home
***
CD-ROM
|
disk
|
FTP
|
other
***
search
/
Frozen Fish 1: Amiga
/
FrozenFish-Apr94.iso
/
bbs
/
alib
/
d1xx
/
d150
/
dc10.lha
/
DC10
/
DC10.doc
< prev
next >
Wrap
Text File
|
1987-06-15
|
70KB
|
1,322 lines
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* *
* *
* * * D C 1 0 * * *
* *
* F L I G H T S I M U L A T I O N *
* *
* Amiga Version 0.1f, 9 april 1988 *
* *
* copyright <C> 1988 by Jan Arkesteijn *
* *
* *
* *
* * CONTENTS: * *
* *
* *
* 1 INTRODUCTION *
* *
* 2 INSTRUMENTPANEL *
* *
* 3 CONTROLS *
* 3.1 Aircraft conrols *
* 3.2 Select navigation facilities *
* 3.3 Special controls *
* *
* 4 BASIC FLIGHT MANOUVRES *
* 4.1 Pre take-off actions *
* 4.2 Take-off *
* 4.3 Climb *
* 4.4 Cruise *
* 4.5 Turning *
* 4.6 Descent *
* 4.7 Approach *
* 4.8 Final approach *
* 4.9 Landing *
* 4.10 Overshoot *
* *
* 5 NAVIGATION *
* 5.1 Navigation systems *
* 5.2 Navigation principles *
* 5.3 Flightplanning *
* *
* 6 PRACTICE-FLIGHTS *
* 6.1 Flight Birmingham-London *
* 6.2 Landing on Miami Intl *
* *
* REFERENCES *
* *
* *
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
1.0 INTRODUCTION
------------
In this simulation program the flight of a DC-10 is simulated.
In the real world such aircraft are normally flown on instruments only,
therefore this simulation is a pure instrument flight simulation.
There are numerous versions of the DC-10 with different engine types,
take-off weights etc. This program is based on the long range inter-
continental version, the DC-10-30.
The specification of the aircraft as used in the simulation is :
Powerplant:three GE CF6-50C1 turbofans, each with a max. thrust of 234 kN
Dimensions:span 50m/165ft,length 55m/181ft,wingarea 338sqm/3650sqft
Maximum take-off weight : 250,000 kg / 550,000 lb
Maximum landing weight : 180,000 kg / 400,000 lb
Maximum fuel load : 105,000 kg / 130,000 liter
Maximum payload : 45,000 kg / 100,000 lb
Minimum runway length for a take-off with 250 tons : 3200 m / 10,500 ft
Minimum runway length for a landing with 180 tons : 1800 m / 6000 ft
Range with maximum payload : 4000 nm (including reserves)
Range with maximum fuel : 5000 nm (including reserves)
The air conditions for this simulation have been taken from the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Windforce and winddirection
in the simulation change with the location of the aircraft and with
the altitude.
In par. 2 the instrumentpanel is explained. Par. 3 gives a survey of the
control facilities. Par. 4 gives a short introduction in the handling of the
aircraft during the different flight phases. Par. 5 explains the working of
the navigationsystems and contains some information on navigation principles.
The overall accuracy of the navigation aids is extremily good. Even the
official real world navigation charts, as issued by the Civil Aviation
Authorities (CAA) of the relevant countries (GB, NL, B), can be used in
this simulation. Par 6 gives some example flights. At the end a reference
list of books and articles about the subject is added.
After starting the program DC10.BAS a menu appears with 3 options :
1) Making a flightplan
Chapter 5.3 explains how to make a flightplan. If the flightplan is
ready the computer goes to option 2.
2) Take-off and fly
For beginning pilots this is the best choice to get experience in the
handling of the aircraft and the navigation procedures.
After loading of DC10EUR.BAS you have to choose your take-off runway.
See chapter 5.1.3 for details.
Because the program uses functions from the 'exec.library' it is
necessary to have the file 'exec.bmap' in your 'libs' directory.
This file can be found in the 'Extras_1.2:basicdemos' directory.
Because not all runways are equal in length there will be a difference
in the maximum take-off weight depending on the selected runway.
Keep this in mind when entering the payload and the fuelload. The next
screen gives the take-off data. After hitting of the enter key the
instrumentpanel will show up. Chapter 2 includes a detailed explanation
about its lay-out.
To prevent VDU-beeping click the left mouse button if the pointer is
outside the window. This is possible by bringing the pointer to the
righthand windowborder and clicking there.
3) Practice landings
A special version of the program, called DC10MIA.BAS, is available to
build up experience in 'blind' landings. Chapter 6.2 gives the details.
2.0 INSTRUMENTPANEL
---------------
The instrumentpanel is devided in two main blocks :
The upper part gives, in principle, all information about flying the plane.
The lower part is totally dedicated to navigation.
The upper part is divided in 5 boxes refferred to as A,B,C,D,E
The lower part is also divided in 5 parts named F,G,H,I,J
For each box A to J a short explanation is given:
A) From top to bottom the following information is given in this box:
- Time elapsed from take-off clearance
- AUW : All up weight in tons
- FUEL : Fuel load in tons
- FFHR : Fuel flow in tons per hour
- M : Machnumber. This is the airspeed divided by the speed of sound.
If the aircraft approaches M=1 then shockwaves are formed around
the wing. This means a strong increase in drag and at the utmost
loss of lift (high speed stall) For the wingdesign of the DC10
this will start from about M=0.9, so the maximum operating
machnumber is limited to M=0.88
- TAS : True airspeed in kt. As it says, this is the true speed of the
aircraft in respect to the air.
- WD : Wind. The first figure is the direction from which the wind
blows, the second one is the windspeed in knots.
- GS : Groundspeed. The speed of the aircraft in respect to the ground.
B) IAS: Indicated airspeed
This is the airspeed measured with a 'Pitot tube'. Essentially it
measures the dynamic pressure. This is the pressure on a diaphragm caused
by the speed with which it moves through the air. This pressure depends
also on the airdensity. The same applies to the liftforce which keeps
the aircraft in the air. It is therefore that the IAS is so important,
because wingstalling is primarily fixed by this speed.
In the righthand side of this box the approach of critical speedvalues
is indicated :
V 1 : If an engine fails during the take-off run and IAS < V1 then the
aircraft may be safely stopped. If an engine fails if IAS > V1 then
the take-off has to be continued because the aircraft cannot be
brought to a standstill before the end of the runway.
V R : If during the take-off run the IAS reaches VR (rotate speed) then
pitch up to increase the angle of attack. Then the liftforce will
exceed the weight and the aircraft gets off the ground.
V 2 : Lowest safe flying speed during take-off and climb-out
(slats 16 degr. and flaps 15 degr.)
V AT : Target speed at treshold. This is the lowest safe flying speed
during final approach (sl 25 degr, fl 55 degr) This includes
margins for special conditions like '1 engine out'. The value
without the margins is called V ref.
V MO : Max. operating speed. For DC-10 below 24000 ft the V MO= 380 kt.
M MO : Max. operating machnumber. For DC-10 above 24000 ft M MO= .88
At the bottom of this box the VSI (vertical speed indicator) gives the
climbspeed (positive) or descentrate (negative) in feet per minute.
