henry married Jane %@AU@%SEYMOUR%@BO:          878bc0@%%@AE@%, who died in 1537 giving birth
to %@AU@%EDWARD VI%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@%. The king dealt harshly with rebellions against the
abolition of papal supremacy and the dissolution of the monasteries. In
1537 he licensed the publication of the Bible in English. His marriage
(1540) to %@AU@%ANNE OF CLEVES%@BO:           5d675@%%@AE@% (whom he disliked and soon divorced) led to the
execution of Cromwell. He then married Catherine %@AU@%HOWARD%@BO:          44ca27@%%@AE@%, who suffered
(1542) Anne Boleyn's fate. In 1543 Catherine %@AU@%PARR%@BO:          7192a1@%%@AE@% became his sixth queen.
In 1542 war with Scotland began again, and Henry made unsuccessful
attempts to unite the two kingdoms. Wales was officially incorporated
into England (1536), but the conquest of Ireland proved too expensive.
The end of Henry's reign saw a gradual move toward Protestantism. Henry
remained immensely popular despite his advancement of personal desires
under the guise of public policy or moral right. His political insight,
however, grew steadily better, and the power of Parliament increased. He
gave England a comparatively peaceful reign.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY3          @%%@QR:Henry@% kings of France. %@AB@%Henry I,%@AE@% c.1008-1060 (r.1031-60), was the son and%@EH@%
successor of %@AU@%ROBERT II%@BO:          7f9afe@%%@AE@%. He unwisely invested his brother Robert with the
duchy of Burgundy, setting up a powerful rival to the French kingdom.
Henry also fought with William, duke of Normandy (later %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1d3b9@%%@AE@% of
England). %@AB@%Henry II,%@AE@% 1519-59 (r.1547-59), succeeded his father, %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@%.
Weak and pliant, he was dominated by Anne de Montmorency, by his mistress
%@AU@%DIANE DE POITIERS%@BO:          28ae37@%%@AE@%, and by Francois and Charles de %@AU@%GUISE%@BO:          3e7bd6@%%@AE@%. Henry resumed
his father's wars against Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% and continued them
against Charles's son %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% of Spain. He was killed accidentally in a
tournament and was succeeded by %@AU@%FRANCIS II%@BO:          35371d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Henry III,%@AE@% 1551-89
(r.1574-89), was the son of Henry II and %@AU@%CATHERINE DE' MEDICI%@BO:          1a3aee@%%@AE@%. He helped
his mother plan the %@AU@%SAINT BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY%@BO:          8305e7@%%@AE@% massacre (1572) and was
elected (1573) king of Poland. Assuming the French crown on the death of
his brother %@AU@%CHARLES IX%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%, Henry was faced with an ongoing civil war between
Roman Catholics and Protestants, who were called %@AU@%HUGUENOTS%@BO:          452a05@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%RELIGION,
%@AU@%WARS OF%@BO:          7ddea5@%%@AE@%). In 1576 he made concessions to the Protestants that caused
Henri, 3d duc de %@AU@%GUISE%@BO:          3e7bd6@%%@AE@%, to form the Catholic League. When the Protestant
Henry of Navarre (later %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of France) became (1584) legal heir to
the throne, Guise forced Henry III to suppress Protestantism and to
exclude Navarre from the succession. In the ensuing War of the Three
Henrys, Navarre defeated a royal army at Coutras (1587). Guise then
revolted against the weakened Henry III, who was expelled (1588) from
Paris by the mob. The king arranged the assassination of Guise, joined
forces with Navarre, and attempted to retake Paris. During the siege he
was assassinated by a fanatical monk, Jacques Clement. Henry was the last
male member of the house of %@AU@%VALOIS%@BO:          9b92f8@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Henry IV,%@AE@% 1553-1610, king of France
(1589-1610) and, as Henry III, king of Navarre (1572-1610), was the first
%@AU@%BOURBON%@BO:          12b977@%%@AE@% monarch of France. Raised as a Protestant, he became (1569) the
nominal head of the Huguenots. To save himself from the Saint
Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572), Henry renounced his faith. He returned
to Protestantism in 1576, however, and led a combined force of
Protestants and moderate Catholics against Henry III and the Catholic
League (for the resulting conflict see under %@AB@%Henry III,%@AE@% above). Henry
became heir to the throne in 1584 and became king after Henry III was
assassinated (1589). He defeated the Catholic League at Arques (1589) and
Ivry (1590), but abandoned the siege of Paris when the League received
aid from Spain. In 1593 Henry again abjured Protestantism, allegedly with
the remark "Paris is well worth a Mass." He entered the city in 1594 and
his conciliatory policy soon won him general support. He waged a
successful war (1595-98) against Spain, and by the Edict of %@AU@%NANTES%@BO:          6637b9@%%@AE@% (1598)
established political rights and a measure of religious freedom for the
Huguenots. The rest of his reign was spent restoring order, industry, and
trade. He was assassinated by a fanatic, Francois Ravaillac. In 1600
Henry had married %@AU@%MARIE DE' MEDICI%@BO:          5bba8c@%%@AE@%, and he was succeeded by their son
%@AU@%LOUIS XIII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@%. Henry IV's gallantry, wit, and concern for the common people
have become legendary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY4          @%%@QR:Henry@% German kings: see %@AU@%HENRY%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@%, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY5          @%%@QR:Henry, Joseph@% 1797-1878, American physicist; b. Albany, N.Y. A professor%@EH@%
of philosophy at Princeton (then the College of New Jersey), he was later
(from 1846) the first secretary and director of the Smithsonian
Institution. Henry improved the electromagnet, invented and operated the
first electromagnetic telegraph, and discovered self-inductance. The unit
of inductance is often called the %@AI@%henry%@AE@% in his honor. Independently of
Michael %@AU@%FARADAY%@BO:          31b34e@%%@AE@% he discovered the principle of the induced current.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry, O.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry, O.%@AE@%:%@CR:HENRY6          @%%@QR:Henry, O.@% see %@AU@%O. HENRY%@BO:          6d0cf6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry, Patrick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry, Patrick%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY7          @%%@QR:Henry, Patrick@% 1736-99, political leader in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
Hanover co., Va. A brilliant orator, he served in the Virginia house of
burgesses (1765-74) and the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% (1774-76), and was
governor of Virginia (1776-79). The phrases "If this be treason, make the
most of it" and "Give me liberty or give me death" are attributed to him.
He later worked to add the Bill of Rights to the Constitution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery%@AE@%:%@CR:HENRY.EARY.AND  @%%@QR:Henry E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery@% see under %@AU@% HUNTINGTON,%@EH@%
%@AU@%COLLIS POTTER%@BO:          457f48@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry of Flanders%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry of Flanders%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY.ORS       @%%@QR:Henry of Flanders@% c.1174-1216, Latin emperor of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          228d8b@%%@AE@% (1206-16)%@EH@%
after his brother, %@AU@%BALDWIN I%@BO:           b4e44@%%@AE@%. Ablest of the Latin emperors, he fought off
the Bulgarians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)%@AE@%:%@CR:HENRY.OIV       @%%@QR:Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)@% %@AU@%HENRY%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@%, kings of France.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henryson, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henryson, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRYSON        @%%@QR:Henryson, Robert@% c.1425-c.1506, Scottish poet. His %@AI@%Testament of Cresseid%@AE@%%@EH@%
is a harshly moral epilogue to %@AU@%CHAUCER'S%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Troilus and Criseyde.%@AE@% His %@AI@%Moral
%@AI@%Fables of Aesop,%@AE@% on the other hand, are macabre and drily humorous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry the Fowler%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry the Fowler%@AE@%:%@CR:HENRY.TR        @%%@QR:Henry the Fowler@% see Henry I under %@AU@%HENRY%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@%, rulers of the Holy Roman%@EH@%
Empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry the Lion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry the Lion%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY.THE.LION  @%%@QR:Henry the Lion@% 1129-95, Guelphic duke of %@AU@%SAXONY%@BO:          851b31@%%@AE@% (1142-80) and of %@AU@%BAVARIA%@BO:           d2ac8@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1156-80). Bavaria and Saxony were restored to him by Holy Roman Emperor
%@AU@%FREDERICK I%@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@% in an effort to end the strife between the %@AU@%GUELPHS AND
%@AU@%GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%. He supported Frederick in Italy and Christianized the
Wendish lands. By 1180 the growth of his power had alarmed the emperor,
who seized his two duchies and subdivided them into small principalities.
Henry later regained Brunswick and Luneburg in Saxony. His son became
emperor as %@AU@%OTTO IV%@BO:          6f695f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henry the Navigator%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henry the Navigator%@AE@%,%@CR:HENRY.TATOR     @%%@QR:Henry the Navigator@% 1394-1460, prince of Portugal, patron of%@EH@%
exploration. The son of Portuguese King %@AU@%JOHN I%@BO:          4c8989@%%@AE@%, he established (1416) at
Sagres a base for sea exploration, an observatory, and a school for
geographers and navigators. Henry's sea captains explored the W African
coast, rounding Cape Verde (1444) and reaching as far as present-day
Sierra Leone. Their return with gold and slaves made for a lucrative and
popular business although he forbade (1455) the kidnapping of Negroes.
His promotion of navigation and exploration provided the groundwork for
the development of Portugal's sea power and colonial empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henslowe, Philip%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henslowe, Philip%@AE@%,%@CR:HENSLOWE        @%%@QR:Henslowe, Philip@% d. 1616, English theatrical manager. His fame rests on%@EH@%
his association with the company the Admiral's Men and its principal
actor, Edward %@AU@%ALLEYN%@BO:           3e9bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Henze, Hans Werner%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Henze, Hans Werner%@AE@%%@CR:HENZE           @%%@QR:Henze, Hans Werner@%, 1926-, German composer. He was influenced early by%@EH@%
%@AU@%STRAVINSKY%@BO:          8f9f0c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HINDEMITH%@BO:          42e752@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BARTOK%@BO:           ca44f@%%@AE@% and experimented with %@AU@%TWELVE-TONE
%@AU@%MUSIC%@BO:          992037@%%@AE@%. His leftist politics are manifested in such works as %@AI@%Essay on Pigs%@AE@%
(1969). He has written %@AU@%SYMPHONIES%@BO:          91d836@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%OPERAS%@BO:          6e0166@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%The Young Lord%@AE@% (1964)
and %@AI@%La Cubana%@AE@% (1973).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hepatitis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hepatitis%@AE@%,%@CR:HEPATITIS       @%%@QR:hepatitis@% viral inflammation of the liver that causes nausea, fever,%@EH@%
weakness, loss of appetite, and, usually, %@AU@%JAUNDICE%@BO:          4b81e4@%%@AE@%. Two forms are most
common: hepatitis A (infectious), spread through contaminated food or
water; and hepatitis B (serum), usually transmitted by transfusions of
infected blood or use of poorly sterilized medical instruments. Hepatitis
can also occur as a complication of other diseases or as a toxic reaction
to alcohol, drugs, or other chemicals. A vaccination against hepatitis B
was approved for use in the U.S. in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hepburn, Katharine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hepburn, Katharine%@AE@%,%@CR:HEPBURN         @%%@QR:Hepburn, Katharine@% 1909-, American actress; b. Hartford, Conn. She has%@EH@%
enhanced the screen with her individual and commanding presence since
1932. Her films include %@AI@%Morning Glory%@AE@% (1933; Academy Award), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Philadelphia Story%@AE@% (1940), %@AI@%The African Queen%@AE@% (1951), %@AI@%The Lion in Winter%@AE@%
(1968; Academy Award), and %@AI@%On Golden Pond%@AE@% (1981; Academy Award).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hephaestus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hephaestus%@AE@%,%@CR:HEPHAESTUS      @%%@QR:Hephaestus@% in Greek mythology, %@AU@%OLYMPIAN%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@% god; son of %@AU@%HERA%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
husband of %@AU@%APHRODITE%@BO:           6a3b4@%%@AE@%. Originally an Oriental fire god, in Greece he was
the divine smith and god of craftsmen, worshiped in centers such as
Athens. Usually a comic figure, he was represented as bearded, with
mighty shoulders, but lame. He worked at huge furnaces, aided by
%@AU@%CYCLOPES%@BO:          25a911@%%@AE@%. The Romans identified him with %@AU@%VULCAN%@BO:          9e6ae7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hepplewhite, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hepplewhite, George%@AE@%,%@CR:HEPPLEWHITE     @%%@QR:Hepplewhite, George@% d. 1786, English cabinetmaker. His work is noted for%@EH@%
light, curvilinear forms; painted or inlaid decoration with ribbon and
rosette motifs; slender, tapering legs; chair backs in shield and oval
forms; and the use of satinwood, painted beechwood, and mahogany. His
small pieces, e.g., inlaid work tables, are especially prized.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hepworth, Dame Barbara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hepworth, Dame Barbara%@AE@%,%@CR:HEPWORTH        @%%@QR:Hepworth, Dame Barbara@% 1903-75, English sculptor. Working primarily in%@EH@%
stone or bronze, she sought perfection of form and surface technique. Her
smooth, usually nonfigurative sculptures are reminiscent of those of Jean
%@AU@%ARP%@BO:           82768@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hera%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hera%@AE@%,%@CR:HERA            @%%@QR:Hera@% in Greek mythology, queen of %@AU@%OLYMPIAN%@BO:          6d98a0@%%@AE@% gods; daughters of %@AU@%CRONUS%@BO:          24e007@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%RHEA%@BO:          7eafae@%%@AE@%; wife and sister of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%; mother of %@AU@%ARES%@BO:           780db@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HEPHAESTUS%@BO:          420b52@%%@AE@%. A jealous
wife, she plagued Zeus, his mistresses, and his progeny, e.g., %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@%.
Hera was powerful and widely worshiped as the protectress of women,
marriage, and childbirth. The Romans identified her with %@AU@%JUNO%@BO:          4dc363@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heracles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heracles%@AE@%:%@CR:HERACLES        @%%@QR:Heracles@% see %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heraclitus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heraclitus%@AE@%,%@CR:HERACLITUS      @%%@QR:Heraclitus@% c.535-c.475 BC, Greek philosopher. He taught that there is no%@EH@%
permanent reality except the reality of change, a position illustrated by
his famous maxim "You cannot step twice in the same river." Thus the only
possible real state is the transitional one of becoming. He believed fire
to be the underlying substance of the universe and all other elements to
be transformations of it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heraclius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heraclius%@AE@%,%@CR:HERACLIUS       @%%@QR:Heraclius@% c.575-641, Byzantine emperor (610-41). He recovered provinces%@EH@%
from Persia (622-28) but lost them (629-42) to the Arabs. %@AU@%MONOTHELETISM%@BO:          62fc7f@%%@AE@%
resulted from his efforts to reconcile %@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@% with the Orthodox
Church. He began the reorganization of the empire into military
provinces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herakles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herakles%@AE@%:%@CR:HERAKLES        @%%@QR:Herakles@% see %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heraldry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heraldry%@AE@%,%@CR:HERALDRY        @%%@QR:heraldry@% system in which inherited symbols, or devices, called charges%@EH@%
are displayed on a shield, or escutcheon, for the purpose of identifying
individuals or families. In the Middle Ages the herald, often a
tournament official, had to recognize men by their shields. As earlier
functions of the herald grew obsolete, his chief duties became the
devising, inscribing, and granting of armorial bearings. Heraldry proper,
developed by noblemen using personal insignia on seals and shields, was a
feudal institution. It is thought to have originated in Germany in the
late 12th cent. and to have been imported into England by the Normans
(see %@AU@%NORMAN CONQUEST%@BO:          6b2271@%%@AE@%). The %@AU@%CRUSADES%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@% and the tournaments that drew
together knights from many countries caused heraldry to flourish in
Europe. The embroidering of family emblems on the surcoat worn over chain
mail in the 13th cent. accounts for the term "coat of arms." The use of
armorial bearings spread rapidly thereafter. In England the regulation of
heraldry was assigned to the %@AU@%HERALDS' COLLEGE%@BO:          421f98@%%@AE@% (chartered 1483). Arms were
borne by families, corporations, guilds, colleges, cities, and kingdoms,
and the tradition still persists. See also %@AU@%BLAZONRY%@BO:          10d94b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heralds' College%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heralds' College%@AE@%,%@CR:HERALDS.COLLEGE @%%@QR:Heralds' College@% body chartered (1483) by %@AU@%RICHARD III%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% of England that%@EH@%
assigns new coats of arms and traces lineages to determine heraldic
rights and privileges (see %@AU@%HERALDRY%@BO:          4219e5@%%@AE@%). It has collected and combined the
rules of %@AU@%BLAZONRY%@BO:          10d94b@%%@AE@% into a system. The college includes the Garter king of
arms and the kings of arms of Norroy and of Clarenceux.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herat%@AE@%,%@CR:HERAT           @%%@QR:Herat@% city (1984 pop. 159,804, capital of Herat prov., NW Afghanistan,%@EH@%
on the Hari Rud. Located in a fertile valley, the city is renowned for
its fruits, textiles, and carpets. Its strategic location on ancient
trade routes made it an object of conquest. Long part of the Persian
empire, Herat fell to Jenghiz Khan (1221), Tamerlane (1383), and the
Uzbeks (early 16th cent.). In 1881 it was confirmed as part of a united
Afghanistan. Soviet troops occupied (1979-89) the city. Herat is the site
of the 12th-cent. Great Mosque.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%herb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%herb%@AE@%,%@CR:HERB            @%%@QR:herb@% name for any plant that is used medicinally or as a %@AU@%SPICE%@BO:          8d8369@%%@AE@%, and for%@EH@%
the useful product of such a plant. The term is also applied to all
herbaceous plants as distinguished from woody plants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herbart, Johann Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herbart, Johann Friedrich%@AE@%,%@CR:HERBART         @%%@QR:Herbart, Johann Friedrich@% 1776-1841, German philosopher and educator. He%@EH@%
developed the mathematical and empirical, as well as the metaphysical,
aspects of psychology. In education he stressed relating new concepts to
the experience of the learner. Many of his works have been translated
into English, e.g., %@AI@%Application of Psychology to the Science of Education%@AE@%
(tr. 1892).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herbert, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herbert, George%@AE@%,%@CR:HERBERT1        @%%@QR:Herbert, George@% 1593-1633, English %@AU@%METAPHYSICAL POET%@BO:          5f4423@%%@AE@% and Anglican%@EH@%
priest. His devotional poems, combining reverence with a homely
familiarity with religious experience, were published after his death
(1633) as %@AI@%The Temple.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herbert, Victor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herbert, Victor%@AE@%,%@CR:HERBERT2        @%%@QR:Herbert, Victor@% 1859-1924, Irish-American cellist, composer, and%@EH@%
conductor. After coming to the U.S. (1886), he conducted the Pittsburgh
Symphony Orchestra (1898-1904). His major successes were melodious
%@AU@%OPERETTAS%@BO:          6e1166@%%@AE@%, including %@AI@%Babes in Toyland%@AE@% (1903), %@AI@%The Red Mill%@AE@% (1906), and
%@AI@%Eileen%@AE@% (1917).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%herbicide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%herbicide%@AE@%,%@CR:HERBICIDE       @%%@QR:herbicide@% substance that kills plants or inhibits their growth.%@EH@%
Selective herbicides attack weeds without permanently harming crops;
nonselective ones, generally toxic, are used to clear all plants from a
broad area. Inorganic compounds such as common salts have long been used
as herbicides; c.1900 certain sulfates, ammonium and potassium salts, and
other compounds began to be used as selective herbicides. The 1940s saw
the development of 2,4-D (2,4-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid), an organic
compound that is a highly selective systemic herbicide. Such herbicides
are now widely used. One such compound, 2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy
acetic acid), was partially banned (1979) by the Environmental Protection
Agency as potentially dangerous. 2,4,5-T was used in Agent Orange (a
defoliant employed by U.S. forces in Vietnam) and is regarded by some as
a cause of illnesses suffered by veterans and their children.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%herbivore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%herbivore%@AE@%:%@CR:HERBIVORE       @%%@QR:herbivore@% see %@AU@%CARNIVORE%@BO:          190f88@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herblock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herblock%@AE@%%@CR:HERBLOCK        @%%@QR:Herblock@% (Herbert Lawrence Block), 1909-, American cartoonist; b.%@EH@%
Chicago. Widely syndicated, his work has appeared in the Washington %@AI@%Post%@AE@%
since 1946 and has been collected in numerous volumes. Known for his
witty political drawings, he won the Pulitzer Prize in 1942 and 1954.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herculaneum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herculaneum%@AE@%,%@CR:HERCULANEUM     @%%@QR:Herculaneum@% ancient city at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius, S Italy, buried%@EH@%
along with %@AU@%POMPEII%@BO:          77fbbc@%%@AE@% when Vesuvius erupted in AD 79. Since the first ruins
of the popular Roman resort were found in 1709, the most important
excavations have been the Villa of the Papyri, a basilica, and a theater.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hercules, Heracles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hercules, Heracles%@AE@%,%@CR:HERCULES        @%%@QR:Hercules, Heracles@% or %@AB@%Herakles,%@AE@%most popular Greek hero, famous for%@EH@%
strength and courage. The son of Alcmene and %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%, he was hated by %@AU@%HERA%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@%,
who sent serpents to his cradle; he strangled them. Later Hera drove
Hercules mad and he slew his wife and children. He sought purification at
the court of King Eurystheus, who set him 12 mighty labors: killing the
Nemean lion and %@AU@%HYDRA%@BO:          45da37@%%@AE@%; driving off the Stymphalian birds; cleaning the
Augean stables; capturing the Cerynean hind, Cretan bull, mares of
Diomed, Erymanthian boar, cattle of Geryon, and %@AU@%CERBERUS%@BO:          1b0c71@%%@AE@%; and procuring
the girdle of Hippolyte and the golden apples of the Hesperides. He was
later involved in the Calydonian hunt (see %@AU@%MELEAGER%@BO:          5e7244@%%@AE@%) and the Argonaut
expedition (see %@AU@%JASON%@BO:          4b7a26@%%@AE@%). At his death he rose to %@AU@%OLYMPUS%@BO:          6dabd3@%%@AE@%, where he was
reconciled with Hera and married %@AU@%HEBE%@BO:          411119@%%@AE@%. Represented as a powerful man with
lion's skin and club, he was widely worshiped. He is the hero of plays by
%@AU@%SOPHOCLES%@BO:          8ba3a2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SENECA%@BO:          86de52@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herder, Johann Gottfried von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herder, Johann Gottfried von%@AE@%,%@CR:HERDER          @%%@QR:Herder, Johann Gottfried von@% 1744-1803, German philosopher, critic, and%@EH@%
clergyman. He was an influential critic and a leader of the %@AU@%STURM UND
%@AU@%DRANG%@BO:          900686@%%@AE@% movement. While studying at Konigsberg, he was influenced by
Immanuel %@AU@%KANT%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@%, and later he gained notice with %@AI@%Fragments Concerning
%@AI@%Current German Literature%@AE@% (1767). He became court preacher at Weimar
through the influence of %@AU@%GOETHE%@BO:          3b0629@%%@AE@%, whose work was greatly influenced by
Herder's %@AI@%On the Origin of Language%@AE@% (1772). At Weimar, Herder became the
chief theorist of German %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% and produced his anthology of
foreign folk songs, %@AI@%Voices of the People%@AE@% (1778-79). His vast work
%@AI@%Outlines of the Philosophy of Man%@AE@% (1784-91) developed a major
evolutionary approach to history, propounding the uniqueness of each
historical age.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heredia, Jose Maria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heredia, Jose Maria%@AE@%%@CR:HEREDIA         @%%@QR:Heredia, Jose Maria@%, 1803-39, Cuban lyric poet and prose writer. Such%@EH@%
poems as "Niagara" (1825) typify his romantic melancholy and joy in
nature. Exiled (1823) as a revolutionary, he spent two years in New York
City before settling in Mexico. He also wrote stories, essays, and plays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hermandad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hermandad%@AE@%%@CR:HERMANDAD       @%%@QR:hermandad@% Span.,=brotherhood, federation of Spanish towns in the medieval%@EH@%
era that protected the populace against bandits and the lawless nobility
by arresting and summarily trying suspects. In the late 15th cent. the
crown's Holy Hermandad was effective in ensuring security and order in
rural Spain. %@AI@%Hermandades%@AE@% survived as modest local constabularies until
1835.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hermaphrodite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hermaphrodite%@AE@%,%@CR:HERMAPHRODITE   @%%@QR:hermaphrodite@% animal or plant with both female and male reproductive%@EH@%
systems, producing both eggs and sperm. Some hermaphrodites undergo
self-%@AU@%FERTILIZATION%@BO:          32c146@%%@AE@%, in which egg and sperm of the same individual fuse,
as in self-pollinating plants; others may undergo cross-fertilization, in
which egg and sperm of different individuals fuse, as in the earthworm.
Protandric hermaphrodites (e.g., oyster and sage plant) produce both eggs
and sperm but at different times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hermeneutics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hermeneutics%@AE@%,%@CR:HERMENEUTICS    @%%@QR:hermeneutics@% branch of philosophy dealing with the theory of%@EH@%
understanding and interpretation. "Understanding" is viewed as a circular
process, whereby one can understand the whole only in terms of the parts
but the parts only from the whole. First used to interpret biblical texts
in the early 19th cent., the theory was extended by %@AU@%SCHLEIERMACHER%@BO:          8576ab@%%@AE@% beyond
scriptural interpretation, and by the end of the century Dilthey
construed it as the general methodology for all the social sciences and
humanities. Both held that a universal human capacity for empathy-the
personal experience of that which has been expressed by someone else-was
the bridge between past and present. In the 20th cent. %@AU@%HEIDEGGER%@BO:          413b0d@%%@AE@% and his
student Hans-Georg Gadamer rejected this psychological foundation,
instead basing their hermeneutics on the study of linguistic phenomena
such as translation and etymology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hermes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hermes%@AE@%,%@CR:HERMES          @%%@QR:Hermes@% in Greek mythology, son of %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% and Maia; messenger of the gods%@EH@%
and conductor of souls to %@AU@%HADES%@BO:          3ee5a7@%%@AE@%. He was also the god of travelers, of
luck, music, eloquence, commerce, young men, cheats, and thieves. He was
said to have invented the lyre and flute. The riotous Hermaea festival
was celebrated in his honor. Hermes was represented with winged hat and
sandals, carrying the %@AU@%CADUCEUS%@BO:          16b3ac@%%@AE@%. He is equated with the Roman %@AU@%MERCURY%@BO:          5ee9da@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hermitage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hermitage%@AE@%,%@CR:HERMITAGE       @%%@QR:Hermitage@% museum in Leningrad, one of the world's foremost houses of%@EH@%
art. It was reconstructed in the neoclassical style in the 19th cent.
from the original palace built by %@AU@%CATHERINE II%@BO:          1a329e@%%@AE@%. Although opened to the
public in 1852, it contained only the imperial collections until 1917. It
now has over 40,000 drawings; 500,000 engravings; and 8,000 paintings of
the Flemish, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Italian schools. The most
popular section, "The Heroic Past of the Russian People," includes the
War Museum and a tribute to %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@%. The collections include the art of
many civilizations. Russian art is exhibited separately in Mikhailovsky
Palace.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hermit crab%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hermit crab%@AE@%,%@CR:HERMIT.CRAB     @%%@QR:hermit crab@% primarily marine animal (a %@AU@%CRUSTACEAN%@BO:          250aa5@%%@AE@%) distinguished from%@EH@%
the true %@AU@%CRAB%@BO:          2437cf@%%@AE@% by its long, soft, spirally coiled abdomen terminating in
an asymetrically hooked tail. Most occupy the empty shells of %@AU@%GASTROPODS%@BO:          383d83@%%@AE@%
and are marine scavengers. The largest species reaches 1 ft (30 cm) in
length.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herndon, William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herndon, William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HERNDON         @%%@QR:Herndon, William Henry@% 1818-91, friend, law partner, and biographer of%@EH@%
Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@%; b. Greensburg, Ky. He wrote, with Jesse Weik, %@AI@%Herndon's
%@AI@%Lincoln: The True Story of a Great Life%@AE@% (3 vol., 1899), an attempt to
counteract the heroic legend.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hernia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hernia%@AE@%,%@CR:HERNIA          @%%@QR:hernia@% protrusion of an internal organ or part of an organ through the%@EH@%
wall of a body cavity. It may be present at birth or acquired after heavy
strain on the musculature in such areas as the lower abdomen (inguinal
hernia), diaphragm (hiatus hernia), or region around the navel. Surgery
is sometimes recommended to alleviate symptoms and prevent the hernia
from becoming caught and strangulated (cut off from the blood supply).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hero%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hero%@AE@%,%@CR:HERO            @%%@QR:hero@% in Greek mythology, famous person worshiped after death as%@EH@%
quasi-divine. Heroes might be actual great people, real or imaginary
ancestors, or "faded" deities (ancient gods demoted to human status).
Most hero worship, performed at night with blood sacrifices, was
celebrated at the supposed place of the hero's tomb.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herod%@AE@%,%@CR:HEROD           @%%@QR:Herod@% dynasty reigning in Palestine at the time of Christ. Antipater,%@EH@%
fl. c.65 BC, founded the family fortune. He was an Idumaean, who gained a
stronghold in Palestine. His son Antipater, d. 43 BC, was favored by
Julius %@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@%, who made him (c.55 BC) virtual ruler of all of Palestine.
The son of the second Antipater was Herod the Great, d. 4 BC, who gave
the family its name. He was friendly with Marc %@AU@%ANTONY%@BO:           67ca7@%%@AE@%, and secured (37
BC-4 BC) the title king of Judaea; after the battle of Actium he made
peace with Octavian (later %@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@%), who thereafter showed him great
favor. Herod made great efforts to mollify the Jews by publicly observing
Hebrew laws and by building a temple, but also promoted hellenization. In
his last years Herod became bloodthirsty, and around the time of Jesus'
birth, he ordered the massacre of the innocents. His son Herod Antipas,
d. after AD 39, tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea, was the Herod who
executed %@AU@%JOHN THE BAPTIST%@BO:          4cee84@%%@AE@% and who was ruling at Jesus' death. He
repudiated his wife to marry his niece Herodias, wife of his half brother
Herod Philip. He was eventually banished by %@AU@%CALIGULA%@BO:          173fa1@%%@AE@% in AD 39. Herod
Agrippa I, d. AD 44, was the nephew of Herod Antipas and a man of some
ability. His son, Herod Agrippa II, d. c.AD 100, was a poor ruler who
alienated his subjects. The Herods are usually blamed for the state of
virtual anarchy in Palestine at the beginning of the Christian era. The
prime source is the history by %@AU@%JOSEPHUS%@BO:          4d51b6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herodotus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herodotus%@AE@%%@CR:HERODOTUS       @%%@QR:Herodotus@%, 484?-425? BC, Greek historian, called the Father of History;%@EH@%
b. Halicarnassus, Asia Minor. His history of the %@AU@%PERSIAN WARS%@BO:          73c21f@%%@AE@%, the first
comprehensive attempt at secular narrative history, marks the start of
Western historical writing. The work is written in an anecdotal style of
great charm and offers a rich diversity of information about the ancient
world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heroic couplet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heroic couplet%@AE@%:%@CR:HEROIC.COUPLET  @%%@QR:heroic couplet@% see %@AU@%PENTAMETER%@BO:          72fb69@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heroin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heroin%@AE@%,%@CR:HEROIN          @%%@QR:heroin@% %@AU@%NARCOTIC%@BO:          6680db@%%@AE@% drug synthesized from %@AU@%MORPHINE%@BO:          63fcb1@%%@AE@%. In many parts of the%@EH@%
world it is accepted as an analgesic (for relief of pain), particularly
for the terminally ill. In the U.S., its manufacture and importation are
restricted, and its use in medicine remains under investigation. Heroin
predominates in illicit narcotics traffic. See %@AU@%DRUG ADDICTION AND DRUG
%@AU@%ABUSE%@BO:          2ab5fb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heron%@AE@%,%@CR:HERON1          @%%@QR:Heron@% mathematician: see %@AU@%HERO OF ALEXANDRIA%@BO:          4264e7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%heron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%heron%@AE@%,%@CR:HERON2          @%%@QR:heron@% %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% of the family Ardeidae, large wading birds including the%@EH@%
%@AU@%BITTERN%@BO:          1045c0@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EGRET%@BO:          2cbae5@%%@AE@%, found in many temperate regions but most numerous in
tropical and subtropical areas. Herons have sharp, serrated bills, broad
wings, and long legs. Their plumage is soft and drooping, and (especially
at breeding time) they may have long, showy plumes on their heads,
breasts, and backs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hero of Alexandria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hero of Alexandria%@AE@%%@CR:HERO.OFRIA      @%%@QR:Hero of Alexandria@%or %@AB@%Heron%@AE@%, fl. AD 62, mathematician and inventor. His%@EH@%
origin is uncertain, although he wrote in Greek on the measurement of
geometric figures and invented many contrivances operated by water,
steam, or compressed air, including a fountain and a fire engine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%herpes simplex%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%herpes simplex%@AE@%,%@CR:HERPES.SIMPLEX  @%%@QR:herpes simplex@% virus causing infection of the skin characterized by one%@EH@%
or more blisters filled with clear fluid which usually appear around the
lips (cold sores) or on the genitals. The initial infection, probably
occurring during infancy or childhood, subsequently becomes dormant. The
reappearance of blisters may be triggered by such factors as fever,
exposure to sunlight, menstruation, or pregnancy. Genital herpes, a type
of %@AU@%VENEREAL DISEASE%@BO:          9c653d@%%@AE@%, can be treated with the drug acyclovir.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herrera, Francisco de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herrera, Francisco de%@AE@%%@CR:HERRERA         @%%@QR:Herrera, Francisco de@% , c.1576-1656, Spanish painter, engraver, and%@EH@%
miniaturist. He usually painted religious and %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% subjects. His broad,
dynamic style, expressive distortions, and light-and-dark accents can be
seen in the %@AI@%Triumph of St. Hermengild%@AE@% (Seville). His son, %@AB@%Francisco de
%@AB@%Herrera,%@AE@% the younger, 1622-85, used a loose technique and bright colors,
e.g., %@AI@%Triumph of St. Francis%@AE@% (Seville Cathedral). He was %@AU@%CHARLES II'S%@BO:          1bfc56@%%@AE@%
court painter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herrera Campins, Luis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herrera Campins, Luis%@AE@%,%@CR:HERRERA.CAMPINS @%%@QR:Herrera Campins, Luis@% 1925-, Venezuelan politician and president%@EH@%
(1979-83). A founder of the moderate Social Christian party, he was
exiled (1952) by dictator M.P. Jimenez, but he returned (1958) after
Jimenez's fall and entered the Venezuelan congress. Elected president in
1978, Herrera lost much popularity because of a poor economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herrera y Reissig, Julio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herrera y Reissig, Julio%@AE@%,%@CR:HERRERAIG       @%%@QR:Herrera y Reissig, Julio@%  1875-1910, Uruguayan poet. The leader of%@EH@%
Uruguayan %@AU@%MODERNISMO%@BO:          620e80@%%@AE@%, he was influenced by %@AU@%GONGORA%@BO:          3b6aa1@%%@AE@% and the French
%@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%. His %@AI@%Complete Works%@AE@% (1911-13) were published posthumously.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herrick, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herrick, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:HERRICK         @%%@QR:Herrick, Robert@% 1591-1674, considered the greatest of the English%@EH@%
Cavalier poets. A country clergyman, he never married, and the many women
in his poems are probably fictitious. Most of his work appeared in
%@AI@%Hesperides%@AE@% (1648), which included the sacred songs called %@AI@%Noble Numbers.%@AE@%
A disciple of %@AU@%JONSON%@BO:          4d1c39@%%@AE@%, Herrick shows classical influence, but his
greatness rests on simplicity and sensuousness. Among his best-known
lyrics are "Upon Julia's Clothes" and "Corinna's Going a-Maying."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%herring%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%herring%@AE@%,%@CR:HERRING         @%%@QR:herring@% important marine or freshwater food %@AU@%FISH%@BO:          336478@%%@AE@% of the family Clupidae,%@EH@%
including the sardine, menhaden, and %@AU@%SHAD%@BO:          879eb2@%%@AE@%. Herrings are relatively small
but very abundant; they swim in large schools. The adult common herring
(%@AI@%Clupea harengus%@AE@%) of the N Atlantic is about 1 ft (30 cm) long, with
silvery sides and blue back. The menhaden, of the Atlantic coast of North
America, is a commercially important source of oil and fish meal. Of the
smaller herrings and related species, the anchovies and sardines are the
most important.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herriot, Edouard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herriot, Edouard%@AE@%%@CR:HERRIOT         @%%@QR:Herriot, Edouard@%, 1872-1957, French statesman. As a leader of the Radical%@EH@%
Socialist party, he was three times premier (notably 1924-25 and 1932).
In 1932 he sought a conciliatory foreign policy and favored payment of
France's war debt to the U.S.-a stand that caused his cabinet's downfall.
Imprisoned by the Germans in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he later was president of the
French national assembly (1947-54).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herschel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herschel%@AE@%,%@CR:HERSCHEL        @%%@QR:Herschel@% family of distinguished English astronomers. %@AB@%Sir William%@EH@%
%@AB@%Herschel,%@AE@% 1738-1822, originally Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel, b. Germany,
discovered (1781) the planet Uranus, which led (1782) to his position as
private astronomer to the king. The large reflecting telescopes that he
constructed, including one with a 40-ft (12.2-m) focal length, far
surpassed in size those of his contemporaries. He concluded from the
motion of double stars that they are held together by gravitation and
that they revolve around a common center, thus confirming the universal
nature of Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON'S%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@% gravitational theory. He discovered the
Saturnian satellites Mimas and Enceladus (1789) and the Uranian
satellites Titania and Oberon (1787). His research on nebulae suggested a
possible origin of new worlds from gaseous matter, and his catalog of
nebulae (including some objects that are now known to be galaxies or star
clusters) increased those known from about 100 to 2,500. His sister,
%@AB@%Caroline Lucretia Herschel,%@AE@% 1750-1848, discovered eight comets and three
nebulae. For her arrangement of her brother's catalog of star clusters
and nebulae, she received (1828) the Royal Astronomical Society's gold
medal. Sir William's son, %@AB@%Sir John Frederick William Herschel,%@AE@% 1792-1871,
spent four years (1834-38) at the Cape of Good Hope, cataloging 1,707
nebulae and clusters and 2,102 pairs of double stars. He published (1864)
a consolidated catalog of 5,079 nebulae and clusters; revised by Johann
Dreyer as %@AI@%A New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters%@AE@% (NGC;
1888), it is still a standard reference. In photography, he was the first
to use sodium thiosulfate as a fixing agent, and he introduced the terms
%@AI@%positive image%@AE@% and %@AI@%negative image%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hersey, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hersey, John%@AE@%,%@CR:HERSEY          @%%@QR:Hersey, John@% 1914-, American writer; b. China. A former war%@EH@%
correspondent, he examined %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% events in %@AI@%Hiroshima%@AE@% (1946) and
the novels %@AI@%A Bell for Adano%@AE@% (1944; Pulitzer) and %@AI@%The Wall%@AE@% (1950). His
later novels include %@AI@%The Walnut Door%@AE@% (1977).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herskovits, Melville Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herskovits, Melville Jean%@AE@%,%@CR:HERSKOVITS      @%%@QR:Herskovits, Melville Jean@% 1895-1963, American anthropologist; b.%@EH@%
Bellefontaine, Ohio. A professor at Northwestern Univ. (from 1927), he
did his fieldwork in Africa and pioneered in applying principles of
modern cultural anthropology to black ethnology. His works include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Myth of the Negro Past%@AE@% (1941) and %@AI@%The Human Factor in a Changing Africa%@AE@%
(1962).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf%@AE@%,%@CR:HERTZ           @%%@QR:Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf@% 1857-94, German physicist. He confirmed James%@EH@%
Clerk %@AU@%MAXWELL'S%@BO:          5d9adc@%%@AE@% electromagnetic theory and produced and studied
electromagnetic waves (radio waves), which he showed are long transverse
waves that travel at the speed of light and can be reflected, refracted,
and polarized like light. The unit of frequency, the hertz, is named for
him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hertzog, James Barry Munnik%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hertzog, James Barry Munnik%@AE@%,%@CR:HERTZOG         @%%@QR:Hertzog, James Barry Munnik@% 1866-1942, South African political leader. A%@EH@%
Boer, he served (1910-12) in %@AU@%BOTHA'S%@BO:          128481@%%@AE@% cabinet in the newly created Union
of %@AU@%SOUTH AFRICA%@BO:          8bccf8@%%@AE@%, but opposition to Botha's cooperation with the British
led him to form the Nationalist party. As prime minister (1924-39) he
instituted various methods of racial segregation, or %@AU@%APARTHEID%@BO:           690bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hertzsprung-Russell diagram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hertzsprung-Russell diagram%@AE@%%@CR:HERTZSPRAM      @%%@QR:Hertzsprung-Russell diagram@% for astronomers Ejnar Hertz sprung and Henry%@EH@%
Norris %@AU@%RUSSELL%@BO:          822475@%%@AE@%, graph showing the %@AU@%LUMINOSITIES%@BO:          57d703@%%@AE@%, or absolute %@AU@%MAGNITUDES%@BO:          599c63@%%@AE@%,
of the %@AU@%STARS%@BO:          8e38c5@%%@AE@% of a cluster or galaxy plotted against their surface
temperatures (or some temperature-dependent characteristic such as
%@AU@%SPECTRAL CLASS%@BO:          8d4ec5@%%@AE@% or color). The majority of stars lie on a diagonal
band-the main sequence-that extends from hot stars of high luminosity in
the upper left corner to cool stars of low luminosity in the lower right
corner. The concentration of stars in certain distinct regions of the H-R
diagram indicates that definite laws govern stellar structure and %@AU@%STELLAR
%@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          8eb6b0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herzen, Aleksandr Ivanovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herzen, Aleksandr Ivanovich%@AE@%,%@CR:HERZEN          @%%@QR:Herzen, Aleksandr Ivanovich@% 1812-70, Russian revolutionary leader and%@EH@%
writer. A civil servant, he was sent to the provinces (1834) for
participating in a socialist group. He left Russia permanently in 1847.
In England he set up the first free Russian press abroad; his weekly
journal %@AI@%Kolokol%@AE@% (1857-62) was banned in Russia but widely read. His books
include %@AI@%My Past and Thoughts%@AE@% (1855).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herzl, Theodor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herzl, Theodor%@AE@%%@CR:HERZL           @%%@QR:Herzl, Theodor@%, 1860-1904, Hungarian Jew, founder of modern %@AU@%ZIONISM%@BO:          a5521a@%%@AE@%. As a%@EH@%
newspaper correspondent covering the %@AU@%DREYFUS AFFAIR%@BO:          2aa834@%%@AE@%, he became convinced
that the only solution to European %@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@% was the establishment of
a Jewish national state. He organized the first Zionist World Congress
(1897) and was its president until his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Herzog, Werner%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Herzog, Werner%@AE@%,%@CR:HERZOG          @%%@QR:Herzog, Werner@% 1942-, German film director. His visionary, ironic films,%@EH@%
often treating bizarre historical incidents, include %@AI@%Kaspar Hauser%@AE@%
(1974), %@AI@%Stroszek%@AE@% (1977), %@AI@%Heart of Glass%@AE@% (1977), %@AI@%Nosferatu%@AE@% (1979), and
%@AI@%Fitzcarraldo%@AE@% (1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hesiod%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hesiod%@AE@%,%@CR:HESIOD          @%%@QR:Hesiod@% fl. 8th cent.? BC, Greek poet, self-described as a Boeotian%@EH@%
farmer. His %@AI@%Works and Days%@AE@% is filled with maxims for farmers, to
inculcate righteousness and efficiency. Also ascribed to him is the
%@AI@%Theogony,%@AE@% a genealogy of the gods. Hesiod and %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% codified much of
Greek myth.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hess, Moses%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hess, Moses%@AE@%,%@CR:HESS            @%%@QR:Hess, Moses@% 1812-75, German socialist. He converted %@AU@%ENGELS%@BO:          2ee0d7@%%@AE@% to %@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          8ace72@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and introduced %@AU@%MARX%@BO:          5c5798@%%@AE@% to the study of social and economic problems. By
viewing humanity as initiating history rather than just observing it, he
transformed Hegelian theory. In %@AI@%Rome and Jerusalem%@AE@% (1862) he urged the
founding of a Jewish state in Palestine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hesse, Hermann%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hesse, Hermann%@AE@%%@CR:HESSE1          @%%@QR:Hesse, Hermann@%, 1877-1962, German novelist and poet. An ardent pacifist,%@EH@%
he became a Swiss citizen after the outbreak of World War I. The
spiritual loneliness of the artist is a major theme in Hesse's symbolic
novels, which include %@AI@%Peter Camenzind%@AE@% (1904), %@AI@%Demian%@AE@% (1919), %@AI@%Steppenwolf%@AE@%
(1927), and %@AI@%Narziss und Goldmund%@AE@% (1930). %@AI@%The Glass Bead Game%@AE@% (1943) and
%@AI@%Siddhartha%@AE@% (1922) reflect his interest in Oriental mysticism. In 1946 he
was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hesse, Philip of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hesse, Philip of%@AE@%:%@CR:HESSE2          @%%@QR:Hesse, Philip of@% see %@AU@%PHILIP OF HESSE%@BO:          74af44@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hesse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hesse%@AE@%,%@CR:HESSE3          @%%@QR:Hesse@% state (1987 pop. 5,547,912), 8,150 sq mi (24,064 sq km), central%@EH@%
West Germany. Weisbaden is the capital. Hesse is largely agricultural,
with heavily forested areas. Fine wines are produced along the Rhine
valley. Industries include metallurgy and mining. Hesse emerged (1247) as
a landgraviate under the Holy Roman emperor and was divided (1567) among
several lines; Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Darmstadt were the most important.
In the 18th cent. the rulers of Hesse raised revenue by letting
mercenaries, called Hessians, for hire. Hesse-Kassel was made (1803) an
electorate and was annexed (1866) to %@AU@%PRUSSIA%@BO:          7a630c@%%@AE@%. Hesse-Darmstadt joined
(1871) the German Empire and was ruled by its own dynasty until 1918.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hestia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hestia%@AE@%,%@CR:HESTIA          @%%@QR:Hestia@% in Greek mythology, goddess of the hearth; daughter of %@AU@%CRONUS%@BO:          24e007@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%RHEA%@BO:          7eafae@%%@AE@%. Widely worshiped, she was a kind deity who represented personal and
communal security and happiness. The Romans identified her with %@AU@%VESTA%@BO:          9cf9da@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heyerdahl, Thor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heyerdahl, Thor%@AE@%,%@CR:HEYERDAHL       @%%@QR:Heyerdahl, Thor@% 1914-, Norwegian explorer and anthropologist. Seeking%@EH@%
evidence that ancient cultures could have been diffused by transoceanic
travelers, he sailed across the Pacific (1947), the Atlantic (1970), and
the Persian Gulf (1977) in replicas of primitive crafts. He described
these voyages in %@AI@%Kon Tiki%@AE@% (tr. 1950), %@AI@%The Ra Expeditions%@AE@% (tr. 1971), and
%@AI@%The Tigris Expedition%@AE@% (tr. 1981). His work is controversial.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heyse, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heyse, Paul%@AE@%%@CR:HEYSE           @%%@QR:Heyse, Paul@%, 1830-1914, German realistic writer. Author of 120 novellas,%@EH@%
some 50 plays, and 6 novels, he received the Nobel Prize in literature in
1910. Best known of his works is the story %@AI@%The Fury%@AE@% (1855); his novels
include %@AI@%Children of the World%@AE@% (1873).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heyward, DuBose%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heyward, DuBose%@AE@%,%@CR:HEYWARD         @%%@QR:Heyward, DuBose@% 1885-1940, American author; b. Charleston, S.C. His%@EH@%
story of black life on the Charleston waterfront, %@AI@%Porgy%@AE@% (1925), was
dramatized (1927) by Heyward and his wife, Dorothy, and made into the
folk opera %@AI@%Porgy and Bess%@AE@% (1935), with music by George %@AU@%GERSHWIN%@BO:          39b794@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heywood, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heywood, John%@AE@%,%@CR:HEYWOOD1        @%%@QR:Heywood, John@% 1497?-1580?, English dramatist, most famous writer of the%@EH@%
interlude, a short comic dialogue. Best known are %@AI@%Play of the Weather%@AE@%
(1533) and %@AI@%The Four P's%@AE@% (c.1543).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Heywood, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Heywood, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HEYWOOD2        @%%@QR:Heywood, Thomas@% 1574?-1641, English dramatist, best known for %@AI@%A Woman%@EH@%
%@AI@%Killed with Kindness%@AE@% (1603), one of the finest domestic tragedies. A
prolific playwright, he also wrote %@AI@%Apology for Actors%@AE@% (1612), a response
to Puritan attacks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hezekiah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hezekiah%@AE@%,%@CR:HEZEKIAH        @%%@QR:Hezekiah@% d. c.686 BC, king of Judah (c.715-c.686 BC). The successor to%@EH@%
%@AU@%AHAZ%@BO:           22d40@%%@AE@%, he resisted two invasions by %@AU@%SENNACHERIB%@BO:          86f32a@%%@AE@% of Assyria. He was one of
the best of Judah's kings, abolishing idolatry and listening to %@AU@%ISAIAH%@BO:          49eea6@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%MICAH%@BO:          5fec07@%%@AE@%. 2 Kings 18-20; 2 Chron. 29-32; Isa. 36-39.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hf%@AE@%,%@CR:HF              @%%@QR:Hf@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%HAFNIUM%@BO:          3ef523@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hg%@AE@%,%@CR:HG              @%%@QR:Hg@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%MERCURY%@BO:          5edfd0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hialeah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hialeah%@AE@%,%@CR:HIALEAH         @%%@QR:Hialeah@% city (1986 est. pop. 161,760), SE Fla., NW of Miami; inc. 1925.%@EH@%
It has printing and diversified manufacturing industries. Nearby Miami
International Airport is a major employer. Hialeah Park Race Track is in
the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hiatus hernia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hiatus hernia%@AE@%:%@CR:HIATUS.HERNIA   @%%@QR:hiatus hernia@% see %@AU@%HERNIA%@BO:          4251cd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hiawatha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hiawatha%@AE@%,%@CR:HIAWATHA        @%%@QR:Hiawatha@% fl. c.1550, legendary chief of the Onandaga Indians, credited%@EH@%
with founding the %@AU@%IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY%@BO:          49c1ee@%%@AE@%. He is the hero of a well-known
poem by Henry Wadsworth %@AU@%LONGFELLOW%@BO:          5685c5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hibernation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hibernation%@AE@%,%@CR:HIBERNATION     @%%@QR:hibernation@% protective practice, among certain animals, of spending part%@EH@%
of the cold season (when normal body temperatures cannot be maintained
and food is scarce) in a state of relative dormancy. Hibernating animals
can store enough food in their bodies to survive this period, during
which no growth occurs and body activities are at a minimum. Cold-blooded
animals (poikilotherms) assume the temperature of the environment and
must hibernate when temperatures fall below freezing; frogs and fishes,
for example, bury themselves in ponds below the frost line. Most
warm-blooded animals (homoiotherms) can survive freezing environments by
metabolic control of their body temperatures, although many seek
insulation in sheltered places, e.g., bears and bats in caves.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hibiscus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hibiscus%@AE@%:%@CR:HIBISCUS        @%%@QR:hibiscus@% see %@AU@%MALLOW%@BO:          5a56e4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hickok, Wild Bill%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hickok, Wild Bill%@AE@%%@CR:HICKOK          @%%@QR:Hickok, Wild Bill@% (James Butler Hickok), 1837-76, American frontier%@EH@%
marshal; b. near Ottawa, Ill. Becoming marshal of Hays (1869) and Abilene
(1871), in Kansas, he gained repute as a marksman from his encounters
with outlaws. After his murder in Deadwood (now in South Dakota) by Jack
McCall, he became a legend.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hickory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hickory%@AE@%,%@CR:HICKORY         @%%@QR:hickory@% deciduous, nut-bearing tree (genus Carya) of the %@AU@%WALNUT%@BO:          9ed79f@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to E North America and Southeast Asia. The shagbark hickory (%@AI@%C.
%@AI@%ovata%@AE@%) is valued for its edible hickory nuts and strong, resilient wood,
often used for golf clubs, tool handles, and furniture. The pecan tree
(%@AI@%C. illinoensis%@AE@%) and the paper-shelled pecans, the cultivated varieties
with unusually thin-shelled nuts, yield pecans, among the most popular
and commercially important nuts in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hicks, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hicks, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:HICKS           @%%@QR:Hicks, Edward@% 1780-1849, American painter and preacher; b. Bucks co.,%@EH@%
Pa. Untrained in art, he painted primitive works of great charm and
appeal. Hicks's fame rests on the nearly 100 versions of his painting %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Peaceable Kingdom.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel%@AE@%%@CR:HIDALGOLLA      @%%@QR:Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel@%, 1753-1811 Mexican priest and revolutionary%@EH@%
hero. In 1810 he rebelled against Spanish rule and with a huge army of
Indians won the initial battles. But he was defeated (1817) by a royalist
army at Calderon Bridge and was captured, defrocked, and executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hidatsa Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hidatsa Indians%@AE@%:%@CR:HIDATSA.INDIANS @%%@QR:Hidatsa Indians@% see %@AU@%MANDAN INDIANS%@BO:          5ab25d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%GROS VENTRE INDIANS%@BO:          3de620@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hideyoshi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hideyoshi%@AE@%%@CR:HIDEYOSHI       @%%@QR:Hideyoshi@%(Hideyoshi Toyotomi) , 1536-98, Japanese warrior and dictator.%@EH@%
He was a general in the dictator Nobunga's service, and after Nobunga's
death (1582) he set out to unify Japan. In 1580 he came to terms with
%@AU@%IEYASU%@BO:          4690cd@%%@AE@%, and by 1590, with the defeat of the Hojo clan, he was the ruler
of a unified Japan. Hideyoshi fostered foreign trade and beautified his
capital, Osaka. In 1592 his campaign against China subdued only Korea.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hieratic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hieratic%@AE@%:%@CR:HIERATIC        @%%@QR:hieratic@% see %@AU@%HIEROGLYPHIC%@BO:          42bd93@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hieroglyphic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hieroglyphic%@AE@%%@CR:HIEROGLYPHIC    @%%@QR:hieroglyphic@% [Gr.,=priestly carving], type of %@AU@%WRITING%@BO:          a380cf@%%@AE@% used in ancient%@EH@%
%@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%. Similar pictographic styles of Crete, Asia Minor, and Central
America and Mexico are also called hieroglyphics. Interpretation of
Egyptian hieroglyphics, begun by J.F. %@AU@%CHAMPOLLION%@BO:          1b6fa8@%%@AE@%, is virtually complete;
the other hieroglyphics are still imperfectly understood. Hieroglyphics
are conventionalized pictures used chiefly to represent meanings that
seem arbitrary and are seldom obvious. Egyptian hieroglyphics were
already perfected in the first dynasty (3110-2884 BC), but they began to
go out of use in the Middle Kingdom and after 500 BC were virtually
unused. There were basically 604 symbols that might be put to three uses
(although few were used for all three purposes): as an ideogram, as when
a sign resembling a man meant "man"; as a phonogram, as when an owl
represented the sign %@AI@%m,%@AE@% because the word for owl had %@AI@%m%@AE@% as its principal
consonant; or as a determinative, an unpronounced symbol placed after an
ambiguous sign to indicate its classification (e.g., an eye to indicate
that the preceding word has to do with looking or seeing). The phonograms
provided a basis for the development of the %@AU@%ALPHABET%@BO:           41402@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Higginson, Thomas Wentworth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Higginson, Thomas Wentworth%@AE@%,%@CR:HIGGINSON       @%%@QR:Higginson, Thomas Wentworth@% 1823-1911, American author; b. Cambridge,%@EH@%
Mass. A minister and abolitionist, he was also a versatile writer whose
books include an account of his %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% experiences, a novel, and
literary biographies. With M.L. Todd he was the editor of Emily
%@AU@%DICKINSON'S%@BO:          28c834@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Poems%@AE@% (1890-91).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Highlands%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Highlands%@AE@%,%@CR:HIGHLANDS       @%%@QR:Highlands@% mountainous region, N Scotland. Famous for its rugged beauty,%@EH@%
it consists roughly of that part of Scotland north of the imaginary line
from Dumbarton to Stonehaven, excluding the Orkneys, the Shetlands, and
lower coastal areas. Crofting, fishing, and distilling are the main
occupations. Early history is not well known, but by the 11th cent. the
Scottish monarchy was centered in the Lowlands, and the Highland lairds
were left to run their own affairs. In the early 18th cent. Highlanders
strongly supported the %@AU@%JACOBITE%@BO:          4ad4a7@%%@AE@% uprisings. Until the 19th cent. the
Scottish Gaelic language was the core of a Highland culture marked by the
clan system and distinctive dress (kilt, tartan, etc.). In 1975 the
former counties of the region were reorganized into Highland, one of
Scotland's nine administrative units.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hilbert, David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hilbert, David%@AE@%%@CR:HILBERT         @%%@QR:Hilbert, David@% 1862-1943, German mathematician. After work on the theory%@EH@%
of invariants, he developed a new approach that foreshadowed 20th-cent.
abstract algebra. Hilbert also made important contributions to algebraic
number theory and to functional analysis, particularly in the area of
integral equations. His presentation in a 1900 speech of a list of 23
unsolved problems of mathematics stimulated much investigation by
20th-cent. mathematicians. Hilbert taught (1895-1930) at Gottingen Univ.,
where his breadth of mind and personality attracted to him many students
who became important mathematicians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hildebrand%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hildebrand%@AE@%:%@CR:HILDEBRAND      @%%@QR:Hildebrand@% see %@AU@%GREGORY VII, SAINT%@BO:          3d7af2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hill, James Jerome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hill, James Jerome%@AE@%,%@CR:HILL1           @%%@QR:Hill, James Jerome@% 1838-1916, American railroad builder, b. Ontario,%@EH@%
Canada. Envisioning U.S. economic expansion to the Rockies and beyond,
Hill carried the St. Paul and Pacific RR westward, without federal
assistance, in what was probably the greatest feat of railroad building
in U.S. history. It reached the Pacific at Seattle in 1893. After Hill
consolidated (1890) his properties into the Great Northern Railway Co.,
he and J.P. %@AU@%MORGAN%@BO:          63c3ec@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%MORGAN%@BO:          63c3ec@%%@AE@%, family) defeated E.H. %@AU@%HARRIMAN%@BO:          4022eb@%%@AE@% in a
struggle for the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy that precipitated the stock
market panic of 1901. As a compromise the three later set up Northern
Securities Co. as a holding company for their railroads, but it was
dissolved as a violation of the %@AU@%SHERMAN ANTI-TRUST ACT%@BO:          8841e7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hill, Joe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hill, Joe%@AE@%,%@CR:HILL2           @%%@QR:Hill, Joe@% 1879-1915, Swedish-American union organizer; b. Sweden, as%@EH@%
Joseph Hillstrom. He came to the U.S. in 1902 and, as a maritime worker,
joined the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD%@BO:          47ef08@%%@AE@% in 1910. He wrote many labor
songs, including "Casey Jones" and "The Union Scab." Found guilty in 1915
of murdering a prominent Salt Lake City man, Hill was executed. He has
become a legendary hero of radical labor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hillary, Sir Edmund Percival%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hillary, Sir Edmund Percival%@AE@%,%@CR:HILLARY         @%%@QR:Hillary, Sir Edmund Percival@% 1919-, New Zealand mountain climber and%@EH@%
explorer. In 1953 he and Tenzing Norkay of Nepal became the first men to
reach the summit of Mt. %@AU@%EVEREST%@BO:          30eb13@%%@AE@%. He led (1958) a party in the first
successful overland trek to the South Pole since 1912.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hillel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hillel%@AE@%,%@CR:HILLEL1         @%%@QR:Hillel@% fl. 30 BC-AD 10, Jewish scholar; b. Babylonia. President of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%SANHEDRIN%@BO:          841231@%%@AE@%, he fostered a systematic, liberal interpretation of Hebrew
Scripture and was the spiritual and ethical leader of his generation.
%@AU@%SHAMMAI%@BO:          87eaae@%%@AE@% opposed his teachings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hillel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hillel%@AE@%%@CR:HILLEL2         @%%@QR:Hillel@% (organization): see %@AU@%B'NAI B'RITH%@BO:          112e73@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hilliard, Nicholas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hilliard, Nicholas%@AE@%,%@CR:HILLIARD        @%%@QR:Hilliard, Nicholas@% 1537-1619, English miniature painter. The first true%@EH@%
miniaturist in England, he was court painter to %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%.
His meticulous portraits on card, vellum, and the backs of playing cards
are elegant and subtle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hillman, Sidney%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hillman, Sidney%@AE@%,%@CR:HILLMAN         @%%@QR:Hillman, Sidney@% 1887-1946, American labor leader; b. Lithuania. He%@EH@%
emigrated to the U.S. in 1907 and became a garment worker. As president
(1914-46) of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, he introduced such union
practices as cooperative housing and banking. One of the founders of the
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), he was its vice president
(1935-40). Through the CIO Political Action Committee, which he headed
(1943-46), he sought support for political programs favored by unions.
Hillman was a strong backer of Pres. F.D. Roosevelt and a power in the
Democratic party.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Himalayan cat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Himalayan cat%@AE@%:%@CR:HIMALAYAN.CAT   @%%@QR:Himalayan cat@% see under %@AU@%CAT%@BO:          19fbb3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Himalayas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Himalayas%@AE@%%@CR:HIMALAYAS       @%%@QR:Himalayas@%, great mountain system of Asia, extending c.1,500 mi (2,410 km)%@EH@%
through Pakistan, India, Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan. For most of
its length it comprises two nearly parallel ranges separated by a wide
valley in which the %@AU@%INDUS%@BO:          47e0b1@%%@AE@% R. flows west and the %@AU@%BRAHMAPUTRA%@BO:          132a38@%%@AE@% (Yarlung
Zangbo) flows east. The northern range is called the Trans-Himalayas. The
southern range has three parallel zones: the perpetually snow-covered
Great Himalayas, where Mt. %@AU@%EVEREST%@BO:          30eb13@%%@AE@%, believed to be the highest mountain
in the world, rises to 29,028 ft (8,848 m); the Lesser Himalayas, with
elevations of 7,000 to 15,000 ft (2,130 to 4,570 m); and the southernmost
Outer Himalayas, 2,000 to 5,000 ft (610 to 1,520 m) high. The Himalayas
are associated with many legends in Indian mythology. Simla, Naini Tal,
Mussoorie, and Darjeeling are popular summer retreats from the heat of
the Indian plains to the south.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Himmler, Heinrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Himmler, Heinrich%@AE@%,%@CR:HIMMLER         @%%@QR:Himmler, Heinrich@% 1900-1945, German %@AU@%NAZI%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% leader. He was a Nazi from the%@EH@%
founding (1920) of the party, and after %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% came to power he headed
(1936-45) the secret police, or Gestapo. The most ruthless of the Nazi
leaders, Himmler was responsible for the death of millions in
forced-labor and %@AU@%CONCENTRATION CAMPS%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@%. He was also held in fear by members
of the Nazi party. In the last years of %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, he was the virtual
dictator of German domestic affairs. He was captured by the British in
1945 but committed suicide by taking poison.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hims%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hims%@AE@%%@CR:HIMS            @%%@QR:Hims@% or %@AB@%Homs,%@AE@%city (1981 pop. 354,508), W central Syria. It is a%@EH@%
commercial center located in a fertile plain where wheat, grapes, and
other crops are grown. The city's manufactures include refined petroleum
and fertilizer. In ancient times, called Emesa, it was the site of a
temple to %@AU@%BAAL%@BO:           a8dc4@%%@AE@% and gained prominence when a temple priest, Heliogabalus,
became (AD 218) Roman emperor. The Arabs took the town in 636 and renamed
it. From the 16th cent. to 1918 the Ottoman Turks ruled it. The French
then held it as part of a League of Nations mandate until Syria gained
independence (1941).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hindemith, Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hindemith, Paul%@AE@%,%@CR:HINDEMITH       @%%@QR:Hindemith, Paul@% 1895-1963, German-American composer and violist; b.%@EH@%
Germany. He combined traditional and experimental techniques in a
distinctive style. The %@AU@%NAZIS%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% banned his compositions (1937) because of
their dissonance and modernity, and he emigrated to the U.S. Hindemith's
early compositions are contrapuntal and often atonal (see %@AU@%COUNTERPOINT%@BO:          23f1c0@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%ATONALITY%@BO:           99916@%%@AE@%). Later he returned to a tonality some have called
neoclassical. His best-known work is a symphony (1934) drawn from his
opera %@AI@%Mathis the Painter%@AE@% (1938). In addition to other operas, sonatas,
and chamber works, he wrote %@AI@%Ludus Tonalis%@AE@% (1943) for piano and the
song-cycle %@AI@%The Life of Mary%@AE@% (1923, 1948).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hindenburg, Paul von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hindenburg, Paul von%@AE@%,%@CR:HINDENBURG1     @%%@QR:Hindenburg, Paul von@% 1847-1934, German field marshal and president%@EH@%
(1925-34). In %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% he won victories on the eastern front,
especially the battle of Tannenberg (1914), making him the greatest
German hero of the war. Although a monarchist, he supported the new
republican government in 1918 and was elected president in 1925. In the
election of 1932 he defeated %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% and was reelected, but he was
persuaded to appoint (1933) Hitler chancellor. He was figurehead
president until his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hindenburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hindenburg%@AE@%:%@CR:HINDENBURG2     @%%@QR:Hindenburg@% see %@AU@%AIRSHIP%@BO:           26d33@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hindi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hindi%@AE@%%@CR:HINDI           @%%@QR:Hindi@%, language belonging to the Indic group of the Indo-European family%@EH@%
of languages. It is the official language of India. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hinduism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hinduism%@AE@%,%@CR:HINDUISM        @%%@QR:Hinduism@% Western term for the religious beliefs and practices of%@EH@%
innumerable sects to which the vast majority of the people of India
belong. Arising initially as a synthesis of indigenous religion and the
religion brought to India c.1500 BC by the %@AU@%ARYANS%@BO:           888b2@%%@AE@%, Hinduism developed
over a period of 4,000 years in syncretism with the religious and
cultural movements of the Indian subcontinent. Hindu belief is generally
characterized by the %@AU@%CASTE%@BO:          19cfed@%%@AE@% system and the acceptance of the %@AU@%VEDA%@BO:          9c38fc@%%@AE@% as the
most sacred scripture. The Veda, which comprises the liturgy and
interpretation of sacrificial ritual, culminates in the %@AU@%UPANISHADS%@BO:          9aea05@%%@AE@%,
mystical and speculative works that state the doctrine of %@AU@%BRAHMAN%@BO:          1327f8@%%@AE@%, the
absolute reality or Self, and its identity with the individual soul, or
%@AI@%atman.%@AE@% The goal of Hinduism, like that of other Eastern religions, is
liberation from the cycle of rebirth and the suffering brought about by
one's own actions (see %@AU@%KARMA%@BO:          4e76fc@%%@AE@%); this can be effected by following
spiritual %@AU@%YOGA%@BO:          a43ef6@%%@AE@%, practices leading to knowledge of reality and union with
God. Early Brahmanism, the religion of the priests, or Brahmans (who
through Vedic ritual sacrifice established a proper relation to the
gods), was challenged in the first millennium BC by non-Vedic systems
such as %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JAINISM%@BO:          4ae252@%%@AE@%. To meet the challenge, the Brahmans
recognized popular devotional movements and showed greater concern for
the people. Writings like the laws of %@AU@%MANU%@BO:          5b31ec@%%@AE@% regulated %@AU@%DHARMA%@BO:          288fe5@%%@AE@% (duty)
according to one's class (priest, warrior, farmer or merchant, laborer)
and stage in life (celibate student, householder, forest recluse, one who
completely renounces societal ties). The post-Vedic Puranas deal with
this structure of individual and social life and also describe the
repeating cycle of birth and dissolution of the universe, represented by
the divine trinity of Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and
Shiva, the destroyer. In medieval times, %@AU@%TANTRA%@BO:          92ae46@%%@AE@% and devotional sects
flourished, producing poet-saints all over India who wrote religious
songs and epics. This literature still plays an essential part in
Hinduism, as does the practice of %@AI@%puja,%@AE@% or worship of enshrined deities,
such as Vishnu and his incarnations Rama and Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha, and
Devi (also called Kali, Sarasvati, or Lakshmi). Modern Hindu leaders,
e.g., Swami Vivekananda, Mohandas %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37ca17@%%@AE@%, and Aurobindo %@AU@%GHOSE%@BO:          39fa18@%%@AE@%, have
stressed the necessity of uniting spiritual life with social concerns.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hindu Kush%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hindu Kush%@AE@%,%@CR:HINDU.KUSH      @%%@QR:Hindu Kush@% one of the highest mountain systems in the world, extending%@EH@%
c.500 mi (800 km) west from Pamir Knot, N Pakistan, into NE Afghanistan.
Tirich Mir (25,236 ft/7,692 m) is the highest point. Meltwater from the
permanently snow-covered peaks feeds the headstreams of the %@AU@%AMU DARYA%@BO:           4f7e5@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%INDUS%@BO:          47e0b1@%%@AE@% rivers. Several high-altitude passes, followed by trade routes,
cross the mountains, once called the Caucasus Indicus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hindu music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hindu music%@AE@%:%@CR:HINDU.MUSIC     @%%@QR:Hindu music@% see %@AU@%INDIAN MUSIC%@BO:          478655@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hindustani%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hindustani%@AE@%,%@CR:HINDUSTANI      @%%@QR:Hindustani@% subdivision of the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian subfamily%@EH@%
of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hines, Earl "Fatha"%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hines, Earl "Fatha"%@AE@%,%@CR:HINES           @%%@QR:Hines, Earl "Fatha"@% 1905-83, black American jazz pianist and composer;%@EH@%
b. Duquesne, Pa. In the 1920s while working for Louis %@AU@%ARMSTRONG%@BO:           80898@%%@AE@%, Hines
transformed the role of the piano in %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% by making it a solo instrument.
His nickname came from a radio announcer's acknowledgment of his role as
"the father of modern jazz piano."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hipparchus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hipparchus%@AE@%,%@CR:HIPPARCHUS      @%%@QR:Hipparchus@% fl. 2d cent. BC, Greek astronomer; b. Bithynia (present-day%@EH@%
Turkey). Ptolemy's geocentric theory of the universe (see %@AU@%PTOLEMAIC
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          7a96d4@%%@AE@%) was based largely on the conclusions of Hipparchus. In Ptolemy's
%@AI@%Almagest,%@AE@% Hipparchus is credited with discovering the %@AU@%PRECESSION OF THE
%@AU@%EQUINOXES%@BO:          79154c@%%@AE@%, the eccentricity of the sun's apparent orbit, and certain
inequalities of the moon's motions. He also made the first known
comprehensive chart of the heavens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hippocrates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hippocrates%@AE@%,%@CR:HIPPOCRATES     @%%@QR:Hippocrates@% c.460-c.370 BC, Greek physician, recognized as the father of%@EH@%
medicine. He is believed to have been born on the island of Cos, where he
later practiced and taught. Hippocrates based medicine on objective
observation and deductive reasoning. Although he accepted the belief that
disease results from an imbalance of the four bodily humors, he
maintained that the humors were glandular secretions and that outside
forces influenced the disturbance. He taught that medicine should build
the patient's strength through diet and hygiene, resorting to more
drastic treatment only when necessary. The %@AB@%Hippocratic Oath,%@AE@% an ethical
code formulated in ancient Greece and still administered to medical
graduates in many modern universities, cannot be directly credited to
him, but it does represent his ideals and principles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hippolytus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hippolytus%@AE@%:%@CR:HIPPOLYTUS      @%%@QR:Hippolytus@% see %@AU@%PHAEDRA%@BO:          74584d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hippopotamus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hippopotamus%@AE@%,%@CR:HIPPOPOTAMUS    @%%@QR:hippopotamus@% river-dwelling %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Hippopotamus amphibius%@AE@%) of tropical%@EH@%
Africa, related to the pig (see %@AU@%SWINE%@BO:          919953@%%@AE@%). The male stands about 5 ft (160
cm) at the shoulder and weighs about 5 tons (4,500 kg). The broad,
short-legged body has a thick brown or gray hide, and the eyes are near
the top of the head so the animal can see when submerged. Hippopotamuses
live in small herds, feeding on aquatic plants. Hunted for meat and
hides, they are endangered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hirohito%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hirohito%@AE@%,%@CR:HIROHITO        @%%@QR:Hirohito@% 1901-89, emperor of Japan. Made regent in 1921, he succeeded%@EH@%
his father, Taisho, as emperor in 1926. Hirohito helped persuade the
Japanese government to accept unconditional surrender at the end of %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. In 1946 he renounced the idea of imperial divinity and was
stripped of all but ceremonial powers by a new constitution. His son,
Prince %@AU@%AKIHITO%@BO:           27ce2@%%@AE@%, became emperor designate upon his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hiroshige%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hiroshige%@AE@%%@CR:HIROSHIGE       @%%@QR:Hiroshige@%(Ando Hiroshige) , 1797-1858, Japanese painter and color-print%@EH@%
artist of the %@AI@%ukiyo-e%@AE@% school (see %@AU@%JAPANESE ART%@BO:          4b5acd@%%@AE@%). Among his works is a
landscape series, %@AI@%Fifty-three Stages of the Tokaido Highway%@AE@% (1833), and
rain, mist, and moonlight scenes that influenced %@AU@%WHISTLER%@BO:          a1231a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hiroshima%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hiroshima%@AE@%,%@CR:HIROSHIMA       @%%@QR:Hiroshima@% city (1985 est. pop. 1,044,000), capital of Hiroshima%@EH@%
prefecture, SW Honshu, Japan. Founded c.1594, the city is divided by the
Ota R. into six islands connected by 81 bridges. A commercial and
industrial center, it manufactures textiles, ship components, cars, and
furniture. Hiroshima was the target (Aug. 6, 1945) of the first %@AU@%ATOMIC
%@AU@%BOMB%@BO:           98960@%%@AE@% ever dropped on a city: casualties numbered nearly 130,000 and 90%
of the city was leveled. Most of Hiroshima has been rebuilt, but a gutted
area, the "Peace City," has been set aside as a memorial.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hirsch, Samson Raphael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hirsch, Samson Raphael%@AE@%,%@CR:HIRSCH          @%%@QR:Hirsch, Samson Raphael@% 1808-88, German rabbi and chief exponent of%@EH@%
Neo-Orthodoxy. He sought to combine traditional Jewish studies with
secular learning (%@AI@%Nineteen Letters,%@AE@% 1836) and condemned the Reform
movement (see %@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%) for breaking with tradition.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden%@AE@%,%@CR:HIRSHHOULPTURE  @%%@QR:Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden@% Washington, D.C., opened 1974.%@EH@%
Part of the %@AU@%SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION%@BO:          8a75c2@%%@AE@%, it was designed by Gordon %@AU@%BUNSHAFT%@BO:          15878f@%%@AE@%
to house 6,000 pieces of the huge art collection of the industrialist
Joseph H. Hirshhorn, who gave them to the nation in 1966; the remainder
of his collection was bequeathed to the museum upon his death in 1981. It
is Washington's first museum devoted exclusively to modern art and it is
very rich in sculpture, %@AU@%POP ART%@BO:          7821ef@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%OP ART%@BO:          6df150@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%COLOR FIELD PAINTING%@BO:          209f60@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%PHOTOREALISM%@BO:          753559@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hishikawa Moronobu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hishikawa Moronobu%@AE@%:%@CR:HISHIKAOBU      @%%@QR:Hishikawa Moronobu@% see %@AU@%MORONOBU%@BO:          63fb2f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hispanic Americans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hispanic Americans%@AE@%,%@CR:HISPANIANS      @%%@QR:Hispanic Americans@% Spanish-speaking residents of the U.S. The three%@EH@%
largest groups (in order of size) are Mexican-Americans, or %@AU@%CHICANOS%@BO:          1ccea1@%%@AE@%,
concentrated in Texas and S California; Puerto Ricans, living mainly in
the Northeast, especially the New York City area; and Cubans, many of
them refugees from the Castro regime who live in Miami, Fla. Dominicans
and others from the Caribbean region, as well as Central and South
American groups, also have sizable representations. The number of
Hispanic Americans, who together constitute the nation's fastest-growing
ethnic minority, rose sharply during the 1970s and 80s. Millions of them,
however, are believed to lack legal residency status.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hispaniola%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hispaniola%@AE@%,%@CR:HISPANIOLA      @%%@QR:Hispaniola@% 29,530 sq mi (76,483 sq km), subtropical island with abundant%@EH@%
rainfall, in the %@AU@%WEST INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%. It is divided between %@AU@%HAITI%@BO:          3f2c64@%%@AE@% (W) and the
%@AU@%DOMINICAN REPUBLIC%@BO:          29fd97@%%@AE@%. The island was discovered in 1492 by Columbus and has
at times been known as Espanola and Saint-Domingue. Coffee, cacao,
sugarcane, and bauxite are the principal products.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hiss, Alger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hiss, Alger%@AE@%,%@CR:HISS            @%%@QR:Hiss, Alger@% 1904-, U.S. public official; b. Baltimore. He served%@EH@%
(1936-47) in the Dept. of State, becoming a foreign policy coordinator.
In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, an editor who was a confessed Communist
courier, accused Hiss of helping to transmit confidential government
documents to the Russians. Hiss denied the charges and was indicted for
perjury by a grand jury. His first trial ended in a hung jury, but in a
second trial (1950) he was found guilty. He was sentenced to five years
in prison but was released in 1954.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hissarlik%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hissarlik%@AE@%:%@CR:HISSARLIK       @%%@QR:Hissarlik@% see %@AU@%TROY%@BO:          981d40@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%histamine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%histamine%@AE@%,%@CR:HISTAMINE       @%%@QR:histamine@% organic compound derived from the amino acid histidine.%@EH@%
Histamine is released from certain cells upon tissue injury or during the
activity of certain %@AU@%ANTIBODIES%@BO:           62dc8@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%). It then tends to dilate
capillaries and to make them more permeable, which leads to edema (tissue
swelling) and hives, accompanied by severe itching. This reaction, common
to many allergies, can often be controlled with %@AU@%ANTIHISTAMINES%@BO:           64705@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%histology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%histology%@AE@%,%@CR:HISTOLOGY       @%%@QR:histology@% study of the groups of specialized cells called %@AU@%TISSUES%@BO:          9605a9@%%@AE@%, found%@EH@%
in most multicellular plants and animals. Histologists study tissue
organization at all levels, from the whole organ to the molecular
components of cells. Histological techniques include tissue culture,
fixing and staining, light and electron microscopy, and X-ray
diffraction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%historical linguistics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%historical linguistics%@AE@%:%@CR:HISTORIUISTICS  @%%@QR:historical linguistics@% see %@AU@%LINGUISTICS%@BO:          556886@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hitchcock, Alfred%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hitchcock, Alfred%@AE@%,%@CR:HITCHCOCK1      @%%@QR:Hitchcock, Alfred@% 1899-1980, Anglo-American film director; b. London. A%@EH@%
master of suspense, he made such films as %@AI@%The Lady Vanishes%@AE@% (1938),
%@AI@%Notorious%@AE@% (1946), %@AI@%Strangers on a Train%@AE@% (1951), %@AI@%Psycho%@AE@% (1960) and %@AI@%Frenzy%@AE@%
(1972).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hitchcock, Lambert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hitchcock, Lambert%@AE@%,%@CR:HITCHCOCK2      @%%@QR:Hitchcock, Lambert@% 1795-1852, American chairmaker. In 1818 he opened a%@EH@%
factory in Connecticut to make chair parts; later he manufactured
complete chairs. The %@AB@%Hitchcock chair,%@AE@% sturdily built of good wood, is
painted black over red, often with stenciled designs. The seat is of
wood, cane, or rush.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hitler, Adolf%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hitler, Adolf%@AE@%,%@CR:HITLER          @%%@QR:Hitler, Adolf@% 1889-1945, German dictator, founder and leader of %@AU@%NATIONAL%@EH@%
%@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          6770ca@%%@AE@% or Nazism; b. Braunau, Upper Austria. In World War I he served
in the Bavarian army, was gassed and wounded, and received the Iron Cross
(first class) for bravery. The war embittered him, and he blamed
Germany's defeat on the Jews and Marxists. Settling in Munich, he joined
with other nationalists to found (1920) the Nazi party. In the famous
"beer-hall putsch" (1923) Hitler attempted to overthrow %@AU@%BAVARIA'S%@BO:           d2ac8@%%@AE@%
republican government, but the army put down the revolt and Hitler was
imprisoned. He thus became known throughout Germany and used his nine
months in prison to write %@AI@%Mein Kampf%@AE@% [my struggle], filled with
anti-Semitism, power worship, disdain for morality, and his strategy for
world domination. It became the bible of the Nazi party. The Nazi
movement grew slowly until 1929, when the economic depression brought it
mass support. Hitler made prime use of his frenzied but magnetic oratory
of hate and power, his insight into mass psychology, and his mastery of
deceitful strategy, or the "big lie." He used his virulent %@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@%
and anti-Communism to win the support both of the workers and of the
bankers and industrialists. Although he was defeated when he ran for
president in 1932, Pres. Paul von %@AU@%HINDENBURG%@BO:          42eb01@%%@AE@% was persuaded to name him
chancellor (1933), and the %@AU@%REICHSTAG%@BO:          7db76b@%%@AE@% gave him dictatorial powers. With
other Nazi leaders, among them %@AU@%GOERING%@BO:          3afe39@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HIMMLER%@BO:          42e137@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GOEBBELS%@BO:          3afba5@%%@AE@%, he crushed
the opposition and took control of all facets of German life.
Anti-Semitism was enacted into law, and %@AU@%CONCENTRATION CAMPS%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@% were set up
to take care of enemies of the state. In 1934, 88% of the voters favored
the union of the presidency and chancellorship in Hitler's person. His
aggressive foreign policy, abetted by English and French appeasement,
culminated in the triumph of the %@AU@%MUNICH PACT%@BO:          652305@%%@AE@% (1938). As he prepared
Germany for war, he bullied smaller nations into making territorial
concessions. He became allied with %@AU@%MUSSOLINI%@BO:          65a8c6@%%@AE@% in Italy, and he helped
%@AU@%FRANCO%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% come to power in Spain. Austria was absorbed into the "Third
Reich," and Czechoslovakia was dismembered. In 1939 he signed a
non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union that gave him a free hand to
invade Poland. With that act %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% began, and Hitler took complete
control of Germany's war efforts. At first Germany was triumphant, but
the tide turned and by July 1944 the German military situation was
desperate. Despite a well-planned assassination attempt against him, in
which he was injured, Hitler remained in charge and insisted that Germany
fight to the death. As the Third Reich collapsed, Hitler remained in an
underground bunker in Berlin as the Russians approached the city. On
April 29, 1945, he married his longtime mistress, Eva %@AU@%BRAUN%@BO:          137883@%%@AE@%, and on April
30 they committed suicide. He left Germany a devastated nation. Hitler's
legacy is the memory of the most dreadful tyranny of modern centuries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hittite%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hittite%@AE@%,%@CR:HITTITE         @%%@QR:Hittite@% language belonging to the Anatolian subfamily of the%@EH@%
Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hittites%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hittites%@AE@%,%@CR:HITTITES        @%%@QR:Hittites@% ancient people of Asia Minor and Syria, who flourished from%@EH@%
1600 to 1200 BC The Hittites, a people of Indo-European connection, were
supposed to have entered Cappadocia around 1800 BC The Hittite empire,
with its capital at %@AU@%BOgAZKOY%@BO:          116bdc@%%@AE@% (also called Hattusas), was the chief power
and cultural force in W Asia from 1400 to 1200 BC It was a loose
confederation that broke up under the invasions (c.1200 BC) of the
Thracians, Phrygians, and Assyrians. The neo-Hittite kingdom
(c.1050-c.700 BC) that followed was conquered by the Assyrians. The
Hittites were one of the first peoples to smelt iron successfully. Their
language is Indo-European in relationship.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%HIV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%HIV%@AE@%%@CR:HIV             @%%@QR:HIV@% or %@AB@%human immunodeficiency virus:%@AE@%see %@AU@%AIDS%@BO:           2376a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ho%@AE@%,%@CR:HO              @%%@QR:Ho@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%HOLMIUM%@BO:          43abef@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoban, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoban, James%@AE@%,%@CR:HOBAN           @%%@QR:Hoban, James@% c.1762-1831, American architect; b. Ireland. He designed%@EH@%
and built (1792-99) the %@AU@%WHITE HOUSE%@BO:          a149a3@%%@AE@%, which he rebuilt after the British
burned it in 1814. He was also a supervising architect at the %@AU@%CAPITOL%@BO:          189528@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hobart%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hobart%@AE@%,%@CR:HOBART          @%%@QR:Hobart@% city (1986 est. pop. 180,300), capital and chief port of%@EH@%
Tasmania, SE Australia. Its harbor is one of the world's finest.
Manufactures include textiles, chemicals, and glass. Founded in 1804, it
is the site of the Hobart Theatre Royal (1836), Australia's oldest major
theater.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hobbema, Meindert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hobbema, Meindert%@AE@%%@CR:HOBBEMA         @%%@QR:Hobbema, Meindert@%, 1638-1709, Dutch painter, considered the last of the%@EH@%
great 17th-cent. Dutch landscape painters (see %@AU@%LANDSCAPE PAINTING%@BO:          51ea99@%%@AE@%). His
paintings of woodland scenes, country villages, water mills, and other
rustic subjects are full of life and luminosity, with bold execution and
color. His best-known works include %@AI@%The Mill%@AE@% (Louvre) and %@AI@%Entrance to a
%@AI@%Village%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hobbes, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hobbes, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HOBBES          @%%@QR:Hobbes, Thomas@% 1588-1679, English philosopher. Hobbes developed a%@EH@%
materialist and highly pessimistic philosophy that was denounced in his
own day and later, but has had a continuing influence on Western
political thought. His %@AI@%Leviathan%@AE@% (1651) presents a bleak picture of human
beings in the state of nature, where life is "nasty, brutish, and short."
Fear of violent death is the principal motive that causes people to
create a state by contracting to surrender their natural rights and to
submit to the absolute authority of a sovereign. Although the power of
the sovereign derived originally from the people, Hobbes said-challenging
the doctrine of the divine right of kings-the sovereign's power is
absolute and not subject to review by either subjects or ecclesiastical
powers. Hobbes's concept of the %@AU@%SOCIAL CONTRACT%@BO:          8ab772@%%@AE@% led to investigations by
other political theorists, notably %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SPINOZA%@BO:          8d99f9@%%@AE@%, and J.J. %@AU@%ROUSSEAU%@BO:          817c97@%%@AE@%, who
formulated their own radically different theories of the social contract.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hobby, Oveta Culp%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hobby, Oveta Culp%@AE@%,%@CR:HOBBY           @%%@QR:Hobby, Oveta Culp@% 1905-, U.S. public official; b. Killeen, Tex. She was%@EH@%
(1943-45) the first director of the Women's Army Corps and served
(1953-55) as the first secretary of the newly created Dept. of Health,
Education, and Welfare. She became (1965) chairman of the board of the
Houston %@AI@%Post.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ho Chi Minh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ho Chi Minh%@AE@%%@CR:HO.CHI.MINH     @%%@QR:Ho Chi Minh@%, 1890-1969, Vietnamese nationalist leader, president of North%@EH@%
%@AU@%VIETNAM%@BO:          9d6182@%%@AE@% (1954-69). In 1911 he left Vietnam and lived in London, the U.S.,
and France, where he became (1920) a founding member of the French
Communist party. He later lived in Moscow, but he returned to Vietnam in
World War II and organized a Vietnamese independence movement, the Viet
Minh. He raised an army to fight the Japanese, and in the French
Indochina war (1946-54) he defeated the French colonial regime. After the
Geneva Conference (1954), which divided Vietnam, Ho became the first
president of North Vietnam. In his last years he led the North's struggle
to defeat the U.S.-supported government of South Vietnam (see %@AU@%VIETNAM
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ho Chi Minh City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ho Chi Minh City%@AE@%,%@CR:HO.CHI.Y        @%%@QR:Ho Chi Minh City@% formerly %@AB@%Saigon,%@AE@% city (1986 est. pop. 4,000,000), S%@EH@%
Vietnam, on the Saigon R. It is a large river port and industrial center
producing textiles, ships, processed foods, and other goods. An ancient
settlement in the %@AU@%KHMER EMPIRE%@BO:          4f5960@%%@AE@%, Saigon grew into a city under French rule
in the 19th cent. It became the capital of South Vietnam in 1954.
Military headquarters for U.S. and South Vietnamese forces during the
%@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%, it was heavily damaged and faced the overcrowding created by
the influx of over 1 million refugees. It was renamed at the end of the
war. Built in the European style, it is the seat of several universities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hockey, field%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hockey, field%@AE@%,%@CR:HOCKEY1         @%%@QR:hockey, field@% outdoor stick and ball game similar to %@AU@%SOCCER%@BO:          8ab1b2@%%@AE@%. It is%@EH@%
played on a field measuring 50 to 60 yd by 90 to 100 yd (46 to 55 m by 82
to 91 m) by two teams of 11 players each. Teams attempt to advance the
ball down the field with their wooden sticks. A point is scored by
delivering the ball past the goalkeeper through the goal posts, which are
joined by a net. Field hockey, of ancient origin, was played in England
for centuries before it spread to other countries. In the U.S., field
hockey for women has been popular since 1901, especially in colleges and
high schools.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hockey, ice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hockey, ice%@AE@%,%@CR:HOCKEY2         @%%@QR:hockey, ice@% winter skating sport in which players use sticks to propel a%@EH@%
rubber disk into a net-enclosed goal. A rough sport, it is played chiefly
by men, who wear heavy protective gear. The rink, which is divided into
three zones (attacking, neutral, and defending), measures up to 200 ft
(61 m) in length and 98 ft (30 m) in width. A team consists of six
players, including a goalie, all of whom wear ice skates. Play is
directed toward advancing the disk (called a puck) with flat-bladed
sticks and striking it into the goals at each end of the rink. A goal
counts one point. A player who violates the rules is removed to the
penalty box for two minutes or more while his team plays shorthanded. Ice
hockey originated in Canada in the 1870s and later spread to the U.S. and
other northern countries. It has been an Olympic event since 1920. The
professional National Hockey League (founded 1917) is made up of 21 teams
representing U.S. and Canadian cities. The annual Stanley Cup playoffs
determine the league championship.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hockney, David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hockney, David%@AE@%,%@CR:HOCKNEY         @%%@QR:Hockney, David@% 1937-, English painter. His realistic, witty, clearly%@EH@%
illuminated compositions often contain elements of %@AU@%POP ART%@BO:          7821ef@%%@AE@%. A superb
draftsman, he has executed several print series and designed stage sets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hodgkin, Sir Alan Lloyd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hodgkin, Sir Alan Lloyd%@AE@%,%@CR:HODGKIN1        @%%@QR:Hodgkin, Sir Alan Lloyd@% 1914-, English biophysicist. For their work in%@EH@%
analyzing the electrical and chemical events in nerve-cell discharge, he
and Andrew %@AU@%HUXLEY%@BO:          45be52@%%@AE@% shared with Sir John Eccles the 1963 Nobel Prize in
physiology or medicine. He was a research professor of the Royal Society
(1952-69) and professor of biophysics at Cambridge Univ. (1970-81).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot%@AE@%,%@CR:HODGKIN2        @%%@QR:Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot@% 1910-, English chemist and X-ray%@EH@%
crystallographer; b. Egypt. She received the 1964 Nobel Prize in
chemistry for determining the structure of biochemical compounds
(particularly of vitamin B%@AH@%12%@AE@%) used to control pernicious anemia. In 1933
she and J.D. Bernal made the first X-ray photograph of a protein
(pepsin). She was president (1977-78) of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hodgkin's disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hodgkin's disease%@AE@%,%@CR:HODGKINE        @%%@QR:Hodgkin's disease@% chronic malignant disorder of the lymph nodes.%@EH@%
Symptoms vary, but often include enlargement of one or more lymph nodes,
particularly in the neck region, followed by fatigue, loss of weight, and
fever. As the disease progresses, other lymph nodes and organs may become
involved. As with other forms of %@AU@%CANCER%@BO:          182344@%%@AE@%, it is often treated effectively
with radiation and %@AU@%CHEMOTHERAPY%@BO:          1c801a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoffa, James Riddle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoffa, James Riddle%@AE@%,%@CR:HOFFA           @%%@QR:Hoffa, James Riddle@% 1913-1975?, American labor leader; b. Brazil, Ind.%@EH@%
In 1957 he became president of the %@AU@%TEAMSTERS UNION%@BO:          935394@%%@AE@%, which was expelled
from the AFL-CIO that year because of evidence of union corruption.
Hoffa's power continued to grow, however, and by 1964 he was able to
effect the trucking industry's first national contract. In the same year
he was convicted in two separate trials for jury tampering and fraud.
Imprisoned in 1967, he retained the Teamster presidency until 1971, when
Pres. Nixon commuted his sentence with the proviso that he not engage in
union activity until 1980. Hoffa disappeared in 1975 and is widely
assumed to have been murdered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoffman, Malvina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoffman, Malvina%@AE@%,%@CR:HOFFMAN         @%%@QR:Hoffman, Malvina@% 1887-1966, American sculptor; b. N.Y.C. She was a pupil%@EH@%
of %@AU@%RODIN%@BO:          802c08@%%@AE@%. Her most notable achievement is a series of 100 bronze statues
of racial types (Field Mus., Chicago). She is also known for her spirited
figures and her portrait busts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoffmann, Ernest Theodor Amadeus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoffmann, Ernest Theodor Amadeus%@AE@%%@CR:HOFFMANN        @%%@QR:Hoffmann, Ernest Theodor Amadeus@%, 1776-1822, German romantic novelist and%@EH@%
composer. His gothic tales of madness, grotesquerie, and the supernatural
include %@AI@%The Serapion Brethren%@AE@% (1819-21) and %@AI@%Kater Murr, the Educated Cat%@AE@%
(1821-22). %@AU@%OFFENBACH'S%@BO:          6cfe5f@%%@AE@% opera %@AI@%Tales of Hoffmann%@AE@% is based on three of his
stories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hofmann, Hans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hofmann, Hans%@AE@%,%@CR:HOFMANN1        @%%@QR:Hofmann, Hans@% 1880-1966, American painter; b. Germany. After emigrating%@EH@%
to the U.S. in 1930, he opened two art schools (N.Y.C. and Provincetown,
Mass.) that were central to the development of %@AU@%ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:            754d@%%@AE@%.
His own exuberant canvases combine violent, clashing colors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hofmann, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hofmann, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:HOFMANN2        @%%@QR:Hofmann, Joseph@% 1876-1957, Polish-American pianist. He toured Europe as%@EH@%
a child prodigy and made his U.S. debut in 1887. He composed, but is best
known as a great virtuoso.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hofmannsthal, Hugo von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hofmannsthal, Hugo von%@AE@%%@CR:HOFMANNSTHAL    @%%@QR:Hofmannsthal, Hugo von@%, 1874-1929, Austrian dramatist and poet. %@AI@%Electra%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1903), %@AI@%Der Rosenkavalier%@AE@% (1911), and %@AI@%Ariadne auf Naxos%@AE@% (1912) are
librettos written for Richard %@AU@%STRAUSS%@BO:          8f9bf1@%%@AE@%. Also notable are his %@AI@%Poems%@AE@% (1903),
the tragedy %@AI@%The Tower%@AE@% (1925), and his adaptation of %@AI@%Everyman%@AE@% (1911).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hog%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hog%@AE@%:%@CR:HOG             @%%@QR:hog@% see %@AU@%SWINE%@BO:          919953@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hogan, Ben%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hogan, Ben%@AE@%,%@CR:HOGAN           @%%@QR:Hogan, Ben@% 1912-, American golfer; b. Dublin, Tex. One of the game's%@EH@%
leading money winners, he won nine major championships, beginning with
the Professional Golfers' Association title in 1946. His greatest
victories, notably a sweep of the U.S. Open, British Open, and Masters
crowns in 1953, came after recovery from a near-fatal automobile accident
in 1949. Hogan was the first since Bobby %@AU@%JONES%@BO:          4d055a@%%@AE@% to capture four U.S. Open
titles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hogarth, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hogarth, William%@AE@%,%@CR:HOGARTH         @%%@QR:Hogarth, William@% 1697-1764, English painter, satirist, engraver, and art%@EH@%
theorist. His first real success came in 1732 with a series of six
morality pictures, %@AI@%The Harlot's Progress,%@AE@% first painted and then
engraved. %@AI@%The Rake's Progress%@AE@% (1735) followed. In the series %@AI@%Marriage a
%@AI@%la Mode,%@AE@% considered his masterpiece, he depicts the inane, profligate
existence of a fashionable couple with great detail and brilliant
characterization. His %@AI@%Analysis of Beauty%@AE@% (1753) is a treatise on the
%@AU@%ROCOCO%@BO:          8019fe@%%@AE@% aesthetic. In such prints as %@AI@%Gin Lane%@AE@% he satirizes cruelty and
stupidity. His portraits %@AI@%The Shrimp Girl%@AE@% (National Gall., London) and
%@AI@%Captain Coram%@AE@% (1740) are masterpieces of British painting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hog cholera%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hog cholera%@AE@%,%@CR:HOG.CHOLERA     @%%@QR:hog cholera@% infectious viral disease of swine; also called swine fever.%@EH@%
Perhaps the most serious disease of hogs in North America, it is
characterized by listlessness, temperature increase, muscle tremors, and
convulsions. Mortality is high; recovered hogs are permanently stunted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hohenstaufen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hohenstaufen%@AE@%%@CR:HOHENSTAUFEN    @%%@QR:Hohenstaufen@%, German princely family of the 11th to 13th cent. They were%@EH@%
dukes of Swabia from 1079; German kings and Holy Roman emperors,
1138-1254; and kings of Sicily, 1194-1266. Their chief rivals were the
Guelphs (see %@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%), who sided with the papacy in the
long struggle between emperor and pope.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hohenzollern%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hohenzollern%@AE@%,%@CR:HOHENZOLLERN    @%%@QR:Hohenzollern@% German princely family that ruled from the 11th cent. to%@EH@%
1918. They ruled %@AU@%BRANDENBURG%@BO:          13551b@%%@AE@% (1415-1918), %@AU@%PRUSSIA%@BO:          7a630c@%%@AE@% (1525-1918), and
Germany (1871-1918). They comprised two main branches (the Swabian and
the Franconian) and held various titles, including that of burgrave,
margrave, duke, and elector. In 1701 Frederick I styled himself "king in
Prussia," and thereafter the members of the Franconian branch held that
title. After Germany was unified in 1871, three Hohenzollern emperors (or
kaisers), %@AU@%WILLIAM I%@BO:          a1b62f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FREDERICK III%@BO:          359ade@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%WILLIAM II%@BO:          a1b62f@%%@AE@%, reigned.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hokan-Siouan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hokan-Siouan%@AE@%,%@CR:HOKANSIOUAN     @%%@QR:Hokan-Siouan@% linguistic stock, or family, whose member languages are%@EH@%
spoken by Indians in North America. See %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hokkaido%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hokkaido%@AE@%,%@CR:HOKKAIDO        @%%@QR:Hokkaido@% island (1985 est. pop. 5,679,500), Japan, second largest%@EH@%
(c.30,130 sq mi/78,040 sq km), northernmost, and most sparsely populated
of Japan's major islands. It is separated from %@AU@%HONSHU%@BO:          442784@%%@AE@% island by the
Tsuguru Strait and from %@AU@%SAKHALIN%@BO:          8370f9@%%@AE@% (held by the USSR, but also claimed by
Japan) by the Soya Strait. The rugged, partly volcanic interior reaches a
high point of 7,511 ft (2,289 m) at Asahi-dake. Forests, providing
lumber, pulp, and paper, cover much of the island, and there are
important coal, iron ore, and manganese deposits. The %@AU@%AINU%@BO:           2400a@%%@AE@%, the original
inhabitants, became a minority after Japan began a policy of settling the
island after 1868. %@AU@%SAPPORO%@BO:          84722a@%%@AE@% is the chief city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hokusai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hokusai%@AE@%%@CR:HOKUSAI         @%%@QR:Hokusai@% (Katsushika Hokusai), 1760-1849, Japanese painter, draftsman, and%@EH@%
wood engraver, one of the foremost %@AI@%ukiyo-e%@AE@% print designers (see %@AU@%JAPANESE
%@AU@%ART%@BO:          4b5acd@%%@AE@%). He used over 50 different names. His prodigious output included
book illustrations, printed cards, and landscapes in a variety of styles.
His technical excellence and observant delineation of contemporary life
can be seen in %@AI@%Mangwa, or Ten Thousand Sketches%@AE@% (15 vol., 1814-78), and
%@AI@%Views of Mt. Fuji.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holbein, Hans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holbein, Hans%@AE@%%@CR:HOLBEIN         @%%@QR:Holbein, Hans@%, the Elder, c.1465-1524, German painter and draftsman. His%@EH@%
early work is heavily influenced by the Flemish style, e.g., the %@AI@%Life of
%@AI@%the Virgin%@AE@% (Augsburg Cathedral). Later altarpieces, done after 1500,
e.g., those of the %@AI@%Basilica of St. Paul%@AE@% and of %@AI@%St. Catherine%@AE@% (both:
Augsburg), show the influence of Italy. He also designed %@AU@%STAINED GLASS%@BO:          8e03fd@%%@AE@%
windows and remarkable silverpoint drawings. His younger son, %@AB@%Hans
%@AB@%Holbein,%@AE@% the Younger, c.1497-1543, an outstanding portrait and religious
painter of the northern %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%, started his career early. In Basel,
Switzerland, he illustrated %@AU@%ERASMUS'%@BO:          2faf97@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Praise of Folly%@AE@% and in 1519 was
admitted to that city's painters' guild. During this period he decorated
many buildings, painted the %@AI@%Passion Scenes%@AE@% and the celebrated %@AI@%Dead Christ%@AE@%
(both: Basel); the altarpiece of the %@AI@%Madonna with St. Ursus and a Bishop
%@AI@%Saint%@AE@% (Solothurn, Switzerland); and his famous %@AI@%Madonna of the%@AE@% %@AI@%Burgomaster
%@AI@%Meyer%@AE@% (Darmstadt, West Germany). In these works and in the portraits of
Erasmus and Boniface Amerbach (Basel), he shows his full genius. The
larger conception, monumental composition, and idealization of characters
show Italian influence. In England from 1526 to 1528, he painted a fine
group of portraits, including one of Sir Thomas More (Frick Coll., N. Y.
C.), all of which reveal his exquisite gift for characterization. He
returned to England in his last years and did his famous portrait of
Christine of Denmark and %@AI@%The French Ambassadors%@AE@% (both: National Gall.,
London). He was also court painter to %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41df02@%%@AE@% and painted numerous
portraits of the king and his wives. His preliminary drawings and
woodcuts are also famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holberg, Ludvig, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holberg, Ludvig, Baron%@AE@%%@CR:HOLBERG         @%%@QR:Holberg, Ludvig, Baron@%, 1684-1754, Danish man of letters, apostle of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%ENLIGHTENMENT%@BO:          2f2353@%%@AE@% in Scandinavia; b. Norway. Professor of metaphysics and
later of history at the Univ. of Copenhagen, he was the foremost Danish
author of his time. His works include the mock-heroic epic poem %@AI@%Pedar
%@AI@%Paars%@AE@% (1719-20), stage comedies and satires, historical and scientific
works, essays, a novel, and an autobiography.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holderlin, Friedrich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holderlin, Friedrich%@AE@%%@CR:HOLDERLIN       @%%@QR:Holderlin, Friedrich@%, 1770-1843, German lyric poet. He is considered a%@EH@%
link between the classic and romantic schools. Before his mind failed at
36, he wrote lofty, yet subjective poetry, modeled on classic Greek
verse. %@AI@%Hyperion%@AE@% (1797-99) is an elegaic novel in prose; he also wrote a
dramatic fragment, %@AI@%The Death of Empedocles%@AE@% (1799).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%holding company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%holding company%@AE@%:%@CR:HOLDING.COMPANY @%%@QR:holding company@% see %@AU@%TRUST%@BO:          983f69@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holiday, Billie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holiday, Billie%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLIDAY         @%%@QR:Holiday, Billie@% 1915-59, black American singer; b. Baltimore as Eleanora%@EH@%
Fagan. She began singing in 1930 and earned a supreme position among
modern %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@% singers with her emotional impact and highly personal
approach to a song. Her life was complicated by the drug addiction that
eventually destroyed her career and hastened her death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holinshed, Raphael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holinshed, Raphael%@AE@%%@CR:HOLINSHED       @%%@QR:Holinshed, Raphael@%, d. c.1580, English chronicler. With the assistance of%@EH@%
William Harrison and Richard Stanihurst, he wrote the famous %@AI@%Chronicles
%@AI@%of England, Scotland, and Ireland%@AE@% (1577), from which %@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@% and
other Elizabethian dramatists drew material for plays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%holistic medicine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%holistic medicine%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLISTINE       @%%@QR:holistic medicine@% system of health care based on a concept of the%@EH@%
"whole" person as one whose body, mind, spirit, and emotions are in
balance with the environment. Stressing personal responsibility for
health, the holistic approach includes conventional medicine and
%@AU@%CHIROPRACTIC%@BO:          1d9a2e@%%@AE@% as well as various nontraditional methods of diagnosis and
therapy, e.g., acupuncture, %@AU@%BIOFEEDBACK%@BO:           fdcf8@%%@AE@%, faith healing, folk medicine,
megavitamin therapy, %@AU@%MEDITATION%@BO:          5e3516@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%YOGA%@BO:          a43ef6@%%@AE@%. Surgery and prescription drugs
are generally avoided; instead, patients are encouraged to establish
self-regulated regimes to control such illness-related factors as poor
diet, smoking, alcohol intake, and stress. Although not officially
recognized by the American Medical Association, holistic techniques have
been of increasing interest to medical practitioners and patients in the
U.S. since the 1970s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holland%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLLAND         @%%@QR:Holland@% former county of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@% and, from 1579 to 1795,%@EH@%
the chief member of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Its name has
been popularly applied to the entire Netherlands. Since 1840 the area has
been divided into two provinces, North and South Holland. The original
county was created in the 10th cent. and was controlled (14th-15th cent.)
in turn by the %@AU@%WITTELSBACH%@BO:          a2a284@%%@AE@% family, %@AU@%BURGUNDY%@BO:          15a228@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%HAPSBURGS%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%. Holland
led (16th-17th cent.) the struggle for Dutch independence, and its
history became virtually identical with that of the Netherlands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%holly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%holly%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLLY           @%%@QR:holly@% common name for trees and shrubs of the Aquifoliaceae family,%@EH@%
widely distributed but most numerous in Central and South America. Many
are cultivated as ornamentals. The English holly (%@AI@%Ilex aquifolium%@AE@%) and
the American holly (%@AI@%I. opaca%@AE@%) are popular for their hard white wood and
decorative spiny leaves and red berries. Some hollies are sources of tea,
such as %@AU@%MATE%@BO:          5d0be2@%%@AE@%, and medicinal preparations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hollyhock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hollyhock%@AE@%:%@CR:HOLLYHOCK       @%%@QR:hollyhock@% see %@AU@%MALLOW%@BO:          5a56e4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hollywood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hollywood%@AE@%.%@CR:HOLLYWOOD       @%%@QR:Hollywood@% %@AB@%1%@AE@% Community (1978 pop. c.190,000), part of the city of %@AU@%LOS%@EH@%
%@AU@%ANGELES%@BO:          56c905@%%@AE@%, S Calif., on the slopes of the Santa Monica Mts.; inc. 1903,
consolidated with Los Angeles 1910. The center of the U.S. movie industry
(its first film was made c.1911), it draws many tourists. Television,
radio, and recording companies are also located there, and cosmetics are
manufactured. Its crowded and lively Hollywood Blvd. and Sunset Strip are
famous. %@AB@%2%@AE@% City (1986 est. pop. 120,910), Broward co., SE Fla., on the
Atlantic coast, N of Miami; inc. 1925. A resort and retirement center, it
has printing and electronic industries. Most of Port Everglades, the
area's largest port, is located there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holmes, Oliver Wendell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holmes, Oliver Wendell%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLMES1         @%%@QR:Holmes, Oliver Wendell@% 1809-94, American author and physician; b.%@EH@%
Cambridge, Mass.; father of Oliver Wendell %@AU@%HOLMES%@BO:          43a4ae@%%@AE@%, Jr. A professor at
Harvard medical school (1847-82), he wrote a number of important medical
papers. Holmes's most familiar poems include "Old Ironsides," "The
Chambered Nautilus," and the ironic "Deacon's Masterpiece." His witty
series of sketches, originally published in the %@AI@%Atlantic Monthly,%@AE@% were
collected in %@AI@%The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table%@AE@% (1858) and other
volumes. Holmes also wrote pioneering psychological novels, e.g., %@AI@%Elsie
%@AI@%Venner%@AE@% (1861), and biographies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLMES2         @%%@QR:Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr.@% 1841-1935, associate justice of the U.S.%@EH@%
%@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1902-32); b. Boston; LL.B., Harvard Univ. (1886). A
profound scholar, Holmes achieved international recognition in 1881 with
publication of %@AI@%The Common Law,%@AE@% in which he attacked prevailing views of
jurisprudence. He was associate justice (1882-99) and chief justice
(1899-1902) of the Massachusetts supreme judicial court. On the U.S.
Supreme Court, he advocated "judicial restraint." From his eloquent and
frequent disagreements with his more conservative colleagues over the
nullification of social legislation, Holmes came to be known as the Great
Dissenter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holmes, Sherlock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holmes, Sherlock%@AE@%:%@CR:HOLMES3         @%%@QR:Holmes, Sherlock@% see %@AU@%DOYLE, SIR ARTHUR CONAN%@BO:          2a76cf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holmes, William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holmes, William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLMES4         @%%@QR:Holmes, William Henry@% 1846-1933, American geologist and archaeologist;%@EH@%
b. Harrison co., Ohio. After creating seminal reports on Yellowstone Park
(see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%) and the classic illustrations in the %@AU@%GRAND CANYON%@BO:          3c35c2@%%@AE@%
atlas, Holmes became a pioneer in Southwestern archaeology and the study
of Indian art, and was chief (1902-9) of the Bureau of American
Ethnology. His later works include %@AI@%Handbook of Aboriginal American
%@AI@%Antiquities%@AE@% (1919). He was also internationally recognized for his work
as curator (1910-20) and director (from 1920) of the National Gallery of
Art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%holmium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%holmium%@AE@%%@CR:HOLMIUM         @%%@QR:holmium@% (Ho), metallic element, discovered independently by J.L. Soret%@EH@%
and M. Delafontaine in 1878 and by Per Teodor Cleve in 1879. The soft,
malleable, lustrous, silvery metal is in the %@AU@%LANTHANIDE SERIES%@BO:          523c36@%%@AE@%. Holmium
and its oxides and salts have no commercial uses. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holocaust%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holocaust%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLOCAUST       @%%@QR:Holocaust@% name given to the period (1933-1945) of persecution and%@EH@%
extermination of European Jews by Nazi %@AU@%GERMANY%@BO:          398bcc@%%@AE@%. After Adolf %@AU@%HITLER'S%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% rise
to power in 1933, most Jews who did not flee Germany were sent to
%@AU@%CONCENTRATION CAMPS%@BO:          21a8e3@%%@AE@%. With the outbreak of %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Hitler began to
implement his "final solution of the Jewish question": the extermination
of Jews in all countries conquered by his armies. By the end of the war 6
million Jews had been systematically murdered and a creative religious
and secular community destroyed. See also %@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NATIONAL
%@AU@%SOCIALISM%@BO:          6770ca@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WAR CRIMES%@BO:          9f0651@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holocene epoch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holocene epoch%@AE@%:%@CR:HOLOCENE.EPOCH  @%%@QR:Holocene epoch@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holofernes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holofernes%@AE@%:%@CR:HOLOFERNES      @%%@QR:Holofernes@% see %@AU@%JUDITH%@BO:          4d9916@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%holography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%holography%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLOGRAPHY      @%%@QR:holography@% method of reproducing a three-dimensional image of an object%@EH@%
by means of light-wave patterns recorded on a photographic plate or film.
The object is illuminated with a coherent beam of light produced by a
%@AU@%LASER%@BO:          527c03@%%@AE@%. Before reaching the object, the beam is split into two parts: the
reference beam is recorded directly on the photographic plate, and the
other is reflected from the object and then is recorded. On the
photographic plate the two beams create an %@AU@%INTERFERENCE%@BO:          48c4ca@%%@AE@% pattern, exposing
the plate at points where they arrive in phase. When this photographic
recording, called a hologram, is later illuminated with coherent light of
the same frequency as that used to form it, a three-dimensional image of
the object becomes visible, and the object can be photographed from
various angles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holst, Gustav%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holst, Gustav%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLST           @%%@QR:Holst, Gustav@% 1874-1934, English composer. %@AU@%GRIEG%@BO:          3db9ec@%%@AE@%, Richard %@AU@%STRAUSS%@BO:          8f9bf1@%%@AE@%, and%@EH@%
%@AU@%VAUGHAN WILLIAMS%@BO:          9c1d06@%%@AE@% were early influences. His outstanding works are %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Planets%@AE@% (1914-16), an orchestral %@AU@%SUITE%@BO:          905cf1@%%@AE@%; %@AI@%The Hymn of Jesus%@AE@% (1917), for
chorus and orchestra; and the orchestral piece %@AI@%Egdon Heath%@AE@% (1927).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holt, Helen Maud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holt, Helen Maud%@AE@%:%@CR:HOLT            @%%@QR:Holt, Helen Maud@% see under %@AU@%TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM%@BO:          979c18@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holy Alliance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holy Alliance%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLY.ALLIANCE   @%%@QR:Holy Alliance@% 1815, agreement among the emperors of Russia and Austria%@EH@%
and the king of Prussia. It was part of the complex redesign of the
political fabric of Europe after the fall of the Napoleonic empire and
was an attempt by conservative monarchs to preserve the social order. It
was engineered by %@AU@%METTERNICH%@BO:          5f95d3@%%@AE@%, and eventually almost all the princes of
Europe signed the agreement. Although it accomplished nothing specific,
it became a symbol of reaction. Opposition to it was a major aim of
British foreign policy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holy Ghost%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holy Ghost%@AE@%%@CR:HOLY.GHOST      @%%@QR:Holy Ghost@% or %@AB@%Holy Spirit,%@AE@%in Christian doctrine, the third person of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%TRINITY%@BO:          97db50@%%@AE@%, sometimes described as the aspect of God immanent in this world,
in people, and in the church. Its descent upon the apostles, giving them
the gift of tongues (Acts 2), is commemorated on Pentecost (Whitsunday).
The dove is the symbol of the Holy Ghost.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holy Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holy Island%@AE@%%@CR:HOLY.ISLAND     @%%@QR:Holy Island@% or %@AB@%Lindisfarne,%@AE@%off the coast of Northumberland, NE England.%@EH@%
Tourism, fishing, and farming are important. A church and monastery,
built in 635, represented the first establishment of Celtic Christianity
in England. The Lindisfarne Gospels, an illuminated Latin manuscript now
in the British Museum, was written there before 700. A Benedictine priory
was set up on the island in 1083.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holy League%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holy League%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLY.LEAGUE     @%%@QR:Holy League@% alliance formed (1510-11) by Pope %@AU@%JULIUS II%@BO:          4da75a@%%@AE@% during the%@EH@%
%@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@% to expel %@AU@%LOUIS XII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France from Italy. It included Venice,
the Swiss cantons, the Spanish king %@AU@%FERDINAND V%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England,
and Holy Roman emperor %@AU@%MAXIMILIAN I%@BO:          5d9116@%%@AE@%. It fell apart after Julius's death
(1513).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holyoake, Sir Keith Jacka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holyoake, Sir Keith Jacka%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLYOAKE        @%%@QR:Holyoake, Sir Keith Jacka@% 1904-83, New Zealand political leader. As%@EH@%
National party leader, he was prime minister (1957, 1960-72). He served
(1975-77) as state minister and (1977-80) as governor general of New
Zealand.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%holy orders%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%holy orders%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLY.ORDERS     @%%@QR:holy orders@% in Christianity, the traditional degrees of the clergy,%@EH@%
conferred by the Sacrament of Holy Order. The Roman Catholic Church, like
the Church of England, has three orders: bishop, priest, and deacon, and
like the Orthodox Eastern churches it has permanent deacons, who serve in
local parishes. The bishop heads a diocese consisting of many parishes; a
priest may be the head of a parish or a member of a religious order.
Monsignor and cardinal are honorary titles, unidentified with any
particular office.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holy Roman Empire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holy Roman Empire%@AE@%,%@CR:HOLY.RORE       @%%@QR:Holy Roman Empire@% designation for the political entity that originated%@EH@%
at the coronation as emperor of German king %@AU@%OTTO I%@BO:          6f746a@%%@AE@% in 962 and endured
until the renunciation of the title by %@AU@%FRANCIS II%@BO:          35371d@%%@AE@% in 1806. It was the
successor state to the empire founded in 800 by %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@%, who claimed
legitimate succession to the Roman Empire. In theory, just as the pope
was the vicar of God on earth in spiritual matters, so the emperor was
God's temporal vicar; hence he claimed to be the supreme temporal ruler
in Christendom. Actually, the power of the emperors never equaled their
pretensions. Their suzerainty never included the East, and it ceased
early over France, Denmark, Poland, and Hungary. Their control over
England, Sweden, and Spain was never more than nominal; and their control
over Italy was always in contention. The core of the empire was the
various German principalities plus Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia.
Switzerland, the Netherlands, and parts of northern Italy were at times
included. Its rulers were chosen by the princes of Germany until 1356,
after which they were elected by a fixed number of %@AU@%ELECTORS%@BO:          2d507b@%%@AE@%. They elected
the German king (later known as king of the Romans). He became emperor
only when crowned by the pope in Rome. After 1562, however,
emperors-elect dispensed with coronation by the pope and were crowned at
Frankfurt. Emperors held immediate jurisdiction only over their
hereditary family domains (e.g., the Saxon dynasty over Saxony) and over
the imperial free cities. The rest of the empire they controlled only to
the extent to which they influenced the imperial Diet. Important also was
the relative power of the papacy at any given period. The conflict
between pope and emperor was a never-ending one. A longtime dispute was
over the right of %@AU@%INVESTITURE%@BO:          491c94@%%@AE@%, an issue finally settled in the church's
favor by the Concordat of Worms (1122). Political control of Italy was
another source of conflict. In addition to being a spiritual leader, the
pope was also a great temporal power there; and popes were generally
jealous of efforts by the emperors to extend their political control over
the various Italian states. The feud between the %@AU@%GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES%@BO:          3e3789@%%@AE@%
dramatized the conflict. Although the emperorship was technically an
elective office, after 1438 the %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@% dynasty became permanently
entrenched. Thereafter, the hereditary domains of the Hapsburgs were the
primary concerns of the emperors. The domain of %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%, for example,
stretched around the globe, far beyond the boundaries of the Holy Roman
Empire. The empire was seriously weakened by the %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%, which
generally aligned the German Protestant princes against the emperors, who
championed Roman Catholicism. The %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% ended with the virtual
dissolution of the empire in the Peace of %@AU@%WESTPHALIA%@BO:          a0c9e3@%%@AE@% (1648), which
recognized the sovereignty of all the states of the empire. Thereafter,
the title was largely honorific; the Hapsburg emperors remained powerful
monarchs, but because of their hereditary domains and not because of the
empire. In the 18th cent. the prestige of the empire was further weakened
by the military triumphs of %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France, whom the emperors
opposed. Also, the male Hapsburg line died out, creating a crisis that
culminated in the War of the %@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@%.
In the end, the husband of %@AU@%MARIA THERESA%@BO:          5bae64@%%@AE@%, heiress to the Hapsburg lands,
became emperor as %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@%. Whatever power remained in the office,
however, was exerted by Maria Theresa herself and her advisers. The
empire ended in 1806 as the result of the triumphs of %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% in the
French Revolutionary Wars. Francis II, grandson of Maria Theresa and
Francis I, renounced his title and styled himself Francis I, emperor of
Austria. After the fall of Napoleon (1815), no attempt was made to
resurrect the Holy Roman Empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@TH:  72  2252 02 52 24 @%%@AB@%HOLY ROMAN EMPERORS%@AE@% %@AI@%(including dates of reign)%@AE@%%@AB@%────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────%@AE@%%@NL@%%@AB@%Saxon Dynasty%@AE@%Otto I, 936--73                                     Otto III 983--1002Otto II, 973--83                                    Henry II, 1002--24%@AB@%Salian or Franconian Dynasty%@AE@%Conrad II,1024--39                                  Henry IV, 1056--1105Henry III,1039--56                                  Henry V, 1105--25Lothair II, duke of Saxony, 1125--37%@AB@%Hohenstaufen Dynasty and Rivals%@AE@%Conrad III, 1138--52Frederick I, 1152--90Henry VI, 1190--97Philip of Swabia, 1198--1208%@AI@%antiking:%@AE@% Otto IV (Guelph), 1198--1208Otto IV (king, 1208--12; emperor, 1209--15), 1208--15Frederick II (king, 1212--20, emperor, 1220--50), 1212--50Conrad IV, 1237--54%@AI@%antiking:%@AE@% Henry Raspe, 1246--47%@AI@%antiking:%@AE@% William, count of Holland, 1247--56%@AB@%Interregnum, 1254--73%@AE@%Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alfonso X of Castile, rivals%@AB@%Hapsburg, Luxembourg, and Other Dynasties%@AE@%Rudolf I (Hapsburg), 1273--91Adolf of Nassau, 1292--98Albert I (Hapsburg), 1298--1308Henry VII (Luxembourg), 1308--13Louis IV (Wittelsbach) 1314--46Charles IV (Luxembourg), 1346--78Wenceslaus (Luxembourg), 1378--1400Rupert (Wittelsbach), 1400--1410Sigismund (Luxembourg), 1410--37%@AB@%Hapsburg Dynasty%@AE@%Albert II,1438--39                                  Matthias, 1612--19Frederick III,1440--93                              Ferdinand II 1619--37Maximilian I,1493--1519                             Ferdinand III,1637--57Charles V, 1519--58                                 Leopold I,1658--1705Ferdinand I,1558--64                                Joseph I,1705--11Maximilian II,1564--76                              Charles VI, 1711--40Rudolf II, 1576--1612%@AB@%Interregnum, 1740--42%@AE@%%@AB@%Wittelsbach-Hapsburg and Lorraine Dynasties%@AE@%Charles VII (Wittelsbach-Hapsburg), 1742--45Francis I (Lorraine), 1745--65%@AB@%Hapsburg-Lorraine Dynasty%@AE@%Joseph II,1765--90                                  Francis II,1792--1806Leopold II, 1790--92%@TE:  72  2252 02 52 24 @%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Holy Week%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Holy Week%@AE@%:%@CR:HOLY.WEEK       @%%@QR:Holy Week@% see %@AU@%LENT%@BO:          53e193@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%homelessness%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%homelessness%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMELESSNESS    @%%@QR:homelessness@% a recently perceived problem in contemporary society.%@EH@%
Estimates of the number of homeless people in the U.S. in the late 1980s
range from 600,000 to 3 million, and the problem exists in all major
cities and a growing number of smaller communities. The causes range from
large-scale deinstitutionalization of mentally ill people to
disintegration of the social fabric in minority communities, drug and
alcohol abuse, cutbacks in federal social welfare programs, and rampant
real estate speculation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Homer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Homer%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMER1          @%%@QR:Homer@% principal figure of ancient Greek literature, the first European%@EH@%
poet. Two epic poems are ascribed to him, the %@AI@%Iliad%@AE@% and the %@AI@%Odyssey.%@AE@%
Among the greatest works of Western literature, they are the prototype
for all later %@AU@%EPIC%@BO:          2f5b7d@%%@AE@% poetry. Modern scholars generally agree that they were
written for an aristocratic audience by a single poet in Asia Minor
before 700 BC The %@AI@%Iliad%@AE@% tells of an episode in the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%: the wrath
of %@AU@%ACHILLES%@BO:            b6d3@%%@AE@% and its tragic consequences, including the deaths of
Patroclus and Hector. The %@AI@%Odyssey,%@AE@% beginning ten years after the fall of
Troy, tells of %@AU@%ODYSSEUS'%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@% wanderings on his way home to Ithaca, of his
wife and son's plight, and of their reunion. The atmosphere of adventure
and fate contrasts with the heavier tone and tragic grandeur of the
%@AI@%Iliad.%@AE@% Also attributed to Homer, wrongly, were the %@AU@%HOMERIC HYMNS%@BO:          43ed5f@%%@AE@%.
According to legend, Homer was blind.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Homer, Winslow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Homer, Winslow%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMER2          @%%@QR:Homer, Winslow@% 1836-1910, American painter; b. Boston. Homer first won%@EH@%
acclaim as a magazine illustrator, especially for his %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%
portrayals. In 1876 he gave up illustration to devote himself to
painting. He found inspiration in the American scene and, above all, in
the sea. Homer's paintings are direct and realistic and have a splendid
sense of color. His powerfully dramatic seascapes in watercolor are
unsurpassed and hold a unique place in American art, e.g., %@AI@%Breaking Storm%@AE@%
(Art Inst., Chicago) and %@AI@%The Hurricane%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Homeric Hymns%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Homeric Hymns%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMERIC.HYMNS   @%%@QR:Homeric Hymns@% hexameter poems, c.800-400 BC, wrongly attributed to %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
by the ancients. They are important sources of knowledge about Greek
religion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Home Rule%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Home Rule%@AE@%,%@CR:HOME.RULE1      @%%@QR:Home Rule@% in Irish and English history, political slogan adopted by%@EH@%
Irish nationalists in the 19th cent. to describe their basic objective of
self-government for Ireland. The modern movement began in 1870 and was
strengthened by the rise of C.S. %@AU@%PARNELL%@BO:          718e3e@%%@AE@%, who unified the Irish party in
%@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%. The First Home Rule Bill, introduced (1886) by %@AU@%GLADSTONE%@BO:          3a840b@%%@AE@%,
failed to pass; the Second was passed (1893) by Commons but defeated by
Lords. At this point advocates of constitutional means to Home Rule began
to lose ground to republicans and revolutionaries. The Third Home Rule
Bill passed (1912) by Commons led to threats of civil war from Protestant
Ulster, and Lords excluded Ulster from its provisions. The bill never
took effect because continuing agitation led to recognition of the Irish
Free State with dominion status in 1921, and other ties with Britain were
gradually broken (see %@AU@%IRELAND, REPUBLIC OF%@BO:          499009@%%@AE@%). The six counties of Northern
Ireland remained part of Great Britain, governed under the Fourth Home
Rule Bill (1920).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%home rule%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%home rule%@AE@%,%@CR:HOME.RULE2      @%%@QR:home rule@% in the U.S., system adopted in many states by which a city or%@EH@%
county is given the right to draft and amend its own charter. It may be
either provided for in the state constitution or adopted through an act
of the legislature. Home rule was a response to the rapid expansion of
cities in the 19th cent. and the need for autonomous city government. The
first municipal home-rule clause was adopted by Missouri in 1875.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Homestead Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Homestead Act%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMESTEAD.ACT   @%%@QR:Homestead Act@% 1862, passed by the U.S. Congress. It gave 160 acres (65%@EH@%
hectares) of unoccupied public land to each homesteader on payment of a
nominal fee after five years of residence; land could also be acquired
after six months' residence at $1.25 an acre. The government had
previously sold land in the West to settlers for revenue purposes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%homicide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%homicide%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMICIDE        @%%@QR:homicide@% killing of one human being by another human being. In law,%@EH@%
there are four categories of homicide. Two of them, murder and
manslaughter, are criminal; both are homicide committed without
justification or excuse, but manslaughter is distinguished from murder by
the absence of malice aforethought. Noncriminal homicides are justifiable
homicide, or killing in circumstances authorized under law (e.g.,
executing a condemned prisoner), and accidental, negligent, or excusable
homicide, which is killing unintentionally by misadventure or without
gross negligence (e.g., in the course of unsuccessful surgery).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Homo erectus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Homo erectus%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMO.ERECTUS    @%%@QR:Homo erectus@% early human species dating from 1,500,000 to 300,000 years%@EH@%
ago (see %@AU@%MAN, PREHISTORIC%@BO:          5a8e87@%%@AE@%). He had an upright posture; in body size and
brain development he is intermediate between the African hominid
%@AI@%Australopithecus%@AE@% and later species of %@AI@%Homo sapiens.%@AE@% His %@AU@%CULTURE%@BO:          254507@%%@AE@% included
stone tools and the first use of fire. The first fossils, found (1891) in
Java, were called %@AI@%Pithecanthropus,%@AE@% or Java man. Others were %@AI@%Sinanthropus,%@AE@%
or Peking man (China); Heidelberg man (Germany); and Chellean man (E
Africa).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%homosexuality%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%homosexuality%@AE@%,%@CR:HOMOSEXUALITY   @%%@QR:homosexuality@% sexual interest in members of one's own sex, sometimes%@EH@%
accompanied by fear of or aversion to sexual activity with the opposite
sex. Female homosexuality is known as lesbianism. Medical and
psychological research has yielded little evidence that homosexuality is
caused by either biological predisposition or feelings that one belongs
to the opposite sex. No theory is conclusive but many have been proposed,
including the psychoanalytic theory attributing homosexuality to an
inability to resolve issues arising during the Oedipal stage of
development (see %@AU@%COMPLEX%@BO:          214990@%%@AE@%) as well as the suggestion by some authorities
that homosexuality is an expression of nonsexual problems, such as fear
of adult responsibility. Many individuals experiment with homosexuality
during preadolescence and %@AU@%ADOLESCENCE%@BO:           1429a@%%@AE@% but grow up to assume the
heterosexual role. Some authorities as well as homosexual groups believe
that instances of mental disorders in homosexuals result more from
societal pressures and bias against homosexuality than from any
psychopathology. In recent times (1975) the American Psychiatric
Association dropped the classification of homosexuality as a mental
disorder, and groups have formed to fight for the civil rights of
homosexuals. See also %@AU@%GAY RIGHTS%@BO:          38678c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Homs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Homs%@AE@%:%@CR:HOMS            @%%@QR:Homs@% see %@AU@%HIMS%@BO:          42e45d@%%@AE@%, Syria.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Honduras%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Honduras%@AE@%,%@CR:HONDURAS        @%%@QR:Honduras@% officially Republic of Honduras, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
4,656,000), 43,277 sq mi (112,088 sq km), Central America; bordered by
the Caribbean Sea (N), Nicaragua (E and S), El Salvador and the Pacific
Ocean (SW), and Guatemala (W). The capital is %@AU@%TEGUCIGALPA%@BO:          93698f@%%@AE@%. Over 80% of
the land is mountainous; in the east are the swamps and forests of the
Mosquito Coast. Bananas, grown on plantations established by U.S.
companies in the 1800s, now account for 30% of annual exports. Coffee,
timber, meat, and shrimp are also exported, and some manufacturing is
being attempted, but the general economy remains seriously
underdeveloped. The people, of whom about 90% are mestizo, are
Spanish-speaking and Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% At one time an important center of Mayan Indian culture (see
%@AU@%MAYA%@BO:          5da103@%%@AE@%), the region was colonized after 1524 by the Spanish, who
established mines in the highlands. Honduras gained independence in 1821
and, after brief periods as part of the Mexican Empire and the %@AU@%CENTRAL
%@AU@%AMERICAN CONFEDERATION%@BO:          1af48e@%%@AE@%, became a separate republic in 1838. Its history
has been turbulent, marked by frequent coups (nearly one a year) and
trouble with neighbors, most recently a four-day war with %@AU@%EL SALVADOR%@BO:          2e5434@%%@AE@%
(1969) and border clashes with %@AU@%NICARAGUA%@BO:          69befe@%%@AE@% (1981). Foreign influence and
conservative government were the rule from the 1890s to the 1950s, when a
labor code and other reforms were adopted. From 1963 to the early 1980s
rightist-to-moderate army elements dominated the nation's politics, but a
new constitution (1982) brought free elections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%honey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%honey%@AE@%,%@CR:HONEY           @%%@QR:honey@% sweet, viscous fluid made by honeybees from the nectar of flowers,%@EH@%
containing 70% to 80% sugar. It has been a major sweetening agent since
earliest times. The worker bee transforms the sucrose of nectar into the
simple sugars fructose and glucose by the enzyme action of its honey sac,
and stores the honey to thicken in the wax cells of the hive. The excess
of the colony's requirement may be extracted by humans for use as food.
The flavor and color of honey depend on the kind of flower that produced
the nectar, e.g., alfalfa, clover, orange, or tupelo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%honeydew melon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%honeydew melon%@AE@%:%@CR:HONEYDEW.MELON  @%%@QR:honeydew melon@% see %@AU@%MELON%@BO:          5e7db2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%honey locust%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%honey locust%@AE@%,%@CR:HONEY.LOCUST    @%%@QR:honey locust@% deciduous tree (%@AI@%Gleditsia triacanthos%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%PULSE%@BO:          7aecb8@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to the eastern half of the U.S. Often grown as a shade tree or as
an ornamental, the honey locust has fragrant flowers, compound leaves,
branching thorns, and brown pods with edible pulp. Its durable wood is
used chiefly for fence posts and crossties.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%honeysuckle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%honeysuckle%@AE@%,%@CR:HONEYSUCKLE     @%%@QR:honeysuckle@% common name for vines and shrubs of the family%@EH@%
Caprifoliaceae. Found in the Northern Hemisphere, the family includes the
honeysuckles, elders, snowberries, viburnums, and weigelas. The true
honeysuckles (genus %@AI@%Lonicera%@AE@%) include the well-known trumpet honeysuckle
(%@AI@%L. sempervirens%@AE@%), with fragrant scarlet blossoms, and the Japanese
honeysuckle (%@AI@%L. japonica%@AE@%), with white to yellow blossoms, now a noxious
weed. Elders and viburnums usually have showy clusters of white flowers,
and some produce edible berries, e.g., the North American elder (%@AI@%Sambucus
%@AI@%canadensis%@AE@%), whose berries are used in preserves and wine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hong Kong%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hong Kong%@AE@%,%@CR:HONG.KONG       @%%@QR:Hong Kong@% Mandarin %@AI@%Hsiang Kang,%@AE@% British crown colony (1988 est. pop.%@EH@%
5,651,193), land area 399 sq mi (1,034 sq km), adjacent to Guangdong
prov., SE China, on the estuary of the Pearl R., 40 mi (64 km) E of %@AU@%MACAO%@BO:          586a76@%%@AE@%
and 90 mi (145 km) SE of %@AU@%CANTON%@BO:          1855fa@%%@AE@%. The colony comprises Hong Kong island,
ceded by China in 1842; Kowloon peninsula, ceded in 1860; and the New
Territories, a mainland area adjoining Kowloon that was leased in 1898
for 99 years along with Deep Bay, Mirs Bay, and some 235 offshore
islands. Hong Kong is a free port, a bustling trade center, a shopping
and banking hub, and one of the greatest trading and transshipment
centers in the Far East. It has also become a leading light industrial
manufacturing center, utilizing the abundant cheap labor available. The
textile industry is the colony's largest; clothing, plastics, and
electronic goods are also produced. Only about one seventh of the land is
arable, and food and water must be imported, much of it from China. Hong
Kong was a sparsely populated area when it was occupied by the British
during the %@AU@%OPIUM WAR%@BO:          6e1c93@%%@AE@% (1839-42). As a colony, it prospered as an east-west
trading center and as the commercial gateway to and distribution center
for S China. Conquered (1941) by the Japanese during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, it was
reoccupied by the British in 1945. Hong Kong is one of the most severely
crowded urban areas in the world. Hundreds of thousands of refugees
streamed into the city after 1949 and thousands more from Vietnam and S
China flooded Hong Kong in the late 1970s, sparking stringent new
controls on the Chinese border (1980). For China, Hong Kong remains a
major source of foreign exchange and an important commercial link with
the West. In 1997 Hong Kong will become a Special Administrative Region
of China.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Honiara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Honiara%@AE@%,%@CR:HONIARA         @%%@QR:Honiara@% city (1985 est. pop. 26,000), capital of the %@AU@%SOLOMON ISLANDS%@BO:          8b445c@%%@AE@%, on%@EH@%
%@AU@%GUADALCANAL%@BO:          3e0b8c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Honolulu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Honolulu%@AE@%,%@CR:HONOLULU        @%%@QR:Honolulu@% city (1986 est. pop. 372,300; Honolulu co. 1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
816,700), capital of %@AU@%HAWAII%@BO:          407f77@%%@AE@%, on the SE coast of the island of Oahu. The
city and county are legally coextensive. Famous for its beauty and ethnic
diversity, it is the economic center of the Hawaiian islands and the
crossroads of the Pacific. The first European to see it was an
Englishman, Captain William Brown. Honolulu grew into a Hawaiian royal
residence and became the capital of the kingdom of Hawaii in 1845. In the
19th cent. it was a busy whaling and trading port occupied successively
by Russian, British, and French forces. It remained the capital upon U.S.
annexation (1898) of the islands and the coming (1959) of statehood.
During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% its naval base, %@AU@%PEARL HARBOR%@BO:          727da8@%%@AE@%, was the staging area
for U.S. forces in the Pacific and the site of the 1941 Japanese bombing.
After the war, tourism, industrial diversification, and luxury building
accelerated. Defense activities are still important. Sugar processing and
pineapple canning are the city's main industries. Waikiki Beach and
nearby Diamond Head crater are famous. Notable institutions include the
Univ. of Hawaii, Bishop Museum, Kawaiahao Church (1841), and Iolani
Palace (the only royal palace in the U.S.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Honorius I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Honorius I%@AE@%,%@CR:HONORIUS.I      @%%@QR:Honorius I@% pope (625-38), an Italian. He wrote a letter apparently%@EH@%
supporting the heresy of %@AU@%MONOTHELETISM%@BO:          62fc7f@%%@AE@%. The pope and letter were declared
heretical at the Third Council of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          22895d@%%@AE@%. The letter is held not
to affect papal infallibility because Honorius was not speaking ex
cathedra.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Honorius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Honorius%@AE@%,%@CR:HONORIUS        @%%@QR:Honorius@% 384-423, Roman emperor of the West (395-423), which he%@EH@%
inherited from his father, %@AU@%THEODOSIUS I%@BO:          94be16@%%@AE@%, as his brother %@AU@%ARCADIUS%@BO:           7477c@%%@AE@%
inherited the East. Honorius had his guardian, %@AU@%STILICHO%@BO:          8f176f@%%@AE@%, murdered (408).
After the Visigoths under %@AU@%ALARIC I%@BO:           2a7b6@%%@AE@% invaded Italy and sacked Rome (410),
Honorius made peace (412) with them. In 421 he was forced to accept as
co-ruler his general Constantius, who had married his sister, Galla
Placidia. The West declined markedly during his weak reign.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Honshu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Honshu%@AE@%,%@CR:HONSHU          @%%@QR:Honshu@% island (1985 pop. 96,687,700), largest (c.89,000 sq mi/230,510 sq%@EH@%
km) and most populous island in Japan. It is c.800 mi (1,290 km) long and
from 30 to 150 mi (50 to 240 km) wide, with a climate ranging from
subtropical in the south to cold-temperate in the north. Rugged
mountains, reaching 12,389 ft (3,776 m) at Mt. %@AU@%FUJI%@BO:          36c0e0@%%@AE@%, cover most of the
island. The population is concentrated in a series of small coastal
plains along the south, including the Kwanto or Kanto Plain (c.5,000 sq
mi/12,950 sq km), site of the great Tokyo-Yokohama industrial complex,
the Kinki district Osaka-Kobe, and the Nobi Plain (%@AU@%NAGOYA%@BO:          660b93@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooch%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooch%@AE@%%@CR:HOOCH           @%%@QR:Hooch@%or %@AB@%Hoogh, Pieter de%@AE@%, b. c.1629, d. after 1677, Dutch %@AU@%GENRE%@BO:          38d0c5@%%@AE@% painter.%@EH@%
His paintings of intimate interiors, with rooms opening into other rooms
or outdoors, display his ability to handle complicated lighting. One of
his finest works is %@AI@%Courtyard of a Dutch House%@AE@% (National Gall., London).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hood, John Bell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hood, John Bell%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOD1           @%%@QR:Hood, John Bell@% 1831-79, Confederate general in the American %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
b. Owingsville, Ky. Hood was named (1864) Confederate commander in the
%@AU@%ATLANTA CAMPAIGN%@BO:           96121@%%@AE@%. He later marched into Tennessee but was defeated (Dec.
1864) at Nashville.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hood, Raymond Mathewson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hood, Raymond Mathewson%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOD2           @%%@QR:Hood, Raymond Mathewson@% 1881-1934, American architect; b. Pawtucket,%@EH@%
R.I. His traditional design vocabulary changed to meet the challenges of
European modernists in the 1920s. He was cowinner (1922) of the Chicago
Tribune Tower international competition with a neo-Gothic design
(completed 1925). His McGraw-Hill skyscraper (1931) in New York City is
an fine example of the %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL STYLE%@BO:          4902ad@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hood, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hood, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOD3           @%%@QR:Hood, Thomas@% 1799-1845, English poet, noted for his compassion for the%@EH@%
poor and unfortunate in such poems as "The Song of the Shirt" and "The
Bridge of Sighs." He also wrote much humorous verse and prose and edited
several prominent magazines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hoof-and-mouth disease%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hoof-and-mouth disease%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOFANDSEASE    @%%@QR:hoof-and-mouth disease@% highly contagious viral disease of cattle, sheep,%@EH@%
goats, and other cloven-hoofed animals. Symptoms include fever, loss of
appetite and weight, and blistering on mucous membranes. The disease is
spread through direct contact and also indirectly by way of contaminated
food, water, soil, and other materials. Humans seldom contract the
disease but may be carriers, as may rats, dogs, birds, and wild animals.
Although there are vaccines for the disease, epidemics still cause
enormous losses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoogh, Pieter de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoogh, Pieter de%@AE@%:%@CR:HOOGH           @%%@QR:Hoogh, Pieter de@% see %@AU@%HOOCH, PIETER DE%@BO:          442aab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooke, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooke, Robert%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOKE           @%%@QR:Hooke, Robert@% 1635-1703, English physicist, mathematician, and inventor;%@EH@%
considered the greatest mechanic of his age. He improved astronomical
instruments, watches, and clocks, and first formulated the theory of
planetary movements as a mechanical problem. He devised (1684) a
practicable telegraph system; invented the spiral spring in watches and
the first screw-divided quadrant; and constructed the first arithmetical
machine and Gregorian telescope. He stated Hooke's law on elasticity (see
%@AU@%STRENGTH OF MATERIALS%@BO:          8fab12@%%@AE@%) and anticipated the law of universal %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooker, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooker, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOKER1         @%%@QR:Hooker, Joseph@% 1814-79, Union general in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; b. Hadley,%@EH@%
Mass. Given command (Jan. 1863) of the Army of the Potomac, he was
decisively defeated by Gen. R.E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%CHANCELLORSVILLE%@BO:          1b71d8@%%@AE@%. He later served
in the %@AU@%CHATTANOOGA CAMPAIGN%@BO:          1c40ed@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooker, Richard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooker, Richard%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOKER2         @%%@QR:Hooker, Richard@% 1554?-1600, English theologian and Anglican clergyman.%@EH@%
His %@AI@%Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity%@AE@% helped to formulate the
intellectual concepts of Anglicanism and influenced civil ecclesiastical
government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooker, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooker, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOKER3         @%%@QR:Hooker, Thomas@% 1586-1647, Puritan clergyman in colonial America; b.%@EH@%
England. Emigrating (1633) to Massachusetts, he became unhappy with the
strict theological rule there. In 1635-36 he and his followers founded
%@AU@%HARTFORD%@BO:          404701@%%@AE@%, Conn.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooker, Sir William Jackson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooker, Sir William Jackson%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOKER4         @%%@QR:Hooker, Sir William Jackson@% 1785-1865, English botanist. A leading%@EH@%
authority on ferns, he formed a famous herbarium and built up the Glasgow
and Kew botanical gardens. In Kew Gardens he founded the first museum of
economic botany. His many writings include %@AI@%British Jungermanniae%@AE@% (1816),
%@AI@%Flora Scotica%@AE@% (1821), %@AI@%British Flora%@AE@% (1830), and works on ferns.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooke's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooke's law%@AE@%:%@CR:HOOKES.LAW      @%%@QR:Hooke's law@% see %@AU@%STRENGTH OF MATERIALS%@BO:          8fab12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hooks, Benjamin Lawson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hooks, Benjamin Lawson%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOKS           @%%@QR:Hooks, Benjamin Lawson@% 1925-, American black leader; b. Memphis, Tenn.%@EH@%
In 1972 Pres. %@AU@%NIXON%@BO:          6a5b4d@%%@AE@% named Hooks, a lawyer and Baptist minister, to the
%@AU@%FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION%@BO:          32327c@%%@AE@%, making him its first black member. In
1977 he became executive director of the %@AU@%NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE
%@AU@%ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE%@BO:          66beea@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hookworm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hookworm%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOKWORM        @%%@QR:hookworm@% any of a number of parasitic nematodes, order Strongiloidae,%@EH@%
found in tropical and subtropical climates. The hookworm larva usually
penetrates exposed skin of humans and other mammals and migrates to the
small intestine, where it attaches itself by means of hooks and feeds on
the host's blood. Hookworm infestation causes %@AU@%ANEMIA%@BO:           56094@%%@AE@%, diarrhea, and
abdominal pain, and is treated with drugs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoover, Herbert Clark%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoover, Herbert Clark%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOVER1         @%%@QR:Hoover, Herbert Clark@% 1874-1964, 31st president of the U.S. (1929-33);%@EH@%
b. West Branch, Iowa. Before 1914 he was a mining engineer and
consultant. During World War I he headed food and relief bureaus in
Europe. As secretary of commerce (1921-29) under %@AU@%HARDING%@BO:          3fe837@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%COOLIDGE%@BO:          22f96d@%%@AE@%, he
fostered trade associations and supported such engineering projects as
the St. Lawrence Waterway and the Hoover Dam. He easily won the 1928
Republican presidential nomination and defeated Democrat Alfred E. %@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a5c14@%%@AE@%.
His administration was dominated by the %@AU@%GREAT DEPRESSION%@BO:          3cd5ed@%%@AE@%, ushered in by
the stock market crash of Oct. 1929. Believing that the economy would
regenerate spontaneously, Hoover was reluctant to extend federal
activities. But he did begin a large public works program, and the
%@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION FINANCE CORPORATION%@BO:          7d3c98@%%@AE@% was created (1932). Congress,
controlled by Democrats after 1930, passed the Emergency Relief Act and
created the federal home loan banks. In 1932 some 15,000 ex-servicemen,
known as Bonus Marchers, marched on Washington to demand immediate
payment of their World War I bonus certificates. Hoover ordered federal
troops to oust them from government property. The U.S. took part in the
London %@AU@%NAVAL CONFERENCE%@BO:          67a599@%%@AE@% of 1930 and the abortive %@AU@%DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE%@BO:          29534f@%%@AE@%.
In 1931 Hoover proposed a one-year moratorium on %@AU@%REPARATIONS%@BO:          7e312b@%%@AE@% and war
debts to ease the financial situation in Europe. He ran for reelection in
1932 but was overwhelmingly defeated by Franklin D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%. Later
Hoover coordinated (1946) food supplies to war-ravaged countries and
headed (1947-49) the Hoover Commission, which recommended administrative
reforms of the executive branch. He headed a second commission (1953-55),
which studied policy and organization.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoover, J(ohn) Edgar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoover, J(ohn) Edgar%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOVER2         @%%@QR:Hoover, J(ohn) Edgar@% 1895-1972, U.S. director of the %@AU@%FEDERAL BUREAU OF%@EH@%
%@AU@%INVESTIGATION%@BO:          322e01@%%@AE@% (1924-72); b. Washington, D.C. As director, he built an
efficient crime-detection system and attacked organized crime. After
World War II he targeted Communist activities and became a controversial
figure because of FBI harassment of left-wing dissenters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoover Dam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoover Dam%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOVER.DAM      @%%@QR:Hoover Dam@% known as %@AB@%Boulder Dam%@AE@% (1933-47), one of the world's major%@EH@%
dams, c.726 ft (221 m) high and 1,244 ft (379 m) long, on the %@AU@%COLORADO%@BO:          2096c3@%%@AE@% R.
between Nevada and Arizona. Built from 1931 to 1936, the multipurpose dam
impounds %@AB@%Lake Mead%@AE@%. It has a hydroelectric capacity of 1.3 Mw.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace%@AE@%,%@CR:HOOVER.AR       @%%@QR:Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace@% at Stanford Univ., Palo%@EH@%
Alto, Calif. Established (1919) as the Hoover War Library by Herbert
%@AU@%HOOVER%@BO:          4444ca@%%@AE@%, it houses collections that include source material from World
Wars I and II. It conducts research, publication, and advanced study.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hop%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hop%@AE@%,%@CR:HOP             @%%@QR:hop@% herbaceous perennial vine of the %@AU@%MULBERRY%@BO:          64fc4d@%%@AE@% family, widely cultivated%@EH@%
since early times for brewing purposes. The commercial hop (%@AI@%Humulus
%@AI@%lupulus%@AE@%), native to Eurasia, is grown for the conelike female flowers,
called hops, used to impart a bitter flavor to beer. Oil of hops is used
in perfumes, and the stem is used for fiber.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hope, Bob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hope, Bob%@AE@%,%@CR:HOPE            @%%@QR:Hope, Bob@% 1903-, American comedian, b. England as Leslie Townes Hope.%@EH@%
Hope debuted as a comedian on radio (1935). He later teamed with Bing
%@AU@%CROSBY%@BO:          24e85f@%%@AE@% and Dorothy Lamour for six successful "Road" films (1940-53), and
has appeared in other movies and on television. He made frequent
entertainment tours of U.S. military bases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hopi Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hopi Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:HOPI.INDIANS    @%%@QR:Hopi Indians@% group of %@AU@%PUEBLO INDIANS%@BO:          7ac21a@%%@AE@% of the Southwest (see %@AU@%NORTH%@EH@%
%@AU@%AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@%) who occupy several %@AU@%MESA%@BO:          5f100d@%%@AE@% pueblos in NE Arizona. Most
speak Hopi, a Uto-Aztecan language (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%).
Geographically isolated, they resisted European influence more than other
Pueblo tribes and participated in Pope's revolt (1680) against the
Spanish. In the 1820s the %@AU@%NAVAHO%@BO:          679fa7@%%@AE@% began to encroach on their lands.
Sedentary farmers and sheep herders, they retain clan structure and
rituals, including the %@AU@%KACHINA%@BO:          4df4dd@%%@AE@% ceremony and snake dance; at the same
time, the Hopi have a high level of education. In 1975 the federal
government began procedures to separate Navaho and Hopi lands, requiring
several thousand Navahos to relocate.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hopkins, Gerard Manley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hopkins, Gerard Manley%@AE@%,%@CR:HOPKINS1        @%%@QR:Hopkins, Gerard Manley@% 1844-89, English poet. His intense poems and%@EH@%
experiments in prosody have profoundly influenced 20th-cent. poetry.
Hopkins was a convert to Catholicism and a Jesuit priest, and his poems
and letters often show his inner conflict and deep dissatisfaction with
himself as a poet and a servant of God. His mature work began with "The
Wreck of the %@AI@%Deutschland"%@AE@% and includes "God's Grandeur" and "The
Windhover." Edited by Robert %@AU@%BRIDGES%@BO:          13dd45@%%@AE@%, his %@AI@%Poems%@AE@% was published
posthumously in 1918.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hopkins, Harry Lloyd%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hopkins, Harry Lloyd%@AE@%,%@CR:HOPKINS2        @%%@QR:Hopkins, Harry Lloyd@% 1890-1946, American public official; b. Sioux City,%@EH@%
Iowa. An intimate friend and close adviser of Pres. Franklin D.
%@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%, he headed the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (1933)
and the %@AU@%WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION%@BO:          a32a12@%%@AE@% (1935). He was secretary of
commerce (1938-40).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoppe, Willie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoppe, Willie%@AE@%%@CR:HOPPE           @%%@QR:Hoppe, Willie@% (William Frederick Hoppe) (hop'e), 1887-1959, American%@EH@%
billiards champion; b. Cornwall, N.Y. He won (1906) his first world
championship in Paris. In 46 years of competition before retiring in
1952, he took 51 world titles, including 12 three-cushion championships.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hopper, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hopper, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:HOPPER          @%%@QR:Hopper, Edward@% 1882-1967, American painter; b. Nyack, N.Y. A student of%@EH@%
%@AU@%HENRI%@BO:          419f87@%%@AE@%, he gained an early reputation with his etchings. His realistic
paintings of streets and houses, often without figures, have an
atmosphere of loneliness and an almost menacing starkness. A
characteristic oil is %@AI@%Early Sunday Morning%@AE@% (1930; Whitney Mus., N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoppner, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoppner, John%@AE@%,%@CR:HOPPNER         @%%@QR:Hoppner, John@% 1758-1810, English portrait painter and protege of %@AU@%GEORGE%@EH@%
%@AU@%III%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@%. His portraits, painted with facility and lively color, include those
of the countess of Oxford (National Gall., London) and the duke of Kent
(Windsor Castle).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horace%@AE@%%@CR:HORACE          @%%@QR:Horace@%, 65 BC-8 BC, Latin poet, one of the greatest %@AU@%LYRIC%@BO:          585494@%%@AE@% poets. His%@EH@%
benefactor, %@AU@%MAECENAS%@BO:          594d43@%%@AE@%, gave him the famous Sabine farm where he spent most
of his later life, writing poetry reflecting the civilized spirit of the
Augustan age and his own genial disposition and love of nature. His
poetry consists of two books of %@AI@%Satires,%@AE@% four books of %@AI@%Odes,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Epodes,%@AE@%
two books of %@AI@%Epistles,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Carmen Saeculare%@AE@% (a hymn), and the %@AI@%Ars Poetica%@AE@%
(on literary matters). Horace's %@AU@%SATIRE%@BO:          84ce7e@%%@AE@% was gentler than that of %@AU@%JUVENAL%@BO:          4de8e9@%%@AE@%.
He was a master of poetic form, and his later verse shows a completely
individual adaptation of Greek meters to Latin. Horace has remained a
major influence on English poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horatius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horatius%@AE@%%@CR:HORATIUS        @%%@QR:Horatius@% (Horatius Cocles), legendary Roman hero. With two companions he%@EH@%
held Lars Porsena's Etruscan army at bay while the Romans cut the
Sublician bridge behind him. He then swam the Tiber to safety. The story
is related in %@AU@%MACAULAY'S%@BO:          58725c@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Lays of Ancient Rome.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hormone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hormone%@AE@%,%@CR:HORMONE         @%%@QR:hormone@% chemical messenger released in minute amounts by the endocrine,%@EH@%
or ductless, glands and carried by the bloodstream to target tissues,
where it produces either rapid or long-term effects (see %@AU@%ENDOCRINE
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          2ebe7a@%%@AE@%). Most hormones fall into two major categories: %@AU@%PEPTIDES%@BO:          73215c@%%@AE@% (chains
of aminoacids) and %@AU@%LIPIDS%@BO:          558314@%%@AE@% (including %@AU@%STEROIDS%@BO:          8ef0b9@%%@AE@%). Since the lack of any
hormone may cause serious disorders, many hormones are now synthesized
for use in treating such deficiencies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hormuz, Strait of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hormuz, Strait of%@AE@%,%@CR:HORMUZ          @%%@QR:Hormuz, Strait of@% strategic waterway, 30 to 50 mi (48 to 80 km) wide,%@EH@%
between the %@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@% and the gulf of Oman, controlling ocean traffic
to and from the oil-rich Persian Gulf area. Located in the strait are
Qishm Island (Iran) and three other islands-Greater Tunb, Lesser Tunb,
and Abu Musa-seized by Iran (1971) but also claimed by the United Arab
Emirates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horn, Cape%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horn, Cape%@AE@%,%@CR:HORN            @%%@QR:Horn, Cape@% southernmost point of South America, S Chile, known for its%@EH@%
strong currents and stormy climate. "Rounding the Horn" was a great
hazard in the era of sailing ships.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horne, Marilyn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horne, Marilyn%@AE@%,%@CR:HORNE           @%%@QR:Horne, Marilyn@% 1934-, American mezzo-soprano; b. Bradford, Pa. She is%@EH@%
noted for the power and smoothness of her voice. Her memorable operatic
roles include Adalgisa in %@AU@%BELLINI'S%@BO:           e28ee@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Norma%@AE@% and the title role in %@AU@%BIZET'S%@BO:          104d6f@%%@AE@%
%@AI@%Carmen%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horned lizard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horned lizard%@AE@%%@CR:HORNED.LIZARD   @%%@QR:horned lizard@% or %@AB@%horned toad,%@AE@%broad, flat-bodied %@AU@%LIZARD%@BO:          55e360@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Phrynosoma%@AE@%)%@EH@%
found in arid regions from SW Canada to Guatemala. The body is 3 to 5 in.
(7.6 to 12.7 cm) long, with spines on the head, sides, and back. Horned
lizards are protectively colored, usually in dull grays or browns.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hornet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hornet%@AE@%:%@CR:HORNET          @%%@QR:hornet@% see %@AU@%WASP%@BO:          9f7269@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horney, Karen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horney, Karen%@AE@%,%@CR:HORNEY          @%%@QR:Horney, Karen@% 1885-1952, American psychiatrist; b. Germany. Deviating%@EH@%
from orthodox Freudian analysis, she emphasized environmental and
cultural, rather than biological, factors in the genesis of %@AU@%NEUROSIS%@BO:          68802d@%%@AE@%. She
founded the American Institute of Psychoanalysis in 1941. Her works
include %@AI@%The Neurotic Personality of Our Time%@AE@% (1937) and %@AI@%Neurosis and
%@AI@%Human Growth%@AE@% (1950).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hornsby, Rogers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hornsby, Rogers%@AE@%,%@CR:HORNSBY         @%%@QR:Hornsby, Rogers@% 1896-1963, American baseball player and manager; b.%@EH@%
Winters, Tex. One of the game's greatest hitters, he played shortstop,
second base, and other positions for the St. Louis Cardinals (1915-26),
managing the team to a World Series victory in 1926. He subsequently
played or was player-manager for the New York Giants, Boston Braves,
Chicago Cubs, and St. Louis Browns before retiring as a player in 1937.
"Rajah" Hornsby won seven National League batting titles, and his .424
average in 1924 remains the modern record. His lifetime batting average
of .358 is second only to Ty %@AU@%COBB'S%@BO:          1fc33a@%%@AE@% .367.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horoscope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horoscope%@AE@%:%@CR:HOROSCOPE       @%%@QR:horoscope@% see %@AU@%ASTROLOGY%@BO:           90149@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ZODIAC%@BO:          a55fa2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horowitz, Vladimir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horowitz, Vladimir%@AE@%,%@CR:HOROWITZ        @%%@QR:Horowitz, Vladimir@% 1904-, Russian-American virtuoso pianist. He made his%@EH@%
Russian debut at 17 and first appeared in the U.S. in 1928. He is noted
for his interpretations of %@AU@%CHOPIN%@BO:          1dc737@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RACHMANINOFF%@BO:          7c026e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%LISZT%@BO:          559e88@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horse%@AE@%,%@CR:HORSE           @%%@QR:horse@% hoofed, herbivorous %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the family Equidae, the single%@EH@%
living genus of which is %@AI@%Equus,%@AE@% which includes the domestic horse, the
wild Przewalski's horse, the %@AU@%ASS%@BO:           8cb48@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%ZEBRA%@BO:          a4fda4@%%@AE@%. All are swift,
plains-dwelling herd animals with teeth adapted for grinding coarse
grass. The species can interbreed (see %@AU@%MULE%@BO:          65024b@%%@AE@%), but offspring are usually
sterile. The modern horse evolved in North America (where it later became
extinct) and spread over the world. It was hunted by early man and
domesticated by Asian nomads in the 3d millennium BC The fast, light
southern breeds may have originated independently of the heavier northern
draft breeds, and the small breeds called ponies may have evolved from a
wild European race. Until recently horses were widely used for warfare,
agriculture, and transportation. Today light breeds are used for show and
sport.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horse chestnut%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horse chestnut%@AE@%,%@CR:HORSE.CHESTNUT  @%%@QR:horse chestnut@% common name for some trees and shrubs of the family%@EH@%
Hippocastanaceae, found in north temperate zones and South America. The
horse chestnut tree (%@AI@%Aesculus hippocastanum%@AE@%) is often cultivated for
shade and ornament. The family includes the buckeyes; the prevalence of
the Ohio buckeye (%@AI@%A. glabra%@AE@%) has given Ohio its nickname, the Buckeye
State. The soft wood of horse chestnuts and buckeyes is used for paper
pulp and woodenware and in carpentry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horsemanship%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horsemanship%@AE@%,%@CR:HORSEMANSHIP    @%%@QR:horsemanship@% art of riding and handling a horse. Riding as a skilled%@EH@%
sport developed in medieval times and now includes diverse styles. Horse
shows, which originated (1864) in Ireland, test skills in such events as
hunting, jumping, and dressage. Equestrian competition is part of the
Olympics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horsepower%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horsepower%@AE@%:%@CR:HORSEPOWER      @%%@QR:horsepower@% see %@AU@%POWER%@BO:          78da82@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horse racing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horse racing%@AE@%,%@CR:HORSE.RACING    @%%@QR:horse racing@% trials of speed between two or more horses. It involves%@EH@%
races among harnessed horses with different gaits (pacers and trotters),
saddled thoroughbreds along a flat track, and saddled horses over an
obstacle course (steeplechase). Horse races are recorded as early as 1500
BC in Egypt, but the organized sport dates from 12th-cent. England. In
the U.S. the institution of legalized parimutuel betting has made horse
racing the leading spectator sport. The most important flat-racing events
(all for three-year-olds) are the Kentucky Derby, Preakness, and Belmont
Stakes, known as the Triple Crown.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horseradish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horseradish%@AE@%,%@CR:HORSERADISH     @%%@QR:horseradish@% perennial herb (%@AI@%Armoracia rusticana%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%MUSTARD%@BO:          65af93@%%@AE@% family,%@EH@%
native to central and S Europe. Once used medicinally against scurvy,
today it is grown mainly for its pungent roots, which are used in a
popular condiment.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horseshoe crab%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horseshoe crab%@AE@%,%@CR:HORSESHOE.CRAB  @%%@QR:horseshoe crab@% large marine invertebrate animal (class Merostomata), an%@EH@%
%@AU@%ARTHROPOD%@BO:           84a10@%%@AE@%. It has a heavy, dark brown, domed exoskeleton divided into a
broad horseshoe-shaped front part (prosoma), a tapered middle region
(opisthosoma), and a spiky, taillike part (telson). Also known as king
crabs, horseshoe crabs swim or burrow using five pairs of walking legs.
The largest reach 2 ft (61 cm) in length.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horsetail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horsetail%@AE@%,%@CR:HORSETAIL       @%%@QR:horsetail@% plant of the genus %@AI@%Equisetum,%@AE@% the single surviving genus of a%@EH@%
large group of primitive vascular plants that flourished during the
Carboniferous period. Found in temperate and tropical regions, horsetails
seldom grow to over 3 ft (91 cm), although %@AU@%FOSSIL%@BO:          34b3a3@%%@AE@% evidence indicates that
many extinct species were treelike in size. They have whorls of small,
scalelike leaves around a green, hollow, jointed stem. Some species bear
shoots with spore-bearing cones at the top for reproduction. The scouring
rush (%@AI@%E. hymenale%@AE@%), common in North America and Eurasia, is so called
because it has a coarse texture suitable for scouring.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horta, Victor, Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horta, Victor, Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:HORTA           @%%@QR:Horta, Victor, Baron@% 1861-1947, Belgian architect. His Tassel House,%@EH@%
Brussels (1892-93), was the earliest monument of %@AU@%ART NOUVEAU%@BO:           87c26@%%@AE@%. He also
designed the Maison du Peuple (1896-99), the market and communal complex
in Brussels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horthy de Nagybanya, Nicholas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horthy de Nagybanya, Nicholas%@AE@%%@CR:HORTHY.ANYA     @%%@QR:Horthy de Nagybanya, Nicholas@%, 1868-1957, Hungarian admiral and regent.%@EH@%
He led (1919) the counterrevolutionary forces in Hungary against Bela %@AU@%KUN%@BO:          5108e3@%%@AE@%
and was regent (1920-44). After he tried to make peace with the USSR in
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, the Germans forced him to resign and took him to Germany.
He died in Portugal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%horticulture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%horticulture%@AE@%,%@CR:HORTICULTURE    @%%@QR:horticulture@% science of cultivating fruits, vegetables, flowers, and%@EH@%
ornamental plants; a branch of %@AU@%AGRICULTURE%@BO:           21c43@%%@AE@%. Horticulture usually refers
to small-scale gardening and %@AU@%AGRONOMY%@BO:           224f5@%%@AE@% to the large-scale growing of field
crops. Although many horticultural practices are ancient, relatively
recent knowledge of %@AU@%GENETICS%@BO:          38b6d7@%%@AE@%, plant %@AU@%PHYSIOLOGY%@BO:          755de9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PATHOLOGY%@BO:          720773@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%BIOCHEMISTRY%@BO:           fd86f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ENTOMOLOGY%@BO:          2f36b8@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SOILS%@BO:          8b105a@%%@AE@%, and the practical
application (e.g., in plant breeding) of this knowledge, have made
horticulture an extremely complex science. See also %@AU@%BOTANY%@BO:          127e00@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Horus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Horus%@AE@%,%@CR:HORUS           @%%@QR:Horus@% in ancient %@AU@%EGYPTIAN RELIGION%@BO:          2d0023@%%@AE@%, sky god, god of light and goodness.%@EH@%
The son of %@AU@%OSIRIS%@BO:          6f28d0@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ISIS%@BO:          49fdb5@%%@AE@%, he avenged his father's murder by defeating
Set, the god of evil and darkness.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hosea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hosea%@AE@%%@CR:HOSEA           @%%@QR:Hosea@% or %@AB@%Osee%@AE@% , book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 28th in the Authorized%@EH@%
Version, first of the Minor %@AU@%PROPHETS%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@%. It consists of the career and
sermons of Hosea, who preached against the sins of the northern kingdom
of Israel in the 8th cent. BC, focusing on apostasy, decadence,
punishment, and redemption.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoshea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoshea%@AE@%:%@CR:HOSHEA          @%%@QR:Hoshea@% see %@AU@%JOSHUA%@BO:          4d5381@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hospice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hospice%@AE@%,%@CR:HOSPICE         @%%@QR:hospice@% program for the humane and supportive care for the terminally%@EH@%
ill and their families; the term also applies to a facility for housing
dying patients who can no longer be cared for at home. A team of
professionals committed to meeting the individual needs of the patient
provides physical, emotional, social, and spiritual comfort. Hospice
emphasizes home care for as long as possible; relief from pain; an
attractive, noninstitutional environment; and personal and family
counseling. The movement was pioneered by Dr. Cecily Saunders, founder of
St. Christopher's Hospice (opened 1967), London, and furthered by Dr.
Elisabeth %@AU@%KUBLER-ROSS'S%@BO:          50f7ca@%%@AE@% work with the dying. The movement has recently
gained importance in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hostages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hostages%@AE@%,%@CR:HOSTAGES        @%%@QR:hostages@% historically people delivered as a token of good faith and%@EH@%
therefore treated well; today hostages are more often kidnapped and
tortured by political dissidents demanding concessions from their own or
foreign governments. Iran's seizure (1979) of U.S. hostages, with demands
for the return of the deposed Shah, resulted in a crisis that paralyzed
Pres. %@AU@%CARTER'S%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% administration. Since 1983, pro-Iranian groups in Lebanon
have taken hostages, most notably Terry %@AU@%WAITE%@BO:          9e920c@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%KIDNAPPING%@BO:          4f7e70@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hostos, Eugenio Maria de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hostos, Eugenio Maria de%@AE@%%@CR:HOSTOS          @%%@QR:Hostos, Eugenio Maria de@%, 1839-1903, Latin American philosopher,%@EH@%
sociologist, writer, and political and educational reformer. In Santo
Domingo, Puerto Rico, he founded (1879-88) the first normal school and
introduced advanced teaching methods; while in Chile he was instrumental
in having women admitted to the university. He wrote some 50 volumes of
prose.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hot spring%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hot spring%@AE@%,%@CR:HOT.SPRING      @%%@QR:hot spring@% natural discharge of groundwater with an elevated%@EH@%
temperature. Most hot springs (including %@AU@%GEYSERS%@BO:          39d0f4@%%@AE@%) result from water
passing through or near recently formed, hot, igneous rocks. Current
energy concerns have spurred an interest in using the geothermal energy
of hot springs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hot Springs National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hot Springs National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:HOT.SPRRK       @%%@QR:Hot Springs National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hotspur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hotspur%@AE@%:%@CR:HOTSPUR         @%%@QR:Hotspur@% see %@AU@%PERCY, SIR HENRY%@BO:          7335e9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hottentots%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hottentots%@AE@%:%@CR:HOTTENTOTS      @%%@QR:Hottentots@% see %@AU@%KHOIKHOI%@BO:          4f5fe3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Houdin, Jean Eugene Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Houdin, Jean Eugene Robert%@AE@%%@CR:HOUDIN          @%%@QR:Houdin, Jean Eugene Robert@%, 1805-71, French magician. Famed for his%@EH@%
optical illusions, he liked to explain the natural causes of these and
other "magic" tricks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Houdini, Harry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Houdini, Harry%@AE@%,%@CR:HOUDINI         @%%@QR:Houdini, Harry@% 1874-1926, American magician; b. Hungary as Erich Weiss.%@EH@%
He took his stage name from the French magician %@AU@%HOUDIN%@BO:          44a86d@%%@AE@%. He was
world-famed for his escapes from every sort of bond and sealed container,
and for his exposure of fraudulent spiritualistic mediums.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Houdon, Jean-Antoine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Houdon, Jean-Antoine%@AE@%%@CR:HOUDON          @%%@QR:Houdon, Jean-Antoine@%, 1741-1828, French neoclassical sculptor. In%@EH@%
creating sculptural documents of his time he also developed a kind of
portrait remarkable for elegance, measured realism, and depiction of
individuality. He did portrait busts of such statesmen as Thomas
Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and Prince Henry of Prussia, and a
full-length sculpture of Voltaire. His later works reveal his study of
antique form, e.g., %@AI@%The Bather%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.). He exerted a strong
influence for generations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hound%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hound%@AE@%,%@CR:HOUND           @%%@QR:hound@% class of dogs bred to hunt animals. Most hunt by scent, their%@EH@%
quarry ranging from such large game as bear or elk to small game and
vermin. Some long-legged breeds that hunt mainly by sight are also
classed as hounds. A third variety, treeing hounds, track by scent and
pursue tree-climbing animals. Many scent hounds have coats patterned in
"hound colors": black, white, and tan. See individual breeds, e.g.,
%@AU@%AFGHAN HOUND%@BO:           1a72b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BASENJI%@BO:           cc6d3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BASSET HOUND%@BO:           cf1ab@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DACHSHUND%@BO:          25e523@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FOXHOUND%@BO:          34edbe@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%WHIPPET
%@AU@%%@BO:          a110e3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Houphouet-Boigny, Felix%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Houphouet-Boigny, Felix%@AE@%%@CR:HOUPHOUETBOIGNY @%%@QR:Houphouet-Boigny, Felix@% (oofwa'bwa'nya, 1905-, president of the %@AU@%IVORY%@EH@%
%@AU@%COAST%@BO:          4a911f@%%@AE@% (1960-). When the Ivory Coast became a constituent member of the
French Community in 1958, he was its president. Two years later he led
the country to full independence and became president of the new
republic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hour circle%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hour circle%@AE@%:%@CR:HOUR.CIRCLE     @%%@QR:hour circle@% see %@AU@%ASTRONOMICAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS%@BO:           90b61@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%House, Edward Mandell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%House, Edward Mandell%@AE@%,%@CR:HOUSE           @%%@QR:House, Edward Mandell@% 1858-1938, American political figure, known as%@EH@%
"Colonel" House; b. Houston. He was Pres. %@AU@%WILSON'S%@BO:          a215a5@%%@AE@% closest adviser and
undertook diplomatic missions. He helped draft the Treaty of %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd7bc@%%@AE@%
and the Covenant of the %@AU@%LEAGUE OF NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@%. His friendship with Wilson
ended in 1919 over differences in the Versailles treaty's negotiations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%House of Commons%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%House of Commons%@AE@%:%@CR:HOUSE.OS        @%%@QR:House of Commons@% see %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%House of Lords%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%House of Lords%@AE@%:%@CR:HOUSE.OF.LORDS  @%%@QR:House of Lords@% see %@AU@%PARLIAMENT%@BO:          7178a4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%House of Parliament%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%House of Parliament%@AE@%:%@CR:HOUSE.OMENT     @%%@QR:House of Parliament@% see %@AU@%WESTMINSTER PALACE%@BO:          a0c251@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%House of Representatives%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%House of Representatives%@AE@%,%@CR:HOUSE.OS        @%%@QR:House of Representatives@% United States: see %@AU@%CONGRESS OF THE UNITED%@EH@%
%@AU@%STATES%@BO:          2209cf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%house sparrow%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%house sparrow%@AE@%:%@CR:HOUSE.SPARROW   @%%@QR:house sparrow@% see %@AU@%ENGLISH SPARROW%@BO:          2f10d9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Housing and Urban Development, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Housing and Urban Development, United States Department of%@AE@%%@CR:HOUSINGOPMENT   @%%@QR:Housing and Urban Development, United States Department of@% (HUD), federal%@EH@%
executive department established (1965) to administer programs that
provide aid for housing and community development. It grants loan
assistance for low-income housing programs and encourages the
participation of private home-building and mortgage-lending industries in
urban development projects.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Housman, A(lfred) E(dward)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Housman, A(lfred) E(dward)%@AE@%,%@CR:HOUSMAN         @%%@QR:Housman, A(lfred) E(dward)@% 1859-1936, English poet and scholar. A%@EH@%
failure at Oxford and a recluse, he nevertheless became a leading
classicist, editing Manilius, Juvenal, and Lucan. He is best known for
the poetry that appeared in two volumes, %@AI@%A Shropshire Lad%@AE@% (1896) and %@AI@%Last
%@AI@%Poems%@AE@% (1922). In such lyrics as "To an Athlete Dying Young" and "When I
was One-and-twenty," he handled with vivid economy the themes of
mortality and the passing of youth. His brother, %@AB@%Laurence Housman,%@AE@%
1865-1959, was also a writer, particularly noted for his play %@AI@%Victoria
%@AI@%Regina%@AE@% (1934).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Houston, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Houston, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:HOUSTON1        @%%@QR:Houston, Samuel@% 1793-1863, Texas statesman; b. near Lexington, Va. He%@EH@%
was sent (1823, 1825) by Tennessee to the U.S. Congress as a Democrat and
in 1827 became the state's governor. When his wife left him, however, he
resigned (1829) and later moved to Texas. After Texas declared its
independence from Mexico, Houston commanded the revolutionary troops and
defeated the Mexicans at the battle of San Jacinto (Apr. 21, 1836). He
was the first president of the Republic of %@AU@%TEXAS%@BO:          94505d@%%@AE@% (1836-38), serving again
from 1841 to 1844. After Texas joined the U.S., he was U.S. senator
(1846-59). Elected (1859) governor of Texas, he opposed secession and was
removed from office in 1861.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Houston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Houston%@AE@%,%@CR:HOUSTON2        @%%@QR:Houston@% city (1986 est. pop. 1,728,910), seat of Harris co., SE Tex., a%@EH@%
deepwater port on the Houston Ship Channel; inc. 1837. It is the largest
city in the South and Southwest; a commercial, industrial, and financial
hub; and one of the world's great oil centers. It has numerous space and
science research firms, petrochemical works, shipyards, grain elevators,
breweries, mills, and factories. The city is also a major corporate
center. Settled in 1836, it was capital (1837-39) of the Texas Republic.
It was a 19th-cent. railhead and grew rapidly after the opening (1914) of
the ship channel linking it to the Gulf of %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fcb5a@%%@AE@%. Coastal oil fields and
other natural resources poured money into Houston. World War II
shipbuilding and the opening (1961) nearby of NASA's Manned Spacecraft
Center (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 1973) furthered its
growth. Houston is noted for its art museums, numerous universities and
cultural institutions, and the Astrodome stadium (opened 1965).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hovercraft%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hovercraft%@AE@%:%@CR:HOVERCRAFT      @%%@QR:Hovercraft@% see %@AU@%AIR-CUSHION VEHICLE%@BO:           24e8a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hovhaness, Alan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hovhaness, Alan%@AE@%%@CR:HOVHANESS       @%%@QR:Hovhaness, Alan@%, 1911-, American composer; b. Somerville, Mass. Many of%@EH@%
his compositions are based on Armenian culture. He is also interested in
unusual sonorities. His works include %@AI@%Ukiyo-Floating World%@AE@% (1965), a
symphonic poem, and %@AI@%Dawn at Mt. Tahoma%@AE@% (1973), for string orchestra.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howard, Catherine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howard, Catherine%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWARD1         @%%@QR:Howard, Catherine@% 1521?-1542, fifth queen consort of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
England. Niece of the powerful Thomas Howard, 3d duke of Norfolk, she
married the king in 1540. She was accused of adultery in 1541 and later
beheaded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howard, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howard, Henry%@AE@%:%@CR:HOWARD2         @%%@QR:Howard, Henry@% see %@AU@%SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF%@BO:          912c54@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howard University%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howard University%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWARD.TY       @%%@QR:Howard University@% at Washington, D.C.; founded 1867 to provide education%@EH@%
for newly emancipated slaves. Although predominantly a black university,
it has always been open to all qualified students. The Founders Library
has noted collections of materials on black literature and history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howe, Elias%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howe, Elias%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWE1           @%%@QR:Howe, Elias@% 1819-67, American inventor; b. Spencer, Mass. He was%@EH@%
apprenticed (1838) to a Boston instrument- and watchmaker, at whose
suggestion he turned his attention to devising a %@AU@%SEWING MACHINE%@BO:          87788a@%%@AE@%. He
exhibited his first in 1845, patented another in 1846, and sold a third
(1846) in England. After several patent infringement suits, he obtained
(1854) a judgment for royalty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howe, Gordie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howe, Gordie%@AE@%%@CR:HOWE2           @%%@QR:Howe, Gordie@% (Gordon Howe), 1928-, Canadian hockey player. Possibly the%@EH@%
greatest and most durable forward in the history of hockey, he played
(1946-71) for the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League (NHL).
With his two sons he joined (1973) the Houston Aeros and then (1977) the
New England Whalers of the World Hockey Association, ending his career in
1980 with the Hartford Whalers of the NHL. Howe's NHL career records
include most seasons (26), most games (1,767), most goals (801), and most
points (1,850).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howe, Irving%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howe, Irving%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWE3           @%%@QR:Howe, Irving@% 1920-, American critic; b. N.Y.C. An "Old Left" social%@EH@%
critic, he also writes literary criticism. His books include %@AI@%Politics and
%@AI@%the Novel%@AE@% (1957)%@AI@%,%@AE@% %@AI@%World of Our Fathers%@AE@% (1976), a study of Jewish
immigrants to the U.S.%@AI@%, and Socialism in America%@AE@% (1985).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howe, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howe, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWE4           @%%@QR:Howe, Joseph@% 1804-73, Canadian politician. A newspaper publisher, he%@EH@%
campaigned for reform and became premier (1860-63) of %@AU@%NOVA SCOTIA%@BO:          6be561@%%@AE@%.
Although he had opposed confederation, he served as president of the
council (1869-73) in J.A. %@AU@%MACDONALD'S%@BO:          5896de@%%@AE@% dominion cabinet, which cost him
political support.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howe, Julia Ward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howe, Julia Ward%@AE@%:%@CR:HOWE5           @%%@QR:Howe, Julia Ward@% see under %@AU@%HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY%@BO:          44daf6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howe, Richard Howe, Earl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howe, Richard Howe, Earl%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWE6           @%%@QR:Howe, Richard Howe, Earl@% 1726-99, British admiral. He defended the%@EH@%
English Channel in the %@AU@%SEVEN YEARS WAR%@BO:          87636b@%%@AE@%. In the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%, he
commanded (1776-78) the North American fleet. He is best remembered for
his victory over the French fleet in the battle called the First of June
in 1794. His brother, %@AB@%William Howe,%@AE@% 5th %@AB@%Viscount Howe,%@AE@% 1729-1814, was a
British general. In the American Revolution he was commander in chief in
the colonies (1775-78). He commanded the successful battle of Long Island
(1776), defeated %@AU@%WASHINGTON%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@% at the battle of the %@AU@%BRANDYWINE%@BO:          13607e@%%@AE@% (1777), and
resigned in 1778.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howe, Samuel Gridley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howe, Samuel Gridley%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWE7           @%%@QR:Howe, Samuel Gridley@% 1801-76, American reformer and philanthropist; b.%@EH@%
Boston. He founded and ran for 44 years the New England Asylum for the
Blind (later the Perkins Institute), where he was the first to educate a
blind deaf-mute successfully, and advocated reforms in the treatment of
the insane and mentally retarded. His wife, %@AB@%Julia Ward Howe,%@AE@% 1819-1910,
b. N.Y.C., was a social reformer and a widely published author who wrote
the words of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic" (1861). With her husband,
she edited the abolitionist paper %@AI@%Commonwealth%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Howells, William Dean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Howells, William Dean%@AE@%,%@CR:HOWELLS         @%%@QR:Howells, William Dean@% 1837-1920, American novelist and critic; b.%@EH@%
Martins Ferry, Ohio. A printer, journalist, and biographer of Lincoln, he
won recognition with the first of many travel books, %@AI@%Venetian Life%@AE@%
(1866), written after five years as consul to Venice. On his return to
the U.S., he was associated with such periodicals as the %@AI@%Atlantic Monthly%@AE@%
and %@AI@%Harper's Magazine.%@AE@% In his own novels and in his criticism, Howells
was a champion of %@AU@%REALISM%@BO:          7d1c18@%%@AE@% in American literature. Among his works, the
realistic novels %@AI@%A Modern Instance%@AE@% (1882) and %@AI@%The Rise of Silas Lapham%@AE@%
(1885) are regarded as his major achievements. The friend and editor of
Mark %@AU@%TWAIN%@BO:          9911cd@%%@AE@%, Howells sponsored such younger American realists as Stephen
%@AU@%CRANE%@BO:          244f0a@%%@AE@% and Frank %@AU@%NORRIS%@BO:          6b3016@%%@AE@%, and his essays on realistic European writers
helped to mold American taste. An amazingly prolific writer, he wrote
novels, plays, criticism, reminiscences, and short stories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%howitzer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%howitzer%@AE@%:%@CR:HOWITZER        @%%@QR:howitzer@% see %@AU@%ARTILLERY%@BO:           8773d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hoxha, Enver%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hoxha, Enver%@AE@%,%@CR:HOXHA           @%%@QR:Hoxha, Enver@% 1908-85, Albanian Communist leader and general. One of the%@EH@%
founders (1941) of the Albanian Communist party, he became its first
secretary in 1954. After World War II he held important government posts,
including premier (1946-54), foreign minister (1946-53), and commander of
the armed forces (1944-54).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hrdlicka, Ales%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hrdlicka, Ales%@AE@%%@CR:HRDLICKA        @%%@QR:Hrdlicka, Ales@%, 1869-1943, American anthropologist; b. Bohemia. A curator%@EH@%
(1910-42) at the %@AU@%SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION%@BO:          8a75c2@%%@AE@%, he founded and edited (1918-43)
the %@AI@%American Journal of Physical Anthropology.%@AE@% His investigations of the
evolution and migrations of early human beings produced %@AI@%Physical
%@AI@%Anthropology%@AE@% (1919), %@AI@%Anthropometry%@AE@% (1920), %@AI@%Old Americans%@AE@% (1925), and
%@AI@%Alaska Diary, 1926-1931%@AE@% (1943), among other works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hs-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hs-%@AE@%.%@CR:HS              @%%@QR:Hs-@% For some Chinese names beginning thus, see S-; e.g., for Hsi, see%@EH@%
%@AU@%SI%@BO:          88ae8f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hsia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hsia%@AE@%,%@CR:HSIA            @%%@QR:Hsia@% dynasty: see %@AU@%CHINA%@BO:          1d0fe1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hua Guofeng%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hua Guofeng%@AE@%%@CR:HUA.GUOFENG     @%%@QR:Hua Guofeng@% or %@AB@%Hua Kuofeng,%@AE@%1920-, Chinese Communist leader. He succeeded%@EH@%
(1976) %@AU@%CHOU EN-LAI%@BO:          1dd7ba@%%@AE@% as premier and %@AU@%MAO TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@% as chairman of the Chinese
Communist party. Hua was ousted as premier (1980) and party chairman
(1981) when the followers of Vice Premier %@AU@%DENG XIAOPING%@BO:          27f443@%%@AE@% consolidated
their power. In 1982 Hua was removed from the party's politburo and
placed on its Central Committee.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huang He, Hwang Ho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huang He, Hwang Ho%@AE@%,%@CR:HUANG.HE        @%%@QR:Huang He, Hwang Ho@% or %@AB@%Yellow River,%@AE@%great river of N China, c.3,000 mi%@EH@%
(4,830 km) long, sometimes called "China's Sorrow" for the devastating
floods once common along its lower course. From the Kunlun Mts. in W
China it flows generally east, with a "great northern bend" (around the
Ordos Desert), to a mouth on the Bo Hai, an arm of the %@AU@%YELLOW SEA%@BO:          a414a6@%%@AE@% north
of the Shandong Peninsula. The river is named for the great quantities of
yellow silt that it carries from China's fertile loessland region and has
deposited seaward over the millennia to form a great, now densely
populated delta called the North China Plain. A 50-year construction
program, designed to control future flooding and harness the river for
increased irrigation and hydroelectric production, was initiated in 1955.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hubbard, Elbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hubbard, Elbert%@AE@%,%@CR:HUBBARD         @%%@QR:Hubbard, Elbert@% 1856-1915, American author; b. Bloomington, Ill. His%@EH@%
Roycroft Press promoted fine books and hand craftsmanship. A believer in
rugged individualism, he wrote the inspirational essay "A Message to
Garcia" (1899).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hubble, Edwin Powell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hubble, Edwin Powell%@AE@%,%@CR:HUBBLE          @%%@QR:Hubble, Edwin Powell@% 1889-1953, American astronomer; b. Marshfield, Mo.%@EH@%
As a staff member (from 1919) at Mt. Wilson Observatory, Hubble used the
100-in. (254-cm) telescope there to discover that there are large-scale
galaxies beyond the Milky Way and that they are distributed almost
uniformly in all directions. In what is now known as %@AU@%HUBBLE'S LAW%@BO:          44f34a@%%@AE@%, he was
the first to offer observational evidence supporting the theory of the
expanding universe.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hubble's law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hubble's law%@AE@%,%@CR:HUBBLES.LAW     @%%@QR:Hubble's law@% statement that the greater the distance between any two%@EH@%
%@AU@%GALAXIES%@BO:          375000@%%@AE@%, the greater is their relative speed of separation. In other
words, the universe is expanding roughly uniformly. This empirical
finding is more consonant with the big bang theory of the universe's
origin than with the steady state theory (see %@AU@%COSMOLOGY%@BO:          23b30e@%%@AE@%). The law was
first proposed in 1929 by Edwin %@AU@%HUBBLE%@BO:          44f0dc@%%@AE@%, who observed that the more
distant a galaxy, the greater is its %@AU@%RED SHIFT%@BO:          7d6541@%%@AE@% and hence its velocity
relative to our galaxy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huch, Ricarda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huch, Ricarda%@AE@%%@CR:HUCH            @%%@QR:Huch, Ricarda@%, 1864-1947, German novelist, historian, and poet. She is%@EH@%
best known for her historical romances of %@AU@%GARIBALDI%@BO:          37ffaf@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%Defeat and Victory%@AE@%
(1906-7), and of the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%The Great War in Germany%@AE@%
(1912-14).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%huckleberry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%huckleberry%@AE@%,%@CR:HUCKLEBERRY     @%%@QR:huckleberry@% shrub (genus %@AI@%Gaylussacia%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%HEATH%@BO:          410664@%%@AE@% family, native to the%@EH@%
Americas. Huckleberry, often confused with %@AU@%BLUEBERRY%@BO:          111c12@%%@AE@%, is grown as an
ornamental or for its fruit. The common huckleberry (%@AI@%G. baccata%@AE@%) is
particularly valued for its blue or black fruit.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hudson, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hudson, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HUDSON1         @%%@QR:Hudson, Henry@% fl. 1607-11, English explorer. Sailing for the Dutch %@AU@%EAST%@EH@%
%@AU@%INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be8d0@%%@AE@% in search of the %@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@%, he explored (1609) the
%@AU@%HUDSON %@BO:          44fdf8@%%@AE@%R., giving the Dutch their claims to the area. Sailing for the
English, he reached (1610) %@AU@%HUDSON BAY%@BO:          4501be@%%@AE@%. He was abandoned at sea by a
mutinous crew.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hudson, William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hudson, William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HUDSON2         @%%@QR:Hudson, William Henry@% 1841-1922, English author and naturalist; b.%@EH@%
Argentina of American parents. The romance %@AI@%Green Mansions%@AE@% (1904), set in
a South American jungle, is a classic. %@AI@%Far Away and Long Ago%@AE@% (1918) is
autobiographical. He described nature with great sensitivity, force, and
beauty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hudson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hudson%@AE@%,%@CR:HUDSON3         @%%@QR:Hudson@% river in New York state, flowing generally south c.315 mi (510%@EH@%
km) from Lake Tear of the Clouds on Mt. Marcy in the Adirondack Mts. to
the Atlantic Ocean at New York City. It is tidal, and navigable by ocean
vessels, to Albany, 150 mi (240 km) upstream. First sighted (1524) by
%@AU@%VERRAZANO%@BO:          9ccefa@%%@AE@%, it was explored (1609) by Henry %@AU@%HUDSON%@BO:          44f9ef@%%@AE@% and became part of the
first all-water trans-Appalachian route when linked (1825) to the %@AU@%GREAT
%@AU@%LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@% by the %@AU@%ERIE CANAL%@BO:          2fcbb9@%%@AE@%. Many industries are located along its banks,
which are also associated with the well-known %@AU@%HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL%@BO:          45043d@%%@AE@% of
painting and Washington %@AU@%IRVING'S%@BO:          49d85b@%%@AE@% legend of Rip Van Winkle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hudson Bay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hudson Bay%@AE@%,%@CR:HUDSON.BAY      @%%@QR:Hudson Bay@% shallow sea, N Canada, covered by ice from October to%@EH@%
mid-July. Explored and named (1610) by Henry %@AU@%HUDSON%@BO:          44f9ef@%%@AE@%, the bay (which
extends south as James Bay) is c.850 mi (1,370 km) long and c.650 mi
(1,050 km) wide, and connects with the Atlantic Ocean through Hudson
Strait and with the Arctic Ocean through Foxe Channel. The Hudson Bay
region has been a rich source of furs since the late 1600s (see %@AU@%HUDSON'S
%@AU@%BAY COMPANY%@BO:          45078d@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hudson River school%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hudson River school%@AE@%,%@CR:HUDSON.HOOL     @%%@QR:Hudson River school@% group of American landscape painters, working from%@EH@%
1825 to 1875. Influenced by European %@AU@%ROMANTICISM'S%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% attitude toward
nature, they were attracted to the grandeur of the Hudson River valley's
scenery and painted its awesome beauty together with other spectacular
vistas from the American landscape. Thomas %@AU@%COLE%@BO:          202bbd@%%@AE@% was the leader of the
group during its most active years. Other members of the school were
Bierstadt, Durand, Densett, S.F.B. %@AU@%MORSE%@BO:          640efb@%%@AE@%, Henry Inman, F.E. %@AU@%CHURCH%@BO:          1e3880@%%@AE@%, and,
in his early work, George %@AU@%INNESS%@BO:          484b8d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hudson's Bay Company%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hudson's Bay Company%@AE@%,%@CR:HUDSONSPANY     @%%@QR:Hudson's Bay Company@% corporation chartered (1670) by the English crown%@EH@%
to operate a fur trade monopoly and settlements in the %@AU@%HUDSON BAY%@BO:          4501be@%%@AE@% region
of North America, and to discover a %@AU@%NORTHWEST PASSAGE%@BO:          6bb7b8@%%@AE@% to the Orient. The
company's traders failed to find a passage, but they did establish a
monopoly of the Canadian fur trade after the company's amalgamation
(1821) with the %@AU@%NORTH WEST COMPANY%@BO:          6bb408@%%@AE@% had ended their violent rivalry (see
%@AU@%RED RIVER SETTLEMENT%@BO:          7d6023@%%@AE@%). The united company ruled a vast territory
extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and its fortunes peaked under
Sir George %@AU@%SIMPSON'S%@BO:          896598@%%@AE@% governorship (1821-56). An internal reorganization
(1863) passed its stock from a few to many holders. The company's fur
monopoly was curtailed by the transfer (1869) of its territory to the new
dominion government in return for 300,000 pounds. In the late 19th and
early 20th cent. it was transformed from a fur-trading agency to a
gigantic corporation with many varied business interests. The company was
split up into separate organizations in 1930.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hue%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hue%@AE@%%@CR:HUE             @%%@QR:Hue@%, city (1971 est. pop. 199,900), S Vietnam, on the Hue R. near the%@EH@%
South China Sea. The third-largest city in Vietnam, it is the market
center for a rich farming region and has a cement plant nearby. Hue was
probably founded in the 3rd cent. AD In the 16th cent. it became the seat
of the dynasty that ruled %@AU@%ANNAM%@BO:           5b6f3@%%@AE@%. The French took Hue in 1883. In 1954 it
became part of South Vietnam. During the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% it was the scene of
fighting in which c.4,000 civilians were killed and most of the city
destroyed. After the war it was incorporated into united Vietnam; it has
since been rebuilt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huerta, Victoriano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huerta, Victoriano%@AE@%%@CR:HUERTA          @%%@QR:Huerta, Victoriano@%, 1854-1916, Mexican president (1913-14). As commander%@EH@%
of federal forces he overthrew Pres. %@AU@%MADERO%@BO:          5934e1@%%@AE@% and set up a dictatorship
marked by corruption and violence. Numerous revolts forced him to resign
(1914) as president and to flee into exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hufstedler, Shirley Mount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hufstedler, Shirley Mount%@AE@%,%@CR:HUFSTEDLER      @%%@QR:Hufstedler, Shirley Mount@% 1925-, American jurist and U.S. secretary of%@EH@%
education (1979-81); b. Denver. She was a county and state judge in
California (1961-68) and a federal judge (1968-79). In 1979 Pres. %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@%
named her the first secretary of education.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huggins, Sir William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huggins, Sir William%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGGINS         @%%@QR:Huggins, Sir William@% 1824-1910, English astronomer. A pioneer in%@EH@%
spectroscopic photography, he helped develop the combined use of the
telescope, spectroscope, and photographic negative. He adapted the
gelatin dry-plate negative for use in astronomical photography, making
possible exposures of any length. Huggins proved that while some nebulae
are clusters of stars, others are uniformly gaseous. He made (1866) the
first spectroscopic observations of a nova.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hugh Capet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hugh Capet%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGH.CAPET      @%%@QR:Hugh Capet@% c.938-996, king of France (987-96), first of the %@AU@%CAPETIANS%@BO:          18783e@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
He inherited (956) a vast domain in France from his father, Hugh the
Great, and in 987 was elected king. He spent much of his reign fighting
with Charles I of Lower Lorraine, the ignored Carolingian claimant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hughes, Charles Evans%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hughes, Charles Evans%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGHES1         @%%@QR:Hughes, Charles Evans@% 1862-1948, American jurist and statesman; b. Glens%@EH@%
Falls, N.Y.; LL.B., Columbia Univ. (1884). After presiding over the
enactment of much progressive legislation as governor of New York
(1907-10), he was appointed (1910) associate justice of the U.S. %@AU@%SUPREME
%@AU@%COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%. He resigned in 1916 to run for president, but he was narrowly
defeated by Woodrow Wilson. As U.S. secretary of state (1921-25) he
greatly increased U.S. diplomatic prestige. In 1930 he was appointed 11th
chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, serving until 1941; he was
moderately conservative, although he frequently voted to uphold
controversial %@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@% legislation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hughes, Howard Robard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hughes, Howard Robard%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGHES2         @%%@QR:Hughes, Howard Robard@% 1905-76, U.S. business executive; b. Houston. At%@EH@%
20 he inherited patent rights to an oil tool drill which, manufactured by
the Hughes Tool Co., formed the basis of his financial empire. A pilot,
he set several aviation records and in the 1930s formed the Hughes
Aircraft Corp. His interests extended to the motion picture industry, and
he produced such films as %@AI@%Hell's Angels%@AE@% (1930) and %@AI@%The Front Page%@AE@% (1931).
He later gained control of RKO Studios and of Trans World Airways (TWA).
A billionaire, he became a recluse in his later years.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hughes, (James) Langston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hughes, (James) Langston%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGHES3         @%%@QR:Hughes, (James) Langston@% 1902-67, black American poet; b. Joplin, Mo. A%@EH@%
major figure in the %@AU@%HARLEM RENAISSANCE%@BO:          3fff4c@%%@AE@%, he depicted urban black life. His
collections of verse include %@AI@%The Weary Blues%@AE@% (1926) and %@AI@%One-Way Ticket%@AE@%
(1949). Among his other works are plays, children's books, and novels.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hughes, Ted%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hughes, Ted%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGHES4         @%%@QR:Hughes, Ted@% 1930-, English poet and Poet Laureate (from 1984). He%@EH@%
attempts in tightly controlled verse to bring order out of violence and
passion. His works include %@AI@%The Hawk in the Rain%@AE@% (1957), %@AI@%Crow%@AE@% (1971), and
%@AI@%Moortown%@AE@% (1980). He was married to Sylvia %@AU@%PLATH%@BO:          76b1c8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hughes, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hughes, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGHES5         @%%@QR:Hughes, Thomas@% 1822-96, English author. His novel of school life, %@AI@%Tom%@EH@%
%@AI@%Brown's School Days%@AE@% (1857), is a classic, idealizing Dr. Thomas Arnold,
headmaster of Rugby school.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hughes, William Morris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hughes, William Morris%@AE@%,%@CR:HUGHES6         @%%@QR:Hughes, William Morris@% 1864-1952, Australian statesman; b. England. He%@EH@%
was minister for external affairs (1904) in the first Labour government
and was later attorney general (1908-9, 1910-13, 1914-21). As prime
minister (1915-23) of Australia, he strongly supported Britain in %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte%@AE@%%@CR:HUGO            @%%@QR:Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte@%, 1802-85, French poet, dramatist, and%@EH@%
novelist and 19th-cent. France's leading literary figure. The preface to
his drama %@AI@%Cromwell%@AE@% (1827) placed him at the head of the romantic school,
and the production of his unconventional poetic drama %@AI@%Hernani%@AE@% (1830)
produced a riot between champions of %@AU@%ROMANTICISM%@BO:          80a97d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CLASSICISM%@BO:          1efbdb@%%@AE@%. Other
plays are %@AI@%Le Roi s'amuse%@AE@% (1832) and %@AI@%Ruy Blas%@AE@% (1838). His principal poetic
works, e.g., %@AI@%Autumn Leaves%@AE@% (1831), %@AI@%Rays and Shadows%@AE@% (1840), and
%@AI@%Contemplations%@AE@% (1856), demonstrate his musical powers and highly personal
voice. His two great epic novels, %@AI@%The Hunchback of Notre Dame%@AE@% (1831) and
%@AI@%Les Miserables%@AE@% (1862), for which he is best known in English, portray the
sufferings of humanity with great compassion and power. Originally a
monarchist, Hugo later became an ardent republican, and his opposition to
%@AU@%NAPOLEON III%@BO:          666a8f@%%@AE@% led to his exile in 1851. In 1870 he returned in triumph to
Paris, where his final years were marked by public veneration; he is
buried in the Pantheon.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huguenots%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huguenots%@AE@%%@CR:HUGUENOTS       @%%@QR:Huguenots@%, French Protestants, followers of John %@AU@%CALVIN%@BO:          176dba@%%@AE@%. Protestants%@EH@%
founded (1559) a Presbyterian church in France and soon became one of the
nation's most industrious and economically advanced elements. They
emerged victorious over Roman Catholic forces in the Wars of %@AU@%RELIGION%@BO:          7ddea5@%%@AE@%
(1562-98) and by the Edict of %@AU@%NANTES%@BO:          6637b9@%%@AE@% (1598) received some religious and
political freedom. Cardinal %@AU@%RICHELIEU%@BO:          7f190c@%%@AE@%, however, captured their
strongholds and, by the Peace of Alais (1629), stripped them of their
political power. In 1685 %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% revoked the Edict of Nantes, and
countless Huguenots fled to Protestant Europe and to America.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huizinga, Johan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huizinga, Johan%@AE@%%@CR:HUIZINGA        @%%@QR:Huizinga, Johan@%, 1872-1945, Dutch historian. Noted for his work on the%@EH@%
cultural history of the late Middle Ages, he wrote the classic %@AI@%Waning of
%@AI@%the Middle Ages%@AE@% (1919). He considered the Renaissance the death of the
%@AU@%MIDDLE AGES%@BO:          604e32@%%@AE@% rather than the birth of the modern world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hull, Bobby%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hull, Bobby%@AE@%%@CR:HULL1           @%%@QR:Hull, Bobby@% (Robert Marvin Hull, Jr.), 1939-, Canadian hockey player.%@EH@%
Considered the best left wing in the sport's history, he played 15
seasons (1957-72) with the Chicago Black Hawks. His total of 610 goals
was third best among National Hockey League players. He later played
(1972-80) for the Winnipeg Jets, then of the World Hockey Association,
and scored 303 goals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hull, Cordell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hull, Cordell%@AE@%,%@CR:HULL2           @%%@QR:Hull, Cordell@% 1871-1955, American statesman; b. Overton co. (now Pickett%@EH@%
co.), Tenn. A U.S. congressman (1907-21, 1923-31) and senator (1931-33)
from Tennessee, he served (1933-44) as secretary of state under Pres.
F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@%. Hull sought sound international economic relations and in
%@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% backed the creation of a world organization to maintain
peace. He was awarded the 1945 Nobel Peace Prize.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hull House%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hull House%@AE@%:%@CR:HULL.HOUSE      @%%@QR:Hull House@% see %@AU@%ADDAMS, JANE%@BO:           118a5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%human immunodeficiency virus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%human immunodeficiency virus%@AE@%:%@CR:HUMAN.IVIRUS    @%%@QR:human immunodeficiency virus@% see %@AU@%AIDS%@BO:           2376a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%humanism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%humanism%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMANISM        @%%@QR:humanism@% philosophical and literary movement in which human values and%@EH@%
capabilities are the central focus. The term originally referred to a
point of view particularly associated with the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%, with its
emphasis on secular studies (the humanities), a conscious return to
classical ideals and forms, and a rejection of medieval religious
authority. %@AU@%BOCCACCIO%@BO:          114347@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ERASMUS%@BO:          2faf97@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PETRARCH%@BO:          7432a8@%%@AE@% were outstanding humanists.
In modern usage, humanism often indicates a general emphasis on lasting
human values, respect for scientific knowledge, and cultivation of the
classics.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Humboldt, Alexander, Freiherr von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Humboldt, Alexander, Freiherr von%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMBOLDT        @%%@QR:Humboldt, Alexander, Freiherr von@% 1769-1859, German naturalist and%@EH@%
traveler. From 1799 to 1804 he made his renowned expedition with A.J.A.
Bonpland to Central and %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICA%@BO:          8beb95@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CUBA%@BO:          251e58@%%@AE@%, a journey that did much
to lay the broad foundations for the sciences of physical geography and
meteorology. Humboldt explored the %@AU@%ORINOCO%@BO:          6ed828@%%@AE@% R. and the sources of the
%@AU@%AMAZON%@BO:           45a09@%%@AE@% R., and conducted experiments. He wrote %@AI@%Voyage of Humboldt and
%@AI@%Bonpland%@AE@% (1805-34) and %@AI@%Kosmos%@AE@% (1845-62).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Humboldt Current%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Humboldt Current%@AE@%%@CR:HUMBOLDT        @%%@QR:Humboldt Current@% or %@AB@%Peru Current,%@AE@%cold ocean current off the west coast of%@EH@%
South America. Carrying cold water north from Antarctic regions, it
brings cool temperatures and fogs to the coasts of Chile and Peru.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hume, David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hume, David%@AE@%,%@CR:HUME            @%%@QR:Hume, David@% 1711-76, Scottish philosopher and historian. Hume carried%@EH@%
the %@AU@%EMPIRICISM%@BO:          2e960d@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@% and George %@AU@%BERKELEY%@BO:           ec9fd@%%@AE@% to the logical extreme of
radical %@AU@%SKEPTICISM%@BO:          89d4c9@%%@AE@%. He repudiated the possibility of certain knowledge,
finding in the mind nothing but a series of sensations, and held that
cause-and-effect in the natural world derives solely from the conjunction
of two impressions. Hume's skepticism is also evident in his writings on
religion, in which he rejected any rational or natural theology. Besides
his chief work, %@AI@%A Treatise of Human Nature%@AE@% (1739-40), he wrote %@AI@%Political
%@AI@%Discourses%@AE@% (1752), %@AI@%The Natural History of Religion%@AE@% (1755), and a %@AI@%History
%@AI@%of England%@AE@% (1754-62) that was, despite errors of fact, the standard work
for many years.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%humidity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%humidity%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMIDITY        @%%@QR:humidity@% moisture content of the atmosphere, a major element of %@AU@%CLIMATE%@BO:          1f66a1@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Humidity measurements include %@AI@%absolute humidity,%@AE@% the mass of water vapor
per unit volume of natural air; %@AI@%relative humidity%@AE@% (usually meant when the
term %@AI@%humidity%@AE@% alone is used), the ratio of the actual water-vapor content
of the air to its total capacity at a given temperature; and %@AI@%specific
%@AI@%humidity,%@AE@% the mass of water vapor per unit mass of natural air. Relative
humidity is usually measured by means of a %@AU@%HYGROMETER%@BO:          461098@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hummingbird%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hummingbird%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMMINGBIRD     @%%@QR:hummingbird@% small, colorful %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% with a long, slender bill, of the New%@EH@%
World family Trochilidae, found chiefly in the mountains of South
America. Hummingbirds vary in size from the 21/4-in. (6-cm) fairy
hummingbird of Cuba, the smallest of all birds, to the 81/2-in. (21.6-cm)
giant hummer of the Andes. They are usually seen hovering or darting (at
speeds of up to 60 mi/97 km per hr) in the air, beating their wings at 50
to 75 beats per sec. Constant feeding supplies their enormous energy
needs. At night they lapse into a state of torpor similar to %@AU@%HIBERNATION%@BO:          42adca@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Humperdinck, Engelbert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Humperdinck, Engelbert%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMPERDINCK     @%%@QR:Humperdinck, Engelbert@% 1854-1921, German composer and teacher, friend%@EH@%
and associate of Richard %@AU@%WAGNER%@BO:          9e7d46@%%@AE@%. He is known chiefly for his first opera,
%@AI@%Hansel und Gretel%@AE@% (1893), loved for its fairy-tale subject and folk-based
music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Humphrey, Doris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Humphrey, Doris%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMPHREY1       @%%@QR:Humphrey, Doris@% 1895-1958, American modern dancer and choreographer; b.%@EH@%
Oak Park, Ill. She was a soloist with the Denishawn companies until 1927,
when she formed a company with Charles %@AU@%WEIDMAN%@BO:          a03590@%%@AE@%. A foremost figure in
%@AU@%MODERN DANCE%@BO:          620430@%%@AE@%, she choreographed %@AI@%Water Study%@AE@% (1928) and %@AI@%Theater Piece No.
%@AI@%2%@AE@% (1956).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Humphrey, Hubert Horatio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Humphrey, Hubert Horatio%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMPHREY2       @%%@QR:Humphrey, Hubert Horatio@% 1911-78, U.S. vice president (1965-69); b.%@EH@%
Wallace, S.D. He served as mayor of Minneapolis (1945-48) and U.S.
senator from Minnesota (1949-64, 1971-78). A strong advocate of civil
rights, he was vice president under L.B. %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4ccc58@%%@AE@%. In 1968 he was the
Democratic presidential candidate but lost a close election to Richard M.
%@AU@%NIXON%@BO:          6a5b4d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%humus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%humus%@AE@%,%@CR:HUMUS           @%%@QR:humus@% organic matter decayed to a relatively stable, amorphous state. An%@EH@%
important component of fertile %@AU@%SOIL%@BO:          8b105a@%%@AE@%, it affects physical properties such
as soil structure, water retention, and %@AU@%EROSION%@BO:          2fdc1a@%%@AE@% resistance. Humus is
formed when soil microorganisms decompose animal and plant material into
elements usable by plants (see %@AU@%FERTILIZER%@BO:          32c4ec@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hundred Days%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hundred Days%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNDRED.DAYS    @%%@QR:Hundred Days@% in French history, the period (Mar. 20 to June 28, 1815)%@EH@%
that began when %@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% reentered Paris after his exile on Elba. It
ended when %@AU@%LOUIS XVIII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% was restored after Napoleon's defeat in the
%@AU@%WATERLOO CAMPAIGN%@BO:          9face6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hundred Years War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hundred Years War%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNDREDAR       @%%@QR:Hundred Years War@% 1337-1453, conflict between England and France. Its%@EH@%
basic cause was a dynastic quarrel between the kings of England, who held
the duchy of Guienne, in France, and who resented paying homage to the
kings of France. There were several immediate causes: a quarrel between
%@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of England and %@AU@%PHILIP IV%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% of France over a part of Guienne held
by France; English attempts to control the commercially important
%@AU@%FLANDERS%@BO:          3393a4@%%@AE@%, a French possession; fishing disputes in the English Channel;
and Philip's support of Scotland in its dispute with England. The war
began in 1337 when Edward, assuming the title King of France, invaded
France. The English won a sea battle at Sluis (1340) and land battles at
Crecy (1346), Calais (1347), and Poitiers (1360), where King John II of
France was captured. The Treaty of Bretigny (1360) awarded England
Calais, Aquitaine, and a large ransom for the captured king. In return,
England gave up its claim to the French crown. The war resumed in 1369
when nobles in Aquitaine rebelled over the oppressive tax policies of
%@AU@%EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE%@BO:          2ca045@%%@AE@%. By 1373 %@AU@%DU GUESCLIN%@BO:          2b13f9@%%@AE@% had won back most of the
English claims. The conflict then languished until 1415, when %@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of
England defeated France's best knights at %@AU@%AGINCOURT%@BO:           20cdb@%%@AE@%. He allied himself
with Burgundy and went on to subdue Normandy. In the Treaty of Troyes
(1420) %@AU@%CHARLES VI%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of France was forced to recognize Henry as regent and
heir to the throne of France, disinheriting his own son, the dauphin. By
1429 Henry and his Burgundian allies controlled practically all of France
N of the Loire and had Orleans under siege. French fortunes were reversed
that year, however. %@AU@%JOAN OF ARC%@BO:          4c4f3a@%%@AE@% lifted the siege of Orleans and saw the
dauphin crowned as %@AU@%CHARLES VII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% at Rheims. Her capture and execution did
not end the string of French victories. In 1435 Charles obtained an
alliance with Burgundy, and by 1450 France had reconquered Normandy. By
1451 all of Guienne except Bordeaux was in French hands. Bordeaux fell in
1453, leaving the English only Calais (which they retained until 1558).
Domestic difficulties, specifically the Wars of The %@AU@%ROSES%@BO:          813180@%%@AE@%, kept England
from making any further attempts to conquer France. The Hundred Years War
inflicted untold misery on the French people. Famine, the Black Death,
and roving bands of marauders decimated the population. An entirely new
France emerged. The virtual destruction of the feudal nobility allowed
the monarchs to unite the country more solidly under the royal authority
and to ally themselves with the newly rising middle class. England ceased
thinking of itself as a continental power and began to develop as a sea
power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hungarian language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hungarian language%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNGARIAGE      @%%@QR:Hungarian language@% member of the Ugrian group of the Finno-Ugric%@EH@%
languages, which form a subdivision of the %@AU@%URALIC AND ALTAIC%@BO:          9af4c9@%%@AE@% family of
languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hungary%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hungary%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNGARY         @%%@QR:Hungary@% Hung. %@AI@%Magyarorszag,%@AE@% officially the Hungarian People's Republic,%@EH@%
republic (1987 est. pop. 10,607,000), 35,919 sq mi (93,030 sq km),
central Europe; bordered by Czechoslovakia (N), the USSR (NE), Rumania
(E), Yugoslavia (S), and Austria (W). The capital is %@AU@%BUDAPEST%@BO:          150e2a@%%@AE@%. The %@AU@%DANUBE%@BO:          266955@%%@AE@%
R. forms part of the border with Czechoslovakia, then turns south and
bisects the country. East of the Danube lies the Great Hungarian Plain
(Hung. %@AI@%Alfold%@AE@%); west of the river are the Little Alfold and the
Transdanubian region. Lake Balaton, the largest lake in Europe, is a
leading resort area. Traditionally agricultural, Hungary has become
heavily industrialized since World War II, producing machinery, textiles,
metal goods, chemicals, and motor vehicles. Major farm products are corn,
wheat, sugar beets, barley, potatoes, grapes and other fruit, livestock,
and poultry. Bauxite and coal are the most important mineral resources.
About two thirds of the population is Roman Catholic, but there is a
large Calvinist minority. Hungarian is the official language. The country
is governed under a 1949 constitution, amended in 1972, which provides
for a 352-member national assembly. Political power resides in the
Communist party (Hungarian Socialist Workers Party).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Most of the area that is now Hungary and %@AU@%TRANSYLVANIA%@BO:          9784f0@%%@AE@% was
conquered in the late 9th cent. AD by the %@AU@%MAGYARS%@BO:          59affb@%%@AE@%, a Finno-Ugric people
from beyond the Urals; Christianization was completed by St. %@AU@%STEPHEN%@BO:          8ecf78@%%@AE@%
(r.1001-38), first king of Hungary. A feudal society developed,
controlled by a few powerful nobles, the magnates. Hungary was ruled
after 1308 by the Angevin dynasty and after 1386 by other foreign houses.