Values exceeding + or - 9999 are not indicated
C) The artificial horizon
The most important instrument is the artificial horizon. This instrument
visualizes the attitude and bankangles in respect to the horizontal
plane. In the simulation the small aircraft (--O--) in the centre is
fixed and the horizon moves. In the real world it is of course the
opposite.
At the top the exact value of the attitude (in degrees), the bankangle
(in degrees) and the rate of turn (in degrees per second) is shown.
During the ground run the direction can be changed by steering with the
nosewheel. In the second line the angle between the fuselage centreline
and the real direction of the nosewheel is shown during the take-off run
and landing run.
On the same line you will get a warning if you appraoch the stallspeed
during flight.
At the bottom line the altitude (ALT) in feet is reported.
D) Engines
In this part the information about the engines is given. N1 is the
fanspeed in % and range from 25 % (idle) to 110 %.
To prevent overloading the following restrictions apply at the upper end :
* At sealevel
- For normal take-off the upper limit is 100 % for 5 minutes at most.
- Maximum continuous N1=96 % (climb power).
- In emergency situations an absolut maximum of 106 % for 1 minute.
With increasing high the airtemperature decreases so the upperlimits
increase :
* At 30000 ft
- Maximum continuous N1=106 %
- Absolute maximum N1=110 % for 5 minutes
For easy calculation a linear interpolation can be used for N1 at other
heighs.
If you do not hold these limits you will get a flashing alert lamp.
At the utmost even an engine failure can be the result.
If an engine has been shut down SD is shown.
If reverse thrust is activated *R* is shown.
E) This section gives the status of the 'extendable' parts.
From top to down you find :
- SL : The slat setting in degrees. During the take-off and intermediate
approach slats are set to 16 degr. During the final approach and
landing this has to be 25 degr.
- FL : Flap setting in degrees. During take-off and the intermediate
approach a value of 15 degr. has to be selected. During the final
approach and landing full flaps or 55 degr. has to be set.
The following restrictions must be taken into account :
o Flaps cannot be extended if slats are in.
o Flap extension is only possible below certain speedvalues.
- AB : Airbrakes.
- WB : Wheelbrakes.
- LG : Landinggear, UP=retracted, DN=down=extended, *=going up/dn.
F) In the upper part of this box the exact data of the Automatic Direction
Finding (ADF) equipment is given. For a short explanation of how the ADF
system works see par. 5.1.1 . The first line of part F gives the station
identifier. The second line gives the bearing (BG). This is the direction
in which you will find the radiobeacon if you take (magnetic) north as
the reference direction. The third line gives the relative bearing (RBG).
In this simulation program this is defined as the direction in which you
will find the radiobeacon if you take the course or the groundtrack of
the aircraft as the reference direction.
The last but one line contains the information about the runway to which
the ILS and its DME equipment is tuned.
The last line gives the remaining runway length if the aircraft is on the
runway or the distance to the touchdown point on the selected runway if
the aircraft is flying.
G) RMI
This is the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). This instrument incorporates
both compass and ADF representation. It contains two 'needles'. The light
blue dot represents the compass. The yellow dot shows the bearing data
from the ADF equipment. The exact data from the compass is given as the
heading (HDG). In this data the difference between geographical and
compass bearing is taken into account. In other words locationdependent
magnetic deviation is included.
H) ILS crosspoint meter
During the approach and landing the Instrument Landing System (ILS) is
the most important navigation aid. It gives guidance in the horizontal
as well as in the vertical plane (see par. 5.1.3)
The display is a kind of crosspoint meter. The crosspoint of the two
needles shows the location of the 'beam' in respect to the aircraft.
Although there is no mark in the centre, the aircraft is supposed to be
dead centre.
At the bottom the exact data is given. At the left the angle in degrees
at the localizer transmitter between the centreline of the runway and the
real location of the aircraft is given. The arrow points to the beam.
At the right the angle in degrees at the glidepath transmitter between
the nominal glideslope of 3 degrees and the real location of the aircraft
is given. Also here the arrow points to the beam.
If you are not within the range of the meter (5 degr. from the runway
centreline or 1 degr. from the nominal glideslope) only the direction
of the beam will be indicated and there will be no exact data.
If at the decision heigh (see par 4.8) the deviation in either direction
is more then roughly 0.5 degr then you better go around, because it is
far from certain that you will land the aircraft safely.
I) Mapdisplay of selected VOR/DME beacons.
The + sign in the middle is supposed to be the aircraft. The upward
pointing part is the nose. At the top the real flying direction over
the ground called track (TRK) is given. The difference between heading
and track is caused by the wind. The VOR/DME stations (see par 5.1.2)
are shown with the track as the reference direction. The angle between
track and beacon is defined as the relative bearing (RBG).
This instrument is also called VOR-tracking intstrument.
On the display the distance between aircraft and beacon is proportional
to the real distance. In principle the distance scale is linear.
Two ranges can be selected. If long range (L) has be selected then the
maximum distance is 125 nm. If short range (S) is chosen then the
displayed range is restricted to 25 nm.
J) In this part the exact data from the VOR/DME equipment is given.
The standard presentation is : distance in nm / station identifier /
radial. For example 23 SPL 057 means : the aircraft is at a distance
of 23 nm from a VOR/DME station with station code SPL (=Schiphol) and
the angle at this station between magnetic north and the location of the
aircraft is 57 degr. RBG is again relative bearing.
3.0 CONTROLS
--------
3.1 AIRCRAFT CONTROLS
The chosen approach is that you have to press a letter to choose a function
(the letter to press is normally the first letter of that function) and
simultaeously press up arrow (ua) or down arrow (da) to realise a increase
or decrease.
Some of the controls are capable of fine adjustment. If you press the space
bar (sb) in addition to the two other keys the stepsize of the change will
be 1/5th.
T + ua/da + (sb) -throttle- open/close throttle(s) 10 (2) percent
P + ua/da + (sb) -pitch- pitch up/down 2.5 (.5) degrees
R + ra/la + (sb) -roll- roll to the right/left 5 (1) degree(s)
N + ra/la + (sb) -nosewheel- turn nosewheel to the right/left .5(.1) degr
K + 0 -kick-off bring heading (almost) parallel to runway-
drift- centreline just before landing (below 15 ft)
G + da/ua -gear- initiate extension/retraction of landinggear
S + da/ua -slats- set/retract slats in 2 steps (0-16-25)
F + da/ua -flaps- set/retract flaps in 7 steps
(0-5-10-15-25-35-45-55)
B + da/ua -breaks- activate/release wheelbrakes
A + da/ua -airbrakes- extend/release airbrakes
E + da/ua -engine reverse-activate/cancel thrust reverse
1 + ua/da -engine 1- start/shut down engine 1 ) 1,2 and 3 on
2 + ua/da -engine 2- start/shut down engine 2 ) the numerical
3 + ua/da -engine 3- start/shut down engine 3 ) pad only
M +da -mass- dump fuel as not to exceed maximum
landingweight
3.2 SELECTION OF NAVIGATION FACILITIES
A total of about 70 groundfacilities (NDB, VOR/DME, Loc. and ILS) are
available. The table below shows how these can be selected.
Country GB GB GB NL NL/B B GB/NL/B
Type VOR VOR NDB VOR NDB VOR LOC ILS
KEYS U V W X Y Z L D
1 BCN GAM BPK EEL EHN BUB OA ASD 19R
2 BIG HON CAM HDR ENK BUN ASD 24
3 BNN IBY CON HSD LAK CIV WP ASD 27
4 BUR LAM DUN MAS NYK COA GX BMH 15
5 BTN LON KNI PAM ROT KOK BXL 25L
6 CFD MAY LA RKN STD LNO GY LGW 08
7 CLN MID LIC RTM THN NIK LHR 10R
8 DET OCK NCR SPL DEN SPI MCR 06
9 DTY SFD NH SPY GAA NW MST 22
0 DVR WAL WOD ONT RR RTD 24
For example press U and 1 simultaneously to select the VOR/DME station BCN
(Bracon) or D and 0 for the destination RWY RTD 24 (Rotterdam).
If you want BCN on VOR/DME receiver 2 press U + 1 + sb, with only U + 1
VOR/DME receiver 1 is tuned to BCN.
In selecting radiobeacons do not use the numerical pad, it will not work.
Two other controls for the navigation equipment should be mentioned :
V + ua/da -VOR-tracking- select long/short range on the VOR-tracking device
I + ua/da -ILS- switch the ILS equipment on/off
3.3 SPECIAL CONTROLS
There are two control possibilities which are not true to life, however they
can be very helpfull, especially the first one because it gives the
opportunity to calm down in critical situations.
C + da/ua -computer- pause/continue
Q + da -quit- restart program
4.0 BASIC FLIGHT MANOUVRES
---------------------
The take-off and climb procedures as described in this chapter are based on
the maximum take-off weight of 250 tons. The desription of the approach and
landing procedures is based on the maximum landing weight of 180 tons.
At other weights sometimes a better performance is realised by deviating
slightly from the described procedures.
4.1 PRE TAKE-OFF ACTION
Before you can take-off you have to start the engines <1+ua>,<2+ua>,<3+ua>.
Set slats to 16 degr <S+da>, set flaps to 15 degr <F+da> and tune in to the
appropriate VOR/DME stations and NDB.
4.2 TAKE-OFF
4.2.1 Normal take-off
If cleared for take-off press <T+ua+(sb)> untill the thrust reaches the
maximum take-off value with N1=100%. If necessary correct the heading with
the nosewheel steering. See par. 5.1.3 for runway centreline directions.
If the speed (IAS in kt) reaches VR press <P+ua> to pitch up to 15 degrees
for lift-off and climb out at V2+10 kt.
If the altitude is at least 20 ft retract the undercarriage <G+ua>.
At about 2000 ft pitch down to 9 degrees <P+da+sb> (reduce climbspeed to
about 500 ft/min) and reduce N1 to 96% to prolonge engine life <T+da+sb>.
Let the aircraft speed up. If the speed reaches V2+20 retract flaps to
10 degrees <F+ua>. If after some speed increase the rate of climb exceeds
1000 ft/min then retract flaps to 5 degrees. If again after some speed
inrease the climbrate exceeds 1000 ft/min then retracts the flaps fully.
If the speed reaches V2+60 then pitch down to 8 degrees and retract slats.
The table below shows the influence of the take-off weight on the afore-
mentioned speeds.
TOW V1 VR V2 V2+20 V2+60
(tons) (kt) (kt) (kt) (kt) (kt)
130 115 123 130 150 190
150 124 132 139 159 199
170 133 141 148 168 208
190 142 150 157 177 217
210 150 158 165 185 225
230 158 166 173 193 233
250 160! 173 180 200 240
4.2.2 Noise abatement take-off
The standard instrument departure (SID) routes are often called mimimum
noise routes. Under certain conditions however this may still give to much
disturbance. Under these circumstances a possible procedure for a noise
abatement take-off could be:
Up to an altitude of 2000 ft normal take-off (see par 4.2.1). If 2000 ft is
reached pitch down to about 10 degrees and reduce N1 to about 75 % .
The actual setting should give a speed of V2+10 kt IAS, and a climbrate of
about 400 ft/min. After 5 minutes from the start of the take-off climbpower
(N1=96%) can be selected. Then set pitch to 9 degrees. At reaching V2+20
retract flaps to 10 degrees. For further flap and slat retraction procedure
see par. 4.2.1
It is important to note that this procedure is abondened if an engine
failure occurs. Then of course the procedure of par 4.2.3 must be followed.
4.2.3 Take-off with engine failure
If an engine fails during the take-off run before V1 is reached, then the
take-off must be abondened. Press <E+da> to activate thrust reverse, <B+da>
for wheelbrakes, <A+da> for airbrakes and <T+da!!!> to increase N1.
If an engine fails after passing V1 then the take-off has to be continued.
At reaching VR pitch up to 12 degrees and climb out at V2. Above 20 ft
retract the gear.
If an engine fails during climb out pitch down to 12 degrees and maintain V2
At reaching 1000 ft pitch slowly down to 9 degrees <P+da+sb>. At V2+20
retract flaps to 10 degrees. If the climbrate exceeds 500 ft/min pitch
slowly down to 7 degrees. If the climbrate again exceeds 500 ft/min retract
flaps to 5 degrees. If after some speedincrease the climbrate again exceeds
500 ft/min retract flaps fully. At reaching V2+60 pitch down to 6 degrees
and retract slats. To prevent overheating of the live engines set N1=96%.
4.3 CLIMB
4.3.1 Normal climb
For air traffic control (ATC) reasons and risk of bird impact the speed is
restricted to 275 kt IAS below 10000 ft. So after cleaning up pitch is kept
at 8 degrees and N1 stays 96% untill the speed reaches 275 kt. Then N1 is
reduced to roughly 90%. To maintain this speed N1 must then again gradually
be increased with increasing heigh.
After passing 10000 ft pitch down to 4 degrees and set or keep N1 to 96% .
At about 16000 ft pitch down to 3 degrees and set N1 to 100% .
At about 23000 ft pitch down to 2 degrees and keep N1 to 100% .
The real procedure has to result in a rather constant speed Vcl=325
(+ or -10 ) kt IAS above 10000 ft.
4.3.2 Climb with 1 engine out
Below 10000 ft there is again a speedlimit of 275 kt. Therefore after the
cleaning up the pitch is kept at 6 degrees and N1 stays 96% untill the speed
reaches 275 kt. Then maintain this speed by adjusting N1.
Between 7000 and 10000 ft the pitch is 5 degrees. The speed is kept constant
by adjusting the throttles.
After passing 10000 ft set N1 to 96% and pitch slowly down to 3 degrees.
At about 15000 ft set N1 to 100% and pitch down to 2 degrees.
The real procedure has to result in a rather constant speed Vcl=310
(+ or -10) kt above 10000 ft.
4.4 CRUISE
If the cruise heigh is almost reached pitch slowly down and reduce thrust.
To maintain a certain flightlevel select a certain pitch and set speed or
thrust accordingly (see examples in the annex to this chapter).
Do not exceed the maximum operating speed (below 24000 ft V MO = 380 kt,
above 24000 ft M MO = .88)
For the economy cruise above 30000 ft a speed equal to M=.82 is recommended.