In 1526 the Ottoman Turks defeated the Hungarians at the battle of
Mohacs. In the long wars that followed the Turks dominated most of
Hungary, while Transylvania was ruled by noble families (see %@AU@%BATHORY%@BO:           d065d@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%RAKOCZY%@BO:          7c7a9a@%%@AE@%). By 1711, however, all Hungary had fallen under %@AU@%HAPSBURG%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%
control. A short-lived independent Hungarian republic (1849) under Louis
%@AU@%KOSSUTH%@BO:          50b46a@%%@AE@% was overthrown by Austrian and Russian troops, and in 1867 the
%@AU@%AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY%@BO:           a2989@%%@AE@% was established, in which Austria and Hungary
were nearly equal partners. After the collapse of the Dual Monarchy in
%@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, Hungary was proclaimed (1918) an independent republic and
drastically reduced in area and population by the Treaty of Trianon
(1920). The Communist dictatorship (1919) of Bela %@AU@%KUN%@BO:          5108e3@%%@AE@% was put down by
Rumanian intervention, and in 1920 Adm. Nicholas %@AU@%HORTHY DE NAGYBANYA%@BO:          4491cb@%%@AE@%
became regent. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% Hungary joined (1941) the %@AU@%AXIS%@BO:           a6909@%%@AE@% and was
invaded (1944) by the USSR. A republican constitution was adopted in
1946, but a Communist coup d'etat in 1948 set up a totalitarian people's
republic in 1949. In 1956 a popular anti-Communist revolution, led by
former premier Imre %@AU@%NAGY%@BO:          660dc0@%%@AE@%, was suppressed by Soviet forces. However, the
Soviet-supported counter-government of Janos %@AU@%KADAR%@BO:          4df6e7@%%@AE@%, one of Nagy's
ministers, brought increasing liberalization to the country's economic,
political, and cultural life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hunger strike%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hunger strike%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNGER.STRIKE   @%%@QR:hunger strike@% refusal to eat, as a form of protest. An ancient device,%@EH@%
usually used by prisoners, the hunger strike was revived in the early
20th cent. by imprisoned suffragists (see %@AU@%WOMAN SUFFRAGE%@BO:          a2d595@%%@AE@%) in England and
was a major weapon in Mohandas %@AU@%GANDHI'S%@BO:          37ca17@%%@AE@% movement of passive resistance to
British rule in India. More recently, it has been used by U.S. protesters
against the %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%, by Soledad Prison (Calif.) inmates to protest
prison conditions in 1970, by Irish Republican nationalists in %@AU@%ULSTER%@BO:          998ecf@%%@AE@% in
the early 1980's, and by students in Beijing in 1989.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hunkers%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hunkers%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNKERS         @%%@QR:Hunkers@% conservative faction of the New York state Democratic party in%@EH@%
the 1840s, so named because they were said to "hanker" or "hunker" after
office. The Hunkers opposed the radical Democrats, or %@AU@%BARNBURNERS%@BO:           c5c27@%%@AE@%. They
favored internal improvements and liberal chartering of state banks, and
opposed antislavery legislation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huns%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huns%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNS            @%%@QR:Huns@% nomadic people who originated in north-central Asia. Although in%@EH@%
customs they resemble the %@AU@%MONGOLS%@BO:          62c334@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MAGYARS%@BO:          59affb@%%@AE@%, they appear not to have
been related ethnically to other groups. Short and somewhat Mongoloid in
appearance, the Huns were organized into ravaging military hordes riding
small, rapid horses. In the 3d cent. BC they invaded China, where part of
the %@AU@%GREAT WALL%@BO:          3cf598@%%@AE@% was built to exclude them. They appeared in the Volga
valley c.372; the Goths were pushed west, where they destroyed the Roman
Empire. Most of European Russia, Poland, and Germany paid tribute to
%@AU@%ATTILA%@BO:           9a3bd@%%@AE@%, the greatest Hun king. Defeated (451) in Gaul, the Huns ravaged
Italy until Attila's death (453), after which little is known of them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hunt, Holman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hunt, Holman%@AE@%:%@CR:HUNT1           @%%@QR:Hunt, Holman@% see %@AU@%HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN%@BO:          457bc7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hunt, (James Henry) Leigh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hunt, (James Henry) Leigh%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNT2           @%%@QR:Hunt, (James Henry) Leigh@% 1784-1859, English writer. Hunt edited liberal%@EH@%
weeklies, notably the %@AI@%Examiner%@AE@% (1808-21), and wrote many critical
articles. He befriended the important writers of his time, among them
%@AU@%KEATS%@BO:          4ebabb@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SHELLEY%@BO:          88216d@%%@AE@%. His own fame rests on his essays, his lyrics "Abou Ben
Adhem" and "Jenny Kissed Me," and his autobiography (1850).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hunt, Richard Morris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hunt, Richard Morris%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNT3           @%%@QR:Hunt, Richard Morris@% 1828-95, American architect, an exponent of%@EH@%
19th-cent. eclecticism; b. Brattleboro, Vt.; brother of W.M. %@AU@%HUNT%@BO:          457d60@%%@AE@%. In New
York City he founded the first studio to train architects. Most of his
work imitated historical styles, e.g., the Lenox Library, N.Y.C., and
mansions in New York and Newport, R.I.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hunt, William Holman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hunt, William Holman%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNT4           @%%@QR:Hunt, William Holman@% 1827-1910, English painter. He was a founder of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%PRE-RAPHAELITE%@BO:          79430b@%%@AE@% brotherhood, and his sincere devotion to its principles
can be seen in such paintings as %@AI@%The Light of the World%@AE@% (Oxford Univ.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hunt, William Morris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hunt, William Morris%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNT5           @%%@QR:Hunt, William Morris@% 1824-79, American painter; b. Brattleboro, Vt. A%@EH@%
disciple of the %@AU@%BARBIZON SCHOOL%@BO:           c222d@%%@AE@%, which he introduced into Boston, he
exerted great influence on American art. His paintings include portraits,
landscapes, and figure pieces, e.g., %@AI@%Girl at a Fountain%@AE@% (Metropolitan
Mus.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntington, Collis Potter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntington, Collis Potter%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNTINGTON1     @%%@QR:Huntington, Collis Potter@% 1821-1900, American railroad builder; b. near%@EH@%
Torrington, Conn. He helped organize the Central Pacific RR and
eventually gained for himself and his partners practical control of
transportation in the West, consolidated (1884) in the Southern Pacific
RR. Most of his vast fortune was left to his nephew %@AB@%Henry Edwards
%@AB@%Huntington,%@AE@% 1850-1927, b. Oneonta, N.Y., who endowed his estate at San
Marino, Calif., for public use. It is the site of the %@AB@%Henry E. Huntington
%@AB@%Library and Art Gallery,%@AE@% which has one of the largest collections of
%@AU@%INCUNABULA%@BO:          472919@%%@AE@% in America. It also excels in rare American and British
documents, manuscripts, and books, and in 18th-cent. paintings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntington, Ellsworth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntington, Ellsworth%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNTINGTON2     @%%@QR:Huntington, Ellsworth@% 1876-1947, American geographer, known for his%@EH@%
studies of how changes in climate influence civilization; b. Galesburg,
Ill. His explorations in central Asia led to important publications,
notably %@AI@%The Pulse of Asia%@AE@% (1907). In these and later writings he proposed
that climatic factors had caused migrations of the Manchus, Mongols, and
early occupants of the river valleys of Asia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntington, Henry Edwards%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntington, Henry Edwards%@AE@%:%@CR:HUNTINGTON3     @%%@QR:Huntington, Henry Edwards@% see under %@AU@%HUNTINGTON, COLLIS POTTER%@BO:          457f48@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntington%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNTINGTON4     @%%@QR:Huntington@% city (1986 est. pop. 59,310), seat of Cabell co., W W.Va., on%@EH@%
the Ohio R.; founded 1871 as the western terminus of the Chesapeake &
Ohio RR. It is a river port and commercial center with a large bituminous
coal trade. Glass and chemical industries and railroad yards are
important.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntington Beach%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntington Beach%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNTINGH        @%%@QR:Huntington Beach@% city (1986 est. pop. 183,620), Orange co., S Calif., on%@EH@%
the Pacific coast, across from Santa Catalina Island (see %@AU@%SANTA BARBARA
%@AU@%ISLANDS%@BO:          843b58@%%@AE@%), in a vegetable- and citrus-growing area; inc. 1909. It has oil
refineries and aerospace, communications, and other industries. Its fine
beaches are well known.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntington Library and Art Gallery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntington Library and Art Gallery%@AE@%:%@CR:HUNTINGART.GAL  @%%@QR:Huntington Library and Art Gallery@% see under %@AU@%HUNTINGTON, COLLIS POTTER%@BO:          457f48@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntington's chorea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntington's chorea%@AE@%:%@CR:HUNTINGREA      @%%@QR:Huntington's chorea@% see under %@AU@%CHOREA%@BO:          1dd172@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huntsville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huntsville%@AE@%,%@CR:HUNTSVILLE      @%%@QR:Huntsville@% city (1986 est. pop. 163,420), seat of Madison co., N Ala.;%@EH@%
inc. 1811. A major space research center, Huntsville is the site of the
Redstone Arsenal, the U.S. Army's missile and rocket center; NASA's
Marshall Space Flight Center; and the Alabama Space and Rocket Center,
the world's largest space museum. Local industry also includes tires,
glass, and electrical equipment. Alabama's constitution was written
(1819) in Huntsville. Numerous antebellum buildings remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huron, Lake%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huron, Lake%@AE@%,%@CR:HURON           @%%@QR:Huron, Lake@% second largest (23,010 sq mi/59,596 sq km) of the %@AU@%GREAT%@EH@%
%@AU@%LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@%, on the U.S.-Canada border. It is 206 mi (332 km) long and up to
183 (295 km) wide, with a surface elevation of 580 ft (177 m). It
receives the waters of Lake Superior through the St. Marys R. and of Lake
Michigan through the Straits of Mackinac, and it drains S into Lake Erie
through the St. Clair R.-Lake St. Clair-Detroit R. system.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huron Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huron Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:HURON.INDIANS   @%%@QR:Huron Indians@% confederation of four %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% groups of the%@EH@%
Eastern Woodlands who spoke Wyandot, an Iroquoian language of the
Hokan-Siouan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Numbering about
20,000 in the 17th cent., they lived in palisaded villages near Georgian
Bay in Ontario and grew tobacco. In the mid-17th cent. the Iroquois (see
%@AU@%IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY%@BO:          49c1ee@%%@AE@%) hunted them down relentlessly. In 1750 they settled
in Ohio; there they were known as the Wyandot to the British, with whom
they sided in the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. In 1867 they were removed to NE
Oklahoma, where some hundreds now live as citizens, the tribe having been
terminated in 1959.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hurricane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hurricane%@AE@%,%@CR:HURRICANE       @%%@QR:hurricane@% tropical %@AU@%CYCLONE%@BO:          25a399@%%@AE@% formed over the North Atlantic Ocean in which%@EH@%
the winds attain speeds greater than 75 mph (121 km/hr). A tropical
cyclone passes through two stages, tropical depression and tropical
storm, before reaching hurricane force. An average of 3.5 tropical storms
per year become hurricanes; one to three of these approach the U.S.
coast. Hurricanes usually develop between July and October. A hurricane
is nearly circular in shape, and its winds cover an area about 500 mi
(800 km) in diameter. As a result of the extremely low central air
pressure (around 28.35 in/72 cm of mercury), air spirals inward toward
the hurricane's eye, an almost calm area about 20 mi (30 km) in diameter.
Hurricanes, which may last from 1 to 30 days, usually move westward in
their early stages and then curve northward toward the pole. Deriving
their energy from warm tropical ocean water, hurricanes weaken after
prolonged contact with colder northern ocean waters, becoming
extratropical cyclones; they decay rapidly after moving over land areas.
The high winds, coastal flooding, and torrential rains associated with a
hurricane may cause enormous damage. Tropical cyclones that form over the
Pacific Ocean are called typhoons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hurston, Zora Neale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hurston, Zora Neale%@AE@%,%@CR:HURSTON         @%%@QR:Hurston, Zora Neale@% 1901-60, black American writer; b. Eatonville, Fla.%@EH@%
An anthropologist who sympathetically interpreted black folktales in such
collections as %@AI@%Mules and Men%@AE@% (1935) and %@AI@%Tell My Horse%@AE@% (1938), Hurston
also wrote two novels, %@AI@%Jonah's Gourd Vine%@AE@% (1934) and %@AI@%Their Eyes Were
%@AI@%Watching God%@AE@% (1937).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Husak, Gustav%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Husak, Gustav%@AE@%%@CR:HUSAK           @%%@QR:Husak, Gustav@%, 1913-, Czechoslovakian Communist leader. After the Soviet%@EH@%
invasion of 1968, he succeeded (1969) %@AU@%DUBcEK%@BO:          2af0ae@%%@AE@% as Communist party leader
and later served as president (1975-87). He reestablished close ties with
the USSR and reinstituted tight party control over the government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Husayn ibn Ali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Husayn ibn Ali%@AE@%,%@CR:HUSAYN.IBN.ALI  @%%@QR:Husayn ibn Ali@% 1856-1931, Arabian political and religious leader. He led%@EH@%
the revolt against the Turks and made himself (1916) king of the Hejaz,
but he was overthrown (1924) by %@AU@%IBN SAUD%@BO:          464bcf@%%@AE@%. His effort to claim the title
of caliph was also unsuccessful. He was the father of %@AU@%ABDULLAH%@BO:            2a6f@%%@AE@% of Jordan
and %@AU@%FAISAL I%@BO:          319126@%%@AE@% of Iraq.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%husky%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%husky%@AE@%:%@CR:HUSKY           @%%@QR:husky@% see %@AU@%SIBERIAN HUSKY%@BO:          88bc9c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huss, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huss, John%@AE@%%@CR:HUSS            @%%@QR:Huss, John@%, Czech %@AI@%Jan Hus,%@AE@% 1369?-1415, Czech religious reformer. A%@EH@%
priest, he was influenced early by the writings of John %@AU@%WYCLIF%@BO:          a3a073@%%@AE@%. Huss
attacked the abuses of the clergy and was supported by Holy Roman Emperor
%@AU@%WENCESLAUS%@BO:          a07bd6@%%@AE@%, who made him rector of the Univ. of Prague (1409). Huss,
however, incurred the hostility of the archbishop of Prague, who had him
excommunicated in 1410. He then wrote his chief works, including %@AI@%De
%@AI@%ecclesia,%@AE@% in exile near Tabor. Because Huss denied the infallibility of
an immoral pope and asserted the ultimate authority of Scripture over the
church, he is generally considered a forerunner or the Protestant
%@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%. The Emperor %@AU@%SIGISMUND%@BO:          88f723@%%@AE@% invited him to defend his views at the
Council of Constance (1414-18) and granted him a safe-conduct. In 1414
Huss presented himself at the council, which refused to recognize his
safe-conduct, tried him as a heretic, and burned him at the stake.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hussein I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hussein I%@AE@%,%@CR:HUSSEIN.I       @%%@QR:Hussein I@% 1935-, king of %@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d2f7b@%%@AE@% (1953-). He has maintained a moderate%@EH@%
course in his relations with the West and other Arab leaders. The loss of
W Jordan to Israel in the 1967 %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WAR%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@% led to hostility between
Hussein and the Palestinian guerrilla movement and to a civil war (1970)
in Jordan that Hussein won, achieving stronger control of the country. In
1974 he agreed to relinquish all Jordanian claims to the Jordanian %@AU@%WEST
%@AU@%BANK%@BO:          a09c00@%%@AE@% to the %@AU@%PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@% (PLO).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hussein, Saddam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hussein, Saddam%@AE@%,%@CR:HUSSEIN         @%%@QR:Hussein, Saddam@% 1937-, Iraqi political leader and president (1979-). A%@EH@%
leader of the socialist Ba'ath party, a fervently nationalist Arab group,
he was the long-time strongman of Iraq before actually becoming
president. In 1980 he escalated a long-standing border dispute with %@AU@%IRAN%@BO:          494fff@%%@AE@%
into a full-scale war.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Husserl, Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Husserl, Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:HUSSERL         @%%@QR:Husserl, Edmund@% 1859-1938, German philosopher, founder of %@AU@%PHENOMENOLOGY%@BO:          746f38@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
A student of Franz %@AU@%BRENTANO%@BO:          13b007@%%@AE@%, Husserl offered a descriptive study of
consciousness for the purpose of discovering the laws by which
experiences are had, whether of the objective world or of pure
imagination. He concluded that consciousness has no life apart from the
objects it considers. In his later work he moved toward %@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@%, denying
that objects exist outside of consciousness. His chief works were %@AI@%Logical
%@AI@%Investigations%@AE@% (1900-1901) and %@AI@%Ideas for a Pure Phenomenology%@AE@% (1907). His
most prominent pupil was Martin %@AU@%HEIDEGGER%@BO:          413b0d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hussites%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hussites%@AE@%,%@CR:HUSSITES        @%%@QR:Hussites@% 15th-cent. religious reformers in Bohemia and Moravia,%@EH@%
followers of John %@AU@%HUSS%@BO:          459fc9@%%@AE@%. In the Four Articles of Prague (1420) they called
for freedom of preaching, communion in both bread and wine, limits to
church property holding, and civil punishment of mortal sin. Papal and
imperial forces opposed the reformers in the Hussite Wars, during which
the Hussites split into two factions, the moderate Ultraquists and the
radical Taborites. The Ultraquists were reconciled to the church in 1436,
but the Taborites remained obstinate and were finally defeated at Lipany
(1534). During the %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%, some Ultraquists became Lutherans. The
%@AU@%MORAVIAN CHURCH%@BO:          63b805@%%@AE@% probably descended from the Taborites.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huston, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huston, John%@AE@%,%@CR:HUSTON          @%%@QR:Huston, John@% 1906-87, American film director; b. Nevada, Mo. His films%@EH@%
include %@AI@%The Maltese Falcon%@AE@% (1941); %@AI@%The Treasure of the Sierra Madre%@AE@%
(1947), with his father, the actor Walter Huston (1884-1950); %@AI@%The African
%@AI@%Queen%@AE@% (1951); %@AI@%Moby Dick%@AE@% (1956); and %@AI@%The Dead%@AE@% (1987).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hutchins, Robert Maynard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hutchins, Robert Maynard%@AE@%,%@CR:HUTCHINS        @%%@QR:Hutchins, Robert Maynard@% 1899-1977, American educator; b. Brooklyn, N.Y.%@EH@%
He was president (1929-45) and chancellor (1945-53) of the Univ. of
Chicago. Chairman of the board of editors for the %@AI@%Encyclopaedia
%@AI@%Britannica%@AE@% after 1943, he was an enthusiast for adult education and in
1946 promoted the "Great Books" program. He later directed various
research foundations, including the Center for the Study of Democratic
Institutions (Santa Barbara, Calif.). His books include %@AI@%The Higher
%@AI@%Learning in America%@AE@% (1936) and %@AI@%The Learning Society%@AE@% (1968).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hutchinson, Anne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hutchinson, Anne%@AE@%,%@CR:HUTCHINSON1     @%%@QR:Hutchinson, Anne@% c.1591-1643, religious leader in New England; b.%@EH@%
England as Anne Marbury. She emigrated (1634) to Massachusetts Bay, where
her brilliant mind won her a following. Because she espoused the covenant
of grace as opposed to the covenant of works, she was banished as a
heretic in 1637. She then helped found the present Portsmouth, R.I., and
later moved to Long Island (1642) and to what is now Pelham Bay Park in
New York City, where she was killed by Indians.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hutchinson, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hutchinson, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:HUTCHINSON2     @%%@QR:Hutchinson, Thomas@% 1711-80, colonial governor of %@AU@%MASSACHUSETTS%@BO:          5cd146@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1771-74); b. Boston. As lieutenant governor (1758-71) and governor, he
angered the colonists by supporting strict enforcement of unpopular
British measures.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hutton, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hutton, James%@AE@%,%@CR:HUTTON          @%%@QR:Hutton, James@% 1726-97, Scottish geologist who formulated controversial%@EH@%
theories of the origin of the earth (see %@AU@%UNIFORMITARIANISM%@BO:          99be44@%%@AE@%) that paved
the way to modern geology. His great work was %@AI@%The Theory of the Earth%@AE@% (2
vol., 1795). John Playfair, in his %@AI@%Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory
%@AI@%of the Earth%@AE@% (1802), simplified Hutton's theories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huxley, Aldous Leonard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huxley, Aldous Leonard%@AE@%,%@CR:HUXLEY1         @%%@QR:Huxley, Aldous Leonard@% 1894-1963, English author; grandson of T.H.%@EH@%
%@AU@%HUXLEY%@BO:          45c0a7@%%@AE@%. After writing critical essays and symbolist poetry, he turned to
the novel. %@AI@%Crome Yellow%@AE@% (1921), %@AI@%Antic Hay%@AE@% (1923), and %@AI@%Point Counter Point%@AE@%
(1928) all depict social decadence. %@AI@%Brave New World%@AE@% (1932) describes a
nightmarish 25th-cent. Utopia. Other works include %@AI@%Eyeless in Gaza%@AE@% (1936)
and %@AI@%Ape and Essence%@AE@% (1948). In later years he was strongly interested in
mysticism and Eastern philosophy. Huxley also published many short
stories and essays.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huxley, Andrew Fielding%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huxley, Andrew Fielding%@AE@%,%@CR:HUXLEY2         @%%@QR:Huxley, Andrew Fielding@% 1917-, British physiologist; half brother of%@EH@%
Aldous %@AU@%HUXLEY%@BO:          45bb49@%%@AE@%; grandson of Thomas %@AU@%HUXLEY%@BO:          45c0a7@%%@AE@%. He and Alan %@AU@%HODGKIN%@BO:          435a8d@%%@AE@% shared with
Sir John Eccles the 1963 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for their
analysis of the electrical and chemical events in nerve-cell discharge.
He served as president of the Royal Society (1980-85).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huxley, Thomas Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huxley, Thomas Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:HUXLEY3         @%%@QR:Huxley, Thomas Henry@% 1825-95, English biologist and educator. He gave up%@EH@%
his own biological research to become an influential science publicist
and was the principal exponent in England of Charles %@AU@%DARWIN'S%@BO:          268fc2@%%@AE@% theory of
%@AU@%EVOLUTION%@BO:          30fc97@%%@AE@%. An agnostic (see %@AU@%AGNOSTICISM%@BO:           21431@%%@AE@%), he doubted all things not
immediately open to logical analysis and scientific verification.
However, he placed human ethics outside the scope of materialistic
evolutionary processes, and believed that progress was achieved by the
human control of evolution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hu Yaobang%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hu Yaobang%@AE@%,%@CR:HU.YAOBANG      @%%@QR:Hu Yaobang@% 1915-89, Chinese Communist leader. An associate of %@AU@%DENG%@EH@%
%@AU@%XIAOPING%@BO:          27f443@%%@AE@%, he served as general secretary of the Chinese Communist party
(1980-87) until protest demonstrations forced him to resign. Zhao Ziyang
replaced him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Huygens, Christiaan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Huygens, Christiaan%@AE@%%@CR:HUYGENS         @%%@QR:Huygens, Christiaan@%, 1629-95, Dutch mathematician and physicist; son of%@EH@%
Constantijn %@AU@%HUYGENS%@BO:          45c52e@%%@AE@%. He improved telescopic lenses, was the first to
interpret correctly the ring structure surrounding %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84d488@%%@AE@%, and discovered
its satellite Titan. He was the first to use a pendulum in clocks.
Huygens developed a wave theory of %@AU@%LIGHT%@BO:          54f8dd@%%@AE@% opposed to Isaac %@AU@%NEWTON'S%@BO:          695670@%%@AE@%
corpuscular theory and formulated Huygens's principle of light waves,
which holds that every point on a wave front is a source of new waves. He
discovered the polarization of light (see %@AU@%POLARIZED LIGHT%@BO:          776913@%%@AE@%) in calcite.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hyacinth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hyacinth%@AE@%,%@CR:HYACINTH        @%%@QR:hyacinth@% bulbous herb (genus %@AI@%Hyacinthus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% family, native to%@EH@%
the Mediterranean region and South Africa. The common hyacinth,
cultivated primarily in Holland, has a single spike of fragrant flowers
in shades of red, blue, white, or yellow. The smaller, related grape
hyacinth (%@AI@%Muscari%@AE@%), mostly blue-flowered, is also commonly cultivated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyatt, John Wesley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyatt, John Wesley%@AE@%,%@CR:HYATT           @%%@QR:Hyatt, John Wesley@% 1837-1920, American inventor; b. Starkey, N.Y. He is%@EH@%
known especially for his development of %@AU@%CELLULOID%@BO:          1abf12@%%@AE@%, which he manufactured
with his brothers beginning in 1872. Among his other inventions were the
Hyatt filter, a means of chemically purifying water while it is in
motion, and a widely used type of roller bearing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hybrid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hybrid%@AE@%,%@CR:HYBRID          @%%@QR:hybrid@% term of plant and animal breeders for the offspring of a cross%@EH@%
between two different subspecies or species. In genetics it is the term
for the offspring of parents differing in any genetic characteristic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyde, Douglas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyde, Douglas%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDE1           @%%@QR:Hyde, Douglas@% 1860-1949, Irish scholar and political leader. He was%@EH@%
largely responsible for the revival of the Irish language and literature
through his founding of the Gaelic League in 1893. He was president of
Eire (1938-45).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyde, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyde, Edward%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDE2           @%%@QR:Hyde, Edward@% see %@AU@%CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, 1ST EARL OF%@BO:          1ee24a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyde Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyde Park%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDE.PARK       @%%@QR:Hyde Park@% town (1986 est. pop. 21,130), Dutchess co., SE N.Y., on the%@EH@%
Hudson R.; settled c.1740, inc. 1821. Franklin D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% was born
there and is buried on the Roosevelt estate. The Roosevelt Library (1941)
contains a wealth of historical material. The town also contains the
mansion of Frederick W. Vanderbilt (grandson of Cornelius %@AU@%VANDERBILT%@BO:          9bb5e4@%%@AE@%),
two state parks, a gauge industry, and farms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyderabad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyderabad%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDERABAD1      @%%@QR:Hyderabad@% former state, S central India. It is now divided among the%@EH@%
states of Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. Located almost
entirely on the Deccan plateau, it has cotton, grain, and rice crops and
deposits of iron and coal. The seat of an ancient Hindu civilization, it
fell to the %@AU@%MOGULS%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% in the 17th cent. In 1948 a plebiscite endorsed union
with India rather than independence under its Muslim prince. In 1950 it
was divided among neighboring states. %@AB@%Hyderabad,%@AE@% city (1981 pop.
2,142,087), capital of Andhra Pradesh state, is an administrative and
commercial center. Its historic structures include the 16th-cent. Char
Minar ("four minarets") and Old Bridge.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyderabad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyderabad%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDERABAD2      @%%@QR:Hyderabad@% city (1981 est. pop. 795,000), S Pakistan. The third largest%@EH@%
city in Pakistan, it has chemical, engineering, and other industries. It
was founded in 1768 and was the capital of the emirs of Sind. The British
%@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be578@%%@AE@% occupied it when the Sind became (1839) a British
protectorate. The birthplace of the %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% emperor %@AU@%AKBAR%@BO:           276c6@%%@AE@% is nearby.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydra%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDRA1          @%%@QR:hydra@% freshwater organism (class Hydrazoa) widely distributed in lakes,%@EH@%
ponds, and sluggish streams; a %@AU@%COELENTERATE%@BO:          1ffb3e@%%@AE@%. Hydras are small,
cylindrical, solitary animals, about 1 in. (2.5 cm) long, that attach
themselves temporarily to submerged objects by means of a disk at the
anal end. Tentacles equipped with stinging cells (nematocysts) surround
the mouth; hydras use these to stun their prey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hydra%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hydra%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDRA2          @%%@QR:Hydra@% in Greek mythology, many-headed water serpent. When one of its%@EH@%
heads was cut off, two new ones appeared. It was killed by %@AU@%HERCULES%@BO:          423380@%%@AE@%, who
burned the neck after decapitation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrangea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrangea%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDRANGEA       @%%@QR:hydrangea@% see %@AU@%SAXIFRAGE%@BO:          85121b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydraulic machinery%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydraulic machinery%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDRAULNERY     @%%@QR:hydraulic machinery@% machines that derive their power from the motion or%@EH@%
pressure of water or some other liquid. Water or oil under pressure is
commonly used as a source of power for many types of machines. The
hydraulic press, used, e.g., to form three-dimensional objects from sheet
metal or plastics and to compress large objects, consists of two
cylinders of different size, each filled with liquid and fitted with a
piston, and each connected to a pipe filled with the same liquid.
According to Pascal's law, pressure exerted upon the smaller piston is
transmitted undiminished through the liquid to the surface of the larger
piston, which is forced upward. A small pressure exerted on the smaller
piston creates a stronger force on the larger piston because the area of
the latter is larger and the distance it moves is less. The same
principle is used to power the hydraulic jack, which is used to lift
heavy loads. The hydraulic %@AU@%ELEVATOR%@BO:          2dfd1c@%%@AE@% is also an application of Pascal's
law.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydraulics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydraulics%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDRAULICS      @%%@QR:hydraulics@% branch of engineering that studies the mechanical properties%@EH@%
of fluids. There are two subdivisions. %@AI@%Hydrostatics,%@AE@% the study of liquids
at rest, involves the problems of buoyancy and flotation, pressures on
dams and submerged devices, and hydraulic presses. %@AI@%Hydrokinetics,%@AE@% the
study of liquids in motion, is concerned with such matters as friction
and turbulence generated in pipes by flowing liquids, and the use of
hydraulic pressure in machinery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrocarbon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrocarbon%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROCARBON     @%%@QR:hydrocarbon@% any organic compound composed solely of %@AU@%CARBON%@BO:          18b61b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HYDROGEN%@BO:          45f01f@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Hydrocarbons include aliphatic compounds, in which the carbon atoms form
a chain, and %@AU@%AROMATIC COMPOUNDS%@BO:           82269@%%@AE@%, in which the carbon atoms form stable
rings. The aliphatic group is divided into alkanes (e.g., %@AU@%METHANE%@BO:          5f6f34@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%PROPANE%@BO:          7a0410@%%@AE@%), alkenes, and alkynes (e.g., %@AU@%ACETYLENE%@BO:            aaa8@%%@AE@%), depending on whether
the molecules of the compounds contain, respectively, only single bonds,
one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, or one or more carbon-carbon
triple bonds. %@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@% distillation yields useful fractions that are
hydrocarbon mixtures, e.g., %@AU@%NATURAL GAS%@BO:          677f84@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GASOLINE%@BO:          3834d5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KEROSENE%@BO:          4f336f@%%@AE@%, home heating
oil, lubricating oils, %@AU@%PARAFFIN%@BO:          710a28@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ASPHALT%@BO:           8c376@%%@AE@%. Coal %@AU@%TAR%@BO:          92d8b9@%%@AE@% is also a source
of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon derivatives contain additional elements,
e.g., oxygen, and include %@AU@%ALCOHOLS%@BO:           310a9@%%@AE@%, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,
and halocarbons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrochloric acid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrochloric acid%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROCHID       @%%@QR:hydrochloric acid@% chemical compound formed by dissolving hydrogen%@EH@%
chloride (HCl) in water. Most hydrochloric acid produced has a
concentration of 30% to 35% hydrogen chloride by weight. Hydrochloric
acid is a strong acid (see %@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%) and reacts with most common
metals, releasing hydrogen and forming the metal chloride. The major use
of hydrochloric acid is in the manufacture of other chemicals. It is also
used in pickling (cleaning) metal surfaces, e.g., iron, before
galvanizing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrodynamics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrodynamics%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDRODYNAMICS   @%%@QR:hydrodynamics@% see %@AU@%FLUID MECHANICS%@BO:          33eed5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydroelectric power%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydroelectric power%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDROELOWER     @%%@QR:hydroelectric power@% see %@AU@%POWER, ELECTRIC%@BO:          78dd55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrofoil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrofoil%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROFOIL       @%%@QR:hydrofoil@% finlike device, attached by struts to the hull of a%@EH@%
watercraft, that lifts the moving craft above the water's surface. The
term also designates the vessel itself. Like an aircraft wing, the foil
develops lift as it passes through the water; the hull is raised above
the surface, and the reduced water drag permits greater speed. Some
hydrofoil vessels are capable of traveling faster than 70 mph (113
km/hr). Hydrofoil vessels are used as ferries in Europe and Asia. A type
of hydrofoil called a stabilizer is used on oceangoing passenger ships to
minimize the effect of wave action on the vessel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrogen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrogen%@AE@%%@CR:HYDROGEN        @%%@QR:hydrogen@% (H), gaseous element, discovered by Henry %@AU@%CAVENDISH%@BO:          1a7dcf@%%@AE@% in 1766. The%@EH@%
first element on the %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%, hydrogen is colorless, odorless,
tasteless, slightly soluble in water, and highly explosive. The hot flame
produced by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen is used in welding, and in
melting quartz and glass. Normal hydrogen is diatomic (see %@AU@%ALLOTROPY%@BO:           3f040@%%@AE@%).
The most abundant element in the universe, hydrogen is the major fuel in
fusion reactions of the %@AU@%SUN%@BO:          90aa28@%%@AE@% and other %@AU@%STARS%@BO:          8e38c5@%%@AE@%. Atmospheric hydrogen has
three isotopes: %@AI@%protium%@AE@% (nucleus: one proton), the most common;
%@AI@%deuterium,%@AE@% or heavy hydrogen (nucleus: one proton and one neutron), used
in particle accelerators and as a tracer for studying chemical-reaction
mechanisms; and %@AI@%tritium%@AE@% (nucleus: one proton and two neutrons), a
radioactive gas used in the hydrogen bomb, in luminous paints, and as a
tracer. Hydrogen's principal use is in the synthesis of %@AU@%AMMONIA%@BO:           4c00e@%%@AE@%; liquid
hydrogen has been greatly used as a rocket fuel, in conjunction with
oxygen or fluorine. Deuterium oxide, or heavy water, is used as a
moderator in nuclear reactors. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrogen bomb%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrogen bomb%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROGEN.BOMB   @%%@QR:hydrogen bomb@% weapon deriving a large portion of its energy from the%@EH@%
nuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes. In fusion, lighter elements are
joined together to form heavier elements, and the end product weighs less
than the components forming it. The difference in mass is converted into
energy. Because extremely high temperatures are required to initiate
fusion reactions, a hydrogen bomb is also known as a thermonuclear bomb.
The presumable structure of a hydrogen bomb is as follows: an %@AU@%ATOMIC BOMB%@BO:           98960@%%@AE@%
is surrounded by a layer of lithium deuteride (a compound of lithium and
deuterium) and then by a tamper, or thick outer layer, frequently of
fissionable material, that holds the contents together in order to obtain
a larger explosion. The atomic explosion produces neutrons that fission
the lithium into helium, tritium, and energy, and also produces the
extremely high temperature needed for the subsequent fusion of deuterium
with tritium, and tritium with tritium. Explosion of the neutron bomb,
which has a minimal atomic trigger and a nonfissionable tamper, produces
blast effects and a hail of lethal neutrons but almost no radioactive
fallout. The first thermonuclear bomb was exploded in 1952 at %@AU@%ENEWETAK%@BO:          2edba3@%%@AE@% by
the U.S., the second in 1953 by the USSR. %@AU@%DISARMAMENT, NUCLEAR%@BO:          29478e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrogen chloride%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrogen chloride%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDROGEDE       @%%@QR:hydrogen chloride@% see %@AU@%HYDROCHLORIC ACID%@BO:          45e909@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrogen cyanide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrogen cyanide%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDROGEE        @%%@QR:hydrogen cyanide@% see %@AU@%CYANIDE%@BO:          259208@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrogen peroxide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrogen peroxide%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDROGEDE       @%%@QR:hydrogen peroxide@% see %@AU@%PEROXIDE%@BO:          73845d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrology%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROLOGY       @%%@QR:hydrology@% study of water and its properties, including its distribution%@EH@%
and movement in and through the land areas of the earth. The hydrologic
cycle consists of the passage of water from the oceans into the
atmosphere; onto, through, and under the lands; and back to the ocean.
Hydrology is mainly concerned with the part of the cycle that follows the
precipitation of water onto the land and precedes its return to the
oceans. See also %@AU@%METEOROLOGY%@BO:          5f6466@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%OCEANOGRAPHY%@BO:          6cc2de@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrolysis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrolysis%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROLYSIS      @%%@QR:hydrolysis@% chemical reaction of a compound with %@AU@%WATER%@BO:          9f87a1@%%@AE@%, usually resulting%@EH@%
in the formation of one or more new compounds. The most common hydrolysis
occurs when a salt of a weak acid or weak base (or both) is dissolved in
water. Water ionizes into negative hydroxyl ions (OH%@AH@%-%@AE@%) and positive
hydrogen ions (H%@AH@%+%@AE@%), which become hydrated to form positive hydronium ions
(H%@AH@%3%@AE@%O%@AH@%+%@AE@%). The salt also breaks up into positive and negative ions, and the
formed ions recombine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrometer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrometer%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROMETER      @%%@QR:hydrometer@% calibrated glass float used to determine the %@AU@%SPECIFIC GRAVITY%@BO:          8d4907@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
of a liquid. It usually consists of a thin glass tube that is weighted at
one end so that it will float upright in a liquid. The scale reading on
the tube that is level with the surface of the liquid in which the
hydrometer floats indicates the number of times heavier or lighter the
liquid is than water, i.e., the specific gravity of the liquid. The
hydrometer is based on %@AU@%ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE%@BO:           765b4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrophobia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrophobia%@AE@%:%@CR:HYDROPHOBIA     @%%@QR:hydrophobia@% see %@AU@%RABIES%@BO:          7bf500@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydrophone%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydrophone%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROPHONE      @%%@QR:hydrophone@% device, used in %@AU@%SONAR%@BO:          8b7110@%%@AE@% apparatus and in certain underwater%@EH@%
weapons, that receives underwater sound waves and converts them to
electrical energy; the voltage generated can then be read on a meter or
played through a loudspeaker. It is the marine equivalent of the
%@AU@%MICROPHONE%@BO:          603b24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydroponics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydroponics%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROPONICS     @%%@QR:hydroponics@% growing of plants without soil, in water (and sometimes a%@EH@%
sterile medium, e.g., sand) containing balanced concentrations of
essential nutrients. Hydroponics can increase yields of commercial crops
because plants are grown closer together than in the field; it also
almost eliminates weeds and pests. The technique is limited by the
support required to hold a given plant upright.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hydroxide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hydroxide%@AE@%,%@CR:HYDROXIDE       @%%@QR:hydroxide@% chemical compound that contains the hydroxyl (-OH) radical.%@EH@%
The term refers especially to inorganic compounds. Organic compounds that
have the hydroxyl radical as a functional group are referred to as
%@AU@%ALCOHOLS%@BO:           310a9@%%@AE@%. Most metal hydroxides are bases. %@AU@%ALKALI METAL%@BO:           3cccb@%%@AE@% hydroxides, such
as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), are strong bases and are very soluble in
water. The %@AU@%ALKALINE-EARTH METAL%@BO:           3cfda@%%@AE@% hydroxides are less basic, and magnesium
hydroxide (%@AU@%MILK OF MAGNESIA%@BO:          60b687@%%@AE@%) is only slightly basic. Some hydroxides,
such as aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)%@AH@%3%@AE@%], exhibit %@AU@%AMPHOTERISM%@BO:           4eb37@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hyena%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hyena%@AE@%,%@CR:HYENA           @%%@QR:hyena@% chiefly nocturnal %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% of the family Hyaenidae of Africa and SW%@EH@%
Asia. Known for its cry, which sounds like maniacal laughter, it feeds
mostly on carrion and can crush bones with its strong teeth and jaws.
Three species are generally recognized: the spotted hyena (%@AI@%Crocuta
%@AI@%crocuta%@AE@%) of sub-Saharan Africa; the smaller striped hyena (%@AI@%Hyaena hyaena%@AE@%)
of Asia and N Africa; and the brown hyena (%@AI@%H. brunnea%@AE@%) of S Africa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hygrometer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hygrometer%@AE@%,%@CR:HYGROMETER      @%%@QR:hygrometer@% instrument used to measure the moisture content of a gas, as%@EH@%
in determining the relative %@AU@%HUMIDITY%@BO:          45414f@%%@AE@% of the air. The most common type of
hygrometer is the dry- and wet-bulb psychrometer. It consists of two
identical mercury %@AU@%THERMOMETERS%@BO:          94e939@%%@AE@%, one of which has a wet wick around its
bulb. The sling type of psychrometer is swung around in the air. Water
evaporating from the wick absorbs heat from the bulb, causing the
thermometer reading to drop. The observer, after reading the dry-bulb
temperature and the drop in the wet-bulb temperature, can determine the
relative humidity from appropriate tables. Among other kinds of
hygrometers are ones that use human hair or electrical resistance, rather
than thermometers, to determine moisture content.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyksos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyksos%@AE@%%@CR:HYKSOS          @%%@QR:Hyksos@% [Egyptian,=rulers of foreign lands], invaders of ancient %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
now substantiated as the XV-XVII dynasties. A northwestern Semitic
people, they entered Egypt c.1720-1710 BC and subdued the Middle Kingdom
pharaohs. The Hyksos established a peaceful, prosperous reign. Their
introduction of Canaanite deities and Asian artifacts broke down the
isolationism of Egypt.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hymn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hymn%@AE@%,%@CR:HYMN            @%%@QR:hymn@% song of praise, devotion, or thanksgiving, especially of a%@EH@%
religious character. Early Christian hymns were mainly biblical texts
chanted in unison (see %@AU@%PLAINSONG%@BO:          766c01@%%@AE@%). Metrical Latin hymnody, usually
four-line stanzas in iambic pentameter, developed from the 4th cent. and
was the basis of nearly all Christian hymns until the 16th cent. With the
%@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%, Protestant hymnody developed; the first Lutheran hymnal was
published in %@AU@%WITTENBERG%@BO:          a2a5ef@%%@AE@% in 1524. Calvinism contributed the Genevan
Psalter, containing the familiar doxology tune %@AI@%Old Hundredth.%@AE@% Notable
English hymnists of the 18th cent. were Isaac Watts, Charles Wesley (see
under %@AU@%WESLEY, JOHN%@BO:          a08a3c@%%@AE@%), and William %@AU@%COWPER%@BO:          242891@%%@AE@%. In the 19th cent. there was a
revived interest in plainsong. Early American settlers used hymnbooks
brought from Europe, until the %@AI@%Bay Psalm Book%@AE@% (1640), the earliest
American hymnal, was published in Cambridge, Mass. In the late 19th cent.
the gospel hymn developed, with lively music and simple text. In the 20th
cent. there have been radical variations in church music alongside a
newly vital, more conservative hymnody.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hyperbola%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hyperbola%@AE@%:%@CR:HYPERBOLA       @%%@QR:hyperbola@% see %@AU@%CONIC SECTION%@BO:          221550@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hyperbolic geometry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hyperbolic geometry%@AE@%:%@CR:HYPERBOETRY     @%%@QR:hyperbolic geometry@% see %@AU@%NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY%@BO:          6b0516@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hyperion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hyperion%@AE@%,%@CR:HYPERION        @%%@QR:Hyperion@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84d488@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hyperon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hyperon%@AE@%:%@CR:HYPERON         @%%@QR:hyperon@% see %@AU@%ELEMENTARY PARTICLES%@BO:          2de651@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hypertension%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hypertension%@AE@%,%@CR:HYPERTENSION    @%%@QR:hypertension@% elevated blood pressure resulting from an increase in the%@EH@%
amount of blood pumped by the heart or from increased resistance to the
flow of blood through the small arterial blood vessels (arterioles). When
the cause is unknown, the condition is called primary, or essential,
hypertension. When a cause can be identified (e.g., a disorder of the
adrenal glands, kidneys, or arteries), the condition is known as
secondary hypertension. Factors such as heredity, obesity, high salt
intake, and emotional stress are thought to play a role. Known as the
"silent killer," hypertension often produces few overt symptoms; it may,
however, result in damage to the heart, eyes, kidneys, or brain and
ultimately lead to heart failure or %@AU@%STROKE%@BO:          8fcd44@%%@AE@%. Treatment of hypertension
includes weight- and salt-control diets and various drugs, such as
%@AU@%DIURETICS%@BO:          297662@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BETA BLOCKERS%@BO:           f2bcf@%%@AE@% (see also %@AU@%BIOFEEDBACK%@BO:           fdcf8@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hyphen%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hyphen%@AE@%:%@CR:HYPHEN          @%%@QR:hyphen@% see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hypnosis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hypnosis%@AE@%,%@CR:HYPNOSIS        @%%@QR:hypnosis@% term for a psychological state superficially resembling sleep%@EH@%
and generally induced by the monotonous repetition of words and gestures
while the subject is completely relaxed. Most people can be hypnotized,
although individuals vary greatly in susceptibility to hypnosis. The
hypnotic state is characterized by heightened suggestibility, e.g., the
hypnotized individual can be induced to follow many (but not all)
instructions or to endure painful conditions. Hypnosis is occasionally
used as an aid in medical practice and psychotherapy (e.g., in helping
%@AU@%AMNESIA%@BO:           4c34a@%%@AE@% patients recall traumatic events) and in behavior therapy (see
%@AU@%BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION%@BO:           dcc11@%%@AE@%) to assist people in breaking unwanted habits
(e.g., smoking, overeating).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hypoglycemia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hypoglycemia%@AE@%,%@CR:HYPOGLYCEMIA    @%%@QR:hypoglycemia@% abnormally low level of blood glucose (sugar), the body's%@EH@%
chief energy source (hence the term %@AI@%low blood sugar%@AE@%). It is most often
caused by an oversecretion of insulin from the pancreas triggered by
stress, exercise, fasting, or disorders of the adrenal or pituitary
glands, liver, or pancreas; in persons with diabetes it may result from
an overdose of insulin. Symptoms range from weakness, fatigue, shakiness,
and anxiety to mental disturbances, convulsions, and coma. Acute episodes
are relieved by ingestion of glucose or sucrose. Long-term treatment
involves control of causative factors and diet regulation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hypothalamus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hypothalamus%@AE@%,%@CR:HYPOTHALAMUS    @%%@QR:hypothalamus@% important supervisory center in the %@AU@%BRAIN%@BO:          1333f7@%%@AE@%. The hypothalamus%@EH@%
regulates body temperature, %@AU@%BLOOD PRESSURE%@BO:          1106b8@%%@AE@%, heartbeat, %@AU@%METABOLISM%@BO:          5f2b14@%%@AE@% of fats
and carbohydrates, and blood sugar level. It participates, with other
brain centers, in the control and monitoring of several other functions,
such as water balance and certain motor responses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Hypsilanti%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Hypsilanti%@AE@%:%@CR:HYPSILANTI      @%%@QR:Hypsilanti@% see %@AU@%YPSILANTI%@BO:          a4894d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hysterectomy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hysterectomy%@AE@%,%@CR:HYSTERECTOMY    @%%@QR:hysterectomy@% surgical removal of the uterus, sometimes including the%@EH@%
removal of the cervix, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries (see %@AU@%REPRODUCTIVE
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          7e46bf@%%@AE@%). It is performed in cases of malignant tumors, or benign growths
causing bleeding and pain. Hysterectomy does not interfere with sexual
activity, but since it eliminates the possibility of childbearing, it is
avoided in younger women when more conservative treatment is feasible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%hysteria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%hysteria%@AE@%,%@CR:HYSTERIA        @%%@QR:hysteria@% a neurotic condition in which a psychological conflict is%@EH@%
converted into a bodily disturbance. Hysterical symptoms, which have no
underlying physical cause, may include limb paralysis, blindness,
convulsive seizures, or, when expressed as a behavioral rather than
physical infirmity, %@AU@%AMNESIA%@BO:           4c34a@%%@AE@%. Pioneering work on the psychological basis
of hysteria was done by Josef %@AU@%BREUER%@BO:          13bbfa@%%@AE@% and Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%I%@AE@%,%@CR:I               @%%@QR:I@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%IODINE%@BO:          4928e6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iacocca, Lee%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iacocca, Lee%@AE@%,%@CR:IACOCCA         @%%@QR:Iacocca, Lee@% 1924-, American business executive; b. Allentown, Pa. In%@EH@%
1946 he joined the Ford Motor Co., where he rose to president (1970-78).
He left the company after a dispute with Henry Ford II and took over
Chrysler Corp. (1978), reviving it through shrewd financial policies and
with a loan guarantee and tax concessions granted by Congress. His
autobiography was published in 1984.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iambic pentameter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iambic pentameter%@AE@%:%@CR:IAMBIC.ER       @%%@QR:iambic pentameter@% see %@AU@%PENTAMETER%@BO:          72fb69@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iapetus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iapetus%@AE@%,%@CR:IAPETUS         @%%@QR:Iapetus@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84d488@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iasi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iasi%@AE@%%@CR:IASI            @%%@QR:Iasi@%or %@AB@%Jassy%@AE@% , city (1985 pop. 314,156), E Rumania, in Moldavia, near the%@EH@%
USSR border. The center of a farming region, it produces textiles,
machinery, and other goods. It was (1565-1859) %@AU@%MOLDAVIA'S%@BO:          62421a@%%@AE@% capital. In
World War II its large Jewish population was massacred by the Nazis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibadan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibadan%@AE@%,%@CR:IBADAN          @%%@QR:Ibadan@% city (1983 est. pop. 1,060,000), SW Nigeria. The second largest%@EH@%
city of Nigeria, it is a major commercial and industrial center,
producing canned goods, metal products, furniture, soap, and chemicals.
The center of a rich agricultural area, it is a market for cocoa, which,
with cotton, is grown in the region. Founded in the 1830s, it developed
into the most powerful Yoruba city-state before coming under British
protection in 1893.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibanez del Campo, Carlos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibanez del Campo, Carlos%@AE@%%@CR:IBANEZ.O        @%%@QR:Ibanez del Campo, Carlos@%, 1877-1960, president of %@AU@%CHILE%@BO:          1cfa8c@%%@AE@% (1927-31,%@EH@%
1952-58). An army general, he seized power (1927) as dictator and
launched public works programs and social reforms before being forced
into exile. In 1952 he was elected president but proved ineffectual.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iberian Peninsula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iberian Peninsula%@AE@%,%@CR:IBERIANLA       @%%@QR:Iberian Peninsula@% SW Europe, c.230,400 sq mi (596,740 sq km). Occupied%@EH@%
by Spain and Portugal, it is separated from the rest of Europe (NE) by
the %@AU@%PYRENEES%@BO:          7b57ba@%%@AE@% and from Africa (S) by the Strait of %@AU@%GIBRALTAR%@BO:          3a0f2d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ibex%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ibex%@AE@%,%@CR:IBEX            @%%@QR:ibex@% wild goat (genus %@AI@%Capra%@AE@%) found in rugged, mountainous country from%@EH@%
central Asia to the Himalayas, S Europe, and NE Africa. Surefooted and
agile, ibexes live in small herds and feed on vegetation. They are
sturdily built, with brown to gray coats and heavy horns of varying size;
the chin is bearded and the tail short. The adult ibex stands from 21/2
to 31/2 ft (76 to 106 cm) at the shoulder.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ibis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ibis%@AE@%,%@CR:IBIS            @%%@QR:ibis@% wading %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% with long, slender, downcurved bill, found in warmer%@EH@%
regions of the world. Its body is usually about 2 ft (61 cm) long; most
feed on fish and other aquatic animals. The sacred ibis of ancient Egypt
(%@AI@%Threskiornis aethiopica%@AE@%), a white and black bird, no longer frequents
the %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@% basin, although it inhabits other parts of Africa.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibiza%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibiza%@AE@%:%@CR:IBIZA           @%%@QR:Ibiza@% see %@AU@%BALEARIC ISLANDS%@BO:           b5f12@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibn al-Haytham%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibn al-Haytham%@AE@%%@CR:IBN.ALHAYTHAM   @%%@QR:Ibn al-Haytham@% or %@AB@%Alhazen%@AE@% , 965-c.1040, Egyptian mathematician,%@EH@%
physicist, and astronomer; b. Persia. His %@AI@%Optics, %@AE@%which influenced the
work of Johannes %@AU@%KEPLER%@BO:          4f24d5@%%@AE@% and Rene %@AU@%DESCARTES%@BO:          28372d@%%@AE@%, introduced the important idea
that light rays emanate in straight lines in all directions from every
point on a luminous surface. In mathematics, al-Haytham elucidated and
extended %@AU@%EUCLID'S%@BO:          307edd@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Elements%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibn Batuta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibn Batuta%@AE@%%@CR:IBN.BATUTA      @%%@QR:Ibn Batuta@%%@AU@%DELHI%@BO:          27a716@%%@AE@%, who sent him to China. He is still considered a reliable%@EH@%
source for medieval geography and Islamic culture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibn Ezra, Abraham ben Meir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibn Ezra, Abraham ben Meir%@AE@%,%@CR:IBN.EZRA        @%%@QR:Ibn Ezra, Abraham ben Meir@% 1098-1164, Jewish grammarian, commentator,%@EH@%
poet, philosopher, and astronomer; b. Spain. Best known as a biblical
critic, he was the inspiration for Robert %@AU@%BROWNING'S%@BO:          14846f@%%@AE@% poem "Rabbi Ben
Ezra."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibn Gabirol, Solomon ben Judah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibn Gabirol, Solomon ben Judah%@AE@%,%@CR:IBN.GABIROL     @%%@QR:Ibn Gabirol, Solomon ben Judah@% c.1021-1058, Jewish poet and philosopher,%@EH@%
also known as Avicebron; b. Spain. He wrote hundreds of poems, both
sacred and secular; much of his religious poetry has been incorporated
into the Judaic liturgy. His great philosophical work %@AI@%The Fountain of
%@AI@%Life %@AE@%greatly influenced Christian thought.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibn Khaldun%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibn Khaldun%@AE@%%@CR:IBN.KHALDUN     @%%@QR:Ibn Khaldun@%, 1332-1406, Arab historian; b. Tunisia. Considered the%@EH@%
greatest of Arab historians, he wrote %@AI@%Kitab al-Ibar %@AE@%universal history, in
which he treated history as a science and outlined a philosophy of
history.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibn Saud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibn Saud%@AE@%%@CR:IBN.SAUD        @%%@QR:Ibn Saud@%, c.1888-1953, founder of %@AU@%SAUDI ARABIA%@BO:          84e24a@%%@AE@% and its first king. As%@EH@%
leader of the Wahabi sect he claimed ancient rights in the area. By 1912
he had conquered the Nejd. In 1924 he triumphed over %@AU@%HUSAYN IBN ALI%@BO:          459cf5@%%@AE@% and
became king of the Hejaz. In 1932 he combined the provinces into the
kingdom of Saudi Arabia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibo%@AE@%,%@CR:IBO             @%%@QR:Ibo@% ethnic group in Nigeria, chiefly from SE Nigeria and numbering about%@EH@%
7 million. Receptive to Christianity and education under British
colonialism, they became heavily represented in professional, managerial
and technical occupations. They played a major role in securing (1963)
Nigerian independence. Political conflict in the 1960s caused the Ibos to
secede from Nigeria and form the Republic of %@AU@%BIAFRA%@BO:           f6a6e@%%@AE@%. Civil war followed,
and by 1970 Biafra had been defeated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibrahim Pasha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibrahim Pasha%@AE@%,%@CR:IBRAHIM.PASHA   @%%@QR:Ibrahim Pasha@% 1789-1848, Egyptian general, son of %@AU@%MUHAMMAD ALI%@BO:          64edd3@%%@AE@%. He led%@EH@%
Turkish forces against the Wahabis in Arabia (1816-19) and rebel Greeks
(1825-28). After his father turned against the Turks he conquered Syria
(1832-33), but Britain and Austria forced its return to Turkey (1838).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ibsen, Henrik%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ibsen, Henrik%@AE@%%@CR:IBSEN           @%%@QR:Ibsen, Henrik@%, 1828-1906, Norwegian dramatist, probably the most%@EH@%
influential figure in modern theater. He was stage manager and playwright
of the National Stage in Bergen (1851-57) and director of the Norwegian
Theater in Oslo (1857-62). Because his early plays went unrecognized or
were greeted with hostility, he went to Italy in 1864, and it was there
and in Germany that he wrote the bulk of his dramas. Ibsen's work can be
divided into three periods. The first phase, that of poetic drama, deals
primarily with historical themes, folklore, and romantic pageantry, and
includes the tragedy %@AI@%Brand %@AE@%(1866) and the existentialist %@AI@%Peer Gynt
%@AI@%%@AE@%(1867). Then came the realistic social plays for which he is best known,
e.g., %@AI@%A Doll's House %@AE@%(1879), %@AI@%Ghosts %@AE@%(1881), %@AI@%An Enemy of the People
%@AI@%%@AE@%(1882), %@AI@%The Wild Duck %@AE@%(1884), and %@AI@%Hedda Gabler %@AE@%(1890), in which Ibsen
rebelled against sterile and restrictive social conventions. The final
period is characterized by a strong emphasis on symbolism, e.g., %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Master Builder %@AE@%(1892) and %@AI@%John Gabriel Borkman %@AE@%(1896), which blend an
introspective realism with folk poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Icarus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Icarus%@AE@%:%@CR:ICARUS          @%%@QR:Icarus@% see %@AU@%DAEDALUS%@BO:          25f3da@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ICBM%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ICBM%@AE@%:%@CR:ICBM            @%%@QR:ICBM@% see %@AU@%MISSILE, GUIDED%@BO:          61768c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iceberg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iceberg%@AE@%,%@CR:ICEBERG         @%%@QR:iceberg@% mass of ice that has become detached from an ice sheet or%@EH@%
%@AU@%GLACIER%@BO:          3a778c@%%@AE@% and is floating in the ocean. Only about one ninth of its total
mass projects above the water. Rocks dropped to the ocean floor by
melting icebergs have been studied to determine the range of icebergs
during glacial periods. Because of the 1912 collision of the ocean liner
%@AU@%TITANIC%@BO:          960f88@%%@AE@% with an iceberg, a constant census of icebergs is maintained and
their locations reported to nearby ships.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%icebreaker%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%icebreaker%@AE@%,%@CR:ICEBREAKER      @%%@QR:icebreaker@% ship of special hull design and wide beam, with a relatively%@EH@%
flat bottom, designed to force its way through ice. When the icebreaker
charges into the ice at full speed, its sharply inclined bow, meeting the
edge of the ice, slides onto it, and the weight of the vessel causes the
ice to collapse. Able to force their way through ice up to 35 ft (10.7 m)
thick, icebreakers have been important in keeping northern waterways
open.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ice hockey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ice hockey%@AE@%:%@CR:ICE.HOCKEY      @%%@QR:ice hockey@% see %@AU@%HOCKEY, ICE%@BO:          435481@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iceland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iceland%@AE@%,%@CR:ICELAND         @%%@QR:Iceland@% Icel. %@AI@%Island, %@AE@%officially the Republic of Iceland, republic (1988%@EH@%
pop. 251,743), 39,698 sq mi (102,819 sq km), the westernmost state of
Europe, occupying an island in the Atlantic Ocean just S of the Arctic
Circle. %@AU@%REYKJAVIK%@BO:          7e9a8b@%%@AE@% is the capital. Iceland, whose coasts are indented by
deep fjords, is a plateau averaging 2,000 ft (610 m) in height and
culminating in vast icefields. There are about 200 volcanoes, many still
active. Hot springs abound and are used for inexpensive heating. Only
about one fourth of the island is habitable, and most settlements are on
the coast. The climate is relatively mild and humid in the west and
south, and polar and tundralike in the north and east. Fishing is the
most important industry, with codfish and herring the chief exports.
Agriculture is limited (hay, potatoes, turnips), but sheep, horses, and
cattle are grazed extensively. Aside from aluminum smelting there is
little heavy industry, and imports provide most of the country's needs.
The Lutheran Church is established. Icelandic (Old Norse) is the official
language; Old Norse literature reached its greatest flowering in Iceland.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Iceland was settled (c.850-75) by the Norse (see %@AU@%VIKINGS%@BO:          9d7ed5@%%@AE@%). A
general assembly, the %@AU@%ALTHING%@BO:           42cbc@%%@AE@%, was established in 930, making it the
world's oldest, functioning parliamentary body, and Christianity was
introduced c.1000. Norwegian rule was imposed after 1261, and in 1380
Iceland, with Norway, passed to the Danish crown, inaugurating a national
decline that lasted to 1550. The 17th and 18th cent. were disastrous:
pirate raids destroyed trade; epidemics and volcanic eruptions killed a
large part of the population; and a private trade monopoly, created in
Copenhagen in 1602, caused economic ruin. The 19th cent. brought a
rebirth of national culture and a strong independence movement led by Jon
Siguresson. A constitution and limited home rule were granted in
1874, and Iceland became a sovereign state in personal union with %@AU@%DENMARK%@BO:          27fad0@%%@AE@%
in 1918. In %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% British and U.S. forces defended the island.
Icelanders voted in 1944 to end the union with Denmark, and an
independent republic was proclaimed on June 17, 1944. Disputes with
Britain over fishing rights in Iceland's waters resulted in a four-month
break in diplomatic relations before a settlement was reached in 1976. In
1980 Vigdis Finnbogadottir was elected president and was the first female
head of state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Icelandic language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Icelandic language%@AE@%,%@CR:ICELANDAGE      @%%@QR:Icelandic language@% member of the North Germanic, or Scandinavian, group%@EH@%
of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iceland spar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iceland spar%@AE@%,%@CR:ICELAND.SPAR    @%%@QR:Iceland spar@% colorless variety of crystallized %@AU@%CALCITE%@BO:          16e522@%%@AE@%, known for its%@EH@%
properties of transparency and double refraction, found primarily in
Iceland. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of Nicol prisms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ice skating%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ice skating%@AE@%:%@CR:ICE.SKATING     @%%@QR:ice skating@% see %@AU@%SKATING%@BO:          89c7d8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ickes, Harold LeClaire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ickes, Harold LeClaire%@AE@%,%@CR:ICKES           @%%@QR:Ickes, Harold LeClaire@% 1874-1952, American statesman; b. Blair co., Pa.%@EH@%
A Republican, he was secretary of the interior (1933-46) under F.D.
%@AU@%ROOSEVELT%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% and Harry %@AU@%TRUMAN%@BO:          982df7@%%@AE@%. He was also head (1933-39) of the %@AU@%PUBLIC
%@AU@%WORKS ADMINISTRATION%@BO:          7ab687@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iconoclasm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iconoclasm%@AE@%%@CR:ICONOCLASM      @%%@QR:iconoclasm@% [Gr.,=image breaking], opposition to the religious use of%@EH@%
images. Religious pictures and statues were an early feature of Christian
worship (see %@AU@%ICONOGRAPHY%@BO:          46718f@%%@AE@%). Opponents of their use claimed that they led
to idolatry. Iconoclasm flourished in Asia Minor in the 8th and 9th cent.
and was favored by several Byzantine emperors. Opponents of iconoclasm
were Popes Gregory II and %@AU@%ADRIAN I%@BO:           15221@%%@AE@% and Empress %@AU@%IRENE%@BO:          4999a3@%%@AE@%, who restored the
images. Iconoclasm was rejected at the Second Council of %@AU@%NICAEA%@BO:          69ba57@%%@AE@% (787).
The controversy led Byzantine artists toward spiritual expression rather
than naturalism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iconography%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iconography%@AE@%,%@CR:ICONOGRAPHY     @%%@QR:iconography@% in art history, the study and interpretation of figural%@EH@%
representations and their symbolic meanings. Each epoch develops its own
iconography, and the term is qualified to indicate specific study areas,
e.g., the iconography of Egyptian deities, Buddhist or Hindu iconography,
Byzantine iconography. The aim of iconography is to recover and express
the thought from which a convention or representation has arisen,
particularly in interpreting symbols. For example, the medieval reminder
of the transitory quality of earthly pleasure was symbolized by a skull,
candle, and hourglass. In Christian iconography, one of the richest and
most varied in art, the symbolic code includes the use of the dove to
signify the Holy Spirit and the fish to symbolize Christ (from the Greek
%@AI@%ichthus%@AE@%, an acrostic). In every art the conventions and symbols change
with time and can often be recovered only by intensive study. Among the
foremost iconographic scholars are Emile Male, Aby Warburg, and Erwin
%@AU@%PANOFSKY%@BO:          7094d3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ictinus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ictinus%@AE@%,%@CR:ICTINUS         @%%@QR:Ictinus@% fl. 2d half of 5th cent. BC, Greek architect. With %@AU@%CALLICRATES%@BO:          175760@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
as his associate, he built the %@AU@%PARTHENON%@BO:          71aba6@%%@AE@% on the Acropolis at Athens
(447-432 BC).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%id%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%id%@AE@%:%@CR:ID              @%%@QR:id@% see %@AU@%PSYCHOANALYSIS%@BO:          7a7b44@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Idaho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Idaho%@AE@%,%@CR:IDAHO           @%%@QR:Idaho@% mountain state in the NW U.S.; bordered by Montana and Wyoming%@EH@%
(E), Utah and Nevada (S), Oregon and Washington (W), and the Canadian
province of British Columbia (N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 83,557 sq mi (216,413 sq km). %@AI@%Pop. %@AE@%(1986 est.) 1,002,000, a 6.2%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital, %@AE@%Boise. %@AI@%Statehood, %@AE@%July 3, 1890 (43d
state). %@AI@%Highest pt., %@AE@%Borah Peak, 12,662 ft (3,862 m); %@AI@%lowest pt., %@AE@%Snake
R., 710 ft (217 m). %@AI@%Nickname, %@AE@%Gem State. %@AI@%Motto, Esto Perpetua %@AE@%It Is
Perpetual. %@AI@%State bird, %@AE@%mountain bluebird. %@AI@%State flower, %@AE@%syringa. %@AI@%State
%@AI@%tree, %@AE@%white pine. %@AI@%Abbr., %@AE@%ID.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Nearly two thirds of the mountainous and heavily forested
land of Idaho is controlled by the federal government, much of it in
national forests, Yellowstone National Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,), and
recreation areas such as Craters of the Moon National Monument. The %@AU@%ROCKY
%@AU@%MOUNTAINS'%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@% lofty peaks, including the Bitterroot, Salmon R., and Sawtooth
ranges, dominate the terrain. The %@AU@%SNAKE%@BO:          8a8849@%%@AE@% R. flows through S Idaho in a
great arc, creating the state's most extensive valley. Among the river's
spectacular gorges is Hell's Canyon, North America's deepest (7,900
ft/2,408 m). The climate ranges from hot summers in the arid south to
cold, snowy winters in the mountainous north. Less than 18% of the
state's population lives in metropolitan areas. The largest city is
%@AU@%BOISE%@BO:          1185a6@%%@AE@%, followed by %@AU@%POCATELLO%@BO:          771044@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%IDAHO FALLS%@BO:          468648@%%@AE@%. The population includes
about 7,000 native Americans of the %@AU@%NEZ PERCE%@BO:          69a6f1@%%@AE@%, Coeur d'Alene, and western
Shoshone tribes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy. Cattle
are the leading products, and dairy goods are also important. The chief
crops are wheat, potatoes (of which Idaho is the leading U.S. producer),
hay, and barley. Lumber and wood products are the major manufactures,
followed by processed foods and chemicals. Idaho is the country's leading
silver producer, and it also extracts significant quantities of zinc,
phosphate, lead, and gold.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution (adopted 1889) provides for a governor
serving a four-year term. The legislature consists of a 45-seat senate
and 70-seat house, with members of both bodies elected to two-year terms.
Idaho sends two representatives and two senators to the U.S. Congress and
has four electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Probably the first white men to enter the area were members of
the %@AU@%LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION%@BO:          547d74@%%@AE@% (1805), but they were not far ahead of fur
trappers who established trading posts and by the 1840s had depleted the
fur supply. Present-day Idaho was part of Oregon country, over which the
U.S. gained control in 1846. With the discovery of gold and silver during
the early 1860s, settlers poured in. In the late 19th cent. the growth of
ranching, violent labor conflicts in the mines, and the arrival of
railroads were concurrent with the development of cities. In recent
years, the Snake R. projects have provided a huge hydroelectrical
capacity and a greatly expanded water supply for irrigated agriculture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Idaho Falls%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Idaho Falls%@AE@%,%@CR:IDAHO.FALLS     @%%@QR:Idaho Falls@% city (1986 est. pop. 42,830), seat of Bonneville co., SE%@EH@%
Idaho, on the Snake R.; inc. 1900. The chief city of the Upper Snake
Valley, it is the commercial center of a farm and ranch region. The Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory, a government facility, is the major
employer. Metal fabrication is among the city's industries, and tourism
is important. Idaho Falls was settled (1860) by %@AU@%MORMONS%@BO:          63e037@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%idealism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%idealism%@AE@%,%@CR:IDEALISM        @%%@QR:idealism@% in philosophy, the attempt to account for all objects in nature%@EH@%
and experience as representations of the mind, and sometimes to assign to
such representations a higher order of existence. It is opposed to
%@AU@%MATERIALISM%@BO:          5d0e1a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678730@%%@AE@%. Early idealism (e.g., that of %@AU@%PLATO%@BO:          76b65e@%%@AE@%)
conceived a world in which eternal ideas constituted reality; in modern
times idealism (e.g., that of George %@AU@%BERKELEY%@BO:           ec9fd@%%@AE@% in the 18th cent.) has come
to refer the source of ideas to the individual's consciousness. In %@AU@%KANT'S%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@%
transcendental idealism, the phenomenal world of human understanding
opposes a world of things-in-themselves, while the later German idealists
(e.g., %@AU@%FICHTE%@BO:          32f3eb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCHELLING%@BO:          855219@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@%) treated all reality as the creation
of mind or spirit. More recent idealists include F.H. %@AU@%BRADLEY%@BO:          130d80@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CROCE%@BO:          24c1a9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ides%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ides%@AE@%:%@CR:IDES            @%%@QR:Ides@% see %@AU@%CALENDAR%@BO:          170f32@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ido%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ido%@AE@%%@CR:IDO             @%%@QR:Ido@%, short name of Esperandido, an artificial language that is a%@EH@%
simplified version of Esperanto. See %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE%@BO:          48ea23@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Idrisi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Idrisi%@AE@%%@CR:IDRISI          @%%@QR:Idrisi@% or %@AB@%Edrisi%@AE@% , b. 1099?, d. after 1154, Arabian geographer. After%@EH@%
many travels, he came to the court of Roger II of Sicily. His monumental
work, %@AI@%Kitab Rujjar %@AE@%(the Book of Roger; 1154), contains his description of
the earth, supplemented by reports of travelers sent out by Roger.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ieyasu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ieyasu%@AE@%%@CR:IEYASU          @%%@QR:Ieyasu@%(Ieyasu Tokugawa) , 1542-1616, Japanese dictator, founder of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%TOKUGAWA%@BO:          965cf0@%%@AE@% shogunate. He helped the dictators Nobunga and %@AU@%HIDEYOSHI%@BO:          42ba8d@%%@AE@% to
unify Japan and received (1590) a fief near Edo (Tokyo). He became the
most powerful daimyo, or baron, by defeating his rivals in the battle of
Sekigahara (1600) and became shogun in 1603. Ieyasu encouraged foreign
trade; one of his advisers was an Englishman, Will Adams.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ignatius of Antioch, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ignatius of Antioch, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:IGNATIUIOCH     @%%@QR:Ignatius of Antioch, Saint@% d. c.107, bishop of Antioch (Turkey) and%@EH@%
Christian martyr. He wrote epistles to Christian communities in Rome and
Asia Minor to combat heresy. He stressed the virgin birth, the %@AU@%TRINITY%@BO:          97db50@%%@AE@%,
and the role of the bishop, and was the first Christian writer to use the
word %@AI@%Catholic. %@AE@%Feast: Oct. 17.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ignatius of Constantinople, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ignatius of Constantinople, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:IGNATIUPLE      @%%@QR:Ignatius of Constantinople, Saint@% c.800-877, Greek churchman, patriarch%@EH@%
of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          2283b5@%%@AE@%. A son of Byzantine Emperor %@AU@%MICHAEL I%@BO:          5fefb7@%%@AE@%, he was castrated
and imprisoned by Emperor %@AU@%LEO V%@BO:          53f60e@%%@AE@% to prevent his accession. In 846 or 847
he was made patriarch and opposed %@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@%. In 858 Ignatius was
replaced with %@AU@%PHOTIUS%@BO:          750d06@%%@AE@%, but on the accession (867) of %@AU@%BASIL I%@BO:           cce0c@%%@AE@%, Ignatius
again became patriarch and was confirmed by the Fourth Council of
%@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          22895d@%%@AE@%. Feast: Oct. 23.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ignatius of Loyola, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ignatius of Loyola, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:IGNATIUOLA      @%%@QR:Ignatius of Loyola, Saint@% 1491-1556, Spanish churchman, founder of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%JESUITS%@BO:          4bfa3a@%%@AE@%. A soldier, he was converted in 1521 and began to study religion.
In 1534, in Paris, he and six others took vows of poverty and chastity,
and were later (1537) ordained. They were received (1538) by the pope,
and in 1540 Ignatius won papal approval for his %@AI@%Formula %@AE@%for a new order.
In 1541 he was elected general of the order, a post he held until his
death. Ignatius was a leader in the Catholic Reformation (see
%@AU@%REFORMATION, CATHOLIC%@BO:          7d87de@%%@AE@%), but he was more interested in education and
missionary work than in converting Protestants. His %@AI@%Spiritual Exercises
%@AI@%%@AE@%are a major devotional work. Feast: July 31.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%igneous rock%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%igneous rock%@AE@%:%@CR:IGNEOUS.ROCK    @%%@QR:igneous rock@% see %@AU@%ROCK%@BO:          7fd8d8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iguacu Falls%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iguacu Falls%@AE@%%@CR:IGUACU.FALLS    @%%@QR:Iguacu Falls@% or %@AB@%Iguassu Falls,%@AE@%on the Argentina-Brazil border, one of the%@EH@%
world's greatest waterfalls, with a drop of c.210 ft (64 m), on the
Iguacu R. near its confluence with the %@AU@%PARANA%@BO:          712503@%%@AE@% R. Nearby is the great
%@AU@%ITAIPU%@BO:          4a50d2@%%@AE@% Dam and the world's largest hydroelectric power complex, with a
planned capacity of 12,600 megawatts at its scheduled completion in 1991.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iguana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iguana%@AE@%,%@CR:IGUANA          @%%@QR:iguana@% large %@AU@%LIZARD%@BO:          55e360@%%@AE@% (family Iguanidae) found in tropical America and the%@EH@%
%@AU@%GALAPAGOS ISLANDS%@BO:          374b14@%%@AE@%. The common iguana (%@AI@%Iguana iguana%@AE@%), a tree-living
species found along streams from Mexico to N South America, is bright
green with a crest of spines from the neck to the striped tail. Its tail
accounts for two thirds of its length (3-6 ft/90-180 cm).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%IJsselmeer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%IJsselmeer%@AE@%%@CR:IJSSELMEER      @%%@QR:IJsselmeer@%, shallow freshwater lake, NW Netherlands, created when much of%@EH@%
the old Zuider Zee, an inlet of the North Sea, was enclosed in 1932 by
two dams totaling 19 mi (31 km) in length. During the next half century,
more than 850 sq mi (2,200 sq km) of fertile farmland, in five polders
(tracts), was reclaimed from the IJsselmeer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ikhnaton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ikhnaton%@AE@%%@CR:IKHNATON        @%%@QR:Ikhnaton@% or %@AB@%Akhenaton%@AE@% (a"kana'tan), d. c.1354 BC, Egyptian king%@EH@%
(c.1372-54) of the XVIII dynasty; son of Amenhotep III. A religious
innovator, he abandoned polytheism to embrace an absolute solar
monotheism, holding that the sun alone was God and he the sun's physical
son. Under him a new school of artists abandoned convention and returned
to nature (to glorify the sun). His fanaticism was his undoing; he
defaced earlier monuments, arousing the anger of the priests and the
people. Neglecting the provinces, he left to his successors only %@AU@%EGYPT%@BO:          2cbd0c@%%@AE@%
and the upper %@AU@%NILE%@BO:          6a336c@%%@AE@% valley, not the empire he had inherited. Of the art
works of his reign, the bust of his wife, %@AU@%NEFERTITI%@BO:          68087c@%%@AE@%, is the most famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ilf, Ilya Arnoldovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ilf, Ilya Arnoldovich%@AE@%%@CR:ILF             @%%@QR:Ilf, Ilya Arnoldovich@%, pseud. of %@AB@%Ilya Arnoldovich Fainzilberg,%@AE@% 1897-37,%@EH@%
Russian writer. Ilf and Yevgeny Petrovich %@AU@%PETROV%@BO:          744984@%%@AE@% wrote the satirical
novels %@AI@%The Twelve Chairs %@AE@%(1928) and %@AI@%The Little Golden Calf %@AE@%(1931). %@AI@%Little
%@AI@%Golden America%@AE@% (1936) is a humorous account of their trip to the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iliad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iliad%@AE@%:%@CR:ILIAD           @%%@QR:Iliad@% see %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ilion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ilion%@AE@%%@CR:ILION           @%%@QR:Ilion@% or %@AB@%Ilium:%@AE@%see %@AU@%TROY%@BO:          981d40@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Illia, Arturo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Illia, Arturo%@AE@%%@CR:ILLIA           @%%@QR:Illia, Arturo@%, 1900-83, president of Argentina (1963-66). A physician, he%@EH@%
was elected president with only 25% of the vote. He was unable to deal
with the country's deteriorating economy or with the Peronists. In
addition, he canceled Argentina's petroleum contracts with foreign
countries. He was deposed by military leaders in 1966.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Illinois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Illinois%@AE@%,%@CR:ILLINOIS        @%%@QR:Illinois@% midwestern state in the N central U.S.; bordered by Lake%@EH@%
Michigan, Indiana, and-across the Ohio R.-Kentucky (E), Missouri and
Iowa, across the Mississippi R. (W), and Wisconsin (N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 56,400 sq mi (146,076 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 11,552,000, a 1.1%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital, %@AE@%Springfield. %@AI@%Statehood, %@AE@%Dec. 3, 1818
(21st state). %@AI@%Highest pt., %@AE@%Charles Mound, 1,235 ft (377 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,
%@AI@%%@AE@%Mississippi R., 279 ft (85 m). %@AI@%Nicknames, %@AE@%Inland Empire; Prairie State.
%@AI@%Motto, %@AE@%State Sovereignty-National Union. %@AI@%State bird, %@AE@%cardinal. %@AI@%State
%@AI@%flower, %@AE@%native violet. %@AI@%State tree, %@AE@%white oak. %@AI@%Abbr., %@AE@%Ill.; IL.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Most of Illinois consists of broad, fertile, level plains
drained by more than 275 rivers. The state's temperate climate is marked
by cold winters and hot summers. More than 80% of the population lives in
metropolitan areas. %@AU@%CHICAGO%@BO:          1cc46b@%%@AE@%, the third-largest city in the U.S. and the
center of the third-largest metropolitan area, is by far the leading city
of Illinois and the entire Midwest, and is a major center of heavy
industry, transportation, commerce, and finance. Other important cities
are %@AU@%PEORIA%@BO:          73110c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROCKFORD%@BO:          80004c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SPRINGFIELD%@BO:          8dd12c@%%@AE@%. In 1984 the state was 83% white,
17% black and others.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Illinois has long had one of the U.S.'s most productive
economies. Prosperous industrial and agricultural sectors are supported
by a superb transportation complex, including %@AU@%GREAT LAKES%@BO:          3cdebf@%%@AE@% shipping, and
since 1959 the port of Chicago has been linked to the Atlantic via the
%@AU@%SAINT LAWRENCE SEAWAY%@BO:          833671@%%@AE@%. Manufacturing is the leading source of income,
with machinery (including machine tools and transportation equipment),
electrical equipment, steel and other metals, and chemicals the principal
products. Illinois is the leading U.S. producer of soybeans; is second to
Iowa in output of hogs and corn; and earns considerable income from
cattle, hay, and wheat. Much heavy industry is supported by Illinois's
extensive bituminous coal deposits, the fifth largest in the country, and
by petroleum deposits in the south. The state is the U.S.'s leading
producer of fluorspar.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution (adopted 1970) provides for a governor
elected to a four-year term. The general assembly consists of a senate
whose 59 members serve terms of both four and two years, and a house with
177 members elected for two years. Illinois elects 22 representatives and
2 senators to the U.S. Congress and has 24 electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The %@AU@%ILLINOIS%@BO:          46bd60@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SAC AND FOX%@BO:          82b74e@%%@AE@%, and other Indian tribes lived in the
area when French explorers, including Father Jacques %@AU@%MARQUETTE%@BO:          5bf7eb@%%@AE@% and Louis
%@AU@%JOLLIET%@BO:          4cffae@%%@AE@%, explored the region during the late 17th cent. It passed from
France to Britain in 1763, but it was ceded to the U.S. at the end of the
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% and was part of the %@AU@%NORTHWEST TERRITORY%@BO:          6bc39d@%%@AE@% before
becoming (1809) a separate territory. The %@AU@%BLACK HAWK WAR%@BO:          1089b2@%%@AE@% (1832) virtually
ended the tenure of the Indians in Illinois. During the mid-19th cent.
Abraham %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@% launched his political career in Illinois, which was just
becoming a major industrial state. Chicago, with its huge steel mills and
stockyards, attracted thousands of European immigrants. The late 19th
cent. saw the growth of the %@AU@%GRANGER MOVEMENT%@BO:          3c4411@%%@AE@% among farmers, and violent
labor strife in industry. In 1937 new oilfields were discovered, further
enhancing industrial growth. In the 1980s much of Illinois's heavy
industry suffered a serious decline, although the state continued to
benefit from industrialization of its downstate area. In 1980 the first
U.S. president born in Illinois, Ronald Reagan, was elected.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Illinois Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Illinois Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:ILLINOIS        @%%@QR:Illinois Indians@% confederation of %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% tribes of the%@EH@%
Eastern Woodlands, who spoke an Algonquian language of the
Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). In the
mid-17th cent. 6,500 Illinois lived in the N Illinois area, but by 1750
warfare had reduced them to 2,000. They were all but exterminated in
retaliation for the assassination of %@AU@%PONTIAC%@BO:          7811bf@%%@AE@% by a member of the Illinois
tribe. In 1833 the survivors moved West. Descendants have lived on a
reservation in NE Oklahoma, although few now remain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ilium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ilium%@AE@%:%@CR:ILIUM           @%%@QR:Ilium@% see %@AU@%TROY%@BO:          981d40@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%illumination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%illumination%@AE@%,%@CR:ILLUMINATION    @%%@QR:illumination@% in art, decoration of manuscripts and books with colored,%@EH@%
gilded pictures; decorated initials; and ornamental borders. Both ink
outline and color drawings were common, the color medium usually being
%@AU@%TEMPERA%@BO:          93bcb7@%%@AE@%. Executed largely in monasteries, illuminations were commonly
applied to religious books, including gospels, psalters, and %@AU@%BOOKS OF
%@AU@%HOURS%@BO:          11fc4a@%%@AE@%. The earliest known illustrated rolls are from ancient Egypt, e.g.,
%@AU@%BOOK OF THE DEAD%@BO:          11fe90@%%@AE@%. It is thought that by the 2d cent. AD the papyrus roll
was replaced by the parchment codex (leaved book), which produced a
compact framework for illuminations. Outstanding examples of the art of
illumination include the 7th- and 8th-cent. works of the Irish school,
with their rich geometric designs and human and animal interlacing, e.g.,
%@AI@%Book of Kells; %@AE@%Romanesque illumination of the 12th cent., with its
beautifully decorated initials and stylized figures, e.g., Winchester
Bible; Gothic miniatures of the 13th cent., strikingly parallel to
%@AU@%STAINED GLASS%@BO:          8e03fd@%%@AE@% in color and outline; works of the early 15th cent., marked
by realism, elegance, and a wealth of marginal ornament, e.g., %@AI@%Tres
%@AI@%Riches Heures. %@AE@%Illumination continued as a vigorous form until the end of
the 15th cent., when it began to be replaced by woodblock printing.
Illumination was also highly developed in the Middle East and the Orient.
See %@AU@%INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          47749e@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          4a10d2@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%MOGUL ART
%@AU@%AND ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          62273d@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERSIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          73aa34@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%illustration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%illustration%@AE@%,%@CR:ILLUSTRATION    @%%@QR:illustration@% picture or decoration used in a book to embellish or%@EH@%
clarify the text. Modern illustration began in the 15th. cent. with the
block book, after the decline of %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@%. During the 16th and 17th
cent. copperplate %@AU@%ENGRAVING%@BO:          2f1ed9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ETCHING%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@% tended to replace the %@AU@%WOODCUT%@BO:          a2eb1f@%%@AE@%. At
the end of the 18th cent. illustration was revolutionized by the
invention of %@AU@%LITHOGRAPHY%@BO:          55a7eb@%%@AE@% and by Bewick's use of wood engraving, processes
exploited by such masters as %@AU@%DAUMIER%@BO:          26b182@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%DORE%@BO:          2a31fe@%%@AE@%. In the late 19th cent.
photomechanical processes made possible the mass production of
reproductions. While these methods were used to great effect by
illustrators such as Aubrey %@AU@%BEARDSLEY%@BO:           d558d@%%@AE@% and Howard %@AU@%PYLE%@BO:          7b4247@%%@AE@%, others, e.g.,
William %@AU@%MORRIS%@BO:          6405bb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MATISSE%@BO:          5d33c7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROUAULT%@BO:          81747a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@%, and Rockwell %@AU@%KENT%@BO:          4efc5c@%%@AE@%, turned to
hand processes. Other artists famous for their illustrations are %@AU@%DURER%@BO:          2b530d@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%HOLBEIN%@BO:          43825c@%%@AE@% the Younger, William %@AU@%HOGARTH%@BO:          43706f@%%@AE@%, William %@AU@%BLAKE%@BO:          10be48@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CRUIKSHANK%@BO:          24fb85@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MANET%@BO:          5ac6b0@%%@AE@%,
and Winslow %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43ea7d@%%@AE@%. Some of the finest illustrations have been executed
for %@AU@%CHILDREN'S LITERATURE%@BO:          1cebbb@%%@AE@%. Many, from Edward %@AU@%LEAR%@BO:          532f12@%%@AE@% to Beatrix %@AU@%POTTER%@BO:          78b98c@%%@AE@% to
Maurice Sendak, have illustrated their own writings. Other great
children's book illustrators include %@AU@%TENNIEL%@BO:          93f3f5@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CALDECOTT%@BO:          170502@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GREENAWAY%@BO:          3d46da@%%@AE@%.
The art of Oriental book illustration is very old. In both China and
Japan wood-block printing was used to enhance volumes from the 9th cent.,
and in Japan ukiyo-e printing was used in books into the 18th cent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Illyria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Illyria%@AE@%%@CR:ILLYRIA         @%%@QR:Illyria@% and %@AB@%Illyricum, %@AE@%ancient regions of the Balkan peninsula occupied%@EH@%
by Indo-European-speaking tribes including the Dalmatians and Pannonians.
Warlike and piratical, they withstood (6th cent. BC) Greeks attracted by
their mines and later attacks by Macedonians. The Romans conquered them
and set up (168-167 BC) the province of Illyricum. Today Illyria means
the Adriatic coast N of central Albania.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%imaginary number%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%imaginary number%@AE@%:%@CR:IMAGINAR        @%%@QR:imaginary number@% see %@AU@%NUMBER%@BO:          6c3800@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%imagists%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%imagists%@AE@%,%@CR:IMAGISTS        @%%@QR:imagists@% group of English and American poets (c.1909-c.1917) who%@EH@%
rebelled against the exuberance and sentimentality of 19th-cent. verse.
Influenced by %@AU@%CLASSICISM%@BO:          1efbdb@%%@AE@%, Chinese and Japanese poetry, and the French
%@AU@%SYMBOLISTS%@BO:          91ccd0@%%@AE@%, they advocated a hard, clear, concentrated poetry, free of
artificialities and replete with specific physical analogies. The group
included Ezra %@AU@%POUND%@BO:          78c4da@%%@AE@%, Richard %@AU@%ALDINGTON%@BO:           32888@%%@AE@%, Amy %@AU@%LOWELL%@BO:          577c08@%%@AE@%, and Hilda %@AU@%DOOLITTLE%@BO:          2a2b40@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%imam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%imam%@AE@%%@CR:IMAM            @%%@QR:imam@% [Arab.,=leader]sincun%@EH@%
, in %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%, a recognized leader or a religious teacher. Any pious Muslim
may function as imam. The term is also used as a synonym for %@AI@%caliph,
%@AI@%%@AE@%God's viceregent. Among %@AU@%SHIITES%@BO:          8856eb@%%@AE@% the belief arose that a hidden or
unrecognized imam, or true caliph (the %@AU@%MAHDI%@BO:          59b70c@%%@AE@%), would return at the end of
the world to restore the true %@AU@%CALIPHATE%@BO:          174259@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%immigration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%immigration%@AE@%,%@CR:IMMIGRATION     @%%@QR:immigration@% entrance into a new country for the purpose of establishing%@EH@%
permanent residence. The largest waves of immigration have resulted from
the pressure of population growth or economic hardship, or both, in the
countries of origin. Emigrants from Europe, where the modern population
explosion began in the 17th cent., peopled most of the Western
Hemisphere, as well as Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Africa.
Immigrants to the U.S. came mainly from the British Isles and NW Europe
until c.1880, then from S and E Europe; Asians began emigrating in the
mid-19th cent. Organized labor and the %@AU@%KNOW-NOTHING MOVEMENT%@BO:          504f22@%%@AE@% opposed
these "foreign" influences, and restrictions came in 1882 with the
passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act and legislation denying entry to
paupers and other "undesirables." A quota law (1924), reducing the total
number of immigrants and fixing the number from each nation of origin,
favored N and W Europeans and effectively barred most Asians. In 1965
amendment of the 1952 exclusionary McCarran-Walter Immigration and
Nationality Act replaced national quotas with hemispheric limitations and
provided for acceptance of political %@AU@%REFUGEES%@BO:          7d9f84@%%@AE@%. During the 1970s and 80s
increasing illegal immigration, particularly from Latin America, began to
pose social, economic, and political problems for the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%immunity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%immunity%@AE@%,%@CR:IMMUNITY1       @%%@QR:immunity@% ability of an organism to resist disease by production of%@EH@%
antibodies. The introduction into the body of a foreign substance called
an %@AI@%antigen-%@AE@%a virus or bacterium or some nonliving substance-triggers the
production of antibodies by special white blood cells called lymphocytes,
located chiefly in the spleen and lymph nodes (see %@AU@%LYMPHATIC SYSTEM%@BO:          583eee@%%@AE@%). The
process is highly specific, with different lymphocytes recognizing only
certain antigens and producing antibodies against only that particular
antigen. The antibodies act to neutralize the effect of the antigen by
removing the antigen from the body's circulation, by coating the antigen
or antigen-producing agent so that it can be more easily destroyed by the
body's scavenger cells, or by combining with the antigen in such a way as
to make it incapable of infecting body cells. The body also resists
invading agents by phagocytosis, a process by which special white cells
(macrophages and others) engulf and destroy the invading microorganism.
Immunity has been found to be important not only in resisting infectious
disease, but also in the defense against %@AU@%CANCER%@BO:          182344@%%@AE@%, in successful organ
%@AU@%TRANSPLANTATION%@BO:          976ffa@%%@AE@%, in %@AU@%ALLERGIES%@BO:           3e65e@%%@AE@%, and in %@AU@%AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES%@BO:           a39e9@%%@AE@% (the result of
an organism producing antibodies against its own proteins and cell
components). %@AU@%IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS%@BO:          46eaab@%%@AE@% (substances used to prevent the
production of antibodies) are used to treat some autoimmune diseases and
to prevent the body's rejection of organ transplants. See %@AU@%IMMUNOLOGY%@BO:          46e89f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%immunity, diplomatic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%immunity, diplomatic%@AE@%:%@CR:IMMUNITY2       @%%@QR:immunity, diplomatic@% see %@AU@%EXTRATERRITORIALITY%@BO:          314ef0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%immunology%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%immunology%@AE@%,%@CR:IMMUNOLOGY      @%%@QR:immunology@% study of the resistance of organisms to %@AU@%INFECTION%@BO:          480896@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Immunologists study behavior of pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms
(see %@AU@%TOXINS%@BO:          970bcd@%%@AE@%), factors that enable the host to resist infection, and
defensive measures used by organisms to fight invading pathogens. See
%@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%immunosuppressive drug%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%immunosuppressive drug%@AE@%,%@CR:IMMUNOSVE.DRUG  @%%@QR:immunosuppressive drug@% substance that suppresses the activity of%@EH@%
lymphocytes, the white blood cells that form antibodies (the body's
response to foreign substances; see %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@%). Such drugs, including
%@AU@%CORTISONE%@BO:          239fe5@%%@AE@% and other %@AU@%STEROIDS%@BO:          8ef0b9@%%@AE@%, are administered to prevent rejection by a
recipient's body of an organ transplanted from a donor (see
%@AU@%TRANSPLANTATION, MEDICAL%@BO:          976ffa@%%@AE@%). Other immunosuppressives act by interfering
with %@AU@%NUCLEIC ACID%@BO:          6c2767@%%@AE@% synthesis. These drugs, which are especially effective
against rapidly proliferating cells, are used in the treatment of cancer
(see %@AU@%CHEMOTHERAPY%@BO:          1c801a@%%@AE@%), particularly leukemia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impala%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impala%@AE@%:%@CR:IMPALA          @%%@QR:impala@% see under %@AU@%GAZELLE%@BO:          386d10@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impatiens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impatiens%@AE@%:%@CR:IMPATIENS       @%%@QR:impatiens@% see %@AU@%JEWELWEED%@BO:          4c1828@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impeachment%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impeachment%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPEACHMENT     @%%@QR:impeachment@% formal accusation by a legislature against a public%@EH@%
official, to remove him from office. The term loosely includes both the
bringing of charges, or articles, and the trial that may follow.
Impeachment developed in England in the 14th cent. In the U.S., the House
of Representatives (see %@AU@%CONGRESS%@BO:          2209cf@%%@AE@%) can bring articles of impeachment
against federal officials, including the president. Trial is by the
Senate, which must convict by a two-thirds margin of the members present.
There have been 13 federal impeachments and 5 convictions. Andrew %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cc07d@%%@AE@%
was the only president to be impeached (1868), but he was later
acquitted. Richard %@AU@%NIXON%@BO:          6a5b4d@%%@AE@% resigned (1974) the presidency before the House
could bring charges against him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impedance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impedance%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPEDANCE       @%%@QR:impedance@% in electricity, measure of the degree to which an electric%@EH@%
circuit resists electric-current flow when a voltage (see %@AU@%POTENTIAL,
%@AU@%ELECTRIC%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@%) is impressed across its terminal. Impedance, expressed in %@AU@%OHMS%@BO:          6d2c20@%%@AE@%,
is the ratio of the voltage impressed across a pair of terminals to the
current flow between those terminals. In direct-current (DC) circuits,
impedance corresponds to %@AU@%RESISTANCE%@BO:          7e6737@%%@AE@%. In alternating-current (AC)
circuits, impedance is a function of resistance, %@AU@%INDUCTANCE%@BO:          47d0ba@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%CAPACITANCE%@BO:          1863a9@%%@AE@%. Inductors and %@AU@%CAPACITORS%@BO:          1866ad@%%@AE@% build up voltages that oppose the
flow of current. This opposition, called reactance, must be combined with
resistance to find the impedance. The reactance produced by inductance is
proportional to the frequency of the alternating current, whereas the
reactance produced by capacitance is inversely proportional to the
frequency. In order to transfer maximum electrical power from one device
to another, the two impedances must be matched. See also %@AU@%OHM'S LAW%@BO:          6d3048@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%imperative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%imperative%@AE@%:%@CR:IMPERATIVE      @%%@QR:imperative@% see %@AU@%MOOD%@BO:          638167@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Imperial conference%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Imperial conference%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPERIAENCE     @%%@QR:Imperial conference@% assembly of representatives of the self-governing%@EH@%
members of the %@AU@%BRITISH EMPIRE%@BO:          13f956@%%@AE@%, held about every four years until %@AU@%WORLD
%@AU@%WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. The assemblies were first called Colonial Conferences (1887-1902)
and were concerned with defense problems. More formalized meetings were
held later (1907-37) to discuss defense and economic problems. Since the
war, Commonwealth policy has been coordinated through regular meetings of
the prime ministers of Commonwealth nations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%imperialism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%imperialism%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPERIALISM     @%%@QR:imperialism@% broadly, the extension of rule or influence by one%@EH@%
government, nation, or society over another. Evidence of the existence of
empires dates back to the dawn of written history, when local rulers
extended their realms by conquering other states. Ancient imperialism
reached its climax under the Roman Empire, but it was an important force
elsewhere, e.g., the Middle East, N Africa, and central Asia. In the
West, imperialism was reborn with the emergence of the modern
nation-state and the age of exploration and discovery. European
%@AU@%COLONIZATION%@BO:          207b4f@%%@AE@% of the Western Hemisphere and Africa from the 15th to 17th
cent. was followed in the 18th cent. by attempts to regulate the trade of
colonies in the interests of the mother country. Later, the growth of
manufacturing after the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@% introduced a new form of
imperialism, as industrial nations scrambled for raw materials and new
markets for manufactured products. The inequities of the system produced
a growing opposition by the end of the 19th cent., when Marxists argued
that imperialism was the ultimate state of capitalism. After %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%,
anti-imperialist feeling grew rapidly, and since %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% most of the
countries once subject to Western control have achieved independence.
Contemporary debate centers on neo-imperialism, with many less-developed
countries contending that their economic development is largely
determined by the developed countries through unfair trading practices,
control over capital, and the power of %@AU@%MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS%@BO:          650ddc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Imperial Valley%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Imperial Valley%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPERIAL.VALLEY @%%@QR:Imperial Valley@% low-lying depression in a desert area S of the Salton%@EH@%
Sea, S California. Irrigated by water diverted from the Colorado R. by
the All-American Canal, it is an important U.S. source of cotton, citrus,
dates, and winter vegetables. Completion of %@AU@%HOOVER DAM%@BO:          444f5a@%%@AE@% (1936) ended
periodic inundation there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impetigo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impetigo%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPETIGO        @%%@QR:impetigo@% highly contagious skin infection affecting mainly infants and%@EH@%
children, caused either by hemolytic streptococcus or staphylococcus. The
rash consists of red spots or blisters that rupture, discharge, and
become encrusted. %@AU@%ANTIBIOTIC%@BO:           62391@%%@AE@% ointment is usually effective.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impotence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impotence%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPOTENCE       @%%@QR:impotence@% inability of the male to perform sexual intercourse. Impotence%@EH@%
can result from psychological factors or such physical causes as hormonal
abnormalities, %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DRUGS%@BO:          2abe28@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ALCOHOLISM%@BO:           3168c@%%@AE@%. Treatment depends on the
underlying cause. Impotence should be distinguished from %@AU@%STERILITY%@BO:          8ee6fb@%%@AE@%
(inability to produce sperm adequate for reproduction). See also %@AU@%SEX
%@AU@%THERAPY%@BO:          877e85@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impressionism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impressionism%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPRESSIONISM1  @%%@QR:impressionism@% in music, a French movement of the late 19th and early%@EH@%
20th cent. It was begun by Claude %@AU@%DEBUSSY%@BO:          2720ca@%%@AE@% as a reaction to the
emotionalism of romantic music. Using new chord combinations and exotic
rhythms and scales, Debussy developed a style in which atmosphere and
mood take the place of strong emotion or a story. The influence of
impressionism is evident in the music of %@AU@%RAVEL%@BO:          7ce8e6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DELIUS%@BO:          27b3ac@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FALLA%@BO:          31a1b1@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SATIE%@BO:          84cae9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%impressionism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%impressionism%@AE@%,%@CR:IMPRESSIONISM2  @%%@QR:impressionism@% in painting, late-19th-cent. French school. It was%@EH@%
generally characterized by the attempt to depict transitory visual
impressions, often painted directly from nature, and by the use of broken
color to achieve brilliance and luminosity. The movement began with
%@AU@%MONET%@BO:          629b2a@%%@AE@%, Pierre Auguste %@AU@%RENOIR%@BO:          7e2b3d@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SISLEY%@BO:          89abf0@%%@AE@%, who met regularly with %@AU@%CEZANNE%@BO:          1b229a@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%PISSARRO%@BO:          7619af@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MORISOT%@BO:          63db09@%%@AE@%, and, later, %@AU@%DEGAS%@BO:          276d6a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MANET%@BO:          5ac6b0@%%@AE@%. They repudiated academic
standards, the romantics' emphasis on emotion, and literary and anecdotal
subject matter; they also rejected the role of the imagination. Dubbed
"impressionists" by hostile journalists after Monet's painting
%@AI@%Impression: Sunrise, 1872, %@AE@%they observed nature closely, with scientific
interest. Impressionist objectivity proved to be limiting, but the
movement produced an aesthetic revolution, influencing many later
painters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%In%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%In%@AE@%,%@CR:IN              @%%@QR:In@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%INDIUM%@BO:          47b4c5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inca%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inca%@AE@%,%@CR:INCA            @%%@QR:Inca@% pre-Columbian Indian empire in W South America (see %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN%@EH@%
%@AU@%INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%) whose language was %@AU@%QUECHUA%@BO:          7bb331@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). From
its center at %@AU@%CUZCO%@BO:          258ef7@%%@AE@% (Peru), the empire at its height dominated the entire
Andean region, extending 2,000 mi (3,200 km). It was a closely knit state
ruled by an emperor who required total obedience, but who looked after
his subjects' welfare. The state owned almost everything and could draft
people to work in mines or on public projects. Priests, government
servants, the aged, sick, and widowed were supplied from imperial
storehouses. The large royal family formed the nobility; a privileged,
Quechua-speaking "Inca class" governed colonies. Lesser officials formed
a minor nobility. The empire was administratively divided and subdivided
down to local communities. Surveys and census reports were recorded on
knotted strings called quipas. The Incas' pantheistic, ritualistic
religion sometimes incorporated human sacrifice. By terracing and
irrigation, Inca engineers made a difficult terrain fertile; the llama
and alpaca were domesticated. Remarkable feats of construction were
accomplished in such cities as %@AU@%MACHU PICCHU%@BO:          58d8ea@%%@AE@%, using clay models, tools
such as plumb bobs, and wooden rollers to transport huge stone blocks. A
network of roads included bridges, ferries, and relay stations. The Inca
also made elaborate tapestries, fine polished pottery, and complex
metalwork. Inca history begins when the legendary %@AU@%MANCO CAPAC%@BO:          5aacf4@%%@AE@% brought his
people from mountain caves into the Cuzco valley. In their early period
(c.1200-c.1440) the Inca subjugated neighboring peoples. Their great
conquests (1440-93) came under Pachacuti and his son Topa Inca. The
present Ecuador was won by Huayna Capac, the last of the great Inca
emperors. At his death (1525), his sons fought over the empire; just as
Atahualpa triumphed, Francisco %@AU@%PIZARRO%@BO:          7659a2@%%@AE@% arrived (1532) to begin the
Spanish conquest. Pizarro executed Atahualpa and entered Cuzco. Despite
resistance and the rebellion (1536-37) of the second Manco Capac, the
Inca were subdued and their culture was eventually Hispanicized. Only in
recent years have efforts been made to integrate Peruvian Indians (about
50% of the population) into the national life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%incense-tree%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%incense-tree%@AE@%,%@CR:INCENSETREE     @%%@QR:incense-tree@% common name for deciduous shrubs and trees of the family%@EH@%
Burseraceae, found chiefly in tropical America and NE Africa. The
incenses frankincense and myrrh are prepared from the resin exuded by
some species. Frankincense, or olibanum, derived mainly from %@AI@%Boswellia
%@AI@%carterii, %@AE@%is used medicinally and for fumigation. Myrrh, prepared
especially from %@AI@%Commiphora erythraea %@AE@%and common myrrh, %@AI@%C. myrrha, %@AE@%is used
medicinally and in perfumes, and was used by the ancients in embalming.
Frankincense and myrrh, together with %@AU@%GOLD%@BO:          3b1a02@%%@AE@%, were the gifts of the %@AU@%WISE
%@AU@%MEN OF THE EAST%@BO:          a28a24@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inchon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inchon%@AE@%,%@CR:INCHON          @%%@QR:Inchon@% city (1985 pop. 1,387,475), NW South Korea, on the Yellow Sea.%@EH@%
The country's second largest port, Inchon is a major industrial center,
producing steel, coke, textiles, chemicals, and fertilizers. Fishing is
an important industry, and the city is also the port and commercial
center for %@AU@%SEOUL%@BO:          86fcb6@%%@AE@%. During the %@AU@%KOREAN WAR%@BO:          50a0f9@%%@AE@%, U.S. troops landed (Sept. 15,
1950) there to launch a UN counteroffensive against the North Koreans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inclination%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inclination%@AE@%,%@CR:INCLINATION     @%%@QR:inclination@% in astronomy: see %@AU@%ORBIT%@BO:          6e4e7f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inclined plane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inclined plane%@AE@%:%@CR:INCLINED.PLANE  @%%@QR:inclined plane@% see %@AU@%MACHINE%@BO:          58cb0d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inclosure%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inclosure%@AE@%%@CR:INCLOSURE       @%%@QR:inclosure@% or %@AB@%enclosure,%@AE@%in British history, the process of inclosing (with%@EH@%
fences, ditches, hedges, or other barriers) land formerly subject to
common rights. In England the practice dated from the 12th cent. and
accompanied the breakdown of the %@AU@%MANORIAL SYSTEM%@BO:          5b0e18@%%@AE@%. Its great development
came in the 14th cent. with the rapid expansion of the Flemish wool trade
and the resulting monetary advantages of fenced sheep pastures. Inclosure
reached its peak in the 17th cent. Though hard on the small farmer, it
produced more efficient farming.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%income tax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%income tax%@AE@%,%@CR:INCOME.TAX      @%%@QR:income tax@% assessment levied on individual or corporate income. The%@EH@%
first modern income tax was levied (1799-1816) in Britain to fund the
Napoleonic Wars, but it did not become permanent until 1874. Similarly,
the U.S. imposed a temporary income tax during the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; the system
became permanent with the adoption of the 16th amendment (1913) to the
%@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@%. Since 1919 most U.S. states have adopted the tax, as have
several cities, beginning with Philadelphia (1939). See also %@AU@%TAXATION%@BO:          931ca9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%incunabula%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%incunabula%@AE@%,%@CR:INCUNABULA      @%%@QR:incunabula@% plural of %@AB@%incunabulum%@AE@% [Late Lat.,=cradle (books); i.e., books%@EH@%
of the cradle days of printing], books printed in the 15th cent. The
known incunabula represent about 40,000 editions, the products of more
than 1,000 presses, including such printers as %@AU@%CAXTON%@BO:          1a82aa@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GUTENBERG%@BO:          3eb25c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JENSON%@BO:          4bd558@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%ALDUS MANUTIUS%@BO:           32edd@%%@AE@%. Incunabula show the development of typography in its
formative period. Major collections exist in leading European and
American libraries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Independence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Independence%@AE@%,%@CR:INDEPENDENCE1   @%%@QR:Independence@% city (1986 est. pop. 112,950), seat of Jackson co., W Mo.,%@EH@%
a suburb of Kansas City; inc. 1849. Its manufactures include oil and
steel products and farm machinery. The city was a %@AU@%MORMON%@BO:          63e037@%%@AE@% settlement
(1831) and a starting point for Western expeditions in the 1830s and 40s.
Harry S %@AU@%TRUMAN%@BO:          982df7@%%@AE@% lived there and is buried on the grounds of the Truman
Library.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Independence, American War of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Independence, American War of%@AE@%:%@CR:INDEPENDENCE2   @%%@QR:Independence, American War of@% see %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Independence, Declaration of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Independence, Declaration of%@AE@%:%@CR:INDEPENDENCE3   @%%@QR:Independence, Declaration of@% see %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Independence Day%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Independence Day%@AE@%:%@CR:INDEPENY        @%%@QR:Independence Day@% see %@AU@%FOURTH OF JULY%@BO:          34db4d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Independence Hall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Independence Hall%@AE@%,%@CR:INDEPENLL       @%%@QR:Independence Hall@% building in Philadelphia, in Independence National%@EH@%
Historical Park. The %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@% was proclaimed here, and
it was the site of the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%FEDERAL
%@AU@%CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%independent counsel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%independent counsel%@AE@%,%@CR:INDEPENNSEL     @%%@QR:independent counsel@% in U.S. law, a judicially appointed investigator of%@EH@%
charges of misdeeds by high government officials. Originally termed
special prosecutor, the position was created by the 1978 Ethics in
Government Act; the title was changed with the extension (1982) of the
act. Prompted by the %@AU@%WATERGATE AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@%, the purpose of the law was to
avoid the conflict of interest that might develop if the Executive branch
investigated its own officials. However, a request for the appointment of
an independent counsel is made by the Attorney General.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Independent Treasury System%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Independent Treasury System%@AE@%.%@CR:INDEPENSTEM     @%%@QR:Independent Treasury System@% When Pres. Andrew %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% transferred (1833)%@EH@%
government funds from the %@AU@%BANK OF THE UNITED STATES%@BO:           be57f@%%@AE@% to state banks,
rampant speculation followed and led to the Panic of 1837. In 1840, under
Pres. %@AU@%VAN BUREN%@BO:          9ba53c@%%@AE@%, an independent treasury isolated from all banks was set
up, but in 1841 the Whigs repealed the law, and it was not until 1846
that the Democrats restored the Independent Treasury System. The Act of
1846 ordered that public revenues be retained in the Treasury building or
in subtreasuries in various cities. The Treasury was to pay out its own
funds and be completely independent of the banking and financial system
of the nation; all payments in and out were to be in specie. In practice,
the system created problems in prosperous times by amassing surplus
revenue and thus restraining legimate expansion of trade; in depressed
times, the treasury's insistence on being paid in specie reduced the
amount of specie available for private credit. The large expenditures of
the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% also revealed problems, and Congress created (1863-64)
national banks. The Independent Treasury was later used to stabilize the
money market, but the Panic of 1907 proved the attempt futile. The
Federal Reserve Act of 1913 marked the end of the system.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%index%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%index%@AE@%,%@CR:INDEX           @%%@QR:index@% in books or periodicals, a list, usually alphabetical, of topics%@EH@%
treated. It directs the reader to specific names and subjects.
Periodical-index subject entries are less specific than those in books.