If the aircraft is very heavy then the first part of a long distance cruise
has to be flown at about 30000 ft (or 18000 ft with 1 engine out). When the
fuel burns up the aircraft looses weight and higher and more economical
cruise heighs are possible. The last part is often flown at 37000 ft for
example (or 27000 ft with 1 engine out).
4.5 TURNING
4.5.1 Turning on the ground
To correct the direction during the take-off run or the landing run the
nosewheel can be turned by pressing the N-key and the appropriate arrow
<N+ra/la+(sb)> . For runway directions see par 5.1.3
4.5.2 Turning in the air
A turn in the air can only be realised with banking. Ruder is not
implemented. The roll actions are controlled with the R-key and the
appropriate arrow <R+ra/la+(sb)> . If the new heading is almost reached roll
back to horizontal. As in real life bankangles are restricted to 25 degrees.
4.6 DESCENT
Normally the descent should be started if the distance to the landing point,
measured along the flightpath, satisfies the eqation d=3.2*h (d in nm and
h in 1000th of ft). This means a descentpath of 3 degrees.
In noise sensitive areas however sometimes steeper descentpathes (up to 6
degrees) are used, to delay the start of the descent.
For practical purpose, especially during the final approach, the following
rule of thumb is usefull for a descentpath of 3 degrees : the rate of
descent in ft/min should be about 5.3 * the GROUNDspeed in kt.
The actual descent starts by pitching down a few degrees and reducing thrust
and when necessary using the airbrakes <A+da>. Especially in the (steep)
descent you should be aware not to exceed V MO or M MO.
In many cases there is a speed limit of 250 kt IAS below 10000 ft prescribed
by air traffic control.
For an emergency descent (for example if there are problems with the
pressurization) reduce thrust to idle <E+ua>, extend the airbrakes and
pitch down to -12 degrees.
4.7 APPROACH
At about 20 nm to go (and a speed of about 250 kt) extend the slats to 16
degrees. Then reduce to Vref+100. If everything is fine slow down further
and after each speedloss of 10-15 kt extend the next step of the flaps.
Maintain Vref+50 with the slats at 16 and the flaps at 15 degrees up to
about 10 nm to go.
Then extend the landinggear and if not already done switch on the ILS
equipment.
At about 8 nm to go you must be roughly in line with the runway and at an
altitude of 2500 ft. Set slats to 25 degrees and slow down further.
After each speedloss of roughly 10 kt extend the next step of the flaps.
With slats and flaps fully extended maintain V AT + 10 kt.
During all the preceding operations thrust, attitude and bankangles should
be selected depending on the deviation from the glideslope (see examples in
the annex) Keep in mind : Stick for speed and power for descentrate !!!
In the table below the influence of the landing weight on the different
speedvalues is visable.
LW Vref Vref+10 Vref+50 Vref+100
(tons) (kt) (kt) (kt) (kt)
120 111 121 161 211
140 120 130 170 220
160 128 138 178 228
180 136 146 186 236
4.8 FINAL APPROACH
4.8.1 Final approach with all engines working
At the outer marker (OM), the final approach begins. You must be on the
glidepath with sufficient accuracy and slats are at 25 degrees and flaps at
55 degrees and the speed is V AT + 10 kt IAS (=Vref+10). Continue the
descent to 500 ft. Below 500 ft reduce speed to V AT (=Vref). If at the
decision heigh (DH) of 100 ft the deviation from the glidepath is too large
then an overshoot (OS) should be carried out (see par 4.10.1).
4.8.2 Final approach with 1 engine out
At the outer marker (OM) the final approach begins. you must be on the
glidepath with sufficient accuracy and slats are at 25 degrees and flaps at
55 degrees and the speed is V AT + 10 (=Vref+15). Continue the descent to
500 ft Below 500 ft reduce speed to V AT (=Vref+5). In this case the
decision heigh is 200 ft. If the deviation from the glidepath at this heigh
is too large then an overshoot (OS) should be carried out (see par 4.10.2).
Remark :
Under light weight conditions (below roughly 150 tons) it is possible to
land and when necessary to make an overshoot with just 1 engine operating.
(DH=300 ft, V AT=Vref+10, slats at 25 degr.,flaps at 35 ! degr. and at
150 tons and below 500 ft the attitude is 4 degr., N1=82%, IAS=133 kt)
At higher weights, up to the maximum landing weigh of 180 tons, you can
- in principle - also land on 1 engine, however it is not possible to go
around because of lack of climb performance.
4.9 LANDING
At about 50 ft the flare-out begins. Pitch up slowly about 2 degrees
<P+ua+sb>. At about 20 ft close throttles <E+ua>. At about 10 ft push off
drift <K+0>. Aim for a vertical speed at touch down of -100 ft/min.
After touch down, pitch down <P+da> untill the nosewheel is also on the
ground and start braking. First start braking on the wheels <B+da> then
activate thrust reverse <E+da> and increase the fanspeed <T+da!!!>.
If heading correction is necessary use the nosewheel steering <N+ra/la+(sb)>.
If runway length permits, cancel thrust reverse <E+ua> if the speed is
below 80 kt. Bring the aircraft to a standstill before the end of the
runway.
4.10 OVERSHOOT
4.10.1 Overshoot with all engines working
If for some reason an overshoot is necessary then pitch up to 10 degrees and
set the engines to climbpower (N1=96%). If a positive rate of climb is
established retract the undercarriage.
If the altitude is above 500 ft and the speed at least Vref+10 start flap-
retraction from 55 to 15 degrees, which each next step after a further
speedincrease of about 5 kt.
With slats at 16 degrees and flaps at 15 degrees and a speed of V2+10 or
above pitch up to 15 degrees. Switch off the ILS and climb to 2000 ft and
see par. 4.2.1 for further information about speeding up and cleaning up.
4.10.2 Overshoot with 1 engine out
If for some reason an overshoot is necessary set the life engines to the
maximum take-off power of N1=100% . Then pitch up to 7 degrees. If a
positive rate of climb is established retract the landinggear.
If the altitude is above 500 ft and the speed at least Vref retract the
flaps to 45 degrees and pitch up to 8 degrees. After each speedincrease
of 5 kt retract the next step of the flaps and pitch up 1 degree further.
With slats at 16 degrees and flaps at 15 degrees and an attitude of 12
degrees climb to 1000 ft at V2 or above. For speeding up and cleaning up
see par. 4.2.2
Remark :
If the all up weight is not above 150 tons then an overshoot is possible
with only 1 engine operating.
If an overshoot is necessary set the live engine to the maximum take-off
thrust with N1=100% . Pitch up to 6 degrees (level flight) and retract gear.
If the speed is at least Vref+10 retract flaps from 35 to 25 degrees and
pitch up to 8 degrees. If the speed is at least Vref+15 retract flaps to
15 degrees and pitch up to 10 degrees.
With slats at 16 degrees and flaps at 15 degrees and an attitude of 10
degrees climb to 1000 ft at V2 or above. Clean up above 1000 ft.