Book indexes began before printing was invented but until the 17th cent.
were rarely alphabetical. Periodical indexes have existed almost as long
as periodicals themselves; the best known is the %@AI@%Readers' Guide to
%@AI@%Periodical Literature. %@AE@%Special indexes exist in many fields, e.g., law,
medicine, art. Newspaper indexes include those to the London %@AI@%Times
%@AI@%%@AE@%(1906-) and New York %@AI@%Times %@AE@%(1913-). %@AU@%COMPUTERS%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% are increasingly used in
indexing.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%index number%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%index number%@AE@%,%@CR:INDEX.NUMBER    @%%@QR:index number@% in %@AU@%ECONOMETRICS%@BO:          2c2a4a@%%@AE@%, a figure reflecting a change in value or%@EH@%
quantity as compared with a standard or base. The base usually equals 100
and the index number is usually expressed as a percentage. For example,
if a commodity cost twice as much in 1980 as it did in 1970, its index
number would be 200 relative to 1970. An example of index numbers in the
U.S. is the Consumer Price Index (CPI), which measures a "market basket"
of goods and services bought by a typical urban family. The CPI, as a
barometer of %@AU@%INFLATION%@BO:          481204@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%COST OF LIVING%@BO:          23cbd2@%%@AE@%, triggers increases in
Social Security benefits and the wages of many union workers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%India%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%India%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIA           @%%@QR:India@% officially the Republic of India, republic (1988 est. pop.%@EH@%
816,828,360), 1,269,413 sq mi (3,287,782 sq km), S Asia, occupying most
of the Indian subcontinent, bordered by Pakistan (W); Afghanistan, China,
Nepal, and Bhutan (N); and Burma (E); Bangladesh forms an enclave in the
NE. Jutting into the %@AU@%INDIAN OCEAN%@BO:          47934f@%%@AE@%, southern India has a shoreline of
about 3,500 mi (5,630 km) along the Bay of %@AU@%BENGAL%@BO:           e6303@%%@AE@% in the east and the
%@AU@%ARABIAN SEA%@BO:           6fe5a@%%@AE@% in the west. The capital is %@AU@%NEW DELHI%@BO:          68c555@%%@AE@%; other important cities
include %@AU@%CALCUTTA%@BO:          17019c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BOMBAY%@BO:          11be9f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%DELHI%@BO:          27a716@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MADRAS%@BO:          5942aa@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BANGALORE%@BO:           bbe22@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% The land may be divided into three topographical zones:
the towering %@AU@%HIMALAYAS%@BO:          42dcce@%%@AE@% in the north; the fertile, densely populated
Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain in the north-central section; and the
southern peninsula, dominated by the uplands of the %@AU@%DECCAN%@BO:          272df9@%%@AE@% plateau. The
%@AU@%GANGES%@BO:          37d39d@%%@AE@% R., sacred to the Hindus, flows through the heart of the nation.
Economically, India often seems like two separate countries: village
India, supported by primitive agriculture, where 40% of the people live
below the poverty level; and urban India, one of the most heavily
industrialized areas in the world. Although the traditional textile
industry is still important, the emphasis is on heavy industry, which
produces iron and steel, machine tools, transportation equipment, and
chemicals. About 70% of the work force is engaged in agriculture, growing
rice, wheat, groundnuts, maize, and millet for subsistence; cash crops
are sugarcane (India is the world's largest producer), tea, oilseeds,
cotton, and jute. In recent years improved irrigation, the introduction
of chemical fertilizers, and the use of high-yield strains of rice and
wheat have led to record harvests, and by the late 1970s India was
self-sufficient in grain, becoming an exporter in the early 1980s. India
has perhaps more cattle per capita than any other country, but their
economic value is severely limited by the Hindu prohibition against their
slaughter. Among the country's rich mineral resources are coal, zinc,
iron, and lead. India is the world's second most populous country (after
China). The ethnic composition is complex, but two major strains
predominate: the Aryan, in the north, and the Dravidian, in the south.
More than 1,500 languages and dialects are spoken; Hindi and English are
the official languages, and 14 other languages are recognized by the
constitution. The population is overwhelmingly Hindu, but there are
significant numbers of Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains, and
Parsis. About 80% of the population is rural. The caste system, under
which people are socially classified at birth, is an important facet of
Hinduism and thus a dominant feature of Indian life; the 1950
constitution abolished the lowest caste, known as untouchables, but caste
conflicts remain a serious problem.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The %@AU@%INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION%@BO:          47f39b@%%@AE@% (c.2500-c.1500 BC) was the first to
flourish on the Indian subcontinent (in present-day Pakistan). It fell
c.1500 BC to Aryan invaders from the northwest, who dominated the area
for 2,000 years and developed %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%, the socioreligious system that is
the basis of India's institutions and culture. Under the %@AU@%MAURYA%@BO:          5d82ea@%%@AE@% dynasty
(c.325-c.183 BC)-especially %@AU@%ASOKA%@BO:           8b9e3@%%@AE@% (d. 232 BC), who established Buddhism
as the state religion-Indian culture had its first great flowering. A
golden age of Hindu culture was achieved under the %@AU@%GUPTA%@BO:          3ea1db@%%@AE@% dynasty, in the
4th-5th cent. AD, considered India's classical period. By the 10th cent.
Muslim armies from the north were raiding India, and in 1192 the %@AU@%DELHI
%@AU@%SULTANATE%@BO:          27aa99@%%@AE@%, the first Muslim kingdom in India, was established. The small
Muslim kingdoms that succeeded it were swept away by %@AU@%BABUR%@BO:           aa823@%%@AE@%, a great
Muslim invader from Afghanistan, who established the %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% empire in
1526. Portugal, which captured Goa in 1510, was the first European nation
to gain a foothold in India, but the British, French, and Dutch were soon
vying with the Portuguese for Indian trade. With the weakening of the
Mogul empire in the 18th cent., the struggle was renewed, this time
between France and Britain, with the British %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be578@%%@AE@% emerging
dominant. In 1857, after the bloody %@AU@%INDIAN MUTINY%@BO:          4789af@%%@AE@% against the British,
the East India Company was abolished and control of India was transferred
directly to the British crown. Discontent with British rule became
intense during the early 20th cent., and the %@AU@%INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS%@BO:          478d0e@%%@AE@%
(founded 1885), led by Mohandas %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37ca17@%%@AE@% and Jawaharlal %@AU@%NEHRU%@BO:          680f1f@%%@AE@%, mounted a
movement for independence. The British instituted a program of gradual
power-sharing, but Congress leaders, frustrated by the slow pace,
organized the Quit India movement during World War II. The desire of the
Congress to maintain a united front against Britain was frustrated,
however, by the %@AU@%MUSLIM LEAGUE%@BO:          659f94@%%@AE@%, which demanded the partition of India into
separate Hindu and Muslim states. Finally, in 1947, British India was
divided into two independent nations: India, with Nehru as prime
minister, and %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%, under Muhammad Ali %@AU@%JINNAH%@BO:          4c46a8@%%@AE@%. More than 1 million
people died in the ensuing disorder. Hostile relations between the
nations led to the %@AU@%INDIA-PAKISTAN WARS%@BO:          47a867@%%@AE@% (1947-48, 1965, 1971). A specific
dispute was jurisdiction over %@AU@%KASHMIR%@BO:          4e85a9@%%@AE@%, which both countries claimed.
India was also involved in a border conflict (1962) with China. A
sovereign republic from 1950, India became a leader of the nonaligned
nations and in 1974 exploded its first atomic bomb. Indira %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37c57e@%%@AE@%
(Nehru's daughter), who became prime minister in 1966, precipitated a
crisis in 1975 when, after being convicted of campaign fraud, she
declared a state of emergency and suspended civil liberties. Her Congress
party was defeated in national elections in 1977, but the new ruling
coalition, the Janata party, was beset by factionalism and economic
difficulties. Gandhi was reelected in 1980, but faced continued runaway
population growth, labor strife, and intercaste violence. In 1984 over
1,000 people were killed when she ordered attacks on Sikh separatists in
the city of Amritsar. Four months later Gandhi was assassinated by Sikh
members of her own bodyguard. She was succeeded by her son, Rajiv %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37d12f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indiana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indiana%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIANA         @%%@QR:Indiana@% midwestern state in the N central U.S.; bordered by Lake%@EH@%
Michigan and the state of Michigan (N), Ohio (E), Kentucky, across the
Ohio R. (S), and Illinois (W).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 36,291 sq mi (93,994 sq km). %@AI@%Pop. %@AE@%(1986 est.) 5,504,000, a 0.2%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital, %@AE@%Indianapolis. %@AI@%Statehood, %@AE@%Dec. 11, 1816
(19th state). %@AI@%Highest pt., %@AE@%1,257 ft (383 m), Wayne co.; %@AI@%lowest pt., %@AE@%Ohio
R., 320 ft (98 m). %@AI@%Nickname, %@AE@%Hoosier State. %@AI@%Motto, %@AE@%Crossroads of America.
%@AI@%State bird, %@AE@%cardinal. %@AI@%State flower, %@AE@%peony. %@AI@%State tree, %@AE@%tulip poplar.
%@AI@%Abbr., %@AE@%Ind.; IN.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Along the shores of Lake %@AU@%MICHIGAN%@BO:          6022dd@%%@AE@% are the sand formations
of Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, which give way to the glaciated lake
area, separated by the Wabash R. from the fertile plains that cover most
of the state. More than 60% of the population lives in metropolitan
areas. The largest city is %@AU@%INDIANAPOLIS%@BO:          47712d@%%@AE@%, followed by %@AU@%FORT WAYNE%@BO:          34a75e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GARY%@BO:          3821fa@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%EVANSVILLE%@BO:          30df5c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SOUTH BEND%@BO:          8c0112@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Manufacturing, the leading source of income, is concentrated in
the Calumet region along Lake Michigan, adjacent to Chicago, where cities
such as Gary produce steel and other manufactures, including electrical
and transportation equipment, machinery, chemicals, and primary metals.
About three quarters of the land is devoted to agriculture, with corn,
soybeans, hogs, cattle, hay, and wheat the major products. Indiana is the
nation's leading producer of building limestone and has rich coal
deposits and some petroleum.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution of 1851 provides for a governor elected to a
four-year term. The general assembly consists of a senate whose 50
members serve four-year terms and a house whose 100 members are elected
to two-year terms. Indiana sends 10 representatives and 2 senators to the
U.S. Congress and has 12 electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The remains of the %@AU@%MOUND BUILDERS%@BO:          648254@%%@AE@%, Indiana's earliest known
inhabitants, have been found along the state's rivers and bottomlands.
Subsequently, the area was occupied mainly by the Miami, Delaware, and
Potawatomi Indians. The first Europeans to explore the area were the
French, notably Robert Cavalier, sieur de %@AU@%LA SALLE%@BO:          52762b@%%@AE@%, in 1679. Vincennes,
the first French settlement, was established in 1725. The region was
ceded (1763) to Britain, which in turn ceded it to the U.S. at the end of
the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. Part of the %@AU@%NORTHWEST TERRITORY%@BO:          6bc39d@%%@AE@%, Indiana was the
site of major battles with the Indians, including Fallen Timbers (1794)
and Tippecanoe (1811). During the 1840s canals and railroads strengthened
Indiana's link with the East, providing the impetus for industrial
development that began during the 1860s and continued into the 20th cent.
The opening (1959) of the %@AU@%SAINT LAWRENCE SEAWAY%@BO:          833671@%%@AE@%, linking the Great Lakes
with the Atlantic Ocean, and of a new harbor on Lake Michigan (1970) have
increased the importance of shipping in Indiana's economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian Affairs, Bureau of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian Affairs, Bureau of%@AE@%%@CR:INDIAN.AFFAIRS  @%%@QR:Indian Affairs, Bureau of@% (BIA), created in 1824 in the War Dept. with%@EH@%
jurisdiction over the Indian trade, Indian protection, and removal and
settlement of Indians on reservations. In 1849 the bureau was transferred
to the Dept. of the %@AU@%INTERIOR%@BO:          48cbea@%%@AE@%, where it became primarily a
land-administration agency. In the 1970s the %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT%@BO:           48ced@%%@AE@% and
other Indian groups began actively to express dissatisfaction with the
work of the bureau. Today, BIA's objectives include encouragement and
training of Indians to manage their own affairs; improvement of their
educational opportunities and social services; and the development and
utilization of native skills for the economic advancement of native
Americans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indianapolis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indianapolis%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIANAPOLIS    @%%@QR:Indianapolis@% city (1986 est. pop. 719,820), state capital and seat of%@EH@%
Marion co., central Ind., on the White R. By far the state's largest
city, it is the chief processing point in a large agricultural region,
and an important grain and livestock market. Its manufactures include
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, telephone and electronic equipment, processed
foods, and automotive and aircraft parts. An insurance center, it has
numerous educational and medical facilities. Indianapolis is a
transportation hub and a center of the trucking industry. The
Indianapolis Motor Speedway is the scene of the world-famous annual
500-mile automobile race. Urban renewal projects in the 1970s and 80s
have produced many modern, multistory buildings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian art and architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian art and architecture%@AE@%%@CR:INDIAN.TURE     @%%@QR:Indian art and architecture@% is essentially traditional and religious.%@EH@%
Each work of art is both a symbol and a manifestation of a god or his
powers. In both Buddhist and Hindu art, symbolism in every gesture,
posture, and attribute contains many levels of meaning (see %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%). The earliest Indian art emerged in the Indus R. valley during
the 2d half of the 3d millennium BC. The Indus valley civilization
(c.2500-c.1500 BC) produced early examples of city planning and drainage
systems, as well as many statuettes and square seals with
naturalistically rendered bulls as decorations. From the %@AU@%MAURYA%@BO:          5d82ea@%%@AE@% dynasty
the most famous architectural remains are the edict pillars, over 50 ft
(15 m) high, surmounted by lotus flowers and animal figures. Also dating
from this period are the stone ogival chaitya windows found at a
sanctuary near Bodh Gaya. The early classic period of the Sunga dynasty
(2d-1st cent. BC) and early Andhra dynasty (1st cent. BC) has left the
earliest extant %@AU@%STUPAS%@BO:          8ffff9@%%@AE@%, mounds surrounded by railings and gateways
covered with ornament. Between the 2d and 5th cent. AD art from the
Gandhara and Mathura regions developed. Gandhara art presents the first
human images of the %@AU@%BUDDHA%@BO:          1512ce@%%@AE@% and was profoundly influenced by 2d-cent.
Hellenistic art (see %@AU@%HELLENISTIC CIVILIZATION%@BO:          416f8e@%%@AE@%). Ornate stupas and
monasteries held colossal gilt figures and imported glassware. Mathura
created a wholly Indian sculptural art, usually employing reddish
limestone. Symmetrical heavier Buddhas smile benignly at worshipers. The
%@AU@%GUPTA%@BO:          3ea1db@%%@AE@% period (AD 320-600) was the golden age of Buddhist art. Smooth,
elegant reliefs cover the facades and interiors of remaining chaitya
halls. The murals in the caves at Ajanta depict the joys of secular life
and the beauty of the spiritual. From the 6th cent. on, with the Hindu
dynasties, temples were built that were so exuberantly embellished with
sculpture that their style is called "sculptural architecture." The
Dravidian-style temple is constructed in five pyramidal %@AI@%raths %@AE@%(temples).
Skilled %@AU@%CIRE-PERDUE%@BO:          1e960d@%%@AE@% sculptures were produced until the late 19th cent.
Most Indian wall paintings, except for fragments from the caves of
Ajanta, were destroyed, but examples of manuscript %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@% remain.
Jain manuscript illuminations are brightly colored and have the
characteristic protruding farther eye. Rajput painting is characterized
by an interest in nature and sinuous grace in the human form. Little of
the glorious tradition of Indian artistic achievement survived British
rule. A revival of Indian themes in the 20th cent. has produced such
artists as Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, and Ram Kinker.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian literature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian literature%@AE@%.%@CR:INDIAN.RE       @%%@QR:Indian literature@% Oral literature in the vernacular languages of India%@EH@%
is of great antiquity, but it was not until about the 16th cent. that an
extensive written literature appeared. Its development was spurred by the
emergence of Hindu pietistic movements that encouraged the popularizing
of %@AU@%SANSKRIT LITERATURE%@BO:          842a68@%%@AE@%, e.g., the %@AU@%RAMAYANA%@BO:          7c90a1@%%@AE@% was put into popular verse
form. Among Muslims, classical Persian poetry was the basis for Urdu
verse written for the Mogul court. In the early 19th cent., with the
establishment of vernacular schools and the importation of printing
presses, a great impetus was given to popular prose. Today literature is
written in all the important languages of India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh, and there is a large literature in English. Among the
best-known writers of the 19th and 20th cent. are Rammohun %@AU@%ROY%@BO:          818eb9@%%@AE@%, Bankim
Chandra %@AU@%CHATTERJEE%@BO:          1c44cf@%%@AE@%, Rabindranath %@AU@%TAGORE%@BO:          924ab9@%%@AE@%, Mohandas %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37ca17@%%@AE@%, Jawaharlal
%@AU@%NEHRU%@BO:          680f1f@%%@AE@%, R.K. %@AU@%NARAYAN%@BO:          667ac3@%%@AE@%, Raja %@AU@%RAO%@BO:          7cb93b@%%@AE@%, and Bhabhani Bhattacharya.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian music%@AE@%.%@CR:INDIAN.MUSIC    @%%@QR:Indian music@% The music of India is almost entirely monodic. Its tonal%@EH@%
system divides the octave (see %@AU@%SCALE%@BO:          8527cd@%%@AE@%) into 22 segments, each roughly
equal to a quarter tone in Western music. Melody is based on %@AI@%ragas, %@AE@%types
used as the basis for improvisation. There are innumerable ragas, each
with its own rules, and to each is ascribed ethical and emotional
properties. The connotations of a given raga vary in different parts of
India. Accompanied song is the highest type of music. %@AU@%RHYTHM%@BO:          7eedb5@%%@AE@%, based on
patterns called %@AI@%talas, %@AE@%is complex. The drum, the zitherlike %@AI@%vina, %@AE@%and the
lutelike %@AI@%sitar %@AE@%are important instruments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian Mutiny%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian Mutiny%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIAN.MUTINY   @%%@QR:Indian Mutiny@% 1857-58, also known as the Sepoy Rebellion, revolt of the%@EH@%
Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British army in %@AU@%BENGAL%@BO:           e5dc9@%%@AE@% that became a
widespread uprising against British rule in India. The Bengali soldiers
resented British annexation (1856) of Oudh, their homeland. They were
also angered by the issuing of cartridges coated in beef fat (which
violated Hindu law) and pork fat (which violated Muslim law). Fighting
quickly spread all over N India; the rebels besieged Lucknow and
conquered Kanpur and Delhi. British reconquest was completed by March
1858. Various reforms resulted, the most important being the transfer of
rule from the East India Company to the British crown.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian National Congress%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian National Congress%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIAN.S        @%%@QR:Indian National Congress@% Indian political party, founded in 1885 to%@EH@%
promote economic reforms. It became the spearhead of the Indian movement
for independence from Great Britain. Its membership became overwhelmingly
Hindu, as most Muslim members left it for the %@AU@%MUSLIM LEAGUE%@BO:          659f94@%%@AE@%. In 1919, led
by Mohandas %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37ca17@%%@AE@%, it adopted a policy of satyagraha (nonviolent
resistance) toward the British. The party was outlawed during %@AU@%WORLD WAR
%@AU@%II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% for refusing to support the British war effort, and most of its
leaders were jailed. After India achieved independence (1947), Jawaharlal
%@AU@%NEHRU%@BO:          680f1f@%%@AE@% headed both the government and the party. Its dominance continued
after Nehru's death (1964) under Shri Lal Bahadur %@AU@%SHASTRI%@BO:          8802d9@%%@AE@% and Nehru's
daughter, Indira %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37c57e@%%@AE@%. In 1969 the party split: the conservative wing
became the Old Congress party, and Indira Gandhi's followers became the
New Congress party, winning a landslide victory in 1971. But this party
was also to split. After its electoral defeat in 1977, Mrs. Gandhi
withdrew and in 1978 formed a new faction, the Congress-I (for Indira)
party, which brought her back into power in Jan. 1980. She was
assassinated in 1984 by her Sikh bodyguards. Her son Rajiv %@AU@%GANDHI%@BO:          37d12f@%%@AE@%
succeeded her.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian Ocean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian Ocean%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIAN.OCEAN    @%%@QR:Indian Ocean@% world's third largest ocean, c.28,350,000 sq mi (73,427,000%@EH@%
sq km), between S Asia, Antarctica, E Africa, and SW Australia. It is
c.4,000 mi (6,400 km) wide at the equator and reaches a maximum depth of
25,344 ft (7,725 m) in the Java Trench S of Indonesia. Its major arms
include the Arabian Sea, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Persian Gulf, Bay of
Bengal, and Andaman Sea. A complex series of mid-oceanic submarine ridges
intersect to enclose deep-sea basins, their summits rising to the surface
in places to form the Andaman, Nicobar, Seychelles, and other island
groups.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian philosophy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian philosophy%@AE@%.%@CR:INDIAN.HY       @%%@QR:Indian philosophy@% Systematized Indian philosophy begins in the period of%@EH@%
the %@AU@%UPANISHADS%@BO:          9aea05@%%@AE@% (900-500 BC). The rise of %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% (from the 5th cent. BC)
led to the development of philosophical tenets presented in the form of
sutras, concise aphorisms intended to serve as a memory aid and as a
basis for oral elaboration. There are six classical schools that accept
the authority of the %@AU@%VEDA%@BO:          9c38fc@%%@AE@%. The first, %@AI@%Nyaya %@AE@%(6th cent. BC), is a school
of logic and epistemology. %@AI@%Vaisheshika %@AE@%(3d cent. BC) posits a sixfold
classification of reality (substance, quality, activity, generality,
particularity, inherence). The %@AI@%Samkhya %@AE@%system (6th cent. BC) expounds two
basic metaphysical principles: %@AI@%purusha %@AE@%(soul) and %@AI@%prakriti %@AE@%(matter or
nature). %@AI@%Purusha %@AE@%appears bound to %@AI@%prakriti, %@AE@%but may become free through
the realization that it is distinct from %@AI@%prakriti. %@AE@%The %@AU@%YOGA%@BO:          a43ef6@%%@AE@% system of
Patanjali (2d cent. BC), which accepts Samkhya metaphysics and the
concept of a supreme soul, presents an eight-stage discipline of
self-control and %@AU@%MEDITATION%@BO:          5e3516@%%@AE@%. The %@AI@%Purva Mimamsa %@AE@%school (2d cent. BC) sets
forth principles of interpretation of the Vedic texts. The different
schools of %@AI@%Uttara Mimamsa, %@AE@%or %@AU@%VEDANTA%@BO:          9c3ec1@%%@AE@%, all based on the %@AI@%Brahma-Sutras %@AE@%of
Baradayana (early cent. AD), epitomize the teachings of the Upanishads.
The three main heterodox schools not based on the Veda and Upanishads are
%@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JAINISM%@BO:          4ae252@%%@AE@%, and the materialist school called %@AI@%Charvaka %@AE@%or %@AI@%Lokyata.
%@AI@%%@AE@%The latter, the only Indian school to reject the ideas of %@AU@%KARMA%@BO:          4e76fc@%%@AE@% and
spiritual liberation, held that only this world exists and that religious
ideas are delusion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian pipe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian pipe%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIAN.PIPE     @%%@QR:Indian pipe@% common name for the genus %@AI@%Monotropa %@AE@%and the Monotropaceae, a%@EH@%
family of low, flowering plants with a funguslike appearance found in
north temperate zones. These chlorophylless %@AU@%SAPROPHYTES%@BO:          8473dd@%%@AE@% are yellowish- or
waxy-white in color and, with their scalelike leaves and nodding flowers,
resemble pipes. The related, bright-red snow plant (%@AI@%Sarcodes sanguinea%@AE@%)
of the Sierra Nevadas shoots up and blooms as soon as the snow melts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indians, American%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indians, American%@AE@%:%@CR:INDIANS         @%%@QR:Indians, American@% see %@AU@%MIDDLE AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          605406@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@%;%@EH@%
%@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%; and individual tribes. See also %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIANS, PREHISTORY OF%@BO:           491d3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian Territory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian Territory%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIAN.Y        @%%@QR:Indian Territory@% in U.S. history, name of land set aside for the Indians%@EH@%
by the Indian Intercourse Act (1834). In the 1820s the U.S. government
began moving the %@AU@%CHEROKEE%@BO:          1c9148@%%@AE@%, Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw
Indians W of the Mississippi R. The act of 1834 designated the area of
present-day Oklahoma, N and E of the Red River, as well as Kansas and
Nebraska, for the Indians. Other tribes moved there also. In 1854 the
territory was delimited by the creation of the Kansas and Nebraska
territories, and it was abolished in 1907 with the entrance of Oklahoma
into the Union.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indian wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indian wars%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIAN.WARS     @%%@QR:Indian wars@% in American history, term referring to the series of%@EH@%
conflicts, beginning in colonial times, between white settlers and North
American Indians. After 1815 the U.S. government began removing Indians
to reservations W of the Mississippi R., a policy that often triggered
war. The Indian wars W of the Mississippi reached their height between
1869 and 1878. %@AU@%WOUNDED KNEE%@BO:          a36473@%%@AE@% (1890) is often called the last battle of the
Indian wars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%India-Pakistan Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%India-Pakistan Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIAPAARS      @%%@QR:India-Pakistan Wars@% the series of conflicts between %@AU@%INDIA%@BO:          474276@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
since 1947, when the Indian subcontinent was partitioned as British rule
there ended. The roots of the conflict lie in the long-standing hostility
between the Hindus and Muslims. More than one million people are believed
to have died in the religious rioting that took place immediately after
partition, and many millions more were forced to relocate. The status of
%@AU@%KASHMIR%@BO:          4e85a9@%%@AE@% was particularly troublesome. An uneasy peace was worked out and
lasted until 1965, when fighting broke out in the Rann of Kutch, a border
region between India and West Pakistan. Fighting spread to Kashmir and
the Punjab, but a UN-sponsored ceasefire went into effect in 1966. In
1971 East Pakistan, with the support of India, revolted against the rule
of West Pakistan. Again, brutal fighting and massive relocations took
place. East Pakistan declared itself independent as %@AU@%BANGLADESH%@BO:           bc3f7@%%@AE@%, and 1974
Pakistan recognized that status.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%India-rubber tree%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%India-rubber tree%@AE@%:%@CR:INDIARUE        @%%@QR:India-rubber tree@% see %@AU@%FIG%@BO:          331836@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%indicative%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%indicative%@AE@%:%@CR:INDICATIVE      @%%@QR:indicative@% see %@AU@%MOOD%@BO:          638167@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%indicators, acid-base%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%indicators, acid-base%@AE@%,%@CR:INDICATORS      @%%@QR:indicators, acid-base@% organic compounds that in water solution exhibit%@EH@%
color changes indicative of the acidity or basicity of the solution (see
%@AU@%ACIDS AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%). %@AU@%LITMUS%@BO:          55b6c9@%%@AE@%, for example, is red in acidic solution and blue
in basic. Other common indicators are phenolphthalein and methyl orange.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:INDIC.LANGUAGES @%%@QR:Indic languages@% group of languages belonging to the Indo-Iranian%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%indictment%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%indictment%@AE@%,%@CR:INDICTMENT      @%%@QR:indictment@% in law, formal written accusation of crime, affirmed by a%@EH@%
grand %@AU@%JURY%@BO:          4dd121@%%@AE@% and presented by it to a court for trial of the accused. The
fifth amendment to the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@% guarantees the use of an
indictment (thus safeguarding the right to a preliminary hearing by a
grand jury) in all trials for capital or other infamous crimes. In
practice, however, the tendency has been to allow prosecution of many
crimes on "information" (an accusation presented directly by the
prosecutor without consideration by a grand jury).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%indium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%indium%@AE@%%@CR:INDIUM          @%%@QR:indium@% (In), metallic element, discovered spectroscopically in 1863 by%@EH@%
Ferdinand Reich and H.T. Richter. Soft, malleable, ductile, lustrous, and
silver-white, it remains liquid over a wide temperature range. Indium
wets glass and can be used to form a mirror surface more
corrosion-resistant than one of silver. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Individual Retirement Account%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Individual Retirement Account%@AE@%%@CR:INDIVIDCCOUNT   @%%@QR:Individual Retirement Account@% (IRA), tax-sheltered retirement plan,%@EH@%
originally created (1974) to assist individuals not covered by company
pensions. Under the U.S. tax law of 1981, IRA provisions were liberalized
to allow individuals to contribute up to $2,000 per year (from $1,500) to
such accounts and coverage was extended to employees already incorporate
pension programs. IRA monies may be placed in high-yield investments,
with tax deferred until retirement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indo-Aryan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indo-Aryan%@AE@%,%@CR:INDOARYAN       @%%@QR:Indo-Aryan@% variant name for Indic languages. Broader uses referring to%@EH@%
racial stocks are now obsolete. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indochina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indochina%@AE@%,%@CR:INDOCHINA       @%%@QR:Indochina@% term used in a wide sense for the entire SE Asian peninsula%@EH@%
occupied by %@AU@%BURMA%@BO:          15be98@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MALAYSIA%@BO:          5a22c9@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%THAILAND%@BO:          946fe4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LAOS%@BO:          5247d3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CAMBODIA%@BO:          178587@%%@AE@% (Kampuchea), and
%@AU@%VIETNAM%@BO:          9d6182@%%@AE@%, whose cultures reflect the long-term influence of neighboring
India (W) and China (N). The term was also commonly used in the recent
past in a more restricted sense for the colonial empire developed by
France in the eastern part of the peninsula after 1862. During World War
II France offered greater self-government to the various states it ruled
there, within a French federation of Indochina. Vietnamese nationalists
rejected the offer (which Laos and Cambodia accepted), demanding (1945)
the complete independence of the colony of %@AU@%COCHIN CHINA%@BO:          1fd5be@%%@AE@% and of the %@AU@%TONKIN%@BO:          96971c@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%ANNAM%@BO:           5b6f3@%%@AE@% protectorates, or what is now Vietnam. After a long and bitter
war, the French were defeated at %@AU@%DIENBIENPHU%@BO:          28ef41@%%@AE@% (1954) and subsequently lost
control of all Indochina at the %@AU@%GENEVA CONFERENCE%@BO:          38bf43@%%@AE@% (1954). See also
%@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indochina War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indochina War%@AE@%:%@CR:INDOCHINA.WAR   @%%@QR:Indochina War@% see %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indo-European%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indo-European%@AE@%,%@CR:INDOEUROPEAN    @%%@QR:Indo-European@% family of languages to which English belongs. It includes%@EH@%
more speakers than any other language family. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indo-Iranian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indo-Iranian%@AE@%,%@CR:INDOIRANIAN     @%%@QR:Indo-Iranian@% subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See%@EH@%
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indonesia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indonesia%@AE@%,%@CR:INDONESIA       @%%@QR:Indonesia@% officially the Republic of Indonesia, republic (1988 est. pop.%@EH@%
184,015,906), c.740,000 sq mi (1,916,600 sq km), SE Asia, comprising more
than 3,000 islands stretching along the equator from the Malaysian
mainland to New Guinea; the main islands are %@AU@%JAVA%@BO:          4b8536@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SUMATRA%@BO:          908f44@%%@AE@%, Kalimantan
(Indonesian %@AU@%BORNEO%@BO:          124e00@%%@AE@%), %@AU@%CELEBES%@BO:          1a990b@%%@AE@% (Sulawesi), %@AU@%BALI%@BO:           b644d@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TIMOR%@BO:          95e5d9@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%MOLUCCAS%@BO:          626e1b@%%@AE@%
(Maluku), and Irian Jaya (West New Guinea). The capital is %@AU@%DJAKARTA%@BO:          2991d2@%%@AE@%, on
Java. The islands are mountainous and dotted with volcanoes, both active
and dormant; the climate is tropical, with abundant rainfall. About 55%
of the work force is engaged in agriculture, and fertile soil sustains a
rich yield; principal crops are rice, fruit, cassava, peanuts, rubber,
and coffee. Indonesia's natural resources are among the richest in the
world; the nation is a leading producer of petroleum, its most valuable
export; liquefied natural gas, tin, bauxite, nickel, and gold are
important. Products of the vast rain forests include hardwoods, rubber,
palm oil, and cinchona. Primarily a supplier of raw materials, the
country has little industry. The population is mainly Malayan and Papuan;
there is an important Chinese minority. Islam is the predominant
religion. The official language is Bahasa Indonesia, but more than 250
tongues are spoken.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Early in the Christian era Indonesia came under the influence of
Indian civilization, and after the 7th cent. important Buddhist and Hindu
kingdoms arose, notably the 13th-cent. Majapahit empire of Java. Arab
traders first arrived in the 14th cent., and by the end of the 16th cent.
Islam had become the dominant religion. Reduced by internal dissension to
a number of small, weak states, the area was easy prey for Europeans
(Portuguese, 1511; Dutch, 1596; British, 1600) lured by the rich spice
trade. By the 17th cent. the Dutch %@AU@%EAST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2be8d0@%%@AE@% emerged as the
dominant power, and in 1799 the Netherlands assumed direct control of the
area, thereafter known as the Netherlands (or Dutch) East Indies.
Agitation for independence began early in the 20th cent. Following
Japanese occupation of the islands in World War II, nationalist leader
%@AU@%SUKARNO%@BO:          90601c@%%@AE@% proclaimed (1945) an independent Indonesian republic; after four
years of intermittent, sometimes heavy fighting, the Dutch finally
transferred sovereignty in 1949. Netherlands New Guinea became part of
Indonesia in 1963 and was renamed Irian Jaya in 1973. Indonesia annexed
Portuguese East Timor in 1976, a move not recognized by the UN. An
abortive Communist coup in 1965 led to an anti-Communist takeover by the
military, under Gen. %@AU@%SUHARTO%@BO:          9054d2@%%@AE@%, who was elected president in 1968, and
reelected in 1973,1978, and 1983. Under Suharto, who has moved Indonesia
closer to the West, priority has been economic rehabilitation; a
five-year economic plan (1979-83) stressed self-sufficiency, and by 1982
Indonesia had an unprecedented degree of prosperity. Suharto, however,
has been accused of human rights violations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inductance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inductance%@AE@%,%@CR:INDUCTANCE      @%%@QR:inductance@% quantity that measures the electromagnetic %@AU@%INDUCTION%@BO:          47d40f@%%@AE@% of an%@EH@%
%@AU@%ELECTRIC-CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% component. The self-inductance %@AI@%L %@AE@%of a circuit component
determines the magnitude of the %@AU@%ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE%@BO:          2d8da4@%%@AE@% (emf) induced in it
as a result of a given rate of change of current through the component.
The mutual inductance %@AI@%M %@AE@%of two components, one in each of two separate
but closely located circuits, determines the emf that each may induce in
the other for a given current change. Inductance is expressed in units of
henrys. A device designed to produce an inductance, e.g., a wire coil, is
called an inductor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%induction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%induction%@AE@%,%@CR:INDUCTION1      @%%@QR:induction@% in %@AU@%ELECTRICITY%@BO:          2d6337@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MAGNETISM%@BO:          59882f@%%@AE@%, common name for three distinct%@EH@%
phenomena. %@AB@%Electromagnetic induction %@AE@%is the production of an
%@AU@%ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE%@BO:          2d8da4@%%@AE@% (emf) in a conductor as a result of a changing
magnetic %@AU@%FIELD%@BO:          3304db@%%@AE@% about the conductor. Such a variation may be produced by
relative motion between the conductor and the source of the magnetic
field, as in an electric %@AU@%GENERATOR%@BO:          389f98@%%@AE@%, or by varying the strength of the
entire field. Changing the current in a given circuit can also induce emf
in a nearby circuit unconnected with the original circuit; this is called
mutual induction and is the basis of the %@AU@%TRANSFORMER%@BO:          974f09@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Electrostatic
%@AB@%induction %@AE@%is the production of an unbalanced electric %@AU@%CHARGE%@BO:          1bad43@%%@AE@% on an
uncharged metallic body as a result of a charged body being brought near
it without touching it. If the charged body is, e.g., positively charged,
electrons in the uncharged body will be attracted toward it; if the
opposite end of the body is then grounded, electrons will flow into it to
replace those drawn to the other end. The body thus acquires a negative
charge after the ground connection is broken. %@AB@%Magnetic induction %@AE@%is the
production of a magnetic field in a piece of unmagnetized iron or other
ferromagnetic substance when a magnet is brought near it. The magnet
causes the individual particles of the iron, which act like tiny magnets,
to line up so that the sample as a whole becomes magnetized.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%induction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%induction%@AE@%,%@CR:INDUCTION2      @%%@QR:induction@% in %@AU@%LOGIC%@BO:          5634cd@%%@AE@%, the process of reasoning from the particular to the%@EH@%
general. Francis %@AU@%BACON%@BO:           aced4@%%@AE@% proposed induction as the logic of scientific
discovery and %@AU@%DEDUCTION%@BO:          275386@%%@AE@% as the logic of argumentation. In fact, both
processes are used together regularly in the empirical sciences: by the
observation of particular events (induction) and from already known
principles (deduction), new hypothetical principles are formulated and
laws induced.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inductor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inductor%@AE@%:%@CR:INDUCTOR        @%%@QR:inductor@% see %@AU@%INDUCTANCE%@BO:          47d0ba@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%indulgence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%indulgence%@AE@%,%@CR:INDULGENCE      @%%@QR:indulgence@% in the Roman Catholic Church, the pardon of temporal%@EH@%
punishment due for %@AU@%SIN%@BO:          896d8e@%%@AE@%. Indulgences are granted out of the Treasury of
Merit won for the church by Christ and the saints. Until their sale was
made unlawful by the Council of %@AU@%TRENT%@BO:          97a7e3@%%@AE@% (1562), the abuse of indulgences
was common, and it was this abuse that Martin %@AU@%LUTHER%@BO:          57f60a@%%@AE@% first denounced.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indus%@AE@%,%@CR:INDUS           @%%@QR:Indus@% chief river of Pakistan, c.1,900 mi (3,060 km) long, site of the%@EH@%
prehistoric %@AU@%INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION%@BO:          47f39b@%%@AE@%. It rises in the %@AU@%TIBET%@BO:          959f71@%%@AE@% region of
China, flows west across Jammu and %@AU@%KASHMIR%@BO:          4e85a9@%%@AE@%, India, then southwest through
Pakistan, where it receives the "five waters" of the %@AU@%PUNJAB%@BO:          7b0de4@%%@AE@% (the Chenab,
Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers), to an infertile clay delta on the
Arabian Sea SE of Karachi. The unnavigable Indus is harnessed for
irrigation and hydroelectricity by the Sukker and Kotri dams. A treaty
(1960) between India and Pakistan regulates withdrawals of water from the
river and its tributaries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%industrial espionage%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%industrial espionage%@AE@%:%@CR:INDUSTRONAGE    @%%@QR:industrial espionage@% see %@AU@%INTELLIGENCE GATHERING%@BO:          48b995@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%industrial pollutants%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%industrial pollutants%@AE@%:%@CR:INDUSTRUTANTS   @%%@QR:industrial pollutants@% see %@AU@%POLLUTION%@BO:          77a372@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WASTE DISPOSAL%@BO:          9f7b15@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Industrial Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Industrial Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:INDUSTRLUTION   @%%@QR:Industrial Revolution@% term usually applied to the social and economic%@EH@%
changes that mark the transition from a stable agricultural and
commercial society to a modern industrial society. Historically, it is
used to refer primarily to the period in British history from c.1750 to
c.1850. Dramatic changes in the social and economic structure took place
as inventions and new technology created the factory system of
large-scale machine production and greater economic specialization. The
laboring population, formerly employed mainly in agriculture,
increasingly gathered in great urban factory centers. The same process
occurred at later times and in different degrees in other countries. The
crucial development of the Industrial Revolution in Britain was the use
of steam for power, made possible by the %@AU@%STEAM ENGINE%@BO:          8e7d17@%%@AE@% (1769) of James
%@AU@%WATT%@BO:          9fc952@%%@AE@%. Cotton textiles was the key industry early in this period. The
presence of large quantities of coal and iron proved a decisive factor in
Britain's rapid industrial growth. Canals and roads were built, and the
advent of the railroad and steamship widened the market for manufactured
goods. New periods of development came with electricity and the gasoline
engine, but by 1850 the revolution was accomplished, with industry having
become a dominant factor in British life. The effects of the Industrial
Revolution were worldwide. France (after 1830), Germany (after 1850), and
the U.S. (after the Civil War) were transformed by industrialization.
Europeans introduced the revolution to Asia at about the turn of the
century, but only Japan eventually grew into an industrial giant. The
%@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@% had as a basic aim the introduction of industrialism.
The Industrial Revolution has changed the face of nations, providing the
economic base for population expansion and improvement in living
standards, and it remains a primary goal of less developed countries. But
with it have also come a host of problems, including labor-management
conflicts, worker boredom, and environmental pollution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Industrial Workers of the World%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Industrial Workers of the World%@AE@%%@CR:INDUSTRHE.WORL  @%%@QR:Industrial Workers of the World@% (IWW), revolutionary industrial union%@EH@%
organized in Chicago in 1905 by 43 labor organizatons. It became the
chief organization in the U.S. representing the doctrines of %@AU@%SYNDICALISM%@BO:          91e548@%%@AE@%.
Leaders included E.V. %@AU@%DEBS%@BO:          27164b@%%@AE@%, W.D. %@AU@%HAYWOOD%@BO:          40c472@%%@AE@%, and Daniel De Leon. The aim of
the IWW, whose members were known as Wobblies, was to unite all skilled
and unskilled workers for the purpose of overthrowing %@AU@%CAPITALISM%@BO:          188a39@%%@AE@% and
rebuilding society on a socialistic basis. It opposed arbitration and
%@AU@%COLLECTIVE BARGAINING%@BO:          2040be@%%@AE@%, favoring direct action. After 1908 the IWW became
an organization largely of the unskilled, reaching its peak strength
(60,000 to 100,000 members) on the eve of World War I. Wartime strikes
led to suppression by the federal government, including arrest of its
entire leadership, and it declined rapidly thereafter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Indus valley civilization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Indus valley civilization%@AE@%,%@CR:INDUS.VON       @%%@QR:Indus valley civilization@% c.2500-c.1500 BC, ancient civilization that%@EH@%
flourished along the Indus R. in present-day Pakistan. Its chief cities
were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, where archaeologists have unearthed
impressive public and private buildings that are evidence of a complex
society based on a highly organized agriculture supplemented by active
commerce. The arts flourished, and examples in copper, bronze, and
pottery have been uncovered. Also found were examples of a pictograph
script that long baffled archaeologists but was finally deciphered in
1969. The fate of the Indus valley civilization remains a mystery, but it
is believed that it fell victim to invading Aryans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inequality%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inequality%@AE@%,%@CR:INEQUALITY      @%%@QR:inequality@% in mathematics, statement that one expression is less than or%@EH@%
greater than another. The symbols < (less than), > (greater than), <=
(less than or equal to), and >= (greater than or equal to) are
used to indicate inequalities, as in 3<5 and 2%@AI@%x%@AE@%+1 >= 7. Like
%@AU@%EQUATIONS%@BO:          2f944e@%%@AE@%, inequalities containing variables can be solved; the solutions
are also inequalities. For instance, 2%@AI@%x%@AE@%+1 >= 7 has the solution %@AI@%x%@AE@% >=
3, because any number greater than or equal to 3 can be substituted for
%@AI@%x %@AE@%to make the left side greater than or equal to 7.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inert gas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inert gas%@AE@%%@CR:INERT.GAS       @%%@QR:inert gas@% or %@AB@%noble gas,%@AE@%any of the elements in group 0 of the %@AU@%PERIODIC%@EH@%
%@AU@%TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%. In order of increasing atomic number, they are %@AU@%HELIUM%@BO:          4163ab@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEON%@BO:          682579@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%ARGON%@BO:           794fa@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KRYPTON%@BO:          50ef27@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%XENON%@BO:          a3beba@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%RADON%@BO:          7c5092@%%@AE@%. Sometimes called the rare gases
(although argon makes up 1% of the atmosphere), they are colorless,
odorless, and tasteless. Inert gases have very low chemical activity
because their outermost, or valence, electron is complete, containing two
electrons in the case of helium and eight in the remaining cases.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inertia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inertia%@AE@%,%@CR:INERTIA         @%%@QR:inertia@% in physics, the resistance of a body to any alteration in its%@EH@%
state of %@AU@%MOTION%@BO:          64539b@%%@AE@%, i.e., the resistance of a body at rest to being set in
motion or of a body in motion to any change of speed or of direction of
motion. See %@AU@%MASS%@BO:          5ccc02@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inez de Castro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inez de Castro%@AE@%:%@CR:INEZ.DE.CASTRO  @%%@QR:Inez de Castro@% see %@AU@%CASTRO, INES DE%@BO:          19f964@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infallibility%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infallibility%@AE@%,%@CR:INFALLIBILITY   @%%@QR:infallibility@% in Christian thought, the inability of the church to err,%@EH@%
believed since early Christian times to be guaranteed by Scripture. As
proclaimed at the first %@AU@%VATICAN COUNCIL%@BO:          9c1216@%%@AE@% (1870), Roman Catholics believe
in the infallibility of the pope when he speaks %@AI@%ex cathedra %@AE@%on faith and
morals. The Orthodox hold that ecumenical councils are infallible.
Protestants largely reject the infallibility of the church.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infanticide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infanticide%@AE@%,%@CR:INFANTICIDE     @%%@QR:infanticide@% socially condoned killing of the newborn. In many societies%@EH@%
since ancient times a parent had the right to kill, sell, sacrifice, or
otherwise dispose of offspring. The practice was most common among
peoples with insufficient food, e.g., the Chinese and Eskimos, but is now
universally outlawed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infantile paralysis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infantile paralysis%@AE@%:%@CR:INFANTIYSIS     @%%@QR:infantile paralysis@% see %@AU@%POLIOMYELITIS%@BO:          777328@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infantry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infantry%@AE@%,%@CR:INFANTRY        @%%@QR:infantry@% body of soldiers who fight on foot, as distinct from %@AU@%CAVALRY%@BO:          1a75b2@%%@AE@% or%@EH@%
other branches of an %@AU@%ARMY%@BO:           80f74@%%@AE@%. In ancient times, the relative military value
of infantry fluctuated. The Romans are believed to have made the most
effective use of the foot soldier, but with the decline of Rome cavalry
became dominant in war, remaining so until firearms were introduced in
the mid-14th century. Armed with muskets, and then rifles, troops fought
in mass formation until the early 20th cent., when trench warfare and
automatic weapons affected deployment. Aircraft, %@AU@%TANKS%@BO:          92a0ce@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ARTILLERY%@BO:           8773d@%%@AE@%
supported a massive use of infantry in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. Despite the
innovations in weaponry since then, strategists continue to regard the
infantry as the indispensable factor in military victory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infection%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infection%@AE@%,%@CR:INFECTION       @%%@QR:infection@% the invasion of pathogenic (disease-producing) microorganisms,%@EH@%
such as %@AU@%BACTERIA%@BO:           adab7@%%@AE@%, germs, fungi, %@AU@%VIRUSES%@BO:          9de468@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PROTOZOA%@BO:          7a439f@%%@AE@% into a body where
they multiply in the body tissue to cause a disease by injuring local
cells, secreting a toxin, or an antigen-antibody reaction in the host.
Viruses can cause either cellular degeneration, as in rabies, or cellular
proliferation, as in warts. Many invading organisms produce substances
that cause allergic sensitivity in the host (see %@AU@%ALLERGY%@BO:           3e65e@%%@AE@%). %@AU@%IMMUNITY%@BO:          46e061@%%@AE@% is
the capacity of the host to resist infection.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inferiority complex%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inferiority complex%@AE@%:%@CR:INFERIOPLEX     @%%@QR:inferiority complex@% see %@AU@%COMPLEX%@BO:          214990@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infertility%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infertility%@AE@%:%@CR:INFERTILITY     @%%@QR:infertility@% see %@AU@%STERILITY%@BO:          8ee6fb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infinitive%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infinitive%@AE@%:%@CR:INFINITIVE      @%%@QR:infinitive@% see %@AU@%MOOD%@BO:          638167@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infinity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infinity%@AE@%,%@CR:INFINITY        @%%@QR:infinity@% in mathematics, that which is not finite; it is often indicated%@EH@%
by the symbol [infin ]. A %@AU@%SEQUENCE%@BO:          870c3d@%%@AE@% of numbers is said to approach
infinity if the numbers eventually become arbitrarily large, i.e., larger
than any specified number (see %@AU@%LIMIT%@BO:          55320b@%%@AE@%). The word %@AI@%infinite %@AE@%is also used to
describe a %@AU@%SET%@BO:          873a33@%%@AE@% with more than any finite number of elements, e.g., the
set of points on a line or the set of all prime numbers (see %@AU@%NUMBER
%@AU@%THEORY%@BO:          6c4406@%%@AE@%). Georg %@AU@%CANTOR%@BO:          185aad@%%@AE@% showed that there are different orders of infinity,
the infinity of points on a line being of a greater order than that of
prime numbers, and developed the theory of transfinite numbers as a means
of distinguishing them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inflation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inflation%@AE@%,%@CR:INFLATION       @%%@QR:inflation@% in economics, a persistent and relatively large increase in%@EH@%
the general price level of goods and services. It results from an
increase in the amount of circulating currency beyond the needs of trade.
The oversupply of currency thus created, in accordance with the law of
%@AU@%SUPPLY AND DEMAND%@BO:          90e0e3@%%@AE@%, decreases the value of money, or, more accurately,
increases the prices of goods and services. Inflation may occur in times
of economic or political upheaval, and it commonly occurs during war,
when governments borrow and when there is a limited supply of consumer
goods. Under less extreme circumstances, inflation stimulates business
and helps wages to rise, but usually not as fast as prices; hence, real
wages diminish. As a rule, annual price increases of less than 2% or 3%
have not been considered inflationary. But the 1970s brought the onset of
worldwide inflation (often occurring as %@AU@%STAGFLATION%@BO:          8e0185@%%@AE@%), commonly attributed
to the soaring cost of petroleum. Double-digit inflation (i.e., 10% or
more) became common in many countries and caused severe economic
dislocations. In the early 1980s, however, recession lowered the
inflation rate in the U.S. The opposite of inflation is %@AB@%deflation, %@AE@%a time
of falling prices, curtailed business activity, and high unemployment
(see %@AU@%DEPRESSION%@BO:          28177a@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inflection%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inflection%@AE@%,%@CR:INFLECTION      @%%@QR:inflection@% in grammar. In many languages, words or word parts are%@EH@%
arranged in sets consisting of a root, or base, and various affixes. Thus
%@AI@%walking, walks, walked %@AE@%have in common the root %@AI@%walk %@AE@%and an affix (e.g.,
%@AI@%-ing, -s, -ed%@AE@%). An inflectional affix carries grammatical restrictions
with it, so that a plural inflection on a noun requires a change in verb
form. Many languages, e.g., Latin and Eskimo, have far more extensive
inflection than English. In Latin grammar, adjectives and nouns are
inflected for %@AU@%CASE%@BO:          199b65@%%@AE@% and number, adjectives for the gender of the noun, and
verbs for %@AU@%MOOD%@BO:          638167@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VOICE%@BO:          9e1c55@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TENSE%@BO:          94014d@%%@AE@%, person, and number. Noun inflection is
called declension, verb inflection conjugation. Derivation, as
distinguished from inflection, is the process of forming words by adding
affixes that themselves have meaning or denote word function, e.g.,
%@AI@%de-press, work-er. %@AE@%A root with its derivational affixes is a stem. Thus,
in %@AI@%racketeers, racket %@AE@%is the root, %@AI@%racketeer %@AE@%the stem, and %@AI@%-s %@AE@%the
inflection. Languages are classified according to the amount of
derivation and inflection they use. Isolating languages such as Chinese
use none. Agglutinative languages such as Turkish are highly inflected,
employing readily identifiable roots and affixes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%influenza%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%influenza%@AE@%,%@CR:INFLUENZA       @%%@QR:influenza@% acute, highly contagious disease caused by a number of%@EH@%
different viruses. The disease usually begins abruptly with fever,
muscular aches, and inflammation of the respiratory mucous membranes; its
more severe forms are bacterial %@AU@%PNEUMONIA%@BO:          770a97@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BRONCHITIS%@BO:          1435da@%%@AE@%. Influenza
epidemics have decimated large populations; an outbreak in 1918 killed
over 20 million people. An injection with influenza virus vaccine can
confer temporary immunity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%information storage and retrieval%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%information storage and retrieval%@AE@%,%@CR:INFORMA.RETRIE  @%%@QR:information storage and retrieval@% the systematic process of collecting%@EH@%
and cataloging data so that it can be located and displayed upon request.
%@AU@%COMPUTERS%@BO:          216bc4@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%DATA PROCESSING%@BO:          269d21@%%@AE@% have made possible the high-speed,
selective retrieval of large amounts of information in such diverse
fields as banking, law enforcement, jurisprudence, and medicine. There
are several basic types of information-storage-and-retrieval systems.
%@AI@%Document-retrieval systems %@AE@%store entire documents; these are usually
retrieved by title or through a series of key words that denote the
category to which they belong. Full text searching, the capability of
retrieving on the basis of any word in the document, is becoming
increasingly common, particularly in legal research. %@AI@%Data-base systems
%@AI@%%@AE@%store the information as a series of discrete records that are, in turn,
divided into discrete fields (e.g., name, height, and weight); records
can be searched and retrieved on the basis of the content of the fields
(e.g., all people who weigh more than 150 lb/68 kg). The data is stored
within the computer, either in main storage or auxiliary storage, for
ready access. Upon retrieval it may be delivered on magnetic tape or
microfilm, or it may be printed. %@AI@%Reference-retrieval systems %@AE@%store
references to documents; references relevant to a particular request are
retrieved and printed in a list. Such a system can therefore provide an
index to literature from a wide variety of sources (e.g., books,
periodicals, technical journals) on a particular subject (e.g., obesity).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%information theory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%information theory%@AE@%,%@CR:INFORMAORY      @%%@QR:information theory@% mathematical theory that explains aspects and%@EH@%
problems of information and communication. In this theory, the term
%@AI@%information %@AE@%is a measure of the freedom of choice with which a message is
selected from the set of all possible messages. Information is distinct
from meaning, because a string of nonsense words and a meaningful
sentence may be equivalent with respect to information content.
Numerically, information is measured in bits (short for %@AI@%binary digits%@AE@%).
One bit is equivalent to the choice between two equally likely choices.
When several choices are equally likely, the number of bits is equal to
the %@AU@%LOGARITHM%@BO:          5632d0@%%@AE@% of the number of choices taken to the base two. When the
various choices are not equally probable, the situation is more complex.
The mathematical expression for information content closely resembles the
expression for %@AU@%ENTROPY%@BO:          2f38e9@%%@AE@% in thermodynamics. The greater the information in
a message, the lower its randomness, or "noisiness," and hence the
smaller its entropy. A message proceeds along some channel from the
source to the receiver; information theory defines for any given channel
a limiting capacity or rate at which it can carry information, expressed
in bits per second. The theory succeeds remarkably in outlining the
engineering requirements and limitations of communications systems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%informed consent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%informed consent%@AE@%,%@CR:INFORMET        @%%@QR:informed consent@% in medicine. The practice requires the physician to%@EH@%
disclose to a patient the benefits and risks of a particular course of
treatment, or of no treatment, so that the patient may make an
intelligent decision concerning the treatment and the physician may
obtain the patient's consent before treating him. The legal concerns of
informed consent are personal freedom and the protection of the rights of
the patient.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%infrared radiation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%infrared radiation%@AE@%,%@CR:INFRAREION      @%%@QR:infrared radiation@% %@AU@%ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION%@BO:          2d8706@%%@AE@% having a wavelength in the%@EH@%
range of 750 to 1,000,000 nanometers, thus occupying that part of the
electromagnetic spectrum with a frequency less than that of red visible
%@AU@%LIGHT%@BO:          54f8dd@%%@AE@% and greater than that of %@AU@%MICROWAVES%@BO:          604836@%%@AE@%. Infrared radiation is thermal,
or heat, radiation, and is produced by any body having a temperature
above absolute zero. It has many of the same properties as visible light,
such as being reflected or refracted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inge, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inge, William%@AE@%%@CR:INGE            @%%@QR:Inge, William@% (inj), 1913-73, American playwright; b. Independence, Kans.%@EH@%
His realistic dramas, often dealing with midwestern small-town life,
include %@AI@%Come Back, Little Sheba %@AE@%(1950), %@AI@%Picnic %@AE@%(1953; Pulitzer), and %@AI@%Bus
%@AI@%Stop %@AE@%(1955).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ingemann, Bernhard Severin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ingemann, Bernhard Severin%@AE@%%@CR:INGEMANN        @%%@QR:Ingemann, Bernhard Severin@%, 1789-1862, Danish poet and novelist. His%@EH@%
historical novels helped revive national literary consciousness, and the
religious %@AI@%Morning and Evening Songs %@AE@%(1839) contains some of the finest
lyrics in Danish.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique%@AE@%%@CR:INGRES          @%%@QR:Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique@%, 1780-1867, French painter. A student of%@EH@%
J.L. %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26be8f@%%@AE@% and an unparalleled draftsman, he won the Prix de Rome in
1801. The extraordinary sensuality of his work, e.g., the portrait of Mme
Riviere (Louvre) and %@AI@%Jupiter and Thetis %@AE@%(1811; Musee Granet,
Aix-en-Provence), put him at odds with the strict neoclassicists of his
day. Ingres was also a portraitist, and his pencil portraits, e.g.,
%@AI@%Paganini %@AE@%(1819), are among his finest works. He was hailed as the bulwark
of Davidian classicism for his %@AI@%Vow of Louis XIII %@AE@%(cathedral, Montauban),
but his true inspiration had always been %@AU@%RAPHAEL%@BO:          7cbdba@%%@AE@%. His followers, the
%@AI@%Ingristes, %@AE@%lacked his genius, but many later artists (%@AU@%DEGAS%@BO:          276d6a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RENOIR%@BO:          7e2b3d@%%@AE@%, and
%@AU@%PICASSO%@BO:          75771d@%%@AE@%) have acknowledged their debt to him. His works include rigidly
academic paintings, e.g., %@AI@%The Apotheosis of Homer %@AE@%(1827; Louvre), and
intimate, sensual nudes, e.g., %@AI@%The Turkish Bath %@AE@%(1852-63; Louvre).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inheritance tax%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inheritance tax%@AE@%,%@CR:INHERITANCE.TAX @%%@QR:inheritance tax@% assessment made by a state on the portion of an estate%@EH@%
received by an individual; it differs from an estate tax, which is a
federal tax levied on an entire estate before it is distributed to
individuals. A related federal levy is the %@AB@%gift tax, %@AE@%designed to prevent
people from avoiding inheritance and estate taxes by giving away property
before death. The U.S tax law of 1981 greatly reduced estate and gift
taxes by raising exemptions (from $175,000 to $600,000) and lowering
rates.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%initiation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%initiation%@AE@%,%@CR:INITIATION      @%%@QR:initiation@% ritual transition from one status to another, as from%@EH@%
childhood to adulthood, with attendant ceremonies and ordeals. A dominant
theme is the symbolism of death and rebirth. Testing the initiate's
worthiness to enter the new status, it often involves special
instructions, restrictions, seclusion, and/or mutilation. Among the most
important social institutions of traditional, preliterate societies, it
continues in such modern contexts as fraternal orders and %@AU@%SECRET
%@AU@%SOCIETIES%@BO:          867d45@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%initiative, referendum, and recall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%initiative, referendum, and recall%@AE@%,%@CR:INITIATIVE      @%%@QR:initiative, referendum, and recall@% processes by which voters can%@EH@%
directly influence the making of laws and the removal of public
officials. An %@AB@%initiative %@AE@%is the originating of a law or constitutional
amendment by obtaining a prescribed number of signatures on a petition.
It is then either voted on in a special election or the next general
election, or taken up by the legislature. %@AB@%Referendum %@AE@%is a vote of final
approval on a specific law or policy. %@AB@%Recall %@AE@%is a petition method for
removing an elected official, before his or her term has expired, by
requiring a special election.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%injunction%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%injunction%@AE@%,%@CR:INJUNCTION      @%%@QR:injunction@% in law, formal court order directing a party to perform or%@EH@%
refrain from performing a specified act. It is often used where money
damages cannot satisfy a plaintiff's claim. Developed in %@AU@%EQUITY%@BO:          2fa7e2@%%@AE@% courts,
injunctions were at first only prohibitory; but the practice of issuing
positive orders in negative guise (e.g., "Do not allow the wall to
stand," meaning "Tear down the wall") led to acceptance of the mandatory
(affirmative) injunction. Injunctions are granted in many circumstances,
usually by a judge sitting without a jury, and are enforced by %@AU@%CONTEMPT
%@AU@%OF COURT%@BO:          22d52e@%%@AE@% proceedings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inland Sea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inland Sea%@AE@%,%@CR:INLAND.SEA      @%%@QR:Inland Sea@% shallow arm of the Pacific Ocean, c.3,670 sq mi (9,510 sq%@EH@%
km), S Japan, between Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu islands. The shallow
sea is dotted by islands and linked to the Sea of Japan by a narrow
channel. Its shores are heavily populated and contain many of Japan's
greatest ports, e.g. %@AU@%OSAKA%@BO:          6f1c1e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KOBE%@BO:          505ffd@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HIROSHIMA%@BO:          430ffc@%%@AE@%. Known also for its
natural beauty, the sea is the site of a national park.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region%@AE@%,%@CR:INNER.MOUS.REG  @%%@QR:Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region@% region (1985 est. pop. 19,850,000),%@EH@%
c.460,000 sq mi (1,200,000 sq km), N China. The capital is Hohhot.
Bounded on the N by the Mongolian People's Republic and the USSR, the
region is home to the Mongolian nationality, which comprises 20% of the
population. Its extensive grasslands are a major center of stockraising.
Mineral extraction is an important industry; steel, machinery, and light
industrial products are also manufactured.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inness, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inness, George%@AE@%,%@CR:INNESS          @%%@QR:Inness, George@% 1825-94, American landscape painter; b. Newburgh, N.Y.%@EH@%
His early work is in the manner of the %@AU@%HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL%@BO:          45043d@%%@AE@%, e.g.,
%@AI@%Delaware Water Gap %@AE@%(Montclair Mus., N.J.). He soon discovered a personal
style that was freer, more intimate, and richer in color. A
Swedenborgian, Inness sought the mystical in nature, portraying it
through a wide range of light effects. Among his principal works are
%@AI@%Rainbow After a Storm %@AE@%(Art Inst., Chicago) and %@AI@%June %@AE@%(1882; Brooklyn Mus.,
N.Y.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innis, Roy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innis, Roy%@AE@%,%@CR:INNIS           @%%@QR:Innis, Roy@% 1934-, American %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% leader; b. St. Croix, Virgin%@EH@%
Islands. A member of the %@AU@%CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY%@BO:          220770@%%@AE@% (CORE) since 1963,
he became its national director in 1968. In the late 1960s he traded the
integrationist agenda of the civil rights movement for the ideology of
black power and a revived black nationalism. He then turned to the right,
supporting %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@% administration policies and criticizing the politics of
Jesse %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4ab0a8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innocent I, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innocent I, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:INNOCENT.I      @%%@QR:Innocent I, Saint@% d. 417, pope (401-17), an Italian. He was champion of%@EH@%
papal supremacy. In 410, he tried but failed to halt %@AU@%ALARIC'S%@BO:           2a7b6@%%@AE@% sack of
Rome. Feast: July 28.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innocent II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innocent II%@AE@%,%@CR:INNOCENT.II     @%%@QR:Innocent II@% d. 1143, pope (1130-43), a Roman named Gregorio Papareschi.%@EH@%
Opposed by the antipope Anacletus II, Innocent won the support of %@AU@%BERNARD
%@AU@%OF CLAIRVAUX%@BO:           efc37@%%@AE@% and Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%LOTHAIR%@BO:          56d64c@%%@AE@% II and prevailed over
Anacletus' successor, Victor IV. He convened the Second Lateran Council
(1139) and condemned the teachings of Peter %@AU@%ABELARD%@BO:            3464@%%@AE@% and Arnold of
Brescia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innocent III%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innocent III%@AE@%,%@CR:INNOCENT.III    @%%@QR:Innocent III@% 1160?-1216, pope (1198-1216), an Italian named Lotario di%@EH@%
Segni, one of the most prominent figures of medieval history. A learned
theologian, he held the theory that supremacy of the spirit over the
flesh meant that the pope, as church ruler, should be superior to lay
rulers of states-a theory not held in present Roman Catholic doctrine. To
establish papal supremacy, Innocent was active in political affairs. In
the Holy Roman Empire, he arbitrated the dispute of %@AU@%PHILIP OF SWABIA%@BO:          74b1a8@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%OTTO IV%@BO:          6f695f@%%@AE@% in Otto's favor (1201); later favored Philip (1207-08); crowned
Otto (1209) after Philip's murder, only to excommunicate him (1210) and
bring about the election of %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@%, who was his ward. In England,
Innocent, by naming Stephen Langton archbishop of Canterbury, infuriated
King %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%; in the quarrel, Innocent put England under interdict and
excommunicated (1209) the king. John submitted and received England and
Ireland as a fief from the pope. Later, Innocent declared that %@AU@%MAGNA
%@AU@%CARTA%@BO:          596ecc@%%@AE@% was not binding on John because it was extorted by force and
without the knowledge of his overlord (Innocent). In France the pope
could not establish political power over %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@%, but did force him to
bow to canon law in the matter of a divorce. In Italy he reclaimed papal
territories and was recognized as overlord of Tuscany. Thus in all Europe
he went far to put his theory of papal monarchy into effect, though
history was to make his victories hollow. He promoted the Fourth %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%
and protested when the Crusaders attacked the Byzantine Empire;
nevertheless, he recognized the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople, which
they set up, and tried to spread the Latin rite there, embittering
relations between the Eastern and Western churches. Similarly, he
protested when the crusade he had started against the %@AU@%ALBIGENSES%@BO:           2f40e@%%@AE@% was
turned to political and economic ends; he later urged St. %@AU@%DOMINIC'S%@BO:          29f703@%%@AE@%
mission. Innocent was vigorous in administering internal church affairs
and dominated the Fourth Lateran Council (1215). He wrote extensively and
his %@AI@%De contemptu mundi %@AE@%on the contempt of this world was popular in the
Middle Ages.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innocent IV%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innocent IV%@AE@%,%@CR:INNOCENT.IV     @%%@QR:Innocent IV@% d. 1254, pope (1243-54), a Genoese named Sinibaldo Fieschi.%@EH@%
His papacy was preoccupied by a contest with the %@AU@%HOHENSTAUFEN%@BO:          4375b5@%%@AE@% rulers. He
opposed Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% and had to flee to Lyons, where
he convened (1245) the First Council of Lyons, which declared Frederick
deposed. Innocent supported pretenders to Frederick's throne and, after
Frederick's death, continued the struggle against the emperors Conrad IV
and %@AU@%MANFRED%@BO:          5acbc5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innocent VIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innocent VIII%@AE@%,%@CR:INNOCENT.VIII   @%%@QR:Innocent VIII@% 1432-92, pope (1484-92), a Genoese named Giovanni Battista%@EH@%
Cibo. His close friend Giuliano della Rovere (later Pope %@AU@%JULIUS II%@BO:          4da75a@%%@AE@%)
largely directed papal affairs. Innocent failed to organize a crusade
against the Turkish sultan %@AU@%BEYAZID II%@BO:           f52ae@%%@AE@%, but in 1490 wrung a peace
agreement from Beyazid by threatening to recognize Beyazid's brother,
Djem, as sultan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innocent XI%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innocent XI%@AE@%,%@CR:INNOCENT.XI     @%%@QR:Innocent XI@% 1611-89, pope (1676-89), an Italian named Benedetto%@EH@%
Odescalchi. Noted for his saintliness, he argued with %@AU@%LOUIS XIV%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France
over papal authority and denounced Louis's Gallican statement (1682) that
kings are not subject to the pope. He condemned the king's revocation of
the Edict of %@AU@%NANTES%@BO:          6637b9@%%@AE@% (1685). He was beatified in 1956.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Innsbruck%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Innsbruck%@AE@%,%@CR:INNSBRUCK       @%%@QR:Innsbruck@% city (1981 pop. 117,287), capital of %@AU@%TYROL%@BO:          995160@%%@AE@% prov., SW Austria,%@EH@%
on the Inn R. Established in the 12th cent., it became an important
trans-alpine trading post. Today it is an industrial center and a summer
and winter resort. The winter Olympic games were held in Innsbruck in
1964 and 1976. The city's historic buildings include the Hofkirche, a
16th-cent. Franciscan church, and the 15th-cent. Furstenburg castle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inoculation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inoculation%@AE@%:%@CR:INOCULATION     @%%@QR:inoculation@% see %@AU@%VACCINATION%@BO:          9b62ae@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inonu, Ismet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inonu, Ismet%@AE@%,%@CR:INONU           @%%@QR:Inonu, Ismet@% 1884-1973, Turkish statesman. The chief of staff of the%@EH@%
Turkish nationalist army in 1920, he repelled Greek forces at Inonu. He
was premier (1923-37) and then president (1938) of the Turkish Republic.
He kept Turkey neutral during World War II, westernized Turkish society,
and encouraged democracy. Out of power during the 1950s, he returned in
the 1960s, when his Republican People's party led several coalition
governments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%inorganic chemistry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%inorganic chemistry%@AE@%:%@CR:INORGANSTRY     @%%@QR:inorganic chemistry@% see %@AU@%CHEMISTRY%@BO:          1c7a15@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inouye, Daniel K.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inouye, Daniel K.%@AE@%,%@CR:INOUYE          @%%@QR:Inouye, Daniel K.@% 1924-, U.S. politician; b. Honolulu. A senator from%@EH@%
Hawaii since 1962, he was a member of the %@AU@%WATERGATE%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@% committee (1972-74)
and served as chairman of the committee investigating the %@AU@%IRAN-CONTRA
%@AU@%AFFAIR%@BO:          4961c0@%%@AE@% (1987).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%input-output analysis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%input-output analysis%@AE@%,%@CR:INPUTOULYSIS    @%%@QR:input-output analysis@% a tabular technique devised by Wassily %@AU@%LEONTIEF%@BO:          5412ac@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
that statistically analyzes how a nation's industries interact. It
determines the impact on supplier industries of production changes in any
single industry. These techniques can be used to measure the impact of
changing demand in any industry throughout the economy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inquisition%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inquisition%@AE@%,%@CR:INQUISITION     @%%@QR:Inquisition@% tribunal of the Roman Catholic Church formed to suppress%@EH@%
heresy. In 1233 Pope %@AU@%GREGORY IX%@BO:          3d819b@%%@AE@% established the papal Inquisition to
combat the heresy of the %@AU@%ALBIGENSES%@BO:           2f40e@%%@AE@%. The Inquisition used judicial
torture, but rarely condemned prisoners to burn; imprisonment was the
norm. To deal with Protestantism, %@AU@%PAUL III%@BO:          722685@%%@AE@% assigned (1542) the
Inquisition to the Holy Office. This was replaced (1965) by the
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which governs vigilance in
matters of faith. The %@AB@%Spanish Inquisition, %@AE@%independent of the papal
Inquisition, was established (1478) by the Spanish monarchs to punish
converted Jews and Muslims who were insincere. Headed by men such as
Tomas de %@AU@%TORQUEMADA%@BO:          96ba94@%%@AE@%, it was notoriously harsher than the medieval
Inquisition and much freer with the death penalty. Soon every Spaniard
came to fear its power. It was finally abolished in 1834.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%insanity%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%insanity%@AE@%,%@CR:INSANITY        @%%@QR:insanity@% in law, term denoting a mental disorder so severe as to render%@EH@%
its victim incapable of managing his or her affairs, e.g., incapable of
entering into a %@AU@%CONTRACT%@BO:          22ea4e@%%@AE@%. In %@AU@%CRIMINAL LAW%@BO:          24a96c@%%@AE@%, insanity may relieve a person
from the legal consequences of his or her acts. Determining factors in
establishing insanity are the ability to distinguish right from wrong and
the capacity to control one's conduct. Some courts accept "irresistible
impulse" as a defense. Present insanity is that which renders a defendant
incapable of understanding legal proceedings; past insanity refers to the
defendant's mental state at the time of the alleged crime. In criminal
cases, state laws provide for various means of determining insanity. A
defendant found not guilty by reason of insanity is committed to a mental
institution. Long-standing controversy over the insanity defense came
into focus in the 1982 trial of John Hinckley, Jr., who, after attempting
to assassinate Pres. Ronald Reagan, was found not guilty by reason of
insanity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%insect%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%insect%@AE@%,%@CR:INSECT          @%%@QR:insect@% invertebrate animal of the class Insecta, an %@AU@%ARTHROPOD%@BO:           84a10@%%@AE@%. There are%@EH@%
more than 700,000 known species. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton; a
segmented body composed of a head (with three pairs of mouthparts,
compound and simple eyes, and sensory antennae); a trisegmented thorax
(with three pairs of jointed legs and two pairs of wings); and an abdomen
(with reproductive appendages). They breathe through a complex network of
air tubes (tracheae) opening on the sides of the body. Reproduction is
usually sexual, although %@AU@%PARTHENOGENESIS%@BO:          71a902@%%@AE@% is also common. Some 80% of
insect species undergo complete %@AU@%METAMORPHOSIS%@BO:          5f404f@%%@AE@%. Insects are both harmful
to mankind (as disease carriers and agricultural pests) and beneficial as
pollinating agents, as predators on harmful species, and as food in some
parts of the world. Fossil records show that insects have undergone
relatively little change for 200 million years. The class includes the
%@AU@%BEETLES%@BO:           dbe15@%%@AE@%; the %@AU@%MOTHS%@BO:          644a76@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BUTTERFLIES%@BO:          162ac2@%%@AE@%; the %@AU@%WASPS%@BO:          9f7269@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ANTS%@BO:           5eed0@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BEES
%@AU@%%@BO:           d9bc8@%%@AE@%; the %@AU@%FLIES%@BO:          33fd7a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MOSQUITOES%@BO:          6439d4@%%@AE@%; the true %@AU@%BUGS%@BO:          153657@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%APHIDS%@BO:           6a1d9@%%@AE@%; and the %@AU@%COCKROACHES
%@AU@%%@BO:          1fe30a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GRASSHOPPERS%@BO:          3c6cb1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%insecticide%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%insecticide%@AE@%,%@CR:INSECTICIDE     @%%@QR:insecticide@% chemical agent used to kill insect pests. Insecticides have%@EH@%
helped increase the yield and improve the quality of crops, but there has
been concern about the dangers of insecticide residues in the ecosystem
(see %@AU@%ECOLOGY%@BO:          2c2255@%%@AE@%) and in foodstuffs. Such concerns have led to governmental
regulation and the replacement of toxic insecticides that persist in the
environment (e.g., DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons) by compounds
that break down more quickly into nontoxic forms. In addition, partly
because insects can become resistant to insecticides, there has been
research into comprehensive pest-management techniques, including the use
of biological control agents (e.g., predator insects) that harm only
certain pests.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%insider trading%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%insider trading%@AE@%,%@CR:INSIDER.TRADING @%%@QR:insider trading@% stock market transactions made with the knowledge of%@EH@%
nonpublic information about corporate activity. In the U.S., it has been
illegal since 1934. The %@AU@%SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION%@BO:          868172@%%@AE@% regards it as
unfair to investors who are not privy to such information. Several
insider trading scandals shook Wall Street in the mid-1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%installment buying and selling%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%installment buying and selling%@AE@%:%@CR:INSTALLSELLING  @%%@QR:installment buying and selling@% see %@AU@%CREDIT%@BO:          246b37@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%instinct%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%instinct%@AE@%,%@CR:INSTINCT        @%%@QR:instinct@% in psychology, term used to indicate an unlearned behavior that%@EH@%
is elicited by a specific stimulus and that generally fulfills a vital
need of the organism. Instinctive behaviors may include aspects of
fighting, escape, courtship, and food-gathering activities; these
behaviors are often modified-especially in higher animals-by past
experience as well as by innate regulatory mechanisms. The role of
instinct in human behavior is poorly understood, but it is apparently
highly modified by the socialization process and individual %@AU@%INTELLIGENCE%@BO:          48b410@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Institut de France%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Institut de France%@AE@%%@CR:INSTITUNCE      @%%@QR:Institut de France@%, cultural institution of the French state. Founded in%@EH@%
1795 by the %@AU@%DIRECTORY%@BO:          29442d@%%@AE@%, it replaced five learned societies that had been
suppressed in 1793 by the Convention. Today it is made up of five
academies-the French Academy (Academie Francaise), the Academie des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (history and archaeology), the Academie
des Sciences, the Academie des Beaux-Arts, and the Academie des Sciences
morales et politiques. The awards and prizes given by these academies
have encouraged endeavor in various fields.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%instructional television%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%instructional television%@AE@%:%@CR:INSTRUCN        @%%@QR:instructional television@% see %@AU@%AUDIO VISUAL INSTRUCTION%@BO:           9b521@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%instrumental%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%instrumental%@AE@%:%@CR:INSTRUMENTAL    @%%@QR:instrumental@% see %@AU@%CASE%@BO:          199b65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%insulation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%insulation%@AE@%,%@CR:INSULATION      @%%@QR:insulation@% use of materials to inhibit or prevent the %@AU@%CONDUCTION%@BO:          21d297@%%@AE@% of heat%@EH@%
or of electricity. Common heat insulators are %@AU@%ASBESTOS%@BO:           88c27@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@% fibers,
%@AU@%FEATHERS%@BO:          321d5a@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FIBER GLASS%@BO:          32ec0b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FUR%@BO:          36ee65@%%@AE@%, stone, %@AU@%WOOD%@BO:          a2e197@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%WOOL%@BO:          a304be@%%@AE@%; all are poor
conductors of heat. In the conduction of electricity from point to point,
the conductor acts as a guide for the electric current and must be
insulated at every point of contact with its support to prevent escape,
or leakage, of the current. Good electrical insulators, or %@AU@%DIELECTRICS%@BO:          28eaa1@%%@AE@%,
include dry air, dry %@AU@%COTTON%@BO:          23d404@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GLASS%@BO:          3a9637@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PARAFFIN%@BO:          710a28@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%PORCELAIN%@BO:          7845b1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RESIN%@BO:          7e6390@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RUBBER
%@AU@%%@BO:          81a003@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%VARNISHES%@BO:          9bfd45@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%insulin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%insulin%@AE@%,%@CR:INSULIN         @%%@QR:insulin@% %@AU@%HORMONE%@BO:          446acb@%%@AE@% secreted by the islets of Langerhans in the %@AU@%PANCREAS%@BO:          708218@%%@AE@%. A%@EH@%
protein of 21 amino acids in two cross-linked chains, insulin was the
first protein to be sequenced (1951) and its synthesis was reported by
several groups in the mid-1960s. In general, insulin acts to reduce
levels of glucose in the blood by interacting in some unknown way with
cell membranes. It also increases protein synthesis in muscle.
Insufficient insulin in the body results in %@AU@%DIABETES%@BO:          28917c@%%@AE@%, a condition treated
by the administration of insulin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Insull, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Insull, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:INSULL          @%%@QR:Insull, Samuel@% 1859-1938, American public utilities financier; b.%@EH@%
London. After emigrating (1881) to the U.S., he managed Thomas A.
Edison's industrial holdings. He formed (1912) a mammoth interlocking
directorate that operated hundreds of power plants throughout the U.S.
Worth more than $3 billion at its height, his empire collapsed in 1932.
He was tried (1934-35) and acquitted of mail fraud and embezzlement
charges.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%insurance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%insurance%@AE@%%@CR:INSURANCE       @%%@QR:insurance@% or %@AB@%assurance,%@AE@%system for indemnifying or guaranteeing an%@EH@%
individual against loss. Reimbursement is made from a fund to which many
individuals exposed to the same risk have contributed specified amounts,
known as premiums, so that payment for the loss is divided among many,
not falling heavily upon the actual loser. The essence of the contract of
insurance, called a policy, is mutuality. The amount of the premium is
determined by the operation of the law of averages, as calculated by
actuaries. Re-insurance, whereby losses are distributed among many
companies, was devised to meet the enormous claims resulting from
disasters. Insurance may now be obtained against almost any conceivable
risk. Fire insurance usually covers damage from lightning; other
insurance against the elements includes hail, tornado, flood, and
drought. Life insurance, originally conceived to protect a wage-earner's
family when he or she died, has developed policies that provide a lump
sum at the end of a term of years. Annuity policies, which pay the
insured a yearly income after a certain age, are also available.
Automobile insurance compensates not only for fire and theft but also for
damage to the car and for injury to the victim of an accident (liability
insurance, now required in many states). Under no-fault insurance plans,
automobile-accident victims are compensated by their own company,
eliminating the need for a lawsuit, except in serious cases. Bonding, or
fidelity insurance, protects an employer against dishonesty or default by
an employee. In group insurance, employees pay a lower premium than they
would as individuals. By investing premium payments in a wide range of
revenue-producing projects, insurance companies have become a major
supplier of capital. Many forms of insurance, such as %@AU@%SOCIAL SECURITY%@BO:          8ad2a2@%%@AE@%,
workmen's compensation, and unemployment benefits, are
government-sponsored. Devices resembling modern insurance seem to have
originated in ancient times. By the mid-14th cent. marine insurance was
common in the maritime nations of Europe. The first life-insurance policy
is believed to have been issued in England in 1583, and Lloyds, perhaps
the world's best-known insurance firm, began issuing marine insurance in
London in the 1600s. The first insurance company in the American colonies
was founded at Charlestown, S.C., in 1735. See also %@AU@%HEALTH INSURANCE%@BO:          40dcc2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%intaglio%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%intaglio%@AE@%,%@CR:INTAGLIO        @%%@QR:intaglio@% design cut into stone or other material, or etched or engraved%@EH@%
in a metal plate, producing a concave effect that is the reverse of
relief or %@AU@%CAMEO%@BO:          17a3a6@%%@AE@%. Intaglio %@AU@%PRINTING%@BO:          79a234@%%@AE@% techniques include %@AU@%ENGRAVING%@BO:          2f1ed9@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%ETCHING%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%integer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%integer%@AE@%:%@CR:INTEGER         @%%@QR:integer@% see %@AU@%NUMBER%@BO:          6c3800@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%NUMBER THEORY%@BO:          6c4406@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%integral calculus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%integral calculus%@AE@%:%@CR:INTEGRAUS       @%%@QR:integral calculus@% see %@AU@%CALCULUS%@BO:          16f391@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%integrated circuit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%integrated circuit%@AE@%,%@CR:INTEGRAUIT      @%%@QR:integrated circuit@% %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% or module packaged as a single unit%@EH@%
with leads extending from it for input, output, and power-supply
connections. All the electronic devices are formed by selective treatment
(doping) of a single chip of %@AU@%SEMICONDUCTOR%@BO:          86c028@%%@AE@% material. Integrated circuits
are categorized according to the number of %@AU@%TRANSISTORS%@BO:          97552b@%%@AE@% or other active
circuit devices they contain; an active circuit device is one that
receives power from a source other than its input signal. An ordinary
integrated circuit (IC) may contain up to several tens of such devices; a
medium-scale integrated circuit (MSI), many tens to several hundred; a
large-scale integrated circuit (LSI), several hundred to a few thousand;
and an extra-large integrated circuit (ELSI), a few thousand or more. See
also %@AU@%MICROPROCESSOR%@BO:          603e05@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%integration%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%integration%@AE@%,%@CR:INTEGRATION     @%%@QR:integration@% in U.S. history, the goal of eliminating discrimination and%@EH@%
segregation of blacks from the rest of American society. After
%@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@%, white dominance, codified in segregation (Jim Crow) laws,
was reestablished in the South: blacks were denied the vote and an equal
share in community life. In 1896 the Supreme Court upheld the principle
of separate but equal treatment (%@AU@%PLESSY V. FERGUSON%@BO:          76dc85@%%@AE@%), and by 1920
segregation affected education, transportation, hospitals, churches,
housing, and public facilities. The rising %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% movement opposed
segregation, and in the late 1940s the federal government gradually moved
toward integration. Following the Supreme Court's momentous decision in
%@AU@%BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION %@BO:          148ee6@%%@AE@%(1954) that public school segregation is
inherently unequal and denies blacks equal protection under the law, the
17 segregationist states and the District of Columbia were ordered to
desegregate their schools. In some places the order met with resistance,
lawsuits, and even violence: in Arkansas, federal troops enforced
integration (1957) over Gov. Orval Faubus's objections, while Gov. George
C. %@AU@%WALLACE%@BO:          9ec323@%%@AE@% tried in vain (1963) to block black enrollment at the Univ. of
Alabama. Another milestone was the successful bus boycott (1955-56) in
Montgomery, Ala., led by civil rights activist Martin Luther %@AU@%KING%@BO:          4fb6d8@%%@AE@%, Jr.,
to end segregation in transportation. Freedom riders then tackled
segregation in interstate transportation. Segregated lunch counters,
restaurants, beaches, and other public places were also challenged with
increasing effect in both the North and South during the 1960s. The Civil
Rights Act of 1964, prohibiting discrimination in voting, education,
employment, and public facilities, together with the 1965 Voting Rights
Act, for the first time gave the federal government the power to enforce
desegregation-by denying federal funds to segregated programs and schools
or by overseeing elections, for example. The Civil Rights Act of 1968
barred discrimination against blacks in the sale or rental of housing.
Desegregation of schooling proceeded slowly, but despite setbacks such as
widespread opposition to school busing as a means of effecting
integration, by the 1980s relatively few black students in the U.S. still
remained in schools that are completely segregated. See also %@AU@%AFFIRMATIVE
%@AU@%ACTION%@BO:           1a033@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%intelligence%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%intelligence%@AE@%,%@CR:INTELLIGENCE    @%%@QR:intelligence@% in psychology, the general mental ability involved in%@EH@%
processes such as calculating, reasoning, classifying, learning, the use
of language, and adjusting to new situations. It is widely accepted that
although potential intelligence is related to heredity, the environment
is a critical factor in determining the extent of its expression. Since
the concept of intelligence is elusive, it has generally been defined by
psychologists as that which is measured by intelligence tests. Alfred
%@AU@%BINET%@BO:           fcd62@%%@AE@% and Theodore Simon developed the first modern intelligence test in
1905 for the French school system. Currently the most widely used
intelligence tests are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Others commonly
used in the past include the Army Alpha Test, first administered to
recruits in World War I, and the Revised Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Tests, developed by Lewis Terman in the 1930s. In response to the
criticism that intelligence is an attribute of the entire personality and
thus cannot be measured in isolation, there has been a decline in
interest in pure intelligence tests in favor of tests that also measure
special aptitudes and personality factors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%intelligence gathering%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%intelligence gathering%@AE@%,%@CR:INTELLITHERING  @%%@QR:intelligence gathering@% securing of military, political, or other%@EH@%
information, usually about one nation for the benefit of another. It
includes the analysis of diplomatic reports, publications, statistics,
and broadcasts, as well as %@AB@%espionage, %@AE@%or spying, a clandestine activity.
French revolutionary Joseph %@AU@%FOUCHE%@BO:          34c1e7@%%@AE@% developed (1799-1802) the first modern
political espionage system, and %@AU@%FREDERICK II%@BO:          35b1bd@%%@AE@% of Prussia is considered the
father of modern military espionage, which was to play an important role
in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. The efficient British system was the keystone of Allied
intelligence in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%. The Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the
first U.S. espionage agency (1942), was succeeded (1947) by the %@AU@%CENTRAL
%@AU@%INTELLIGENCE AGENCY%@BO:          1afa9c@%%@AE@% (CIA), the National Security Agency, and other
intelligence-gathering bodies. Modern techniques include reconnaissance
satellites, long-distance photography, sophisticated sensing and
listening ("bugging") devices, and computer analysis. Defense against
espionage is principally a function of counterintelligence specialists.
In the business world, the massive task of information-gathering that is
a normal part of marketing may occasionally include so-called industrial
espionage, an attempt by one company to discover another's secrets.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%interest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%interest%@AE@%,%@CR:INTEREST        @%%@QR:interest@% charge for the use of money, usually figured as a percentage of%@EH@%
the principal and computed annually. Such charges have been made since
ancient times, and they fell early into disrepute. The Jews and the
Christian church forbade interest charges, or usury, as it was called,
within their own groups. Gradually the distinction was made between low
interest rates and high ones, which came to be known, and condemned, as
usury. In the U.S. state usury laws set ceilings on interest, but in
1981, when rates soared to record highs, many legislatures increased or
abolished such ceilings in order to attract lenders. High interest rates
can dampen the economy by making it more difficult for consumers,
businesses, and home buyers to secure loans. In 1981 the prime rate-the
rate that banks charge their best customers-climbed past 20%, with most
other rates a few points lower. Economists differed over the causes of
such extraordinary rates, but inflationary expectations, federal budget
deficits, and the restrictive monetary policies of the %@AU@%FEDERAL RESERVE
%@AU@%SYSTEM%@BO:          32461d@%%@AE@% were important factors.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%interference%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%interference%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERFERENCE    @%%@QR:interference@% in physics, the effect obtained when two systems of %@AU@%WAVES%@BO:          9fd548@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
reinforce, neutralize, or in other ways interfere with each other.
Interference is observed in waves both in a material medium (such as
%@AU@%SOUND%@BO:          8bb9a2@%%@AE@%) and in %@AU@%ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION%@BO:          2d8706@%%@AE@%. %@AI@%Constructive interference %@AE@%occurs
when two waves in the same phase combine. The waves reinforce each other,
and the amplitude of the resulting wave is equal to the sum of the
amplitudes of the interfering waves. When the phases of the two waves are
shifted over 180 deg, i.e., the maximum positive amplitude of one wave
coincides with the maximum negative amplitude of the other wave,
%@AI@%destructive interference %@AE@%occurs, which results in the canceling of the
waves when they have the same amplitude. See %@AU@%DIFFRACTION%@BO:          28f6db@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%interferon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%interferon%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERFERON      @%%@QR:interferon@% protein produced by cells in the body in response to viruses.%@EH@%
Interferon impairs the growth and replication of the attacking virus and
has been shown to have some antitumor properties. Its possible role in
the treatment of disease is still in the early stages of investigation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERGOIME.CON  @%%@QR:Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization@% see %@AU@% UNITED%@EH@%
%@AU@%NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Interior, United States Department of the%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Interior, United States Department of the%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERIOR        @%%@QR:Interior, United States Department of the@% federal executive department%@EH@%
(est. 1849) principally charged as the custodian of the nation's natural
resources. Among the many divisions whose chiefs report to the secretary
of the interior are the Bureau of Land Management, which must reconcile
the often conflicting demands (e.g., for conservation or economic use)
made upon U.S. public land; the Bureau of Mines, which sets safety
regulations in mining; the Bureau of Reclamation, which oversees water
and power projects; the National Park Service, which maintains %@AU@%NATIONAL
%@AU@%PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@% and monuments; the Fish and Wildlife Service; the Bureau of %@AU@%INDIAN
%@AU@%AFFAIRS%@BO:          476d94@%%@AE@% (est. 1824); and the Geological Survey.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%interjection%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%interjection%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERJECTION    @%%@QR:interjection@% see %@AU@%PART OF SPEECH%@BO:          71c3b9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Interlingua%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Interlingua%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERLINGUA     @%%@QR:Interlingua@% see %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE%@BO:          48ea23@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%internal-combustion engine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%internal-combustion engine%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERNANE       @%%@QR:internal-combustion engine@% engine in which combustion of fuel takes%@EH@%
place in a confined space, producing expanding gases that are used to
provide mechanical power. The most common internal-combustion engine is
the four-stroke reciprocating engine used in %@AU@%AUTOMOBILES%@BO:           a3f3e@%%@AE@%. Here,
mechanical power is supplied by a piston fitting inside a cylinder. A
downstroke of the piston, the first stroke, draws a mixture of fuel and
air into the cylinder from the %@AU@%CARBURETOR%@BO:          18ca33@%%@AE@% through an intake valve; the
piston moves up to compress the mixture at the second stroke; at
ignition, the third stroke, a spark from a spark plug ignites the
mixture, forcing the piston down; in the exhaust stroke, an exhaust valve
opens to vent the burned gas as the piston moves up. A rod connects the
piston to a crankshaft. The reciprocating (up and down) movements of the
piston rotate the crankshaft, which is connected by gearing to the drive
wheels of the automobile. The ignition spark is provided by an electrical
system whose power comes from a battery, which also supplies power to the
starting system, a small electric motor that turns the crankshaft until
the engine takes over. The engine is cooled by water circulating around
the cylinders and is lubricated by motor oil driven around the moving
engine parts by an oil pump. The two-stroke engine, which combines intake
and compression in the first stroke and power and exhaust in the second,
is used in lawn mowers and for small vehicles such as motorcycles. Other
variations of the internal-combustion engine include the Wankel engine,
which replaces the piston and cylinder with a triangular rotor moving
inside an oval chamber, and the %@AU@%DIESEL ENGINE%@BO:          28f0ff@%%@AE@%. (For a description of an
external-combustion engine, see %@AU@%STEAM ENGINE%@BO:          8e7d17@%%@AE@%.)%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Internal Revenue Service%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Internal Revenue Service%@AE@%%@CR:INTERNAE        @%%@QR:Internal Revenue Service@% (IRS), division of the U.S. Dept. of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%TREASURY%@BO:          979044@%%@AE@%, established in 1862. It is responsible for the assessment and
collection of federal taxes other than those levied on alcohol, tobacco,
firearms, and explosives, and collects most of its revenues through the
individual and corporate %@AU@%INCOME TAX%@BO:          472641@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Atomic Energy Agency%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Atomic Energy Agency%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAERGY.AG  @%%@QR:International Atomic Energy Agency@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Bank for Reconstruction and Development%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Bank for Reconstruction and Development%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERNARECONST  @%%@QR:International Bank for Reconstruction and Development@% or %@AB@%World%@EH@%
%@AB@%Bank,%@AE@%specialized agency of the UN founded in 1945. It makes loans to
member nations and, under government guarantee, to private investors, for
the purpose of facilitating productive investment, encouraging foreign
trade, and discharging burdens of international debt. All members of the
bank must also belong to the International Monetary Fund. The bank
conducts its business largely through the International Finance
Corporation (1956), and the International Development Association (1960).
See also %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Civil Aviation Organization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Civil Aviation Organization%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAATION.O  @%%@QR:International Civil Aviation Organization@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Court of Justice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Court of Justice%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAJUSTICE  @%%@QR:International Court of Justice@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Criminal Police Organization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Criminal Police Organization%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAPOLICE.  @%%@QR:International Criminal Police Organization@% see %@AU@%INTERPOL%@BO:          4906f8@%%@AE@%. %@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%international date line%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%international date line%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERNAATE.LINE @%%@QR:international date line@% imaginary line on the earth's surface, generally%@EH@%
following the 180 deg meridian of %@AU@%LONGITUDE%@BO:          568f06@%%@AE@%, where, by international
agreement, travelers change dates. Traveling eastward across the line,
one subtracts one day; traveling westward, one adds a day. The date line
is necessary to avoid a confusion that would otherwise result. For
example, if an airplane were to travel westward with the sun, 24 hours
would elapse as it circled the globe, but it would still be the same day
for those in the airplane, while it would be one day later for those on
the ground below.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Development Association%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Development Association%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNANT.ASSO  @%%@QR:International Development Association@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Finance Corporation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Finance Corporation%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAORPORAT  @%%@QR:International Finance Corporation@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Fund for Agricultural Development%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Fund for Agricultural Development%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAAGRICUL  @%%@QR:International Fund for Agricultural Development@% see %@AU@% UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Labor Organization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Labor Organization%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAANIZATI  @%%@QR:International Labor Organization@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%international language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%international language%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERNAANGUAGE  @%%@QR:international language@% sometimes called universal language, a language%@EH@%
intended to be used by people of different linguistic backgrounds to
facilitate communication. Latin was an international language during the
Middle Ages and Renaissance. During the 18th cent., French was known as
the language of diplomacy, and English is often said to fill such a role
today in world commerce. Many artificial languages, i.e., languages
constructed by human agents, have also been promoted as international
languages. It has been estimated that since the 17th cent. several
hundred efforts have been made to create such artificial tongues. Among
the best known of these is Esperanto, invented by Dr. Ludwig L. Zamenhoff
of Poland and first presented to the public in 1887. It has enjoyed some
recognition as an international language, being used, for example, at
international meetings and conferences. The vocabulary of Esperanto is
formed by adding various affixes to individual roots and is derived from
Latin, Greek, the Romance languages, and the Germanic languages. The
grammar is based on that of European languages but is regular and greatly
simplified. The spelling is phonetic. A simplified form of Esperanto is
Ido, short for Esperandido. Another well-known artificial language is
Interlingua, created in 1951 by the International Auxiliary Language
Association. It is derived from English and the Romance languages in both
grammar and vocabulary, and has been used at medical and scientific
meetings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%international law%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%international law%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERNAAW       @%%@QR:international law@% body of laws considered legally binding among national%@EH@%
states; also known as the law of nations. It is based both on customary
usages and on provisions of multilateral or bilateral agreements. It is
influenced, but not made, by the writings of jurists, unratified
conventions, and decisions of the %@AU@%WORLD COURT%@BO:          a32fb6@%%@AE@%, the %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL COURT OF
%@AU@%JUSTICE%@BO:          48e0c6@%%@AE@%, and other tribunals. Since it is not enforced by any
supernational sovereign body, some theorists, including %@AU@%HOBBES%@BO:          4343df@%%@AE@%, have
denied it true legal status. But it is recognized in practice, and
enforcement is by virtue of world opinion, third-state intervention,
sanctions of international organizations like the UN, and, in the last
resort, war. In some areas, such as %@AU@%WAR CRIMES%@BO:          9f0651@%%@AE@%, international law governs
individuals as well as states. The development of international law
coincides with the rise of national states after the Middle Ages, and the
first comprehensive formulation of international law, %@AI@%Concerning the Law
%@AI@%of War and Peace, %@AE@%by Hugo %@AU@%GROTIUS%@BO:          3dec40@%%@AE@%, appeared in 1625; among the principles
that he enunciated as the basis of international law are the %@AU@%SOVEREIGNTY%@BO:          8c3f4b@%%@AE@%
and legal equality of all states. International law thereafter grew
largely through treaties among states. Following the Napoleonic period,
the 1815 Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@% reestablished and expanded international law.
The %@AU@%GENEVA CONVENTION%@BO:          38c4ef@%%@AE@% (1864) and the %@AU@%HAGUE CONFERENCES%@BO:          3f0531@%%@AE@% (1899, 1907),
dealing with the rules of war, are other landmarks in development of an
international legal code. The 20th cent. presented new problems: Two
world wars led to the formation of the %@AU@%LEAGUE OF NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@%, and then of the
%@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%, as a body capable of compelling obedience to
international law; nuclear proliferation exacerbated the need for
international arms treaties; and burgeoning space exploration has led to
creation of the field of %@AU@%SPACE LAW%@BO:          8c9ade@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Monetary Fund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Monetary Fund%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNAFUND     @%%@QR:International Monetary Fund@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%international monetary system%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%international monetary system%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERNASYSTEM   @%%@QR:international monetary system@% rules and procedures by which different%@EH@%
national currencies are exchanged for each other in world trade. The
first formal international monetary system of modern times was the gold
standard, in effect during the late 19th and early 20th cent. Gold served
as an instrument of exchange and the only standard of value. The
international gold standard broke down in 1914, however, partly because
of its inherent lack of liquidity. It was replaced by a gold-bullion
standard, but that, too, was abandoned in the 1930s. In the decades
following World War II, international trade was conducted under a
gold-exchange standard. Under this system, nations fixed the value of
their currencies not to gold but to some foreign currency, which was in
turn fixed to and redeemable in gold. Most nations fixed their currencies
to the U.S. dollar. During the 1960s, however, a severe drain on U.S.
gold reserves led to the introduction (1968) of the so-called two-tier
system. In the official tier, the value of gold was set at $35 an ounce;
in the free-market tier, the price was free to fluctuate according to
supply and demand. At the same time, the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) created %@AU@%SPECIAL DRAWING RIGHTS%@BO:          8d408c@%%@AE@% as a new reserve currency. In the
early 1970s new troubles plagued the international monetary system,
resulting in the temporary adoption of "floating" exchange rates based
largely on %@AU@%SUPPLY AND DEMAND%@BO:          90e0e3@%%@AE@%. Finally, under a 1976 agreement IMF members
accepted a system of controlled floating rates and took steps to diminish
the importance of gold in international transactions, including
elimination of the official price. See %@AU@%FOREIGN EXCHANGE%@BO:          347166@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International style%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International style%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERNATYLE     @%%@QR:International style@% in architecture, form that originated in the 1920s%@EH@%
and became the dominant mode of public architecture in the 1950s and 60s.
Structure was regularized, mass lightened, and ornament suppressed, often
resulting in an austere framework and great expanses of glass.
Outstanding examples of the International style are the %@AU@%BAUHAUS%@BO:           d21f4@%%@AE@% (1926) at
Dessau, by %@AU@%GROPIUS%@BO:          3ddd69@%%@AE@%, and the Barcelona pavilion (1929), by %@AU@%MIES VAN DER
%@AU@%ROHE%@BO:          6077bd@%%@AE@%. In the U.S., exponents of the style include Richard %@AU@%NEUTRA%@BO:          688347@%%@AE@% and
Philip %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4cd587@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%International Telecommunication Union%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%International Telecommunication Union%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERNANICATIO  @%%@QR:International Telecommunication Union@% see %@AU@%UNITED NATIONS%@BO:          9a098a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Interpol%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Interpol%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERPOL        @%%@QR:Interpol@% acronym for the International Criminal Police Organization, a%@EH@%
worldwide clearinghouse for police information. Established in Vienna in
1923, it was reconstituted in Paris in 1946. Focusing on counterfeiting,
forgery, smuggling, and the narcotics trade, it serves more than 100
member nations, providing information about international criminals and
helping to apprehend them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%interrogation point%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%interrogation point%@AE@%:%@CR:INTERROOINT     @%%@QR:interrogation point@% see %@AU@%PUNCTUATION%@BO:          7b008b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Interstate Commerce Commission%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Interstate Commerce Commission%@AE@%%@CR:INTERSTMISSION  @%%@QR:Interstate Commerce Commission@% (ICC), independent U.S. government agency%@EH@%
(est. 1887) responsible for regulating the economics and services of
specified carriers engaged in transportation between states. The first
U.S. regulatory agency, it was formed in response to malpractices in the
railroad industry. Its jurisdiction has gradually expanded to include
trucking, bus lines, water carriers, freight forwarders, oil pipelines,
and express agencies, and it controls rates and enforces laws against
discrimination in these areas. Its safety functions were transferred to
the Dept. of %@AU@%TRANSPORTATION%@BO:          977b7c@%%@AE@% in 1967.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%interstellar matter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%interstellar matter%@AE@%,%@CR:INTERSTTTER     @%%@QR:interstellar matter@% matter in a galaxy between the stars. About 1% is%@EH@%
tiny interstellar grains, believed to be frozen water vapor and carbon
dioxide. The grains may appear optically as bright reflection or dark
%@AU@%NEBULAE%@BO:          67f62f@%%@AE@%. The rest of the matter is gas, mostly hydrogen and helium, but
many molecules have been detected by %@AU@%RADIO ASTRONOMY%@BO:          7c353b@%%@AE@% techniques.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%intestine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%intestine%@AE@%,%@CR:INTESTINE       @%%@QR:intestine@% muscular, hoselike portion of the %@AU@%DIGESTIVE SYSTEM%@BO:          28fa20@%%@AE@% extending%@EH@%
from the lower end of the %@AU@%STOMACH%@BO:          8f414e@%%@AE@% to the anal opening. In humans the
fairly narrow small intestine is a tubelike structure that winds
compactly back and forth within the abdominal cavity. The contraction of
its muscular walls (peristalsis) propels food onward while digestion is
completed. Innumerable minute projections (villi) in the intestinal
lining absorb the altered food for distribution by the %@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%LYMPHATIC SYSTEMS%@BO:          583eee@%%@AE@% to the rest of the body. In the lower right abdominal
cavity the small intestine joins the large intestine (colon), where most
of the water content of the remaining mass is absorbed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Intolerable Acts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Intolerable Acts%@AE@%,%@CR:INTOLERS        @%%@QR:Intolerable Acts@% name given by American patriots to five laws (including%@EH@%
the %@AU@%QUEBEC ACT%@BO:          7bb0ef@%%@AE@%) adopted by the British Parliament in 1774, limiting the
geographical and political freedom of the colonists. Four of the laws
were passed to punish Massachusetts for the %@AU@%BOSTON TEA PARTY%@BO:          127366@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Intracoastal Waterway%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Intracoastal Waterway%@AE@%,%@CR:INTRACOTERWAY   @%%@QR:Intracoastal Waterway@% toll-free, sheltered water route, extending 2,455%@EH@%
mi (3,951 km) along the U.S. Atlantic Coast (Trenton, N.J.-Key West,
Fla.) and the Gulf Coast (NW Florida-Brownsville, Tex.), with open-water
extensions of 645 mi (1,038 km) N to Boston and along the W Florida
coast. Authorized by Congress in 1919 and maintained by the Army Corps of
Engineers, the waterway has a minimum depth of 12 ft (4 m) for most of
its length, and is used by commercial and pleasure boats.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%intrauterine device%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%intrauterine device%@AE@%%@CR:INTRAUTVICE     @%%@QR:intrauterine device@% (IUD), variously shaped %@AU@%BIRTH CONTROL%@BO:          101f6d@%%@AE@% device, usually%@EH@%
of plastic, which is inserted into the uterus by a physician. Apparently
the IUD creates a hostile environment for the sperm or fertilized egg.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Inuit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Inuit%@AE@%:%@CR:INUIT           @%%@QR:Inuit@% see %@AU@%ESKIMO%@BO:          2ffda3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%invertebrate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%invertebrate%@AE@%,%@CR:INVERTEBRATE    @%%@QR:invertebrate@% any multicellular animal lacking a backbone. Invertebrates%@EH@%
include all animals except the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals, which are in the phylum Chordata (see %@AU@%CHORDATE%@BO:          1dcd3f@%%@AE@%). The major
invertebrate groups are the segmented or %@AU@%ANNELID WORMS%@BO:           5cea8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ARTHROPODS%@BO:           84a10@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%COELENTERATES%@BO:          1ffb3e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ECHINODERMS%@BO:          2c0d95@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FLATWORMS%@BO:          339de8@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MOLLUSKS%@BO:          625c8f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ROUNDWORMS%@BO:          817a8f@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SPONGES
%@AU@%%@BO:          8dbc91@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%investiture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%investiture%@AE@%,%@CR:INVESTITURE     @%%@QR:investiture@% in %@AU@%FEUDALISM%@BO:          32ceed@%%@AE@%, the ceremony by which a lord "invested" a%@EH@%
vassal with a fief, usually by giving him a symbolic stone or clod. In
clerical investiture, the symbols were the pastoral ring and staff. Since
bishops and abbots were both spiritual and temporal lords, kings and
popes disputed the right of investiture in the Middle Ages. Lay
investiture-the investiture of a cleric by a temporal lord-became a
bitter quarrel between Pope %@AU@%GREGORY VII%@BO:          3d7af2@%%@AE@% and Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@%
when Gregory forbade (1075) it. After a long conflict, %@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@% and Pope
%@AU@%CALIXTUS II%@BO:          17490b@%%@AE@% resolved the issue in the %@AU@%CONCORDAT OF WORMS%@BO:          21b947@%%@AE@%. In England,
%@AU@%WILLIAM II%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% began a long struggle over investiture that was settled (1107)
by a compromise between %@AU@%HENRY I%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% and St. %@AU@%ANSELM%@BO:           5e8da@%%@AE@% which gave investiture to
the church and homages from church revenues to the king.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%in vitro fertilization%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%in vitro fertilization%@AE@%,%@CR:IN.VITRIZATION  @%%@QR:in vitro fertilization@% technique for conception of a human embryo%@EH@%
outside the mother's body. The ovum, or egg, is removed from the mother's
body and placed in a special laboratory culture dish (Petri dish); sperm
from the father are then added. If fertilization occurs, the fertilized
ovum, after undergoing several cell divisions, is transferred to the
mother's body for normal development in the uterus. First developed by
Drs. Patrick C. Steptoe and Robert G. Edwards of Great Britain (where the
first "test-tube baby" was born under their care in 1978), the technique
was devised for use in cases of infertility when the woman's fallopian
tubes are damaged and cannot be surgically repaired or the man's sperm
count is low. See also %@AU@%ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION%@BO:           86426@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%FERTILIZATION%@BO:          32c146@%%@AE@%;
%@AU@%REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM%@BO:          7e46bf@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Io%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Io%@AE@%,%@CR:IO1             @%%@QR:Io@% in astronomy, natural satellite of %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dc4a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Io%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Io%@AE@%,%@CR:IO2             @%%@QR:Io@% in Greek mythology, princess of Argos. She was turned into a heifer%@EH@%
by %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@% to protect her from %@AU@%HERA'S%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@% jealousy. Hera claimed the heifer and
had the many-eyed monster %@AU@%ARGUS%@BO:           79847@%%@AE@% guard it. When %@AU@%HERMES%@BO:          424809@%%@AE@% killed Argus,
Hera's gadfly drove Io until she came to rest in Egypt. There Zeus
returned her to human form. Io has been identified with the Egyptian
%@AU@%ISIS%@BO:          49fdb5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iodine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iodine%@AE@%%@CR:IODINE          @%%@QR:iodine@% (I), nonmetallic element, discovered in 1811 by Bernard Courtois.%@EH@%
The least active of the %@AU@%HALOGENS%@BO:          3f5f77@%%@AE@%, it is a dark-gray to purple-black solid
that, when heated, sublimes directly to the vapor state. The
violet-colored vapor has a characteristic irritating odor. Tincture of
iodine and iodoform have important medical uses. Silver iodide is used in
photography. Starch turns deep-blue in the presence of iodine; this is a
test for either substance. Thyroid-gland hormones contain iodine;
inadequate dietary iodine results in goiter, a swelling of the thyroid.