ANNEX TO BASIC FLIGHT MANOUVRES
A guide to throttle, pitch, slat and flap setting
A) All engines working
s e t t i n g r e s u l t
FLIGHT PHASE N1 pitch sl fl alt IAS VSI Remarks
1 TAKE-OFF+CLIMB OUT T.O.W.=250 tons
Normal take-off 100 15.0 16 15 1000 191 2350 V2+10,LG:UP
Noise abatement 76 10.0 16 15 2400 190 500 V2+10
2 CLIMB
Up to 10000 ft 90 8.0 0 0 6000 275 2240 IAS<275,N1=90-96%
Up to 16000 ft 96 4.0 0 0 15000 325 1850 Vcl=325 +/-10
Up to 23000 ft 100 3.0 0 0 20000 332 1480
Up to cruise alt. 100 2.0 0 0 25000 334 840 245 tons
3 CRUISE
At 6000 ft (1) 58 4.0 0 0 6000 270 0 IAS<275,248 tons
At 6000 ft (2) 49 3.0 0 0 6000 248 0 IAS<250,180 tons
At 12000 ft 60 1.0 0 0 12000 307 0 200 tons
At 24000 ft 75 1.0 0 0 24000 301 0 200 tons
At 29000 ft 88 1.5 0 0 29000 315 0 240 tons
At 37000 ft 94 2.0 0 0 37000 262 0 180 tons
4 DESCENT 180 tons
Down to 24000 ft 25 -2.0 0 0 28000 291 -2150 from 37000 ft
Down to 10000 ft 25 -3.0 0 0 18000 324 -2160
Down to 6000 ft 25 0.0 0 0 7000 250 -1400 IAS<250,AB:ON/OFF
5 APPROACH Straight in appr.
Down to 4500 ft 25 1.0 16 0 5000 234 -1250 Vref+100,17nm out
Down to 3000 ft 35 1.5 16 15 3300 186 -1080 Vref+ 50,11nm out
Down to 1200 ft OM 55 0.0 25 55 1200 144 -730 Vat+10,LG:DN
6 FINAL APPROACH AB:ON,DH=100 ft
Down to 500 63 0.0 25 55 600 144 -690 Vat+10
Down to 50 61 3.0 25 55 100 134 -670 Vat=Vref
7 LANDING
Touch down 25 5.0 25 55 0 130 -200 L.W.=180 tons
B) One engine out
s e t t i n g r e s u l t
FLIGHT PHASE N1 pitch sl fl alt IAS VSI Remarks
1 TAKE-OFF+CLIMB OUT T.O.W.=250 tons
With eng. failure 100 12.0 16 15 700 182 790 V2,LG:UP
2 CLIMB
Up to 7000 ft 92 6.0 0 0 4000 274 1100 IAS<275,N1=90-96%
Up to 10000 ft 92 5.0 0 0 9000 274 700 IAS<275,N1=90-96%
Up to 15000 ft 96 3.0 0 0 13000 306 630 Vcl=310 +/-10
Up to cruise alt 100 2.0 0 0 17000 322 440 245 tons
3 CRUISE
At 6000 ft 62 3.0 0 0 6000 249 0 IAS<250,180 tons
At 12000 ft 72 1.0 0 0 12000 293 0 180 tons
At 18000 ft 92 1.5 0 0 18000 314 0 240 tons
At 27000 ft 98 0.5 0 0 27000 304 0 180 tons
4 DESCENT 180 tons
Down to 10000 ft 25 -3.0 0 0 20000 324 -2240 from 27000 ft
Down to 6000 ft 25 0.0 0 0 7000 250 -1430 IAS<250,AB:ON/OFF
5 APPROACH Straight in appr.
Down to 4500 ft 25 1.0 16 0 5000 234 -1300 Vref+100,17nm out
Down to 3000 ft 45 1.5 16 15 3300 186 -1100 Vref+ 50,11nm out
Down to 1200 ft OM 71 -1.0 25 55 1200 148 -740 Vat+10,LG:DN
6 FINAL APPROACH AB:OFF,DH=200 ft
Down to 500 ft 71 -1.0 25 55 600 148 -710 Vat+10=Vref+15
Down to 50 ft 71 2.0 25 55 100 138 -630 Vat=Vref+5
7 LANDING
Touch down 25 4.0 25 55 0 133 -200 L.W.=180 tons
5.0 NAVIGATION
----------
5.1 NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
5.1.1 ADF
The Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) is an instrument which, when correctly
tuned to a ground radio station is capable of indicating the relative and/or
magnetic bearing of that station. The ground stations are called Non
Directional Baecons (NDB) A locator (L) is a low-powered NDB used primarily
as an aid to bring the aircraft to a suitable position for an ILS approach.
The correct tuning of a station is checked by identifying the two or three
letter Morse code which is superimposed on the signal.
The bearing of a station is found by nulling the received signal with an
electro-mechanical (electric motor) or electronical steered directional
sensitive aerial.
The three main items (identification code, bearing and relative bearing) of
the ADF are given in the upper part of box F of the instrumentpanel (par 2).
Box G is a kind of Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). The light-blue colored
dot represents the compass needle, the yellow one shows the bearing data
from the ADF equipment.
In the table below the the NDB's available in the program are listed.
Identifier Full name Country Type
BPK Brookmanspark GB NDB
CAM Cambridge GB NDB
CON Congleton GB NDB
DUN Dunsfold GB NDB
KNI Knighton GB NDB
LA Lyneham GB NDB
LIC Lichfield GB NDB
MCR Manchester GB NDB
NH Norwich GB NDB
WOD Woodley GB NDB
EHN Eindhoven NL NDB
ENK Enkhuizen NL NDB
LAK Lake NL NDB
NYK Nyke NL NDB
ROT Rotterdam NL NDB
STD Stad NL NDB
THN Thorn NL NDB
DEN Dender B NDB
GAA Gatta B NDB
ONT Kleine Brogel B NDB
OA NL L for ASD 19R
GX GB L for BMH 15
GY GB L for LGW 08
NW Nieuwstad NL L for MST 22
RR NL L for RTD 24
WP Weesp NL L for ASD 27
To make your own chart with these beacons use the longitude and latitude
information in the program.
5.1.2 VOR/DME
The Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR) is a system which
indicates very accurate the direction (radial), as seen from the VOR ground
station, of the aircraft position. Like a compass 360 radials are used with
magnetic north being 0 or 360.
The working of a VOR can be explained by a simile.
For the ground radio station you should think of a light house with a
rotating beam with known rotation rate. When the beam passes magnetic north
a reference signal is send to all directions, for example by a flashing red
lamp. From the time difference between the reference signal and the moment
that the rotating beam crosses the aircraft and the known rotation rate the
direction of the radial can be calculated.
The real implementation with radio transmitters on the ground and receivers
in the aircraft is of course very complicated.
Like NDB stations also VOR stations have three letter identification codes
in Morse superimposed on the signal.
The Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) does exactly what it says: it
measures the distance between the aircraft and a known point on the ground.
A socalled Interrogater in the aircraft transmits coded pulses to the
Responder on the ground. The Responder reacts by sending back a signal to
the aircraft. From the time lapse between transmission from and reception in
the aircraft and the well known speed of radiowaves the distance between
aircraft and Responder can be calculated.
By using different pulse patterns the Responder can accept signals from up to
100 aircraft simultaneously.
In the simulation program distance is given as groundtrack distance, so it
is indepent of the altitude of the aircraft.
Very often the ground equipment for VOR and DME is placed together on the
same location. In this case the combined information of one VOR/DME station
is sufficient for position fixing.
The information from the two VOR/DME receivers appears in box J (par 2).
Left of the station identifier the distance in nm is given. At the right the
VOR radial is given
In the table below the VOR/DME stations available in the program are listed.
Identifier Full name Country
BCN Brecon GB
BIG Biggin GB
BNN Bovingdon GB
BUR Burham GB
BTN Barton GB
CFD Cranfield GB
CLN Clacton GB
DET Detling GB
DTY Daventry GB
DVR Dover GB
GAM Gamston GB
HON Honily GB
IBY Ibsley GB
LAM Lambourne GB
LON London GB
MAY Mayfield GB
MID Midhurst GB
OCK Ockham GB
SFD Seaford GB
WAL Wallasey GB
EEL Eelde NL
HDR Den Helder NL
HSD Haamstede NL
MAS Maastricht NL
PAM Pampus NL
RKN Rekken NL
RTM Rotterdam NL
SPL Schiphol NL
SPY Spykerboor NL
BUB Brussels B
BUN Bruno B
CIV Chievres B
COA Costa B
KOK Koksy B
LNO Olno B
NIK Nicky B
SPI Sprimont B
To make your own chart with these beacons use the longitude and latitude
information in the program.
5.1.3 ILS
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is purily designed as a let down aid
and guides aircrafts down from a few thousend feet onto the runway. This
aid makes landings possible almost indepent of the visibility conditions.
The ILS consists of a localizer transmitter (loc tx) near the upwind end
of the runway. The directional diagram of the aerial system and the
modulation of this transmitter is such that with a receiver in the aircraft,
after some processing, the deviation from the runway centreline can be read
on the instrumentpanel. A second transmitter, called glidepath transmitter
(gp tx), is located near the touch down point on the runway. The direction
diagram of the aerial system and the modulation of this transmitter is such
that with a receiver in the aircraft, after some processing, the deviation
from the glidesope (normally 3 degrees) is presented on the instrumentpanel.
The processed signals of both receivers are fed in an instrument called
crosspoint meter. This instrument has two needles, a vertical one moving
left/right and indicating the deviation from the centreline and a horizontal
one moving up/down and indicating the deviation from the glideslope.
For the interpretation of the instrument indication see chapter 2.H .
The combined guidance in a horizontal and vertical sense will guide the
aircraft smoothily down.
Information about distance to the touch down point is partly obtained from
marker beacons. The outer marker (OM) is normally about 4 nm from touch
down. At the outer marker the altitude should be about 1300 ft. A middle
marker (MM) at roughly 0.6 nm from the treshhold should be crossed at about
200 ft. The inner marker is normally not present at civil airports.
In the table below the runways available in the program are listed.
Runway ident length magnetic bearing country town
(ft) (degrees)
ASD 19R 10800 187 NL Amsterdam
ASD 24 10600 242 NL Amsterdam
ASD 27 11300 271 NL Amsterdam
BMH 15 7000 153 GB Birmingham
BXL 25L 10500 254 B Brussels
LGW 08 8200 085 GB London-Gatwick
LHR 10R 11000 097 GB London-Heathrow
MCR 06 8100 059 GB Manchester
MST 22 8200 216 NL Maastricht
RTD 24 7200 241 NL Rotterdam
To make your own charts with these runways use the longitude and latitude
information for the glidepath transmitters in the program.
5.2 NAVIGATION PRINCIPLES
The main purpose of this section is to give some guidelines to pilots
interested in precision flying.
The basic operation in navigation procedures is the change of the flying
direction. For maximum control during all these procedures you must have
some insight in the relation between speed, bankangle, turnradius and rate
of turn. Therefore some background is given about the true banked flat turn.
A true banked turn is a turn purily caused by banking without any sideslip.
Because in this DC-10 program the vertical tail effect is not simulated the
only way of turning is the true banked turn. Based on an analysis of the
forces working on an aircraft during such a turn the following practical
formulas can be deduced :
R = 0.0000146 * V * V / tan B
T = 1090 * tan B / V
With R is turnRadius in nm, V is TAS in kt, B is the Bankangle in degrees
and T is the rate of Turn in degr/sec. Note that lift and weight are no
parameters in these formulas.
Take for example a speed of 180 kt TAS and bankangle of 15 degrees, then
the turnradius R=1.8 nm and the rate of turn T=1.6 degr/sec.
From the foregoing it is clear that an aircraft need (a lot of) space and
time to change its direction. If you have to take up another bearing after
crossing of a radiobeacon the smoothest way is to start your turn some
distanc before the crossing. The same applies if you have to join a
particular track to or from a radiobeacon. You should start to pick up your
new bearing before reaching the track. This anticipation of the turn is
called lead. For the first situation lead distance (LD) is the most relevant
parameter, in the second one lead angle (LA) is most helpfull.
Some simple formulas will be given to calculate the value of these
parameters for almost all practical situations.
First the mathematical relation between lead distance in nm (LD),
turnradius in nm (R) and bearing change in degrees (BC) is given :
LD = R * tan(BC/2)
For example at 300 kt TAS and a bankangle of 15 degrees the turnradius is
R = 4.9 nm, so if a bearingchange of 45 degrees is necessary then LD=2 nm.
In order to pick up your new bearing as smooth as possible start the turn
about 2 nm before you cross the beacon.
Two remarks should be added :
- If a VOR/DME station is approached then the DME data will give the right
starting point for the turn. If a NDB is approached it is not always that
simple. However if you fly from a VOR/DME to a NDB and you know the
distance between the beacons (from your flightplan) then the turn at the
NDB should be started if the distance between the aircraft and the VOR/DME
station is equal to the distance between the VOR/DME and the NDB minus the
lead distance
- In these calculations windeffects are not taken into account, so in
practice the patterns will not be flown as accurate as the calculation
suggests, but they are still a good basis.
Lead angle is a little more complicated. If you have to track in or out on a
certain bearing/radial to or from a beacon then it is helpfull to know at
which bearing/radial you have to start the turn. This of course depends on
the turnradius (R), the magnitude of the bearingchange (BC)and the distance
(D) between aircraft and the beacon. A mathematical approximation is :
LA = 114.6 * (R/D) * sin(BC/2) * sin (BC/2)
For LA < 10 degr the accuracy is better then 1 % .
For LA < 45 degr the accuracy is better then 10 % .
Do not use this formula for LA values above 45 degrees
An example will be taken from an approach to RWY MIA 09R (see chapter 6.2).
If you approach WP1 turn left to home at MI on a track of 87 degrees.
The lead angle for the anticipation of this turn will be calculated.
At 7000 ft and a speed of 250 kt IAS the TAS is 273 kt. With a bankangle of
25 degrees the turnradius R=2.3 nm. Using the chart, the distance between the
beacon and the aircraft at the start of the turn can be estimated . D=29 nm.
The nominal bearing before the start of the turn is 158 degrees, so the
bearingchange is 158-87= 71 degrees. Then LA= 3 degrees
So you have to start your turn if the bearingindicater of MI shows 90 degr.