Thyroid defects are treated with iodine-131. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ion%@AE@%,%@CR:ION             @%%@QR:ion@% atom, or group of atoms, having a net electric charge, acquired by%@EH@%
gaining or losing one or more electrons or protons. A simple ion consists
of only one charged atom; a complex ion consists of an aggregate of atoms
with a net charge. Because the electron and proton have equal but
opposite unit charges, the charge of an ion is always expressed as a
whole number of positive or negative unit charges. If an atom or group
loses electrons or gains protons, it will have a net positive charge and
is called a cation. If an atom or group gains electrons or loses protons,
it will have a net negative charge and is called an anion. See also %@AU@%ACIDS
%@AU@%AND BASES%@BO:            bfb7@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%ELECTROLYTE%@BO:          2d82b5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iona%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iona%@AE@%,%@CR:IONA            @%%@QR:Iona@% island, 3.5 mi (5.6 km) long and 1.5 mi (2.4 km) wide, NW Scotland,%@EH@%
one of the Inner %@AU@%HEBRIDES%@BO:          411b82@%%@AE@%. Tourism is the main industry. The island is
famous as the early center of Celtic Christianity. In 563 St. %@AU@%COLUMBA%@BO:          20af66@%%@AE@%
founded a monastery there and spread Christianity to Scotland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ionesco, Eugene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ionesco, Eugene%@AE@%%@CR:IONESCO         @%%@QR:Ionesco, Eugene@%, 1912-, French playwright; b. Rumania. His works express%@EH@%
the absurdity of bourgeois values and the futility of human endeavor in a
universe ruled by chance. %@AI@%The Bald Soprano %@AE@%(1950), a classic of the
theater of the absurd, was followed by %@AI@%The Lesson %@AE@%(1951), %@AI@%The Chairs
%@AI@%%@AE@%(1952), and %@AI@%Rhinoceros %@AE@%(1959).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ionia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ionia%@AE@%%@CR:IONIA           @%%@QR:Ionia@%, ancient Greek region of %@AU@%ASIA MINOR%@BO:           8b216@%%@AE@%, on the E Mediterranean (in%@EH@%
present-day %@AU@%TURKEY%@BO:          98c2ce@%%@AE@%), and including the Aegean Islands. It was here that
the Ionians, Greek colonists driven from the mainland by the Dorians,
established colonies before 1000 BC There came to be 12 important
cities-among them %@AU@%MILETUS%@BO:          6092ca@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SAMOS%@BO:          83cdd0@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%EPHESUS%@BO:          2f584b@%%@AE@%. After invasions by
Cimmeria and Lydia the cities came under Persian rule (546 BC). In 500 BC
they revolted against %@AU@%DARIUS I%@BO:          267d87@%%@AE@%; Athens and Eritrea came to their aid, and
the %@AU@%PERSIAN WARS%@BO:          73c21f@%%@AE@% resulted. Ionia was conquered by %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@% in
335 BC The cities remained rich and important during the Roman and
Byzantine empires, but after the Turkish conquest (15th cent. AD) their
culture was destroyed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ionic order%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ionic order%@AE@%:%@CR:IONIC.ORDER     @%%@QR:Ionic order@% see %@AU@%ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          6e82e2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ionization chamber%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ionization chamber%@AE@%:%@CR:IONIZATBER      @%%@QR:ionization chamber@% see %@AU@%PARTICLE DETECTOR%@BO:          71bcdd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ionosphere%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ionosphere%@AE@%:%@CR:IONOSPHERE      @%%@QR:ionosphere@% see %@AU@%ATMOSPHERE%@BO:           9710e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iowa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iowa%@AE@%,%@CR:IOWA            @%%@QR:Iowa@% midwestern state in the N central U.S.; bounded by the Mississippi%@EH@%
R., across which lie Wisconsin and Illinois (E); Missouri (S); Nebraska
and South Dakota, from which it is separated by the Missouri R. (W); and
Minnesota (N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 56,290 sq mi (145,791 sq km). %@AI@%Pop. %@AE@%(1986 est.) 2,851,000, a 2.2%
decrease from 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital, %@AE@%Des Moines. %@AI@%Statehood, %@AE@%Dec. 28, 1846
(29th state). %@AI@%Highest pt., %@AE@%1,670 ft (509 m), Osceola co.; %@AI@%lowest pt.,
%@AI@%%@AE@%Mississippi R., 480 ft (146 m). %@AI@%Nickname, %@AE@%Hawkeye State. %@AI@%Motto, %@AE@%Our
Liberties We Prize and Our Rights We Will Maintain. %@AI@%State bird, %@AE@%Eastern
goldfinch. %@AI@%State flower, %@AE@%wild rose. %@AI@%State tree, %@AE@%oak. %@AI@%Abbr., %@AE@%IA.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Most of Iowa is composed of gently rolling prairies,
covered with some of the world's most fertile soil, between the high
bluffs of the %@AU@%MISSISSIPPI%@BO:          619330@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MISSOURI%@BO:          61a9f1@%%@AE@% rivers. Because of its location in
the center of the North American landmass, Iowa has a typical continental
climate characterized by seasonal extremes in temperatures. 55% of the
population of this traditionally agricultural state lives in metropolitan
areas. %@AU@%DES MOINES%@BO:          28476f@%%@AE@% is the largest city, followed by %@AU@%CEDAR RAPIDS%@BO:          1a9744@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%DAVENPORT%@BO:          26b52f@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% The state has one of the country's most important and prosperous
agricultural sectors. Iowa's deep black soil yields corn, soybeans,
wheat, and barley which help support its cattle and hogs. Manufacturing,
however, is a larger source of income; nonelectrical machinery,
electronic equipment, processed foods, and chemicals are the principal
products.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution of 1857 provides for a governor serving a
four-year term. The general assembly consists of a senate whose 50
members serve four-year terms and a house with 100 members elected for
two-year terms. Iowa is represented in the U.S. Congress by two senators
and six representatives and has eight electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The earliest known inhabitants of present-day Iowa were the %@AU@%MOUND
%@AU@%BUILDERS%@BO:          648254@%%@AE@%, whose remains are preserved at Effigy Mounds National Monument.
The %@AU@%SAC AND FOX%@BO:          82b74e@%%@AE@%, Iowa, and %@AU@%SIOUX INDIAN%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@% tribes lived there when French
explorers arrived during the late 17th cent., including Robert Cavelier,
sieur de %@AU@%LA SALLE%@BO:          52762b@%%@AE@%, in 1681-82. The U.S. obtained the area by the
%@AU@%LOUISIANA PURCHASE%@BO:          574f09@%%@AE@% (1803), and after the %@AU@%BLACK HAWK WAR%@BO:          1089b2@%%@AE@% (1832) the
Indians were forced to cede all their lands to whites, who rushed to
settle the prairies. Among the many settlers who came both from New
England and N Europe were a group of German Pietists who established
(1855) at Amana a communal society that still exists. With its large
rural population, Iowa proved to be fertile ground for such reform
movements as the %@AU@%GRANGER MOVEMENT%@BO:          3c4411@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GREENBACK PARTY%@BO:          3d4d71@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%POPULIST PARTY%@BO:          7841be@%%@AE@%
during the late 19th cent. Since World War II, Iowa has registered a
gradual decline in farm population that has been more than balanced by a
steady increase in its urban population; however, it remains basically a
rural state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iphigenia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iphigenia%@AE@%%@CR:IPHIGENIA       @%%@QR:Iphigenia@%, in Greek myth, daughter of %@AU@%CLYTEMNESTRA%@BO:          1fa977@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%AGAMEMNON%@BO:           1f531@%%@AE@%. When%@EH@%
his ships were becalmed en route to the %@AU@%TROJAN WAR%@BO:          97fa7f@%%@AE@%, Agamemnon sacrificed
Iphigenia to %@AU@%ARTEMIS%@BO:           838b4@%%@AE@%. In another version, Artemis saved her and made her
a priestess at Taurus. Later, Iphigenia saved her brother, %@AU@%ORESTES%@BO:          6ea70f@%%@AE@%, and
the two fled to Greece. %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@% dramatized both legends.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ipsambul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ipsambul%@AE@%:%@CR:IPSAMBUL        @%%@QR:Ipsambul@% see %@AU@%ABU-SIMBEL.%@BO:            8658@%%@AE@%%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iqbal, Muhammad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iqbal, Muhammad%@AE@%%@CR:IQBAL           @%%@QR:Iqbal, Muhammad@%, 1873-1938, Indian poet, philosopher, and political%@EH@%
leader. Because he advocated an independent homeland for India's Muslims,
he is regarded as the spiritual founder of %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%. In his poetry and
essays he urged regeneration of Islam through love of God and active
development of the self.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ir%@AE@%,%@CR:IR              @%%@QR:Ir@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%IRIDIUM%@BO:          499beb@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%IRA%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%IRA%@AE@%:%@CR:IRA             @%%@QR:IRA@% %@AB@%1 %@AE@%in economics, see %@AU@%INDIVIDUAL RETIREMENT ACCOUNT%@BO:          47b6ec@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%2 %@AE@%in Irish%@EH@%
history, see %@AU@%IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY%@BO:          49acb2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iran%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iran%@AE@%,%@CR:IRAN            @%%@QR:Iran@% officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, known as Persia until%@EH@%
1935, republic (1986 est. pop. 49,875,384), 636,290 sq mi (1,648,000 sq
km), SW Asia, bordered by the USSR and the Caspian Sea (N), Afghanistan
and Pakistan (E), the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman (S), and Turkey
and Iraq (W). %@AU@%TEHERAN%@BO:          936b9c@%%@AE@% is the capital. Iran lies on a high plateau (alt.
c.4,000 ft/1,200 m) surrounded by the Elburz and %@AU@%ZAGROS%@BO:          a4c156@%%@AE@% mountain ranges;
there are great salt deserts in the interior. The climate is continental,
with hot summers and cold winters. Iran is subject to numerous and often
severe earthquakes. The country is one of the world's leading oil
producers, and revenues from petroleum contribute 80% of the nation's
wealth. However, agriculture supports 75% of the population. Textiles are
Iran's second most important industrial product, and traditional
handicrafts (such as carpet weaving) still play a role in the economy.
Iran's culturally diverse population, with Persian, Kurdish, Turkic,
Tatar, and Arab strains, is predominantly rural, with a sprinkling of
nomadic pastoralists. Islam is the official religion; about 98% of
Iranians are Shiite Muslims, although most of the Kurds and Arabs are
Sunnites. The principal language is Persian (Farsi).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Village life began on the Iranian plateau as early as c.4000 BC
The Persian empire, founded (c.550 BC) by %@AU@%CYRUS THE GREAT%@BO:          25c4e2@%%@AE@%, was succeeded,
after Greek and Parthian occupation, by the %@AU@%SASSANID%@BO:          84b976@%%@AE@% dynasty in AD 226
(see %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@%). Iran's history may be said to have begun in 641, when the
Arabs overthrew the Sassanids, introduced Islam, and incorporated Persia
into the %@AU@%CALIPHATE%@BO:          174259@%%@AE@%. Persia was later invaded by the Turks (10th cent.),
%@AU@%JENGHIZ KHAN%@BO:          4bcac6@%%@AE@% (13th cent.), and %@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@% (14th cent.). The Safavid
dynasty (1502-1736), which reached its height under %@AU@%ABBAS I%@BO:            13a0@%%@AE@%, restored
internal order and established the Shiite form of Islam as the state
religion. Persia then entered into a long period of decline during which
it steadily lost territory and fell under the domination of the European
powers. The discovery of oil in the early 1900s intensified European
interest, and the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 divided Persia into
British and Russian spheres of influence until after World War I. In 1921
Reza Khan, an army officer, overthrew the decadent Kajar dynasty, and as
%@AU@%REZA SHAH PAHLEVI%@BO:          7ea742@%%@AE@% established the Pahlevi dynasty in 1925; in 1941 he
abdicated in favor of his son %@AU@%MUHAMMAD REZA SHAH PAHLEVI%@BO:          64f0d1@%%@AE@%. In the 1950s
the power of the shah was challenged by Premier Muhammad %@AU@%MUSSADEGH%@BO:          65a1cc@%%@AE@%, a
militant nationalist who nationalized the oil industry and forced the
shah to flee the country. However, with strong Western backing,
monarchist elements ousted Mussadegh in 1953. In the 1960s the shah
initiated a modernization program that was designed to improve economic
and social conditions, but which brought social and political unrest. The
regime, supported by the U.S., became increasingly repressive, and in
1979 popular opposition forced the shah to leave. Ayatollah Ruhollah
%@AU@%KHOMEINI%@BO:          4f61dd@%%@AE@%, an Islamic leader exiled since 1964, returned and established
an Islamic republic. Hundreds of the shah's supporters were tried and
executed, and the Westernization of Iran was reversed. On Nov. 4, 1979,
Iranian militants seized the U.S. embassy in Teheran, held the occupants
hostage, and demanded the return of the shah from the U.S. After the
shah's death (1980) in Egypt, an agreement was negotiated that freed the
hostages on Jan. 20, 1981. Meanwhile, a full-scale border war with Iraq
erupted in Sept. 1980 (see %@AU@%IRAN-IRAQ WAR%@BO:          4964b1@%%@AE@%), severely reducing Iran's oil
production. The government was also beset by internal violence and unrest
among ethnic minorities and political leftists, and assassination of
high-level government officials became frequent. The war ended in 1988.
In 1989, Khomeini died and was replaced as supreme religous leader by
Iran's president Ali Khamenei.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iran-contra affair%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iran-contra affair%@AE@%,%@CR:IRANCONIR       @%%@QR:Iran-contra affair@% in U.S. history, secret arrangement to provide funds%@EH@%
to the Nicaraguan contra rebels from profits gained by selling arms to
Iran. First uncovered in Nov. 1986, the scandal shook the %@AU@%REAGAN%@BO:          7d12d0@%%@AE@%
administration. Most directly involved were Adm. John Poindexter and Lt.
Col. Oliver North, both of the %@AU@%NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL%@BO:          676e40@%%@AE@%. A presidential
commission was critical of the works of the NSC, while congressional
hearings uncovered a web of official deception, mismanagement, and
illegality. A number of criminal prosecutions resulted.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iran-Iraq War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iran-Iraq War%@AE@%%@CR:IRANIRAQ.WAR    @%%@QR:Iran-Iraq War@% or %@AB@%Persian Gulf War,%@AE@%1980-88. In 1975, a militarily weaker%@EH@%
Iraq was forced to sign over to Iran partial control of the %@AU@%SHATT AL-ARAB%@BO:          880417@%%@AE@%
Waterway. With the fall (1979) of the %@AU@%MUHAMMAD REZA SHAH PAHLEVI%@BO:          64f0d1@%%@AE@% (1979),
Iran's military crumbled. Iraq seized (Sept. 1980) 90 sq mi (233.1 sq km)
of Iranian territory in the Shatt al-Arab, but failed to win the swift
victory predicted by many; a war of attrition set in. Iraq's use (1984)
of chemical weapons (see %@AU@%CHEMICAL WARFARE%@BO:          1c73bd@%%@AE@%) drew worldwide outrage. The
scope of the conflict increased and the ships of neutral nations in the
Persian Gulf were attacked by both sides. By 1987 U.S. forces in the gulf
began flying limited sorties against Iranian oil rigs and naval vessels.
Iran and Iraq finally accepted a UN peace plan, and fighting between the
two nations ceased in Aug. 1988. Estimates of the number of dead range up
to 1.5 million.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iranian languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iranian languages%@AE@%,%@CR:IRANIANES       @%%@QR:Iranian languages@% group of languages belonging to the Indo-Iranian%@EH@%
subfamily of the %@AU@%INDO-EUROPEAN%@BO:          47c0fc@%%@AE@% family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iraq%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iraq%@AE@%,%@CR:IRAQ            @%%@QR:Iraq@% officially the Republic of Iraq, republic (1988 est. pop.%@EH@%
16,500,000), 167,924 sq mi (434,924 sq km), SW Asia, bordered by the
Persian Gulf, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia (S), Jordan and Syria (W), Turkey
(N), and Iran (E). Principal cities include %@AU@%BAGHDAD%@BO:           b01b6@%%@AE@% (the capital), %@AU@%BASRA%@BO:           ce95b@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%MOSUL%@BO:          644442@%%@AE@%. Iraq is an almost landlocked country, its only outlet to the
sea a short stretch of coast on the %@AU@%PERSIAN GULF%@BO:          73b566@%%@AE@%. It is composed of a
mountainous region in the northeast and the vast Syrian Desert, inhabited
by a few nomadic shepherds, in the southwest; in between is the heart of
the country, a fertile lowland region watered by the %@AU@%TIGRIS%@BO:          95caab@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%EUPHRATES%@BO:          3099bd@%%@AE@%
rivers. Although more than 50% of the labor force is engaged in
agriculture, oil production, notably in the great fields of Mosul and
Kirkuk, dominates the economy. Iraq is among the largest oil producers of
the Mideast. All of its petroleum resources were nationalized in 1972 and
oil revenues have been used to promote industrialization. The country has
a small, diversified industrial sector. Iraq is the world's leading
exporter of dates; other crops include cotton, cereals, and vegetables.
Agriculture depends largely on irrigation. Most of the population are
Muslim Arabs. The principal minority is the tribal Kurds, in the
northeast, who have long demanded independence.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Modern Iraq is approximately coextensive with ancient
%@AU@%MESOPOTAMIA%@BO:          5f1485@%%@AE@%, and prior to the Arab conquest in the 7th cent AD was the
site of a number of flourishing civilizations, including %@AU@%SUMER%@BO:          909297@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%AKKAD%@BO:           27e90@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%ASSYRIA%@BO:           8dd4e@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BABYLONIA%@BO:           aad2b@%%@AE@%. In the 8th cent., as capital of the %@AU@%ABBASID%@BO:            1519@%%@AE@%
caliphate, Baghdad became an important center of learning and the arts.
Mesopotamia fell to the Ottoman Turks in the 16th cent. The British
invaded Iraq in World War I, and in 1920 the country became a %@AU@%LEAGUE OF
%@AU@%NATIONS%@BO:          53204c@%%@AE@% mandate under British administration. Iraq was made a kingdom
under %@AU@%FAISAL I%@BO:          319126@%%@AE@% in 1921, and the British mandate was terminated in 1932,
although British military bases remained. Meanwhile, the first oil
concession had been granted in 1925, and in 1934 the export of oil began.
Domestic politics were marked by turbulence, and the country experienced
seven military coups between 1936 and 1941. Following an army coup in
1958, Iraq became a Socialist republic under Gen. Abdul Karim Kassem. The
chronic Kurdish problem flared up in 1962, when tribes demanding an
autonomous %@AU@%KURDISTAN%@BO:          511b8d@%%@AE@% gained control of much of N Iraq. The rebellion
collapsed (1975), but intermittent warfare has continued. Relations
between Iran and Iraq were strained following Britain's withdrawal from
the region in 1971, and full-scale war erupted in 1980 (see %@AU@%IRAN-IRAQ
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          4964b1@%%@AE@%), mainly over the disputed %@AU@%SHATT AL ARAB%@BO:          880417@%%@AE@% waterway. Like other Arab
states, Iraq is hostile to Israel. In 1981 Israeli planes destroyed a
nearly completed nuclear reactor near Baghdad, which Israel claimed (and
Iraq denied) could produce nuclear weapons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ireland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ireland%@AE@%,%@CR:IRELAND1        @%%@QR:Ireland@% Irish %@AI@%Eire, %@AE@%second largest island (32,598 sq mi/84,429 sq km) of%@EH@%
the British Isles. It lies west of the island of %@AU@%GREAT BRITAIN%@BO:          3c9d4a@%%@AE@%, from
which it is separated by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St.
George's Channel. It is divided politically into Northern Ireland and the
Republic of Ireland; physically, it is composed of a large, fertile
central plain roughly enclosed by a highland rim. Heavy rains (over 80
in./203 cm annually in some areas) account for the brilliantly green
grass that makes Ireland the "emerald isle." The interior is dotted with
lakes and wide stretches of river called loughs. The longest river is the
Shannon.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Celtic tribes in ancient Ireland established a distinctive
culture (see %@AU@%CELT%@BO:          1acb00@%%@AE@%) that, in its full flower after the introduction (5th
cent. AD) of Christianity by St. %@AU@%PATRICK%@BO:          720fde@%%@AE@%, produced superb works of art
and literature. Beginning in the 8th cent. Norsemen (see %@AU@%VIKINGS%@BO:          9d7ed5@%%@AE@%) invaded
the area, remaining until the Irish king %@AU@%BRIAN BORU%@BO:          13c625@%%@AE@% broke their strength
in 1014; Ireland then remained free from foreign interference for 150
years. But in the 12th cent. Pope Adrian granted overlordship of Ireland
to %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England, initiating an Anglo-Irish struggle that lasted
for nearly 800 years. The bitter religious contention between Irish
Catholics and Protestants began in the 16th cent. after England tried to
impose Protestantism on a largely Catholic Ireland. Irish rebellions
flared up repeatedly-under %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, and Oliver %@AU@%CROMWELL%@BO:          24d49f@%%@AE@%.
The Act of Union (1800) united England and Ireland; the Irish parliament
was abolished, and Ireland was represented in the British parliament.
Agitation by the Irish leader Daniel %@AU@%O'CONNELL%@BO:          6ccb08@%%@AE@% resulted in passage of the
%@AU@%CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION%@BO:          1a4c45@%%@AE@% Act in 1829. But political developments were
dwarfed by the Great Potato Famine (1845-49), in which nearly a million
Irish died of starvation and disease; another 1,600,000 emigrated
(1847-54) to the U.S. Irish desire for domestic control persisted. The
failure of the British government to implement %@AU@%HOME RULE%@BO:          43ee9a@%%@AE@%, complicated by
the fear in Protestant Ulster of Catholic domination, led to the Easter
Rebellion of 1916. The militant %@AU@%SINN FEIN%@BO:          8989c1@%%@AE@%, founded (1905) among Irish
Catholics, emerged as the dominant nationalist group, declaring
themselves the Dail Eireann (Irish Assembly) and proclaiming an Irish
republic (1918). Outlawed by the British, the Sinn Fein went underground
and waged guerrilla warfare. In 1920 a new Home Rule bill provided for
partition of Ireland, with six counties of Protestant Ulster remaining
part of the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland. In 1922 a treaty gave the
remainder of Ireland Dominion status within the British Empire as the
Irish Free State. See %@AU@%IRELAND, NORTHERN%@BO:          498630@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%IRELAND, REPUBLIC OF%@BO:          499009@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ireland, Northern%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ireland, Northern%@AE@%,%@CR:IRELAND2        @%%@QR:Ireland, Northern@% political division of the United Kingdom of Great%@EH@%
Britain and Northern Ireland (1988 est. pop. 1,589,000), 5,642 sq mi
(14,147 sq km), comprising six counties of Ulster in NE Ireland. The
capital is %@AU@%BELFAST%@BO:           ded8d@%%@AE@%, one of Britain's chief ports. Farming is the
principal occupation. Shipbuilding, food processing, and the manufacture
of textiles are the leading industries; Northern Ireland's fine linens
are famous. About three fifths of the population is Protestant and one
third is Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Northern Ireland's relatively distinct history began in the 17th
cent. when the British crown, after suppressing an Irish rebellion,
populated much of Ulster with Scottish and English settlers, giving the
area a Protestant character in contrast to the rest of Ireland. The
question of political separation did not arise, however, until proposals
for %@AU@%HOME RULE%@BO:          43ee9a@%%@AE@% for Ireland, first broached in 1886 by British prime
minister William %@AU@%GLADSTONE%@BO:          3a840b@%%@AE@%, aroused fears in Protestant Ulster of
domination by the Catholic majority in the south. The situation continued
to deteriorate, and by World War I civil war was imminent. The Government
of Ireland Act (1920) attempted to solve the problem by enacting Home
Rule separately for the two parts of Ireland. Protestant Ulster thus
became the province of Northern Ireland, but the Irish Free State (now
the Republic of Ireland), established in the remainder of Ireland in
1922, refused to recognize the finality of the partition. The situation
remained relatively stable until the late 1960s, when protest by the
Catholic minority against economic and political discrimination led to
widespread violence by the "provisional" wing of the %@AU@%IRISH REPUBLICAN
%@AU@%ARMY%@BO:          49acb2@%%@AE@% (IRA) on one side and the Ulster Defense Association, a Protestant
terrorist group, on the other. In reply, the British government sent in
British troops in 1969, suspended the Ulster parliament in 1972, and
assumed direct rule of the province in 1973. Protestant and Catholic
extremists rejected several efforts at power-sharing, and sectarian
conflict marked by bloodshed continued. In 1988 the British dissolved the
Northern Ireland Assembly. See %@AU@%IRELAND, REPUBLIC OF%@BO:          499009@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ireland, Republic of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ireland, Republic of%@AE@%,%@CR:IRELAND3        @%%@QR:Ireland, Republic of@% independent republic (1986 pop. 3,540,643), 27,136%@EH@%
sq mi (70,282 sq km), occupying all but the northeastern corner of the
island of Ireland in the British Isles; formerly the %@AB@%Irish Free State
%@AB@%%@AE@%(1922-37) and %@AB@%Eire %@AE@%(1937-49). %@AU@%DUBLIN%@BO:          2af725@%%@AE@% is the capital. Agriculture,
primarily the raising of livestock and poultry, is the primary economic
activity; crops include flax, oats, wheat, turnips, potatoes, sugar
beets, and barley. Tourism is the second largest source of income.
Industry produces linen and laces (for which Ireland is famous), food
products, and textiles, particularly wool. Gaelic and English are the
official languages, but English is more widely spoken. About 95% of the
population is Roman Catholic, but there is no established church.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The establishment by treaty with %@AU@%GREAT BRITAIN%@BO:          3c9d4a@%%@AE@% of the Irish Free
State in 1922 completed the partition of Ireland into two states
(Northern Ireland was created in 1920) and resulted in civil war between
supporters of the treaty and opponents. The anti-treaty forces, embodied
in the %@AU@%IRISH REPUBLICAN ARMY%@BO:          49acb2@%%@AE@% (IRA) and led by Eamon %@AU@%DE VALERA%@BO:          2868d7@%%@AE@%, were
defeated, but the IRA continued as a secret terrorist organization. De
Valera and his Fianna Fail party finally entered the Dail (parliament) in
1927 and de Valera became prime minister in 1932. Under his
administration a new constitution was promulgated (1937), establishing
the sovereign state of Ireland, or Eire, within the British Commonwealth.
In World War II Eire, remaining neutral, denied the use of Irish ports to
the British, although many Irishmen served voluntarily in the British
armed forces. In 1948 Ireland demanded total independence from Great
Britain; the Republic of Ireland was proclaimed in 1949 and the country
withdrew from the Commonwealth. In the late 1960s problems flared up with
Northern Ireland, aggravated by the terrorist activities in Northern
Ireland of the IRA, which was headquartered in the republic. In 1973 the
country joined the %@AU@%COMMON MARKET%@BO:          2109eb@%%@AE@%. See %@AU@%IRELAND%@BO:          4978b5@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%IRELAND, NORTHERN%@BO:          498630@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irene%@AE@%,%@CR:IRENE           @%%@QR:Irene@% c.750-803, Byzantine empress (797-802). As regent for her son,%@EH@%
%@AU@%CONSTANTINE VI%@BO:          2279f8@%%@AE@%, she neglected wars in her zeal to suppress %@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@%.
Her son's misconduct enabled her to depose him (797), have him blinded,
and ascend the throne. Her accession gave %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% a pretext for
having himself crowned emperor (800). Irene was deposed (802) and died in
exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iridium%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iridium%@AE@%%@CR:IRIDIUM         @%%@QR:iridium@% (Ir), metallic element, discovered by Smithson Tennant in 1804.%@EH@%
Chemically very unreactive, iridium is a very hard, usually brittle,
extremely corrosion-resistant, silver-white metal used in chemical
crucibles, surgical tools, and pivot bearings. The international kilogram
standard is an iridium-platinum alloy. See %@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iris%@AE@%,%@CR:IRIS            @%%@QR:iris@% common name for members of the genus %@AI@%Iris %@AE@%of the Iridaceae, a%@EH@%
family of perennial herbs that includes the %@AU@%CROCUS%@BO:          24cb1a@%%@AE@%, freesia (genus
%@AI@%Freesia%@AE@%), and gladiolus (genus %@AI@%Gladiolus%@AE@%). The family is typified by
modified stems (%@AU@%BULBS%@BO:          15439f@%%@AE@%, corms, and %@AU@%RHIZOMES%@BO:          7ec8d3@%%@AE@%) and by linear or sword-shaped
leaves. Distributed worldwide except in the coldest regions, the family
is closely related to the %@AU@%LILY%@BO:          5518d6@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%AMARYLLIS%@BO:           454b3@%%@AE@% families. The cultivated
irises, freesias, and gladioli show a wide variety of colors in their
usually perfumed blossoms. The many species of wild iris are often called
flags. Orrisroot, a violet-scented flavoring used in dentrifices,
perfumes, and other products, is made from the powdered rhizomes of
several European species.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irish Land Question%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irish Land Question%@AE@%,%@CR:IRISH.LTION     @%%@QR:Irish Land Question@% name given in the 19th cent. to the problem of Irish%@EH@%
land ownership, which went back many centuries. In the 12th cent. a
feudal landholding system was imposed on Ireland. The %@AU@%TUDORS%@BO:          986ea3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CROMWELL%@BO:          24d49f@%%@AE@%,
and %@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@% continued land confiscations; the result was the creation
of an absentee landlord class and an impoverished Irish peasantry. The
18th-cent. penal laws increased the difficulty of landowning by
Catholics; Catholic Emancipation did not help much, although it did bring
Irish Catholics into the British Parliament. Irish hatred for England
grew through the great famine of the 1840s and the influx of speculators
after the Encumbered Estates Act of 1849. The violent %@AU@%FENIAN MOVEMENT%@BO:          326bde@%%@AE@%,
the Reform Act of 1867, and support by %@AU@%GLADSTONE%@BO:          3a840b@%%@AE@% led to the First Land
Act (1870). The National Land League, led by Michael Davitt and C.S.
%@AU@%PARNELL%@BO:          718e3e@%%@AE@%, fought for passage of the Land Act of 1881, which gave the three
"F's"-fair rent, fixity of tenure, and freedom from sale. Land purchase
by the tenant became the main issue. Agitation by the Irish Union League
led to passage of the Wyndham Act (1903), which provided loans at reduced
rates for tenants who wanted to buy land, and bonuses for landlords
willing to sell. By 1921 Irish tenants owned two thirds of the land; the
rest was confiscated by law and given to them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irish language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irish language%@AE@%,%@CR:IRISH.LANGUAGE  @%%@QR:Irish language@% also called Irish Gaelic, member of the Goidelic group of%@EH@%
the Celtic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irish literary renaissance%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irish literary renaissance%@AE@%,%@CR:IRISH.LNCE      @%%@QR:Irish literary renaissance@% late 19th- and early 20th-cent. movement that%@EH@%
aimed at reviving ancient Irish folklore, legends, and traditions in new
literary works. Essentially, it was a rebirth of literature in Ireland as
Irish literature rather than as a pale reflection of English literature.
Major figures in the movement were J.M. %@AU@%SYNGE%@BO:          91e86d@%%@AE@%, Sean %@AU@%O'CASEY%@BO:          6ca4b3@%%@AE@%, W.B. %@AU@%YEATS%@BO:          a40602@%%@AE@%,
and Lady Augusta %@AU@%GREGORY%@BO:          3d8baa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irish Republican Army%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irish Republican Army%@AE@%%@CR:IRISH.RN.ARMY   @%%@QR:Irish Republican Army@% (IRA), nationalist organization dedicated to the%@EH@%
unification of Ireland. It was organized by Michael %@AU@%COLLINS%@BO:          205a33@%%@AE@% after the
Easter Rebellion of 1916 (see %@AU@%IRELAND%@BO:          4978b5@%%@AE@%) and became the military wing of
the %@AU@%SINN FEIN%@BO:          8989c1@%%@AE@% party. Despite the establishment of the Irish Free State
(1922), the IRA refused to accept a separate Northern Ireland under
British rule. With popular support lessened by its violent actions and
pro-German agitation during %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, it was outlawed by both Irish
governments and became a secret organization. In 1969 it split into an
"official" majority, which disclaimed violence, and a terrorist
"provisional" wing, whose attacks on British troops in Northern Ireland,
random bombings, and other acts of terror in England kept tensions high.
In 1981 some imprisoned IRA leaders, protesting British policies, engaged
in hunger strikes to the death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irish setter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irish setter%@AE@%,%@CR:IRISH.SETTER    @%%@QR:Irish setter@% large %@AU@%SPORTING DOG%@BO:          8dc46f@%%@AE@%; shoulder height, c.26 in. (66 cm);%@EH@%
weight, 50-70 lb (22.7-31.8 kg). The long, silky coat of the American
variety is solid red; that of its Irish counterpart is often red and
white. It was developed in 18th-cent. Ireland as a field hunter.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iron, Ralph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iron, Ralph%@AE@%:%@CR:IRON1           @%%@QR:Iron, Ralph@% see %@AU@%SCHREINER, OLIVE%@BO:          85aeb2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%iron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%iron%@AE@%%@CR:IRON2           @%%@QR:iron@% (Fe), metallic element. Iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable,%@EH@%
silver-gray metal. A good conductor of heat and electricity, it is
attracted by a magnet and is itself easily magnetized (see %@AU@%MAGNETISM%@BO:          59882f@%%@AE@%).
Iron is abundant in the universe; it is found in many stars, including
the sun. It is the fourth most common element in the earth's crust, of
which it constitutes about 5% by weight, and is believed to be the main
component of the earth's core. Iron is rarely found uncombined in nature
except in %@AU@%METEORITES%@BO:          5f5e65@%%@AE@%, and it rusts readily in moist air. %@AU@%LIMONITE%@BO:          553971@%%@AE@% and
hematite are the chief iron ores; other ores include %@AU@%MAGNETITE%@BO:          599824@%%@AE@%, taconite,
and siderite. Iron ores are refined in a %@AU@%BLAST FURNACE%@BO:          10cfc5@%%@AE@% to produce pig
iron, which can be remelted and poured into molds to make %@AU@%CAST IRON%@BO:          19dd33@%%@AE@%,
commercially purified to make %@AU@%WROUGHT IRON%@BO:          a38a71@%%@AE@%, or alloyed with carbon and
other elements to make %@AU@%STEEL%@BO:          8e883b@%%@AE@%. Iron compounds are used as paint pigments,
in dyeing, and in ink manufacture. A component of %@AU@%HEMOGLOBIN%@BO:          4191aa@%%@AE@%, the
oxygen-carrying pigment of red %@AU@%BLOOD%@BO:          10f83c@%%@AE@% cells in vertebrates, iron is
important in nutrition; one cause of %@AU@%ANEMIA%@BO:           56094@%%@AE@% is iron deficiency. See
%@AU@%ELEMENT%@BO:          2db312@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%IRON AGE%@BO:          49ba8f@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%PERIODIC TABLE%@BO:          7363f5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iron Age%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iron Age%@AE@%,%@CR:IRON.AGE        @%%@QR:Iron Age@% technological period from the first general use of iron to%@EH@%
modern times. In Asia, Egypt, and Europe it followed the %@AU@%BRONZE AGE%@BO:          144216@%%@AE@%;
Europeans brought it to the Americas. Hammered iron was known in Egypt
before 1350 BC, and after the fall of the %@AU@%HITTITE%@BO:          433893@%%@AE@% empire (1200 BC)
migrants carried iron technology to S Europe and the Middle East.
Smelting was known in the %@AU@%ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION%@BO:          30739d@%%@AE@%. After the Early Iron Age
(c.800-500) in central Europe, migrating %@AU@%CELTS%@BO:          1acb00@%%@AE@% spread the use of iron
into W Europe and the British Isles, where Late Iron Age peoples used it
for tools, vehicles, coinage, and art objects (see %@AU@%LA TENE%@BO:          5293f3@%%@AE@%). Metal
technology increasingly influenced %@AU@%CULTURE%@BO:          254507@%%@AE@% up to the %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:          47e60f@%%@AE@% and beyond.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iron Guard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iron Guard%@AE@%,%@CR:IRON.GUARD      @%%@QR:Iron Guard@% Rumanian nationalistic, anti-Semitic terrorist organization%@EH@%
founded in 1924. Although officially banned in 1933, it continued under
different names. It helped Ion %@AU@%ANTONESCU%@BO:           6788f@%%@AE@% to take power in 1940, preparing
the way for the Nazi takeover of the country in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iroquoian%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iroquoian%@AE@%,%@CR:IROQUOIAN       @%%@QR:Iroquoian@% branch of North American Indian languages, belonging to the%@EH@%
Hokan-Siouan linguistic family of North America. See %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN
%@AU@%LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iroquois Confederacy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iroquois Confederacy%@AE@%%@CR:IROQUOIERACY    @%%@QR:Iroquois Confederacy@% or %@AB@%Iroquois League,%@AE@%%@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
confederation of five nations, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and
Seneca; founded c.1570. The Tuscarora joined c.1722. They spoke Iroquoian
languages of the Hokan-Siouan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%), and
in the early 17th cent. inhabited New York N and W of the Hudson R.,
numbering c.5,500. Materially, politically, and militarily their culture
was the most advanced in the Eastern Woodlands. The Iroquois conceived of
themselves as living in a metaphorical long house in which each nation
had a role, e.g., the Mohawks guarded the eastern door. By absorbing
neighboring tribes in territorial wars, the League came to number 16,000
by the late 17th cent. Led by %@AU@%CORNPLANTER%@BO:          2377b2@%%@AE@%, Red Jacket, and Joseph %@AU@%BRANT%@BO:          1362d7@%%@AE@%,
all but the Oneida and Tuscarora sided with the British in the %@AU@%AMERICAN
%@AU@%REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. Today the Iroquois live mostly in Ontario and in New York,
wherein the 1970s and early 80s they occupied disputed lands. Some,
however, have become urban-many Mohawks, for instance, have become
structural steelworkers.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%irrational number%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%irrational number%@AE@%:%@CR:IRRATIOER       @%%@QR:irrational number@% see %@AU@%NUMBER%@BO:          6c3800@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irrawaddy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irrawaddy%@AE@%,%@CR:IRRAWADDY       @%%@QR:Irrawaddy@% one of the great rivers of Asia and the chief river of Burma,%@EH@%
c.1,000 mi (1,600 km) long, formed by the confluence in N Burma of the
Mali and Nmai rivers. It flows south, receiving the Chindwin R. just
below Mandalay, to form a vast delta (c.200 mi/320 km wide) beginning at
Henzada, c.180 mi (290 km) from the Andaman Sea. The river is navigable
up to Myitkyina and serves as Burma's economic lifeline.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%irredentism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%irredentism%@AE@%,%@CR:IRREDENTISM     @%%@QR:irredentism@% originally, the nationalist movement for annexation to Italy%@EH@%
of predominantly Italian areas-%@AI@%Italia irredenta %@AE@%unredeemed Italy-retained
by Austria after 1866. It was a strong motive for Italy's entry into
%@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. The term is also applied to similar movements in other
nations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%irrigation%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%irrigation%@AE@%,%@CR:IRRIGATION      @%%@QR:irrigation@% in %@AU@%AGRICULTURE%@BO:           21c43@%%@AE@%, artificial watering of the land, using water%@EH@%
diverted from rivers and lakes or pumped from underground (see %@AU@%DAM%@BO:          2625c6@%%@AE@%).
Modern large-scale irrigation is often part of a multipurpose project
that may also produce hydroelectric power and provide systems for water
supply and flood control. Surface irrigation delivers water to a field
directly from a canal, well, or ditch. In surface-pipe irrigation, the
water is piped to the field and distributed via sprinklers or smaller
pipes. Drip irrigation, a recent development, delivers a small, measured
amount of water to each plant through narrow plastic tubes and helps
prevent the two major problems caused by irrigation: waterlogging,
saturation of the soil as a result of inadequate drainage; and soil
salinization, the accumulation of salts deposited by irrigation water.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%irritable bowel syndrome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%irritable bowel syndrome%@AE@%,%@CR:IRRITABE        @%%@QR:irritable bowel syndrome@% a common syndrome characterized by frequently%@EH@%
alternating constipation and diarrhea, usually with abdominal pain. Often
stress-induced, it is also caused by such physical factors as spicy
foods, lack of dietary fiber, and excessive caffeine consumption.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irtysh%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irtysh%@AE@%,%@CR:IRTYSH          @%%@QR:Irtysh@% river, c.2,650 mi (4,260 km) long, W Siberia, USSR, chief%@EH@%
tributary of the %@AU@%OB%@BO:          6c84f0@%%@AE@% R. It rises as the Kara-Irtysh in NW China and flows
through Kazakhstan and past Semipalatinsk, Omsk, and Tobolsk to join the
Ob near Khanty-Man siysk. A Soviet plan for a 1,400-mi (2,500-km) canal
to divert water from the Irtysh to the %@AU@%SYR DARYA%@BO:          9201ef@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%AMU DARYA%@BO:           4f7e5@%%@AE@% rivers was
announced in the early 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irving, Sir Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irving, Sir Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:IRVING1         @%%@QR:Irving, Sir Henry@% 1838-1905, English actor and manager; b. John Henry%@EH@%
Brodribb. As the innovative manager (1878-1903) of the Lyceum Theatre,
London, he reigned supreme on the English stage, appearing with his
leading lady, Ellen %@AU@%TERRY%@BO:          94399c@%%@AE@%, in Shakespearean and contemporary productions.
He was the first English actor to be knighted (1895).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irving, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irving, John%@AE@%,%@CR:IRVING2         @%%@QR:Irving, John@% 1942-, American novelist; b. Exeter, N.H. The combination%@EH@%
of sex, violence, social satire, and grotesque comedy in his novels gives
him an affinity with the black humorists. %@AI@%The World According to Garp
%@AI@%%@AE@%(1978) made him an overnight success. Other novels include %@AI@%The Cider
%@AI@%House Rules%@AE@% (1985) and %@AI@%A Prayer for Owen Meany%@AE@% (1989).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irving, Washington%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irving, Washington%@AE@%,%@CR:IRVING3         @%%@QR:Irving, Washington@% 1783-1859, American author; b. N.Y.C. His earliest%@EH@%
works, %@AI@%Letters of Jonathan Oldstyle, Gent. %@AE@%(1802-3) and %@AI@%Salmagundi
%@AI@%%@AE@%(1807-8; written with William Irving and J.K. Pauling), were collections
of amusing essays. Under the pseudonym Diedrich Knickerbocker he wrote %@AI@%A
%@AI@%History of New York %@AE@%(1809), perhaps America's first great book of comic
literature. Irving's reputation at home and abroad was established with
the essays in %@AI@%The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. %@AE@%(1820), including
such tales as "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." While a
diplomat in Madrid (1826-29) he wrote several works on Spanish subjects,
among them the charming sketches in %@AI@%The Alhambra %@AE@%(1832). After returning
to the U.S. he wrote a number of books on the American West, e.g., %@AI@%A Tour
%@AI@%of the Prairies %@AE@%(1835). Except for a term as U.S. minister to Spain
(1842-46), Irving spent most of his later years at his estate, Sunnyside,
near Tarrytown, N.Y. There he completed several works, including his
biography of George Washington (5 vol., 1855-59). A gentle satirist who
was master of a graceful, sophisticated style, Irving created some of the
most popular essays and tales in American literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Irving%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Irving%@AE@%,%@CR:IRVING4         @%%@QR:Irving@% city (1986 est. pop. 128,530), N Tex., a suburb of %@AU@%DALLAS%@BO:          261ae5@%%@AE@%; inc.%@EH@%
as a city 1952. Building supplies, snack foods, electronic equipment, and
tools are manufactured there. Its Texas Stadium is home to the Dallas
Cowboys professional football team. The Dallas-Fort Worth Airport (opened
1974) borders Irving on the west. The Univ. of Dallas is in the city.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isaac%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isaac%@AE@%,%@CR:ISAAC1          @%%@QR:Isaac@% Byzantine emperors. %@AB@%Isaac I, %@AE@%c.1005-1061 (r.1057-59), first of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%COMNENUS%@BO:          213b27@%%@AE@% dynasty, was proclaimed emperor by the army. He abdicated after
losing popularity and failing in war. %@AB@%Isaac II %@AE@%(Angelus), d. 1204
(r.1185-95, 1203-4), was made emperor by the people. He repulsed the
Normans but failed to suppress a Bulgar rebellion. He was deposed and
blinded by his brother, %@AU@%ALEXIUS III%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%, but the army of the Fourth %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%
restored him as co-ruler with his son, %@AU@%ALEXIUS IV%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%. After their overthrow
by %@AU@%ALEXIUS V%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@% the Crusaders sacked Constantinople.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isaac%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isaac%@AE@%,%@CR:ISAAC2          @%%@QR:Isaac@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, a patriarch, only son of %@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SARA%@BO:          847685@%%@AE@%. He%@EH@%
married %@AU@%REBECCA%@BO:          7d2538@%%@AE@%, and their sons were %@AU@%ESAU%@BO:          2fe905@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%ISHMAEL%@BO:          49f9a4@%%@AE@% was his half
brother. As a supreme act of faith, Abraham offered Isaac at an early age
as a sacrifice to God-a deed prevented by divine intervention. Gen.
21-27. Some scholars have questioned Isaac's historicity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isabella%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isabella%@AE@%,%@CR:ISABELLA1       @%%@QR:Isabella@% Spanish queens. %@AB@%Isabella I %@AE@%(the Catholic), 1451-1504, queen of%@EH@%
Castile and Leon (1474-1504) and queen of Aragon (1479-1504), with her
husband, %@AU@%FERDINAND V%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@%, established the unified Spanish kingdom. She
suppressed the lawless Castilian nobles by reviving the medieval %@AU@%HERMAN
%@AU@%DAD%@BO:          423f67@%%@AE@%, administered the holdings of powerful religious military orders, and
placed the %@AU@%INQUISITION%@BO:          486fa4@%%@AE@% under royal control. Isabella was a prime mover
(1492) in the expulsion of the %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%, the conquest of %@AU@%GRANADA%@BO:          3c2554@%%@AE@% from the
%@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@%, and discovery of the New World by %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@%. Together she and
Ferdinand advanced learning and the arts, especially architecture. The
accession of %@AB@%Isabella II, %@AE@%1830-1904, queen of Spain (1833-68), caused the
%@AU@%CARLIST%@BO:          18f04e@%%@AE@% wars. Her marriage (1846) to Francisco de Asis, which contravened
Anglo-French agreements regarding the choice of husbands for certain
Spanish princesses, contributed to a rift between England and France.
Frequent conflicts between moderates and liberals led to her deposition.
In 1870 she abdicated her rights in favor of her son, %@AU@%ALFONSO XII%@BO:           3888e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isabella%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isabella%@AE@%,%@CR:ISABELLA2       @%%@QR:Isabella@% 1296-1358, queen consort of %@AU@%EDWARD II%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of England; daughter of%@EH@%
%@AU@%PHILIP IV%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% of France. Neglected and mistreated by her husband, she hated
the royal favorites, the Despensers, who had seized her lands. While in
France (1325), she formed a liaison with Roger de %@AU@%MORTIMER%@BO:          641876@%%@AE@%. They invaded
England in 1326, forced Edward to abdicate, and caused his murder. They
ruled corruptly until %@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% seized power in 1330.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isaiah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isaiah%@AE@%%@CR:ISAIAH          @%%@QR:Isaiah@%or %@AB@%Isaias %@AE@%,book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 23rd in the Authorized%@EH@%
Version, first and longest of the Major Prophets, a collection of
prophecies attributed to Isaiah, apparently a nobleman in the kingdom of
Judah (c.740 BC). The book falls into two sections of metrical prophecies
(1-35; 40-66) divided by a prose section. The first set of poems deals
with prophecies against the Assyrians and other nations; those affecting
Israel and %@AU@%JUDAH%@BO:          4d7696@%%@AE@% announce destruction and subsequent redemption. The
second poetic section is a prophecy of redemption of the state of Israel,
delivered from captivity and from sin. The book contains many of the most
beautiful passages in the Bible (among them prophecies thought by
Christians to refer to Christ) and may be the result of diverse
authorship.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iscariot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iscariot%@AE@%:%@CR:ISCARIOT        @%%@QR:Iscariot@% see %@AU@%JUDAS ISCARIOT%@BO:          4d8e2a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ise%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ise%@AE@%%@CR:ISE             @%%@QR:Ise@%, city (1979 est. pop. 105,624), Mie prefecture, S Honshu, Japan. One%@EH@%
of the foremost religious centers of %@AU@%SHINTO%@BO:          8864b8@%%@AE@%, it is the site of the
shrines of Ise. Said to have been built in 4 BC, the three shrines, set
deep in a forest, exhibit an archaic style of architecture, without
Chinese or Buddhist influence. One houses the Sacred Mirror of the
imperial regalia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iseult%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iseult%@AE@%:%@CR:ISEULT          @%%@QR:Iseult@% see %@AU@%TRISTRAM AND ISOLDE%@BO:          97f02e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isfahan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isfahan%@AE@%:%@CR:ISFAHAN         @%%@QR:Isfahan@% see %@AU@%ESFAHAN%@BO:          2ff73f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isherwood, Christopher%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isherwood, Christopher%@AE@%,%@CR:ISHERWOOD       @%%@QR:Isherwood, Christopher@% 1904-86, English author. His experiences in%@EH@%
Germany gave him material for %@AI@%The Last of Mr. Norris %@AE@%(1935) and %@AI@%Goodbye
%@AI@%to Berlin %@AE@%(1939; reissued as %@AI@%The Berlin Stories, %@AE@%1946). These form the
basis of John Van Druten's play %@AI@%I Am a Camera %@AE@%(1951) and %@AI@%Cabaret%@AE@% (1966).
He collaborated with %@AU@%AUDEN%@BO:           9b0fc@%%@AE@% on three plays and on %@AI@%Journey to a War %@AE@%(1939).
He moved to the U.S. in 1939. His later writings include %@AI@%Essentials of
%@AI@%Vedanta %@AE@%(1969) and %@AI@%My Guru and His Disciple%@AE@% (1980).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ishmael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ishmael%@AE@%%@CR:ISHMAEL         @%%@QR:Ishmael@%, in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, son of %@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@% and Hagar, half brother to %@AU@%ISAAC%@BO:          49e349@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
and ancestor of 12 tribes in N Arabia. Through %@AU@%SARA'S%@BO:          847685@%%@AE@% jealousy, he and
his mother, who was Sara's handmaid, were sent into the desert. Gen. 16.
Hence the name Ishmael came to mean "outcast." The Muslims consider the
Arabs the descendants of Ishmael.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ishtar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ishtar%@AE@%,%@CR:ISHTAR          @%%@QR:Ishtar@% ancient fertility deity, the most widely worshiped goddess in%@EH@%
Babylonian and Assyrian religion. Ishtar was important as a mother
goddess, goddess of love, and goddess of war. Her cult spread throughout
W Asia, and she became identified with various other earth goddesses (see
%@AU@%GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS%@BO:          3ce313@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isis%@AE@%,%@CR:ISIS            @%%@QR:Isis@% nature goddess whose worship, originating in ancient Egypt,%@EH@%
gradually extended throughout the lands of the Mediterranean world and
became one of the chief religions of the Roman Empire. The worship of
Isis, together with that of her brother and husband, %@AU@%OSIRIS%@BO:          6f28d0@%%@AE@%, and their
son, %@AU@%HORUS%@BO:          4497cc@%%@AE@%, resisted the rise of Christianity and lasted until the 6th
cent. AD%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Islam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Islam%@AE@%%@CR:ISLAM           @%%@QR:Islam@% [Arab.,=submission to, or having peace with, God], the religion of%@EH@%
which %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64dbee@%%@AE@% was the prophet. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim
or Moslem [Arab.,=one who submits]. The last of the three great
monotheistic religions to appear (the others being %@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%CHRISTIANITY%@BO:          1df35f@%%@AE@%), Islam is the dominant religion throughout large portions
of Asia and Africa, especially North Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan,
Malaysia, and Indonesia. Its salient feature is its devotion to a book,
the Koran, or Qur'an, believed to be the revelation of God to Muhammad.
Since the Koran is written in Arabic, this language is used in Islam all
over the world; hence the common custom of referring to God as Allah, His
name in Arabic. The ethos of Islam is its attitude toward God: to Him
Muslims submit; Him they praise and glorify; and in Him alone they hope.
He is awesome, transcendent, almighty, just, loving, merciful, and good.
No creature may be compared to Him, and to Him alone do Muslims pray.
Muhammad is the last and greatest of God's prophets, who also include
%@AU@%ADAM%@BO:            ee16@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%. According to the Muslim
eschatology, there will be a judgment at the end of the world; heaven
awaits the faithful and hell the infidels. The ordinary pious Muslim does
not distinguish faith from works; both are indispensable and mutually
supplementary. There are five essential duties in Islam. (1) The Muslim
must say, "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His prophet." (2)
Five times daily he must pray facing %@AU@%MECCA%@BO:          5de8a1@%%@AE@%: at dawn, at noon, in
midafternoon, at dusk, and after dark. (3) The Muslim must give alms
generously. (4) The Muslim must keep the fast of %@AU@%RAMADAN%@BO:          7c899c@%%@AE@%, which is the
ninth month of the Muslim year. (5) Once in his life the Muslim must, if
he can, make the pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. There are also injunctions
against wine, touching or eating of pork, gambling, usury, fraud,
slander, and the making of images. The Sunna, the way or example of the
Prophet, supplements the Koran. It consists of the collected sayings and
anecdotes of Muhammad. The Ijma is the principle of the agreement of
Islam, a method of resolving apparent contradictions. The Koran, the
Sunna, and the Ijma are the three foundations of Islam. The fundamental
division of Islam into %@AU@%SUNNI%@BO:          90c3d3@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SHIITES%@BO:          8856eb@%%@AE@% dates from disputes over the
succession to the %@AU@%CALIPHATE%@BO:          174259@%%@AE@% in the first centuries of the Muslim era. The
%@AU@%WAHABIS%@BO:          9e8a74@%%@AE@% are the only important modern separatist Sunni sect. The Shiites,
by contrast, have fathered countless sects, including the Assassins,
%@AU@%DRUZE%@BO:          2ad78b@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FATIMIDS%@BO:          31ffbf@%%@AE@%, Ismailis, and Karmathians. However, there is a
remarkable community of feeling in Islam even today, when Muslims are
divided politically into many groups. Historically, Muslim thought shows
three major tendencies: legalism, rationalism, and mysticism; philosophy
has never been distinct from theology. The great period of Muslim thought
and culture was the 9th to 11th cent. In the Muslim state only Muslims
are true citizens; non-Muslims are considered aliens. Islam does not
recognize a priestly class, but religious and legal officers have
acquired an authority similar to that of the clergy in Christian
communities. Any demarcation between civil law and religious law is very
difficult to make.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Islamabad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Islamabad%@AE@%,%@CR:ISLAMABAD       @%%@QR:Islamabad@% city (1988 est. pop. 200,000), capital of Pakistan.%@EH@%
Construction of Islamabad city of Islam, which replaced %@AU@%KARACHI%@BO:          4e6358@%%@AE@% as the
capital, began in 1960. Points of interest include the Grand National
Mosque and the botanical gardens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Islamic art and architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Islamic art and architecture%@AE@%.%@CR:ISLAMICCTURE    @%%@QR:Islamic art and architecture@% In the century after the death (AD 632) of%@EH@%
the prophet %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64dbee@%%@AE@%, his Arab followers spread his teachings through
Egypt and North Africa, as far west as Spain, and as far east as Sassanid
Persia. Because of their rapid expansion and the paucity of their
artistic heritage, the Muslims derived their unique style from a
synthesis of the arts of the Byzantines, the Copts, the Romans, and the
Sassanids. The great interior surface of the Mosque of Damascus (715) was
covered with stone %@AU@%MOSAICS%@BO:          641af7@%%@AE@% in the Byzantine technique. No human figures
were depicted, but there were crowns, fantastic plants, realistic trees,
and empty towns. In AD 750 the %@AU@%ABBASID%@BO:            1519@%%@AE@% dynasty moved the capital to
Baghdad, and immediately Persian influence became stronger. In the ruins
of Samarra lusterware fragments have been found. The Great Mosque of Al
Qayrawan (c.862) is decorated with square luster tile. The 9th cent. saw
the development of metalwork in Egypt, and skilled craftsmanship can be
seen in rock-crystal carving, a Sassanid art. From the 10th to 13th cent.
great strides were made in the minor arts in Egypt. %@AU@%CALLIGRAPHY%@BO:          1758c4@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%BOOKBINDING%@BO:          11f267@%%@AE@%, papermaking, and %@AU@%ILLUMINATION%@BO:          46c109@%%@AE@% were developed. The Kufic
script was animated with floriated, interlaced, and anthropomorphic
designs. Early in the 13th cent. a school of secular manuscript painting
arose near Baghdad with pictures of two types: those that illustrate
scientific works, descending from late Hellenistic models, and those that
illustrate anecdotal tales and whose miniatures represent the true spirit
of %@AU@%CARICATURE%@BO:          18e82a@%%@AE@%. After the Mongol invasions there was a revitalization of
art through Chinese taste and artifacts. %@AU@%TEXTILES%@BO:          946065@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%CARPETS%@BO:          193721@%%@AE@% were again
manufactured throughout Islam, and Turkish ceramics reached their peak in
the "Iznik" ware of the 16th and 17th cent. Early Islamic architecture
used the Syrian cut-stone technique of building, as in the Mosque of
Damascus, and popularized the %@AU@%DOME%@BO:          29e93e@%%@AE@% (see %@AU@%MOSQUE%@BO:          64310e@%%@AE@%). Sassanid building
techniques such as the squinch were combined with the mosque form. In the
10th cent. the %@AU@%FATIMIDS%@BO:          31ffbf@%%@AE@% introduced into Egypt the decorative stalactite
ceiling and placed emphasis on decorative flat moldings. The cruciform
Mosque of Hasan, in Cairo (1536), reflects Persian influence, while the
square Char Minar of Hyderabad (1591), with its large %@AU@%ARCHES%@BO:           74d6d@%%@AE@%, arcades,
and %@AU@%MINARETS%@BO:          60fc27@%%@AE@%, is characteristic of the Indian style of the Delhi
Sultanate. The art of Islamic Spain used faience and lacy, pierced-stone
screen windows. Turkish architects were influenced by the Byzantine
church of %@AU@%HAGIA SOPHIA%@BO:          3efc8f@%%@AE@%. In general, all Islamic art and architecture is
the result of synthesis rather than origination, with decoration of the
surface the most important factor in every work. Interlaced lines and
brilliant color characterize the style. See also %@AU@%MOGUL ART AND
%@AU@%ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          62273d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%island%@AE@%,%@CR:ISLAND          @%%@QR:island@% relatively small (compared to a %@AU@%CONTINENT%@BO:          22d76b@%%@AE@%) body of land%@EH@%
completely surrounded by water. The largest, in descending order, are
%@AU@%GREENLAND%@BO:          3d5d00@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NEW GUINEA%@BO:          68dcdf@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BORNEO%@BO:          124e00@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MADAGASCAR%@BO:          592066@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BAFFIN ISLAND%@BO:           afb59@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SUMATRA
%@AU@%%@BO:          908f44@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HONSHU%@BO:          442784@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GREAT BRITAIN%@BO:          3c9d4a@%%@AE@%. Islands are either %@AI@%continental, %@AE@%caused by
partial submergence of coastal highlands or by the sea breaking through
an isthmus or peninsula, or %@AI@%oceanic, %@AE@%originating from the ascension of
the ocean floor above water through volcanic activity or other earth
movements. Tropical oceanic islands sustained above sea level by coral
growth are called atolls (see %@AU@%CORAL REEFS%@BO:          233778@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isle Royale National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isle Royale National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:ISLE.RORK       @%%@QR:Isle Royale National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ismail%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ismail%@AE@%,%@CR:ISMAIL          @%%@QR:Ismail@% 1486-1534, shah of %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@% (1502-24), founder of the Safavid%@EH@%
dynasty. He restored Persia to the position of a sovereign state and
established %@AU@%SHIITE%@BO:          8856eb@%%@AE@% Islam as the state religion, thus incurring the wrath
of the Sunnite Ottoman Turks and the Uzbeks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ismail Pasha%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ismail Pasha%@AE@%,%@CR:ISMAIL.PASHA    @%%@QR:Ismail Pasha@% 1830-95, ruler of Egypt (1863-79), the first to bear the%@EH@%
title khedive (viceroy); son of %@AU@%IBRAHIM PASHA%@BO:          46502e@%%@AE@%. His grandiose schemes,
including building the %@AU@%SUEZ CANAL%@BO:          904664@%%@AE@%, forced him to submit (1876) to joint
Anglo-French management. He was deposed (1879) in favor of his son,
Tewfik Pasha.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isocrates%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isocrates%@AE@%%@CR:ISOCRATES       @%%@QR:Isocrates@%, 436-338 BC, Greek orator, pupil of %@AU@%SOCRATES%@BO:          8aed83@%%@AE@%. A great teacher,%@EH@%
he taught every young orator of his time. His most celebrated oration is
%@AI@%Panegyricus, %@AE@%in which he urges Hellenic unity against Persia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isolde%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isolde%@AE@%:%@CR:ISOLDE          @%%@QR:Isolde@% see %@AU@%TRISTRAM AND ISOLDE%@BO:          97f02e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%isomer%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%isomer%@AE@%,%@CR:ISOMER          @%%@QR:isomer@% in chemistry, one of two or more compounds having the same%@EH@%
molecular formula (i.e., the same number of atoms of each element in a
molecule) but different structures (arrangements of atoms in the
molecule). Isomers have the same number of atoms of each element in them
and the same atomic weight but differ in other properties. %@AB@%Structural
%@AB@%isomers, %@AE@%e.g., %@AU@%ETHANOL%@BO:          304246@%%@AE@% (CH%@AH@%3%@AE@%CH%@AH@%2%@AE@%OH) and dimethyl ether (CH%@AH@%3%@AE@%OCH%@AH@%3%@AE@%), differ in
the way the atoms are joined together in their molecules. %@AB@%Stereoisomers
%@AB@%%@AE@%have the same basic arrangement of atoms in their molecules but differ in
the way the atoms are arranged in space. Geometric isomers, which are
stereoisomers that differ in the positioning of groups about a double
bond or some other feature that gives the molecule a certain amount of
structural rigidity, differ in physical properties such as melting and
boiling points. Optical isomers are stereoisomers in which the two
molecules are mirror images of each other and, each being asymmetrical,
cannot be superposed on each other; optical isomers differ in the
direction in which they rotate light passed through the molecules.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%isotope%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%isotope%@AE@%,%@CR:ISOTOPE         @%%@QR:isotope@% one of two or more atoms having the same %@AU@%ATOMIC NUMBER%@BO:           9932e@%%@AE@% but%@EH@%
differing in %@AU@%ATOMIC WEIGHT%@BO:           99540@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MASS NUMBER%@BO:          5cf2e9@%%@AE@%. The nuclei of isotopes of the
same element have the same number of %@AU@%PROTONS%@BO:          7a3d8e@%%@AE@% (equal to the element's
atomic number) but have different numbers of %@AU@%NEUTRONS%@BO:          688b68@%%@AE@%.The isotopes of a
given element have identical chemical properties but slightly different
physical properties. A radioactive isotope, or radioisotope, is a natural
or artificially created isotope having an unstable nucleus that decays
emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays (see %@AU@%RADIOACTIVITY%@BO:          7c304f@%%@AE@%) until stability
is reached. For most elements, stable and radioactive isotopes are known.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Israel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Israel%@AE@%%@CR:ISRAEL1         @%%@QR:Israel@% [as understood by Hebrews,=striven with God], in the Bible, name%@EH@%
given %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@%. The Hebrews adopted the name as a national designation.
Under %@AU@%REHOBOAM%@BO:          7db1a6@%%@AE@%, in 931 BC, the Hebrew kingdom broke into a northern
kingdom called Israel and a southern one called %@AU@%JUDAH%@BO:          4d7696@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Israel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Israel%@AE@%,%@CR:ISRAEL2         @%%@QR:Israel@% officially the State of Israel, republic (1988 est. pop.%@EH@%
4,331,000, excluding occupied Arab territories), 7,992 sq mi/20,700 sq km
(excluding occupied Arab territories), SW Asia, bounded by Lebanon (N),
Syria and Jordan (E), the Mediterranean Sea and Egypt (W), and the Gulf
of Aqaba (S). The capital is %@AU@%JERUSALEM%@BO:          4be799@%%@AE@%; other major cities are %@AU@%TEL
%@AU@%AVIV-JAFFA%@BO:          9377d1@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HAIFA%@BO:          3f1129@%%@AE@%. There are four land regions: the Mediterranean
coastal plain; a mountain area in the northeast; the semiarid %@AU@%NEGEV%@BO:          680a1d@%%@AE@% in
the south; and, in the extreme east, a portion of the %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@%,
including the %@AU@%DEAD SEA%@BO:          26f723@%%@AE@%, which at 1,292 ft (394 m) below sea level is the
lowest point on earth. Despite adverse conditions, agriculture has
flourished in Israel, with extensive irrigation compensating for the lack
of water. Citrus fruit is the major export crop. A wide variety of
industrial goods is produced, including textiles, chemicals, and
machinery; Israel is second only to Belgium in processing diamonds.
Tourism is also important. The standard of living is high for a Middle
Eastern nation, but in recent years a high trade deficit, heavy defense
expenditures, and inflation rates of 50% to 100% in the 1980s have put
the economy under a great strain. About 85% of the population are Jews,
about half of whom are immigrants from Europe, North America, Asia, and
North Africa. The non-Jewish population consists mainly of Muslim and
Christian Arabs. The official languages are Hebrew and Arabic, but
English and many European languages are widely spoken. Israel is highly
urbanized. About 7% of the people live on %@AU@%COLLECTIVE FARMS%@BO:          204563@%%@AE@% known as
%@AI@%kibbutzim, moshav ovdim, %@AE@%and %@AI@%moshav shitufim.%@AE@%
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% For the earlier history of the region, see %@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@%. In November
1947 the United Nations divided Palestine, then under British mandate,
into Jewish and Arab states. Six months later the British withdrew, and
on May 14, 1948, the state of Israel was proclaimed. The neighboring Arab
states of Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq rejected both the
partition of Palestine and the existence of the new nation. In the war
that followed (1948-49), Israel emerged victorious and with its territory
increased by one half. Arab opposition continued, however, and full-scale
fighting broke out again in 1956 (the Sinai campaign), 1967 (the Six-Day
War), and 1973 (the Yom Kippur War). Israel emerged from these conflicts
(see %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%) with large tracts of its neighbors' territories,
which it refused to surrender without a firm peace settlement. The first
real move toward permanent peace occurred in 1978, when Israeli Prime
Min. Menachem %@AU@%BEGIN%@BO:           dc150@%%@AE@% and Egyptian Pres. Anwar al-%@AU@%SADAT%@BO:          82ced6@%%@AE@% signed the
so-called %@AU@%CAMP DAVID ACCORDS%@BO:          17c878@%%@AE@%; a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel was
signed (1979) in Washington, D.C., and Israel began a phased withdrawal
from the %@AU@%SINAI%@BO:          897022@%%@AE@%, completed in 1982. However, little progress was made in
negotiations on autonomy for the %@AU@%GAZA STRIP%@BO:          386a23@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%WEST BANK%@BO:          a09c00@%%@AE@% of Jordan,
and major questions about the continuation of the peace process were
raised by the assassination of Sadat in 1981. Israel's relations with its
other neighbors remained tense. In 1981 Israel annexed the %@AU@%GOLAN HEIGHTS%@BO:          3b175b@%%@AE@%
(captured from Syria in 1967), and Israeli bombers destroyed an Iraqi
nuclear reactor, which the Israelis believed capable of producing nuclear
weapons. Israel's fierce, intermittent fighting with the %@AU@%PALESTINE
%@AU@%LIBERATION ORGANIZATION%@BO:          704988@%%@AE@% in %@AU@%LEBANON%@BO:          533da4@%%@AE@% led to a devastating Israeli invasion
in 1982. Israeli forces withdrew from Lebanon in 1986. Since then, unrest
has continued in the occupied territories with frequent clashes between
Arab demonstrators and troops.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Israel, Tribes of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Israel, Tribes of%@AE@%,%@CR:ISRAEL3         @%%@QR:Israel, Tribes of@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, the 12 tribes of Hebrews named for 10%@EH@%
sons of %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@% (Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher,
Naphtali, and Benjamin) and the two sons of Jacob's son %@AU@%JOSEPH%@BO:          4d49f2@%%@AE@% (Ephraim
and Manasseh). The 13th tribe, Levi (the third of Jacob's sons), was set
apart and had no one portion of its own. After the break in the Hebrew
kingdom under %@AU@%REHOBOAM%@BO:          7db1a6@%%@AE@%, the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and some Levites
formed a southern kingdom called Judah; the other 10 tribes formed a
northern kingdom called Israel. These 10 were later (721 BC) conquered
and transported to Assyria. They became known as the 10 lost tribes;
numerous conjectures have been advanced as to their fate, and they have
been identified with various peoples.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Issachar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Issachar%@AE@%:%@CR:ISSACHAR        @%%@QR:Issachar@% see %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Isserles, Moses ben Israel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Isserles, Moses ben Israel%@AE@%,%@CR:ISSERLES        @%%@QR:Isserles, Moses ben Israel@% c.1525-1572, Polish rabbi, annotator, and%@EH@%
philosopher, known as Remah. He is best known for his works on Jewish law
(see %@AU@%HALAKAH%@BO:          3f37de@%%@AE@%), notably his additions to the code of Joseph %@AU@%CARO%@BO:          19177a@%%@AE@%, which
made the code acceptable to Ashkenazic Jews.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Istanbul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Istanbul%@AE@%,%@CR:ISTANBUL        @%%@QR:Istanbul@% city (1985 est. pop. 5,494,916), capital of Istanbul prov., NW%@EH@%
Turkey, on both sides of the Bosporus where it enters the Sea of Marmara.
The city was known both as Istanbul (since 1453) and as Constantinople
until 1930, when the one official name Istanbul was declared; before AD
330 its site was occupied by %@AU@%BYZANTIUM%@BO:          1677d0@%%@AE@%. Turkey's largest city and chief
seaport, it produces tobacco products, cement, and other manufactures.
The part of Istanbul corresponding to historic Constantinople is built on
seven hills rising on the south side of the Golden Horn, an inlet of the
%@AU@%BOSPORUS%@BO:          1267b2@%%@AE@%. Points of interest include the %@AU@%HAGIA SOPHIA%@BO:          3efc8f@%%@AE@%, once a church and
mosque; the Seraglio, the palace of the Ottoman sultans; and many
museums. In 1973 the Bosporus Bridge was the first to unite the city's
European and Asian sections.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Itaipu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Itaipu%@AE@%,%@CR:ITAIPU          @%%@QR:Itaipu@% city (1981 est. pop. 80,000), S Brazil, on the Parana R., which%@EH@%
forms the E boundary of Paraguay. The rapidly growing city was created
after 1973 to house workers building the Itaipu Dam and power complex,
the world's largest hydroelectric project. A joint Brazilian-Paraguayan
venture, the complex was engineered to generate, by 1991, 12,600
megawatts, as much power as the %@AU@%ASWAN%@BO:           93696@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%GRAND COULEE%@BO:          3c3989@%%@AE@% dams combined.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Italian East Africa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Italian East Africa%@AE@%,%@CR:ITALIANRICA     @%%@QR:Italian East Africa@% former federation of Italian territories in E Africa%@EH@%
that comprised the colonies of %@AU@%ERITREA%@BO:          2fd197@%%@AE@% and Italian Somaliland (see %@AU@%SOMALI
%@AU@%DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC%@BO:          8b5d94@%%@AE@%) and the kingdom of %@AU@%ETHIOPIA%@BO:          3053a6@%%@AE@%. Formed in 1936, when
Italian forces conquered Ethiopia, it lasted until the territories were
freed of Italian rule by the British in 1941.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Italian language%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Italian language%@AE@%,%@CR:ITALIANE        @%%@QR:Italian language@% member of the Romance group of the Italic subfamily of%@EH@%
the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Italian Wars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Italian Wars%@AE@%,%@CR:ITALIAN.WARS    @%%@QR:Italian Wars@% 1494-1559, efforts by the great European powers, chiefly%@EH@%
France and Spain, to control the small, independent states of Renaissance
Italy. In 1494 %@AU@%CHARLES VIII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of France invaded Italy and seized Naples,
only to be forced to retreat by a coalition of Spain, Holy Roman Emperor
%@AU@%MAXIMILIAN I%@BO:          5d9116@%%@AE@%, the pope, Venice, and Milan. In the second phase
(1494-1504), %@AU@%LOUIS XII%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% of France occupied Milan, Genoa, and (jointly with
Spain) Naples. In 1508 Pope %@AU@%JULIUS II%@BO:          4da75a@%%@AE@% formed an alliance with France,
Spain, and %@AU@%MAXIMILIAN I%@BO:          5d9116@%%@AE@% against Venice. The pope and Louis soon fell out,
and in 1510 the pope formed the %@AU@%HOLY LEAGUE%@BO:          43c115@%%@AE@%, this time including the
Swiss, for the purpose of expelling France from Italy. Julius died in
1513, and the league dissolved. In 1515 the great victory of %@AU@%FRANCIS I%@BO:          353c3d@%%@AE@% at
the battle of Marignano reestablished French power in Italy. The wars
between Francis and Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% began in 1521. In 1526, after being
defeated and captured, Francis was forced to renounce all claims in
Italy. Once freed, however, he formed the League of Cognac with the pope,
%@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England, Venice, and Florence. In retaliation, Charles V
sacked Rome (May 1527). The pope capitulated, and the war ended (1529)
with the Treaty of Cambrai. France again was forced to renounce its
Italian claims. The death of Francis (1547) and the Treaty of
Cateau-Cambresis (1559) effectively ended France's exploits in Italy and
left Spain supreme there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Italic languages%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Italic languages%@AE@%,%@CR:ITALIC.S        @%%@QR:Italic languages@% subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See%@EH@%
%@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Italy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Italy%@AE@%,%@CR:ITALY           @%%@QR:Italy@% Ital. %@AI@%Italia, %@AE@%officially the Italian Republic, republic (1988 est.%@EH@%
pop. 57,455,362), 116,303 sq mi (301,225 sq km), S Europe; bordered by
France (NW), the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas (W), the Ionian Sea (S),
the Adriatic Sea (E), Yugoslavia (NE), and Austria and Switzerland (N).
It includes the large Mediterranean islands of %@AU@%SICILY%@BO:          88c324@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SARDINIA%@BO:          8488c9@%%@AE@%.
%@AU@%VATICAN CITY%@BO:          9c0ccf@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%SAN MARINO%@BO:          841d92@%%@AE@% are independent enclaves on the Italian
mainland. %@AU@%ROME%@BO:          80bece@%%@AE@% is the capital. About 75% of the country is mountainous or
hilly, and 20% is forested. N Italy, made up of a vast plain contained by
the %@AU@%ALPS%@BO:           41c4e@%%@AE@% in the north, is the richest region, with the best farmland,
largest industrial centers, and a flourishing tourist trade; Gran
Paradiso (13,323 ft/4,061 m), the highest peak wholly within Italy, is
located here. Central Italy has great historic and cultural centers, such
as Rome and %@AU@%FLORENCE.%@BO:          33c6f7@%%@AE@% S Italy is generally the poorest and least
developed area. The Italian peninsula, bootlike in shape, is traversed
for its entire length by the %@AU@%APENNINES%@BO:           69dde@%%@AE@%. Italian is the major language,
though there are small German;a-, French-, and Slavic-speaking
minorities. Almost all Italians are Roman Catholic.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Largely agricultural until World War II, Italy industrialized
rapidly after 1950. By the early 1970s industry contributed about 40% of
the national product, compared with only 11% for agriculture. Chief
manufactures include iron and steel, refined petroleum, chemicals,
textiles, motor vehicles, and machinery. Principal farm products include
wheat, maize, sugar beets, rice, tomatoes, citrus fruits, olives and
olive oil, and livestock. Wine production is important. Tourism is a
major source of foreign exchange. Mineral resources are limited, and 75%
of energy needs must be imported.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% Under the 1948 constitution, legislative power is vested in a
bicameral parliament, consisting of a 630-member chamber of deputies and
a senate of 315 elected and 5 life members. The council of ministers,
headed by the premier, is the country's executive.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% After the expulsion of the Etruscans from what is now central
Italy, ancient Italian history (5th cent. BC-5th cent. AD) is largely
that of the Roman Empire, of which Italy was the core. Like the rest of
the empire, Italy was overrun by barbarian tribes in the early 5th cent.
AD The Eastern emperors struggled over its remains, but Byzantine rule
was soon displaced (569) by that of the %@AU@%LOMBARDS%@BO:          565551@%%@AE@%, except in Rome, where
Pope %@AU@%GREGORY I%@BO:          3d76c4@%%@AE@% (r.590-604) laid the foundation for the %@AU@%PAPAL STATES%@BO:          70d930@%%@AE@%. The
persisting Lombard threat against Rome brought the intervention of %@AU@%PEPIN
%@AU@%THE SHORT%@BO:          73135a@%%@AE@% (754, 756) and %@AU@%CHARLEMAGNE%@BO:          1bb656@%%@AE@% (800), who established Frankish
hegemony over Italy. The German king %@AU@%OTTO I%@BO:          6f695f@%%@AE@% invaded (961) Italy and was
crowned (962) emperor by the pope; this union of Italy and Germany marked
the beginning of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. Southern Italy, conquered (11th
cent.) by the Normans, eventually passed to the Angevins of %@AU@%NAPLES%@BO:          664789@%%@AE@% and
the Aragonese kings of Sicily. North and central Italy saw the rise of
separate city-states; these, despite constant internecine warfare, built
huge commercial empires, dominated European finance, and produced the
great cultural flowering known as the %@AU@%RENAISSANCE%@BO:          7df855@%%@AE@%. Beginning in the late
15th cent., Italy became the battleground of French, Spanish, and
Austrian imperialism. By the 18th cent. Italian subjection to foreign
rule, notably by the Spanish %@AU@%BOURBONS%@BO:          12b977@%%@AE@% and the Austrian %@AU@%HAPSBURGS%@BO:          3fd3dc@%%@AE@%, was
complete and remained so until the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS%@BO:          362f03@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%NAPOLEON
%@AU@%I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@% redrew the map of Italy. After the Congress of %@AU@%VIENNA%@BO:          9d5243@%%@AE@% (1814-15)
Austria, whose influence in Italy was now paramount, could not long
suppress the burgeoning nationalistic movement for unification (see
%@AU@%RISORGIMENTO%@BO:          7f696b@%%@AE@%). Unification was ultimately achieved under the house of
%@AU@%SAVOY%@BO:          8509b3@%%@AE@%, largely through the efforts of %@AU@%CAVOUR%@BO:          1a808e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GARIBALDI%@BO:          37ffaf@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%VICTOR
%@AU@%EMMANUEL II%@BO:          9d1e79@%%@AE@%, who became king of Italy in 1861. Italy later acquired
Venetia (1866) and Rome and its environs (1870). Though a member of the
%@AU@%TRIPLE ALLIANCE%@BO:          97e10e@%%@AE@%, Italy entered (1915) %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% on the Allied side and
in the peace treaty obtained additional territory, including S %@AU@%TYROL%@BO:          995160@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%TRIESTE%@BO:          97c3c7@%%@AE@%, and Istria. After the war, political and social unrest
encouraged the growth of fascism, and in 1922 %@AU@%MUSSOLINI%@BO:          65a8c6@%%@AE@% seized power. He
created a totalitarian corporative state, conquered Ethiopia (1936),
seized Albania (1939), and entered (1940) %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% as an ally of
Germany. In 1943 Italy surrendered to the Allies. Italy became a republic
in 1946, and the king was exiled. The 1947 peace treaty deprived Italy of
its colonies and considerable territory. Trieste was regained in 1954.
The postwar era has seen a succession of short-lived, pro-Western
coalition governments; the Communists, although strong electorally, have
been excluded from ministerial positions. In the late 1970s leftist
guerrilla terrorism, led by the Red Brigades, plagued the country, most
notably in the kidnapping and murder (1978) of former premier Aldo %@AU@%MORO%@BO:          63e963@%%@AE@%.
Ciriaco de Mita became premier of Italy's 47th postwar government in
1989.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ithaki%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ithaki%@AE@%%@CR:ITHAKI          @%%@QR:Ithaki@% or %@AB@%Ithaca,%@AE@%island (1971 pop. 4,156), c.37 sq mi (96 sq km), W%@EH@%
Greece, one of the Ionian Islands. Olive oil, currants, and wine are
produced there. It is traditionally celebrated as the home of %@AU@%ODYSSEUS%@BO:          6cefa2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ito Hirobumi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ito Hirobumi%@AE@%,%@CR:ITO.HIROBUMI    @%%@QR:Ito Hirobumi@% prince, 1841-1909, Japanese statesman and architect of%@EH@%
Japan's modernization. After visiting the West, he created the new
government and constitution (1889). He was prime minister (1892-96; 1898,
1900-01) and formed the Seiyukai party (1900). While serving as
resident-general of Korea, he was assassinated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iturbide, Agustin de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iturbide, Agustin de%@AE@%%@CR:ITURBIDE        @%%@QR:Iturbide, Agustin de@%, 1783-1824, Mexican revolutionary leader. In 1821,%@EH@%
while commanding royalist troops, he agreed to the Plan of Iguala and the
Treaty of Cordoba, assuring %@AU@%MEXICO'S%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@% independence from Spain. He favored
a conservative state and had himself proclaimed emperor (1822), but
radical rebels forced him to abdicate and go into exile (1823). When he
returned illegally to Mexico, he was executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ituzaingo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ituzaingo%@AE@%,%@CR:ITUZAINGO       @%%@QR:Ituzaingo@% battle of, fought in %@AU@%URUGUAY%@BO:          9b1d45@%%@AE@% in 1827 between a victorious%@EH@%
Argentine-Uruguayan force and Brazilian soldiers. The peace treaty that
followed (1828) created the independent nation of Uruguay.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%IUD%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%IUD%@AE@%:%@CR:IUD             @%%@QR:IUD@% see %@AU@%INTRAUTERINE DEVICE%@BO:          491741@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ivan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ivan%@AE@%%@CR:IVAN            @%%@QR:Ivan@%, rulers of Russia. %@AB@%Ivan III %@AE@%(the Great), 1440-1505, grand duke of%@EH@%
Moscow (1462-1505), was the creator of the consolidated Muscovite
(Russian) state. He subjugated Great Novgorod and other territories and
in 1480 freed Muscovy from allegiance to the %@AU@%GOLDEN HORDE%@BO:          3b2d72@%%@AE@%. He married
Sophia, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, and claimed Moscow as the
successor to the Roman and Byzantine empires. %@AB@%Ivan IV %@AE@%(the Terrible),
1530-84, grand duke of Moscow (1533-84), had himself crowned czar in
1547. He began trade with England, engaged in an unsuccessful war with
Poland and Sweden to improve his access to the Baltic Sea, and began
Russia's eastward expansion; Siberia was conquered during his reign. In
later years he grew tyrannical and paranoid. He formed a special corps,
the %@AI@%oprichniki, %@AE@%with which he conducted a reign of terror against the
%@AU@%BOYARS%@BO:          12eee3@%%@AE@%. In one of his rages he killed his son and heir, Ivan (1581). He
married seven times, disposing of his wives by forcing them to take the
veil or ordering their murder. His sons Feodor I and %@AU@%DMITRI%@BO:          29a354@%%@AE@% survived him,
but his favorite, Boris %@AU@%GODUNOV%@BO:          3af456@%%@AE@%, took power. %@AB@%Ivan V, %@AE@%1666-96, czar
(1682-90), succeeded his brother, Feodor III, ruling with %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          73ff60@%%@AE@% under
the regency of his sister, Sophia Alekseyevna. Feebleminded, he was
excluded from affairs of state. He was father of Czarina %@AU@%ANNA%@BO:           5b4eb@%%@AE@%, who was
succeeded by her infant grand-nephew, %@AB@%Ivan VI, %@AE@%1740-64, a German by
birth. Deposed (1741) by Czarina %@AU@%ELIZABETH%@BO:          2e20de@%%@AE@%, Ivan VI was murdered in 1764
by order of %@AU@%CATHERINE II%@BO:          1a329e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ivanov, Lev%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ivanov, Lev%@AE@%%@CR:IVANOV          @%%@QR:Ivanov, Lev@% (lyef eva'nof), 1834-1901, Russian dancer, teacher,%@EH@%
choreographer, and ballet-master. He worked with Marius %@AU@%PETIPA%@BO:          7429a9@%%@AE@% and was a
major force in the development of the classic romantic ballet in Russia.
He choreographed %@AI@%The Nutcracker%@AE@% (1892) and, with Petipa, revised %@AI@%Swan
%@AI@%Lake%@AE@% (1877). He influenced Michel %@AU@%FOKINE%@BO:          340eb5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ives, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ives, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:IVES1           @%%@QR:Ives, Charles@% 1874-1954, American composer; b. Danbury, Conn. An%@EH@%
organist who entered the insurance business, Ives composed music advanced
in style, anticipating some of the innovations of %@AU@%SCHOENBERG%@BO:          85937e@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%STRAVINSKY%@BO:          8f9f0c@%%@AE@%, but generally unpublished. In 1939 performance of his second
piano %@AU@%SONATA%@BO:          8b73bf@%%@AE@%, %@AI@%Concord %@AE@%(1909-15), won him recognition. His works, which
include chamber, orchestral, and choral pieces and about 150 %@AU@%SONGS%@BO:          8b7f8c@%%@AE@%, draw
on American folk music.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ives, James Merritt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ives, James Merritt%@AE@%:%@CR:IVES2           @%%@QR:Ives, James Merritt@% see %@AU@%CURRIER & IVES%@BO:          256f76@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ivory%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ivory%@AE@%,%@CR:IVORY           @%%@QR:ivory@% type of dentin present only in %@AU@%ELEPHANT%@BO:          2df3e3@%%@AE@% tusks. Major sources are%@EH@%
Africa and Asia. Ivory was long used for carvings and inlay work and as a
surface for miniature painting. The ancient civilizations of Egypt,
Assyria, Babylon, Greece, Rome, India, China, Japan, Byzantium, and early
Christian Europe produced works in ivory. In modern times it has been
used chiefly to make keys for pianos and other instruments, billiard
balls, and handles. The diminishing elephant population (largely the
result of their slaughter for ivory) and efforts to protect existing
herds have led to greater use of substitutes, such as %@AU@%PLASTIC%@BO:          769462@%%@AE@%. In the
past, teeth or tusks of such animals as the hippopotamus, walrus,
narwhal, sperm whale, and wild boar were also called ivory.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Ivory Coast%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Ivory Coast%@AE@%,%@CR:IVORY.COAST     @%%@QR:Ivory Coast@% Fr. %@AI@%Cote d'Ivoire, %@AE@%officially Republic of the Ivory Coast,%@EH@%
republic (1986 est. pop. 10,595,000), 124,503 sq mi (322,463 sq km), W
Africa, bordered by the Gulf of Guinea (S), Liberia and Guinea (W), Mali
and Burkina Faso (N), and Ghana (E). The capital and chief port is
%@AU@%ABIDJAN%@BO:            4510@%%@AE@%. The country consists of a coastal lowland in the south, a
densely forested plateau in the interior, and high savannas in the north.
Rainfall is heavy, especially along the coast. One of the most prosperous
W African countries, the Ivory Coast has enjoyed a high economic growth
rate since independence. Predominantly agricultural, the country is one
of the world's largest coffee and cocoa producers. Timber from mahogany
and other forests is a valuable export. Industrialization has been steady
since the 1960s; flour, palm oil, petroleum, textiles, and cigarettes are
produced. Oil was discovered offshore, and the country expected to be
self-sufficient in petroleum through the early 1980s and to become a
major oil exporter by the end of the 1980s.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% The precolonial Ivory Coast was dominated by native kingdoms.
Beginning in the 16th cent., the Portuguese and other Europeans engaged
in a flourishing trade in slaves and ivory along the coast. The French
began systematic conquest in 1870, proclaiming a protectorate in 1893.
However, strong tribal resistance delayed occupation of the interior, and
although the Ivory Coast was nominally incorporated into %@AU@%FRENCH WEST
%@AU@%AFRICA%@BO:          363f73@%%@AE@% in 1904, effective French control was not established until after
World War I. In 1946 a mounting desire for independence led Felix
%@AU@%HOUPHOUET-BOIGNY%@BO:          44b122@%%@AE@% to form an all-African political party. The Ivory Coast
voted for autonomy within the %@AU@%FRENCH COMMUNITY%@BO:          360495@%%@AE@% in 1958 but in 1960
withdrew and declared itself independent. A one-party state, the Ivory
Coast was headed after independence by Houphouet-Boigny, who was
reelected to a sixth term as president in 1985, making him Africa's
oldest, longest-serving head of state. The Ivory Coast was one of the few
African states to recognize Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War
(1967-70); this action, as well as Houphouet-Boigny's advocacy of
dialogue with white-ruled South Africa, estranged the country somewhat
from other black African states.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%ivy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%ivy%@AE@%,%@CR:IVY             @%%@QR:ivy@% name applied loosely to any trailing or climbing plant, particularly%@EH@%
cultivated forms; more properly, the English ivy (%@AI@%Hedera helix%@AE@%) and some
other members of the family Araliaceae. The evergreen English ivy, grown
in many varieties, is a popular ornamental vine; its berries are
poisonous. The %@AU@%GRAPE%@BO:          3c5641@%%@AE@% family also includes some ivies, most notably the
%@AU@%VIRGINIA CREEPER%@BO:          9dd78c@%%@AE@% and Boston ivy. Kenilworth ivy (%@AI@%Cymbalaria muralis%@AE@%), of
the figwort family, is often used as ground cover.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Iwo Jima%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Iwo Jima%@AE@%,%@CR:IWO.JIMA        @%%@QR:Iwo Jima@% volcanic island, c.8 sq mi (21 sq km), W Pacific, largest and%@EH@%
most important of the Volcano Islands. Annexed by Japan in 1891, the
island, site of a Japanese air base, was captured (Feb.-Mar. 1945) by
U.S. marines at great cost. American administration ended in 1968. The
island's Mt. Suribachi is an extinct volcano.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%IWW%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%IWW%@AE@%:%@CR:IWW             @%%@QR:IWW@% see %@AU@%INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD%@BO:          47ef08@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Izmir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Izmir%@AE@%,%@CR:IZMIR           @%%@QR:Izmir@% formerly %@AB@%Smyrna, %@AE@%city (1985 pop. 1,489,817), capital of Izmir%@EH@%
prov, W Turkey, on the Gulf of Izmir, an arm of the Aegean Sea. It is
Turkey's second largest seaport and an industrial center with such
manufactures as paper and metal goods. Settled during the Bronze Age
(c.3000 BC), it was colonized (c.1000 BC) by Ionians and destroyed (627
BC) by the Lydians. Under Macedon and Rome it prospered. It changed hands
many times from the 7th to 15th cent. AD, when the Ottoman Turks
conquered it. Greece contested the city after the collapse (1918) of the
%@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@%; when the Treaty of Lausanne confirmed it as Turkey's, the
two countries traded minorities, making Izmir mostly Turkish. Earthquakes
in 1928 and 1939 caused severe damage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jabbar, Kareem Abdul-%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jabbar, Kareem Abdul-%@AE@%:%@CR:JABBAR          @%%@QR:Jabbar, Kareem Abdul-@% see %@AU@%ABDUL-JABBAR, KAREEM%@BO:            2849@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jackal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jackal%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKAL          @%%@QR:jackal@% carnivorous %@AU@%MAMMAL%@BO:          5a8064@%%@AE@% (genus %@AI@%Canis%@AE@%) related to the %@AU@%DOG%@BO:          29c45c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%WOLF%@BO:          a2bb2c@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
similar in size and behavior to the %@AU@%COYOTE%@BO:          243053@%%@AE@%. Some authorities classify
jackals in a separate genus (%@AI@%Thos%@AE@%). Jackals are found in Africa and S
Asia, where they inhabit deserts, grasslands, and brush country. They
forage by night and spend the day in holes or hidden in grass or brush.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jack-in-the-pulpit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jack-in-the-pulpit%@AE@%:%@CR:JACKINTHEPULPIT @%%@QR:jack-in-the-pulpit@% see %@AU@%ARUM%@BO:           883f6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jackrabbit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jackrabbit%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKRABBIT      @%%@QR:jackrabbit@% popular name for several North American %@AU@%HARES%@BO:          3ff39f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson, Andrew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson, Andrew%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSON1        @%%@QR:Jackson, Andrew@% 1767-1845, 7th president of the U.S. (1829-37); b.%@EH@%
Waxhaw Settlement, on the border of North and South Carolina. Jackson
helped to draft the Tennessee Constitution and was elected (1796) to the
U.S. Congress. In the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@% he defeated the %@AU@%CREEK INDIANS%@BO:          247e6b@%%@AE@% at
Horseshoe Bend (Mar. 1814), was made a major general, and decisively
defeated seasoned British troops at New Orleans (Jan. 8, 1815). In 1818
he led a reprisal against the Seminoles in Florida and captured
Pensacola, involving the U.S. in serious trouble with Spain and Britain.
The conduct of Old Hickory, as he was called, pleased the people of the
West. He was the greatest hero of his time and became associated with
increased popular participation in government. This so-called Jacksonian
democracy almost won him the presidency in 1824, but the election ended
in the House of Representatives, with a victory for J.Q. %@AU@%ADAMS%@BO:           10887@%%@AE@%. Jackson
was elected president in 1828 and brought a strong element of personalism
to Washington. His %@AU@%KITCHEN CABINET%@BO:          50103f@%%@AE@% was powerful, and the %@AU@%SPOILS SYSTEM%@BO:          8db66d@%%@AE@%
developed. Jackson and Vice Pres. J.C. %@AU@%CALHOUN%@BO:          171b8c@%%@AE@% differed on %@AU@%NULLIFICATION%@BO:          6c33c2@%%@AE@%,
and Calhoun resigned (1832). Jackson's fight against the %@AU@%BANK OF THE
%@AU@%UNITED STATES%@BO:           be57f@%%@AE@% was an important issue in the election of 1832, in which he
defeated Henry %@AU@%CLAY%@BO:          1f1eda@%%@AE@%. He then transferred federal assets from the bank to
chosen state, or "pet," banks. In 1836 he issued the Specie Circular,
which said that all public lands must be paid for in specie and which
hastened the Panic of 1837.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson, Jesse Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson, Jesse Louis%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSON2        @%%@QR:Jackson, Jesse Louis@% 1941-, U.S. political leader, clergyman, and %@AU@%CIVIL%@EH@%
%@AU@%RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% activist; b. Greenville, S.Car. He was executive director
(1966-71) of Operation Breadbasket, founder and national president
(1971-83) of People United to Save Humanity (Operation PUSH), and the
first black to seriously campaign in presidential primaries (1984; 1988).
He heads the Rainbow Coalition, an independent political organization
aimed at uniting racial minorities, the poor, peace activists, and
environmentalists.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson, Mahalia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson, Mahalia%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSON3        @%%@QR:Jackson, Mahalia@% 1911-72, black American singer; b. New Orleans. Living%@EH@%
in Chicago from 1927, she sang in churches and revival meetings, and
began to make recordings. By the 1950s her powerful, joyous %@AU@%GOSPEL MUSIC%@BO:          3ba8a2@%%@AE@%
style had gained her an international reputation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson, Michael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson, Michael%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSON4        @%%@QR:Jackson, Michael@% 1958-, American singer and composer; b. Gary, Ind. At%@EH@%
eight, he was the lead singer of his family's group, The Jackson Five. He
has achieved great popularity as an adult performer. His album "Thriller"
broke all records by selling over 30 million copies.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson, Stonewall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson, Stonewall%@AE@%%@CR:JACKSON5        @%%@QR:Jackson, Stonewall@% (Thomas Jonathan Jackson), 1824-63, Confederate%@EH@%
general in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; b. Clarksburg, Va. At the first battle of
%@AU@%BULL RUN%@BO:          156760@%%@AE@% he earned his sobriquet when he and his brigade stood "like a
stone wall." He conducted the brilliant Shenandoah Valley campaign
(May-June 1862) and joined Gen. R.E. %@AU@%LEE%@BO:          5367cd@%%@AE@% for the %@AU@%SEVEN DAYS BATTLES%@BO:          87582a@%%@AE@%.
Serving under Lee, Jackson flanked the Union army to set up the
Confederate victory at the second battle of Bull Run (Aug. 1862), and
fought in the %@AU@%ANTIETAM CAMPAIGN%@BO:           6363a@%%@AE@% and at Fredericksburg. At
%@AU@%CHANCELLORSVILLE%@BO:          1b71d8@%%@AE@% (May 1863) Jackson again flanked the Union army en route
to a smashing Confederate victory, but he was mortally wounded by fire
from his own troops. He was Lee's ablest and most trusted lieutenant.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson, William Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson, William Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSON6        @%%@QR:Jackson, William Henry@% 1843-1942, American artist and pioneer%@EH@%
photographer of the West; b. Keeseville, N.Y. From 1858 Jackson recorded
the scenic grandeur and historic sites of the American West. His
Yellowstone photographs influenced the decision to make the area the
first %@AU@%NATIONAL PARK%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSON7        @%%@QR:Jackson@% city (1986 est. pop. 208,420), state capital and seat of Hinds%@EH@%
co., W central Miss., on the Pearl R.; inc. 1833. The state's largest
city, it has electrical machinery, food, stone, glass, and other
industries, and is the center of the state's oil industry. Jackson is
also a major southern rail and distribution center. It became capital in
1821 and was named for Andrew %@AU@%JACKSON%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@%. A center for the %@AU@%VICKSBURG
%@AU@%CAMPAIGN%@BO:          9d151b@%%@AE@% in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, it was largely destroyed by %@AU@%SHERMAN'S%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@% forces.
The old capitol (1839) is now a museum. During the 1960s it was the site
of many demonstrations for %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jackson Hole%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jackson Hole%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSON.HOLE    @%%@QR:Jackson Hole@% fertile Rocky Mt. valley, NW Wyoming, in Grand Teton%@EH@%
National Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,). Named for the trapper David Jackson,
who wintered (1828-29) there, the valley supports a diverse wildlife and
is the wintering ground for large elk herds.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jacksonville%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jacksonville%@AE@%,%@CR:JACKSONVILLE    @%%@QR:Jacksonville@% city (1986 est. pop. 609,860), coextensive (since 1968)%@EH@%
with Duval co., NE Fla., on the St. Johns R. near its mouth on the
Atlantic; settled 1816, inc. 1832. The largest city in Florida, it is a
major port and rail, air, and highway hub, with extensive shipyards and
freight-handling facilities. Lumber, paper, processed food, computer
components, and chemicals are leading products. Naval operations are
important, as is tourism. The city's growth was interrupted by the
Seminole War (see %@AU@%SEMINOLE INDIANS%@BO:          86c607@%%@AE@%) and the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%, and the city was
destroyed by fire in 1901 and rebuilt. Points of interest include the
Gator Bowl, a Confederate monument, and several museums.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jacob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jacob%@AE@%,%@CR:JACOB1          @%%@QR:Jacob@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, ancestor of the Hebrews, the younger of the twin%@EH@%
sons of %@AU@%ISAAC%@BO:          49e349@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%REBECCA%@BO:          7d2538@%%@AE@%. By bargain and trickery, Jacob got the
birthright and the blessing that was intended for his twin, %@AU@%ESAU%@BO:          2fe905@%%@AE@%. Jacob
had two wives, Leah and her younger sister, %@AU@%RACHEL%@BO:          7bffbe@%%@AE@%. On the banks of the
Jabbok, he wrestled with an angel and received the name of Israel. Gen.
25-50. He was the ancestor of the 12 tribes of Israel (see %@AU@%ISRAEL%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%,tribes
of).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jacob, Francois%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jacob, Francois%@AE@%,%@CR:JACOB2          @%%@QR:Jacob, Francois@% 1920-, French biologist. By studying the genetic basis%@EH@%
of lysogeny (see %@AU@%BACTERIOPHAGE%@BO:           ae2e6@%%@AE@%), he and Elie Wollman discovered (1961) a
new class of genetic elements, the episomes. Studies of the regulation of
bacterial enzyme synthesis led Jacob and Jacques %@AU@%MONOD%@BO:          62e9c9@%%@AE@% to propose (1961)
the concepts of messenger RNA (see %@AU@%NUCLEIC ACID%@BO:          6c2767@%%@AE@%) and the operon. For this
work Jacob and Monod shared with Andre %@AU@%LWOFF%@BO:          582cd1@%%@AE@% the 1965 Nobel Prize in
physiology or medicine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jacobean style%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jacobean style%@AE@%,%@CR:JACOBEAN.STYLE  @%%@QR:Jacobean style@% an early phase of English Renaissance architecture and%@EH@%
decoration, a transition between the %@AU@%ELIZABETHAN STYLE%@BO:          2e3669@%%@AE@% and the pure
Renaissance style introduced by Inigo %@AU@%JONES%@BO:          4d0ca6@%%@AE@%. Under James I (r.1603-25)
Renaissance motifs, communicated through German and Flemish carvers, were
freely adopted, but some Gothic influence lingered. Columns and
pilasters, round-arch arcades, and other classical elements mixed with
characteristic English ornamental detail. The style influenced furniture
design and other arts. Holland House, London, and Knole House, Kent, are
noted Jacobean buildings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jacobins%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jacobins%@AE@%,%@CR:JACOBINS        @%%@QR:Jacobins@% political club of the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. Formed in 1789, the%@EH@%
club was named after the monastery of the Jacobins (Parisian name of the
Dominicans), where it met. The members were mainly bourgeois and at first
included moderates such as Honore de %@AU@%MIRABEAU%@BO:          6156ed@%%@AE@%. With the %@AU@%FEUILLANTS%@BO:          32db97@%%@AE@%, the
Jacobins were (1791-92) the chief parties in the Legislative Assembly.
They sought to limit the power of the king, and many had republican
tendencies. The group split on the issue of war in Europe, which the
majority, the %@AU@%GIRONDISTS%@BO:          3a65ee@%%@AE@%, sought. The minority, supported by the lower
classes of Paris, opposed the war and grew more radical and republican.
In the National Convention, which proclaimed the French republic, these
Jacobins and other extremist opponents of the Girondists were called the
%@AU@%MOUNTAIN%@BO:          648743@%%@AE@%. After contributing heavily to the fall (1793) of the
Girondists, the Jacobins, under Maximilien %@AU@%ROBESPIERRE%@BO:          7fb6dc@%%@AE@%, instituted the
%@AU@%REIGN OF TERROR%@BO:          7dbcbf@%%@AE@%, which they used not only against counterrevolutionaries,
but also against their former allies, the %@AU@%CORDELIERS%@BO:          234185@%%@AE@% and Georges %@AU@%DANTON%@BO:          2664f9@%%@AE@%.
The Jacobins lost power on the fall (1794) of Robespierre, but their
spirit lived on in revolutionary doctrine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jacobites%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jacobites%@AE@%,%@CR:JACOBITES       @%%@QR:Jacobites@% adherents of the exiled branch of the house of %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8fe31b@%%@AE@% after%@EH@%
the %@AU@%GLORIOUS REVOLUTION%@BO:          3ab198@%%@AE@% of 1688. They took their name from the Latin form
(%@AI@%Jacobus%@AE@%) of the name James. The Jacobites sought the restoration of
%@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%, then advanced the claims of his descendants, until 1807 when
the direct Stuart line ended. They included many Catholics, high
churchmen, and extreme Tories. After the death of Queen %@AU@%ANNE%@BO:           5c5d9@%%@AE@% (1714),
Henry St. John and the 6th earl of Mar attempted a rising known as "the
'15" (1715) to crown the Old Pretender, James Edward %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8ff707@%%@AE@%; they were
defeated in the disastrous battles of Preston and Sheriffmuir. The second
major Jacobite rising, called "the '45," occurred when the Young
Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart, invaded (1745) England and was crushed
at the battle of Culloden Moor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jacquerie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jacquerie%@AE@%%@CR:JACQUERIE       @%%@QR:Jacquerie@% [Fr.,=collection of %@AI@%Jacques,%@AE@% a nickname for the French%@EH@%
peasant], 1358, a revolt of the French peasantry. The uprising stemmed
from poor economic conditions, high taxation, and pillaging during the
%@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%. It was brutally crushed by %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% of Navarre and
other nobles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jade%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jade%@AE@%,%@CR:JADE            @%%@QR:jade@% common name for either of two minerals, both white to green in%@EH@%
color, used as %@AU@%GEMS%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%. Jadeite NaAl(SiO%@AH@%3%@AE@%)%@AH@%2%@AE@%, rarer and costlier, is found in
Burma, China, Japan, and Guatemala. Nephrite Ca%@AH@%2%@AE@%(Mg,Fe)%@AH@%5%@AE@%Si%@AH@%8%@AE@%O%@AH@%22%@AE@%(OH,F)%@AH@%2%@AE@%
occurs in New Zealand, Central Asia, Siberia, and parts of North America.
Jade was much used by primitive peoples to make implements and has been
prized by the Chinese and Japanese as the most precious of gems.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jaguar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jaguar%@AE@%,%@CR:JAGUAR          @%%@QR:jaguar@% large %@AU@%CAT%@BO:          19fbb3@%%@AE@% (%@AI@%Panthera onca%@AE@%) found from the SW U.S. to S central%@EH@%
Argentina. It has a yellow or tawny coat with black rings and spots; some
rings surround spots, a feature which distinguishes it from a %@AU@%LEOPARD%@BO:          541434@%%@AE@%. An
adult male may be 41/2 ft (1.4 m) long (excluding the long tail), stand
21/2 ft (76 cm) high at the shoulder, and weigh 200 lb (90 kg). Mainly
forest dwellers, jaguars are also found in rocky, semidesert areas and on
the %@AU@%PAMPAS%@BO:          706b0f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jai alai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jai alai%@AE@%,%@CR:JAI.ALAI        @%%@QR:jai alai@% also called pelota, handball-like game of Spanish Basque%@EH@%
origin. It is played as either singles or doubles on a three-walled court
(%@AI@%fronton%@AE@%) with a hard rubber ball (%@AI@%pelota%@AE@%) that is hurled with a wicker
basket (%@AI@%cesta%@AE@%) attached to the player's arm. The sport is popular in
Latin America and in some states of the U.S. (e.g., Florida and
Connecticut), where jai alai betting is legal.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jainism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jainism%@AE@%%@CR:JAINISM         @%%@QR:Jainism@% the religion of Jina, religious system of India, practiced by%@EH@%
about 2 million followers. It arose in the 6th cent. BC in protest
against the ritualism of %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@% and the authority of the %@AU@%VEDA%@BO:          9c38fc@%%@AE@%, and was
established by a succession of 24 saints, the last of whom was Vardhamana
(called Mahavira or Jina), apparently a historical figure. He preached
asceticism and concern for all life as a means of escaping from the
transmigration of souls that results from one's past actions (see %@AU@%KARMA%@BO:          4e76fc@%%@AE@%)
and of achieving %@AU@%NIRVANA%@BO:          6a4696@%%@AE@%. Early Jainism spread from NE India, according
to tradition converting the emperor %@AU@%CHANDRAGUPTA%@BO:          1b7947@%%@AE@% and other rulers. In
time, elements of Hinduism were adopted, including the %@AU@%CASTE%@BO:          19cfed@%%@AE@% system and a
number of Hindu deities. Contemporary Jainists are known for charitable
works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jakarta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jakarta%@AE@%:%@CR:JAKARTA         @%%@QR:Jakarta@% see %@AU@%DJAKARTA%@BO:          2991d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jamaica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jamaica%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMAICA         @%%@QR:Jamaica@% island republic (1988 est. pop. 2,458,102), 4,232 sq mi (10,962%@EH@%
sq km), West Indies, S of Cuba and W of Haiti. The capital is %@AU@%KINGSTON%@BO:          4fcfba@%%@AE@%.