In the simulation program also the data about the actual wind, groundspeed
and track is available. In modern airliners this is deduced from data from
Doppler radar equipment, the Inertial Navigation System (INS) or the Omega
system. Especially the data on track is very helpfull because it is often
much simpler to find the necessary compensation for windeffects.
Comparing this with the situation in the past without these direct data
makes clear that flying a prescribed pattern is a little easier nowadays.
For more information about navigation procedures some of the books in the
reference list are very helpfull.
5.3 FLIGHTPLANNING
Associated with a flightplan is a lot of documentation and calculation on
fuel requirements, take-off data, weather reports, navigation data etc.
In this chapter only some aspects related to navigation will be discussed,
especially the use of the flightplanning possibility in the first part of
the program.
After choosing option 1 a survey of the radiobeacons and runways available
in the program are presented on the screen.
In order to make a simple and straightforward flightplan just enter the
numbers for the required aids separated by a > sign.
For example entering 80>43>7 gives distance and bearing from runway RTD 24
to HSD and further on to CLN. So if you cross HSD you know at forehand what
new bearing you have to take up to CLN.
Airways are not always straight from beacon to beacon. Sometimes there are
waypoints (WP) between them where a change of direction is necessary.
This flightplanning program has features build in to calculate also such
routeplans.
For example a route from HON (aid nr 12) to BNN (aid nr 3) via a waypoint
37 HON 147 can be brought in by entering 12>37@147>3. So if you enter
the distance and bearing from the first aid to the waypoint then the
computer gives you the complete route. Chapter 6.1 contains an example
how an complete flightplan can be composed using this possibility.
As shown, the waypoint information is brought in starting with the distance
and the bearing is put after the @-sign.
Some restriction to the distance data has to be taken into acount.
Maximum distance is 99 nm, above 10 nm it must be an integer, below 10 nm
an accuracy of 0.1 nm is possible. The bearing data must be in the range
from 000 to 360 degrees and must always consist of 3 figures. The program
accepts only waypoints between a longitude of 7 deg W and 10 deg E.
6.0 PRACTICE-FLIGHTS
----------------
6.1 FLIGHT BIRMINGHAM-LONDON
In this chapter a flight from Birmingham to London Heathrow is described.
If the first part of the program is loaded choose option 1 to make a flight-
plan. A standard approach route to London Heathrow from the north-west is
via VOR/DME DTY and BNN, tracking out on BNN 222 to 15 BNN 222 and after
the final turn (lefthand turn of 125 degr) land on LHR 10R guided by the ILS
For the first part of the route it is proposed to keep the runway track
until reaching the airway between VOR/DME stations HON and DTY.
To get a complete and accurate flightplan enter the following line :
74>8@153>9>3>15@222>1.3@192>1.3@160>1.3@127>77 (see also par 5.3)
The resulting flightplan is shown below.
FLIGHTPLAN BMH - LHR
nm degr
BMH-WP2 8.0 153 (WP=waypoint)
WP2-DTY 22 125
DTY-BNN 34 150
BNN-WP5 15 222
WP5-WP6 1.3 192 )
WP6-WP7 1.3 160 ) Final turn
WP7-WP8 1.3 127 )
WP8-LHR 9.6 097 (to LHR 10R, 11000ft/097 degr)
----
Total distance 93 nm
If the flightplan does not need any change press the N-key to load the real
simulation program.
After loading of DC10EUR.BAS choose BMH 15 (7000 ft/153degr) as the take-off
runway by entering 4. Before entering the payload and the fuelload note the
maximum take-off weight for this runway length. Enter 45 tons as the payload
and 20 tons as the fuelload for this trip.
The take-off data for this flight is given on the next screen and also here:
T.O.W. = 180 tons, V1 = 138 kt, V R = 145 kt, V2 = 153 kt.
Start flap retraction at 173 kt and slat retraction at 213 kt.
If the instrumentpanel has been set up, prepare for the take-off :
Start the engines, set slats to 16 degrees and flap to 15 degrees, select
VOR/DME HON and DTY and select GX on the ADF to make it easy to keep runway-
track after the take-off.
If you are ready for the take-off, increase the fanspeed N1. With a take-off
weight of 180 tons and a runway length of 7000 ft it is not necessary to use
the maximum take-off power. Increase N1 to 95% .
If at the start of the take-off roll the aircraft track (heading) is not the
same as the runway track of 153 degrees correct this with the nosewheel-
steering, otherwise you will end up in the mud aside the runway.
Keep an eye on the proper working of the engines, because if one fails
before reaching V1 you have to stop the aircraft because you cannot reach
your take-off speed before the end of the runway.
Supposing everything goes fine pitch up at reaching V R. The aircraft is
very light so pitch up to 18 degrees. Retract gear above 20 ft and keep
runway heading until you reach 500 ft. Then correct for sidewindeffects and
keep a track of 153 degrees.
At reaching 2000 ft pitch down to 11 degrees and reduce N1 to 85% . Retract
flaps and slats after reaching the relevant speeds. Above 5000 ft set pitch
to 9 degrees.
Abeam HON turn left (bank 15 degr) and track in on DTY 305 (track:125 degr).
Above 8000 ft pitch down to 7 degrees and set pitch to 4 degr after passing
10000 ft, N1 still keeping at 85% .
With a total weight of 180 tons and a route distance of nearly 100 nm a
cruiseheigh of 12000 ft is most suitable. Reach this heigh before DTY.
After reaching of 11500 ft reduce pitch to 2 degr and throttle back to 65% .
Level-off at 12000 ft witch a pitchsetting of 1 degr, N1 at 56% and a speed
just above 290 kt.
If you approach DTY select VOR/DME BNN instead of HON. At roughly 1 nm
before DTY (1 DTY 305) start turning to the right. After crossing DTY track
in on BNN 330 (track:150 degr,track out on DTY 150).
For the descent a descentpath angle of 5 degr is chosen for the first part
down 5000 ft. Below 5000 ft a descentpath of 3 degr is used.
At 15 BNN 222 you must be down at 2500 ft, so you have to loose first
7000 ft on a 5 degr descentpath and then 2500 on a 3 degr path before the
final turn. The start of the descent is then (7000/6078*tan5) +
(2500/6078*tan3) = 13.2+7.8 = 21 nm before 15 BNN 222 (1 nm = 6078 ft).
Therefore start the descent just before 6 BNN 330 by reducing thrust to idle
and pitching down to 4 degr below horizontal. Below 10000 ft there is a speed
restriction of 250 kt, so start braking as soon as the descent has started.
There is an easy way to check of you go down on a 5 degr path :
The vertical speed in ft/min must be equal to 6078*tan5/60=8.9 * GROUNDspeed
in kt. For example at 250 kt IAS at 8000 ft the TAS is 276 kt and supposing
a tailwind of 20 kt the resulting groundspeed is 296 kt. In this case the
VSI must show something near to -2630 ft/min for a 5 degr descent.
Because the speed cannot be chosen freely you have to control the descent-
path with the pitchangle. So if the speed come down to 250 kt IAS pitch up
slowly to 2 degr below horizontal to keep on the right descentpath.
Cross BNN at 8700 ft track out on BNN 222 (track:222 degr) and aim for
5000 ft at 7 BNN 222.
If not already done select LHR 10R as the destination runway and tune in to
WOD on the ADF as an secondary aid.