Most of Jamaica is an elevated plateau with a mountainous spine reaching
7,402 ft (2,256 m) in the Blue Mts., but there are low-lying plains along
the north and south coasts. The economy is based on sugar (mainly in the
form of molasses and rum), bauxite, and tourism. Jamaica is the
second-ranking world supplier of bauxite and alumina, which account for
half of its foreign exchange. Tourism, stimulated by the island's
subtropical climate and excellent beaches, is the second largest source
of exchange. Besides sugar, export crops are coffee, bananas, citrus
fruits, and tobacco. A large majority of the people are of black African
descent. The chief religion is Protestantism, and the official language
is English, although most Jamaicans speak a "Creole English" patois.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Discovered by %@AU@%COLUMBUS%@BO:          20be29@%%@AE@% in 1494 and first settled (1509) by
Spaniards, Jamaica was captured by England in 1655; formal cession was in
1670. A large black slave population worked sugar plantations in the 18th
cent., when Jamaica was a leading sugar producer. The decline of sugar
after the abolition (1838) of slavery created economic hardship, civil
unrest, and British suppression (1865-84) of local autonomy. Black
rioting, sparked by poverty and British racial policies, recurred
periodically, reaching a peak in 1938. In 1944 universal adult suffrage
was introduced. After a brief period (1958-62) as part of the %@AU@%WEST INDIES%@BO:          a0b46d@%%@AE@%
Federation, in 1962 Jamaica became an independent member of the
Commonwealth. After 1972 a move toward Socialism under Prime Minister
Michael Manley led to violence between extremist factions and produced an
economic crisis. Edward Seaga, a moderate, took office in 1980 and
restored some measure of economic stability. In 1989, Manley won
reelection with a more conservative program.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES1          @%%@QR:James, Saint@% d. AD c.43, one of the Twelve Disciples; called St. James%@EH@%
the Greater. The son of Zebedee and brother of St. %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%, he is venerated
widely, especially (as Santiago) in Spain.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:JAMES2          @%%@QR:James, Saint@% (the Less or Little), one of the Twelve Disciples. He was%@EH@%
the son of Alphaeus and Mary.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES3          @%%@QR:James, Saint@% the "brother" of Jesus Christ, according to the Gospels.%@EH@%
Since belief in the perpetual virginity of Mary precludes a blood
relationship, he is assumed to have been a stepbrother. The Roman
Catholic Church identifies him with St. James the Less. He apparently
opposed the imposition of Jewish Law on Gentile Christians and is
probably the author of the Epistle of James.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES4          @%%@QR:James@% kings of England, Scotland, and Ireland. %@AB@%James I,%@AE@% 1566-1625%@EH@%
(r.1603-25), the son of Lord %@AU@%DARNLEY%@BO:          268826@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@%. He
succeeded (1567) to the Scottish throne on the forced abdication of his
mother. During his minority, Scotland was ruled by regents, and he was
the creature of successive combinations of his mother's pro-French
Catholic party and the Protestant faction, which favored an alliance with
England. He began his personal rule in 1583. Allying himself with
%@AU@%ELIZABETH I%@BO:          2e236a@%%@AE@%, he accepted calmly his mother's execution in 1587. He
succeeded Elizabeth in 1603. At the Hampton Court Conference of 1604
(which commissioned the translation that resulted in the Authorized or
King James Version of the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%), he displayed an uncompromising
anti-Puritan attitude. His inconsistent policy toward English Catholics
(which resulted in the %@AU@%GUNPOWDER PLOT%@BO:          3e9ee5@%%@AE@%) angered them as well as
Protestants. After the death (1612) of his able minister Robert Cecil,
earl of %@AU@%SALISBURY%@BO:          8392fa@%%@AE@%, he asserted his divine right, battling with Sir Edward
%@AU@%COKE%@BO:          2015a4@%%@AE@% and relying on incompetent favorites, e.g., George Villiers, 1st
duke of %@AU@%BUCKINGHAM%@BO:          14fabf@%%@AE@%. These actions, his extravagance, and his refusal to
recognize the importance of Parliament furthered discontent and led to
the %@AU@%ENGLISH CIVIL WAR%@BO:          2f0033@%%@AE@%. In 1611 he dissolved Parliament, ruling without it
(except for the Addled Parliament, 1614) until 1621. In 1624 he acceded
to its wish for war with %@AU@%SPAIN%@BO:          8cdb3a@%%@AE@%. His reign saw the beginnings of
colonization in North America. He was succeeded by %@AU@%CHARLES I%@BO:          1bce2e@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%James II,%@AE@%
1633-1701 (r.1685-88), was the second son of Charles I and the brother
and successor of %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@%. He escaped to France (1648) in the English
Civil War. At the %@AU@%RESTORATION%@BO:          7e79a3@%%@AE@% (1660) he returned to England and was made
lord high admiral, serving (1655; 1672) in the %@AU@%DUTCH WARS%@BO:          2b6fc9@%%@AE@%. In about 1668
he became a Roman Catholic. After his resignation as admiral because of
the %@AU@%TEST ACT%@BO:          943f45@%%@AE@% (1673) and his marriage to the staunchly Catholic Mary of
Modena (1673), he became increasingly unpopular. His daughter %@AU@%MARY%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%
married the Protestant William of Orange (later %@AU@%WILLIAM III%@BO:          a1bd02@%%@AE@%), and they
became, after James, heirs presumptive to the English throne. Exiled
after the false accusations of a Popish Plot (1678) by Titus %@AU@%OATES%@BO:          6c7e85@%%@AE@%, he
was recalled in 1680. After the failure of Parliament to exclude him from
succession and the abortive %@AU@%RYE HOUSE PLOT%@BO:          829a1e@%%@AE@%, Charles II's death brought
him to the throne in 1685. His unpopularity was increased by the Bloody
Assizes of Baron %@AU@%JEFFREYS OF WEM%@BO:          4bb89b@%%@AE@%, his attempts to fill important
positions with Roman Catholics, and his autocratic methods with a hostile
Parliament. The birth of his son, James Edward %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8ff707@%%@AE@%, as a possible
Catholic heir led to the %@AU@%GLORIOUS REVOLUTION%@BO:          3ab198@%%@AE@% of 1688, in which William of
Orange became king. James fled to France. In 1689 he attempted to restore
himself in Ireland but was defeated (1690) at the battle of the Boyne. He
died in exile.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES5          @%%@QR:James@% kings of Scotland. %@AB@%James I,%@AE@% 1394-1437 (r.1406-37), was the son of%@EH@%
%@AU@%ROBERT III%@BO:          7f9d75@%%@AE@%. Fearful for his safety, because of the ambitions of the
king's brother, Robert Stuart, duke of Albany, Robert III sent James to
France in 1406. The prince was captured by the English and held captive
until 1424. Treated as a royal guest, he was well educated. Ransomed by
several Scottish nobles, he returned to Scotland and governed
energetically. He brought peace by ruthless methods, exterminating
members of the Albany family. James's popularity was lessened by his
vindictiveness, cupidity, and quick temper; he was assassinated by a
group of nobles. He is thought to be the author of a number of fine
poems. His son, %@AB@%James II,%@AE@% 1430-60 (r.1437-60), had successive earls of
Douglas as regents during his minority. Allying himself with William
Douglas, the 6th earl, he was by 1450 ruling in his own right. When he
discovered (1452) William in a conspiracy, he killed him. After the
ensuing revolt, he seized the Douglas lands. He invaded England in the
Wars of the %@AU@%ROSES%@BO:          813180@%%@AE@% and was accidentally killed. His son, %@AB@%James III,%@AE@%
1452-88 (r.1460-88), was seized at his mother's death by the Boyd family,
who ruled until 1469. A cultivated king, James lacked the force necessary
in a turbulent period. He fought with his brother, Alexander %@AU@%STUART%@BO:          8fea0e@%%@AE@%, who,
aided by other nobles, rebelled in 1482. The nobles rebelled again in
1488 and murdered James at Sauchieburn. His son, %@AB@%James IV,%@AE@% 1473-1513
(r.1488-1513), was a popular and able monarch who brought progress and
stability to Scotland. In 1503 he married Margaret Tudor, daughter of
%@AU@%HENRY VII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England. Scottish relations with England deteriorated with
the accession of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. James invaded England in 1513 and was killed
in the battle of Flodden, in which the Scottish aristocracy was almost
annihilated. His son, %@AB@%James V,%@AE@% 1512-42 (r.1513-42), was the object of a
struggle between his regents. Held captive, he escaped (1528) and allied
himself with France against Henry VIII. He married %@AU@%MARY OF GUISE%@BO:          5c8d8e@%%@AE@% in 1538.
War with England broke out in 1542. James's nobles gave him little
support, and his army was routed at Solway Moss. He died shortly
thereafter and was succeeded by his infant daughter, %@AU@%MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS%@BO:          5c9002@%%@AE@%.
%@AB@%James VI,%@AE@% king of Scotland (r.1567-1625): see %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4b0314@%%@AE@%, under %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%, kings
of England, Scotland, and Ireland.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James, Alice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James, Alice%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES6          @%%@QR:James, Alice@% 1848-92, American diarist and the sister of Henry and%@EH@%
William %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4b163b@%%@AE@%; b. N.Y.C. Although she did not receive a formal education
and suffered several breakdowns, her diaries, written from 1886 to 1892,
contain astute observations on her times and family.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James, Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James, Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES7          @%%@QR:James, Henry@% 1843-1916, American novelist; b. N.Y.C.; brother of William%@EH@%
%@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4b163b@%%@AE@%. He settled in London in 1876 and became a British citizen in 1915.
In his early novels, such as %@AI@%Daisy Miller%@AE@% (1879) and %@AI@%The Portrait of a
%@AI@%Lady%@AE@% (1881), he compared the sophisticated culture of Europeans with the
naive quality of Americans. In his next period, James dealt with
revolutionaries, as in %@AI@%The Bostonians%@AE@% (1886) and %@AI@%The Princess Casamassima%@AE@%
(1886). He also wrote several powerful short novels, such as %@AI@%The Aspern
%@AI@%Papers%@AE@% (1888) and %@AI@%The Turn of the Screw%@AE@% (1898). He returned to the
international theme in his last novels, %@AI@%The Wings of the Dove%@AE@% (1902), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Ambassadors%@AE@% (1903), and %@AI@%The Golden Bowl%@AE@% (1904), widely considered his
masterpieces. He was also a fine short-story writer and a noted critic.
Considered one of the great masters of the novel, James is particularly
noted for his portrayals of the subtleties of character and for his
complex style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James, Jesse%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James, Jesse%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES8          @%%@QR:James, Jesse@% 1847-82, American outlaw; b. Clay co., Mo. From 1866 Jesse%@EH@%
and his brother Frank headed a band of outlaws whose trail of robberies
and murders led through many central states. He was killed by a gang
member seeking a reward.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James, William%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES9          @%%@QR:James, William@% 1842-1910, American philosopher and psychologist; b.%@EH@%
N.Y.C.; son of the theologian Henry James and brother of the novelist
Henry %@AU@%JAMES. %@BO:          4b0ffa@%%@AE@%He taught first psychology and then philosophy at Harvard
Univ. His %@AI@%Principles of Psychology%@AE@% (1890) was a brilliant and
epoch-making work. Although he is often considered the founder of
%@AU@%PRAGMATISM%@BO:          78fcd0@%%@AE@%, James gave that title to C.S. %@AU@%PEIRCE%@BO:          72991d@%%@AE@%. According to James, the
truth of a proposition is judged by its practical outcome. His "radical
empiricism" rejected all transcendental principles, and directly
influenced the instrumentalism of John %@AU@%DEWEY%@BO:          2880b3@%%@AE@%. James maintained a lifelong
interest in religion and psychical research. His works, noted for their
literary quality, include %@AI@%The Will to Believe%@AE@% (1897), %@AI@%The Varieties of
%@AI@%Religious Experience%@AE@% (1902), and %@AI@%Pragmatism%@AE@% (1907).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%James%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMES10         @%%@QR:James@% %@AU@%EPISTLE%@BO:          2f8556@%%@AE@% of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, 20th book in the usual order,%@EH@%
traditionally placed among the Catholic or General Epistles and ascribed
to St. James the Less. A practical work, it gives diverse admonitions in
no special order, among them two general ethical principles: "Be doers of
the word, not hearers only" (1.19-27) and "Faith without works is dead"
(2.14-26).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jameson, Sir Leander Starr%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jameson, Sir Leander Starr%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMESON         @%%@QR:Jameson, Sir Leander Starr@% 1853-1917, British colonial administrator in%@EH@%
South Africa. In 1895 he led the unauthorized Jameson Raid into the Boer
colony of the Transvaal, an act that helped to precipitate the %@AU@%SOUTH
%@AU@%AFRICAN WAR%@BO:          8be2a7@%%@AE@%. He was captured and turned over to the British, who
imprisoned him briefly. He later returned to South Africa, where he was
prime minister of the Cape Colony (1904-8).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jamestown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jamestown%@AE@%,%@CR:JAMESTOWN       @%%@QR:Jamestown@% former village, SE Va., first permanent English settlement in%@EH@%
America; est. May 14, 1607, by the London Company on a peninsula (now an
island) in the James R.; named for the reigning English king, %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%.
Disease, starvation, and Indian attacks decimate/d the settlement, and
the remaining colonists prepared to return; but new settlers and supplies
were sent, and Lord %@AU@%DE LA WARR%@BO:          27a577@%%@AE@% arrived in 1610. John %@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a6940@%%@AE@% was an early
colonial leader. John %@AU@%ROLFE%@BO:          80513d@%%@AE@% began the cultivation of tobacco there in
1612; in 1614 he married %@AU@%POCAHONTAS%@BO:          770d83@%%@AE@%, assuring peace with the Indians. The
first representative government in the colonies met there (1619);
Jamestown was capital of %@AU@%VIRGINIA%@BO:          9dc140@%%@AE@% through most of the 17th cent. The
village was almost entirely destroyed during Bacon's Rebellion (1676; see
%@AU@%BACON, NATHANIEL%@BO:           ad514@%%@AE@%). The site, which contains the old church tower
(c.1639), some original gravestones, and many replicas of the early
settlement, is mainly administered by the U.S. government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jami, Nur ad-Din Abd ar-Rahman%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jami, Nur ad-Din Abd ar-Rahman%@AE@%%@CR:JAMI            @%%@QR:Jami, Nur ad-Din Abd ar-Rahman@%, 1414-92, Persian poet and %@AU@%DERVISH%@BO:          2829a0@%%@AE@%. Among%@EH@%
his works are %@AI@%Seven Thrones,%@AE@% a collection of poems including "Salaman and
Absal," and %@AI@%Abode of Spring,%@AE@% a collection of short stories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Janacek, Leos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Janacek, Leos%@AE@%%@CR:JANACEK         @%%@QR:Janacek, Leos@%, 1854-1928, Czech composer, theorist, and collector of%@EH@%
Slavic folk music. His works include the operas %@AI@%Jenufa%@AE@% (1904), %@AI@%Katia
%@AI@%Kabanova%@AE@% (1921), and %@AI@%The Makropulos Affair%@AE@% (1926); a song cycle; and a
%@AU@%MASS%@BO:          5cc4ab@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Janet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Janet%@AE@%:%@CR:JANET           @%%@QR:Janet@% see %@AU@%CLOUET, JEAN%@BO:          1f9365@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Janissaries%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Janissaries%@AE@%,%@CR:JANISSARIES     @%%@QR:Janissaries@% elite corps of war captives and Christian youths in the%@EH@%
service of the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% (Turkey). Converted to Islam and trained
under the strictest discipline, they eventually became powerful enough to
make and unmake sultans. By the 17th cent. membership was largely
hereditary. Their power came to an abrupt end in 1826 when Sultan %@AU@%MAHMUD
%@AU@%II%@BO:          59c2c5@%%@AE@% had them massacred in their barracks.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jansen, Cornelis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jansen, Cornelis%@AE@%%@CR:JANSEN          @%%@QR:Jansen, Cornelis@%, 1585-1638, Dutch Roman Catholic theologian, bishop of%@EH@%
Ypres. He sought to reform Christian life by a return to St. %@AU@%AUGUSTINE%@BO:           9c21a@%%@AE@%.
From his posthumous %@AI@%Augustinus%@AE@% (1640) arose the movement called
%@AB@%Jansenism,%@AE@% which stressed greater personal holiness. The movement,
centered in France, caused great controversy within the Roman Catholic
Church because of its advocacy of an extreme form of %@AU@%PREDESTINATION%@BO:          792ccf@%%@AE@% and
its discouragement of frequent communion. It was attacked in papal bulls
(1705, 1713), and the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal, near Paris, was
closed. Jansenists are still found in the Netherlands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jansky, Karl Guthe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jansky, Karl Guthe%@AE@%,%@CR:JANSKY          @%%@QR:Jansky, Karl Guthe@% 1905-50, American radio engineer; b. Norman, Okla.%@EH@%
While trying to determine the causes of radio communications static for
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Jansky discovered (1931) radio waves from
extraterrestrial sources-a discovery that led to the development of the
science of %@AU@%RADIO ASTRONOMY%@BO:          7c353b@%%@AE@%; By 1932 he had concluded that the source of
the interference was located in the direction of the center of the Milky
Way galaxy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Janson, Nicolas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Janson, Nicolas%@AE@%:%@CR:JANSON          @%%@QR:Janson, Nicolas@% see %@AU@%JENSON, NICOLAS%@BO:          4bd558@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%January%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%January%@AE@%:%@CR:JANUARY         @%%@QR:January@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Janus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Janus%@AE@%,%@CR:JANUS           @%%@QR:Janus@% in Roman mythology, custodian of the universe, god of beginnings.%@EH@%
The guardian of gates and doors, he held sacred the first hour of the
day, first day of the month, and first month of the year (which bears his
name). He is represented with two bearded heads set back to back.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japan%@AE@%,%@CR:JAPAN1          @%%@QR:Japan@% Jap. %@AI@%Nihon%@AE@% or %@AI@%Nippon,%@AE@% country (1988 pop. 122,626,038), 142,811 sq%@EH@%
mi (369,881 sq km), occupying an archipelago off the coast of E Asia. The
capital is %@AU@%TOKYO%@BO:          965f81@%%@AE@%. Japan proper has four main islands; these are, from
north to south, %@AU@%HOKKAIDO%@BO:          437c21@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HONSHU%@BO:          442784@%%@AE@% (the largest island, where the capital
and major cities are located), %@AU@%SHIKOKU%@BO:          885a5c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%KYUSHU%@BO:          51433c@%%@AE@%. Many smaller islands
lie in an arc between the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea, and the
Pacific Ocean. Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu enclose the %@AU@%INLAND SEA%@BO:          484690@%%@AE@%.
Mountains, including a number of volcanoes, cover two thirds of Japan's
surface; the most famous peak is Mt. %@AU@%FUJI%@BO:          36c0e0@%%@AE@%. The land is also marked by
short, rushing rivers, forested slopes, irregular lakes, and small, rich
plains. Rainfall is abundant, and typhoons and earthquakes are frequent.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Mineral resources are meager. The rapid streams provide
hydroelectric power, and nuclear energy is produced. High-speed train
service now extends to many parts of the country. Japan's farming
population has been declining steadily and comprised only 8% of the total
labor force in 1987. Arable land (less than 16% of the country's area) is
intensively cultivated; rice and other cereals are the main crops.
Fishing is highly developed, and the annual catch is one of the largest
in the world. Since its defeat in World War II, Japan has developed into
the third greatest economic power in the world, with an enormous foreign
trade. The world's leading producer of ships and automobiles, it also
ranks high in the production of steel, electronic equipment, and
textiles. Japan's industry depends heavily on imported raw materials,
especially petroleum and iron and aluminum ore.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%People%@AE@% The Japanese are primarily descended from various peoples who
migrated from Asia in prehistoric times; the dominant strain is N Asian
or Mongoloid. The principal religions are %@AU@%SHINTO%@BO:          8864b8@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%, and
Japanese thought has also been deeply affected by %@AU@%CONFUCIANISM%@BO:          21e3e6@%%@AE@%. The
present educational system, established after World War II, has created a
highly educated and skilled population.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution, which went into effect in 1947, established
a democratic form of government. It declares the emperor to be the
symbolic head of state and renounces Japan's right to declare war. The
national diet, which has sole legislative power, is composed of the
511-member house of representatives and the 252-member house of
councilors. Executive power rests with the prime minister, who is elected
by the diet, and his appointed 18-member cabinet. Japan is divided into
47 prefectures, each governed by a popularly elected governor and a
legislature.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% In legend, Japan was founded in 660 BC, but reliable records date
only to about AD 400. By the 5th cent. Japan was unified by the Yamato
clan, and the foundations of a centralized imperial state were laid by
the 8th cent. Court culture was influenced first by Chinese learning and
institutions and then by a rebirth of native Japanese culture. By the 9th
cent. the powerful Fujiwara family ruled as regents, and imperial
authority was undermined. The 12th cent. ushered in Japan's medieval
period, with the development of feudalism, the rise of a warrior class
called the %@AU@%SAMURAI%@BO:          83d9ec@%%@AE@%, and the establishment of military rule under Minamoto
Yoritomo, the first %@AU@%SHOGUN%@BO:          88847a@%%@AE@%. After civil war between rival warrior clans,
the country was unified in 1600 under a new shogun, Tokugawa %@AU@%IEYASU%@BO:          4690cd@%%@AE@%. For
more than 250 years the %@AU@%TOKUGAWA%@BO:          965cf0@%%@AE@% family ruled over a Japan internally at
peace and largely cut off from the outside world. In 1853 the U.S. naval
officer Matthew C. %@AU@%PERRY%@BO:          738e6b@%%@AE@% arrived in Japan to force the opening of trade
with the West, and in 1868 the shogunate collapsed, when the Meiji
Restoration returned formal power to the Emperor %@AU@%MEIJI%@BO:          5e4b30@%%@AE@%. A new government
was established under the able leadership of former samurai. Adopting the
techniques of Western civilization, Japan modernized rapidly into an
industrial state and military power. A constitutional monarchy and a
parliament (diet) were established by the constitution of 1889. The
success of Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and the
%@AU@%RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR%@BO:          826081@%%@AE@% (1904-5) brought the nation to international
prominence. An Anglo-Japanese alliance was formed in 1902. Japan annexed
Korea in 1910, established a puppet-state in %@AU@%MANCHURIA%@BO:          5aa857@%%@AE@% in 1932, and began
the Second %@AU@%SINO-JAPANESE WAR%@BO:          898f03@%%@AE@% (1937-45) by invading N China. Japan formed
a military alliance with Germany and Italy in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% and opened
hostilities against the U.S. with an attack on %@AU@%PEARL HARBOR%@BO:          727da8@%%@AE@% in 1941.
After rapid initial success, the Japanese were defeated by the Allies.
Following the dropping of atomic bombs by the U.S. on %@AU@%HIROSHIMA%@BO:          430ffc@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%NAGASAKI%@BO:          660932@%%@AE@%, Japan surrendered in Aug. 1945 and was occupied by U.S. forces.
The signing of a peace treaty in 1951 led to full Japanese sovereignty
over the main islands in 1952. The U.S. returned the %@AU@%BONIN%@BO:          11e1f6@%%@AE@% and nearby
islands to Japan in 1968 and the %@AU@%RYUKYU ISLANDS%@BO:          829ccd@%%@AE@% (Okinawa) in 1972.
%@AU@%TAKESHITA-NOBURU%@BO:          926666@%%@AE@% served as prime minister (1987-1989) until, amid reports
of scandal, he resigned, and the Liberal Democratic Party chose Sousuke
Uno to replace him. Japan's powerful economic surge since the 1960s
produced huge foreign trade surpluses that created strain with the U.S.
and Common Market countries by the late 1970s. In 1981, in concessions to
U.S. pressure, Japan agreed to reduce automobile exports to the U.S. and
also to increase its defense spending. Japan is now the largest creditor
nation in the world.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japan, Sea of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japan, Sea of%@AE@%,%@CR:JAPAN2          @%%@QR:Japan, Sea of@% arm of the Pacific Ocean, c.405,000 sq mi (1,048,950 sq%@EH@%
km), located between Japan, Korea, and the Far East region of the USSR. A
branch of the warm Japan Current flows northeast through the sea,
modifying climatic conditions and keeping coastal ports ice-free as far
north as %@AU@%VLADIVOSTOK%@BO:          9e10b4@%%@AE@%, the USSR's only major all-year outlet to the
Pacific Ocean sea lanes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japanese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japanese%@AE@%,%@CR:JAPANESE        @%%@QR:Japanese@% language of uncertain origin that is spoken by more than 100%@EH@%
million people, most of whom live in Japan. Japanese appears to be
unrelated to any other language; however, some scholars see a kinship to
Korean, and others link Japanese and Korean to the %@AU@%ALTAIC%@BO:           4255e@%%@AE@% languages (see
%@AU@%URALIC AND ALTAIC LANGUAGES%@BO:          9af4c9@%%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japanese architecture%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japanese architecture%@AE@%.%@CR:JAPANESECTURE   @%%@QR:Japanese architecture@% Evidence of neolithic building in Japan remains.%@EH@%
Chinese religious architecture came to Japan with %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% in the 6th
cent. Parts of the monastery of Horyu-ji, near Nara, illustrate the first
epoch of Japanese architecture (6th-8th cent.), characterized by gravity
and simple, vital construction, sparsely ornamented. Wood has always been
the favored material. Interior columns and thin woodwork and plaster
walls were characteristic. Vitality and grace are communicated by the
refined curvatures in columns and overhanging roofs. Emulation of the
Chinese style is seen in the monastery of Todai-ji (begun 745), with its
great hall housing the Daibutsu (colossal Buddha), fronted by twin
pagodas. Distinctively Japanese architecture dates from the late Heian
period (898-1185). The Phoenix Hall at Uji, near Kyoto, represents the
apogee of Japanese design, with its airiness and beautiful situation near
a lotus lake. In the 13th cent. a renewed interest in %@AU@%CHINESE
%@AU@%ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          1d5d9b@%%@AE@% came with the emergence of %@AU@%ZEN BUDDHISM%@BO:          a50967@%%@AE@%. Japanese temple
design adhered to the Chinese symmetrical pattern. In front of the main
building stood an impressive gateway. Accessory structures included the
%@AU@%PAGODA%@BO:          7006fa@%%@AE@%. The Shinto temple was small and simple; greatest importance was
attached to the landscape setting. Regard for the environment was seen
also in secular building, as in the housing schemes called
%@AI@%shinden-zukuri,%@AE@% in which buildings connected by corridors surrounded a
garden and pond. The Japanese upper-class dwelling was unexcelled for
refinement and simplicity. Exterior walls were usually movable panels;
interiors were subdivided by screens. Important rooms contained a
%@AI@%tokonoma,%@AE@% an alcove for display of flower arrangements. European
architectural influence entered Japan after 1868. In the 20th cent. the
Japanese began to influence the development of the %@AU@%INTERNATIONAL STYLE%@BO:          4902ad@%%@AE@% in
%@AU@%MODERN ARCHITECTURE%@BO:          61f019@%%@AE@%. Important Japanese architects include Tange Kenzo
and Kurokawa Kisho.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japanese art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japanese art%@AE@%.%@CR:JAPANESE.ART    @%%@QR:Japanese art@% The earliest Japanese art, probably dating from the 3d and%@EH@%
2d millennia BC, consisted of monochrome %@AU@%POTTERY%@BO:          78bb0d@%%@AE@% in a cord pattern
(%@AI@%jomon%@AE@%). This was replaced by bronze bells with simple designs, clay tomb
figures (%@AI@%haniwa%@AE@%), and some painted burial chambers. With the introduction
of %@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@% in the 6th cent., and throughout its history, Japanese art
relied on Chinese forms and techniques. In the Nara period (710-784)
traditional technical methods of Japanese painting were established. The
work was executed on thin silk or soft paper with Chinese ink or
watercolors. Mounted on silk brocade or paper, the paintings were of two
types: hanging scrolls (%@AI@%kakemono%@AE@%) and horizontal scrolls (%@AI@%emakimono%@AE@%). The
Jogan period (794-897) witnessed the beginning of an indigenous style of
art. The Fujiwara period (898-1185) was marked by the crystallization of
the %@AI@%Yamato-e%@AE@% tradition of painting, based on national rather than Chinese
taste. The famous scroll %@AI@%Tale of Genji%@AE@% reflects the extreme sensitivity
and overrefinement of the court of that period. The Kamakura period (late
12th-14th cent.) restored vigor and realism, as seen in scrolls like
%@AI@%Tales of the Heiji Insurrection%@AE@% (13th cent.; Mus. of Fine Arts, Boston).
Here, unlike in Chinese painting, man occupies the most important role.
In the Momoyama period (1568-1615) architectural sculpture achieved
unprecedented grandeur. The %@AU@%KANO%@BO:          4e2d7e@%%@AE@% family of artists succeeded in fusing
Chinese ink-painting technique with Japanese decorative quality. During
the Edo period (1615-1867) miniature sculptures called %@AI@%netsuke%@AE@% became
popular. In the 18th cent., influenced by Dutch engravers, a new type of
art arose in the form of woodblock prints known as %@AI@%ukiyo-e%@AE@% pictures of
the fleeting or floating world. %@AI@%Ukiyo-e%@AE@% color-print designers won
worldwide renown, the best known being %@AU@%HARUNOBU%@BO:          4052d6@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%HIROSHIGE%@BO:          430e12@%%@AE@%.
Mid-19th-cent. contacts with European culture enervated Japanese art, and
in the 20th cent. a great number of painters and sculptors have been
strongly influenced by Western styles.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japanese literature%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japanese literature%@AE@%.%@CR:JAPANESTURE     @%%@QR:Japanese literature@% Although Japanese and Chinese are different%@EH@%
languages, the Japanese borrowed and adapted Chinese ideographs early in
the 8th cent. so that their spoken language could be written. This system
was used in the writing of %@AI@%Records of Ancient Matters%@AE@% (712), the sacred
book of %@AU@%SHINTO%@BO:          8864b8@%%@AE@%, but other works of the period were written in pure
Chinese. The addition of two phonetic syllabaries (%@AI@%kata-kana%@AE@% and
%@AI@%hiragana%@AE@%) during the Heian era (794-1185) opened a golden age in which
Japanese literature, written in Japanese, reached its first peak of
development. Much of the Heian literature was written by women, notably
%@AU@%MURASAKI SHIKIBU%@BO:          6532a2@%%@AE@%, a noblewoman whose %@AI@%Tale of Genji%@AE@% (early 11th cent.) is
ranked with the world's greatest novels. The four basic forms of Japanese
drama were evolved (see %@AU@%ORIENTAL DRAMA%@BO:          6ec79c@%%@AE@%) from the 12th to the 17th cent.
Under the %@AU@%TOKUGAWA%@BO:          965cf0@%%@AE@% shogunate (17th-19th cent.), the written language was
standardized and freer verse forms, e.g., the %@AU@%HAIKU%@BO:          3f19a2@%%@AE@%, began to replace the
%@AI@%tanka,%@AE@% the classical form. While Heian literature dealt mostly with the
aristocracy, the Tokugawa era was concerned with the bourgeosie.
%@AU@%CHIKAMATSU'S%@BO:          1ce4fc@%%@AE@% plays are the first tragedies about the common man in world
literature. Other important writers were the poet Matsuo Basho (1648-94)
and the novelist Ihara Saikaku (1642-93). Modern Japanese literature
reflects the influence of the West, and many 20th-cent. writers have
faced the problem of reconciling Japanese tradition with that influence.
They include %@AU@%TANIZAKI JUNICHIRO%@BO:          929f01@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%KAWABATA YASUNARI%@BO:          4ea4b5@%%@AE@% (who won the 1968
Nobel Prize in literature), %@AU@%MISHIMA YUKIO%@BO:          616edb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ABE KOBO%@BO:            2cd5@%%@AE@%, and Ooka Shohei.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japanese music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japanese music%@AE@%%@CR:JAPANESE.MUSIC  @%%@QR:Japanese music@% is eclectic. It borrowed instruments, scales, and styles%@EH@%
from neighboring cultures. Early poems, songs, and temple music employed
only a few notes. Importations, particularly Chinese, began in the 5th
cent. %@AI@%Gagaku,%@AE@% ancient Chinese ceremonial music using mouth organ, flute,
and oboe, was preserved in Japan. Buddhist song came from Korea in the
6th cent., and ceremonial dance with music from India in the 7th. Many
instruments, e.g., the zitherlike %@AI@%koto,%@AE@% were introduced from China in the
9th and 10th cent. The accompanied %@AU@%RECITATIVE%@BO:          7d2b68@%%@AE@% of the %@AI@%No%@AE@% drama dates from
the 14th cent., and popular secular music, with the guitarlike %@AI@%samisen,%@AE@%
from the 16th. The Japanese use two pentatonic %@AU@%SCALES%@BO:          8527cd@%%@AE@%. %@AU@%RHYTHM%@BO:          7eedb5@%%@AE@%, almost
invariably in duple time, is obscured to Western ears by independent drum
rhythms. Western music, introduced into Japan in the late 19th cent., is
now an integral part of the culture.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%japanning%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%japanning%@AE@%:%@CR:JAPANNING       @%%@QR:japanning@% see %@AU@%LACQUER%@BO:          5162c0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Japheth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Japheth%@AE@%:%@CR:JAPHETH         @%%@QR:Japheth@% see %@AU@%NOAH%@BO:          6a6919@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jarrell, Randall%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jarrell, Randall%@AE@%,%@CR:JARRELL         @%%@QR:Jarrell, Randall@% 1914-65, American poet; b. Nashville, Tenn. His poetry,%@EH@%
e.g., %@AI@%Losses%@AE@% (1948), %@AI@%The Woman at the Washington Zoo%@AE@% (1960), reflects a
sensitive, tragic world view. Among his other works are children's books;
a novel; and critical essays, which were collected in %@AI@%Poetry and the Age%@AE@%
(1953).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jaruzelski, Wojciech%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jaruzelski, Wojciech%@AE@%%@CR:JARUZELSKI      @%%@QR:Jaruzelski, Wojciech@%, 1923-, Polish military and political leader. He%@EH@%
fought in World War II, became a general in 1956, and began his rise in
the Communist party in 1960. During the 1981 crisis involving the trade
union %@AU@%SOLIDARITY%@BO:          8b3850@%%@AE@%, Jaruzelski became premier and party leader. Known as a
moderate, he sought a compromise but finally ordered a military
crackdown, placed Poland under martial law, and ordered the arrest of
Solidarity leader Lech %@AU@%WALESA%@BO:          9eb788@%%@AE@%. Backed by Soviet leadership, his
government outlawed Solidarity and put down attendant protest
demonstrations and strikes (1982). Martial law was lifted in 1983, and in
1985, he was elected president by the parliament after stepping down as
premier.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jasmine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jasmine%@AE@%%@CR:JASMINE         @%%@QR:jasmine@% or %@AB@%jessamine,%@AE@%plant (genus %@AI@%Jasminum%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%OLIVE%@BO:          6d7fe2@%%@AE@% family, chiefly%@EH@%
of Old World tropical and subtropical regions but cultivated in other
mild areas and greenhouses. The blossoms, mostly yellow or white and
usually fragrant, are used in scenting tea; the oil is used in perfumery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jason%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jason%@AE@%,%@CR:JASON           @%%@QR:Jason@% one of the greatest heroes of Greek mythology. Raised by the%@EH@%
centaur %@AU@%CHIRON%@BO:          1d979c@%%@AE@%, Jason claimed the kingdom of Iolcus, which his uncle,
Pelias, had stolen from his father, Aeson. Pelias agreed to return it if
Jason gathered the %@AU@%GOLDEN FLEECE%@BO:          3b29e7@%%@AE@%, owned by King Aeetes of Colchis. In
quest of it, Jason assembled the Argonauts, sailed in the Argo, and had
many adventures. In Colchis, they captured the fleece with the help of
Aeetes' daughter, %@AU@%MEDEA%@BO:          5dfde5@%%@AE@%, who loved Jason. Medea returned with Jason,
married him, and helped him to secure the throne. When he later tried to
divorce her, she brutally destroyed his betrothed, Creusa; Creusa's
father; and, in some versions, her own children. The gods then caused
Jason to wander for many years. The story of Jason and Medea appears
frequently in literature, notably in %@AU@%EURIPIDES%@BO:          30a095@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jasper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jasper%@AE@%,%@CR:JASPER          @%%@QR:jasper@% opaque, impure %@AU@%CHALCEDONY%@BO:          1b3e0e@%%@AE@%, usually red but also yellow, green,%@EH@%
and grayish blue, used as a %@AU@%GEM%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%. Ribbon jasper has colors in stripes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jaspers, Karl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jaspers, Karl%@AE@%,%@CR:JASPERS         @%%@QR:Jaspers, Karl@% 1883-1969, German philosopher. Generally placed within the%@EH@%
orbit of %@AU@%EXISTENTIALISM%@BO:          311d9f@%%@AE@%, Jaspers believed that genuine philosophy must
spring from the study of a person's individual existence, which he viewed
as enclosed by an all-embracing, transcendental reality he called "the
encompassing." Among his works are %@AI@%Man in the Modern Age%@AE@% (1931) and
%@AI@%Philosophy%@AE@% (3 vol., 1932).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jaundice%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jaundice%@AE@%,%@CR:JAUNDICE        @%%@QR:jaundice@% abnormal condition in which body fluids and tissues,%@EH@%
particularly the skin and eyes, take on a yellowish color as a result of
excess bilirubin, a substance normally removed from the bloodstream by
the %@AU@%LIVER%@BO:          55ccb8@%%@AE@% and eliminated from the body in %@AU@%BILE%@BO:           fadc8@%%@AE@%. Causes include excessive
disintegration of red blood cells (as in some types of %@AU@%ANEMIA%@BO:           56094@%%@AE@%); damage to
liver cells by disease (e.g., %@AU@%CIRRHOSIS%@BO:          1e9978@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HEPATITIS%@BO:          42066b@%%@AE@%); and bile duct
blockage (e.g., by gallstones or tumors). Jaundice in the newborn may
indicate an %@AU@%RH FACTOR%@BO:          7ebcbd@%%@AE@% reaction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Java%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Java%@AE@%,%@CR:JAVA            @%%@QR:Java@% island (1980 est. pop. 91,269,528), Indonesia, c.51,000 sq mi%@EH@%
(132,090 sq km), one of the world's most densely populated regions. It
constitutes only one seventh of Indonesia's area but contains nearly two
thirds of the population. A chain of volcanic, forested mountains
traverses the island east to west, rising to 12,060 ft (3,676 m) at Mt.
Semeru. The climate is warm and humid, and the volcanic soil is
exceptionally productive, yielding two or three crops a year when
irrigated. From the 10th to 15th cent. the island was the center of
Hindu-Javanese culture, from which it derives today's highly developed
art forms. It was under Dutch rule from 1619 to 1946.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Java man%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Java man%@AE@%:%@CR:JAVA.MAN        @%%@QR:Java man@% see %@AU@%HOMO ERECTUS%@BO:          43fa8f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Javanese music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Javanese music%@AE@%%@CR:JAVANESE.MUSIC  @%%@QR:Javanese music@% is rich and distinctive. It has two separate tonal%@EH@%
systems, %@AI@%pelog%@AE@% (seven tones with unequal intervals) and %@AI@%slendro%@AE@% (five
tones with roughly equal intervals; see %@AU@%TONALITY%@BO:          9686b9@%%@AE@%). The %@AI@%gamelan,%@AE@% an
orchestra of tuned %@AU@%PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS%@BO:          732f4a@%%@AE@%, primarily of bronze,
flourishes today in Bali. It may consist of 80 instruments, played in two
manners: one, subtle and flowing, for song and gentle dancing; the other,
powerful and louder, for heroic dance. A fixed melody is the basis for
improvisation. See %@AU@%BALINESE MUSIC%@BO:           b676a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jay, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jay, John%@AE@%,%@CR:JAY1            @%%@QR:Jay, John@% 1745-1829, American statesman, 1st chief justice of the U.S.%@EH@%
%@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% (1789-95); b. N.Y.C. A lawyer, he guided the drafting of
the New York State constitution. He was president (1778-79) of the
%@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% and one of the commissioners who negotiated
(1781-83) peace with Great Britain (see %@AU@%PARIS, TREATY OF%@BO:          714f41@%%@AE@%). As secretary
of foreign affairs (1784-89), he advocated strong central government.
During his tenure as chief justice, he was sent (1794) on a mission to
England, where he negotiated what became known as %@AU@%JAY'S TREATY%@BO:          4b91f0@%%@AE@%. Jay was
also governor of New York for two terms (1795-1801).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jay%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jay%@AE@%,%@CR:JAY2            @%%@QR:jay@% %@AU@%BIRD%@BO:          100c1c@%%@AE@% (family Corvidae) related to the %@AU@%CROW%@BO:          24ef1c@%%@AE@% and found in Europe,%@EH@%
Asia, and the Americas. The blue jay (%@AI@%Cyanocitta cristata%@AE@%) of central and
E North America has a grayish blue crest and upper parts, and bright blue
wings with white and black markings. The Canada jay (%@AI@%Perisoreus
%@AI@%canadensis%@AE@%), gray with a white throat and forehead and no crest, is found
in northern coniferous forests and swamps.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jay's Treaty%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jay's Treaty%@AE@%,%@CR:JAYS.TREATY     @%%@QR:Jay's Treaty@% concluded in 1794 between the U.S. and Britain to settle%@EH@%
difficulties arising mainly out of violations of the Treaty of %@AU@%PARIS%@BO:          714f41@%%@AE@% of
1783, and to regulate commerce and navigation. The treaty, signed in
England by John %@AU@%JAY%@BO:          4b8c20@%%@AE@% and Lord %@AU@%GRENVILLE%@BO:          3da053@%%@AE@%, provided for British evacuation
of posts in the Old Northwest, unrestricted navigation of the
Mississippi, and equal privileges to American and British vessels in
Great Britain and the East Indies. It placed severe restrictions on U.S.
trade in the West Indies and did not allow indemnity for Americans whose
black slaves were carried off by Britain's evacuating armies. Because the
treaty failed to protect American seamen against impressment, or to
secure recognition of the principles of international maritime law, it
aroused indignation in the U.S., and appropriations to put it into effect
were delayed until 1796.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jazirah, Al%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jazirah, Al%@AE@%:%@CR:JAZIRAH         @%%@QR:Jazirah, Al@% see %@AU@%GEZIRA%@BO:          39d393@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jazz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jazz%@AE@%,%@CR:JAZZ            @%%@QR:jazz@% American musical form, developed c.1890 from black work songs,%@EH@%
%@AU@%SPIRITUALS%@BO:          8da8cc@%%@AE@%, and other forms whose harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic
elements were mainly African. It came to general notice in the 1920s when
whites adapted or imitated it. Jazz began in the South and spread north
and west. The %@AI@%blues%@AE@% has remained a vital part in all periods. Blues
generally employs a 12-bar construction and a "blue" %@AU@%SCALE%@BO:          8527cd@%%@AE@% thought to be
African in origin. Vocal blues have earthy, direct lyrics. The tempo may
vary, and the mood ranges from despair to cynicism to satire. Major early
blues artists were Blind Lemon Jefferson, Ma Rainey, and Bessie %@AU@%SMITH%@BO:          8a5dfb@%%@AE@%.
W.C. %@AU@%HANDY%@BO:          3fb334@%%@AE@% popularized blues. %@AI@%Ragtime,%@AE@% a syncopated, polyphonic genre
(fl. 1890s-1910s), spread through sheet music and piano rolls (see
%@AU@%POLYPHONY%@BO:          77dbc0@%%@AE@%). Scott %@AU@%JOPLIN%@BO:          4d24c2@%%@AE@% was its most famous exponent. %@AI@%New Orleans%@AE@% or
%@AI@%Dixieland%@AE@% jazz developed from military music, blues, and the French
tradition in New Orleans. Pioneer musicians like Buddy Bolden and Jelly
Roll Morton performed at functions from funerals to dances. In World War
I musicians went north up the Mississippi seeking work. In Chicago, King
Oliver, Louis %@AU@%ARMSTRONG%@BO:           80898@%%@AE@%, and others introduced jazz to a wider audience,
and young whites like the cornetist Bix Beiderbecke were drawn to it. At
the end of the 1920s a new phenomenon, %@AI@%swing,%@AE@% emerged. The small New
Orleans band had played polyphony, but swing involved larger groups
(14-18) featuring soloists with arranged backgrounds. The bands of Count
Basie, Duke %@AU@%ELLINGTON%@BO:          2e3f1a@%%@AE@%, and Benny %@AU@%GOODMAN%@BO:          3b7801@%%@AE@% were especially notable. %@AI@%Bop%@AE@%
(bebop), a 1940s revolt against the formulas of swing, was rhythmically
complex and harmonic, rather than melodic, at base. Charlie %@AU@%PARKER%@BO:          7161e2@%%@AE@% and
Dizzy %@AU@%GILLESPIE%@BO:          3a36d5@%%@AE@% were the leaders. In the 1950s %@AI@%progressive jazz,%@AE@% with
bop's harmonics but simpler melody and rhythm, flourished, chiefly on the
West Coast, inspired largely by the swing giant Lester %@AU@%YOUNG%@BO:          a46c74@%%@AE@%. Stan Getz
and Dave Brubeck were key figures. %@AI@%Hard bop,%@AE@% a second wave, was led by
such musicians as Sonny Rollins and John %@AU@%COLTRANE%@BO:          20adba@%%@AE@%. Jazz continues to
evolve. An exploratory avant-garde of the 1960s coexisted with the
efforts of Miles %@AU@%DAVIS%@BO:          26d21c@%%@AE@% and others to bring %@AU@%ROCK MUSIC%@BO:          800289@%%@AE@% into jazz, and in
the 1970s reached into the past to create a music with elements of all
jazz styles, epitomized in the work of the Art Ensemble of Chicago.
Almost all jazz styles remain current today.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jeanneret, Charles Edouard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jeanneret, Charles Edouard%@AE@%:%@CR:JEANNERET       @%%@QR:Jeanneret, Charles Edouard@% see %@AU@%LE CORBUSIER%@BO:          5352b3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jeans, Sir James Hopwood%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jeans, Sir James Hopwood%@AE@%,%@CR:JEANS           @%%@QR:Jeans, Sir James Hopwood@% 1887-1946, English mathematician, physicist,%@EH@%
and astronomer. His study of rotating masses of compressible fluids
enabled him to explain the behavior of certain nebulae, discuss the
origin of binary stars, and describe the evolution of gaseous stars.
After holding various scientific posts in the U.S. and England, he
abandoned research in 1929 and became one of the most outstanding
popularizers of science and the philosophy of science.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jeffers, Robinson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jeffers, Robinson%@AE@%,%@CR:JEFFERS         @%%@QR:Jeffers, Robinson@% 1887-1962, American poet; b. Pittsburgh. After 1914 he%@EH@%
lived on the California coast. His virile, intense poetry includes %@AI@%Roan
%@AI@%Stallion%@AE@% (1925) and %@AI@%The Double Axe%@AE@% (1948). He is also known for his
adaptations of Greek tragedy, e.g., %@AI@%Medea%@AE@% (1947), %@AI@%The Cretan Woman%@AE@%
(1954).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jefferson, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jefferson, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:JEFFERSON       @%%@QR:Jefferson, Thomas@% 1743-1826, 3d president of the U.S. (1801-9); b.%@EH@%
Goochland (now in Albemarle) co., Va. A member (1769-75) of the Virginia
house of burgesses, he was a leader of the patriot faction. At the Second
%@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@% he drafted the %@AU@%DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE%@BO:          273a29@%%@AE@%, a
historic document that reflects his debt to John %@AU@%LOCKE%@BO:          560cb1@%%@AE@% and other
philosophers. In 1779 he became governor of Virginia, guiding that state
through the troubled last years of the %@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@%. A member
(1783-84) of the Continental Congress, Jefferson drafted a plan for
decimal coinage and drew up an ordinance for the Northwest Territory that
formed the basis for the %@AU@%ORDINANCE OF 1787%@BO:          6e8a07@%%@AE@%. In 1785 he became minister to
France. Appointed secretary of state (1790-93) in Pres. %@AU@%WASHINGTON'S%@BO:          9f4814@%%@AE@%
cabinet, Jefferson defended agrarian interests against the Federalist
policies of Alexander %@AU@%HAMILTON%@BO:          3f7530@%%@AE@% and led a group called the
Republicans-antecedents of the present %@AU@%DEMOCRATIC PARTY%@BO:          27d8af@%%@AE@%. He served as
vice president (1797-1801) and protested the passage of the %@AU@%ALIEN AND
%@AU@%SEDITION ACTS%@BO:           3bf48@%%@AE@% by writing the Kentucky Resolutions (see %@AU@%KENTUCKY AND
%@AU@%VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS%@BO:          4f1095@%%@AE@%). The Republicans triumphed at the polls in 1800,
but Aaron %@AU@%BURR%@BO:          15e4e7@%%@AE@%, who had been slated to become vice president, tied
Jefferson in the presidential vote. Jefferson was finally chosen
president by the House of Representatives, largely on the advice of
Hamilton, who considered Jefferson less dangerous than Burr. Jefferson
was the first president inaugurated in Washington, a city he had helped
to plan. He instituted a republican simplicity in the city and cut
federal expenditures. He believed that the federal government should be
concerned mainly with foreign affairs, leaving local matters to the
states and local authorities. Usually strict in interpreting the
Constitution, he pushed through the %@AU@%LOUISIANA PURCHASE%@BO:          574f09@%%@AE@% of 1803, an action
which it did not expressly authorize. He also planned the %@AU@%LEWIS AND CLARK
%@AU@%EXPEDITION%@BO:          547d74@%%@AE@%. During his second administration, difficulties arose from
attacks on neutral U.S. shipping by the warring powers of Britain and
France. With such measures as the %@AU@%EMBARGO ACT%@BO:          2e6f75@%%@AE@% of 1807 he tried to use
economic pressure to gain a solution, but this aroused strong opposition
in the U.S. In retirement after 1809 at his beloved home, Monticello,
Jefferson brought about the founding of the Univ. of Virginia, and
continued his lifelong interests in science, architecture, philosophy,
and the arts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jefferson City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jefferson City%@AE@%,%@CR:JEFFERSON.CITY  @%%@QR:Jefferson City@% city (1986 est. pop. 36,210), state capital and seat of%@EH@%
Cole co., central Mo., on the Missouri R., near the mouth of the Osage
R.; inc. 1825. State government is the major employer; the city is also
the processing center for an agricultural area. Printing and various
manufactures are important. The state capital since 1826, its
Renaissance-style capitol (1917) contains murals by Thomas Hart %@AU@%BENTON%@BO:           e9480@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jefferson Memorial%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jefferson Memorial%@AE@%,%@CR:JEFFERSIAL      @%%@QR:Jefferson Memorial@% monument in Washington, D.C., honoring Thomas%@EH@%
%@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%. Dedicated in 1943, the domed white marble structure was
designed by the American neoclassical architect John Russell Pope; it
houses a 19-ft (5.8-m) statue of Jefferson by Rudulph Evans.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jeffreys of Wem, George Jeffreys, 1st Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jeffreys of Wem, George Jeffreys, 1st Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:JEFFREYS.OF.WEM @%%@QR:Jeffreys of Wem, George Jeffreys, 1st Baron@% 1645?-1689, English judge%@EH@%
under %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bd06c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%JAMES II%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@%; noted for his cruelty. In the Bloody
Assizes following the rebellion (1685) of the duke of %@AU@%MONMOUTH%@BO:          62e0a3@%%@AE@%, he caused
nearly 200 persons to be hanged, some 800 transported, and many more
imprisoned or whipped.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jehannet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jehannet%@AE@%:%@CR:JEHANNET        @%%@QR:Jehannet@% see %@AU@%CLOUET, JEAN%@BO:          1f9365@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jehoshaphat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jehoshaphat%@AE@%%@CR:JEHOSHAPHAT     @%%@QR:Jehoshaphat@%, %@AB@%Josaphat,%@AE@%or %@AB@%Joshaphat,%@AE@% king of Judah (c.873-849 BC), son and%@EH@%
successor of King Asa. He was an ally of King %@AU@%AHAB%@BO:           22847@%%@AE@% of Israel and his
successors, and was the first king of Judah to make a treaty with the
kingdom of Israel. 1 Kings 22; 2 Kings 3; 2 Chron. 17-21. The %@AB@%Valley of
%@AB@%Jehoshaphat,%@AE@% mentioned in Joel 3 as a place of judgment, has been
identified by tradition with the northern extension of the vale of Kidron
to the east of %@AU@%JERUSALEM%@BO:          4be799@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jehovah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jehovah%@AE@%:%@CR:JEHOVAH         @%%@QR:Jehovah@% see %@AU@%GOD%@BO:          3adbf5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jehovah's Witnesses%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jehovah's Witnesses%@AE@%,%@CR:JEHOVAHSES      @%%@QR:Jehovah's Witnesses@% an international sect founded in the U.S. in the%@EH@%
late 19th cent. by Charles Russell. They were called Russellites before
1931. Their doctrine centers on the second coming of Christ. Witnesses
refuse to salute the flag, bear arms, or participate in government. All
members are considered ministers, and the group engages in zealous
house-to-house canvassing. In 1988 they reported a U.S. membership of
752,404.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jekyll, Gertrude%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jekyll, Gertrude%@AE@%,%@CR:JEKYLL          @%%@QR:Jekyll, Gertrude@% 1843-1932, British artist, landscape gardener, and%@EH@%
crafts artist. She was associated with William Robinson and Edwin %@AU@%LUTYENS%@BO:          580b86@%%@AE@%
in developing an informal style of garden. Her works include %@AI@%Wood and
%@AI@%Garden%@AE@% (1899) and %@AI@%Garden Ornament%@AE@% (1918).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe, 1st Earl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe, 1st Earl%@AE@%,%@CR:JELLICOE        @%%@QR:Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe, 1st Earl@% 1859-1935, British admiral.%@EH@%
As commander in chief of the Grand Fleet (1914-16) in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, he was
engaged in the inconclusive battle of %@AU@%JUTLAND%@BO:          4de6cf@%%@AE@% (1916). He was later first
sea lord (1916-17) and governor general of New Zealand (1920-24).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jellyfish%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jellyfish%@AE@%,%@CR:JELLYFISH       @%%@QR:jellyfish@% free-swimming stage (see %@AU@%POLYP AND MEDUSA%@BO:          77d531@%%@AE@%) of invertebrate%@EH@%
animals (%@AU@%COELENTERATES%@BO:          1ffb3e@%%@AE@%) of the classes Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa of the
phylum Cnidaria. Many jellyfish are colored and are considered to be
among the most beautiful of animals. They have bell- or umbrella-shaped
bodies with a clear, jellylike material filling most of the space between
the upper and lower surfaces. A mouth is located on the underside and
tentacles dangle from the bell margin. Most catch their prey with
stinging cells located in the tentacles and most are marine, living in
ocean depths and along the coasts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jena%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jena%@AE@%%@CR:JENA            @%%@QR:Jena@%, city (1986 pop. 107,369), Gera district, S East Germany, on the%@EH@%
Saale R. Its industries include pharmaceuticals, and the precision and
optical instruments of the Zeiss works. Known since the 9th cent., the
city gained international repute in the 18th and 19th cent., when
%@AU@%SCHILLER%@BO:          855cf2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%FICHTE%@BO:          32f3eb@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%SCHELLING%@BO:          855219@%%@AE@% taught at its university (est.
1557). %@AU@%GOETHE%@BO:          3b0629@%%@AE@% also lived there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jenghiz Khan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jenghiz Khan%@AE@%%@CR:JENGHIZ.KHAN    @%%@QR:Jenghiz Khan@%or %@AB@%Genghis Khan%@AE@%, 1167?-1227, Mongol conqueror. After uniting%@EH@%
the Mongol tribes, he conquered (1213-15) most of the Chin empire of N
China. From 1218 to 1224 he subdued Turkistan, Transoxania, and
Afghanistan and raided Persia and E Europe. A brilliant military leader,
he ruled one of the greatest land empires of history from his capital at
%@AU@%KARAKORUM%@BO:          4e6a39@%%@AE@%. After his death his empire was divided among his sons and
grandsons.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jenkins, Roy (Harris)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jenkins, Roy (Harris)%@AE@%,%@CR:JENKINS         @%%@QR:Jenkins, Roy (Harris)@% 1920-, British politician. He entered the House of%@EH@%
Commons in 1948 as a Labour member and subsequently was minister of
aviation (1964-65), home secretary (1965-67, 1974-76), and chancellor of
the exchequer (1967-70). He served (1977-80) as president of the
Commission of the %@AU@%EUROPEAN COMMUNITY%@BO:          30b165@%%@AE@%. In 1982 he was elected to
Parliament as a member of Britain's new %@AU@%SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY%@BO:          8abfe8@%%@AE@%, which he
had helped to found.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jenkins's Ear, War of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jenkins's Ear, War of%@AE@%,%@CR:JENKINSS.EAR    @%%@QR:Jenkins's Ear, War of@% 1739-41, struggle between England and Spain. It%@EH@%
was based on commercial rivalry and led into the larger war of the
%@AU@%AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION%@BO:           a2354@%%@AE@%. When shipmaster Robert Jenkins recounted to the
House of Commons how the Spanish had cut off his ear, Prime Minister
Robert %@AU@%WALPOLE%@BO:          9ee071@%%@AE@% was pressured to declare war. Hostilities were limited to
sea skirmishes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jenner, Edward%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jenner, Edward%@AE@%,%@CR:JENNER          @%%@QR:Jenner, Edward@% 1749-1823, English physician. His experiments, beginning%@EH@%
in 1796 with the vaccination of James Phipps, proved that cowpox provided
immunity against smallpox, helped rid many areas of the disease, and laid
the foundations of modern immunology as a science.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jensen, Johannes Vilhelm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jensen, Johannes Vilhelm%@AE@%%@CR:JENSEN          @%%@QR:Jensen, Johannes Vilhelm@%, 1873-1950, Danish author. He wrote essays,%@EH@%
travel books, and lyric poems. His epic novel cycle, %@AI@%The Long Journey%@AE@%
(1908-22), was based on Darwinian theory. Jensen created a literary form
in brief tales called "myths." He was awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jenson%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jenson%@AE@%%@CR:JENSON          @%%@QR:Jenson@% or %@AB@%Janson, Nicholas,%@AE@%d. c.1480, Venetian printer; b. France. He%@EH@%
studied with %@AU@%GUTENBERG%@BO:          3eb25c@%%@AE@% and started publishing, using his own roman %@AU@%TYPE%@BO:          993d0f@%%@AE@%,
in Venice in 1470. His roman type inspired %@AU@%GARAMOND%@BO:          37e2a4@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%CASLON%@BO:          19af08@%%@AE@%, William
%@AU@%MORRIS%@BO:          6405bb@%%@AE@%, and others.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jeremiah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jeremiah%@AE@%%@CR:JEREMIAH        @%%@QR:Jeremiah@% or %@AB@%Jeremias,%@AE@%book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 24th in the Authorized%@EH@%
Version, 2d of the Major %@AU@%PROPHETS%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@%. It tells of the career of Jeremiah, a
prophet who preached (c.628-586 BC) in Jerusalem. His message was a
summons to moral reform, personal and social, backed by threats of doom.
Jeremiah was allowed to stay in Jerusalem after its fall to Babylon (586
BC), and continued prophesying in Egypt. The prophecies in the book were
arranged by his secretary Baruch, and are not in strict chronological
order. They include prophecies against Gentile nations and well-known
Messianic passages (in 14, 23, 30, 32).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jericho%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jericho%@AE@%,%@CR:JERICHO         @%%@QR:Jericho@% ancient city of Palestine, in the Jordan valley N of the Dead%@EH@%
Sea, near modern Ariha, Jordan. According to the Bible, %@AU@%JOSHUA%@BO:          4d5381@%%@AE@% took
Jericho from the Canaanites and destroyed it. It later fell to %@AU@%HEROD%@BO:          4255a2@%%@AE@%, the
Muslims, and others. Excavations of the original site, begun early in the
20th cent., reveal the world's oldest known settlement, dating perhaps
from c.8000 BC Nearby, a Hellenistic fortress and Herod's palace have
been excavated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jeroboam I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jeroboam I%@AE@%%@CR:JEROBOAM.I      @%%@QR:Jeroboam I@%, first king of the northern kingdom of Israel (c.922-901 BC).%@EH@%
When %@AU@%SOLOMON'S%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@% son, %@AU@%REHOBOAM%@BO:          7db1a6@%%@AE@%, became king, Jeroboam led the secession of
the ten tribes who formed the northern kingdom of Israel. He was
notorious for fostering idolatry. 1 Kings 11-14; 2 Chron. 10; 13.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jerome, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jerome, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JEROME1         @%%@QR:Jerome, Saint@% c.347-420?, Christian scholar, Father of the Church,%@EH@%
Doctor of the Church. Following a vision (375) in Antioch (Turkey) he
renounced his pagan learning and fled to the desert, where he undertook
scriptural studies. He was ordained (378) and, after serving as secretary
to Pope Damasus I, began a new version of the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@% at the pope's
request. From 386 he lived in Bethlehem, revising his Latin translations
of the Bible and translating some portions from the Hebrew. All this
became the basis for the Vulgate. He also wrote exegetical works, tracts,
and biographies of Christian writers. Feast: Sept. 30.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jerome, Jerome Klapka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jerome, Jerome Klapka%@AE@%,%@CR:JEROME2         @%%@QR:Jerome, Jerome Klapka@% 1859-1927, English writer. He is noted for his%@EH@%
humorous novel %@AI@%Three Men in a Boat%@AE@% (1889) and his drama %@AI@%The Passing of
%@AI@%the Third Floor Back%@AE@% (1907).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jersey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jersey%@AE@%:%@CR:JERSEY          @%%@QR:Jersey@% see %@AU@%CHANNEL ISLANDS%@BO:          1b86a6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jersey City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jersey City%@AE@%,%@CR:JERSEY.CITY     @%%@QR:Jersey City@% city (1980 pop. 223,532), seat of Hudson co., NE N.J., a%@EH@%
port on a peninsula formed by the Hudson and Hackensack rivers and Upper
New York Bay, opposite lower Manhattan; settled before 1650; inc. 1836.
It is a great center of shipping, commerce, and manufacturing. There are
docks, oil refineries, railroad shops, warehouses, and hundreds of
factories. Located on the site of a 17th-cent. Dutch trading post, it
grew with the arrival (1840s) of the railroad. Liberty State Park, on the
city's waterfront, provides an excellent view of New York harbor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jerubbaal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jerubbaal%@AE@%%@CR:JERUBBAAL       @%%@QR:Jerubbaal@% or %@AB@%Jerubbesheth:%@AE@%see %@AU@%GIDEON%@BO:          3a1929@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jerusalem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jerusalem%@AE@%,%@CR:JERUSALEM1      @%%@QR:Jerusalem@% city (1986 est. pop. 468,900), capital and largest city of%@EH@%
Israel, on a high ridge W of the Dead Sea and the Jordan R. A holy city
for Jews, Christians, and Muslims, Jerusalem is also an administrative
and cultural center. Manufactures include cut and polished diamonds,
plastics, and shoes. The eastern part of Jerusalem is the Old City; the
New City, to the south and southwest, has been largely developed since
the 19th cent. and is the site of the Knesset, Israel's parliament.
Archaeology indicates that Jerusalem was already settled in the 4th
millennium BC %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% captured it (c.1000 BC) from the Jebusites
(Canaanites), and after %@AU@%SOLOMON%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@% built the Temple there (10th cent. BC),
Jerusalem became the spiritual and political capital of the Hebrews. The
city fell to many conquerors, e.g., Babylonia (586 BC) and Rome (63 BC),
and it was the scene of %@AU@%JESUS'%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% last ministry. The Roman emperor %@AU@%TITUS%@BO:          962f85@%%@AE@%
destroyed the rebuilt (Second) Temple (AD 70) to punish rebellious Jews.
The Muslims, who believe that %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64dbee@%%@AE@% ascended to heaven from the city,
treated it well after they captured it in 637. It was conquered by the
Crusaders in 1099 and was recaptured (1187) by the Muslims under %@AU@%SALADIN%@BO:          8376ff@%%@AE@%.
Jerusalem was the capital (1922-48) of the British mandate of %@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@%.
During the %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%, the city was divided (1949-67); the Old
City became part of Jordan and the New City became the capital of Israel.
In 1967 Israel captured the Old City and formally annexed it. Israel
reaffirmed its annexation of the Old City in 1980, an action not accepted
by many nations. The Old City contains many holy places of Christianity,
e.g., the Church of the Holy Sepulcher; of Islam, e.g., the Dome of the
Rock (688-91); and of Judaism, e.g., the Western (or Wailing) Wall (part
of the Second Temple compound).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jerusalem, Latin kingdom of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jerusalem, Latin kingdom of%@AE@%,%@CR:JERUSALEM2      @%%@QR:Jerusalem, Latin kingdom of@% feudal state founded by %@AU@%GODFREY OF BOUILLON%@BO:          3aea19@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
after the conquest of Jerusalem in the First %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@% (1099). Antioch,
Edessa, and Tripoli were the kingdom's great fiefs. Jerusalem comprised
the counties of Jaffa and Ashqelon, the lordships of Krak, Montreal, and
Sidon, and the principality of Galilee. The nominally elective kingship
and the law, as in the Assizes of Jerusalem, were ideally feudal. In
practice, the great feudal lords rarely supported the king in his wars.
The rise of the great military orders, e.g., %@AU@%KNIGHTS TEMPLARS%@BO:          5044ed@%%@AE@%, further
weakened royal power. Edessa fell (1144), then Jerusalem (1187), and
lastly Akko (1291). Godfrey's brother %@AU@%BALDWIN I%@BO:           b51ac@%%@AE@% was Jerusalem's first
king, followed by %@AU@%BALDWIN II%@BO:           b51ac@%%@AE@%, the Angevin kings Fulk, %@AU@%BALDWIN III%@BO:           b51ac@%%@AE@%,
%@AU@%AMALRIC I%@BO:           44c6f@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BALDWIN IV%@BO:           b51ac@%%@AE@%, and, finally, %@AU@%BALDWIN V%@BO:           b51ac@%%@AE@% (d. 1186). Later
kingship was nominal only.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jerusalem artichoke%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jerusalem artichoke%@AE@%,%@CR:JERUSALHOKE     @%%@QR:Jerusalem artichoke@% perennial (%@AI@%Helianthus tuberosus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%COMPOSITE%@BO:          214d43@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
family; it is the only root plant of economic importance to have
originated in North America. Its potato-like tubers, most favored as a
food in Europe and China, contain inulin, a valuable source of %@AU@%FRUCTOSE%@BO:          369c9b@%%@AE@%
for diabetics. A species of %@AU@%SUNFLOWER%@BO:          90bdfa@%%@AE@%, it has recently become important
as a source of %@AU@%ALCOHOL%@BO:           310a9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jerusalem cherry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jerusalem cherry%@AE@%:%@CR:JERUSALY        @%%@QR:Jerusalem cherry@% see %@AU@%NIGHTSHADE%@BO:          6a257f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jespersen, Otto%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jespersen, Otto%@AE@%%@CR:JESPERSEN       @%%@QR:Jespersen, Otto@%%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jessamine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jessamine%@AE@%:%@CR:JESSAMINE       @%%@QR:jessamine@% see %@AU@%JASMINE%@BO:          4b7858@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jesuit%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jesuit%@AE@%,%@CR:JESUIT          @%%@QR:Jesuit@% a member of the Society of Jesus (see %@AU@%JESUS, SOCIETY OF%@BO:          4c06e4@%%@AE@%), a Roman%@EH@%
Catholic religious order of priests and brothers. Jesuits are noted as
educators, theologians, and missionaries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jesuit Estates Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jesuit Estates Act%@AE@%%@CR:JESUIT.ACT      @%%@QR:Jesuit Estates Act@% (1888), law adopted by Quebec to indemnify the Society%@EH@%
of Jesus for property confiscated by the British government in the late
18th cent. The act caused violent controversy between Canadian Roman
Catholics and Protestants, but it was allowed to stand.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jesus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jesus%@AE@%%@CR:JESUS1          @%%@QR:Jesus@% or %@AB@%Jesus Christ,%@AE@%in Christian belief, the Son of God, the second%@EH@%
person of the %@AU@%TRINITY%@BO:          97db50@%%@AE@%. The name Jesus is Greek for the Hebrew %@AI@%Joshua,%@AE@% a
name meaning "Savior"; Christ is the Greek word for the Hebrew %@AI@%Messiah,%@AE@%
meaning "Anointed." Traditional %@AU@%CHRISTIANITY%@BO:          1df35f@%%@AE@% says Jesus was God made man,
wholly divine, wholly human; he was born to %@AU@%MARY%@BO:          5c70c5@%%@AE@%, a virgin, and died to
atone for mankind's sins; his resurrection from the dead provides man's
hope for salvation. The principal sources for his life are the four
Gospels of %@AU@%MATTHEW%@BO:          5d4238@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MARK%@BO:          5bdcd6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LUKE%@BO:          57c990@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%. There are also several brief
references to Jesus in non-Christian sources, e.g., %@AU@%TACITUS%@BO:          9232b4@%%@AE@%. According to
the Gospels, Jesus was born a Jew in Bethlehem of Mary, wife of Joseph, a
carpenter of Nazareth. His date of birth is now reckoned to be between 8
BC and 4 BC When he was about 30, Jesus began a three-year mission as a
preacher. His activity was centered around Galilee, and he gathered a
small band of disciples. Jesus preached the coming of the Kingdom of God,
often in %@AU@%PARABLES%@BO:          70fb0e@%%@AE@%, and called on his hearers to repent. The Gospels also
describe miracles he performed. His uncompromising moral demands on his
hearers, his repeated attacks on the Pharisees (see %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%) and scribes,
and his sympathy for social outcasts and the oppressed kindled popular
enthusiasm. In the third year of his mission, while in Jerusalem for
Passover, he was betrayed to the authorities by one of his companions,
%@AU@%JUDAS ISCARIOT%@BO:          4d8e2a@%%@AE@%. After sharing the %@AU@%LAST SUPPER%@BO:          528f99@%%@AE@% (a Passover seder) with his
disciples, he was arrested. The Gospels indicate that he was interrogated
by Jewish authorities and handed over to the Romans, who crucified him,
perhaps as an agitator. On the third day, his tomb was found empty, and
an angel (or a man) announced that he had risen from the dead. According
to the Gospels, Jesus later appeared to several of his disciples, and
after 40 days he ascended into heaven.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jesus, Society of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jesus, Society of%@AE@%,%@CR:JESUS2          @%%@QR:Jesus, Society of@% religious order of the Roman Catholic Church founded%@EH@%
(1534-39) by St. %@AU@%IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA%@BO:          4698a9@%%@AE@%. Its members, called Jesuits, have a
highly disciplined structure and are especially devoted to the pope. They
were a major force in the Counter Reformation (see %@AU@%REFORMATION, CATHOLIC%@BO:          7d87de@%%@AE@%)
and were leaders in European education. Their missionary work in China,
Paraguay, and Canada was remarkable. In 1773, under pressure from the
Bourbon monarchies, Pope %@AU@%CLEMENT XIV%@BO:          1f404d@%%@AE@% suppressed the order, but it was
restored in 1814. Jesuits have a tradition of learning and science, e.g.,
St. Robert Bellarmine and %@AU@%TEILHARD DE CHARDIN%@BO:          937164@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jet propulsion%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jet propulsion%@AE@%,%@CR:JET.PROPULSION  @%%@QR:jet propulsion@% propulsion of a body, such as an airplane, by a force%@EH@%
developed in reaction to the ejection of a high-speed jet of gas. The
jet-driven turbine, or turbojet, consists of four basic parts:
compressor, combustion chambers, %@AU@%TURBINE%@BO:          98b0e8@%%@AE@%, and propelling nozzles. In the
combustion chambers the combustion of a fuel, mixed with air coming from
the compressor, generates expanding gases, which spin the rotor of the
turbine. The axis of the turbine is connected by a shaft directly to the
axis of the compressor; thus the turbine drives the compressor. The gas,
after passing through the turbine, is exhausted into the atmosphere
through a nozzle at high speed. In the propeller-driven turbine, or
turboprop, the turbine not only drives the compressor, but also turns an
outside propeller. The ramjet engine relies on its own forward motion to
compress the air that enters it.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jet stream%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jet stream%@AE@%,%@CR:JET.STREAM      @%%@QR:jet stream@% narrow, swift air currents at altitudes of 7 to 8 mi (11.3 to%@EH@%
12.9 km). The two major jet streams, one in each hemisphere, circle the
globe (although discontinuous at some points), varying between 30 deg and
40 deg in latitude. They flow in easterly directions in wavelike
patterns, with speeds averaging 35 mph (56 km/hr) in summer and 75 mph
(120 km/hr) in winter, although speeds as high as 200 mph (320 km/hr)
have been recorded. Eastbound aircraft fly with the jet stream (a tail
wind) to gain speed and save fuel; westbound aircraft avoid the jet
stream (a head wind).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jewelry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jewelry%@AE@%,%@CR:JEWELRY         @%%@QR:jewelry@% personal adornments worn for ornament, to show rank or wealth,%@EH@%
or to follow custom. Jewelry predates clothing, and necklaces, bracelets,
rings, pins, and earrings have been made of such materials as feathers,
shells, teeth, ivory, and metal. Bronze and silver have been used by
primitive peoples and modern designers, but gold has been the preferred
metal. Jewelry may be decorated, e.g., with %@AU@%ENGRAVING%@BO:          2f1ed9@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ETCHING%@BO:          303c63@%%@AE@% and by
application of %@AU@%ENAMEL%@BO:          2e9ff6@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%MOSAIC%@BO:          641af7@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%GEMS%@BO:          3887db@%%@AE@%, semiprecious stones, and glass.
Ancient Egyptian jewelry used colorful beads and emblematic motifs, e.g.,
the scarab. The Greeks made ornaments of plain gold; after 400 BC gems
and, later, %@AU@%CAMEOS%@BO:          17a3a6@%%@AE@% were used. Roman jewelry was massive, and ropes of
pearls were prized. Medieval jewelry included large brooches and heavy
girdles. In the Renaissance, men and women wore gold chains, jeweled
collars, and pendants, often designed or even rendered by noted artists.
Ornaments crowded with stones were worn to excess in the late 17th cent.
Jewelry was almost superseded in the late 18th cent. by decorative
buttons, watches, and snuffboxes, but the 19th cent. saw the revival of
the bracelet and cameo. With factory production of jewelry, artistry
declined. In the 20th cent. costume jewelry was introduced by Gabrielle
Chanel (see %@AU@%FASHION%@BO:          31dce4@%%@AE@%,). Since the craft revival of the 1960s there has
been renewed interest in handwrought jewelry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jewelweed%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jewelweed%@AE@%,%@CR:JEWELWEED       @%%@QR:jewelweed@% common name for the Balsaminaceae, a family of widely%@EH@%
cultivated annual and perennial herbs. The principal genus is %@AI@%Impatiens,%@AE@%
found in tropical and north temperate regions and so named because its
seed capsules burst when touched; some species are also commonly called
touch-me-not. A few species are grown as ornamentals, e.g., the garden
balsam (%@AI@%I. balsamina%@AE@%).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jewett, Sarah Orne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jewett, Sarah Orne%@AE@%,%@CR:JEWETT          @%%@QR:Jewett, Sarah Orne@% 1849-1909, American author; b. S. Berwick, Me. She is%@EH@%
noted for her perceptive, gently humorous studies of small-town New
England life. The most memorable of her short-story collections is %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Country of the Pointed Firs%@AE@% (1896); her best-known novel is %@AI@%A Country
%@AI@%Doctor%@AE@% (1884).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jewish holidays%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jewish holidays%@AE@%.%@CR:JEWISH.HOLIDAYS @%%@QR:Jewish holidays@% There are seven major holidays in the Jewish calendar.%@EH@%
%@AB@%Rosh Hashanah,%@AE@% the New Year, falls on the 1st and 2d days of the Hebrew
month Tishri (Sept.-Oct.). It is spent in solemn prayer, and a %@AI@%shofar,%@AE@% or
ram's horn, is blown in the synagogue. Rosh Hashanah begins the Ten Days
of Penitence, which end with %@AB@%Yom Kippur,%@AE@% on the 10th of Tishri. This is
the Day of Atonement, a day of fasting and praying for forgiveness for
the past year's sins. %@AB@%Sukkoth,%@AE@% or the Feast of Tabernacles, is the fall
harvest festival; it begins on the 15th of Tishri and lasts eight days
(seven in Israel). Meals are eaten in a %@AI@%sukkah,%@AE@% a booth with a roof of
thatch, to recall the shelters of the Jews when they wandered in the
wilderness. The day after Sukkoth is Simhath Torah Heb.,=rejoicing of the
law, celebrating the annual completion of the reading of the %@AU@%TORAH%@BO:          96ab91@%%@AE@%.
%@AB@%Hanukkah%@AE@% recalls the victory of Judas Maccabeus (see %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%) and the
rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem. It lasts for eight days,
beginning on the 25th of Kislev (Dec.). The Festival of Lights, it is
marked by the lighting of candles in a %@AI@%menorah,%@AE@% an eight-branched
candlestick, to commemorate the miracle of a small vial of oil that
burned for eight days. %@AB@%Purim,%@AE@% the Feast of Lots, on the 14th of Adar
(Feb.-Mar.), celebrates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from a
general massacre (according to the Book of %@AU@%ESTHER%@BO:          302b9e@%%@AE@%, which is read in the
synagogue on this holiday). The day is one of merrymaking, feasting, and
wearing costumes. %@AB@%Passover%@AE@% or %@AB@%Pesach,%@AE@% from the 14th to the 22d of Nisan
(14th to 21st of Nisan in Israel; Mar.-Apr.), possibly a spring festival
originally, recalls the exodus of the Jews, led by %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@%, from Egypt.
Throughout the holiday, %@AI@%matzah%@AE@% (unleavened bread) is eaten. At the %@AI@%seder,%@AE@%
a special Passover meal, the %@AI@%Haggadah,%@AE@% telling the story of the
deliverance from Egypt, is read. %@AB@%Shavuot,%@AE@% on the 6th and 7th of Sivan
(the 6th of Sivan in Israel; May-June), the Feast of Weeks, is an
agricultural festival. The Book of %@AU@%RUTH%@BO:          827592@%%@AE@%, which tells of a grain harvest,
is read in the synagogue. Traditionally, Shavuot also commemorates the
receiving of the %@AU@%TEN COMMANDMENTS%@BO:          93d66a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jewish liturgical music%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jewish liturgical music%@AE@%.%@CR:JEWISH.AL.MUSIC @%%@QR:Jewish liturgical music@% Spontaneous music was common among the ancient%@EH@%
Jews on religious and secular occasions. Singing was responsorial and
antiphonal. Early instruments were the lyre, flute, trumpet, and ram's-
or goat's-horn %@AI@%shofar.%@AE@% Ritual cantillation, or recitative chanting, was
evidently similar to %@AU@%ARABIAN%@BO:           6fa93@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%INDIAN MUSIC%@BO:          478655@%%@AE@%, i.e., melodies with
improvisations. After the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 the
instrumental music was lost, but Oriental Jews preserved the chant. With
the growth of the %@AU@%SYNAGOGUE%@BO:          91dfd6@%%@AE@% came the rise of the cantor. Arabian music
and Italian and German %@AU@%SONG%@BO:          8b7f8c@%%@AE@% were all influential in Europe;
traditionalists reintroduced Oriental elements. Post-Renaissance cantors
developed a coloratura style. New instruments, particularly the %@AU@%ORGAN%@BO:          6ead26@%%@AE@%,
became important. Some subsequent movements have tended back to the
ancient style.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jews%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jews%@AE@%,%@CR:JEWS            @%%@QR:Jews@% accepted designation of believers in %@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@%; originally%@EH@%
represented in the Bible as the descendants of Judah and the dominant
group in Judea. In the Bible, Jewish history begins with the patriarchs
%@AU@%ABRAHAM%@BO:            5bc3@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%ISAAC%@BO:          49e349@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@% in %@AU@%CANAAN%@BO:          17dfc7@%%@AE@%. Jewish agricultural tribes lived in
Egypt until %@AU@%MOSES%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@% led them away from the persecutions of Ramses II and
eventually back to Canaan. %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@%, an early Jewish king from the tribe of
Judah, defeated the enemies of the Jews, expanded his territory, and
brought peace and prosperity to his people. His son %@AU@%SOLOMON%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@% built the
first %@AU@%TEMPLE%@BO:          93cab9@%%@AE@% and was famous for his wealth and wisdom. After Solomon's
death the Jewish kingdom split into two smaller kingdoms, %@AU@%ISRAEL%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%JUDAH%@BO:          4d7696@%%@AE@%. In 722 BC the Assyrians conquered Israel, sending most Israelites
into exile (see %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%). Judah also was conquered. Under
Babylonian rule the Temple was destroyed (586 BC), but it was rebuilt by
516 BC. The %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@% (2d and 1st cent. BC) restored Jewish independence
for a time, but Roman domination followed (see %@AU@%ROME%@BO:          80bece@%%@AE@%), and Jerusalem was
destroyed (AD 70). After the fall of the Roman Empire, Jews migrated to
Western Europe. From the 9th to 12th cent. their conditions improved,
particularly in Spain, but the period from the Crusades to the 18th cent.
was one of intermittent persecution in Europe, where the Jews served as a
convenient scapegoat in troubled times (see %@AU@%ANTI-SEMITISM%@BO:           6678c@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%INQUISITION%@BO:          486fa4@%%@AE@%).
The rise of capitalism improved their economic condition, and Jews gained
political emancipation, in the 17th cent. in Holland and later in other
countries. With the coming to power of the %@AU@%NAZIS%@BO:          67d2b2@%%@AE@% in Germany, in 1933,
persecution of the Jews became increasingly widespread and violent (see
%@AU@%HOLOCAUST%@BO:          43adfc@%%@AE@%). The establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 restored the
Jewish homeland after almost 2,000 years but has remained a source of
conflict with the Arabs (see %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%). The population of Jews
worldwide before %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@% was 16 million; 6 million died in the
Holocaust. In 1980 the world Jewish population was estimated at 13
million: U.S., 5.7 million; Israel, 3.3 million; Europe, 3 million
(including 1.7 million in the Soviet Union); the remainder in Africa and
other parts of the Americas and Asia. See also %@AU@%HASIDIM%@BO:          405eae@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%SEPHARDIM%@BO:          870311@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jezebel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jezebel%@AE@%:%@CR:JEZEBEL         @%%@QR:Jezebel@% see %@AU@%AHAB%@BO:           22847@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jiang Qing%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jiang Qing%@AE@%%@CR:JIANG.QING      @%%@QR:Jiang Qing@%, 1913-, Chinese Communist leader, widow of %@AU@%MAO TSE-TUNG%@BO:          5b461f@%%@AE@%. She%@EH@%
was a radical figure in the %@AU@%CULTURAL REVOLUTION%@BO:          2541f0@%%@AE@% (1966-69) and was
appointed (1969) to the politburo. After Mao's death, she was one of the
%@AU@%GANG OF FOUR%@BO:          37d69d@%%@AE@% arrested (1976) for planning a coup. In 1981 she was
convicted and received a death sentence, which was suspended for two
years and then commuted to life imprisonment in 1983.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jidda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jidda%@AE@%%@CR:JIDDA           @%%@QR:Jidda@% or %@AB@%Jedda,%@AE@%city (1981 est. pop. 900,000), W Saudi Arabia, on the Red%@EH@%
Sea. It is the port of %@AU@%MECCA%@BO:          5de8a1@%%@AE@% and annually receives a huge influx of
pilgrims. Present-day Jidda is not more than three centuries old, but Old
Jidda, c.12 mi (19 km) south of the modern city, was founded c.646 by the
caliph Uthman. Jidda was ruled by the Turks until 1916 and was conquered
by %@AU@%IBN SAUD%@BO:          464bcf@%%@AE@% in 1925.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jimenez, Juan Ramon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jimenez, Juan Ramon%@AE@%%@CR:JIMENEZ         @%%@QR:Jimenez, Juan Ramon@%, 1881-1958, Spanish poet. Early identified with%@EH@%
%@AU@%MODERNISMO%@BO:          620e80@%%@AE@%, as in his %@AI@%Elejias%@AE@% (1908) and the distinctive prose poems of
%@AI@%Platero and I%@AE@% (1914-17), he later adopted a simpler, sparer style
suffused with mysticism, as in %@AI@%Eternidades%@AE@% (1918) and %@AI@%Total Season%@AE@%
(1946). Jimenez left Spain during the civil war to live first in the
U.S., then in Puerto Rico. He was awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jimenez de Cisneros, Francisco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jimenez de Cisneros, Francisco%@AE@%%@CR:JIMENEZEROS     @%%@QR:Jimenez de Cisneros, Francisco@%, 1436-1517, Spanish prelate and statesman.%@EH@%
As archbishop of Toledo, he tried to convert the %@AU@%MOORS%@BO:          63a1a4@%%@AE@% in Granada and
provoked an uprising (1500-2). He twice acted as regent of %@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@%
(1506-7, 1516) and was appointed inquisitor general and cardinal. In 1509
he led the Spanish expedition that captured Oran in Africa. Cardinal
Jimenez enacted clerical reforms, promoted better education for
churchmen, and had the Polyglot Bible compiled at his own expense.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jimenez de Quesada, Gonzalo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jimenez de Quesada, Gonzalo%@AE@%%@CR:JIMENEZADA      @%%@QR:Jimenez de Quesada, Gonzalo@% c.1499-1579, Spanish %@AU@%CONQUISTADOR%@BO:          22387e@%%@AE@% in%@EH@%
Colombia. Commissioned to explore the Magdalena R. in search of %@AU@%EL
%@AU@%DORADO%@BO:          2d45ee@%%@AE@%, he set out in 1536. He defeated the Chibcha and founded (1538)
%@AU@%BOGOTA%@BO:          116d88@%%@AE@% as the capital of New Granada (now %@AU@%COLOMBIA%@BO:          20685c@%%@AE@%). In 1550 he was made
marshal of New Granada and councillor of Bogota for life. His 1569
expedition in search of El Dorado was disastrous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jinan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jinan%@AE@%%@CR:JINAN           @%%@QR:Jinan@% or %@AB@%Tsinan%@AE@%(both: je-nan, city (1986 est. pop. 1,430,000), capital of%@EH@%
Shandong prov., E China, 3 mi (4.8 km) S of the %@AU@%HUANG HE%@BO:          44eba4@%%@AE@%. Over 100
natural springs are located in Jinan, which is also a regional
manufacturing center producing metals, machinery, chemicals, textiles,
and paper.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jinnah, Muhammad Ali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jinnah, Muhammad Ali%@AE@%,%@CR:JINNAH          @%%@QR:Jinnah, Muhammad Ali@% 1876-1948, founder of %@AU@%PAKISTAN%@BO:          701869@%%@AE@%. He at first%@EH@%
supported the %@AU@%INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS%@BO:          478d0e@%%@AE@% and its advocacy of Hindu-Muslim
unity, but after 1934 he led the %@AU@%MUSLIM LEAGUE%@BO:          659f94@%%@AE@% in its agitation for a
separate Muslim nation. He gained power during World War II by supporting
British war efforts. In the postwar independence negotiations he was
successful in his insistence on the creation of Pakistan (1947) as the
homeland for India's Muslims.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jinni%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jinni%@AE@%%@CR:JINNI           @%%@QR:jinni@%, plural %@AB@%jinn,%@AE@% in Arabic and Islamic folklore, spirit or demon with%@EH@%
supernatural powers, especially of changing size and shape. Both good and
evil, jinn are popular figures in Near Eastern literature, particularly
in the %@AI@%Thousand and One Nights. Genie%@AE@% is the English form.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jivaro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jivaro%@AE@%,%@CR:JIVARO          @%%@QR:Jivaro@% Indians of Ecuador (see %@AU@%SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          8bf1c9@%%@AE@%). They engage in%@EH@%
farming, hunting, fishing, and weaving. Each patrilineal family group
lives in a large, isolated communal house. The Jivaro, who were once
famous for the practice of ritual head shrinking, long resisted conquest.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joanna%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joanna%@AE@%%@CR:JOANNA          @%%@QR:Joanna@% (the Mad), 1479-1555, Spanish queen of %@AU@%CASTILE%@BO:          19d52a@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LEON%@BO:          53fc90@%%@AE@% (1504-55).%@EH@%
Because of her insanity the kingdoms were ruled by two regents, her
husband, %@AU@%PHILIP I%@BO:          749892@%%@AE@% (1504-6), and her father, %@AU@%FERDINAND V%@BO:          328842@%%@AE@% (1506-16). Her
son Charles (later Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%) was proclaimed joint
ruler of Castile in 1516, and Joanna was confined to a castle for life.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joan of Arc%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joan of Arc%@AE@%,%@CR:JOAN.OF.ARC     @%%@QR:Joan of Arc@% 1412?-31, French saint and national heroine, called the Maid%@EH@%
of Orleans. A farm girl, she began at a young age to hear the "voices" of
St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret. When she was about 16, the
voices exhorted her to bear aid to the %@AU@%DAUPHIN%@BO:          26b3dc@%%@AE@%, later %@AU@%CHARLES VII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% of
France, then kept from the throne by the English in the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%. Joan journeyed in male attire to meet the dauphin and conquered his
skepticism as to her divine mission. She was furnished with troops, but
her leadership provided spirit and morale more than military prowess. In
May 1429 she raised the siege of Orleans, and in June she defeated the
English at Patay. After considerable persuasion the dauphin agreed to be
crowned at Rheims, and Joan was at the pinnacle of her fortunes. In Sept.
1429 she unsuccessfully besieged Paris. The following spring she went to
relieve Compiegne, but was captured by the Burgundians and sold to the
English, who were eager for her death. To escape responsibility, the
English turned her over to the ecclesiastical court at Rouen, where she
was tried for heresy and witchcraft by French clerics who supported the
English. Probably her most serious crime was the claim of direct
inspiration from God; in the eyes of the court this refusal to accept the
church hierarchy constituted heresy. Only at the end of the lengthy trial
did she recant. She was condemned to life imprisonment, but shortly
afterward she retracted her abjuration. She was then turned over to the
secular court as a relapsed heretic and was burned at the stake (May 30,
1431) in Rouen. The proceedings of the original trial were annulled in
1456. Joan was canonized in 1920. Her career lent itself to numerous
legends, and she has been represented in much art and literature. Feast:
May 30.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Job%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Job%@AE@%%@CR:JOB             @%%@QR:Job@%, book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 18th in the Authorized Version. Based on%@EH@%
a folktale, it may have been written between 600 and 400 BC It discusses,
in dialogue or dramatic form, the problem of good and evil in the world.
In the prologue (1-2), Satan obtains God's permission to test the
"upright man" Job; accordingly, all Job has is destroyed, and he is
physically afflicted. The main part of the book (3-31) consists of
speeches by Job and three friends who come to "comfort" him. A fourth
speaker, Elihu (32-37), who accuses Job of arrogant pride, is followed by
God himself (38-42), who rebukes Job and his friends. Job is restored to
happiness. The ethical problem of the book is not explicitly resolved;
rather, the author intended to criticize a philosophy that associated sin
with the sufferer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jobs, Steven Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jobs, Steven Paul%@AE@%,%@CR:JOBS            @%%@QR:Jobs, Steven Paul@% 1955-, American businessman; b. San Francisco. Working%@EH@%
with Stephen Wozniak, he created the company that produced the Apple
computer in 1976. He resigned (1985) and founded the NeXT Computer
Company.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jocasta%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jocasta%@AE@%:%@CR:JOCASTA         @%%@QR:Jocasta@% see %@AU@%OEDIPUS%@BO:          6cf262@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joel%@AE@%,%@CR:JOEL            @%%@QR:Joel@% book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 29th in the Authorized Version, 2d of%@EH@%
the Minor %@AU@%PROPHETS%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@%. Dated variously from the 9th to the 3d cent. BC, it
predicts a plague of locusts, followed by blessings, this being a
Messianic prophecy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joffre, Joseph Jacques Cesaire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joffre, Joseph Jacques Cesaire%@AE@%%@CR:JOFFRE          @%%@QR:Joffre, Joseph Jacques Cesaire@%, 1852-1931, marshal of France. French%@EH@%
commander in chief from 1911, he deserves partial credit for the victory
of the Marne (1914) in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%. After the Germans nearly captured
Verdun (1916), Joffre was replaced by Robert Georges Nivelle.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joffrey, Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joffrey, Robert%@AE@%:%@CR:JOFFREY         @%%@QR:Joffrey, Robert@% see %@AU@%ROBERT JOFFREY BALLET%@BO:          7faa2c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johanan ben Zakkai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johanan ben Zakkai%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHANANKAI      @%%@QR:Johanan ben Zakkai@% fl. 1st cent. AD, leader of the Pharisees of%@EH@%
Jerusalem before the destruction of the Temple (AD 70) and, later,
founder of the academy at Jabneh. The academy became the new religious
center and the site of the %@AU@%SANHEDRIN%@BO:          841231@%%@AE@%, assuring the continuation of
Judaism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johannesburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johannesburg%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHANNESBURG    @%%@QR:Johannesburg@% largest city (1985 est. pop. 1,609,000) of South Africa,%@EH@%
%@AU@%TRANSVAAL%@BO:          978186@%%@AE@% prov., on the southern slopes of the %@AU@%WITWATERSRAND%@BO:          a2af22@%%@AE@%. The
sprawling city, situated in the nation's major gold-mining region, is a
manufacturing and commercial center and a transportation hub. Founded
(1886) as a gold-mining settlement, it grew rapidly and had c.100,000
people by 1900.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN            @%%@QR:John, Saint@% one of the Twelve Disciples, traditional author of the%@EH@%
fourth %@AU@%GOSPEL%@BO:          3ba55d@%%@AE@%, three %@AU@%EPISTLES%@BO:          2f8556@%%@AE@%, and the %@AU@%REVELATION%@BO:          7e89bd@%%@AE@%. He and St. James the
Greater were sons of Zebedee; Jesus called them Boanerges, or Sons of
Thunder. With %@AU@%PETER%@BO:          73f868@%%@AE@%, they were closest to Jesus, witnessed the
Transfiguration, and were at Gethsemane. Jesus, dying, committed the
Virgin Mary to John's care. He may be the same as St. John of Ephesus (d.
AD c.100). He is variously known as St. John the Evangelist, St. John the
Divine, and the Beloved Disciple.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John VIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John VIII%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.VIII       @%%@QR:John VIII@% d. 882, pope (872-82), a Roman. He strenuously opposed St.%@EH@%
Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople, and when Ignatius died, he
recognized %@AU@%PHOTIUS%@BO:          750d06@%%@AE@% as patriarch, momentarily solving the differences
between East and West. John crowned the emperors %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1c1e34@%%@AE@% (the Bald;
875) and %@AU@%CHARLES III%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@% (the Fat; 881). He was murdered by relatives.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John XII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John XII%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.XII        @%%@QR:John XII@% c.937-964, pope (955-64), a Roman named Octavian. Elected pope%@EH@%
before age 20, John led a notoriously immoral life. He was allied with
%@AU@%OTTO I%@BO:          6f746a@%%@AE@% and crowned him (962) the first German emperor, but later sided
with Berengar II of Italy. Otto conquered Rome, deposed John, and elected
Leo VIII as pope. John retook Rome (964), but was soon murdered.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John XXIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John XXIII%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.XXIII1     @%%@QR:John XXIII@% antipope (1410-15): see %@AU@%COSSA, BALDASSARRE%@BO:          23bc6f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John XXIII%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John XXIII%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.XXIII2     @%%@QR:John XXIII@% 1881-1963, pope (1958-63), an Italian named Angelo Giuseppe%@EH@%
Roncalli. He was a papal diplomat in the Balkans and Near East (1925-44),
papal nuncio to France (1944-53), and in 1953 was named cardinal and
patriarch of Venice. As pope he showed great concern for church reform,
the promotion of peace, world social welfare (expressed in his encyclical
%@AI@%Mater et Magistra%@AE@%), and for dialogue with other faiths. The convening
(1962) of the Second %@AU@%VATICAN COUNCIL%@BO:          9c1216@%%@AE@% was the high point of his reign. His
heartiness, his overflowing love of humanity, and his freshness of
approach to ecclesiastical affairs made John one of the best-loved popes
of modern times.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN1           @%%@QR:John@% Byzantine emperors. %@AB@%John I%@AE@% (Tzimisces), c.925-76 (r.969-76), began%@EH@%
his reign by murdering %@AU@%NICEPHORUS II%@BO:          69c97a@%%@AE@%. He extended Byzantine power against
the Russians and Arabs. %@AB@%John II%@AE@% (Comnenus), 1088-1143 (r.1118-43),
succeeded his father, %@AU@%ALEXIUS I%@BO:           3745d@%%@AE@%. He failed to cancel Venetian trade
privileges but won military victories. %@AB@%John III%@AE@% (Ducas Vatatzes), d. 1254
(r.1222-54), succeeded his father-in-law, Theodore I. During his reign
the empire thrived, and he almost reunited the Byzantine territories.
%@AB@%John IV%@AE@% (Lascaris), b. c.1250, d. after 1273, succeeded his father,
Theodore II, under a regent (1258-61). Michael Palaeologus became
co-ruler (1259), had the boy emperor blinded and imprisoned (1261), and
succeeded as %@AU@%MICHAEL VIII%@BO:          5fefb7@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%John V%@AE@% (Palaeologus), 1332-91 (r.1341-76,
1379-91), had his throne usurped during his minority by %@AB@%John VI%@AE@% and later
by his son Andronicus IV. He lost territory to the Ottoman Turks and
recognized their suzerainty (1371). %@AB@%John VI%@AE@% (Cantacuzene), c.1292-1383
(r.1341-54), usurped the throne of John V, calling to the Ottoman Turks
for aid. He later abdicated. %@AB@%John VII%@AE@% (Palaeologus), c.1370-1408,
grandson of John V, briefly usurped (1390) the throne of John V with
Turkish help and later became co-ruler (1394-1403) with his uncle %@AU@%MANUEL
%@AU@%II%@BO:          5b348c@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%John VIII%@AE@% (Palaeologus), 1390-1448 (r.1425-48), son of Manuel II,
ruled an empire reduced to the city of Constantinople. He sought in vain
to secure Western aid against the Turks by agreeing at the Council of
Florence (1439) to a union of the Eastern and Western churches. His
brother and successor, %@AU@%CONSTANTINE XI%@BO:          2279f8@%%@AE@%, was the last Byzantine emperor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN2           @%%@QR:John@% 1167-1216, king of England (1199-1216); youngest son of %@AU@%HENRY II%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
After his brother %@AU@%RICHARD I%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@% left on the Third %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%, John conspired
unsuccessfully with %@AU@%PHILIP II%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@% of France to supplant Richard as king. On
Richard's death, John ascended the throne to the exclusion of his nephew
%@AU@%ARTHUR I%@BO:           84da3@%%@AE@% of Brittany, who, with the aid of Philip II, began a revolt in
France. Although Arthur was captured (1202), John lost many of his French
possessions to Philip. John's refusal to accept a new archbishop of
Canterbury led to his excommunication (1209). To regain papal favor, he
surrendered (1213) his kingdom to Pope %@AU@%INNOCENT III%@BO:          4854b3@%%@AE@%, and received it back
as a papal fief. In England his abuse of feudal custom in raising money
aroused intense opposition from the barons. They rebelled in 1215 and
compelled John to set his seal to the %@AU@%MAGNA CARTA%@BO:          596ecc@%%@AE@%. He was succeeded by
his son %@AU@%HENRY III%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN3           @%%@QR:John@% kings of France. %@AB@%John I%@AE@% (the Posthumous), 1316, was the posthumous%@EH@%
son of %@AU@%LOUIS X%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% and lived only five days. He was succeeded by his uncle
%@AU@%PHILIP V%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%John II%@AE@% (the Good), 1319-64 (r.1350-64), was the son of %@AU@%PHILIP
%@AU@%VI%@BO:          748511@%%@AE@%. His reign was troubled by the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@% with England and by
his quarrels with %@AU@%CHARLES II%@BO:          1bf9d6@%%@AE@% of Navarre. Captured (1356) by the English
at Poitiers, John was released (1360) by the Treaty of Bretigny for a
ransom and hostages. In 1364 one of the hostages escaped, and John, to
save his honor, returned to England, where he died. His son %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%
succeeded him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN4           @%%@QR:John@% kings of %@AU@%HUNGARY.%@BO:          455f06@%%@AE@% %@AB@%John I%@AE@% (John Zapolya), 1487-1540 (r.1526-40),%@EH@%
voivode governor of Transylvania (1511-26), was the son of Stephen
%@AU@%ZAPOLYA%@BO:          a4f2fa@%%@AE@%. He succeeded King Louis II, who was killed at the battle of
Mohacs (1526). The succession was challenged by Ferdinand of Austria
(later Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%FERDINAND I%@BO:          3276fe@%%@AE@%), but John prevailed and was
confirmed as king by the Turkish sultan, who exercised real power. His
son and successor, %@AB@%John II%@AE@% (John Sigismund Zapolya), 1540-71 (r.
1540-71), was crowned as an infant. Sultan %@AU@%SULAYMAN I%@BO:          90638f@%%@AE@% invaded (1541)
Hungary and made John prince of %@AU@%TRANSYLVANIA%@BO:          9784f0@%%@AE@% under Turkish suzerainty.
Deposed (1551) by Austrian interests, John was restored (1556) by Turkish
pressure. During his reign Transylvania adopted (1564) Calvinism as the
state religion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN5           @%%@QR:John@% kings of %@AU@%POLAND%@BO:          774f3b@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%John II%@AE@% (John Casimir), 1609-72 (r.1648-68),%@EH@%
succeeded his brother, %@AU@%LADISLAUS IV%@BO:          51735f@%%@AE@%. During John's reign, known as the
Deluge, Poland lost the E Ukraine to Russia, Livonia to Sweden, and East
Prussia to Brandenburg. Wars against Cossacks, Turks, Tatars, Russia,
Transylvania, and Sweden occupied much of his time. He abdicated in 1668
and retired to a monastery. %@AB@%John III%@AE@% (John Sobieski), 1624-96
(r.1674-96), was the champion of Christian Europe against the Turks. In
1683 he relieved the Turkish siege of Vienna, and in 1684 he formed a
Holy League with the Pope, the Holy Roman emperor, and Venice. He failed
to wrest Moldavia and Walachia from Turkey. He was succeeded as king by
the elector of Saxony, whose accession as %@AU@%AUGUSTUS II%@BO:           9d1b2@%%@AE@% marked the virtual
end of Poland's independence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN6           @%%@QR:John@% kings of %@AU@%PORTUGAL%@BO:          786f48@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%John I%@AE@% (the Great), 1357?-1433 (r.1385-1433),%@EH@%
illegitimate son of %@AU@%PETER I%@BO:          741191@%%@AE@%, led a popular revolt in 1384 against the
Portuguese regency and withstood a Castilian siege of Lisbon. Elected
king the next year, he defeated the Castilians and assured Portugal's
independence. His reign was one of the most glorious in Portuguese
history. %@AB@%John II%@AE@% (the Perfect), 1455-95 (r.1481-95), was an astute
politician and a patron of Renaissance culture. He supported Portuguese
exploration and in 1494 agreed to set bounds for Portuguese and Spanish
colonization. %@AB@%John III%@AE@% (the Fortunate), 1502-57 (r.1521-57), ruled at the
height of the Portuguese empire, when the colonization of %@AU@%BRAZIL%@BO:          137c76@%%@AE@% began
and its Asian territories were extended. But the decline of agriculture
and population portended Portugal's stagnation following his reign. %@AB@%John
%@AB@%IV,%@AE@% 1604-56 (r.1640-56), became king of independent Portugal upon the
revolt from Spain (1640). He consolidated his position against Spain by
concluding alliances with France and other nations. %@AB@%John V%@AE@% (the
Magnanimous), 1689-1750 (r.1706-50), maintained Portugal's alliance with
England and kept the peace. Gold from Brazil permitted him to become a
great patron of arts and letters and he beautified Lisbon. Wealth also
made him independent of the %@AU@%CORTES%@BO:          23988d@%%@AE@%, and he ruled with increasing
absolutism. %@AB@%John VI,%@AE@% 1769-1826 (r.1816-26), was regent for his mother,
Maria I, who was insane. He lost a war to France (1801) and eventually
fled (1807) to Brazil. He returned (1821) after a revolution and the
proclamation of a liberal constitution, but he did everything he could to
modify it. In 1825 he recognized Brazil's independence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John, Elton (Hercules)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John, Elton (Hercules)%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN7           @%%@QR:John, Elton (Hercules)@% 1947-, English popular singer, pianist, and%@EH@%
composer; b. Reginald Kenneth Dwight. By the mid-1970s he had become
famous presenting his own and other composers' songs in spectacularly
staged productions. His songs include "Benny and the Jets" and "Rocket
Man."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN8           @%%@QR:John@% three epistles of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, 23d, 24th, and 25th books in%@EH@%
the usual order, ascribed to St. %@AU@%JOHN%@BO:          4c6541@%%@AE@%, the disciple. First John was
clearly written by the author of the %@AU@%GOSPEL%@BO:          3ba55d@%%@AE@%. Second and Third John are
generally agreed to be by the same man. First John is a homily on the
blending of mystical and practical religion. Second John, the Bible's
shortest (13 verses) book, warns against false teachers who deny %@AU@%JESUS'%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%
historicity. Third John protests the failure of a church leader to
receive teaching missionaries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John, Gospel according to Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John, Gospel according to Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN9           @%%@QR:John, Gospel according to Saint@% fourth book of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
clearly set off from the other three Synoptic %@AU@%GOSPELS%@BO:          3ba55d@%%@AE@%, although John may
have used both %@AU@%MARK%@BO:          5bdcd6@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LUKE%@BO:          57c990@%%@AE@% as sources. The evangelist seems to have two
aims-to show that %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% is the vital force in the world now and forever,
and that he lived on earth to reveal himself in the flesh. In a
philosophical prologue, Jesus is identified with the Word (Logos). The
book recounts selected incidents from Jesus' ministry and (13-21) the
Passion and %@AU@%RESURRECTION%@BO:          7e7e9d@%%@AE@%. The influence on %@AU@%CHRISTIANITY%@BO:          1df35f@%%@AE@% of the Gospel of
John, particularly with reference to its enunciation of Christ's position
in the %@AU@%TRINITY%@BO:          97db50@%%@AE@%, has been enormous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John Birch Society%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John Birch Society%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.BIETY      @%%@QR:John Birch Society@% right-wing, anti-Communist organization in the U.S.%@EH@%
It was founded (1958) by Robert Welch. Among its objectives are the
repeal of social security legislation and of the graduated income tax,
and the impeachment of certain government officials.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John Bull%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John Bull%@AE@%:%@CR:JOHN.BULL       @%%@QR:John Bull@% see %@AU@%ARBUTHNOT, JOHN%@BO:           74255@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John Chrysostom, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John Chrysostom, Saint%@AE@%%@CR:JOHN.CHRYSOSTOM @%%@QR:John Chrysostom, Saint@%, c.347-407, Doctor of the Church, greatest of the%@EH@%
Greek Fathers. Made (398) patriarch of %@AU@%CONSTANTINOPLE%@BO:          228d8b@%%@AE@%, he came to be
admired for his eloquence, ascetic life, and charity. After attempting
church reform and denouncing the ways of the imperial court, John was
illegally deposed (403) by the Empress Eudoxia and Bishop Theophilus.
Recalled briefly, he was again sent into exile, where he died. His
writings, notable for their purity of Greek style, greatly influenced
Christian thought. Feasts: Nov. 13 in the East; Sept. 13 in the West.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John Damascene, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John Damascene, Saint%@AE@%:%@CR:JOHN.DAMASCENE  @%%@QR:John Damascene, Saint@% see %@AU@%JOHN OF DAMASCUS, SAINT%@BO:          4ca9d2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John Henry%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John Henry%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.HENRY      @%%@QR:John Henry@% legendary black American famous for his strength, celebrated%@EH@%
in ballads and tales. In one version of the story he outworks a steam
drill, but dies from the strain. The legend may have some historical
basis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John Maurice of Nassau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John Maurice of Nassau%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.MA.NASSAU  @%%@QR:John Maurice of Nassau@% 1604-79, Dutch general and colonial%@EH@%
administrator; grandnephew of %@AU@%WILLIAM THE SILENT%@BO:          a1efe5@%%@AE@%. As governor-general of
%@AU@%BRAZIL%@BO:          137c76@%%@AE@% (1636-43) for the %@AU@%DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY%@BO:          2b761d@%%@AE@% he took NE Brazil from
Portugal; rebuilt %@AU@%RECIFE%@BO:          7d28ad@%%@AE@%; and, to insure the supply of slave labor,
seized Portuguese strongholds on the Guinea coast. He later held commands
in the %@AU@%THIRTY YEARS WAR%@BO:          950bf9@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%DUTCH WARS%@BO:          2b6fc9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnny Appleseed%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnny Appleseed%@AE@%:%@CR:JOHNNY.D        @%%@QR:Johnny Appleseed@% see %@AU@%CHAPMAN, JOHN%@BO:          1ba151@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of Austria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of Austria%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.OF1        @%%@QR:John of Austria@% 1545-78, Spanish admiral and general, illegitimate son%@EH@%
of Holy Roman Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES V%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@%. In 1571 he won the famous naval victory
of %@AU@%LEPANTO%@BO:          54244f@%%@AE@% over the Turks. Appointed governor-general of the %@AU@%NETHERLANDS%@BO:          687111@%%@AE@%
(1576-78), he tried to stamp out rebellion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of Austria%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of Austria%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.OF2        @%%@QR:John of Austria@% 1629-79, Spanish general, illegitimate son of Philip IV.%@EH@%
He was viceroy of Sicily (1648-51) and fought rebels (1656-58) in the
Spanish %@AU@%NETHERLANDS%@BO:          687111@%%@AE@%, where he lost the battle of the Dunes (1658). His
campaign (1661-64) to reconquer Portugal also failed. In 1677 he
overthrew the Spanish regency of the queen-mother Mariana but ruled only
briefly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of Damascus, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of Damascus, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.OFS        @%%@QR:John of Damascus, Saint@% or %@AB@%Saint John Damascene,%@AE@%c.675-c.749, Syrian%@EH@%
theologian, Father of the Church, Doctor of the Church. He wrote against
%@AU@%ICONOCLASM%@BO:          466e35@%%@AE@% and defended orthodoxy. %@AI@%The Fountain of Wisdom%@AE@% is his
theological masterpiece. Feast: Dec. 4.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of Gaunt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of Gaunt%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.OF.GAUNT   @%%@QR:John of Gaunt@% 1340-99, duke of Lancaster, fourth son of %@AU@%EDWARD III%@BO:          2c7ff5@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
England. He acquired the Lancaster holdings (see %@AU@%LANCASTER, HOUSE OF%@BO:          51d2e3@%%@AE@%)
through marriage and became one of the most influential nobles in
England. He served under his brother %@AU@%EDWARD THE BLACK PRINCE%@BO:          2ca045@%%@AE@% in the
%@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@% and by his second marriage (1371) gained a claim on the
throne of Castile. For a short time John, in effect, ruled England for
his aging father; he remained powerful under his nephew %@AU@%RICHARD II%@BO:          7f0210@%%@AE@%. From
1386 to 1388 he fought in vain to make good his Castilian claims.
Returning (1389) to England, John helped to restore peace between Richard
II and the barons. In 1396 he married Catherine Swynford; they were
ancestors of the %@AU@%TUDORS%@BO:          986ea3@%%@AE@%. John was the patron of %@AU@%CHAUCER%@BO:          1c4848@%%@AE@%. His eldest son
was %@AU@%HENRY IV%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of Lancaster, duke of Bedford%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of Lancaster, duke of Bedford%@AE@%:%@CR:JOHN.OFER       @%%@QR:John of Lancaster, duke of Bedford@% see %@AU@%BEDFORD, JOHN OF LANCASTER, DUKE%@EH@%
%@AU@%OF%@BO:           d95c7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of Leiden%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of Leiden%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.OF.LEIDEN  @%%@QR:John of Leiden@% c.1509-1536, Dutch Anabaptist leader. In 1534, following%@EH@%
a revolt in Munster by %@AU@%ANABAPTISTS%@BO:           50096@%%@AE@%, he set up a theocracy and led, as
"king," a communistic and polygamous state until expelled (1535) by the
prince bishop. He and the other leaders were tortured and executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of Luxemburg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of Luxemburg%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.OFRG       @%%@QR:John of Luxemburg@% 1296-1346, king of Bohemia (1310-46), son of Holy%@EH@%
Roman Emperor %@AU@%HENRY VII%@BO:          41a437@%%@AE@%. He was elected king after the death of his
father-in-law, Wenceslaus II. Although blind, he fought on the French
side at Crecy in the %@AU@%HUNDRED YEARS WAR%@BO:          45512d@%%@AE@%, where he was killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John of the Cross, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John of the Cross, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.OFSS       @%%@QR:John of the Cross, Saint@% 1542-91, Spanish mystic and poet, Doctor of the%@EH@%
Church. He was a founder of the Discalced %@AU@%CARMELITES%@BO:          19000d@%%@AE@% and a friend of St.
%@AU@%THERESA%@BO:          94d8ba@%%@AE@% of Avila. His reforming zeal antagonized the hierarchy, and he
was imprisoned in 1577. In his cell he wrote %@AI@%Spiritual Canticle%@AE@% and began
%@AI@%Songs of the Soul,%@AE@% which are among the finest creations of Spanish
literature. After escaping (1578), he went to Andalusia, where he wrote
masterly prose treatises on mystical theology, notably %@AI@%The Dark Night of
%@AI@%the Soul%@AE@% and %@AI@%The Ascent of Mount Carmel.%@AE@% Feast: Dec. 14.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John Paul II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John Paul II%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.PAUL.II    @%%@QR:John Paul II@% 1920-, pope (1978-), a Pole named Karol Wojtyla. Archbishop%@EH@%
of Krakow, he was elected pope in Oct. 1978. He was the first non-Italian
pope in 450 years and the first Polish pope. Conservative on doctrine,
John Paul traveled widely early in his reign, e.g., to Poland and the
U.S. in 1979. Following a trip to the Far East (1981), he was seriously
wounded at the Vatican on May 13, 1981, by a Turkish terrorist. Since his
recovery, John Paul has worked for ecumenism, e.g., his 1982 trip to
Britain, where he held an ecumenical service in Canterbury Cathedral. He
has also been an outspoken commentator on world events, perhaps the most
notable example being his opposition to the imposition of martial law in
Poland. His predecessor, %@AB@%John Paul I,%@AE@% 1912-78, pope (1978), an Italian
named Albino Luciani, who had been patriarch of Venice, was elected pope
in Aug. 1978 and reigned for only 34 days before his death.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johns, Jasper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johns, Jasper%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNS           @%%@QR:Johns, Jasper@% 1930-, American artist;. b. Augusta, Ga. Influenced by%@EH@%
Marcel %@AU@%DUCHAMP%@BO:          2b05b7@%%@AE@%, Johns tried to transform common objects into art by
placing them in an art context. His paintings of flags and targets
(1954-59) heralded %@AU@%POP ART%@BO:          7821ef@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johns Hopkins University, The%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johns Hopkins University, The%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNS.HY        @%%@QR:Johns Hopkins University, The@% mainly at Baltimore, Md.; incorporated%@EH@%
(with Johns Hopkins Hospital) 1867; opened 1876. Patterned after a
European university, it emphasized graduate research over collegiate
instruction, becoming a model for programs at other institutions. The
hospital became the nucleus of Johns Hopkins's famous medical school
(est. 1893). It has a noted school of advanced international studies
(Washington, D.C.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Andrew%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Andrew%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON1        @%%@QR:Johnson, Andrew@% 1808-75, 17th president of the U.S. (1865-69); b.%@EH@%
Raleigh, N.C. A self-educated tailor, he rose in Tennessee politics to
become congressman (1843-53), governor (1853-57), and U.S. senator
(1857-62). In Washington, Johnson voted with other Southern legislators
on questions of slavery, but after Tennessee seceded (June 1861) he
remained in the Senate and vigorously supported Pres. %@AU@%LINCOLN%@BO:          553f1e@%%@AE@%, who
appointed him (1862) military governor of Tennessee. As a Southerner and
a war Democrat, he was an ideal choice as a running mate to Lincoln on
the successful Union ticket in 1864, and he succeeded to the presidency
after Lincoln's assassination. As president he was denounced by the
radical Republicans for his %@AU@%RECONSTRUCTION%@BO:          7d3457@%%@AE@% program, and in 1866 his
political power began to decline sharply. When Johnson tried to force
Secy. of War Edwin M. Stanton-whom he rightly suspected of conspiring
with congressional leaders-out of office, the radical Republicans sought
to remove the president. On Feb. 24, 1868, the House passed a resolution
of %@AU@%IMPEACHMENT%@BO:          46efc6@%%@AE@% against him. The most important of the charges, which were
purely political, was that he had violated the %@AU@%TENURE OF OFFICE ACT%@BO:          940622@%%@AE@% in
the Stanton affair. On Mar. 5 the Senate was organized as a court to hear
the charges. The president himself did not appear. In spite of tremendous
pressure brought to bear on several senators, the Senate failed to
convict by one vote. Johnson's administration had some accomplishments,
notably the purchase (1867) of Alaska. After his presidency he was
returned (1875) to the Senate from Tennessee, but died shortly afterward.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Eyvind%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Eyvind%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON2        @%%@QR:Johnson, Eyvind@% 1900-1976, Swedish novelist and short-story writer. He%@EH@%
is probably best known for his cycle of four autobiographical novels, %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Novel about Olof%@AE@% (1934-37), which is noted for its psychological
penetration. Other novels include %@AI@%Return to Ithaca%@AE@% (1946) and %@AI@%Steps into
%@AI@%Silence%@AE@%(1973). He shared the 1974 Nobel Prize in literature with his
countryman Harry %@AU@%MARTINSON%@BO:          5c53a3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, James Weldon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, James Weldon%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON3        @%%@QR:Johnson, James Weldon@% 1871-1938, black American author; b. Jacksonville,%@EH@%
Fla. A lawyer, he was a founder and secretary (1916-30) of the NAACP. He
was American consul (1906-12), first in Venezuela and then in Nicaragua.
His books include the novel %@AI@%Autobiography of an Ex-Coloured Man%@AE@% (1912),
such poetry as %@AI@%God's Trombones%@AE@% (1927), and an autobiography (1933).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Lyndon Baines%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Lyndon Baines%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON4        @%%@QR:Johnson, Lyndon Baines@% 1908-73, 36th president of the U.S. (1963-69); b.%@EH@%
near Stonewall, Tex. As a Democratic congressman from Texas (1937-49) he
supported Pres. F.D. %@AU@%ROOSEVELT'S%@BO:          80f1af@%%@AE@% New Deal. He was elected senator in 1948
and became majority leader following the 1954 elections. After losing the
1960 presidential nomination to J.F. %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4eed07@%%@AE@%, Johnson agreed to become
Kennedy's running mate. After Kennedy's assassination (Nov. 22, 1963)
Johnson was immediately sworn in as president. Announcing that he would
carry out the late president's programs, he skillfully prodded Congress
into enacting (1964) an $11 billion tax cut and a sweeping Civil Rights
Act. Elected (1964) to a full term, he launched a program of social and
economic welfare programs to create what he termed the Great Society. It
included a Medicare bill (see %@AU@%HEALTH INSURANCE%@BO:          40dcc2@%%@AE@%), federal aid to
education, increased antipoverty programs, and the 1965 Voting Rights
Act. The Dept. of %@AU@%TRANSPORTATION%@BO:          977b7c@%%@AE@% and the Dept. of %@AU@%HOUSING AND URBAN
%@AU@%DEVELOPMENT%@BO:          44baa4@%%@AE@% were created. Johnson's domestic achievements, however, were
soon obscured by foreign affairs. When North Vietnam allegedly attacked
(Aug. 1964) U.S. destroyers, Congress passed the %@AU@%TONKIN GULF RESOLUTION%@BO:          969ab3@%%@AE@%,
which gave the president authority to take any action necessary to
protect U.S. troops. Johnson began (Feb. 1965) the bombing of North
Vietnam and increased U.S. forces in South Vietnam to nearly 550,000 men
(1969). The %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@% aroused widespread opposition in Congress and
among the public, and rioting (1968) in the black ghettos of American
cities further marred his presidency. In 1965 Johnson sent U.S. troops
into the %@AU@%DOMINICAN REPUBLIC%@BO:          29fd97@%%@AE@%. He announced (Mar. 1968) that he would not
run for reelection and retired to his Texas ranch. In 1934 he had married
Claudia Alta Taylor (nicknamed Lady Bird), b. 1912; they had two
children, Lynda Bird (now Mrs. Charles S. Robb) and Luci Baines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Philip Courtelyou%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Philip Courtelyou%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON5        @%%@QR:Johnson, Philip Courtelyou@% 1906-, American architect and historian; b.%@EH@%
Cleveland. He wrote %@AI@%The International Style%@AE@%(1932) with Henry-Russell
Hitchcock and became a major advocate of the new architecture. His glass
house in New Canaan, Conn. (1949), reveals the influence of %@AU@%MIES VAN DER
%@AU@%ROHE%@BO:          6077bd@%%@AE@%, with whom he collaborated on the Seagram Building (1958), N.Y.C. He
designed the New York State Theater at Lincoln Center (1964) and the
American Telephone and Telegraph Headquarters Building (1978), both in
New York City.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Samuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Samuel%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON6        @%%@QR:Johnson, Samuel@% 1709-84, English author. The leading literary scholar%@EH@%
and critic of his day, he helped to define the great period of English
literature known as the Augustan Age. He is as celebrated for his
brilliant conversation as for his writing. He began writing for London
magazines around 1737, on literary and political subjects. The
anonymously published poem %@AI@%London%@AE@% (1738) won the praise of %@AU@%POPE%@BO:          78246d@%%@AE@%, and his
reputation was further enhanced by his poetic satire %@AI@%The Vanity of Human
%@AI@%Wishes%@AE@% (1749) and his moral essays in %@AI@%The Rambler%@AE@% (1750-52). Johnson's
place was permanently assured by his great %@AI@%Dictionary of the English
%@AI@%Language%@AE@% (1755), the first comprehensive English lexicon. %@AI@%Rasselas,%@AE@% a
moral romance, appeared in 1759, and the %@AI@%Idler%@AE@% essays between 1758 and
1760. In 1763 Johnson met James %@AU@%BOSWELL%@BO:          1276c4@%%@AE@%, and his life thereafter is
documented in Boswell's great biography (1791). With Joshua %@AU@%REYNOLDS%@BO:          7ea350@%%@AE@% he
founded (1764) "The Club"; this elite gathering, with such members as
%@AU@%GOLDSMITH%@BO:          3b4239@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%BURKE%@BO:          15a76f@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%GARRICK%@BO:          3814ae@%%@AE@%, was dominated by Johnson, whose wit and
aphorisms are still remembered. In 1765 he published his edition of
%@AU@%SHAKESPEARE%@BO:          87ae94@%%@AE@%, the model for later editions. His last works include an
account (1775) of a trip with Boswell to the Hebrides and the perceptive
10-volume %@AI@%Lives of the Poets%@AE@% (1779-81). He was England's first complete
man of letters, and his influence was incalculable.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Uwe%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Uwe%@AE@%%@CR:JOHNSON7        @%%@QR:Johnson, Uwe@%, 1934-84, German novelist. He grew up in East Germany, but%@EH@%
emigrated (1959) to West Berlin. Using an experimental prose style that
presents several viewpoints of the same event, his works examine the
problems of humanity in divided modern Germany. Among his best-known
novels are %@AI@%Speculations About Jacob%@AE@% (1959), %@AI@%Two Views%@AE@% (1965), and the
novel series %@AI@%Anniversaries%@AE@% (1970-74).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Virginia E.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Virginia E.%@AE@%:%@CR:JOHNSON8        @%%@QR:Johnson, Virginia E.@% see %@AU@%MASTERS AND JOHNSON%@BO:          5d011b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Walter (Perry)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Walter (Perry)%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON9        @%%@QR:Johnson, Walter (Perry)@% 1887-1946, American baseball player; b.%@EH@%
Humboldt, Kans. A right-handed pitcher, he spent his entire playing
career (1907-27) with the Washington Senators. The "Big Train" won 416
games (second highest total on record) and established several pitching
marks, including most shutouts (113), most strike-outs (3,508), and most
consecutive scoreless innings (56). He won 20 or more games in 12 seasons
(32 in 1912 and 36 in 1913). Johnson later managed the Senators (1929-32)
and the Cleveland Indians (1933-35).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnson, Sir William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnson, Sir William%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSON10       @%%@QR:Johnson, Sir William@% 1715-74, British colonial leader in America; b.%@EH@%
Ireland. He had great influence over the Iroquois and became (1756)
general superintendent of Indian affairs N of the Ohio. In the %@AU@%FRENCH AND
%@AU@%INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@% he defeated (1755) the French at Lake George and captured
(1759) Niagara.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnston, Albert Sidney%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnston, Albert Sidney%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSTON1       @%%@QR:Johnston, Albert Sidney@% 1803-62, Confederate general in the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL%@EH@%
%@AU@%WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; b. Washington, Ky. Confederate commander in the West, he attacked
(Apr. 6, 1862) Gen. %@AU@%GRANT%@BO:          3c4b86@%%@AE@% at %@AU@%SHILOH%@BO:          885ce9@%%@AE@%. Johnston was killed in the battle,
and the South lost one of its ablest generals.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnston, Joseph Eggleston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnston, Joseph Eggleston%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSTON2       @%%@QR:Johnston, Joseph Eggleston@% 1807-91, Confederate general in the U.S.%@EH@%
%@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%; b. Prince Edward co., Va. He took part in the first battle of
%@AU@%BULL RUN%@BO:          156760@%%@AE@% and was commander in the %@AU@%PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN%@BO:          72cf05@%%@AE@% until May 1862.
Given command in the West, he was unable to stem the Union success in the
%@AU@%VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN%@BO:          9d151b@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%ATLANTA CAMPAIGN%@BO:           96121@%%@AE@%, and he was relieved of
command (July 1864). Later reinstated, he surrendered (Apr. 26, 1865) to
Gen. %@AU@%SHERMAN%@BO:          883c65@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Johnstown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Johnstown%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHNSTOWN       @%%@QR:Johnstown@% city (1986 est. pop. 31,840), SW Pa., on the Conemaugh R.;%@EH@%
settled 1770, inc. as a city 1936. Located in a beautiful mountain
region, it is a center of heavy industry producing chiefly iron, steel,
and coal products. Major U.S. steel producers are there; the city grew
with the industry after the Civil War. Johnstown is remembered for its
disastrous flood of May 31, 1889, when about 2,200 died.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John the Baptist, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John the Baptist, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.THT        @%%@QR:John the Baptist, Saint@% d. AD c.28-30, Jewish prophet, the forerunner of%@EH@%
%@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%; son of Zacharias and Elizabeth, a kinswoman of the Virgin %@AU@%MARY%@BO:          5c70c5@%%@AE@%. He
preached in the Jordan valley, baptizing many, including Jesus, whom he
recognized as the Son of God. Herodias, wife of %@AU@%HEROD%@BO:          4255a2@%%@AE@%, and her daughter
(traditionally called %@AU@%SALOME%@BO:          83a3ea@%%@AE@%) had him beheaded.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%John the Fearless%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%John the Fearless%@AE@%,%@CR:JOHN.THSS       @%%@QR:John the Fearless@% 1371-1419, duke of Burgundy (1404-19), son of %@AU@%PHILIP%@EH@%
%@AU@%THE BOLD%@BO:          74c8fd@%%@AE@%. Continuing his father's feud, he had Louis, duc d'Orleans,
assassinated (1407) and won control of the French government. In 1411
civil war broke out between the Orleanists, or Armagnacs, and the
Burgundians. Forced to flee Paris (1413), John did not aid the now
Armagnac-controlled government against %@AU@%HENRY V%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of England and in 1418
took advantage of French defeats to retake Paris and seize the king,
%@AU@%CHARLES VI%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%. John was assassinated at a meeting with the %@AU@%DAUPHIN%@BO:          26b3dc@%%@AE@% (later
%@AU@%CHARLES VII%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%) and was succeeded by his son %@AU@%PHILIP THE GOOD%@BO:          74cc90@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%joint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%joint%@AE@%,%@CR:JOINT           @%%@QR:joint@% in anatomy, juncture between two bones. Some joints are immovable,%@EH@%
e.g., those connecting bones of the skull. Hinge joints provide a forward
and backward motion, as at the elbow and knee. Pivot joints permit rotary
movement, like the turning of the head from side to side. Ball-and-socket
joints, like those at the hip and shoulder, allow the greatest range of
movement. Ease of movement is aided by elastic cartilage, lubricating
synovial fluid, and, in some joints, a cushioning, fluid-filled sac
(bursa), which reduces friction.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joint Chiefs of Staff%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joint Chiefs of Staff%@AE@%:%@CR:JOINT.C.STAFF   @%%@QR:Joint Chiefs of Staff@% see under %@AU@%DEFENSE, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF%@BO:          275e26@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joinville, Jean, sire de%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joinville, Jean, sire de%@AE@%%@CR:JOINVILLE       @%%@QR:Joinville, Jean, sire de@%, 1224?-1317?, French chronicler. His memoir of%@EH@%
%@AU@%LOUIS IX%@BO:          56f47d@%%@AE@% (whom he served as a close adviser) is an invaluable record of
the king, feudal France, and the Seventh %@AU@%CRUSADE%@BO:          250092@%%@AE@%, written in a simple,
delightful style, with a sharp eye for graphic detail.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jokai, Mor%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jokai, Mor%@AE@%%@CR:JOKAI           @%%@QR:Jokai, Mor@%, 1825-1904, Hungarian novelist. Often compared to %@AU@%DICKENS%@BO:          28be2c@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
Sir Walter %@AU@%SCOTT%@BO:          8615f1@%%@AE@%, Jokai was a prolific and popular writer whose novels
include %@AI@%An Hungarian Nabob%@AE@% (1853-54) and %@AI@%Black Diamonds%@AE@% (1870).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joliet, Louis%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joliet, Louis%@AE@%:%@CR:JOLIET          @%%@QR:Joliet, Louis@% see %@AU@%JOLLIET, LOUIS%@BO:          4cffae@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joliot-Curie, Frederic and Irene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joliot-Curie, Frederic and Irene%@AE@%:%@CR:JOLIOTCURIE     @%%@QR:Joliot-Curie, Frederic and Irene@% see %@AU@%CURIE%@BO:          25600e@%%@AE@%, family.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jolley, Elizabeth %@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jolley, Elizabeth %@AE@%,%@CR:JOLLEY          @%%@QR:Jolley, Elizabeth @% 1923-, Australian writer. A nurse during World War%@EH@%
II, she later emigrated to Western Australia. Although writing since
childhood, her first book, %@AI@%Five Acre Virgin and Other Stories%@AE@%, did not
appear until 1976. Her novels, %@AI@%Miss Peabody's Inheritance%@AE@% (1983) and %@AI@%Mr.
%@AI@%Scobie's Riddle%@AE@% (1982), are studies of comic eccentricity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jolliet%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jolliet%@AE@%%@CR:JOLLIET         @%%@QR:Jolliet@%or %@AB@%Joliet, Louis%@AE@%, 1645-1700, French explorer; b. Quebec prov.,%@EH@%
Canada. He discovered, with Jacques %@AU@%MARQUETTE%@BO:          5bf7eb@%%@AE@%, the upper %@AU@%MISSISSIPPI%@BO:          619330@%%@AE@% R.
in 1673.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jolson, Al%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jolson, Al%@AE@%,%@CR:JOLSON          @%%@QR:Jolson, Al@% c.1886-1950, American entertainer; b. Russia as Asa Yoelson.%@EH@%
He made famous such songs as "Swanee," "Sonny-Boy," and "Mammy," the last
sung in %@AI@%The Jazz Singer%@AE@% (1927), the first major film with sound.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jonah, Jonas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jonah, Jonas%@AE@%,%@CR:JONAH           @%%@QR:Jonah, Jonas@% or %@AB@%Jona,%@AE@%book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, 32nd in the Authorized%@EH@%
Version, 5th of the Minor Prophets. It tells of a Hebrew %@AU@%PROPHET%@BO:          7a0f8a@%%@AE@% in the
reign of Jeroboam II (c.793-753 BC) sent to reform %@AU@%NINEVEH%@BO:          6a4294@%%@AE@%. To avoid the
command, he sails for Tarshish, but his disobedience brings a storm; the
crew throw him overboard. Swallowed by a "great fish," he is cast up
after three days and fulfills his mission. Jonah's escape is seen as
foreshadowing Christ's %@AU@%RESURRECTION%@BO:          7e7e9d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, Bobby%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, Bobby%@AE@%%@CR:JONES1          @%%@QR:Jones, Bobby@% (Robert Tyre Jones, Jr.), 1902-71, American golfer; b.%@EH@%
Atlanta. A lawyer, he played golf as an amateur and won the U.S. Open
(1923, 1926, 1929-30), the U.S. Amateur (1924-25, 1927-28, 1930), and the
British Open (1926-27, 1930). The first golfer to win the U.S. Open and
British Open in the same year (1926), he was the only player ever to
score what was then the grand slam of golf, taking the open and amateur
titles in both the U.S. and Britain in 1930. Still an amateur, he retired
that year with 13 major championships.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, Casey%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, Casey%@AE@%%@CR:JONES2          @%%@QR:Jones, Casey@% (John Luther Jones), 1864-1900, American locomotive engineer%@EH@%
celebrated in song; b. Fulton co., Ky. He received his nickname from
Cayce, Ky., where he went to work. Driving the %@AI@%Cannon Ball%@AE@% express from
Memphis, Tenn., to Canton, Miss., he applied the brakes in time to save
the lives of the passengers in a wreck at Vaughan, Miss., but he was
killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, Sir Edward Burne%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, Sir Edward Burne%@AE@%:%@CR:JONES3          @%%@QR:Jones, Sir Edward Burne@% see %@AU@%BURNE-JONES%@BO:          15d120@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, Ernest%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, Ernest%@AE@%,%@CR:JONES4          @%%@QR:Jones, Ernest@% 1879-1958, English psychoanalyst; b. Wales. Founding the%@EH@%
London Clinic for Psycho-Analysis in 1925, he was instrumental in
introducing the study of %@AU@%PSYCHOANALYSIS%@BO:          7a7b44@%%@AE@% into England and the U.S. He is
considered an authoritative biographer of Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, Inigo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, Inigo%@AE@%,%@CR:JONES5          @%%@QR:Jones, Inigo@% 1573-1652, one of England's first great architects. He%@EH@%
studied Renaissance and Palladian buildings in Europe. After designing
settings for court masques, he became in 1615 the king's surveyor of
works, and began (1616) the Queen's House, Greenwich, the first English
design to embody Palladian principles (see %@AU@%PALLADIO, ANDREA%@BO:          7052b6@%%@AE@%). He then
built (1619-22) the royal banquet hall, Whitehall. In many houses in
London and in the country he broke from the prevailing %@AU@%JACOBEAN STYLE%@BO:          4acb43@%%@AE@%,
marking a starting point for the Renaissance and Georgian periods In
England.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, James%@AE@%,%@CR:JONES6          @%%@QR:Jones, James@% 1921-77, American novelist; b. Robinson, Ill. Written in%@EH@%
the tradition of %@AU@%NATURALISM%@BO:          678368@%%@AE@%, his powerful novels include %@AI@%From Here to
%@AI@%Eternity%@AE@% (1951), his best-known work; %@AI@%Some Came Running%@AE@% (1957); and %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Thin Red Line%@AE@% (1962).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, James Earl%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, James Earl%@AE@%,%@CR:JONES7          @%%@QR:Jones, James Earl@% 1931-, black American actor; b. Tate co., Miss. He%@EH@%
gained Broadway stardom with his powerful portrayal of a prizefighter in
%@AI@%The Great White Hope%@AE@% (1968); he also excelled in the title role of
%@AI@%Othello%@AE@% (1963, 1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, John Paul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, John Paul%@AE@%,%@CR:JONES8          @%%@QR:Jones, John Paul@% 1747-92, American naval hero; b. Scotland. In the%@EH@%
%@AU@%AMERICAN REVOLUTION%@BO:           49a21@%%@AE@% he raided British shipping in the waters off Great
Britain. He captured the British warship %@AI@%Drake%@AE@% (1778) and, while
commanding the %@AI@%Bon Homme Richard,%@AE@% the %@AI@%Serapis%@AE@% (1779). When he was asked
to surrender his badly damaged ship in the latter battle, Jones defiantly
replied, "Sir, I have not yet begun to fight."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, LeRoi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, LeRoi%@AE@%:%@CR:JONES9          @%%@QR:Jones, LeRoi@% see %@AU@%BARAKA, IMAMU AMIRI%@BO:           c08b7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jones, Sir William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jones, Sir William%@AE@%,%@CR:JONES10         @%%@QR:Jones, Sir William@% 1746-94, English philologist and jurist. Celebrated%@EH@%
for his understanding of jurisprudence and of Oriental languages, he was
for 11 years a supreme court judge in Calcutta. He was the first to
suggest that %@AU@%SANSKRIT%@BO:          8427c2@%%@AE@% had the same source as Latin and Greek, thus laying
the foundation for modern comparative philology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jong, Erica (Mann)%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jong, Erica (Mann)%@AE@%,%@CR:JONG            @%%@QR:Jong, Erica (Mann)@% 1942-, American novelist and poet; b. N.Y.C. She%@EH@%
created a sensation with %@AI@%Fear of Flying%@AE@% (1973), a comic, picaresque novel
of sex and psychiatry that challenged conventional views of women. Her
other works include %@AI@%Half Lives%@AE@% (1973), poems; and %@AI@%Fanny%@AE@% (1980), a novel.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jongkind, Johann Barthold%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jongkind, Johann Barthold%@AE@%%@CR:JONGKIND        @%%@QR:Jongkind, Johann Barthold@%, 1819-91, Dutch landscape painter and etcher.%@EH@%
His work is a transition between the %@AU@%BARBIZON SCHOOL%@BO:           c222d@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%IMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          470c7c@%%@AE@%.
He is known for his etchings of marine scenes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jonquil%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jonquil%@AE@%:%@CR:JONQUIL         @%%@QR:jonquil@% see %@AU@%AMARYLLIS%@BO:           454b3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jonson, Ben%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jonson, Ben%@AE@%,%@CR:JONSON          @%%@QR:Jonson, Ben@% 1572-1637, English dramatist and poet, known for his%@EH@%
linguistic brilliance. An actor, he produced his first important play,
%@AI@%Every Man in His Humour,%@AE@% in 1598 and %@AI@%Every Man out of His Humour%@AE@% in 1599.
%@AI@%The Poetaster%@AE@% (1601) satirized fellow playwrights. After collaborating
with %@AU@%CHAPMAN%@BO:          1b9f8c@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%MARSTON%@BO:          5c2bce@%%@AE@% on %@AI@%Eastward Ho!%@AE@% (1604), he entered his great
period, marked by the comic masterpieces %@AI@%Volpone%@AE@% (1606), %@AI@%Epicoene%@AE@% (1609),
%@AI@%The Alchemist%@AE@% (1610), and %@AI@%Bartholomew Fair%@AE@% (1614)-all characterized by
biting satire and intriguing plots. A moralist, he sought to teach
improvement through exaggerating the foibles and passions (humors) of his
characters. Jonson became a favorite of %@AU@%JAMES I%@BO:          4af432@%%@AE@% and wrote court %@AU@%MASQUES%@BO:          5cc2fc@%%@AE@%,
as well as two Roman tragedies, %@AI@%Sejanus%@AE@% (1603) and %@AI@%Catiline%@AE@% (1611). After
%@AI@%The Devil Is an Ass%@AE@% (1616), his dramatic career declined. Jonson's
nondramatic poetry includes the collections %@AI@%Epigrams%@AE@% (1616); %@AI@%The Forrest%@AE@%
(1616), notable for the songs "Drink to me only with thine eyes" and
"Come, my Celia, let us prove"; and %@AI@%Underwoods%@AE@% (1640). His many followers
are known as the "sons of Ben."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joos of Ghent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joos of Ghent%@AE@%:%@CR:JOOS.OF.GHENT   @%%@QR:Joos of Ghent@% see %@AU@%JUSTUS OF GHENT%@BO:          4de0d3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jooss, Kurt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jooss, Kurt%@AE@%%@CR:JOOSS           @%%@QR:Jooss, Kurt@% (kort yus), 1901-79, German dancer, producer, and%@EH@%
choreographer. His most famous ballet was the expressionistic, antiwar
%@AI@%Green Table%@AE@% (1932). He was in England during the Hitler era, and returned
to Germany after World War II. He has influenced the development of
psychological themes in ballet.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joplin, Scott%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joplin, Scott%@AE@%,%@CR:JOPLIN          @%%@QR:Joplin, Scott@% 1868-1917, black American ragtime pianist and composer; b.%@EH@%
Texarkana, Tex. The best-known ragtime composer (see %@AU@%JAZZ%@BO:          4b96f6@%%@AE@%), he wrote such
works as "Maple Leaf Rag" (1899) and the ragtime opera %@AI@%Treemonisha%@AE@%
(1911).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jordaens, Jacob%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jordaens, Jacob%@AE@%%@CR:JORDAENS        @%%@QR:Jordaens, Jacob@%, 1593-1678, Flemish baroque painter; b. Belgium. His%@EH@%
works include portraits and religious and allegorical paintings. The
influence of %@AU@%CARAVAGGIO%@BO:          18acf4@%%@AE@% is evident in his early work, e.g., %@AI@%The Artist's
%@AI@%Family%@AE@% (Hermitage, Leningrad). His later works show increased grandeur
and richness, e.g., %@AI@%Triumph of Bacchus%@AE@% (Kassel, Germany). In his last
years he stressed the classical element in %@AU@%BAROQUE%@BO:           c6fb1@%%@AE@% art, as seen in the
rigidly composed %@AI@%Christ and the Doctors%@AE@% (Mainz, Germany).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jordan, Barbara Charline%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jordan, Barbara Charline%@AE@%,%@CR:JORDAN1         @%%@QR:Jordan, Barbara Charline@% 1936-, black American lawyer, public official,%@EH@%
and educator; b. Houston. As a Democratic member of the U.S. House of
Representatives (1973-79), she achieved national renown as a member of
the House Judiciary Committee when it investigated (1974) the %@AU@%WATERGATE
%@AU@%AFFAIR%@BO:          9fa1c8@%%@AE@%. In 1979 she became professor of public affairs at the Univ. of
Texas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jordan, David Starr, 20%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jordan, David Starr, 20%@AE@%%@CR:JORDAN2         @%%@QR:Jordan, David Starr, 20@% 1851-1917, American biologist and educator; b.%@EH@%
near Gainesville, N.Y. He was president of Indiana Univ. (1885-91) and
the first president of Stanford Univ. (1891-1913). A peace advocate, he
opposed U.S. entry into World War I. He was director of the World Peace
Foundation (1910-14) and president of the World Peace Congress (1915).
His writings include %@AI@%Imperial Democracy%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jordan, Vernon Eulion, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jordan, Vernon Eulion, Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:JORDAN3         @%%@QR:Jordan, Vernon Eulion, Jr.@% 1935-, American black leader; b. Atlanta. A%@EH@%
graduate of the Howard Univ. law school, he was executive director
(1970-71) of the United Negro College Fund and president (1970-81) of the
National Urban League. Jordan was seriously wounded (1980) by a sniper in
Fort Wayne, Ind., and in 1981 returned to his law practice.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jordan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jordan%@AE@%,%@CR:JORDAN4         @%%@QR:Jordan@% officially Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, kingdom (1986 est. pop.%@EH@%
3,656,000), 37,737 sq mi (97,740 sq km), SW Asia, bordered by Israel (W),
Syria (N), Iraq (NE), and Saudi Arabia (E, S). %@AU@%AMMAN%@BO:           4b9e7@%%@AE@% is the capital and
largest city. Jordan falls into three main geographical regions: East
Jordan, which encompasses about 92% of the country's land area; the
Jordanian Highlands (highest point, 5,755 ft/1,754 m); and West Jordan,
part of historic Palestine. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, Israel
captured and occupied all of the %@AU@%WEST BANK%@BO:          a09c00@%%@AE@% of Jordan in the area W of the
%@AU@%JORDAN%@BO:          4d3d82@%%@AE@% R. and the %@AU@%DEAD SEA%@BO:          26f723@%%@AE@%. The inhabitants of Jordan are mostly of Arab
descent (about half are Palestinian refugees), and Arabic is the official
language. About 90% of the people are Sunni Muslims. Jordan's economy is
largely agricultural, although less than 5% of the land is arable. The
principal crops are wheat, barley, lentils, and citrus fruits.
Manufactures are limited to basic items such as foodstuffs, clothing,
cement. Phosphate rock and potash are the only minerals produced in
quantity. The annual cost of Jordan's imports far exceeds its earnings
from exports. Aqaba, on the Gulf of %@AU@%AQABA%@BO:           6de88@%%@AE@%, is the only seaport.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% This section deals primarily with the region east of the Jordan
River; for the history of the area to the west, see %@AU@%PALESTINE%@BO:          7041ed@%%@AE@%. The region
of present-day Jordan was conquered successively by the Seleucids (4th
cent. BC), Romans (mid-1st cent. AD), and Muslim Arabs (7th. cent.).
After the Crusaders captured (1099) Jerusalem, it became part of the
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Ottoman Turks gained control in 1516, and
what is now Jordan remained in the %@AU@%OTTOMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          6f791c@%%@AE@% until World War I. In
1920 Transjordan (as it was then known) was made part of the British
mandate of Palestine. The country gained independence in 1946, and the
name was changed (1949) to Jordan, reflecting its acquisition of land W
of the Jordan R. during the Arab-Israeli War of 1948. %@AU@%ABDULLAH%@BO:            2a6f@%%@AE@% ibn
Husain, a member of the Hashemite dynasty that headed Jordan since 1921,
was assassinated in 1951. His grandson, %@AU@%HUSSEIN I%@BO:          45a481@%%@AE@%, became king the
following year. Jordanian forces were routed by Israel in the 1967 war
(see %@AU@%ARAB-ISRAELI WARS%@BO:           70b90@%%@AE@%), and Jordan lost the West Bank. Growing hostility
between Hussein and the Palestinian guerrilla organizations operating in
Jordan reached a climax during a brief civil war in 1970, and the
guerrilla bases were finally destroyed the following year. Under pressure
from Arab states, Hussein renounced (1974) Jordanian claims to the West
Bank in order to allow the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
eventually to organize a state in this territory. Jordan also joined the
"rejectionist" Arab countries in opposing the 1979 peace treaty between
Egypt and Israel. Under the 1952 constitution, the king is the most
powerful figure in the country; he appoints a cabinet (headed by a prime
minister). A bicameral parliament was dissolved by Hussein in 1974 and
reconvened following elections in 1984, when women voted for the first
time. In 1988 Hussein renounced Jordan's claim on West Jordan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jordan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jordan%@AE@%,%@CR:JORDAN5         @%%@QR:Jordan@% river, Israel, c.200 mi (320 km) long. It is formed by headwaters%@EH@%
converging in N Israel, flows south through the Sea of %@AU@%GALILEE%@BO:          3764bd@%%@AE@% (Lake
Tiberias) into a below-sea-level valley called the Ghor (a continuation
in Asia of Africa's %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@%), and empties into the %@AU@%DEAD SEA%@BO:          26f723@%%@AE@%.
The river becomes increasingly saline to the south and is not navigable.
Much of its water and that of the Yarmuk, its chief tributary, is
diverted for irrigation. It is often mentioned in the Bible as the scene
of Christ's baptism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Josaphat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Josaphat%@AE@%,%@CR:JOSAPHAT        @%%@QR:Josaphat@% in the Bible: see %@AU@%JEHOSHAPHAT%@BO:          4bbb8c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joseph, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joseph, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JOSEPH1         @%%@QR:Joseph, Saint@% husband of the Virgin, a carpenter, a descendant of the%@EH@%
house of %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@%. He is highly honored by Orthodox and Roman Catholics as
the chaste spouse of the Virgin %@AU@%MARY%@BO:          5c70c5@%%@AE@% and the foster father of %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%.
Feast: Mar. 19.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:JOSEPH2         @%%@QR:Joseph@% rulers of the %@AU@%HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE%@BO:          43c78d@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Joseph I,%@AE@% 1678-1711, emperor%@EH@%
(1705-11), king of Hungary (1687-1711) and of Bohemia (1687-1711), became
emperor during the War of the %@AU@%SPANISH SUCCESSION%@BO:          8d2722@%%@AE@% and died before it
ended. He vigorously supported the Spanish claims of his brother, who
succeeded him as Emperor %@AU@%CHARLES VI.%@BO:          1bbc3f@%%@AE@% %@AB@%Joseph II,%@AE@% 1741-90, emperor
(1765-90), king of Bohemia and Hungary (1780-90), was the son of %@AU@%MARIA
%@AU@%THERESA%@BO:          5bae64@%%@AE@% and Emperor Francis I, whom he succeeded. Until his mother's
death in 1780, he exerted little authority, but once in power he
instituted far-reaching social, economic, and religious reforms,
including the law (1781) abolishing serfdom. His aim was to abolish
hereditary and ecclesiastical privileges by creating a centralized and
unified state administered by a civil service based on merit. He
liberalized the legal codes, reformed tax policies, and founded
hospitals, orphanages, and insane asylums. He was idolized by the common
people, but opposed by the nobles and the clergy, and most of his reforms
did not outlive him. Nevertheless, he left a freer state than the one he
had found on his accesssion. His foreign policy, focused on attempts to
annex Bavaria and his military adventures in Turkey, was generally not
successful.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:JOSEPH3         @%%@QR:Joseph@% kings of Bohemia and Hungary: see %@AU@%JOSEPH%@BO:          4d42fc@%%@AE@%, rulers of the Holy%@EH@%
Roman Empire.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:JOSEPH4         @%%@QR:Joseph@% in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, the favored son of %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RACHEL%@BO:          7bffbe@%%@AE@%. He was sold%@EH@%
into slavery by his brothers, who were jealous of his dreams and his coat
of many colors. Taken to Egypt, Joseph rose to authority in the house of
Potiphar, only to be imprisoned on the false accusations of Potiphar's
wife. Released after interpreting Pharaoh's dream, Joseph rose in
Pharaoh's favor. He was reunited with his family when, as governor of
Egypt, he helped them during a famine. Gen. 30; 37; 39-50.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joseph%@AE@%%@CR:JOSEPH5         @%%@QR:Joseph@% (Chief Joseph), c.1840-1904, chief of a band of %@AU@%NEZ PERCE INDIANS%@BO:          69a6f1@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Joseph was among those chiefs who peacefully resisted a land cession
treaty fraudulently obtained (1863) by the U.S. When fighting broke out
(1877), he and several hundred Nez Perce undertook a heroic 1,000-mi
(1,600-km) retreat to Canada, but were forced to surrender just 30 mi (48
km) from their goal. He spent the rest of his life on the Colville
reservation, Wash.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Josephine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Josephine%@AE@%,%@CR:JOSEPHINE       @%%@QR:Josephine@% 1763-1814, empress of the French (1804-9) as the consort of%@EH@%
%@AU@%NAPOLEON I%@BO:          665071@%%@AE@%. Born Marie Josephe Rose Tascher de La Pagerie, in Martinique,
she married (1779) Alexandre de %@AU@%BEAUHARNAIS%@BO:           d7047@%%@AE@%, who was executed (1794) in
the %@AU@%FRENCH REVOLUTION%@BO:          361282@%%@AE@%. In 1796 she married Napoleon, but he had the
marriage annulled (1809) so he might marry the Austrian princess %@AU@%MARIE
%@AU@%LOUISE%@BO:          5bbe3e@%%@AE@%. Josephine thereafter lived in retirement.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Josephus, Flavius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Josephus, Flavius%@AE@%%@CR:JOSEPHUS        @%%@QR:Josephus, Flavius@%, AD 37-AD 95?, Jewish historian. A soldier, he took%@EH@%
part in the war between the Romans and Jews and won the favor of the
Roman general %@AU@%VESPASIAN%@BO:          9cf5b8@%%@AE@%. His works include %@AI@%The Jewish War, Antiquities of
%@AI@%the Jews,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Against Apion%@AE@% (a defense of the Jews).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joshua%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joshua%@AE@%%@CR:JOSHUA          @%%@QR:Joshua@% or %@AB@%Josue,%@AE@%book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, sixth in the Authorized%@EH@%
Version, a historical sequel to %@AU@%DEUTERONOMY%@BO:          28664d@%%@AE@%, telling of the occupation of
Palestine by the Hebrews. The chief figure is Joshua, %@AU@%MOSES'%@BO:          642b3b@%%@AE@% successor as
leader of Israel. The book may be divided into three sections: the
conquest of the Promised Land (1-12), the allotment of the land by tribes
(13-22), and the farewell sermon and death of Joshua (23-24). The fall of
Jericho (6) is a famous passage.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Josquin Desprez%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Josquin Desprez%@AE@%%@CR:JOSQUIN.DESPREZ @%%@QR:Josquin Desprez@%or %@AB@%Des Pres%@AE@%, c.1440-1521, Flemish composer, regarded as%@EH@%
the greatest of his age. His earlier works were contrapuntal (see
%@AU@%COUNTERPOINT%@BO:          23f1c0@%%@AE@%); his later, more chordal. He was noted for his chansons and
%@AU@%MOTETS%@BO:          6446b5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joule, James Prescott%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joule, James Prescott%@AE@%,%@CR:JOULE1          @%%@QR:Joule, James Prescott@% 1818-89, English physicist. He established the%@EH@%
mechanical theory of %@AU@%HEAT%@BO:          40fcdf@%%@AE@% and was the first to determine the relationship
between heat energy and mechanical energy (the mechanical equivalent of
heat). Joule discovered the first law of %@AU@%THERMODYNAMICS%@BO:          94e3ba@%%@AE@%, which is a form
of the law of conservation of %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@%. The mechanical unit of %@AU@%WORK%@BO:          a320e8@%%@AE@%, the
joule, is named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%joule%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%joule%@AE@%:%@CR:JOULE2          @%%@QR:joule@% see %@AU@%WORK%@BO:          a320e8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%journalism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%journalism%@AE@%,%@CR:JOURNALISM      @%%@QR:journalism@% the collection and periodical publication of news. It%@EH@%
includes writing for, editing, and managing such media as the %@AU@%NEWSPAPER%@BO:          693bb2@%%@AE@%,
the %@AU@%PERIODICAL%@BO:          735ce2@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%RADIO%@BO:          7c236c@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%TELEVISION%@BO:          93a2aa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jove%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jove%@AE@%:%@CR:JOVE            @%%@QR:Jove@% see %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dce8c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joyce, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joyce, James%@AE@%,%@CR:JOYCE           @%%@QR:Joyce, James@% 1882-1941, Irish novelist. Perhaps the major 20th-cent.%@EH@%
writer in English, Joyce was a master of language, exploiting its total
resources. Educated in Dublin Jesuit schools, he lived after 1902 on the
Continent, returning to Ireland only briefly. %@AI@%Dubliners,%@AE@% his short
stories, was suppressed in Ireland because of topical references and
published in London (1914). He spent World War I in Zurich, working on %@AI@%A
%@AI@%Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man%@AE@% (1916), his first novel.
Publication of %@AI@%Ulysses,%@AE@% written 1914-21, was delayed by obscenity
charges; it did not appear in the U.S. until 1933. After 1922, Joyce
worked on %@AI@%Finnegans Wake%@AE@% (1939). He died in Zurich in 1941. With each
major work, Joyce's profundity and complexity grew. %@AI@%Dubliners%@AE@% centers on
moments of spiritual insight he called epiphanies. %@AI@%A Portrait%@AE@% is a fairly
realistic autobiographical account of young Stephen Dedalus's growing
realization that he must free himself from the narrowness of Irish
society. %@AI@%Ulysses%@AE@% recounts the events of June 16, 1904, in the actions and
thoughts of the salesman Leopold Bloom, his wife, Molly, and Stephen
Dedalus, now a teacher. The book follows the design of %@AU@%HOMER'S%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Odyssey%@AE@% in
theme and image. With its shifts in consciousness, its rich allusion, and
its play with language, it is a difficult but rewarding celebration of
life. %@AI@%Finnegans Wake%@AE@% seems at times to present the dreams of a Dublin
publican, at times to represent a universal consciousness. Less read, it
is not well understood. The Joyce canon includes three volumes of poems,
%@AI@%Chamber Music%@AE@% (1907), %@AI@%Pomes Penyeach%@AE@%  (1927), and %@AI@%Collected Poems%@AE@% (1937);
the Ibsenesque play %@AI@%Exiles%@AE@% (1918); and %@AI@%Stephen Hero%@AE@% (1944), a fragmentary
draft of %@AI@%A Portrait.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Joyner-Kersee, Jackie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Joyner-Kersee, Jackie%@AE@%,%@CR:JOYNERKERSEE    @%%@QR:Joyner-Kersee, Jackie@% 1962-; American athlete; b. East St. Louis, Ill.%@EH@%
She won the silver medal in the heptathlon in 1984 and went on to set the
world record in the heptathlon in the 1988 Olympics. She also won the
long jump that year.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jozsef, Attila%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jozsef, Attila%@AE@%%@CR:JOZSEF          @%%@QR:Jozsef, Attila@%, 1905-37, Hungarian poet. Born in poverty, he published%@EH@%
his first book at 17 and in 1930 joined the illegal Communist Party.
After periods of schizophrenia he committed suicide. His compassionate
poetry deals with political and existential themes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juana Ines de la Cruz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juana Ines de la Cruz%@AE@%%@CR:JUANA.IA.CRUZ   @%%@QR:Juana Ines de la Cruz@%, 1651-95, Mexican poet. Considered the greatest%@EH@%
lyric poet of the colonial period, she was an intellectually precocious
girl who entered a convent at 16. Her classical and scientific studies
were criticized by her superiors, including the bishop of Puebla, whose
objections to women's education she answered in a spirited
autobiographical letter (1691). The long poem %@AI@%First Dream%@AE@% (1680) was her
major achievement. She also wrote plays, both religious and worldly. Her
last years were devoted to the spiritual life; she died aiding victims of
an epidemic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juan Carlos I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juan Carlos I%@AE@%%@CR:JUAN.CARLOS.I   @%%@QR:Juan Carlos I@%, 1938-, king of Spain (1975-). The grandson of %@AU@%ALFONSO%@EH@%
%@AU@%VIII%@BO:           3888e@%%@AE@%, he married (1962) Princess Sophia of Greece. Francisco %@AU@%FRANCO%@BO:          355ab7@%%@AE@% named
him (1969) his successor as ruler. Upon Franco's death (1975), he became
the first Spanish king since his grandfather was deposed in 1931.
Personally popular, he proved to be a strong force for Spain's political
stability and new democracy. In Feb. 1981 he successfully foiled a
right-wing military coup.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juarez, Benito%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juarez, Benito%@AE@%%@CR:JUAREZ1         @%%@QR:Juarez, Benito@%, 1806-72, Mexican statesman. An Indian lawyer, he helped%@EH@%
to overthrow (1855) %@AU@%SANTA ANNA'S%@BO:          84360c@%%@AE@% dictatorship and to limit the privileges
of the church and army. He led the liberals to victory in the War of the
Reform (1858-61) and, as president (1857-65, 1867-72), oversaw the
transfer of political power in %@AU@%MEXICO%@BO:          5fb28e@%%@AE@% from the creoles to the mestizos.
Juarez defeated France's attempt (1864-67) to establish a Mexican empire
and tried to implement reforms.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juarez%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juarez%@AE@%%@CR:JUAREZ2         @%%@QR:Juarez@% or %@AB@%Ciudad Juarez,%@AE@%city (1980 est. pop. 567,365), N Mexico, on the%@EH@%
Rio Grande, opposite El Paso, Texas. It is a cotton-processing center and
resort at the edge of a desert. First called El Paso del Norte, it was a
base for Spanish colonial expansion northward and later served as the
headquarters of Benito %@AU@%JUAREZ%@BO:          4d6e33@%%@AE@%, for whom it was renamed in 1888.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juda%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juda%@AE@%:%@CR:JUDA            @%%@QR:Juda@% see %@AU@%JUDAH%@BO:          4d74a8@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judaea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judaea%@AE@%%@CR:JUDAEA          @%%@QR:Judaea@%or %@AB@%Judea%@AE@%, Greco-Roman name for S Palestine. At the time of Christ,%@EH@%
it was both part of the province of Syria and a kingdom ruled by the
%@AU@%HERODS%@BO:          4255a2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judah%@AE@%%@CR:JUDAH1          @%%@QR:Judah@% or %@AB@%Juda,%@AE@%in the %@AU@%BIBLE%@BO:           f7079@%%@AE@%, fourth son of %@AU@%JACOB%@BO:          4ac569@%%@AE@% and Leah and the%@EH@%
eponymous ancestor of one of the 12 Tribes of Israel (see %@AU@%ISRAEL, TRIBES
%@AU@%OF%@BO:          4a461d@%%@AE@%). Judah is a distinctive figure, a leader in the family counsels. His
tribe gave its name to the Kingdom of Judah.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judah%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDAH2          @%%@QR:Judah@% more southerly of two kingdoms created by the division of the%@EH@%
kingdom of the %@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@% under %@AU@%REHOBOAM%@BO:          7db1a6@%%@AE@%. Judah, which lasted from 931 BC to
586 BC, had its capital in %@AU@%JERUSALEM%@BO:          4be799@%%@AE@% and was ruled by the house of %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judah ha-Levi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judah ha-Levi%@AE@%%@CR:JUDAH.HALEVI    @%%@QR:Judah ha-Levi@% or %@AB@%Halevy,%@AE@%c.1075-1141, Spanish rabbi, poet, philosopher,%@EH@%
and physician. His poems-secular, religious, and nationalist-are filled
with a serene and lofty spirit. In his great philosophic work, %@AI@%Sefer
%@AI@%ha-Kuzari%@AE@% (tr. %@AI@%Kuzari,%@AE@% 1964), he attempts to establish the superiority of
the Jewish religion.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judah ha-Nasi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judah ha-Nasi%@AE@%%@CR:JUDAH.HANASI    @%%@QR:Judah ha-Nasi@% prince or %@AB@%Judah I,%@AE@% AD 135?-220?, religious and political%@EH@%
leader of the Palestinian Jews and head of the %@AU@%SANHEDRIN%@BO:          841231@%%@AE@%. He collected
and edited the Oral Law, which he compiled as the %@AU@%MISHNA%@BO:          617113@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judaism%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judaism%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDAISM         @%%@QR:Judaism@% the religious beliefs and practices and the way of life of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%JEWS%@BO:          4c2b11@%%@AE@%. Central to these is the notion of monotheism, adopted by the
biblical Hebrews. In this early period there also developed a belief in
the ultimate coming of God's kingdom on earth, a time of peace and
justice. With the destruction (586 BC) of the First Temple and the
consequent Babylonian captivity came the expectation of national
restoration under the leadership of a %@AU@%MESSIAH%@BO:          5f23a1@%%@AE@%. In Babylonia the
Israelites were exposed to, and adopted, new ideas, e.g., the
personification of evil (Satan) and the resurrection of the dead. In the
post-exilic period (not later than the 5th cent. BC) began the practice
of publicly studying the %@AU@%TORAH%@BO:          96ab91@%%@AE@%, or Pentateuch, and of writing expositions
on it; these were later collected in the %@AU@%MISHNA%@BO:          617113@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%TALMUD%@BO:          9278f3@%%@AE@%. The conquests
of Alexander the Great brought other new ideas, most significantly that
of the immortality of the soul. Conflict over the acceptable level of
Hellenization led to the revolt of the %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%. As conditions of life
deteriorated, apocalyptic beliefs grew: national catastrophe and the
Messianic kingdom were seen as imminent events. Out of these beliefs grew
both Christianity and classical, or rabbinic, Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism,
which evolved over five centuries (until AD c.500), replaced the Temple
with the %@AU@%SYNAGOGUE%@BO:          91dfd6@%%@AE@% (the Second Temple was destroyed in AD 70), the
priesthood with the %@AU@%RABBI%@BO:          7be816@%%@AE@%, and sacrificial ceremony with the prayer
service. Emphasis was placed on study of the Torah, on the growing need
for national restoration in the Promised Land, and on the function of
this world as preparatory for the World to Come. In the medieval period
two new developments arose: the %@AU@%CABALA%@BO:          167cc0@%%@AE@%, influenced predominantly by
%@AU@%NEOPLATONISM%@BO:          682916@%%@AE@%, and, opposed to it, rationalism, whose principal exponent
was %@AU@%MAIMONIDES%@BO:          59cf97@%%@AE@%. Although the Jewish Middle Ages extended into the 18th
cent., the general European Renaissance had its Jewish counterpart, e.g.,
in the work of the poet Judah %@AU@%ABRAVANEL%@BO:            6446@%%@AE@%. At the same time, the influence
of the %@AU@%SEPHARDIM%@BO:          870311@%%@AE@%, particularly the Marranos, came to be felt, generally
as a liberalizing force. The 18th cent. produced both the great
traditional rabbinic figure %@AU@%ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON%@BO:          2e0e63@%%@AE@% (the Gaon of Vilna) and
the untraditional figures %@AU@%BAAL-SHEM-TOV%@BO:           a902a@%%@AE@%, the founder of %@AU@%HASIDISM%@BO:          4062bc@%%@AE@%, and
Moses %@AU@%MENDELSSOHN%@BO:          5ea8a1@%%@AE@%, spiritual progenitor of the later Reform movement.
With the 19th cent. came the question of how Jews were to maintain
tradition when the non-Jewish world demanded its abandonment. In Eastern
Europe this problem was dealt with by the Haskalah, or Jewish
enlightenment, movement, whose members, e.g., Nachman %@AU@%KROCHMAL%@BO:          50db42@%%@AE@%, sought to
revitalize Jewish life by recreating it along the lines of the best in
European culture. Finally, in reaction to the needs of a persecuted
people and to growing nationalistic desires %@AU@%ZIONISM%@BO:          a5521a@%%@AE@% arose, promising a
return to the Holy Land. Ultimately, it was %@AU@%HALAKAH%@BO:          3f37de@%%@AE@% (the law) over which
Jews divided; Orthodoxy regards halakah as derived from God and therefore
authoritative, whereas Reform sees it as binding only in its ethical
content. The Conservative movement assumes a middle position, maintaining
most of the traditional rituals but recognizing a need for change in
accordance with overriding contemporary considerations. Reconstructionist
Judaism, a 20th-cent. movement, accepts all forms of Jewish practice,
regarding Judaism as a culture rather than a theological system. See also
%@AU@%JEWISH HOLIDAYS%@BO:          4c1c13@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judas%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDAS           @%%@QR:Judas@% in the Bible.%@AB@%1%@AE@%See %@AU@%JUDE, SAINT%@BO:          4d9409@%%@AE@%.%@AB@%2%@AE@%Judas Maccabeus: see %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%.%@AB@%3%@AE@%See%@EH@%
%@AU@%JUDAS ISCARIOT%@BO:          4d8e2a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judas Iscariot%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judas Iscariot%@AE@%%@CR:JUDAS.ISCARIOT  @%%@QR:Judas Iscariot@%, %@AU@%JESUS'%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@% betrayer, one of the Twelve Disciples. The chief%@EH@%
priests paid him 30 pieces of silver for which he led soldiers to
Gethsemane and identified Jesus to them by kissing him. Later he repented
and killed himself. The blood money bought a potter's field. The name
Iscariot suggests he may have belonged to an anti-Roman sect, the
Sicarii, and may have betrayed Jesus out of disappointment that Jesus was
not the political Messiah he had looked for.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judas Maccabeus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judas Maccabeus%@AE@%:%@CR:JUDAS.MACCABEUS @%%@QR:Judas Maccabeus@% see %@AU@%MACCABEES%@BO:          587693@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judd, Donald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judd, Donald%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDD            @%%@QR:Judd, Donald@% 1928-, American sculptor; b. Excelsior Springs, Mo.%@EH@%
Associated with %@AU@%MINIMAL ART%@BO:          610ded@%%@AE@%, he is known for his geometric works in wood
or steel painted with industrial pigments.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jude, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jude, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDE1           @%%@QR:Jude, Saint@% or %@AB@%Saint Judas%@AE@%Jude is an English form to distinguish him%@EH@%
from %@AU@%JUDAS ISCARIOT%@BO:          4d8e2a@%%@AE@%, one of the Twelve Disciples; also called Lebbaeus
and Thaddaeus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jude%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jude%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDE2           @%%@QR:Jude@% epistle of the %@AU@%NEW TESTAMENT%@BO:          694ef6@%%@AE@%, next to last book of the Bible. A%@EH@%
Catholic, or General, %@AU@%EPISTLE%@BO:          2f8556@%%@AE@%, it warns against some heresy that led to
immorality, and has a close literary relationship with Second %@AU@%PETER%@BO:          7419c3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judea%@AE@%:%@CR:JUDEA           @%%@QR:Judea@% see %@AU@%JUDAEA%@BO:          4d736f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judges%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judges%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDGES          @%%@QR:Judges@% book of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, seventh in the Authorized Version, the%@EH@%
sequel to %@AU@%JOSHUA%@BO:          4d5381@%%@AE@%. It tells of the Hebrews from Joshua's death until the
time of %@AU@%SAMUEL%@BO:          83d444@%%@AE@%. The religious interpretation, stated in an introduction,
is that the book recounts Israel's successive apostasies and their
consequences. The judges, primarily military leaders of the tribes,
include Deborah, %@AU@%GIDEON%@BO:          3a1929@%%@AE@%, Jephthah, and %@AU@%SAMSON%@BO:          83d254@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judith%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judith%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDITH          @%%@QR:Judith@% book included in the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@% of the Western canon and the%@EH@%
Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible, and placed in the %@AU@%APOCRYPHA%@BO:           6a905@%%@AE@% in
the Authorized Version. It tells of an armed attack on the Jewish city of
Bethulia and of how Judith, a beautiful widow, saved the city by killing
Holofernes, the enemy leader. The book most probably antedates 100 BC%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%judo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%judo%@AE@%:%@CR:JUDO            @%%@QR:judo@% see %@AU@%MARTIAL ARTS%@BO:          5c3787@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Judson, Adoniram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Judson, Adoniram%@AE@%,%@CR:JUDSON1         @%%@QR:Judson, Adoniram@% 1788-1850, American Baptist missionary; b. Malden,%@EH@%
Mass. He led the movement out of which grew the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Sailing (1812) to India as a
Congregational minister, he became a Baptist and went (1813) to Burma,
where he remained for 30 years. Judson compiled an English-Burmese
dictionary and translated the Bible into Burmese. The Judson Memorial
Church in New York City is named for him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jujitsu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jujitsu%@AE@%:%@CR:JUJITSU         @%%@QR:jujitsu@% see %@AU@%MARTIAL ARTS%@BO:          5c3787@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jujube%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jujube%@AE@%:%@CR:JUJUBE          @%%@QR:jujube@% see %@AU@%BUCKTHORN%@BO:          150833@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Julia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Julia%@AE@%,%@CR:JULIA           @%%@QR:Julia@% feminine name in the Julian gens. %@AB@%1%@AE@% Died 54 BC, daughter of Julius%@EH@%
%@AU@%CAESAR%@BO:          16bbea@%%@AE@% and wife of %@AU@%POMPEY%@BO:          77ff1f@%%@AE@%. She maintained the bond between them, but
after her death they became open enemies. %@AB@%2%@AE@% 39 BC-AD 14, daughter of
%@AU@%AUGUSTUS%@BO:           9c9ac@%%@AE@% and wife, in turn, of Marcus Claudius Marcellus (d. 23 BC),
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, and %@AU@%TIBERIUS%@BO:          959cd5@%%@AE@%. Her infidelities caused her
banishment by Augustus. Soon after Tiberius became emperor, she died of
starvation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juliana%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juliana%@AE@%,%@CR:JULIANA         @%%@QR:Juliana@% 1909-, queen of the Netherlands (1948-80). She succeeded her%@EH@%
mother, %@AU@%WILHELMINA%@BO:          a19ae6@%%@AE@%, and abdicated in favor of her eldest daughter,
%@AU@%BEATRIX%@BO:           d67d6@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Julian the Apostate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Julian the Apostate%@AE@%,%@CR:JULIAN.TATE     @%%@QR:Julian the Apostate@% 331?-363, Roman emperor (361-63); nephew of%@EH@%
%@AU@%CONSTANTINE I%@BO:          227393@%%@AE@%. A scholar, writer, and general, he sponsored far-reaching
legislation. He decreed religious toleration but tried unsuccessfully to
restore paganism. Killed in battle, he was succeeded by Jovian.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Julius I, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Julius I, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JULIUS.I        @%%@QR:Julius I, Saint@% pope (337-52), a Roman. When asked for his opinion on%@EH@%
%@AU@%ARIANISM%@BO:           7a0af@%%@AE@%, he summoned a council at Rome (340). The Arians did not come,
and Julius wrote them a letter, chiding them for lack of sincerity; the
letter was remarkable as an early claim to papal jurisdiction over the
whole church. Feast: April 12.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Julius II%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Julius II%@AE@%,%@CR:JULIUS.II       @%%@QR:Julius II@% 1443-1513, pope (1503-13), an Italian named Giuliano della%@EH@%
Rovere. A warrior, he completed the work of his enemy, Cesare %@AU@%BORGIA%@BO:          123a5e@%%@AE@%, of
restoring the Papal States to the church and took a vigorous part in the
%@AU@%ITALIAN WARS%@BO:          4a56b1@%%@AE@%. Julius assembled (1512) the Fifth Lateran Council, which
abolished simony in the college of cardinals. An art patron, he favored
%@AU@%RAPHAEL%@BO:          7cbdba@%%@AE@% (who painted his portrait), %@AU@%MICHELANGELO%@BO:          5ffcb6@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%BRAMANTE%@BO:          134571@%%@AE@%. He laid
the cornerstone of St. Peter's Cathedral. Worldly as Julius was, he was
one of the first to try to break the hold of Renaissance corruption on
Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Julius Caesar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Julius Caesar%@AE@%:%@CR:JULIUS.CAESAR   @%%@QR:Julius Caesar@% see %@AU@%CAESAR, JULIUS%@BO:          16b9a2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%July%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%July%@AE@%:%@CR:JULY            @%%@QR:July@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%July Revolution%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%July Revolution%@AE@%,%@CR:JULY.REVOLUTION @%%@QR:July Revolution@% revolt in France in July 1830 against %@AU@%CHARLES X%@BO:          1be193@%%@AE@%. The%@EH@%
attempt of the ultraroyalists under Charles to return to the ancien
regime provoked opposition from the more liberal middle class. When
Charles's minister, Jules Armand de Polignac, issued the July Ordinances,
which controlled the press, dissolved the newly elected chamber of
deputies, and reduced the electorate, insurrection followed. Charles fled
and abdicated, and %@AU@%LOUIS PHILIPPE%@BO:          575921@%%@AE@% was proclaimed king.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%June%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%June%@AE@%:%@CR:JUNE            @%%@QR:June@% see %@AU@%MONTH%@BO:          63626f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juneau, Solomon Laurent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juneau, Solomon Laurent%@AE@%%@CR:JUNEAU1         @%%@QR:Juneau, Solomon Laurent@%, 1793-1856, French Canadian fur trader. An agent%@EH@%
of the American Fur Company, he moved (1818) to its trading post at
%@AU@%MILWAUKEE%@BO:          60eed6@%%@AE@%, established (1837) a village there, and became (1846) its
first mayor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juneau%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juneau%@AE@%,%@CR:JUNEAU2         @%%@QR:Juneau@% city (1986 est. pop. 25,000), state capital, SE Alaska, in the%@EH@%
Alaska Panhandle; settled by gold miners 1880, inc. 1900. Lying at the
foot of two lofty peaks, it has an ice-free harbor. Government, fishing,
lumber, and tourism are important to the economy. Alaska's capital since
1906, the city is the largest in area in the U.S. (3,108 sq mi/ 8,050 sq
km).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%June Days%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%June Days%@AE@%,%@CR:JUNE.DAYS       @%%@QR:June Days@% insurrection of French workingmen in June 1848. After the%@EH@%
%@AU@%FEBRUARY REVOLUTION%@BO:          3222d5@%%@AE@% of 1848, the workers sought economic and social
reform, but the triumph of the bourgeois dashed their hopes. When a
workshop experiment was abolished (June 21), workers in Paris rebelled
and were harshly suppressed after four days (June 23-26) of street
fighting.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jung, Carl Gustav%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jung, Carl Gustav%@AE@%%@CR:JUNG            @%%@QR:Jung, Carl Gustav@%, 1875-1961, Swiss psychiatrist, founder of analytical%@EH@%
psychology. Jung met Sigmund %@AU@%FREUD%@BO:          365253@%%@AE@% in 1907, and became the first
president of the International Psychoanalytic Association when it was
formed. He broke with Freud in 1912, when Jung published his
revolutionary %@AI@%Psychology of the Unconscious,%@AE@% which postulated two
dimensions of the %@AU@%UNCONSCIOUS%@BO:          99a49e@%%@AE@%-the personal (repressed or forgotten
content of an individual's mental and material life), and what he termed
the collective unconscious (those acts and mental patterns shared either
by members of a culture or universally by all human beings). Under
certain conditions these manifest themselves as archetypes-images,
patterns, and symbols that are often seen in dreams or fantasies and that
appear as themes in mythology, religion, and fairy tales. In
%@AI@%Psychological Types%@AE@% (1921) Jung elucidated %@AU@%EXTROVERSION AND INTROVERSION%@BO:          3153e4@%%@AE@%.
He held the most significant task for any person to be the achievement of
harmony between the conscious and the unconscious. The definitive edition
of his collected works in English translation was published between 1951
and 1979.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Junger, Ernst%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Junger, Ernst%@AE@%%@CR:JUNGER          @%%@QR:Junger, Ernst@%, 1895-, German writer. His early works, e.g., %@AI@%Storm of%@EH@%
%@AI@%Steel%@AE@% (1920), glorify war. Later he opposed %@AU@%HITLER%@BO:          432a8d@%%@AE@% and militarism. His
war diaries express a mystical plea for peace, as in %@AI@%On the Marble Cliffs%@AE@%
(1939) and %@AI@%Heliopolis%@AE@% (1949). A late novel is %@AI@%The Glass Bees%@AE@% (1957).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%junior college%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%junior college%@AE@%:%@CR:JUNIOR.COLLEGE  @%%@QR:junior college@% see %@AU@%COMMUNITY COLLEGE%@BO:          2134f3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%juniper%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%juniper%@AE@%,%@CR:JUNIPER         @%%@QR:juniper@% aromatic evergreen tree or shrub (genus %@AI@%Juniperus%@AE@%) of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%CYPRESS%@BO:          25b026@%%@AE@% family, widely distributed over the north temperate zone. Many
are important sources of lumber and oil. The insect-repellent wood of the
red cedar (%@AI@%J. virginiana%@AE@%) is especially valuable for closets, furniture,
and posts; the oil is used in medicine and perfumery. The common juniper
(%@AI@%J. communis%@AE@%) and its varieties (e.g., dwarf and pyramidal) are grown
ornamentally; its fruits are used to flavor gin.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Junius%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Junius%@AE@%,%@CR:JUNIUS          @%%@QR:Junius@% pseud. of an English political writer. His letters, sent to the%@EH@%
London %@AI@%Public Advertiser%@AE@% (Jan. 1769-Jan. 1772), attacked %@AU@%GEORGE III%@BO:          393048@%%@AE@% and
his ministers, and centered on the John %@AU@%WILKES%@BO:          a1a01c@%%@AE@% controversy. His identity
remains a mystery.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%junk bond%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%junk bond%@AE@%,%@CR:JUNK.BOND       @%%@QR:junk bond@% bond with a risky credit rating that is issued by a company%@EH@%
without an established earnings history or with a questionable credit
history. They have increasingly been used to help finance the purchasing
of companies, especially in %@AU@%LEVERAGED BUYOUTS%@BO:          545262@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%MILKEN, MICHAEL
%@AU@%R%@BO:          60b357@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juno%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juno%@AE@%,%@CR:JUNO            @%%@QR:Juno@% in Roman mythology, wife and sister of %@AU@%JUPITER%@BO:          4dce8c@%%@AE@%; great goddess of%@EH@%
the state. Like the Greek %@AU@%HERA%@BO:          4211a6@%%@AE@%, she was the protectress of women.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jupiter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jupiter%@AE@%,%@CR:JUPITER1        @%%@QR:Jupiter@% in astronomy, 5th %@AU@%PLANET%@BO:          76779a@%%@AE@% from the sun, at a mean distance of%@EH@%
483.6 million mi (778.3 million km), and largest planet in the solar
system, with an equatorial diameter of 89,400 mi (143,800 km). It is a
gaseous planet with an atmosphere composed mostly of hydrogen and helium,
with traces of methane, ammonia, and other gases, and about five or six
zones each of counterflowing eastward- and westward-flowing winds. The
most prominent atmospheric features (all in the southern hemisphere) are
the Great Red Spot, at least 300 years old and measuring c.30,000 by
10,000 mi (48,000 by 16,000 km), and three large white ovals that formed
in 1939. Jupiter has 16 known natural satellites, 12 of which are of
small diameter. The four larger Galilean satellites were discovered by
%@AU@%GALILEO%@BO:          376ece@%%@AE@% in 1610. %@AB@%Callisto%@AE@% (diameter: 2,995 mi/4,820 km), the most distant
and the least active geologically of the four, has a heavily cratered
surface. %@AB@%Ganymede%@AE@% (diameter: 3,279 mi/5,276 km), second most distant of
the four and the largest satellite in the solar system, has heavily
cratered regions, tens of miles across, that are surrounded by younger,
grooved terrain. %@AB@%Europa%@AE@% (diameter: 1,942 mi/3,126 km) is a white, highly
reflecting body whose smooth surface is entirely covered with dark
streaks up to 70 km in width and from several hundred to several thousand
kilometers in length. %@AB@%Io%@AE@% (diameter: 2,257 mi/3,632 km), the closest to
Jupiter of the four, is the most active geologically, with eight active
volcanoes that are probably energized by the tidal effects of Jupiter's
enormous mass. The red color of %@AB@%Amalthea%@AE@% (diameter: 150 mi/240 km), a
small, elongated satellite interior to Io's orbit that was discovered
(1892) by Edward %@AU@%BARNARD%@BO:           c5372@%%@AE@%, probably results from a coating of sulfur
particles ejected from Io. Four %@AU@%SPACE PROBES%@BO:          8ca220@%%@AE@% have encountered the Jovian
system: %@AI@%Pioneers 10%@AE@% and %@AI@%11%@AE@% (1973 and 1974) and %@AI@%Voyagers 1%@AE@% and %@AI@%2%@AE@% (both
1979). The latter two discovered Io's volcanoes, a thin ring system
surrounding Jupiter, and three of the smaller satellites. The U.S. has
plans for a space probe, %@AI@%Galileo,%@AE@% to orbit Jupiter and send a probe into
the planet's atmosphere.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jupiter%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jupiter%@AE@%,%@CR:JUPITER2        @%%@QR:Jupiter@% in Roman mythology, supreme god; also called Jove; son of %@AU@%SATURN%@BO:          84ddfa@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
and Ops; brother and husband of %@AU@%JUNO%@BO:          4dc363@%%@AE@%. Originally an agricultural god, he
developed into the prime protector of the state and was identified with
the Greek %@AU@%ZEUS%@BO:          a51d43@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jurassic period%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jurassic period%@AE@%:%@CR:JURASSIC.PERIOD @%%@QR:Jurassic period@% see %@AU@%GEOLOGIC ERA%@BO:          38ea1f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jury%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jury%@AE@%,%@CR:JURY            @%%@QR:jury@% in %@AU@%COMMON LAW%@BO:          21060f@%%@AE@%, a group of laymen summoned to study the %@AU@%EVIDENCE%@BO:          30f678@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
determine the facts in a dispute tried in a court of law. The jury was
probably brought to England by the %@AU@%NORMAN CONQUEST%@BO:          6b2271@%%@AE@% (11th cent.). Early
juries consisted of people with personal knowledge of a dispute.
Eventually, formally produced evidence became the basis for decision by
an objective jury. The use of the jury system, which by the 18th cent.
had become an important protection against judicial and administrative
tyranny, spread to territories colonized by England. The sixth and
seventh amendments to the U.S. %@AU@%CONSTITUTION%@BO:          229ecf@%%@AE@% provide for a jury trial in
most criminal and civil cases. A grand jury of 12 to 23 members usually
considers the evidence and determines whether a trial is justified (see
%@AU@%INDICTMENT%@BO:          47b1f3@%%@AE@%). A petit (petty) jury, usually of 12 members, sits at the
trial proper and, after hearing the evidence, reaches a verdict.
Traditionally, the verdict was required to be unanimous, but today some
states allow majority verdicts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Justice, United States Department of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Justice, United States Department of%@AE@%,%@CR:JUSTICE         @%%@QR:Justice, United States Department of@% federal executive department%@EH@%
established (1870) to help the U.S. attorney general enforce federal
laws, to furnish legal counsel in federal cases, and to construe laws
under which other federal executive departments act. Its solicitor
general represents the federal government in %@AU@%SUPREME COURT%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@% cases. The
department's divisions include Antitrust, Civil, Civil Rights, Criminal,
Land and Natural Resources, and Tax; its agencies include the %@AU@%FEDERAL
%@AU@%BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION%@BO:          322e01@%%@AE@%, the Drug Enforcement Administration, and the
Immigration and Naturalization Service.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Justin I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Justin I%@AE@%,%@CR:JUSTIN.I        @%%@QR:Justin I@% c.450-527, Byzantine emperor (518-27). He strongly opposed%@EH@%
%@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@% and had close relations with the Western Church. Lacking
education, he entrusted government to his nephew, who succeeded him as
%@AU@%JUSTINIAN I%@BO:          4ddb31@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Justinian I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Justinian I%@AE@%,%@CR:JUSTINIAN.I     @%%@QR:Justinian I@% 483-565, Byzantine emperor (527-65), nephew of %@AU@%JUSTIN I%@BO:          4dd98f@%%@AE@%. His%@EH@%
heavy taxes and the discontent of the Monophysites (see %@AU@%MONOPHYSITISM%@BO:          62ee54@%%@AE@%)
involved internal political factions in the Nika riot, which was crushed
(532) by Empress %@AU@%THEODORA%@BO:          94b71a@%%@AE@%. She was helped by two generals, %@AU@%BELISARIUS%@BO:           e089b@%%@AE@% and
Narses, who had recovered Africa and Italy for the empire. Justinian
advocated caesaro-papism, i.e., the supremacy of emperor even over
church, and called the Second Council of Constantinople (553) in a
fruitless effort to reconcile the Monophysites to the church. His chief
accomplishment was the codification of %@AU@%ROMAN LAW%@BO:          808b1f@%%@AE@%. His many public works
included the church of %@AU@%HAGIA SOPHIA%@BO:          3efc8f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Justin Martyr, Saint%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Justin Martyr, Saint%@AE@%,%@CR:JUSTIN.MARTYR   @%%@QR:Justin Martyr, Saint@% AD c.100-c.165, Christian apologist. He opened a%@EH@%
school of Christian philosophy at Rome, where he was martyred. Two
undisputed works remain, both philosophic defenses of Christian
doctrine-the %@AI@%Apology%@AE@% and the %@AI@%Dialogue.%@AE@% Feast: June 1.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Justus of Ghent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Justus of Ghent%@AE@%,%@CR:JUSTUS.OF.GHENT @%%@QR:Justus of Ghent@% fl. c.1460-c.1480, Flemish religious and portrait%@EH@%
painter, known as Jodocus or Joos of Ghent. His simple, quiet style
provides a clear link between Flemish and Italian art, e.g., the
%@AI@%Adoration of the Magi%@AE@% (Metropolitan Mus.).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%jute%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%jute%@AE@%,%@CR:JUTE            @%%@QR:jute@% tropical annual (genus %@AI@%Corchorus%@AE@%) of the %@AU@%LINDEN%@BO:          555a5f@%%@AE@% family, and its%@EH@%
fiber. Although the fiber, of comparatively low %@AU@%CELLULOSE%@BO:          1ac35a@%%@AE@% content, is
weak and deteriorates quickly, it is the principal coarse fiber in
commercial production; chief sources are %@AI@%C. capsularis%@AE@% and %@AI@%C. olitorius.%@AE@%
India, with its hot climate and abundant cheap labor, is the unrivaled
world producer and processor. Easily dyed and spun, jute is used for
coarse fabrics, especially burlap and sacking, and for twine, rope, and
insulation.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jutland%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jutland%@AE@%,%@CR:JUTLAND1        @%%@QR:Jutland@% peninsula, c.250 mi (400 km) long and up to 110 mi (177 km)%@EH@%
wide, N Europe, occupied by parts of Denmark (N) and W Germany (S).
Danish Jutland, which includes most of the peninsula, covers 11,441 sq mi
(29,632 sq km) with adjacent islands and contains about half of Denmark's
population.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Jutland, Battle of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Jutland, Battle of%@AE@%,%@CR:JUTLAND2        @%%@QR:Jutland, Battle of@% May 31, 1916, only major naval engagement between the%@EH@%
British and German fleets in %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@% off the coast of %@AU@%JUTLAND%@BO:          4de524@%%@AE@%, in
Denmark. The outnumbered German fleet performed brilliantly and escaped
in the fog. The tactics of the British commander, Admiral Jellicoe, and
the heavy British losses caused much controversy.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Juvenal%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Juvenal%@AE@%%@CR:JUVENAL         @%%@QR:Juvenal@%(Decimus Junius Juvenalis) , fl. 1st-2d cent. AD, Roman satiric%@EH@%
poet. His verse established a model for the %@AU@%SATIRE%@BO:          84ce7e@%%@AE@% of indignation.
Written from the stern viewpoint of older standards, his 16 satires
denounce a lax and luxurious society, tyranny, affectations, and
immorality; the form is terse, polished, and epigrammatic.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%K%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%K%@AE@%,%@CR:K               @%%@QR:K@% chemical symbol of the element %@AU@%POTASSIUM%@BO:          7897c3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%K-2%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%K-2%@AE@%:%@CR:K2              @%%@QR:K-2@% see %@AU@%GODWIN-AUSTEN, MOUNT%@BO:          3af99b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kaaba%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kaaba%@AE@%%@CR:KAABA           @%%@QR:Kaaba@% or %@AB@%Caaba,%@AE@%in %@AU@%ISLAM%@BO:          49ffd3@%%@AE@%, the most sacred sanctuary, the center of the%@EH@%
Muslim world and the chief goal of pilgrimage. It is a small building in
the Great Mosque of %@AU@%MECCA%@BO:          5de8a1@%%@AE@%, nearly cubic in shape, built to enclose the
Black Stone, the most venerated Muslim object. The Kaaba was a pagan holy
place before %@AU@%MUHAMMAD%@BO:          64dbee@%%@AE@%, and many legends surround its origin. Nonbelievers
are forbidden to approach it. Muslims face the Kaaba when praying.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kabalevsky, Dmitri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kabalevsky, Dmitri%@AE@%,%@CR:KABALEVSKY      @%%@QR:Kabalevsky, Dmitri@% 1904-87, Soviet composer. His many works, melodic and%@EH@%
harmonically conservative, include the opera %@AI@%Colas Breugnon%@AE@% (1938); the
%@AU@%SUITE%@BO:          905cf1@%%@AE@% %@AI@%The Comedians%@AE@% (1940); the %@AU@%OPERETTA%@BO:          6e1166@%%@AE@% %@AI@%The Sisters%@AE@% (1967), and piano
and chamber works.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kabbalah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kabbalah%@AE@%:%@CR:KABBALAH        @%%@QR:kabbalah@% see %@AU@%CABALA%@BO:          167cc0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kabuki%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kabuki%@AE@%:%@CR:KABUKI          @%%@QR:Kabuki@% see Japanese drama under %@AU@%ORIENTAL DRAMA%@BO:          6ec79c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kabul%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kabul%@AE@%,%@CR:KABUL           @%%@QR:Kabul@% city (1979 pop. 913,164), capital of Afghanistan and its largest%@EH@%
city and economic and cultural center, E Afghanistan, on the Kabul R.
Manufactures include textiles, beet sugar, ordnance, and machinery.
Strategically located, the city, whose history dates back more than 3,000
years, became Afghanistan's capital in 1773. It has been destroyed and
rebuilt many times. It has an old quarter, with narrow, crooked streets,
and a modern section. Kabul has a university (est. 1931), numerous
colleges, and a fine museum. Soviet troops occuped the city from 1979 to
1989.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kachina%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kachina%@AE@%,%@CR:KACHINA         @%%@QR:kachina@% among %@AU@%PUEBLO INDIANS%@BO:          7ac21a@%%@AE@%, the spirit of the life forces. Elaborately%@EH@%
costumed tribesmen, impersonating kachinas, visit Pueblo villages early
in the year. They dance, sing, and give gifts to children. Dolls that the
%@AU@%HOPI%@BO:          445702@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ZUNI%@BO:          a58ba3@%%@AE@% carve and dress like the dancers are also called kachinas.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kadar, Janos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kadar, Janos%@AE@%%@CR:KADAR           @%%@QR:Kadar, Janos@%, 1912-, Hungarian Communist leader. He was imprisoned%@EH@%
(1951-54) for alleged pro-Titoism. In the 1956 uprising (see %@AU@%HUNGARY%@BO:          455f06@%%@AE@%) he
first joined the cabinet of Imre %@AU@%NAGY%@BO:          660dc0@%%@AE@% but then formed a
counter-government with support from the USSR, which crushed the revolt.
He was premier (1956-58, 1961-65) and became first secretary of the party
in 1956.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kafirs%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kafirs%@AE@%:%@CR:KAFIRS          @%%@QR:Kafirs@% see %@AU@%XHOSA%@BO:          a3c779@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kafka, Franz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kafka, Franz%@AE@%%@CR:KAFKA           @%%@QR:Kafka, Franz@%, 1883-1924, German novelist and short-story writer, of a%@EH@%
Jewish family; b. Prague. In remarkably clear and precise prose, Kafka
presents a world at once real and dreamlike, in which modern people,
burdened with guilt, isolation, and anxiety, make a futile search for
personal salvation. Among his symbolic novels are %@AI@%The Trial%@AE@% (1925), %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Castle%@AE@% (1926), and %@AI@%Amerika%@AE@% (1927). Important stories include "The
Metamorphosis" (1915), "A Country Doctor" (1919), and "In the Penal
Colony" (1920), all translated into English, as are his diaries (1948-49)
and several volumes of correspondence.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kahn, Louis Isadore%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kahn, Louis Isadore%@AE@%,%@CR:KAHN            @%%@QR:Kahn, Louis Isadore@% 1901-74, American architect; b. Estonia. From the%@EH@%
1920s he worked on many housing projects, e.g., Carver Court (1944),
Coatesville, Pa. He also planned the Yale Univ. Art Gallery and the
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Tex., and exerted wide influence as a
professor.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kaiser, Georg%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kaiser, Georg%@AE@%%@CR:KAISER          @%%@QR:Kaiser, Georg@%, 1878-1945, German expressionist playwright. His early%@EH@%
plays treat erotic and psychological themes. Later he explored social
questions, attacking the brutality of the machine age in %@AI@%From Morn to
%@AI@%Midnight%@AE@% (1916), and the trilogy %@AI@%The Corals%@AE@% (1917), %@AI@%Gas%@AE@% (1918), and %@AI@%Gas
%@AI@%II%@AE@% (1920).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kalahari%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kalahari%@AE@%,%@CR:KALAHARI        @%%@QR:Kalahari@% arid desert area, c.100,000 sq mi (259,000 sq km), SW Africa,%@EH@%
with a yearly rainfall ranging from 5 in. (12.7 cm) in the southwest to
20 in. (50.8 cm) in the northeast. The nomadic San (or Bushmen) and
Khoikhoi are the principal inhabitants.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kalamazoo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kalamazoo%@AE@%,%@CR:KALAMAZOO       @%%@QR:Kalamazoo@% city (1986 est. pop. 77,230), seat of Kalamazoo co., SW Mich.,%@EH@%
on the Kalamazoo R. where it meets Portage Creek; inc. as a city 1883. It
has paper and pharmaceutical industries, and the area produces celery and
other crops, grains, and dairy goods. Western Mich. Univ. is located
there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kale, borecole%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kale, borecole%@AE@%,%@CR:KALE            @%%@QR:kale, borecole@% and %@AB@%collards,%@AE@% common names for nonheading types of%@EH@%
%@AU@%CABBAGE%@BO:          1681e7@%%@AE@% (mostly of the variety %@AI@%acephala%@AE@%), cool-weather crops of the
%@AU@%MUSTARD%@BO:          65af93@%%@AE@% family. They are grown for their edible greens and, in Europe,
for fodder.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kalends%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kalends%@AE@%:%@CR:KALENDS         @%%@QR:Kalends@% see %@AU@%CALENDAR%@BO:          170f32@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kalevala%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kalevala%@AE@%,%@CR:KALEVALA        @%%@QR:Kalevala@% Finnish national epic. It recounts the exploits of three%@EH@%
semidivine brothers in mythical Kaleva, land of the heroes. Known to
scholars as early as 1733, the folk verses that make up the epic were
collected in the 19th cent. by Zakarias Topelius and E. %@AU@%LONNROT%@BO:          569d84@%%@AE@%. The
effect of the %@AI@%Kalevala%@AE@% on Finnish art has been great.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kali%@AE@%%@CR:KALI            @%%@QR:Kali@% [Hindi,=the Black One], important goddess in popular %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@% and%@EH@%
%@AU@%TANTRA%@BO:          92ae46@%%@AE@%, associated with destructive forces.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kalidasa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kalidasa%@AE@%%@CR:KALIDASA        @%%@QR:Kalidasa@%, fl. 5th cent.?, Indian dramatist and poet, the greatest figure%@EH@%
in classical %@AU@%SANSKRIT LITERATURE%@BO:          842a68@%%@AE@%. His three surviving plays-%@AI@%Shakuntala,
%@AI@%Vikramorvasi,%@AE@% and %@AI@%Malavikagnimitra-%@AE@%are court dramas in verse and relate
fanciful or mythological tales of romantic love ripened by adversity. He
also wrote fine epic and lyric poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kalimantan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kalimantan%@AE@%:%@CR:KALIMANTAN      @%%@QR:Kalimantan@% see %@AU@%BORNEO%@BO:          124e00@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kaliningrad%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kaliningrad%@AE@%,%@CR:KALININGRAD     @%%@QR:Kaliningrad@% formerly Konigsberg, city (1987 est. pop. 394,000), W%@EH@%
European USSR, on the Pregolya R. An ice-free Baltic seaport and naval
base, it produces ships, machinery, and other manufactures. Konigsberg,
in E Prussia, was founded (1255) as a fortress of the %@AU@%TEUTONIC KNIGHTS%@BO:          944c30@%%@AE@%
and joined (1340) the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@%. The Univ. of Konigsberg (founded
1544) reached its greatest fame when %@AU@%KANT%@BO:          4e4f55@%%@AE@% taught there. The city became
part of the USSR in 1945 and was renamed for the Soviet leader Mikhail
Kalinin. Most of the population is now Russian.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kalmar Union%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kalmar Union%@AE@%,%@CR:KALMAR.UNION    @%%@QR:Kalmar Union@% combination of the crowns of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway,%@EH@%
effected at Kalmar, Sweden, by %@AU@%MARGARET I%@BO:          5b889b@%%@AE@% in 1397. Because all three
crowns were elective, the union could not be maintained by inheritance.
Margaret's successors controlled Sweden intermittently until %@AU@%GUSTAVUS I%@BO:          3ea51e@%%@AE@%
of Sweden dissolved the union (1523). Norway became independent in 1814.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kamakura%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kamakura%@AE@%,%@CR:KAMAKURA        @%%@QR:Kamakura@% city (1979 est. pop. 173,331), central Honshu, Japan, on Sagami%@EH@%
Bay. A religious center and resort, Kamakura is famous for its 42-ft
(12.8-m) high bronze Buddha, cast in 1252. The city was the seat of
Yoritomo, the first %@AU@%SHOGUN%@BO:          88847a@%%@AE@%, and his descendants (1192-1333); under the
Ashikaga Shogunate (1333-1573), it was the government headquarters of E
Japan.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kamchatka%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kamchatka%@AE@%,%@CR:KAMCHATKA       @%%@QR:Kamchatka@% peninsula, c.750 mi (1,210 km) long, NE USSR, projecting%@EH@%
southwest from the Asian mainland between the Sea of Okhotsk (W) and the
Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean (E). It is traversed by two parallel
volcanic ranges containing the only active volcanoes in the USSR, and has
a cold and humid climate. Fishing (notably for crabs), sealing,
fur-trapping, and lumbering are the main occupations. The population is
predominantly Russian, with large Koryak minorities.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kamehameha I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kamehameha I%@AE@%%@CR:KAMEHAMEHA.I    @%%@QR:Kamehameha I@%, c.1738-1819, Hawaiian king. He was king of the island of%@EH@%
Hawaii after 1790 and through conquest became (1810) ruler of all the
Hawaiian islands.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kamenev, Lev Borisovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kamenev, Lev Borisovich%@AE@%%@CR:KAMENEV         @%%@QR:Kamenev, Lev Borisovich@%, 1883-1936, Soviet Communist leader; b. L.B.%@EH@%
Rosenfeld. After the %@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@% (1917) he was a member of the
first politburo of the Communist party. When %@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@% died (1924), Kamenev,
%@AU@%STALIN%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%ZINOVIEV%@BO:          a5495e@%%@AE@% excluded %@AU@%TROTSKY%@BO:          980fe3@%%@AE@% from power, but in 1925 the
Stalinist majority defeated Kamenev and Zinoviev, who joined Trotsky's
opposition. In 1936 Kamenev, with Zinoviev and others, was tried for
treason and executed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kampala%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kampala%@AE@%,%@CR:KAMPALA         @%%@QR:Kampala@% largest city (1981 est. pop. 478,895) and capital of Uganda, on%@EH@%
%@AU@%VICTORIA NYANZA%@BO:          9d39b7@%%@AE@% (Lake Victoria). It is linked by railroad to SW Uganda
and Mombasa, Kenya, and by ships crossing the lake to ports in Kenya and
Tanzania. The city is built on and around six hills. An international
airport is nearby, at %@AU@%ENTEBBE%@BO:          2f33d1@%%@AE@%. Kampala, which grew up around a British
fort constructed in 1890, replaced Entebbe as the capital in 1962.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kampuchea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kampuchea%@AE@%:%@CR:KAMPUCHEA       @%%@QR:Kampuchea@% see %@AU@%CAMBODIA%@BO:          178587@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kananga%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kananga%@AE@%,%@CR:KANANGA         @%%@QR:Kananga@% formerly Luluabourg, city (1984 est. pop. 290,898), S central%@EH@%
Zaire, on the Lulua R. It is the commercial and transportation center for
a cotton-growing region. Founded in 1884, the city developed rapidly in
the early 20th cent. with the coming of the railroad. Shortly after the
nation's independence (1960), Kananga was the scene of violent clashes
between the Luba and Lulua peoples.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kanarese%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kanarese%@AE@%%@CR:KANARESE        @%%@QR:Kanarese@%, Dravidian language of India. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kandahar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kandahar%@AE@%,%@CR:KANDAHAR        @%%@QR:Kandahar@% city (1979 est. pop. 178,409), capital of Kandahar prov., S%@EH@%
Afghanistan. The country's second largest city, it is a market for sheep,
cotton, grain, and dried fruit. Manufactures include woolen cloth, felt,
and silk. Possibly founded by Alexander the Great, the city was the
capital (1748-73) of the kingdom of Afghanistan and was occupied
(1839-42, 1879-81) by the British in the Afghan wars. After the 1979
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Soviets and Afghan rebels engaged
(1981) in heavy fighting in Kandahar.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kandinsky, Wassily%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kandinsky, Wassily%@AE@%,%@CR:KANDINSKY       @%%@QR:Kandinsky, Wassily@% 1866-1944, Russian abstract painter and theorist.%@EH@%
Regarded as the originator of abstract art (see %@AU@%ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM%@BO:            754d@%%@AE@%),
he developed his ideas concerning the power of pure color and
nonrepresentational painting in Paris, where he came in contact with
neo-impressionism (see %@AU@%POSTIMPRESSIONISM%@BO:          788fc8@%%@AE@%) and %@AU@%FAUVISM%@BO:          32182e@%%@AE@%. In his study
%@AI@%Concerning the Spiritual in Art%@AE@% (1912), he examined the psychological
effects of color. He was a founder of the %@AU@%BLAUE REITER%@BO:          10d5d2@%%@AE@%. In the 1920s his
style evolved from pure bursts of color to more precise geometric
compositions. In 1922 he joined the %@AU@%BAUHAUS%@BO:           d21f4@%%@AE@% faculty; later he wrote %@AI@%Point
%@AI@%and Line to Plane%@AE@% (1926), which includes an analysis of geometric forms
in art.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kandy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kandy%@AE@%,%@CR:KANDY           @%%@QR:Kandy@% city (1981 pop. 97,872), capital of Central prov., Sri Lanka, on%@EH@%
the Kandy Plateau. It is a mountain resort and the trade center for an
area producing tea, rubber, rice, and cacao. The capital of the Sinhalese
kings after 1592, Kandy was held temporarily by the Portuguese (16th
cent.) and the Dutch (18th cent.). The British captured it in 1815.
Nearby Kandy are the Univ. of Sri Lanka (est. 1942) and noted botanical
gardens.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kangaroo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kangaroo%@AE@%,%@CR:KANGAROO        @%%@QR:kangaroo@% hopping %@AU@%MARSUPIAL%@BO:          5c2e1e@%%@AE@% of the family Macropodidae, found in%@EH@%
Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. Kangaroos have powerful hind legs,
long feet, short forelimbs, and long, muscular tails for maintaining
balance. The female has a pouch in which she suckles the newborn kangaroo
(joey). The chief grazers of Australian plains, kangaroos are diurnal and
live in herds. Great red kangaroo males may attain a height of 7 ft (210
cm) and weigh over 200 lb (90 kg). Smaller members of the kangaroo family
include the rabbit-sized wallabies and pademelons. Kangaroos have been
extensively hunted as pests and for their valuable hides.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kania, Stanislaw%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kania, Stanislaw%@AE@%,%@CR:KANIA           @%%@QR:Kania, Stanislaw@% 1927-, Polish political leader. He joined the Communist%@EH@%
party in 1945, becoming a member of the Central Committee in 1968 and of
the Politburo in 1975. Soon after the %@AU@%SOLIDARITY%@BO:          8b3850@%%@AE@% union was formed in 1980
he was named party chairman, but as the crisis precipitated by the
union's activities worsened he was replaced (1981) by Gen. %@AU@%JARUZELSKI%@BO:          4b74d0@%%@AE@%. He
was named to the Council of State in 1982.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kano%@AE@%%@CR:KANO1           @%%@QR:Kano@%, family or school of Japanese painters. %@AB@%Kano Masanobu,%@AE@%%@EH@%
c.1434-c.1530, the forerunner of the school, painted landscapes, birds,
and figure pieces. Done chiefly in inks, his work is Japanese in spirit,
with Chinese technical influence. His son, %@AB@%Kano Motonobu,%@AE@% c.1476-1559,
was the actual founder of the school. He introduced heavily stressed
outlines and bold decorative patterns into Chinese-style ink paintings
that appealed to the warrior class. %@AB@%Kano Eitoku,%@AE@% 1543-90, grandson of
Motonobu, painted screens with energy, ease, and inventiveness, using
brilliant colors against gold-leaf backgrounds. %@AB@%Kano Tanyu,%@AE@% 1602-74,
first known as Morinobu, was the grandson of Eitoku and was called the
reviver of the Kano school. He was the official painter of the Tokugawa
government (1621) and established a school of his own. His %@AI@%Confucius and
%@AI@%Disciples%@AE@% is in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. See also %@AU@%JAPANESE ART%@BO:          4b5acd@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kano%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kano%@AE@%,%@CR:KANO2           @%%@QR:Kano@% city (1983 est. pop. 487,100), N Nigeria. It is the commercial%@EH@%
center for an agricultural region that produces cotton, cattle, and
peanuts. A rapidly growing city, it is the chief industrial center of N
Nigeria, manufacturing a variety of consumer goods, and is known for its
leatherwork. Kano is connected by rail with %@AU@%LAGOS%@BO:          519593@%%@AE@% and has an
international airport. One of the seven Hausa city-states, Kano reached
the height of its power in the 17th and 18th cent. The British captured
the city in 1903. In 1981 it was the site of an uprising by Moslem
separatists, in which nearly 1,000 were killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kanpur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kanpur%@AE@%,%@CR:KANPUR          @%%@QR:Kanpur@% city (1981 pop. 1,531,345), Uttar Pradesh state, N central India,%@EH@%
on the Ganges R. An industrial center, it produces chemicals, textiles,
and other manufactures. It was a village until the Nawab of Oudh ceded it
to the British in 1801. During the %@AU@%INDIAN MUTINY%@BO:          4789af@%%@AE@% (1857) the entire
British garrison, including women and children, was killed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kansas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kansas%@AE@%,%@CR:KANSAS          @%%@QR:Kansas@% midwestern state occupying the center of the coterminous U.S.;%@EH@%
bordered by Missouri (E), Oklahoma (S), Colorado (W), and Nebraska (N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 82,264 sq mi (213,064 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 2,460,000, a 4.1%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Topeka. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% Jan. 29, 1861 (34th
state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Mt. Sunflower, 4,039 ft (1,232 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@%
Verdigris R., 680 ft (207 m). %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Sunflower State. %@AI@%Motto, Ad Astra
%@AI@%per Aspera%@AE@% To the Stars Through Difficulties. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% Western
meadowlark. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% native sunflower. %@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% cottonwood.
%@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Kans.; KS.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Kansas is part of the %@AU@%GREAT PLAINS%@BO:          3ce6c6@%%@AE@% and is famous for its
seemingly endless fields of wheat. The land rises more than 3,000 ft (914
m) from the eastern alluvial prairies to the semiarid high plains of the
west, which stretch toward the foothills of the %@AU@%ROCKY MOUNTAINS%@BO:          801361@%%@AE@%. Kansas
has a typical continental climate characterized by seasonal extremes in
temperatures, blizzards, tornadoes, and severe thunderstorms. More than
65% of the population lives in metropolitan areas. %@AU@%WICHITA%@BO:          a1695e@%%@AE@%, one of the
country's leading aircraft-manufacturing centers, is the largest city,
followed by %@AU@%KANSAS CITY%@BO:          4e4627@%%@AE@% (across the %@AU@%MISSOURI%@BO:          61a9f1@%%@AE@% R. from Kansas City, Mo.)
and %@AU@%TOPEKA%@BO:          96a353@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Kansas is the country's leading producer of wheat and the second
leading producer of sorghum. Corn and hay are also important crops.
Cattle, raised on the abundant grazing lands, constitute the most
profitable agricultural commodity. Meatpacking and the dairy industry are
major economic activities, although food processing is surpassed in value
by the production of transportation equipment and nonelectrical
machinery. Kansas is the country's leading producer of helium and also
extracts petroleum, natural gas, and salt.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution (adopted 1859) provides for a governor
elected for a four-year term. The legislature consists of a senate with
40 members serving four-year terms and a house with 125 members serving
two-year terms. Kansas is represented in the U.S. Congress by two
senators and five representatives and has seven electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% When the Spanish explorer Francisco Vasquez de %@AU@%CORONADO%@BO:          237b71@%%@AE@% visited
the area in 1541, it was inhabited by Indians, including the Kansa,
%@AU@%WICHITA%@BO:          a16bd9@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%PAWNEE%@BO:          724846@%%@AE@%, whose nomadic life, based on buffalo-hunting, was
transformed after the Spanish introduced the horse. The U.S. acquired the
land through the %@AU@%LOUISIANA PURCHASE%@BO:          574f09@%%@AE@% (1803). As settlement proceeded
during the 19th cent., Kansas became the center of national controversy
on the question of slavery, and by the 1850s sentiment reached the level
of armed warfare among settlers, including the abolitionist John %@AU@%BROWN%@BO:          1477b2@%%@AE@%,
earning it the name "bleeding Kansas." Kansas fought with the Union in
the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@% and suffered the highest rate of fatal casualties of any
northern state. After the war, thousands of new settlers arrived to farm
the prairies. As part of the %@AU@%DUST BOWL%@BO:          2b6aa1@%%@AE@%, Kansas sustained serious land
erosion during the drought of the 1930s. During World War II, airplane
manufacturing became very important, and industry continued to grow into
the 1980s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kansas City%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kansas City%@AE@%,%@CR:KANSAS.CITY     @%%@QR:Kansas City@% two adjacent cities: one (1986 est. pop. 162,070), seat of%@EH@%
Wyandotte co., NE Kans. (inc. 1859); the other (1986 est. pop. 441,170),
in NW Mo. (inc. 1850). Ports at the junction of the Missouri and Kansas
rivers, they form a commercial, industrial, cultural, and transportation
center. The cities are a huge market for crops and livestock with
stockyards, grain elevators, refineries, and mills. Automobiles, soap,
farm machinery, and printed materials are leading products. The area was
the starting place for many Western expeditions, and several early
19th-cent. settlements were the predecessors to today's cities. Points of
interest in Kansas include an agricultural museum, a Shawnee mission
(1839), and a unique mall in the city's center; among those in Missouri
are the Nelson Art Gallery, Atkins Museum, and several theaters.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kansas-Nebraska Act%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kansas-Nebraska Act%@AE@%,%@CR:KANSASNACT      @%%@QR:Kansas-Nebraska Act@% bill passed (1854) by the U.S. Congress to establish%@EH@%
the Kansas and Nebraska territories. Controversy over %@AU@%SLAVERY%@BO:          8a0247@%%@AE@% and
conflict over the route of the proposed transcontinental railroad had
delayed territorial organization of the region. Four attempts to organize
a single territory had been defeated by Southern opposition to the
%@AU@%MISSOURI COMPROMISE%@BO:          61afda@%%@AE@%, which would have barred slavery from the territory.
Finally, Sen. Stephen A. %@AU@%DOUGLAS%@BO:          2a5973@%%@AE@% presented a bill that made concessions
to the South. It created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and called
for "popular sovereignty" (see %@AU@%SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY%@BO:          8de59f@%%@AE@%). An amendment
repealed the antislavery clause of the Missouri Compromise. The squatter
sovereignty provision caused both pro-slavery and antislavery forces to
try to swing the popular decision in Kansas in their favor (see %@AU@%EMIGRANT
%@AU@%AID COMPANY%@BO:          2e84e4@%%@AE@%). The tragedy of "bleeding Kansas" resulted, and sectional
division reached a point that precluded reconciliation and culminated in
the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kant, Immanuel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kant, Immanuel%@AE@%,%@CR:KANT            @%%@QR:Kant, Immanuel@% 1724-1804, German philosopher, one of the greatest%@EH@%
figures in the history of %@AU@%METAPHYSICS%@BO:          5f4705@%%@AE@%. After 1755 he taught at the Univ.
of Konigsberg and achieved wide renown through his teachings and
writings. According to Kant, his reading of %@AU@%HUME%@BO:          453d29@%%@AE@% woke him from his
dogmatic slumber and led him to become the "critical philosopher,"
synthesizing the rationalism of %@AU@%LEIBNIZ%@BO:          539448@%%@AE@% and the %@AU@%SKEPTICISM%@BO:          89d4c9@%%@AE@% of Hume. Kant
proposed that objective reality is known only insofar as it conforms to
the essential structure of the knowing mind. Only objects of experience,
phenomena, may be known, whereas things lying beyond experience, noumena,
are unknowable, even though in some cases we assume a priori knowledge of
them. The existence of such unknowable "things-in-themselves" can be
neither confirmed nor denied, nor can they be scientifically
demonstrated. Therefore, as Kant showed in the %@AI@%Critique of Pure Reason%@AE@%
(1781), the great problems of metaphysics-the existence of God, freedom,
and immortality-are insoluble by scientific thought. Yet he went on to
state in the %@AI@%Critique of Practical Reason%@AE@% (1788) that morality requires
belief in their existence. Kant's %@AU@%ETHICS%@BO:          304cc3@%%@AE@% centers in his categorical
imperative, or absolute moral law, "Act as if the maxim from which you
act were to become through your will a universal law." His %@AI@%Critique of
%@AI@%Judgment%@AE@% (1790) considered the concepts of beauty and purposiveness as a
bridge between the sensible and the intelligible worlds. Kant's influence
on modern philosophy has continued to the present day. His work fostered
the development of German %@AU@%IDEALISM%@BO:          468882@%%@AE@% by %@AU@%FICHTE%@BO:          32f3eb@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%SCHELLING%@BO:          855219@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%HEGEL%@BO:          41306c@%%@AE@%. The
Neo-Kantianism of the late 19th cent. applied his insights to the study
of the physical sciences (Hermann Cohen, Ernst %@AU@%CASSIRER%@BO:          19c518@%%@AE@%), and to the
historical and cultural sciences (Heinrich Rickert); his influence is
also seen in the thought of Dilthey; in the pragmatism of %@AU@%DEWEY%@BO:          2880b3@%%@AE@% and
William %@AU@%JAMES%@BO:          4b163b@%%@AE@%; in the theology of %@AU@%SCHLEIERMACHER%@BO:          8576ab@%%@AE@%; and in %@AU@%GESTALT%@BO:          39bf0d@%%@AE@%
psychology.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kantorovich, Leonid Vitalievich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kantorovich, Leonid Vitalievich%@AE@%,%@CR:KANTOROVICH     @%%@QR:Kantorovich, Leonid Vitalievich@% 1912-86, Soviet economist and%@EH@%
mathematician. He applied linear programming to economics and proposed
the adoption of widely- used Western economic techniques. He shared the
1975 Nobel Prize in economics with Tjalling C. Koopmans for work on
optimum allocation of resources. His books include %@AI@%Management Science%@AE@%
(1939) and %@AI@%Functional Analysis%@AE@% (1977).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kaohsiung%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kaohsiung%@AE@%%@CR:KAOHSIUNG       @%%@QR:Kaohsiung@%, city (1986 est. pop. 1,300,000), S Taiwan. It is the second%@EH@%
largest city of Taiwan, the leading port in S Taiwan, and a heavy
industrial center. Its manufactures include steel, ships, and chemicals.
The city was developed by the Japanese, who occupied Taiwan in 1895.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kapitza, Pyotr Leonidovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kapitza, Pyotr Leonidovich%@AE@%,%@CR:KAPITZA         @%%@QR:Kapitza, Pyotr Leonidovich@% 1894-1984, Soviet physicist. He trained in%@EH@%
England under Ernest %@AU@%RUTHERFORD%@BO:          827ba1@%%@AE@% and contributed to %@AU@%LOW-TEMPERATURE
%@AU@%PHYSICS%@BO:          57939a@%%@AE@%. Forbidden to leave the USSR again, he was placed under house
arrest when he refused (1946) to work on atomic weapons. He was finally
released (1955) and worked on research supporting Soviet space projects.
He shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the
superconductivity of liquid helium.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kaplan, Mordecai Menahem%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kaplan, Mordecai Menahem%@AE@%,%@CR:KAPLAN          @%%@QR:Kaplan, Mordecai Menahem@% 1881-1983, American rabbi, educator, and%@EH@%
philosopher; b. Lithuania. He is the originator of Reconstructionist
%@AU@%JUDAISM%@BO:          4d7bea@%%@AE@% and the founder of its Society for the Advancement of Judaism.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kapok%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kapok%@AE@%,%@CR:KAPOK           @%%@QR:kapok@% tropical tree of the %@AU@%BOMBAX%@BO:          11bcb2@%%@AE@% family, and the resilient fiber%@EH@%
obtained from its seeds. The water- and decay-resist ant fiber, obtained
chiefly from %@AI@%Ceiba pentandra,%@AE@% is used as a stuffing, especially for life
preservers, and for insulation against sound and heat.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karachi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karachi%@AE@%,%@CR:KARACHI         @%%@QR:Karachi@% largest city (1981 est. pop. 5,103,000), and former capital of%@EH@%
Pakistan, capital of Sind prov., on the Arabian Sea near the Indus R.
delta. It is Pakistan's chief seaport and industrial center, with such
manufactures as automobiles, refined petroleum, and steel. Developed
(18th cent.) as a port and trade center by Hindu merchants, it passed
(1843) to the British, who made it the seat of the Sind government, a
military outpost, and a major seaport. It was Pakistan's capital from
independence (1947) until 1959, when %@AU@%RAWALPINDI%@BO:          7cf013@%%@AE@% became the interim
capital pending completion of %@AU@%ISLAMABAD%@BO:          4a0f33@%%@AE@%. Points of interest include the
tomb of Muhammad Ali %@AU@%JINNAH%@BO:          4c46a8@%%@AE@%, Pakistan's founder.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karadjordjevic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karadjordjevic%@AE@%%@CR:KARADJORDJEVIC  @%%@QR:Karadjordjevic@% or %@AB@%Karageorgevich,%@AE@%Serbian dynasty descended from%@EH@%
Karageorge that ruled from 1842 to 1945. It alternated with its longtime
rival, the %@AU@%OBRENOVIC%@BO:          6c9618@%%@AE@% dynasty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karageorgevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karageorgevich%@AE@%:%@CR:KARAGEORGEVICH  @%%@QR:Karageorgevich@% see %@AU@%KARADJORDJEVIC%@BO:          4e66e7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karajan, Herbert von%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karajan, Herbert von%@AE@%%@CR:KARAJAN         @%%@QR:Karajan, Herbert von@%, 1908-, Austrian conductor. He was musical director%@EH@%
of the Berlin Philharmonic from 1955 to 1989. He is noted for his
recording activity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karakorum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karakorum%@AE@%,%@CR:KARAKORUM       @%%@QR:Karakorum@% ruined city, central Mongolian People's Republic, %@AU@%MONGOL%@BO:          62c334@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
capital (c.1220-67) under %@AU@%JENGHIZ KHAN%@BO:          4bcac6@%%@AE@%. The ruins were discovered in 1889
by N.M. Yadrinstev, a Russian explorer. A nearby site, also called
Karakorum, was the %@AU@%UIGUR%@BO:          997253@%%@AE@% capital.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karamanlis, Constantine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karamanlis, Constantine%@AE@%,%@CR:KARAMANLIS      @%%@QR:Karamanlis, Constantine@% 1907-, Greek premier (1955-63, 1974-80) and%@EH@%
president (1980-85). A conservative, he took Greece into NATO and worked
to settle the %@AU@%CYPRUS%@BO:          25b5b8@%%@AE@% problem. He was ousted as premier (1963) but
returned to power (1974) when the ruling junta fell after a disastrous
war in Cyprus.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karamzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karamzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich%@AE@%%@CR:KARAMZIN        @%%@QR:Karamzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich@%, 1766-1826, Russian writer. Karamzin made%@EH@%
the Russian literary language more polished and rhythmic. His sentimental
story, "Poor Liza" (1792), forecast the novel of social protest. His
greatest work was his %@AI@%History of the Russian State%@AE@% (II vol., 1818-24).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%karate%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%karate%@AE@%:%@CR:KARATE          @%%@QR:karate@% see %@AU@%MARTIAL ARTS%@BO:          5c3787@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kariba Dam%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kariba Dam%@AE@%,%@CR:KARIBA.DAM      @%%@QR:Kariba Dam@% one of the world's largest dams, S central Africa, impounding%@EH@%
the %@AU@%ZAMBEZI%@BO:          a4d9be@%%@AE@% R. to form %@AB@%Kariba Lake%@AE@% (c.175 mi/280 km long and 20 mi/32 km
wide), on the Zambia-Zimbabwe border. The dam, 420 ft (128 m) high and
1,900 ft (579 m) long, was built (1955-59) to provide hydroelectricity
and serves as a bridge between Zimbabwe and Zambia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karl-Marx-Stadt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karl-Marx-Stadt%@AE@%,%@CR:KARLMARXSTADT   @%%@QR:Karl-Marx-Stadt@% formerly %@AB@%Chemnitz,%@AE@% city (1986 pop. 314,437), S East%@EH@%
Germany. Chartered in 1143, it has been a textile center since medieval
times, and is now an industrial center with such manufactures as machine
tools, chemicals, and optical instruments. Notable buildings include a
late-Gothic church. Heavily damaged in %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%, the city has been
rebuilt since 1945. It was renamed in 1953.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karloff, Boris%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karloff, Boris%@AE@%,%@CR:KARLOFF         @%%@QR:Karloff, Boris@% 1887-1969, Anglo-American actor; b. England as William%@EH@%
Henry Pratt. A fine actor with a superb speaking voice, he won fame as
the monster in such horror films as %@AI@%Frankenstein%@AE@% (1931) and %@AI@%The Bride of
%@AI@%Frankenstein%@AE@% (1935).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karlstadt%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karlstadt%@AE@%:%@CR:KARLSTADT       @%%@QR:Karlstadt@% see %@AU@%CARLSTADT%@BO:          18f90e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%karma%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%karma%@AE@%%@CR:KARMA           @%%@QR:karma@% [Skt.,=action, work, or ritual], basic concept common to %@AU@%HINDUISM%@BO:          42ef99@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
%@AU@%BUDDHISM%@BO:          151659@%%@AE@%, and %@AU@%JAINISM%@BO:          4ae252@%%@AE@%. The doctrine holds that one's state in this life
is the result of physical and mental actions in past incarnations and
that present action can determine one's destiny in future incarnations.
Karma is a natural, impersonal law of moral cause and effect; only those
who have attained %@AU@%NIRVANA%@BO:          6a4696@%%@AE@%, or liberation from rebirth, can transcend
karma.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karnak%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karnak%@AE@%,%@CR:KARNAK          @%%@QR:Karnak@% village, central Egypt, on the Nile R., 1 mi (1.6 km) E of %@AU@%LUXOR%@BO:          581ce9@%%@AE@%.%@EH@%
Remains of the pharaohs abound at Karnak. Most notable is the Great
Temple of %@AU@%AMON%@BO:           4d29f@%%@AE@%; its huge hypostyle hall (388 ft by 170 ft/118 m by 52 m)
has 134 columns arranged in 16 rows. The temple was largely conceived and
built, on an older foundation, in the XVIII dynasty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karolyi, Count Michael%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karolyi, Count Michael%@AE@%%@CR:KAROLYI         @%%@QR:Karolyi, Count Michael@%, 1875-1955, Hungarian politician. He became (1919)%@EH@%
provisional president of Hungary but surrendered the government to the
Communists under Bela %@AU@%KUN%@BO:          5108e3@%%@AE@%. After serving as Hungarian ambassador to
France (1947-49) he resigned and lived in exile in France.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karpov, Anatoly%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karpov, Anatoly%@AE@%,%@CR:KARPOV          @%%@QR:Karpov, Anatoly@% 1951-, Soviet chess master. In 1970 he became the%@EH@%
world's youngest international grand master. Karpov won (1975) the world
championship by default when Bobby %@AU@%FISCHER%@BO:          335c61@%%@AE@%, the title-holder, refused to
agree to terms for a match. He successfully defended (1978, 1981) his
title against Viktor %@AU@%KORCHNOI%@BO:          5087cd@%%@AE@% but lost (1985) to Gary Kasparov.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karsavina, Tamara%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karsavina, Tamara%@AE@%%@CR:KARSAVINA       @%%@QR:Karsavina, Tamara@% (tama'ra Karsa'vyina), 1885-1978, Russian dancer. She%@EH@%
made her debut (1902) in St. Petersburg, joined (1909) %@AU@%DIAGHILEV%@BO:          28988e@%%@AE@% in
Paris, and created principal roles in %@AI@%Firebird%@AE@% and %@AI@%Petrouchka%@AE@%. She often
danced with %@AU@%NIJINSKY%@BO:          6a2c74@%%@AE@% and was a leading exponent of Michel %@AU@%FOKINE'S%@BO:          340eb5@%%@AE@%
theories.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Karst%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Karst%@AE@%,%@CR:KARST           @%%@QR:Karst@% barren limestone plateau, NW Yugoslavia, extending c.50 mi (80 km)%@EH@%
southeast from the lower Isonzo Valley. Characterized by underground
drainage, caves, sinkholes, deep gullies, and other features associated
with dissolution and collapse of carbonate rocks, the name has become a
generic term used to describe any area where similar landforms occur.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kasavubu, Joseph%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kasavubu, Joseph%@AE@%,%@CR:KASAVUBU        @%%@QR:Kasavubu, Joseph@% 1917?-1969, 1st president (1960-65) of the Republic of%@EH@%
the Congo (now %@AU@%ZAIRE%@BO:          a4c756@%%@AE@%). Under his leadership the Congo gained independence
from Belgium. Kasavubu won a struggle for power with Premier %@AU@%LUMUMBA%@BO:          57d8ef@%%@AE@% but
was ousted by Gen. %@AU@%MOBUTU%@BO:          61e3db@%%@AE@% in 1965.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kashmir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kashmir%@AE@%%@CR:KASHMIR         @%%@QR:Kashmir@%, disputed territory, S Asia, administered since 1972 as the%@EH@%
Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (1981 pop. 5,954,010; c.54,000 sq
mi/139,900 sq km; capital Srinagar) and the Pakistani Azad Kashmir (1977
est. pop. 1,700,000; c.32,000 sq mi/82,900 sq km; capital, Muzaffarabad).
Known for its beauty, Kashmir is covered with lofty, rugged mountains,
including sections of the %@AU@%HIMALAYAN%@BO:          42dcce@%%@AE@% and Karakorum ranges. The heart of
the region is the Vale of Kashmir, where wheat and rice are grown. After
years of Buddhist and Hindu rule, Kashmir was converted to Islam in the
late 14th cent., and became part of the %@AU@%MOGUL%@BO:          622500@%%@AE@% empire in 1586. The British
installed a Hindu prince as ruler in 1846. Since the partition of India
in 1947, control of the territory has been contested by India and
Pakistan (see %@AU@%INDIA-PAKISTAN WARS%@BO:          47a867@%%@AE@%), with occasional interference by
China. The present division of the territory was drawn up in 1972.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kashmiri%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kashmiri%@AE@%%@CR:KASHMIRI        @%%@QR:Kashmiri@%, language belonging to the Dardic group of the Indo-Iranian%@EH@%
subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. See %@AU@%LANGUAGE%@BO:          520a55@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kasimir%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kasimir%@AE@%.%@CR:KASIMIR         @%%@QR:Kasimir@% For Polish rulers thus named, see %@AU@%CASIMIR%@BO:          19a918@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katanga%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katanga%@AE@%:%@CR:KATANGA         @%%@QR:Katanga@% see %@AU@%SHABA%@BO:          879835@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katayev, Valentin Petrovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katayev, Valentin Petrovich%@AE@%%@CR:KATAYEV1        @%%@QR:Katayev, Valentin Petrovich@%, 1897-1987, Russian novelist, playwright,%@EH@%
poet, and short-story writer; brother of Yevgeny Petrov (see under %@AU@%ILF,
%@AU@%ILYA%@BO:          46a6c9@%%@AE@%). In %@AI@%The Embezzlers%@AE@% (1926), a novel, and %@AI@%Squaring the Circle%@AE@% (1928),
a play, he satirized Soviet economic conditions. His four-part novel,
%@AI@%Black Sea Waves%@AE@% (1936-61), portrays Russian life from 1905 through World
War II. %@AI@%The Holy Well%@AE@% (1966) and %@AI@%Broken Life%@AE@% (1972) are memoirs.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katayev, Yevgeny Petrovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katayev, Yevgeny Petrovich%@AE@%:%@CR:KATAYEV2        @%%@QR:Katayev, Yevgeny Petrovich@% see %@AU@%PETROV, YEVGENY PETROVICH%@BO:          744984@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katharine of Aragon%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katharine of Aragon%@AE@%,%@CR:KATHARIAGON     @%%@QR:Katharine of Aragon@% 1485-1536, first queen consort of %@AU@%HENRY VIII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@% of%@EH@%
England; daughter of Ferdinand V of Castile and Leon and %@AU@%ISABELLA I%@BO:          49e609@%%@AE@% of
Castile. In 1501 she married Arthur, eldest son of %@AU@%HENRY VII%@BO:          41b27e@%%@AE@%. He died in
1502; a papal dispensation allowed Henry VIII, his brother, to marry
Katharine in 1509. Only one of her six children (%@AU@%MARY I%@BO:          5c697f@%%@AE@%) survived
infancy, and Henry became impatient for a male heir. Also, with the
collapse of the English-Spanish alliance in 1525, Katharine's political
influence waned. In 1527 Henry tried to have the marriage annulled, a
move that led to the English %@AU@%REFORMATION%@BO:          7d7826@%%@AE@%. After his secret marriage
(1533) to Anne %@AU@%BOLEYN%@BO:          119162@%%@AE@%, Henry had a court declare his first marriage
invalid. Katharine was confined at various estates; she refused to
recognize the break with Rome.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katmai National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katmai National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:KATMAI..PARK    @%%@QR:Katmai National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katmandu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katmandu%@AE@%,%@CR:KATMANDU        @%%@QR:Katmandu@% city (1981 pop. 235,160), capital of Nepal, central Nepal,%@EH@%
c.4,500 ft (1,370 m) above sea level, in a fertile Himalayan valley.
Nepal's administrative and commercial center, it lies on an ancient route
from India to China. Ruled by the Newars, it fell (1768) to the %@AU@%GURKHAS%@BO:          3ea308@%%@AE@%.
Landmarks include the royal palace, temples, and Sanskrit libraries.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katsushika Hokusai%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katsushika Hokusai%@AE@%:%@CR:KATSUSHSAI      @%%@QR:Katsushika Hokusai@% see %@AU@%HOKUSAI%@BO:          437fcc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kattegat%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kattegat%@AE@%,%@CR:KATTEGAT        @%%@QR:Kattegat@% body of water between Denmark and Sweden, one of the straits%@EH@%
linking the North and Baltic seas. It is c.140 mi (230 km) long and from
40 to 100 mi (60 to 160 km) wide.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%katydid%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%katydid%@AE@%,%@CR:KATYDID         @%%@QR:katydid@% name for some large, singing, winged %@AU@%INSECTS%@BO:          4878e0@%%@AE@% of the long-horned%@EH@%
%@AU@%GRASSHOPPER%@BO:          3c6cb1@%%@AE@% (family Tettigoniidae). Katydids are green or pink and range
from 11/4 to 5 in. (3 to 12.5 cm) in length. They are nocturnal and
arboreal. The song of the male, which supposedly sounds like "Katy did,
Katy didn't," is produced by rubbing together specialized structures on
the front wings.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Katyn%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Katyn%@AE@%%@CR:KATYN           @%%@QR:Katyn@%, village, W Central European USSR. It was occupied by the Germans%@EH@%
in World War II. In 1943 the German government announced that the mass
grave of 4,250 Polish officers had been found in a nearby forest, and
blamed Soviet forces for the massacre. The Soviet government asserted
that the Poles had been killed by the Germans. Neither allegation has
been proved. In 1951-52 a U.S. Congressional investigation charged that
the Soviets were responsible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kauffmann, Angelica%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kauffmann, Angelica%@AE@%,%@CR:KAUFFMANN       @%%@QR:Kauffmann, Angelica@% 1741-1807, Swiss neoclassical painter and graphic%@EH@%
artist. A protegee of Sir Joshua %@AU@%REYNOLDS%@BO:          7ea350@%%@AE@% and one of the original members
of the Royal Academy, she was a fashionable portraitist and decorator.
After her marriage in 1781 she lived in Italy. Her works include %@AI@%Religion%@AE@%
(National Gall., London) and the etching %@AI@%La Pensierosa.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kaufman, George S.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kaufman, George S.%@AE@%,%@CR:KAUFMAN         @%%@QR:Kaufman, George S.@% 1889-1961, American playwright; b. Pittsburgh. He%@EH@%
collaborated on over 40 plays, including %@AI@%Beggar on Horseback%@AE@% (1924; with
Marc Connelly), %@AI@%Dinner at Eight%@AE@% (1932; with Edna %@AU@%FERBER%@BO:          32753e@%%@AE@%), and %@AI@%Of Thee I
%@AI@%Sing%@AE@% (1932; with Morrie Ryskind and George %@AU@%GERSHWIN%@BO:          39b794@%%@AE@%; Pulitzer). Many of
his most famous plays were written with Moss %@AU@%HART%@BO:          4041df@%%@AE@%, e.g., %@AI@%You Can't Take
%@AI@%It with You%@AE@% (1936; Pulitzer), %@AI@%The Man Who Came to Dinner%@AE@% (1939).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kaunda, Kenneth%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kaunda, Kenneth%@AE@%%@CR:KAUNDA          @%%@QR:Kaunda, Kenneth@%, 1924-, African political leader, president of %@AU@%ZAMBIA%@BO:          a4dbcd@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1964-). He led the nationalist movement in Northern Rhodesia, and when
it became independent (1964) as Zambia he became its first president.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kawabata Yasunari%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kawabata Yasunari%@AE@%%@CR:KAWABATRI       @%%@QR:Kawabata Yasunari@%, 1899-1972, Japanese novelist. Written in a lyrical,%@EH@%
impressionistic style, his novels are distinguished by a masterful use of
imagery. Often they treat, in a delicate, oblique fashion, the
relationship of men to women, of man to nature. His novels include %@AI@%Snow
%@AI@%Country%@AE@% (tr. 1956) and %@AI@%The Sound of the Mountain%@AE@% (tr. 1970). In 1968
Kawabata became the first Japanese author to receive the Nobel Prize in
literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kawasaki%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kawasaki%@AE@%,%@CR:KAWASAKI        @%%@QR:Kawasaki@% city (1985 est. pop. 1,089,000), Kanagawa prefecture, central%@EH@%
Honshu, Japan, on Tokyo Bay. Located in the Tokyo-Yokohama industrial
area, it has steel mills, shipyards, oil refineries, and factories
producing electrical machinery, motors, petrochemicals, and cement.
Heigenji Temple, dedicated to the Buddhist priest Kukai, is in Kawasaki.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%%@CR:KAZAKH..REPUBL  @%%@QR:Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic@% or %@AB@%Kazakhstan,%@AE@% constituent republic%@EH@%
(1987 est. pop. 16,200,000), c.1,050,000 sq mi (2,719,500 sq km), S USSR.
It borders on Siberia (N); China (E); the Kirghiz, Uzbek, and Turkmen
republics (S); and the Caspian Sea (W). The capital is Alma-Ata. The
second-largest republic in size and the third largest in population, it
produces much of the USSR's wool, cattle, and wheat. It is rich in coal,
oil, and other resources. The Turkic-speaking Muslim Kazakhs comprise a
third of the population; other groups include Russians, Ukrainians, and
Uzbeks. The region was ruled by the %@AU@%MONGOLS%@BO:          62c334@%%@AE@% from the 13th to 18th cent.
and then by Russia; it became part of the USSR in 1920.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kazan, Elia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kazan, Elia%@AE@%,%@CR:KAZAN1          @%%@QR:Kazan, Elia@% 1909-, American stage and film director, producer, and%@EH@%
writer; b. Turkey as Elia Kazanioglous. A founding member of the Actors'
Studio (see %@AU@%STRASBERG, LEE%@BO:          8f7fc8@%%@AE@%), he directed %@AI@%A Streetcar Named Desire%@AE@% (1947),
%@AI@%Death of a Salesman%@AE@% (1949), and the film %@AI@%On the Waterfront%@AE@% (1954). He has
also written several novels, e.g., %@AI@%The Anatolian%@AE@% (1982).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kazan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kazan%@AE@%,%@CR:KAZAN2          @%%@QR:Kazan@% city (1987 est. pop. 1,068,000), capital of the Tatar Autonomous%@EH@%
Soviet Socialist Republic, E European USSR, on the Volga R. A major port,
it has shipyards, aircraft factories, and other industries. Founded in
1401, it became (1445) the capital of a powerful %@AU@%TATAR%@BO:          930c06@%%@AE@% khanate that was
conquered (1552) by %@AU@%IVAN IV%@BO:          4a7fe6@%%@AE@% of Russia. %@AU@%TOLSTOY%@BO:          967364@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@% studied at the
Univ. of Kazan (founded 1804).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kazantzakis, Nikos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kazantzakis, Nikos%@AE@%%@CR:KAZANTZAKIS     @%%@QR:Kazantzakis, Nikos@%, 1883-1957, Greek writer; b. Crete. Of an intensely%@EH@%
poetic and religious nature, he produced his most ambitious work in %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Odyssey, a Modern Sequel%@AE@% (1938), a verse tale that explores the world
views of %@AU@%BUDDHA%@BO:          1512ce@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%JESUS%@BO:          4bfd28@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%NIETZSCHE%@BO:          69fce1@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%LENIN%@BO:          53c62e@%%@AE@%, and others. He is, however,
better known for two earthy, realistic novels, %@AI@%The Greek Passion%@AE@% (1938)
and %@AI@%Zorba the Greek%@AE@% (1946), both of which were filmed.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kean, Edmund%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kean, Edmund%@AE@%,%@CR:KEAN            @%%@QR:Kean, Edmund@% 1787?-1833, English actor. His violent acting style%@EH@%
expressed the romantic ideal. Popular in the U.S. and England, he was
famous for Shakespearean roles. His Shylock in %@AI@%The Merchant of Venice%@AE@% was
a landmark in theater history. His son, %@AB@%Charles John Kean,%@AE@% 1811?-1868,
was best known for his spectacular and historically accurate productions.
Charles's wife, %@AB@%Ellen Tree Kean,%@AE@% 1806-80, was a noted comedienne.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kearny, Stephen Watts%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kearny, Stephen Watts%@AE@%,%@CR:KEARNY          @%%@QR:Kearny, Stephen Watts@% 1794-1848, American general in the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%; b.%@EH@%
Newark, N.J. Made (1846) commander in the West, Kearny captured Santa Fe
and Los Angeles and was military governor of California until 1847. His
nephew, %@AB@%Philip Kearny,%@AE@% 1814-62, commanded the 1st New Jersey Brigade in
the U.S. %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. He fought in the %@AU@%PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN%@BO:          72cf05@%%@AE@% and at the
second battle of %@AU@%BULL RUN%@BO:          156760@%%@AE@%. In Sept. 1862 he was killed when he
unwittingly crossed Confederate lines at Chantilly.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Keaton, Buster%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Keaton, Buster%@AE@%%@CR:KEATON          @%%@QR:Keaton, Buster@%, 1895-1966, American film actor and director; b. Piqua,%@EH@%
Kans. A comic genius, he made such silent films as %@AI@%Sherlock Junior%@AE@%
(1924), %@AI@%The Navigator%@AE@% (1924), and %@AI@%The General%@AE@% (1927).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Keats, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Keats, John%@AE@%,%@CR:KEATS           @%%@QR:Keats, John@% 1795-1821, English poet, considered one of the greatest%@EH@%
English poets. Apprenticed to a surgeon in 1811, he soon came to know
Leigh %@AU@%HUNT%@BO:          457793@%%@AE@% and in 1816 gave up surgery for poetry. His first volume of
poems appeared in 1817; it included "On First Looking into Chapman's
Homer." The long poem %@AI@%Endymion,%@AE@% published in 1818, was vigorously
attacked by the critics. Keats's passionate love for Fanny Brawne began
in 1818, but he had contracted tuberculosis and they did not marry.
Shortly after the publication of %@AI@%Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes,
%@AI@%and Other Poems%@AE@% (1820), Keats went to Italy for his health and died there
at the age of 25. Keats's poems are unequaled for dignity, melody, and
richness of imagery. They include "Ode to a Nightingale," "Ode on a
Grecian Urn," "To Autumn," "Ode on Melancholy," and the unfinished epic
"Hyperion." "The Eve of St. Agnes" and "La Belle Dame sans Merci" are
examples of romantic medievalism at its best. His sonnets include "When I
have fears that I may cease to be" and "Bright star, would I were
stedfast as thou art."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Keble, John%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Keble, John%@AE@%,%@CR:KEBLE           @%%@QR:Keble, John@% 1792-1866, English clergyman and poet. His poetical work %@AI@%The%@EH@%
%@AI@%Christian Year%@AE@% (1827), based on the %@AU@%BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER%@BO:          11f8c1@%%@AE@%, won him a
professorship of poetry at Oxford (1831-41). J.H. %@AU@%NEWMAN%@BO:          690d9f@%%@AE@% called his
sermon "National Apostasy" (1833) the start of the %@AU@%OXFORD MOVEMENT%@BO:          6fb99a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kefauver, (Cary) Estes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kefauver, (Cary) Estes%@AE@%,%@CR:KEFAUVER        @%%@QR:Kefauver, (Cary) Estes@% 1903-63, U.S. political leader; b. Madisonville,%@EH@%
Tenn. A Democratic congressman (1939-49) and senator (1949-63) from
Tennessee, he led (1950-51) a Senate committee investigating crime and
supported civil rights legislation. He was the unsuccessful Democratic
candidate for vice president in 1956.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kekkonen, Urho Kaleva%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kekkonen, Urho Kaleva%@AE@%%@CR:KEKKONEN        @%%@QR:Kekkonen, Urho Kaleva@%, 1900-86, president of Finland (1956-81). Leader of%@EH@%
the Agrarian party (from 1965 the Center party), he held various cabinet
posts from 1936 and was prime minister (1950-56). He resigned the
presidency for reasons of health and was succeeded (1982) by Mauno
Koivisto.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kekule von Stradonitz, Friedrich August%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kekule von Stradonitz, Friedrich August%@AE@%%@CR:KEKULE.DONITZ   @%%@QR:Kekule von Stradonitz, Friedrich August@%, 1829-96, German organic chemist.%@EH@%
A professor at Bonn, he is most noted for his representation of the
molecular structure of %@AU@%BENZENE%@BO:           e9ead@%%@AE@% as a ring. Such rings are the basic
structural feature of %@AU@%AROMATIC COMPOUNDS%@BO:           82269@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Keller, Helen Adams%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Keller, Helen Adams%@AE@%,%@CR:KELLER          @%%@QR:Keller, Helen Adams@% 1880-1968, American author and lecturer; b.%@EH@%
Tuscumbia, Ala. Blind and deaf from the age of two, she was put (1887) in
the care of Anne Sullivan (see %@AU@%MACY, ANNE SULLIVAN%@BO:          591e08@%%@AE@%), who became her
teacher and lifelong companion. Keller made rapid progress and in 1904
was graduated from Radcliffe College with honors. She published and
lectured widely to raise funds for the training of the blind and for
other social causes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kelley, Florence Molthrop%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kelley, Florence Molthrop%@AE@%,%@CR:KELLEY          @%%@QR:Kelley, Florence Molthrop@% 1859-1932, American social reformer; b.%@EH@%
Philadelphia. As general secretary of the National Consumers League, she
helped bring about minimum wage laws, the abolition of child labor, and
limited work hours for women.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kellogg-Briand Pact%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kellogg-Briand Pact%@AE@%,%@CR:KELLOGGACT      @%%@QR:Kellogg-Briand Pact@% or Pact of Paris, agreement reached in 1928 by 15%@EH@%
nations (and eventually ratified by 62 nations) who agreed to settle all
conflicts by peaceful means and who renounced war as an instrument of
national policy. U.S. Secy. of State Frank Billings Kellogg and French
Foreign Minister Aristide %@AU@%BRIAND%@BO:          13c7ed@%%@AE@% were its sponsors. Its effectiveness was
vitiated by its failure to provide measures of enforcement. Ultimately,
the pact proved to be meaningless, especially as nations adopted the
practice of waging undeclared wars.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kelly, George%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kelly, George%@AE@%,%@CR:KELLY1          @%%@QR:Kelly, George@% 1887-1974, American playwright; b. Philadelphia. His%@EH@%
best-known plays, satires on American middle-class life, include %@AI@%The
%@AI@%Torch-Bearers%@AE@% (1922) and %@AI@%Craig's Wife%@AE@% (1925; Pulitzer).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kelly, Grace%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kelly, Grace%@AE@%:%@CR:KELLY2          @%%@QR:Kelly, Grace@% see %@AU@%GRACE%@BO:          3bfac6@%%@AE@%, princess consort of Monaco.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kelvin, William Thomson, 1st Baron%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kelvin, William Thomson, 1st Baron%@AE@%,%@CR:KELVIN1         @%%@QR:Kelvin, William Thomson, 1st Baron@% 1824-1907, British mathematician and%@EH@%
physicist; b. Ireland. He was professor (1846-99) of natural philosophy
at the Univ. of Glasgow. His work in %@AU@%THERMODYNAMICS%@BO:          94e3ba@%%@AE@% coordinating the
various existing theories of heat established the law of the conservation
of %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@% as proposed by James %@AU@%JOULE%@BO:          4d57fd@%%@AE@%. He discovered the Thomson effect in
thermoelectricity and introduced the Kelvin scale, or absolute scale, of
%@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@%. His work on the transmission of messages by undersea cables
made him a leading authority in this field.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kelvin%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kelvin%@AE@%:%@CR:KELVIN2         @%%@QR:kelvin@% see %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kelvin temperature scale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kelvin temperature scale%@AE@%:%@CR:KELVIN.E        @%%@QR:Kelvin temperature scale@% see %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kemal Pasha, Mustafa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kemal Pasha, Mustafa%@AE@%:%@CR:KEMAL.PASHA     @%%@QR:Kemal Pasha, Mustafa@% see %@AU@%ATATURK, KEMAL%@BO:           93e66@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kemble, Roger%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kemble, Roger%@AE@%,%@CR:KEMBLE          @%%@QR:Kemble, Roger@% 1721-1802, English actor and manager. The father of 12%@EH@%
children (with his wife, Sarah Wood), he founded one of England's most
distinguished stage families. Best known was Sarah Kemble %@AU@%SIDDONS%@BO:          88cc89@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%John
%@AB@%Philip Kemble,%@AE@% 1757-1823, the eldest son, managed (1788-1803) the Drury
Lane Theatre and %@AU@%COVENT GARDEN%@BO:          241703@%%@AE@% (1803-17). He was a tragedian, and his
best role was Coriolanus. His brother %@AB@%George Stephen Kemble,%@AE@% 1758-1822,
managed companies in Edinburgh and Ireland, achieving success as
Falstaff. Another brother, %@AB@%Charles Kemble,%@AE@% 1775-1854, excelling in
romantic roles, managed (1822-32) Covent Garden. His sister, %@AB@%Elizabeth
%@AB@%Kemble,%@AE@% 1761-1836, as Mrs. Whitlock, was popular in the U.S. Charles's
daughter %@AB@%Fanny Kemble%@AE@% (Frances Anne Kemble), 1809-93, gained fame in both
comedy and tragedy and won extravagant praise when she toured (1832-34)
the U.S. with her father. Her sister, %@AB@%Adelaide Kemble,%@AE@% 1814-79, was an
opera singer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kempis, Thomas a%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kempis, Thomas a%@AE@%:%@CR:KEMPIS          @%%@QR:Kempis, Thomas a@% see %@AU@%THOMAS A KEMPIS%@BO:          952c6b@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kenai Fjords National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kenai Fjords National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:KENAI.FARK      @%%@QR:Kenai Fjords National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kendall, Amos%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kendall, Amos%@AE@%,%@CR:KENDALL1        @%%@QR:Kendall, Amos@% 1789-1869, American journalist and politician; b.%@EH@%
Dunstable, Mass. In Frankfort, Ky., he edited (1816-29) the %@AI@%Argus of
%@AI@%Western America%@AE@% and helped build Andrew %@AU@%JACKSON'S%@BO:          4aa8ed@%%@AE@% political strength. He
was a member of Pres. Jackson's %@AU@%KITCHEN CABINET%@BO:          50103f@%%@AE@% and was postmaster
general (1835-40).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kendall, George Wilkins%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kendall, George Wilkins%@AE@%,%@CR:KENDALL2        @%%@QR:Kendall, George Wilkins@% 1809-67, American journalist; b. near Amherst,%@EH@%
N.H. A partner in founding (1837) the New Orleans %@AI@%Picayune,%@AE@% he was an
active exponent of the %@AU@%MEXICAN WAR%@BO:          5faaee@%%@AE@%, in which he served. His reports, sent
back to his paper by private express, earned him a reputation as the
first modern war correspondent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kendo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kendo%@AE@%:%@CR:KENDO           @%%@QR:kendo@% see %@AU@%MARTIAL ARTS%@BO:          5c3787@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Keneally, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Keneally, Thomas%@AE@%,%@CR:KENEALLY        @%%@QR:Keneally, Thomas@% 1935-, Australian novelist. His strong, often violent%@EH@%
novels are usually set in a specific historical period, e.g., %@AI@%The Chant
%@AI@%of Jimmie Blacksmith%@AE@% (1972), about an aboriginal run amok in the
Australia of 1900. The nonfiction %@AI@%Schindler's List%@AE@% (1982) concerns Oskar
Schindler, a Christian who saved the lives of many Jews during the
%@AU@%HOLOCAUST%@BO:          43adfc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kennan, George Frost%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kennan, George Frost%@AE@%,%@CR:KENNAN          @%%@QR:Kennan, George Frost@% 1904-, U.S. diplomat and historian; b. Milwaukee,%@EH@%
Wis. A formulator of the policy of "containment" towards the USSR, he was
ambassador to Moscow (1952) until the Russians demanded his removal. He
later served (1961-63) as ambassador to Yugoslavia. His works include
%@AI@%American Diplomacy, 1900-1950%@AE@% (1951), his memoirs (2 vol., 1967-72), and
the autobiographical sketches from a Life's Journey (1989).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kennedy, Anthony M.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kennedy, Anthony M.%@AE@%:%@CR:KENNEDY1        @%%@QR:Kennedy, Anthony M.@% see %@AU@%SUPREME COURT, UNITED STATES%@BO:          90ec68@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kennedy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kennedy%@AE@%,%@CR:KENNEDY2        @%%@QR:Kennedy@% American family, active in U.S. government and politics. %@AB@%Joseph%@EH@%
%@AB@%Patrick Kennedy,%@AE@% 1888-1969, b. Boston, engaged in banking, shipbuilding,
and motion-picture distribution before serving as chairman of the
Securities and Exchange Commission (1934-35) and head of the U.S.
Maritime Commission (1936-37). He was U.S. ambassador to Great Britain
(1937-40). His son %@AB@%John Fitzgerald Kennedy%@AE@% was president of the U.S. (see
separate article). His son %@AB@%Robert Francis Kennedy,%@AE@% 1925-68, b. Brookline,
Mass., served (1961-64) as U.S. attorney general. He resigned after Pres.
Kennedy's death and was elected (1964) U.S. senator from New York. In
1968 he sought the Democratic presidential nomination, but after winning
the California primary he was mortally wounded by a gunman, Sirhan B.
Sirhan. Joseph Kennedy's youngest son, %@AB@%Edward Moore Kennedy,%@AE@% 1932-, b.
Boston, has served as U.S. senator from Massachusetts since 1962. A
spokesman for liberal causes, he has advocated such reforms as national
health insurance and tax reform. His political future was marred somewhat
by the Chappaquiddick incident (July 1969) in which Mary Jo Kopechne, a
passenger in a car he was driving on an island near Martha's Vineyard,
Mass., was drowned when the car ran off a bridge. Kennedy unsuccessfully
challenged Pres. Jimmy %@AU@%CARTER%@BO:          196367@%%@AE@% for the 1980 Democratic presidential
nomination.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kennedy, John Fitzgerald%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kennedy, John Fitzgerald%@AE@%,%@CR:KENNEDY3        @%%@QR:Kennedy, John Fitzgerald@% 1917-63, 35th president of the U.S. (1961-63);%@EH@%
son of Joseph P. Kennedy; brother of Robert Francis Kennedy and Edward
Moore Kennedy (see %@AU@%KENNEDY%@BO:          4ee6d2@%%@AE@%, family); b. Brookline, Mass. After enlisting
in the U.S. navy in World War II, he served with distinction as commander
of a PT boat in the Pacific. He was a Democratic congressman from
Massachusetts (1947-53) and in 1952 won a seat in the U.S. Senate. The
next year he married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier (see %@AU@%ONASSIS,JACQUELINE
%@AU@%BOUVIER%@BO:          6dc6d1@%%@AE@%). Kennedy narrowly lost the Democratic vice presidential
nomination in 1956 and in 1960 won the party's presidential nomination.
He defeated Republican Richard %@AU@%NIXON%@BO:          6a5b4d@%%@AE@%, becoming at 43 the youngest man to
be elected president. His domestic program, the New Frontier, called for
tax reform, federal aid to education, medical care for the aged under
Social Security, and the extension of civil rights. Many of his reforms,
however, stalled in Congress, and foreign-affairs crises occupied much of
his time. He was much criticized for his approval for the abortive %@AU@%BAY OF
%@AU@%PIGS INVASION%@BO:           d3bc8@%%@AE@% (1961) of Cuba. In Oct. 1962 U.S. reconnaissance planes
discovered Soviet missile bases there. In the ensuing %@AU@%CUBAN MISSILE
%@AU@%CRISIS%@BO:          252bdd@%%@AE@%, Kennedy ordered a blockade of Cuba and demanded the removal of
the missiles. After a brief and tense interval, the USSR complied with
his demands. The next year the U.S. and the Soviet Union signed a limited
treaty banning nuclear tests. Kennedy also increased the number of U.S.
military advisers in South Vietnam to about 16,000 (see %@AU@%VIETNAM WAR%@BO:          9d7029@%%@AE@%). He
established the Alliance for Progress to give economic aid to Latin
America and created the %@AU@%PEACE CORPS%@BO:          72638d@%%@AE@%. He also pressed hard to achieve
racial %@AU@%INTEGRATION%@BO:          48a964@%%@AE@% in the South. On Nov. 22, 1963, Kennedy was shot and
killed in Dallas, Tex. Vice Pres. Lyndon %@AU@%JOHNSON%@BO:          4ccc58@%%@AE@% succeeded him as
president. The %@AU@%WARREN COMMISSION%@BO:          9f388a@%%@AE@%, appointed to investigate the
assassination, concluded that it was the work of a single gunman, Lee
Harvey Oswald. In 1979, however, the House Select Committee on
Assassinations, relying in part on acoustical evidence, concluded that a
conspiracy was "likely" and that it may have involved organized crime.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kenneth I%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kenneth I%@AE@%,%@CR:KENNETH.I       @%%@QR:Kenneth I@% d. 858, traditional founder of the kingdom of Scotland. He%@EH@%
united (c.843) the thrones of Dalriada and the Picts.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kensett, John Frederick%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kensett, John Frederick%@AE@%,%@CR:KENSETT         @%%@QR:Kensett, John Frederick@% 1818-72, American painter; b. Cheshire, Conn.%@EH@%
Famous for delicately colored landscapes, he was a member of the %@AU@%HUDSON
%@AU@%RIVER SCHOOL%@BO:          45043d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kent, James%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kent, James%@AE@%,%@CR:KENT1           @%%@QR:Kent, James@% 1763-1847, American jurist; b. near Brewster, N.Y. As%@EH@%
chancellor of New York State (1814-23), Kent, through his written
opinions, was instrumental in reviving %@AU@%EQUITY%@BO:          2fa7e2@%%@AE@%, which had largely lapsed
in the U.S. after the Revolution. Kent combined English chancery
jurisprudence with Roman law principles to refashion equity doctrine. His
systematic %@AI@%Commentaries on American Law%@AE@% (1826-30) greatly influenced the
profession and teaching of law in the U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kent, Rockwell%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kent, Rockwell%@AE@%,%@CR:KENT2           @%%@QR:Kent, Rockwell@% 1882-1971, American artist and writer; b. Tarrytown, N.Y.%@EH@%
Kent is known for his stark, powerful graphic art and paintings. His
major works include %@AI@%Toilers of the Sea%@AE@% (Art Inst., Chicago) and %@AI@%Winter%@AE@%
(Metropolitan Mus.). Among his books are %@AI@%Wilderness%@AE@% (1921) and %@AI@%Salamina%@AE@%
(1935).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kent, kingdom of%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kent, kingdom of%@AE@%,%@CR:KENT3           @%%@QR:Kent, kingdom of@% one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England. Kent was%@EH@%
settled (mid-5th cent.) by the Jutes, who overcame the British
inhabitants. Their kingdom comprised essentially the area of the present
county of Kent. King %@AU@%AETHELBERT%@BO:           18eaa@%%@AE@% of Kent established hegemony over England
south of the Humber R. and became a Christian. Kent was later subject to
King %@AU@%OFFA%@BO:          6cfc2d@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%MERCIA%@BO:          5edd6a@%%@AE@% and in 825 became part of %@AU@%WESSEX%@BO:          a09044@%%@AE@%. The kingdom
remained an advanced area of pre-Norman England because of the
archbishopric of %@AU@%CANTERBURY%@BO:          1850bc@%%@AE@% and because of steady intercourse with the
Continent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kentucky%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kentucky%@AE@%,%@CR:KENTUCKY        @%%@QR:Kentucky@% one of the so-called border states of the S central U.S.;%@EH@%
bordered by West Virginia (E), Tennessee (S), the Mississippi R., across
which lies Missouri (SW), and Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, all across the
Ohio R. (W, N).
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Area,%@AE@% 40,395 sq mi (104,623 sq km). %@AI@%Pop.%@AE@% (1986 est.) 3,729,000, a 1.9%
increase over 1980 pop. %@AI@%Capital,%@AE@% Frankfort. %@AI@%Statehood,%@AE@% June 1, 1792 (15th
state). %@AI@%Highest pt.,%@AE@% Black Mt., 4,145 ft (1,264 m); %@AI@%lowest pt.,%@AE@%
Mississippi R., 257 ft (78 m). %@AI@%Nickname,%@AE@% Bluegrass State. %@AI@%Motto,%@AE@% United
We Stand, Divided We Fall. %@AI@%State bird,%@AE@% cardinal. %@AI@%State flower,%@AE@% goldenrod.
%@AI@%State tree,%@AE@% Kentucky coffee tree. %@AI@%Abbr.,%@AE@% Ky.; KY.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Land and People%@AE@% Coal-rich E Kentucky is part of the %@AU@%APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS%@BO:           6bff1@%%@AE@%
system. The mountains give way in the west to the rolling agricultural
plains and rocky hillsides of the Pennyroyal, the famous Bluegrass
region, where thoroughbreds are raised, and low flatlands along the
%@AU@%MISSISSIPPI%@BO:          619330@%%@AE@% R. The climate is generally mild. About 45% of the population
lives in metropolitan areas. %@AU@%LOUISVILLE%@BO:          576603@%%@AE@% is by far the dominant urban
center, followed in size by %@AU@%LEXINGTON%@BO:          54822b@%%@AE@%.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Economy%@AE@% Manufacturing accounts for most of Kentucky's income, with
nonelectrical machinery, chemicals, and electrical equipment the
principal products. Tobacco has long been the state's chief crop. Other
major agricultural products, in order of value, are cattle, soybeans,
dairy products, corn, and hay. Kentucky leads the nation in the
production of bituminous and lignite coal, and stone, petroleum, and
natural gas are also extracted. The Kentucky Dam, on the %@AU@%TENNESSEE%@BO:          93eea9@%%@AE@% R., is
a major part of the %@AU@%TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY%@BO:          93f121@%%@AE@%. Tourism is of growing
importance, partly because of such attractions as Mammoth Cave National
Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,) and the annual Kentucky Derby thoroughbred
race, held in Louisville.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%Government%@AE@% The constitution of 1891 provides for a governor elected to a
four-year term. The general assembly consists of a senate whose 38
members serve four-year terms and a house with 100 members elected to
two-year terms. Kentucky is represented in the U.S. Congress by seven
representatives and two senators and has nine electoral votes.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Early settlers began crossing the mountains to settle in Kentucky
during the 1760s, and in 1775 Daniel %@AU@%BOONE%@BO:          1213b5@%%@AE@% helped to blaze the %@AU@%WILDERNESS
%@AU@%ROAD%@BO:          a1917b@%%@AE@%. After Kentucky became (1792) the first state west of the
Appalachians to join the Union, it prospered from river traffic on the
Mississippi and Ohio. Residents of this border state were torn over the
question of slavery, and although Kentucky remained in the Union its
residents fought on both sides in the %@AU@%CIVIL WAR%@BO:          1ec90c@%%@AE@%. Coal mining, which began
on a large scale during the 1870s, was well established by the early 20th
cent. Mining areas, especially Harlan co., became the scene of violent
labor strife when the United Mine Workers of America attempted to
unionize the mines during the 1930s. Mining subsequently entered a
decline, but because of the national energy crisis of the 1970s Kentucky
enjoyed new prosperity from the revival of its coal-mining industry
during the 1970s and 80s.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions%@AE@%,%@CR:KENTUCKESOLUTI  @%%@QR:Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions@% in U.S. history, resolutions passed in%@EH@%
1798 and 1799 by the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures in opposition to
the %@AU@%ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS%@BO:           3bf48@%%@AE@%. The Kentucky Resolutions, written by Thomas
%@AU@%JEFFERSON%@BO:          4ba867@%%@AE@%, stated that the federal government had no right to exercise
powers not delegated to it by the Constitution. A further resolution
declared that the states could nullify objectionable federal laws. The
Virginia Resolutions, written by James %@AU@%MADISON%@BO:          59378d@%%@AE@%, were milder. Both were
later considered the first notable statements of the %@AU@%STATES' RIGHTS%@BO:          8e68df@%%@AE@%
doctrine.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kenya%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kenya%@AE@%%@CR:KENYA1          @%%@QR:Kenya@%, officially Republic of Kenya, republic (1987 est. pop.%@EH@%
20,030,000), 224,960 sq mi (582,646 sq km), E Africa, bordered by Somalia
(E), the Indian Ocean (SE), Tanzania (S), Victoria Nyanza (Lake Victoria,
SW), Uganda (W), the Sudan (NW), and Ethiopia (N). Principal cities are
%@AU@%NAIROBI%@BO:          66170f@%%@AE@%, the capital, and %@AU@%MOMBASA%@BO:          627321@%%@AE@%, the chief port. Kenya, which lies
astride the equator, has five main regions: a narrow, dry coastal strip;
bush-covered plains in the interior; high-lying scrublands in the
northwest; fertile grasslands and highland forests in the southwest; and
the %@AU@%GREAT RIFT VALLEY%@BO:          3ce968@%%@AE@% in the west, location of some of the country's
highest mountains, including %@AU@%MT. KENYA%@BO:          4f2156@%%@AE@% (17,058 ft/5,199 m). Except for
the temperate highlands, the climate is hot and dry. Black Africans, of
about 40 ethnic groups, make up 97% of the population. Many of the people
follow traditional beliefs, but about 70% are Christian and about 6%
Muslim. Swahili is the official language. The great majority of Kenyans
engage in subsistence farming. Coffee, tea, petroleum products, and fresh
vegetables, fruits, and flowers are the chief exports. Large numbers of
cattle are pastured in the grasslands. Industry, which is expanding,
includes petroleum-refining, food-processing, and the manufacture of
cement and textiles. Tourists, attracted by Kenya's protected wildlife in
Tsavo National Park, are an important source of income.
%@NL@%
%@AB@%History%@AE@% Anthropological discoveries indicate that humans, perhaps the
first on earth, probably inhabited southern Kenya some 2 million years
ago. In the Kenya highlands farming and domestic herds can be dated to
1000 BC Arab traders settled on the coast by the 8th cent. AD,
establishing several autonomous city-states. The Portuguese, who first
visited the Kenya coast in 1498, gained control of much of it but were
expelled by Arabs in 1729. In 1886, under a British-German agreement on
spheres of influence in E Africa, most of present-day Kenya passed to
Britain, and in 1903, after a railroad opened up the interior, the first
European settlers moved in. Under Britain, Europeans controlled the
government, and Indians, who had arrived earlier, were active in
commerce, while black Africans were largely confined to subsistence
farming or to work as laborers. Protests by blacks over their inferior
status reached a peak in the so-called %@AU@%MAU-MAU%@BO:          5d5462@%%@AE@% emergency (1952-56), an
armed revolt against British rule. After the rebellion Britain increased
black African representation in the legislative council, and in 1963
Kenya gained independence. The country became a republic in 1964, with
Jomo %@AU@%KENYATTA%@BO:          4f22cb@%%@AE@% as president. The first decade of independence was marked
by disputes among ethnic groups (especially the Kikuyu and the Luo), by
the exodus of many Europeans and Asians, and by sporadic fighting with
Somalia over boundary issues. Daniel arap %@AU@%MOI%@BO:          6238b7@%%@AE@%, candidate of Kanu, Kenya's
only legal political party, succeeded to the presidency after Kenyatta's
death in 1978. After an abortive coup (1982), Moi strengthened the
president's power.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kenya, Mount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kenya, Mount%@AE@%,%@CR:KENYA2          @%%@QR:Kenya, Mount@% or %@AB@%Mount Kirinyaga,%@AE@%extinct volcano, 17,058 ft (5,199 m)%@EH@%
high, in Kenya. The snow-capped peak, located near the equator, is the
second-highest mountain in Africa, after %@AU@%KILIMANJARO%@BO:          4f9a9e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kenyatta, Jomo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kenyatta, Jomo%@AE@%,%@CR:KENYATTA        @%%@QR:Kenyatta, Jomo@% 1893?-1978, 1st president of %@AU@%KENYA%@BO:          4f13f4@%%@AE@% (1964-78). One of the%@EH@%
best-known African leaders, he founded various pan-African nationalist
movements. He was imprisoned by the British in 1953 following the %@AU@%MAU MAU%@BO:          5d5462@%%@AE@%
uprising and was exiled in 1959. He was released in 1961 to negotiate
Kenya's independence (1963).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kepler, Johannes%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kepler, Johannes%@AE@%,%@CR:KEPLER          @%%@QR:Kepler, Johannes@% 1571-1630, German astronomer. He was professor of%@EH@%
mathematics at Graz (1593-98) and court mathematician to Holy Roman
Emperor Rudolf II. In 1596 he wrote %@AI@%Mysterium cosmographicum,%@AE@% which led
to exchanges with %@AU@%GALILEO%@BO:          376852@%%@AE@% and Tycho %@AU@%BRAHE%@BO:          1323dd@%%@AE@%. His %@AI@%Astronomia nova%@AE@% (1609)
contained the first two of what became %@AU@%KEPLER'S LAWS%@BO:          4f2804@%%@AE@%; the third law
appeared in 1619 in his %@AI@%Harmonice mundi.%@AE@% These laws were the result of
calculations based on Brahe's accurate observations, which Kepler
published in the %@AI@%Tabulae Rudolphinae%@AE@% (1627).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kepler's laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kepler's laws%@AE@%,%@CR:KEPLERS.LAWS    @%%@QR:Kepler's laws@% three mathematical statements by Johannes %@AU@%KEPLER%@BO:          4f24d5@%%@AE@% that%@EH@%
accurately describe the revolutions of the planets around the sun. The
first law states that the shape of each planet's orbit is an ellipse (see
%@AU@%CONIC SECTION%@BO:          221550@%%@AE@%) with the sun at one focus. The second law states that if
an imaginary line is drawn from the sun to the planet, the line will
sweep out equal areas in space in equal periods of time for all points in
the orbit. The third law states that the ratio of the cube of the
semimajor axis of the ellipse (i.e., the average distance of the planet
from the sun) to the square of the planet's period (the time it needs to
complete one revolution around the sun) is the same for all the planets.
Newton gave a physical explanation of Kepler's laws with his laws of
%@AU@%MOTION%@BO:          64539b@%%@AE@% and law of %@AU@%GRAVITATION%@BO:          3c780d@%%@AE@%. See also %@AU@%CELESTIAL MECHANICS%@BO:          1a9fb7@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kerensky, Aleksandr Feodorovich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kerensky, Aleksandr Feodorovich%@AE@%,%@CR:KERENSKY        @%%@QR:Kerensky, Aleksandr Feodorovich@% 1881-1970, Russian revolutionary. He was%@EH@%
prime minister in the provisional government that followed the Feb. 1917
%@AU@%RUSSIAN REVOLUTION%@BO:          824691@%%@AE@%, but his failure to withdraw Russia from %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%
or to deal with economic problems enabled the Bolsheviks (see %@AU@%BOLSHEVISM%@BO:          11afd5@%%@AE@%)
to overthrow him in Nov. 1917. He fled to Paris and then (1940) to the
U.S.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kerguelen Island%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kerguelen Island%@AE@%:%@CR:KERGUELD        @%%@QR:Kerguelen Island@% see %@AU@%FRENCH SOUTHERN AND ANTARCTIC LANDS%@BO:          363b53@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kerkira%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kerkira%@AE@%%@CR:KERKIRA         @%%@QR:Kerkira@% or %@AB@%Corfu,%@AE@%island (1981 pop. 99,477), 229 sq mi (593 sq km), NW%@EH@%
Greece, in the Ionian Sea. Its industries include agriculture, fishing,
and tourism. Settled c.730 BC by Corinthians, it later concluded a
rebellious alliance with Athens that helped to precipitate (431 BC) the
%@AU@%PELOPONNESIAN WAR%@BO:          72ae2e@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kern, Jerome%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kern, Jerome%@AE@%,%@CR:KERN            @%%@QR:Kern, Jerome@% 1885-1945, American composer; b. N.Y.C. Among his%@EH@%
successful %@AU@%MUSICALS%@BO:          657895@%%@AE@% were %@AI@%Show Boat%@AE@% (1927; with Oscar %@AU@%HAMMERSTEIN%@BO:          3f8eef@%%@AE@% 2d) and
%@AI@%Roberta%@AE@% (1933). He wrote many famous songs, including "Smoke Gets in Your
Eyes."%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kerosene%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kerosene%@AE@%%@CR:KEROSENE        @%%@QR:kerosene@% or %@AB@%kerosine,%@AE@%a colorless, thin oil that is less dense than water.%@EH@%
It is a mixture of %@AU@%HYDROCARBONS%@BO:          45e32c@%%@AE@% commonly obtained in the fractional
%@AU@%DISTILLATION%@BO:          2967f3@%%@AE@% of %@AU@%PETROLEUM%@BO:          7439e9@%%@AE@%, but also from coal, oil shale, and wood. Once
the most important refinery product because of its use in lamps, kerosene
is now used chiefly as a carrier in insecticide sprays and as a fuel in
jet engines.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kerouac, Jack%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kerouac, Jack%@AE@%,%@CR:KEROUAC         @%%@QR:Kerouac, Jack@% 1922-69, American writer; b. Lowell, Mass. A leader of the%@EH@%
%@AU@%BEAT GENERATION%@BO:           d5e1f@%%@AE@%, he wrote of the frenetic pursuit of new experience. His
best-known work is the novel %@AI@%On the Road%@AE@% (1957). He also wrote other
novels and poetry.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kesselring, Albert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kesselring, Albert%@AE@%,%@CR:KESSELRING      @%%@QR:Kesselring, Albert@% 1885-1960, German field marshal. During %@AU@%WORLD WAR II%@BO:          a3473b@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
he served in virtually every theater, becoming commander in chief in the
West (1945). He was convicted (1947) of war crimes and imprisoned, but
was freed in 1952.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kettledrum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kettledrum%@AE@%:%@CR:KETTLEDRUM      @%%@QR:kettledrum@% see %@AU@%DRUM%@BO:          2accf2@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kew Gardens%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kew Gardens%@AE@%,%@CR:KEW.GARDENS     @%%@QR:Kew Gardens@% Surrey, S England, on the Thames just W of London;%@EH@%
officially, Royal Botanic Gardens. Founded in 1761, the gardens cover 288
acres and contain thousands of plant species, four museums, and
laboratories and hothouses.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Key, Francis Scott%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Key, Francis Scott%@AE@%,%@CR:KEY1            @%%@QR:Key, Francis Scott@% 1779-1843, American poet, author of the %@AU@%STAR-SPANGLED%@EH@%
%@AU@%BANNER%@BO:          8e5498@%%@AE@%; b. Carroll co., Md. A lawyer, he was U.S. attorney for the
District of Columbia (1833-41).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%key%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%key%@AE@%,%@CR:KEY2            @%%@QR:key@% in music, is used to indicate the scale from which the tonal%@EH@%
material of a composition is derived. To say that a composition is in the
key of C major means that it uses as its basic tonal material the tones
of the C-major scale and that its harmony employs the chords built on the
tones of that scale. %@AU@%MODULATION%@BO:          621f71@%%@AE@% to another key may be utilized within the
composition. A term usually used synonymously with %@AI@%key%@AE@% is %@AU@%TONALITY%@BO:          9686b9@%%@AE@%;
absence of a feeling of key is %@AU@%ATONALITY%@BO:           99916@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Key Largo%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Key Largo%@AE@%,%@CR:KEY.LARGO       @%%@QR:Key Largo@% island: see %@AU@%FLORIDA KEYS%@BO:          33e241@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Keynes, John Maynard, Baron Keynes of Tilton%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Keynes, John Maynard, Baron Keynes of Tilton%@AE@%%@CR:KEYNES          @%%@QR:Keynes, John Maynard, Baron Keynes of Tilton@%, 1883-1946, English%@EH@%
economist and monetary expert. His theories, known as Keynesian
economics, are the most influential economic formulation of the 20th
cent. In 1919 he represented the British treasury at the peace conference
ending %@AU@%WORLD WAR I%@BO:          a3376c@%%@AE@%, but he resigned in protest over the %@AU@%VERSAILLES%@BO:          9cd7bc@%%@AE@%
Treaty's economic provisions. He gained world fame with %@AI@%Economic
%@AI@%Consequences of the Peace%@AE@% (1919). His departure from the classical
concepts of a free economy dates from 1929, when he endorsed a government
public-works program to promote employment. In the 1930s his theories
prompted several nations to adopt spending programs, such as those of the
%@AU@%NEW DEAL%@BO:          68c0f3@%%@AE@%, to maintain high national income. His chief work, %@AI@%The General
%@AI@%Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money%@AE@% (1936), advocates active
government intervention in the market and, during recessionary times,
deficit spending and easier monetary policies to stimulate business
activity. At the Bretton Woods Conference (1944) he helped to win support
for the creation of a world bank. He was raised to the peerage in 1942.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Key West%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Key West%@AE@%,%@CR:KEY.WEST        @%%@QR:Key West@% city (1986 est. pop. 25,280), seat of Monroe co., S Fla., on an%@EH@%
island at the SW end of the %@AU@%FLORIDA KEYS%@BO:          33e241@%%@AE@%, c. 150 mi (240 km) from Miami,
90 mi (145 km) from Cuba. It is the southernmost city of the continental
U.S., a resort and artists' colony, naval station, and fishing center.
Winslow %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43ea7d@%%@AE@% painted there; Ernest %@AU@%HEMINGWAY%@BO:          4189e7@%%@AE@%, whose home is a museum,
wrote there.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%KGB%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%KGB%@AE@%,%@CR:KGB             @%%@QR:KGB@% in the USSR, the Committee for State Security. Since 1953-54, the%@EH@%
KGB is the name of the %@AU@%SECRET POLICE%@BO:          86765a@%%@AE@%, one of the two organizations (the
MVD is the other) sharing responsibility for order and security. It is
responsible for security troops, the loyalty of government employees and
the elite, and espionage and subversive activities abroad. Under
%@AU@%KHRUSHCHEV%@BO:          4f69f0@%%@AE@%, the KGB's arbitrary powers were reduced and it was subjected
to Party control. Its current chief, Viktor M. Chebrikov, is a full
member of the Politburo.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khachaturian, Aram Ilich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khachaturian, Aram Ilich%@AE@%,%@CR:KHACHATURIAN    @%%@QR:Khachaturian, Aram Ilich@% 1903-78, Russian composer of Armenian%@EH@%
parentage. His colorful music uses Armenian and Oriental folk elements.
He is best known for the ballet %@AI@%Gay ane%@AE@% (1942), including the popular
%@AI@%Sabre Dance.%@AE@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Saud%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Saud%@AE@%,%@CR:KHALID.LSAUD    @%%@QR:Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Saud@% 1913-82, king of Saudi Arabia (1975-82).%@EH@%
He became king after the assassination of his half-brother %@AU@%FAISAL%@BO:          319126@%%@AE@%. The
son of %@AU@%IBN SAUD%@BO:          464bcf@%%@AE@%, the founder of Saudi Arabia, he was the third of Ibn
Saud's sons to become king. He continued the widespread economic and
social reforms begun by Faisal. His half-brother %@AU@%FAHD%@BO:          31806a@%%@AE@% succeeded him.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kharkov%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kharkov%@AE@%%@CR:KHARKOV         @%%@QR:Kharkov@%, city (1987 est. pop. 1,587,000, S European USSR, in the Ukraine,%@EH@%
at the confluence of the Kharkov, Lopan, and Udy rivers in the upper
Donets valley. It is the fifth-largest Soviet city and a main rail
junction. Manufactures include metals and chemicals. Founded in 1656 as a
military outpost, it became a center of commerce and culture. From 1919
to 1934 it was the capital of the %@AU@%UKRAINE%@BO:          997591@%%@AE@%, until superseded by %@AU@%KIEV%@BO:          4f8c5d@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khartoum%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khartoum%@AE@%,%@CR:KHARTOUM        @%%@QR:Khartoum@% city (1983 pop. 476,218), capital of Sudan, a port at the%@EH@%
confluence of the Blue Nile and White Nile rivers. Food, beverages,
cotton, gum, and oil seeds are processed. Khartoum is a railroad hub,
with road connections to the adjacent cotton-growing region and an
international airport. Founded in 1821 as an Egyptian army camp, it
developed as a trade center and slave market. British forces resisted a
long siege here in which Gen. Charles %@AU@%GORDON%@BO:          3b8ecf@%%@AE@% was killed (1885). The
headquarters for the Bank for African Development, Khartoum is the
economic link between the N and S African nations.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khayyam, Omar%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khayyam, Omar%@AE@%:%@CR:KHAYYAM         @%%@QR:Khayyam, Omar@% see %@AU@%OMAR KHAYYAM%@BO:          6dba3a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khazars%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khazars%@AE@%,%@CR:KHAZARS         @%%@QR:Khazars@% ancient Turkic people who appeared in Transcaucasia in the 2d%@EH@%
cent. AD and subsequently settled in the lower Volga region. They rose to
great power; the Khazar empire at its height (8th-10th cent. AD) extended
from the northern shores of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea as far west
as Kiev. The Khazars maintained friendly relations with the Byzantine
Empire. Their empire came to an end in 965 when they were defeated by the
duke of Kiev. In the 8th cent. the Khazar nobility embraced Judaism and
thus are believed by some to be the ancestors of many East European Jews.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khios%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khios%@AE@%%@CR:KHIOS           @%%@QR:Khios@% or %@AB@%Chios,%@AE@%island (1981 pop. 49,865), c.350 sq mi (910 sq km), E%@EH@%
Greece, in the Aegean Sea. Its main industries are agriculture and marble
quarrying. Colonized by Ionians, the island was independent by 479 BC It
claims to be the birthplace of %@AU@%HOMER%@BO:          43e5a6@%%@AE@% and is famed for its scenic beauty.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khmer Empire%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khmer Empire%@AE@%,%@CR:KHMER.EMPIRE    @%%@QR:Khmer Empire@% ancient kingdom of SE Asia, roughly corresponding to modern%@EH@%
%@AU@%CAMBODIA%@BO:          178587@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%LAOS%@BO:          5247d3@%%@AE@%; fl. 6th-15th cent. It reached its greatest extent in
the %@AU@%ANGKOR%@BO:           57af1@%%@AE@% period (AD 889-1434), which produced exquisite architecture
and sculpture. Khmer civilization was formed largely by Indian
influences. The Khmers fought repeated wars against %@AU@%CHAMPA%@BO:          1b5f7d@%%@AE@% and the
Annamese. The empire declined after invasions from Thailand.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khmer Rouge%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khmer Rouge%@AE@%,%@CR:KHMER.ROUGE     @%%@QR:Khmer Rouge@% Cambodian Communist guerrilla force. Aided by Vietnamese%@EH@%
Communists, it waged a war (1970-75) that toppled the %@AU@%LON NOL%@BO:          569bcb@%%@AE@% regime in
Cambodia. Under %@AU@%POL POT%@BO:          77b77e@%%@AE@%, it then undertook a ruthless collectivization
drive in which an estimated 3 million people died. Disputes with Vietnam
led to a Vietnamese invasion (1978-79), the ouster of the Khmer Rouge,
and installation of the Vietnamese-backed %@AU@%HENG SAMRIN%@BO:          419a53@%%@AE@% regime. The Khmer
Rouge, however, continues to field an army of about 30,000 men near the
Thai border and retains UN recognition as the official Cambodian
government. In 1982 it formed a coalition with former premier %@AU@%NORODOM
%@AU@%SIHANOUK%@BO:          6b2cec@%%@AE@% and the non-Communist leader Son Sann to oppose the Heng Samrin
government.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khoikhoi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khoikhoi%@AE@%,%@CR:KHOIKHOI        @%%@QR:Khoikhoi@% people of Namibia and the Cape prov. of the Republic of South%@EH@%
Africa. Formerly called Hottentots by whites, they speak a Khoisan
language close to that of the San (Bushmen). A pastoral, nomadic people,
they were decimated as Dutch colonialists took over their lands beginning
in the 17th cent.; most of the c.40,000 survivors live in villages in
Namibia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah%@AE@%%@CR:KHOMEINI        @%%@QR:Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah@%, 1900-1989, Iranian religious leader; b.%@EH@%
Ruhollah Hendi. A %@AU@%SHIITE%@BO:          8856eb@%%@AE@% Muslim, he adopted the name Khomeini in 1930.
After teaching at a theological school in Qom, he was arrested (1963) and
exiled to Turkey and Iraq before moving to Paris in 1978. Following the
revolution that deposed %@AU@%MUHAMMAD REZA SHAH PAHLEVI%@BO:          64f0d1@%%@AE@%, Khomeini returned in
triumph to Iran in 1979, declared an Islamic republic, and began to
exercise ultimate authority in the nation. His rule was marked by the
holding of U.S. hostages (1979-81) and by war with Iraq (1980-88).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khorezm%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khorezm%@AE@%%@CR:KHOREZM         @%%@QR:Khorezm@% or %@AB@%Khwarazm%@AE@%, ancient Central Asian state; now in the NW Uzbek%@EH@%
Republic, USSR. Part of the empire of %@AU@%CYRUS THE GREAT%@BO:          25c4e2@%%@AE@% (6th cent. BC),
Khorezm was conquered by the Arabs and converted to Islam in the 7th
cent. AD. Briefly independent (late 12th cent.), it ruled from the
Caspian Sea to Bukhara and Samarkand, but fell to %@AU@%JENGHIZ KHAN%@BO:          4bcac6@%%@AE@% (1221), to
%@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@% (late 14th cent.), and then to the Uzbeks (early 16th cent.),
who called it the khanate of Khiva.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khosru%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khosru%@AE@%,%@CR:KHOSRU          @%%@QR:Khosru@% kings of %@AU@%PERSIA%@BO:          73a09a@%%@AE@%. %@AB@%Khosru I,%@AE@% d. 579 (r.531-79), was the greatest of%@EH@%
the Sassanid monarchs and extended Persian rule E to the Indus River and
W across Arabia, and N and NW by taking part of Armenia and Caucasia from
the Byzantines. %@AB@%Khosru II,%@AE@% d. 628 (r.590-628), of the Sassanid dynasty,
conquered much Byzantine territory before being assassinated by his son
and successor, Kauadh II Shiruya.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich%@AE@%%@CR:KHRUSHCHEV      @%%@QR:Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich@%, 1894-1971, Soviet leader. Of Ukrainian%@EH@%
peasant origin, he joined the Communist party in 1918, becoming a member
of its central committee in 1934. As first secretary of the Ukrainian
party (from 1938) he carried out %@AU@%STALIN'S%@BO:          8e10b2@%%@AE@% purge of its ranks. As a full
member of the politburo (after 1939) he was a close associate of Stalin.
In the power struggle after Stalin's death (1953) he emerged as first
secretary of the party. At the 1956 party congress he delivered a
"secret" report denouncing Stalin's policies and personality. The new
atmosphere of freedom, however, led to uprisings in Poland and Hungary
that year. In 1957 he replaced %@AU@%BULGANIN%@BO:          154c3a@%%@AE@% as premier, becoming head of both
state and party. As part of his policy of "peaceful coexistence" in the
%@AU@%COLD WAR%@BO:          202276@%%@AE@% he toured the U.S. in 1959 and met with Pres. %@AU@%EISENHOWER%@BO:          2d24e8@%%@AE@%; but in
1960 he cancelled the Paris summit conference after a U.S. reconaissance
plane was shot down over the USSR. Repeated crop failures, his retreat in
the %@AU@%CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS%@BO:          252bdd@%%@AE@% (1962), and the ideological rift with China led
to his removal from power in Oct. 1964.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khufu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khufu%@AE@%%@CR:KHUFU           @%%@QR:Khufu@% or %@AB@%Cheops%@AE@% (ke'ops), fl. c.2680 BC, Egyptian king, founder of the IV%@EH@%
dynasty. He ruled for 23 years and built the greatest %@AU@%PYRAMID%@BO:          7b502c@%%@AE@% at Gizeh.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Khyber Pass%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Khyber Pass%@AE@%,%@CR:KHYBER.PASS     @%%@QR:Khyber Pass@% narrow, steep-sided mountain pass, c.3,500 ft (1,070 m) high%@EH@%
and 28 mi (45 km) long, on the Pakistan-Afghanistan border. For centuries
the main western land approach to India, it was used by %@AU@%ALEXANDER THE
%@AU@%GREAT%@BO:           35f4f@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%TAMERLANE%@BO:          928259@%%@AE@%, and other conquerors. A modern highway and a railroad
(built 1920-25) with 34 tunnels link Peshawar, Pakistan, with the Afghan
capital, Kabul.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kibbutz%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kibbutz%@AE@%,%@CR:KIBBUTZ         @%%@QR:kibbutz@% economically most important type of Israeli %@AU@%COLLECTIVE FARM%@BO:          204563@%%@AE@%. The%@EH@%
land is held by the Jewish National Fund and rented at a nominal fee; all
other property (except certain personal possessions) is collectively
owned. Planning and work is collective, and collective living is the
rule. Elected officials administer social and economic affairs. About 5%
of Israel's population live on kibbutzim.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kickapoo Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kickapoo Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:KICKAPOS        @%%@QR:Kickapoo Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% speaking an Algonquian language%@EH@%
of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). Living
in SW Wisconsin, they added buffalo hunting to their Eastern Woodlands
culture. In the 18th cent., numbering 3,000, they moved to Illinois. For
siding with the British in the %@AU@%WAR OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@% they lost their lands to the
U.S. From Missouri and Kansas some went to Mexico c.1852. After the Civil
War the Mexican Kickapoo harassed U.S. border settlements. Today small
groups of Kickapoo live in Oklahoma, in Kansas, and along the
Texas-Mexico border.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kid, Thomas%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kid, Thomas%@AE@%:%@CR:KID             @%%@QR:Kid, Thomas@% see %@AU@%KYD, THOMAS%@BO:          513be3@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kidd, William%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kidd, William%@AE@%%@CR:KIDD            @%%@QR:Kidd, William@% (Captain Kidd), 1645?-1701, British pirate. Commissioned%@EH@%
(1695) as a privateer to guard English ships in the Red Sea and Indian
Ocean, he turned pirate. He was tried for piracy and murder and hanged in
England. Legends of his barbaric cruelty and buried treasure are
unsubstantiated.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kidder, Alfred Vincent%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kidder, Alfred Vincent%@AE@%,%@CR:KIDDER          @%%@QR:Kidder, Alfred Vincent@% 1885-1963, American archaeologist; b. Marquette,%@EH@%
Mich. His excavations (1915-29) at Pecos, N.Mex., laid the foundation for
modern archaeological field methods. He conducted (1927-50) a broad-scale
research program in the Guatemalan highlands that established the
framework of Mayan stratigraphy. His writings include %@AI@%Introduction to the
%@AI@%Study of Southwestern Archaeology%@AE@% (1924), regarded as the first
comprehensive archaeological study of a New World area.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kiddush%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kiddush%@AE@%%@CR:KIDDUSH         @%%@QR:kiddush@% [Heb.,=sanctification], Jewish ceremonial blessing indicating the%@EH@%
beginning of the Sabbath or a Hebrew festival, usually said at mealtime.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kidnapping%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kidnapping%@AE@%,%@CR:KIDNAPPING      @%%@QR:kidnapping@% in law, unlawful taking away of someone by force, threat, or%@EH@%
deceit, to detain the person against his or her will. Public outcry at
the kidnapping and murder of the son of Charles A. %@AU@%LINDBERGH%@BO:          555597@%%@AE@% in 1932 led
to adoption of severe penalties for the offense, now punishable by the
U.S. government and most states by death or life imprisonment.
Traditionally done for ransom, in recent years kidnapping has also been
used by political extremists as a means of extorting concessions from
governments, e.g., the release of political prisoners. See aso %@AU@%HOSTAGES%@BO:          449f6a@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kidney%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kidney%@AE@%,%@CR:KIDNEY          @%%@QR:kidney@% one of a pair of small, bean-shaped organs of the %@AU@%URINARY SYSTEM%@BO:          9b1328@%%@AE@%,%@EH@%
located near the spine at the small of the back. The kidneys extract
water and urea, mineral salts, toxins, and other waste products from the
blood with filtering units called nephrons. From the nephrons the
collected waste (%@AU@%URINE%@BO:          9b1650@%%@AE@%) is sent to the bladder for excretion. One kidney
must function properly for life to be maintained. Kidney diseases include
nephritis, inflammation of the kidneys caused by infection or
degenerative changes in the renal capillaries, and nephrosis, a condition
resulting from lesions in the renal tubules characterized by general
edema and by protein in the urine. See also %@AU@%DIALYSIS%@BO:          28a2fc@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%TRANSPLANTATION,
%@AU@%MEDICAL%@BO:          976ffa@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kidney machine%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kidney machine%@AE@%:%@CR:KIDNEY.MACHINE  @%%@QR:kidney machine@% see %@AU@%DIALYSIS%@BO:          28a2fc@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kiel%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kiel%@AE@%%@CR:KIEL            @%%@QR:Kiel@%, city (1986 est. pop. 244,700), N West Germany, on Kiel Bay, capital%@EH@%
of %@AU@%SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN%@BO:          857e77@%%@AE@%. Germany's chief naval base from 1871 to 1945, it
is now a shipping and industrial center producing ships, textiles,
processed foods, and printed materials. Kiel was chartered in 1242 and
joined the %@AU@%HANSEATIC LEAGUE%@BO:          3fcd65@%%@AE@% in 1284. It passed to Denmark in 1773 and to
Prussia in 1866. A naval mutiny at Kiel touched off a socialist
revolution in Germany in 1918.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kierkegaard, Sooren%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kierkegaard, Sooren%@AE@%,%@CR:KIERKEGAARD     @%%@QR:Kierkegaard, Sooren@% 1813-55, Danish philosopher and religious writer, a%@EH@%
precursor of 20th-cent. %@AU@%EXISTENTIALISM%@BO:          311d9f@%%@AE@% and a major influence on modern
Protestant theology. Kierkegaard described the various stages of
existence as the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious; advancing
through this "existential dialectic," the individual becomes increasingly
aware of his relationship to God. This awareness leads to despair as he
realizes the antithesis between temporal existence and eternal truth.
Reason is no help in achieving the final religious stage; a "leap of
faith" is required. Kierkegaard's works, largely ignored in his own
lifetime, include %@AI@%Either/Or%@AE@% (1843), %@AI@%Fear and Trembling%@AE@% (1843),
%@AI@%Philosophical Fragments%@AE@% (1844), and %@AI@%Concluding Unscientific Postscript%@AE@%
(1846).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kiev%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kiev%@AE@%%@CR:KIEV            @%%@QR:Kiev@%, city (1987 est. pop. 2,554,000, capital of the %@AU@%UKRAINE%@BO:          997591@%%@AE@%, SW European%@EH@%
USSR, on the Dnepr R. It is the USSR's third-largest city and a major
port. Industries include food processing, metallurgy, and chemicals. One
of the oldest European cities, it was a commercial center as early as the
5th cent. and became the capital of %@AU@%KIEVAN RUSSIA%@BO:          4f907b@%%@AE@% in the 9th cent.
Invaded (1240) by the Mongols, it paid tribute to the %@AU@%GOLDEN HORDE%@BO:          3b2d72@%%@AE@% until
it passed (14th cent.) under the control of %@AU@%LITHUANIA%@BO:          55b04c@%%@AE@%. It became (17th
cent.) part of the Russian Empire and later (1920) of the USSR. During
the German occupation (1941-44) thousands of Kiev's residents, including
50,000 Jews, were massacred. Reconstruction of the city ended c.1960. Its
architectural treasures include the 11th-cent. Cathedral of St. Sophia.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kievan Russia%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kievan Russia%@AE@%,%@CR:KIEVAN.RUSSIA   @%%@QR:Kievan Russia@% medieval state of the Eastern Slavs. Earliest forerunner%@EH@%
of the present-day USSR, it included most of present-day %@AU@%UKRAINE%@BO:          997591@%%@AE@% and
%@AU@%BELORUSSIA%@BO:           e36e8@%%@AE@%, and part of NW European USSR. In about 862 Rurik, a Varangian
(Scandinavian) warrior, founded a dynasty at %@AU@%NOVGOROD%@BO:          6bf937@%%@AE@%. His successor,
Oleg (d. 912), seized Kiev, establishing the Kievan state, and freed the
Eastern Slavs from the sway of the %@AU@%KHAZARS%@BO:          4f54da@%%@AE@%. Under Sviatoslav (d. 972)
Kievan power reached the lower Volga and N Caucasus. %@AU@%VLADIMIR I%@BO:          9e0edb@%%@AE@%
(r.980-1015) introduced Christianity. Under his son, %@AU@%YAROSLAV%@BO:          a3fa73@%%@AE@%
(r.1019-54), the state reached its cultural and political apex, but after
Yaroslav's death it was weakened by internal strife and ultimately fell
to the Mongols (1237-40).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kigali%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kigali%@AE@%,%@CR:KIGALI          @%%@QR:Kigali@% town (1981 est. pop. 156,650), capital of Rwanda. Founded by%@EH@%
Germany in 1907, it is the country's main administrative and economic
center, and has an international airport. A new tin-smelting plant was
built in the early 1980s to process cassiterite (tin ore), which is mined
in the vicinity.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kikuyu%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kikuyu%@AE@%,%@CR:KIKUYU          @%%@QR:Kikuyu@% Bantu-speaking agricultural people of northern Kenya, inhabiting%@EH@%
highlands NE of Nairobi; they number around 2 million. The most
influential of Kenya's peoples, they fought the British during the 1950s
%@AU@%MAU MAU%@BO:          5d5462@%%@AE@% rebellion. Dwelling traditionally in family homesteads, more
recently in villages, they have a patrilineal social organization with
much emphasis on age groups. Kikuyu tribal customs are described in Jomo
%@AU@%KENYATTA'S%@BO:          4f22cb@%%@AE@% %@AI@%Facing Mount Kenya%@AE@% (1938).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kilauea%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kilauea%@AE@%%@CR:KILAUEA         @%%@QR:Kilauea@%, volcanic crater, Hawaii island, on the southeastern slope of%@EH@%
%@AU@%MAUNA LOA%@BO:          5d5893@%%@AE@% in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%,). It is
c.8 mi (13 km) in circumference and 3,646 ft (1,111 m) deep, with a lake
of molten lava c.740 ft (230 m) below its rim.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kilimanjaro%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kilimanjaro%@AE@%,%@CR:KILIMANJARO     @%%@QR:Kilimanjaro@% highest mountain of Africa, NE Tanzania. An extinct volcano,%@EH@%
it rises in two snow-capped peaks, Kibo (19,340 ft/5,895 m) and Mawenzi
(17,564 ft/5,354 m).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kilkenny%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kilkenny%@AE@%,%@CR:KILKENNY        @%%@QR:Kilkenny@% town (1986 pop. 73,094), Co. Kilkenny, S Republic of Ireland,%@EH@%
on the Nore R. The seat of the kings of Ossory, Kilkenny was the site of
various parliaments and assemblies in the 14th, 16th, and 17th cent. The
districts of Irishtown and Englishtown, separated by a stream, were
united in 1843.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Killarney%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Killarney%@AE@%,%@CR:KILLARNEY       @%%@QR:Killarney@% urban district (1981 pop. 7,678), Co. Kerry, SW Republic of%@EH@%
Ireland. The town, which has light industry, is a tourist center for the
three nearby Lakes of Killarney.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%killer whale%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%killer whale%@AE@%:%@CR:KILLER.WHALE    @%%@QR:killer whale@% see %@AU@%DOLPHIN%@BO:          29e44f@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kilmer, Joyce%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kilmer, Joyce%@AE@%,%@CR:KILMER          @%%@QR:Kilmer, Joyce@% 1886-1918, American poet; b. New Brunswick, N.J. He is%@EH@%
known chiefly for his poem "Trees," in %@AI@%Trees and Other Poems%@AE@% (1914).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kiln%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kiln%@AE@%,%@CR:KILN            @%%@QR:kiln@% furnace for firing pottery and enamels; for making brick, charcoal,%@EH@%
lime, and cement; for roasting ores; and for drying various substances. A
kiln may be fired intermittently or continuously. Rotary kilns, much used
in continuous processes, e.g., cement manufacturing, consist of long
tubes, lying almost horizontal, that are rotated slowly as heat is
applied to the material being treated inside the tubes.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kilogram%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kilogram%@AE@%:%@CR:KILOGRAM        @%%@QR:kilogram@% see %@AU@%METRIC SYSTEM%@BO:          5f7eba@%%@AE@%; %@AU@%WEIGHTS AND MEASURES%@BO:          a0404d@%%@AE@%,.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kimhi%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kimhi%@AE@%%@CR:KIMHI           @%%@QR:Kimhi@%or %@AB@%Kimchi%@AE@%, family of Jewish scholars and grammarians in Spain and%@EH@%
France. %@AB@%Joseph ben Isaac Kimhi,%@AE@% 1105?-1170?, wrote a biblical commentary,
translations from Arabic, and poetry, and made grammatical reforms. His
%@AI@%Sefer ha-Berit%@AE@% is an anti-Christian polemic. His son %@AB@%Moses Kimhi,%@AE@% d.
1190?, wrote %@AI@%Paths of Knowledge,%@AE@% a grammatical text used by 16th-cent.
Christian Hebraists for its philological information. Another son, %@AB@%David
%@AB@%Kimhi,%@AE@% known as Redak, 1160?-1235?, was the author of a noted Hebrew
grammar, a biblical dictionary, and learned commentaries that were
included in standard editions of the Hebrew Bible.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kim Il Sung%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kim Il Sung%@AE@%,%@CR:KIM.IL.SUNG     @%%@QR:Kim Il Sung@% 1912-, North Korean political leader. Trained in Moscow, he%@EH@%
was North %@AU@%KOREA'S%@BO:          5089c6@%%@AE@% first premier (1948-72) and led his nation in the
%@AU@%KOREAN WAR%@BO:          50a0f9@%%@AE@%. In 1972 he became president under a revised constitution.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kindergarten%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kindergarten%@AE@%,%@CR:KINDERGARTEN    @%%@QR:kindergarten@% system of preschool education designed (1837) by Friedrich%@EH@%
%@AU@%FROEBEL%@BO:          367a6c@%%@AE@%. In an educational situation less formal than elementary school,
children's play instincts are organized constructively through songs,
stories, games, simple materials, and group activities, to develop habits
of cooperation and application. In the U.S. kindergartens are generally
part of the public school system. The first American kindergarten was
established in 1856, the first public kindergarten in 1873.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kinematics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kinematics%@AE@%:%@CR:KINEMATICS      @%%@QR:kinematics@% see %@AU@%DYNAMICS%@BO:          2b8cb4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kinetic art%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kinetic art%@AE@%,%@CR:KINETIC.ART     @%%@QR:kinetic art@% term referring to sculpture in which motion is a significant%@EH@%
feature. Developed in response to technology, it was pioneered by Marcel
%@AU@%DUCHAMP%@BO:          2b05b7@%%@AE@%, Naum %@AU@%GABO%@BO:          3716ed@%%@AE@%, and Alexander %@AU@%CALDER%@BO:          17068c@%%@AE@%. The art can be either
mechanical or nonmechanical.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kinetic energy%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kinetic energy%@AE@%:%@CR:KINETIC.ENERGY  @%%@QR:kinetic energy@% see %@AU@%ENERGY%@BO:          2ec995@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kinetic-molecular theory of gases%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kinetic-molecular theory of gases%@AE@%,%@CR:KINETIC.OF.GAS  @%%@QR:kinetic-molecular theory of gases@% physical theory that explains the%@EH@%
behavior of gases by assuming that any gas is composed of a very large
number of very tiny particles, called molecules, that are very far apart
compared to their sizes. The molecules are assumed to exert no forces on
one another, except during rare, perfectly elastic collisions. A gas
corresponding to these assumptions is called an ideal gas. The analysis
of the behavior of an ideal gas according to the laws of mechanics leads
to the %@AU@%GAS LAWS%@BO:          382cec@%%@AE@%. The theory also shows that the absolute %@AU@%TEMPERATURE%@BO:          93c298@%%@AE@% is
directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
Pressure is seen to be the result of large numbers of collisions between
molecules and the walls of the container in which the gas is held. See
%@AU@%THERMODYNAMICS%@BO:          94e3ba@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kinetics%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kinetics%@AE@%:%@CR:KINETICS        @%%@QR:kinetics@% see %@AU@%DYNAMICS%@BO:          2b8cb4@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King, Billie Jean%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King, Billie Jean%@AE@%,%@CR:KING1           @%%@QR:King, Billie Jean@% 1943-, American tennis player; b. Long Beach, Calif.,%@EH@%
as Billie Jean Moffitt. Outstanding in both singles and doubles play, she
won 6 singles and 10 doubles championships at Wimbledon by 1979, and took
the U.S. Open singles crown 4 times between 1967 and 1974. King has been
instrumental in improving the status of women's professional tennis.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King, Coretta Scott%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King, Coretta Scott%@AE@%,%@CR:KING2           @%%@QR:King, Coretta Scott@% 1927-, American %@AU@%CIVIL RIGHTS%@BO:          1ebb80@%%@AE@% leader; b. Heiberger,%@EH@%
Ala. She is the widow of Martin Luther %@AU@%KING%@BO:          4fb6d8@%%@AE@%, Jr. After his assassination,
she carried on his civil rights work. She wrote %@AI@%My Life with Martin
%@AI@%Luther King%@AE@% (1989).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King, Martin Luther, Jr.%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King, Martin Luther, Jr.%@AE@%,%@CR:KING3           @%%@QR:King, Martin Luther, Jr.@% 1929-68, black American clergyman and civil%@EH@%
rights leader; b. Atlanta, Ga. An active Baptist minister and a moving
orator, he first gained national prominence by advocating passive
resistance to segregation and leading a year-long boycott (1955-56)
against the segregated bus lines in Montgomery, Ala. He subsequently set
up the Southern Christian Leadership Conference as a base for nonviolent
marches, protests, and demonstrations for black rights, such as the 1963
March on Washington and the 1965 voter-registration drive in Selma, Ala.
King was awarded the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize, but his leadership was
challenged as civil rights activists became more militant. In the late
1960s he intensified his opposition to the war in Vietnam and to economic
discrimination. While planning a multiracial Poor People's March for
antipoverty legislation, he was shot and killed in Memphis, Tenn. James
Earl Ray was convicted of the murder.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King, Rufus%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King, Rufus%@AE@%,%@CR:KING4           @%%@QR:King, Rufus@% 1755-1827, American political leader; b. Scarboro, Me. As a%@EH@%
delegate (1784-87) to the %@AU@%CONTINENTAL CONGRESS%@BO:          22dccc@%%@AE@%, he helped draft the
%@AU@%ORDINANCE OF 1787%@BO:          6e8a07@%%@AE@%; and he attended the %@AU@%FEDERAL CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION%@BO:          32346b@%%@AE@%.
A Federalist, he served (1789-96, 1813-25) as U.S. senator from New York.
He also was minister to Great Britain (1796-1803, 1825-26).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King, William Lyon Mackenzie%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King, William Lyon Mackenzie%@AE@%,%@CR:KING5           @%%@QR:King, William Lyon Mackenzie@% 1874-1950, prime minister of %@AU@%CANADA%@BO:          17e139@%%@AE@%%@EH@%
(1921-30, 1935-48). He was editor (1900-1908) of the %@AI@%Labour Gazette%@AE@% and
minister of labor (1909-11) in the Liberal government before he succeeded
(1919) Wilfred %@AU@%LAURIER%@BO:          52cc9b@%%@AE@% as party leader. As prime minister during World
War II, King directed the Canadian war effort and signed agreements with
the U.S. providing for joint defense.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King Arthur%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King Arthur%@AE@%:%@CR:KING.ARTHUR     @%%@QR:King Arthur@% see %@AU@%ARTHURIAN LEGEND%@BO:           855f0@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King George's War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King George's War%@AE@%:%@CR:KING.GER        @%%@QR:King George's War@% see %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King Philip's War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King Philip's War%@AE@%,%@CR:KING.PHR        @%%@QR:King Philip's War@% 1675-76, the most devastating Indian war in %@AU@%NEW%@EH@%
%@AU@%ENGLAND%@BO:          68c9b2@%%@AE@%. Named for King Philip, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, the war
began when the English executed three Indians for murder. It involved
several Indian tribes and all the New England colonies before the Indians
were subdued.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kings%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kings%@AE@%,%@CR:KINGS           @%%@QR:Kings@% books of the %@AU@%OLD TESTAMENT%@BO:          6d6be9@%%@AE@%, called First and Second Kings in the%@EH@%
Authorized Version, where they occupy 11th and 12th place. They continue
the history of 1 and 2 %@AU@%SAMUEL%@BO:          83d444@%%@AE@% from the death of %@AU@%DAVID%@BO:          26b8b9@%%@AE@% to the destruction
of the southern kingdom of %@AU@%JUDAH%@BO:          4d7696@%%@AE@% (i.e., from 1000 to 560 BC). They
include the reign of %@AU@%SOLOMON%@BO:          8b40db@%%@AE@% (1 Kings 1-11); a parallel account of the
two Hebrew kingdoms (1 Kings 12-2 Kings 17), including the stories of the
house of %@AU@%AHAB%@BO:           22847@%%@AE@% and the prophets %@AU@%ELIJAH%@BO:          2e0a6b@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%ELISHA%@BO:          2e1dea@%%@AE@%; and the end of the
southern kingdom (2 Kings 18-25).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kings Canyon National Park%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kings Canyon National Park%@AE@%:%@CR:KINGS.CARK      @%%@QR:Kings Canyon National Park@% see %@AU@%NATIONAL PARKS%@BO:          66e6a1@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kingship%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kingship%@AE@%,%@CR:KINGSHIP        @%%@QR:kingship@% sovereignty or rule of a country by a single person. The term%@EH@%
now includes monarchs in countries with elected governments, where the
kings and queens are not truly the rulers. In Homeric times, kings were
hereditary rulers. In cultures such as Sparta and the Holy Roman Empire,
kingships were, within limits, elective positions. During the Middle
Ages, kings were hereditary rulers but were also frequently seen as
having a "divine right" to rule. The central authority provided by
monarchies has been instrumental in creating the modern nation-state.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kingsley, Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kingsley, Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:KINGSLEY        @%%@QR:Kingsley, Charles@% 1819-75, English author and clergyman. His views on%@EH@%
%@AU@%CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM%@BO:          1e0065@%%@AE@% were expressed in the novel %@AI@%Alton Locke%@AE@% (1850). A
remark by Kingsley denigrating the Roman Catholic clergy produced a
controversy with J.H. %@AU@%NEWMAN%@BO:          690d9f@%%@AE@% and led to Newman's %@AI@%Apologia.%@AE@% Kingsley's
novels include %@AI@%Westward Ho!%@AE@% (1855) and, for children, %@AI@%The Water Babies%@AE@%
(1863).%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kingston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kingston%@AE@%,%@CR:KINGSTON1       @%%@QR:Kingston@% city (1985 est. pop. 60,408), S Ontario, Canada, at the eastern%@EH@%
end of Lake %@AU@%ONTARIO%@BO:          6de5b2@%%@AE@%. Manufactures include locomotives, textiles, aluminum
products, and ceramics. Kingston was founded in 1783 by United Empire
loyalists on the site of Fort Frontenac, a stronghold important in the
%@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%. It served briefly as the capital of Canada from
1841 to 1844. Reconstructed Fort Henry, originally built during the %@AU@%WAR
%@AU@%OF 1812%@BO:          9f24a5@%%@AE@%, is a major landmark.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kingston%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kingston%@AE@%,%@CR:KINGSTON2       @%%@QR:Kingston@% city (1982 pop. 524,638), SE Jamaica, capital of Jamaica. It is%@EH@%
the island's commercial hub, chief port, and largest city. Founded in
1693 on one of the Caribbean's best-protected harbors, near the early
capital of Port Royal, Kingston replaced Spanish Town as Jamaica's
capital in 1872. Tourism, oil refining, and food processing are major
industries. The city's botanical gardens are famous.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kingstown%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kingstown%@AE@%,%@CR:KINGSTOWN       @%%@QR:Kingstown@% city (1980 pop. 23,959), capital of %@AU@%SAINT VINCENT AND THE%@EH@%
%@AU@%GRENADINES%@BO:          836994@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%King William's War%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%King William's War%@AE@%:%@CR:KING.WIAR       @%%@QR:King William's War@% see %@AU@%FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS%@BO:          35fea5@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kino, Eusebio Francisco%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kino, Eusebio Francisco%@AE@%%@CR:KINO            @%%@QR:Kino, Eusebio Francisco@%, c.1644-1711, Jesuit missionary explorer in the%@EH@%
U.S. Southwest; b. Segno, in the Tyrol. He was cosmographer on a 1681
mission to colonize lower %@AU@%CALIFORNIA%@BO:          17226a@%%@AE@%. It failed, and he settled at Pinero
Alta (now N Sonora and S Arizona), exploring and mapping the region.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kinsey, Alfred Charles%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kinsey, Alfred Charles%@AE@%,%@CR:KINSEY          @%%@QR:Kinsey, Alfred Charles@% 1894-1956, American biologist; b. Hoboken, N.J.%@EH@%
He is known for his studies, based on over 10,000 personal interviews
with assorted Americans, of human sexuality; this work was summarized in
%@AI@%Sexual Behavior in the Human Male%@AE@% (1948) and %@AI@%Sexual Behavior in the Human
%@AI@%Female%@AE@% (1953), which he wrote with colleagues. He taught at the Univ. of
Indiana from 1920, and founded and directed (1942-56) the university's
Institute for Sex Research.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kinshasa%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kinshasa%@AE@%,%@CR:KINSHASA        @%%@QR:Kinshasa@% largest city (1984 pop. 2,653,558) and capital of Zaire, W%@EH@%
Zaire, a port on the Congo (Zaire) R. It is the country's communications
and commercial center, with rail links upriver to Matadi, motorboat
service to Brazzaville, Congo Republic, and an international airport.
Founded in 1881 by Henry M. %@AU@%STANLEY%@BO:          8e336f@%%@AE@%, who named it Leopoldville (after
Leopold II of Belgium), the city became the capital of the Belgian Congo
in 1926. A rebellion there in 1959 launched the country's drive for
independence. Modern Kinshasa (so named in 1966) is an educational and
cultural center.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%kinship%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%kinship%@AE@%,%@CR:KINSHIP         @%%@QR:kinship@% relationship between persons by blood or %@AU@%MARRIAGE%@BO:          5bfca2@%%@AE@%; also, a%@EH@%
system of rules based on such relationships and governing marriage,
descent, inheritance, and, sometimes, residence. All societies recognize
consanguinity (relationship by blood or by descent from a common
ancestor) and affinity (relationship to a spouse's cosanguineous
relatives). Marriage between persons in lineal consanguinity (in direct
line of descent, e.g., father and daughter) or between brother and sister
is considered incest and is almost universally void under church, civil,
and common law, while marriage between persons of collateral
consanguinity (sharing a common ancestor but not in direct line of
descent, e.g., first cousins) may be allowed. Every individual is
classified by kinship lines, or descent. Social organization is often
dominated by descent groups based on links through females (matrilineal),
males (patrilineal), or both (bilateral). In some societies the concept
of kinship extends beyond the family to groups or clans in which
consanguinity is hypothetical or even mythological, but which are
governed by all the laws of descent.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kiowa Indians%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kiowa Indians%@AE@%,%@CR:KIOWA.INDIANS   @%%@QR:Kiowa Indians@% %@AU@%NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS%@BO:          6b506d@%%@AE@% of the Plains, speaking a probable%@EH@%
Aztec-Tanoan language (see %@AU@%AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES%@BO:           489bc@%%@AE@%). They had a
pictographic calendar and worshiped a stone image, the %@AI@%taimay.%@AE@% Nomads,
they acquired horses c.1710. Forced from the Black Hills by the %@AU@%CHEYENNE%@BO:          1cb71b@%%@AE@%
and %@AU@%SIOUX%@BO:          899c2c@%%@AE@%, they joined the %@AU@%COMANCHE%@BO:          20d183@%%@AE@% in raids as far south as Mexico. In
the 19th cent. they opposed white settlers and migrating eastern Indians
until subdued (1874) by the U.S. Army. About 4,000 Kiowa live in Oklahoma
today. The %@AB@%Kiowa Apache,%@AE@% a small group, live with them.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kipling, Rudyard%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kipling, Rudyard%@AE@%,%@CR:KIPLING         @%%@QR:Kipling, Rudyard@% 1865-1936, English author; b. India. Kipling's popular%@EH@%
works interpret India in all its heat, strife, and ennui. His romantic
view of English imperialism is reflected in such well-known poems as
"Mandalay," "Gunga Din," and %@AI@%Recessional%@AE@% (1897). His works include poems,
in %@AI@%Departmental Ditties%@AE@% (1886) and %@AI@%Barrack-Room Ballads%@AE@% (1892); stories,
in %@AI@%Plain Tales from the Hills%@AE@% and %@AI@%Soldiers Three%@AE@% (both 1888); a novel,
%@AI@%The Light That Failed%@AE@% (1890); and children's stories, such as %@AI@%The Jungle
%@AI@%Book%@AE@% (1894), %@AI@%Captains Courageous%@AE@% (1897), and %@AI@%Kim%@AE@% (1901). He received the
1907 Nobel Prize in literature.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kipnis, Alexander%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kipnis, Alexander%@AE@%,%@CR:KIPNIS          @%%@QR:Kipnis, Alexander@% 1891-1978, Russian-American operatic bass; b. Russia.%@EH@%
He performed in Berlin, Chicago, and New York City and was noted in the
role of Boris Godunov.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert%@AE@%%@CR:KIRCHHOFF       @%%@QR:Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert@%, 1824-87, German physicist. He was professor of%@EH@%
physics at the universities of Breslau, Heidelberg, and Berlin. He and
Robert %@AU@%BUNSEN%@BO:          158521@%%@AE@%, working with the spectroscope, discovered the elements
%@AU@%CESIUM%@BO:          1b1df2@%%@AE@% and %@AU@%RUBIDIUM%@BO:          81ba7a@%%@AE@%. Kirchhoff explained the Fraunhofer lines in the
solar spectrum (see %@AU@%SUN%@BO:          90aa28@%%@AE@%) and formulated %@AU@%KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS%@BO:          4feabe@%%@AE@% describing
current and voltage in an electric circuit.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirchhoff's laws%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirchhoff's laws%@AE@%,%@CR:KIRCHHOFFS.LAWS @%%@QR:Kirchhoff's laws@% pair of laws stating general restrictions on the%@EH@%
current and voltage (see %@AU@%POTENTIAL, ELECTRIC%@BO:          78a3d4@%%@AE@%) in an %@AU@%ELECTRIC CIRCUIT%@BO:          2d5b64@%%@AE@% or
network. The first states that at any given instant the sum of the
voltages around any closed path, or loop, in the network is zero. The
second states that at any junction of paths in a network the sum of the
currents arriving at any instant is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing away.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig%@AE@%%@CR:KIRCHNER        @%%@QR:Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig@%, 1880-1938, German expressionist painter and%@EH@%
graphic artist. Inspired by primitive sculpture; late Gothic %@AU@%WOODCUTS%@BO:          a2eb1f@%%@AE@%;
and the art of %@AU@%MUNCH%@BO:          651b2e@%%@AE@%, %@AU@%VAN GOGH%@BO:          9bd194@%%@AE@%, and the Fauves (see %@AU@%FAUVISM%@BO:          32182e@%%@AE@%), he
co-founded the %@AU@%BRUCKE%@BO:          149a86@%%@AE@%. His works, e.g., %@AI@%The Street%@AE@% (1913; Mus. of Mod.
Art, N.Y.C.), show startling contrasts of pure color and aggressive
forms. His woodcuts are powerful creations of the expressionist vision.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic%@AE@%%@CR:KIRGHIZT.REPUB  @%%@QR:Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic@%, %@AB@%Kirghizia,%@AE@% or %@AB@%Kirghizstan,%@AE@% constituent%@EH@%
republic (1987 est. pop. 4,100,000), c.76,600 sq mi (198,400 sq km),
Central Asian USSR. It borders China (SE) and the Kazakh, Uzbek, and
Tadzhik republics (N, W, and SW, respectively). The capital is Frunze. A
mountainous region, it has rich pasturage for livestock. Cotton, sugar
beets, and other crops are grown. Among the resources are coal and
natural gas. Industries include food processing and metallurgy. The
Kirghiz, a nomadic, Turkic-speaking, Muslim people with Mongol strains,
comprise half the population; Russians, Uzbeks, and others make up the
rest. The Kirghiz emigrated in the 17th cent. from the region of the
upper Yenisei R., where they had lived since the 7th cent. Kirghizia was
annexed (1855-76) by Russia and became part of the USSR in 1924.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kiribati%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kiribati%@AE@%,%@CR:KIRIBATI        @%%@QR:Kiribati@% officially the Republic of Kiribati, independent nation (1987%@EH@%
est. pop. 66,250), 342 sq mi (886 sq km), consisting of 33 islands
scattered across 2,400 mi (3,860 km) of the Pacific Ocean near the
equator. It includes islands in the Gilbert, Phoenix, and Line groups and
Banaba (formerly Ocean) Island. The population is nearly all Micronesian,
with about 30% concentrated on %@AU@%TARAWA%@BO:          92e268@%%@AE@%, site of the capital, Bairiki.
Languages spoken are English (official) and Gilbertese. Fishing and the
growing of taro and bananas form the basis of the mainly subsistence
economy. Copra became the chief export after mining of Banaba's once
thick phosphate deposits ended in 1979. The islands were administered
(1892-1916) with the Gilbert Islands as a British protectorate that
became (1916) the British Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony. They gained
self-rule in 1971, and, after the Ellice Islands gained (1978)
independence as %@AU@%TUVALU%@BO:          990c57@%%@AE@%, the remaining islands were granted independence
(1979) as Kiribati. A Commonwealth member, the country is a republic with
a president, a cabinet, and a unicameral legislature. U.S. claims to
several islands, including Kanton (formerly Canton) and Enderbury, were
abandoned in 1979.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirinyaga, Mount%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirinyaga, Mount%@AE@%:%@CR:KIRINYAGA       @%%@QR:Kirinyaga, Mount@% see %@AU@%KENYA, MOUNT%@BO:          4f2156@%%@AE@%.%@NL@%%@EH@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirke, Sir David%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirke, Sir David%@AE@%,%@CR:KIRKE           @%%@QR:Kirke, Sir David@% 1597-1655?, English adventurer. With his brothers,%@EH@%
Lewis and Thomas, he seized (1627) a French fleet off Newfoundland and
raided French stations in Nova Scotia. In 1629 he forced %@AU@%CHAMPLAIN%@BO:          1b6a73@%%@AE@% to
surrender Quebec, but peace between Britain and France restored the city
to France. In 1638 he went to Newfoundland as governor and colonizer.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirkland, (Joseph) Lane%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirkland, (Joseph) Lane%@AE@%,%@CR:KIRKLAND        @%%@QR:Kirkland, (Joseph) Lane@% 1922-, American labor leader, president (1979-)%@EH@%
of the %@AU@%AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR AND CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL
%@AU@%ORGANIZATIONS%@BO:           47e73@%%@AE@% (AFL-CIO); b. Camden, S.C. He was an executive assistant
(1961-69) to AFL-CIO Pres. George %@AU@%MEANY%@BO:          5de219@%%@AE@% and, from 1969, secretary
treasurer of the AFL-CIO. Succeeding Meany as president, he made
consolidation of the labor movement a major goal, overseeing the reentry
(1981) of the United Automobile Workers of America into the AFL-CIO.%@NL@%
%@NL@%
  %@1@%%@AS@%Kirkpatrick, Jeane Duane Jordan%@AE@%%@EH@%%@NL@%
%@NL@%
%@2@%%@AB@%Kirkpatrick, Jeane Duane Jordan%@AE@%,%@CR:KIRKPATRICK     @%%@QR:Kirkpatrick, Jeane Duane Jordan@% 1926-, U.S. public official; b. Duncan,%@EH@%
Okla. A Democrat, she w