After arriving at 5000 ft near 7 BNN 222 pitch up 2 degr to reduce the
descentpath from 5 to 3 degr. At a weight just below 180 tons, clean wings
and a speed near 250 kt IAS level pitch gives a nice 3 degr descentpath.
Before the final turn the speed must be reduced to Vref+50 (182 kt) so
extend the slats to 16 degr and start braking before 10 BNN 222.
Keep level pitch and use the flap extension to keep the aircraft on a 3 degr
descentpath despite the decreasing speed. For a 3 degr descentpath the
vertical speed in feet/min must be equal to 6078*tan3/60 = 5.3 * GROUNDspeed
in kt.
Extend flaps to 25 degr. Because of the flap extension the drag increases
so keep watching your speed and release airbrakes and open throttles when
necessary.
The final turn takes place at a constant altitude of 2500 ft. For a flat
turn started at 15 BNN 222 with slats at 16 degr, flaps at 25 degr and a
speed of about 182 kt the bankangle is 15 degr, the pitch is 3 degr and
N1 about 59% .
If the final turn is started switch on the ILS for LHR 10R (11000ft/097degr)
If you approach the runway track then track in first on the localizer.
Pick up the glideslope from 2500 ft at 8 nm to go. Do this by pitching down
to level again and control the descentpath with the throttle only.
Extend the landinggear now.
Before the outer marker slats and flaps must be extended fully, so reduce
thrust to idle and extend the airbrakes if you like. Set slats to 25 degr.
At the same way as before the final turn keep level pitch and if the speed
decreases use flap extension to keep the aircraft on the glideslope.
If slats and flaps are fully extended release the airbrake and set N1 to 55%
to maintain a speed of V AT + 10 (142 kt, all engines working).
With level pitch this speed will keep you on the glideslope.
Cross the outer marker (OM on the screen) at an altitude of about 1300 ft.
At an altitude of 800 ft reduce N1 with 10% . If the speed decreases keep
on the glideslope by pitching up slowly. If the pitch is 3 degr up and the
speed is V AT (132 kt) then increase N1 again to 55% . Keep the pitch
constant and correct for glideslope deviations with your throttle only.
At the decision heigh (DH=100 ft, all engines working) you have to decide
wether or not to go ahead and land or to overshoot and go around. If at the
decision heigh the deviation on the ILS crosspoint meter is less then
0.5 degr in both directions (especially in a horizontal sense it is very
stringent) then a safe landing is possible.
At 50 ft start the flare by pitching up 1.5 degrees (0.5 degr/sec), at 20 ft
close throttles, below 10 ft kick-off drift and pitch up another 0.5 degr.
After touch down pitch down until the nosewheel is also on the ground and
start braking making use of the wheel brakes as well as thrust reverse.
Keep the aircraft on the runway using the nosewheel steering and stop it
before the end of the runway.
If at the decision heigh the conclusion had to be : do not land but go
around then, supposing all engines are working, pitch up to 10 degr and
increase N1 to 95% . If the aircraft starts climbing retract the gear.
Above 500ft and at a speed of at least Vref+10 (142 kt) start flap
retraction from 55 to 15 degr, with each next step after a further speed-
increase of about 5 kt.
With slats at 16 and flaps at 15 degr and a speed of V2+10 (160 kt) or above
pitch up to 15 degr. Switch off the ILS and climb to 1500 ft on the runway-
track. (097 degr) Then turn to the right and track in on VOR/DME OCK.
Above 2000 ft pitch down to 10 degr, reduce N1 to 85% and retract slats and
flaps at the prescribed speeds. Keep your speed below 250 kt IAS
Cross OCK at 3000 ft and track out on OCK 306. At 14 OCK 306 the final turn
starts. Before that point you must have come down to 2500 ft, reduced speed
to Vref+50 and slats extended to 16 and flap to 25 degr. After the final turn
pick up the ILS beam for another try.
6.2 LANDING ON MIAMI INTL
This DC-10 program is purily an instrument flight simulation . For most
pilots therefore the most difficult part in flying with DC-10 will be the
approach to and landing on a selected runway. To build up experience on
this part of flying a special version of the program has been developed,
called DC10MIA.BAS
In this chapter in principle only the differences with and the additions
to the general part of the documentation are discussed.
6.2.1 Autopilot options
For beginning pilots it not easy to land an aircraft, certainly not if it
has to be done on instrument information only. Therefore it is thought to be
very helpfull to have a variable level of assistance by an automatic pilot,
especially during the final approach and landing. So if you get more
experience you need less and less support by the automatic pilot until you
can do it all alone.
The autopilot build in in DC10MIA.BAS for this purpose has 5 options :
- Autoland
- Autothrottle + autoflare
- Autothrottle
- Autoflare
- No autopilot
In the autoflare option all pitch up and down is done by the autopilot.
In the autothrottle option thrust control including reverse thrust and any
braking action is done by the autopilot. If the autoland option is chosen
everything is done by the autopilot, a socalled 'hands-off' landing.
In the autothrottle + autoflare option the only action to be done by the
pilot is to roll to the left/right to keep the aircraft on the beam in
horizontal sense, kick-off drift at or below 10 ft and after the landing
keep the aircraft on the runway using the nosewheel steering.
An automatic pilot can not take control from any random start situation.
To be precise, the autoland instruction will only be accepted if the
following conditions are met simultaneously :
- The plane is above the outer marker (OM on the screen)
- The deviation from the glidepath is not more then 2 degr horizontally and
0.5 degr vertically
- The track must be within 5 degr from the runway centreline (087/267 degr)
- The landinggear must be down and the slats and flaps fully extended
- The attitude must be level (pitch: 0 degr)
- The speed must be within 5 kt from V AT + 10 kt (Vat+5 < IAS < Vat+15)
- All engines working
On the same basis the autothrottle and/or autoflare instruction(s) will only
be accepted if the following conditions are met simultaneously :
- The altitude must be between 500 and 700 ft
- The deviation from the glidepath is not more then 1 degr horizontally and
0.5 degr vertically
- The track must be within 5 degr from the runway centreline
- The landinggear must be down and the slats and flaps fully extended
- The attitude must be 3 degr up
- The speed must be within 5 kt from V AT ( Vat-5 < IAS < Vat+5 )
( V AT on the screen)
- All engines working
If any of the autopilot instructions is accepted there will always be a
check at an altitude between 20 and 30 ft if it is likely to become a safe
landing. If not, then an automatic overshoot action is started (AOS on the
screen). After this has been completed the autopilot will be disconnected
(AOS dissappears). From there on the pilot must take over.
6.2.2 Area navigation
In the terminal area of Miami International airport 2 VOR/DME stations are
in service: MIA (Miami) and BSY (Biscayne Bay) and one combined locater/
outer marker: MI (Keynes) The locations can be found in the (very inaccurate)
chart given below.
With the old navigation equipment the flexibility in approach routes is very
restricted. With modern computerized navigation equipment new possibilities
are available. One of them is called RNAV or better Vector computer. This is
one of the many forms of area navigation. It gives the possibility of route-
plans outside the airways system.
The RNAV equipment makes use of the existing VOR/DME groundfacilities.
The computer in the aircraft gives the capability of 'moving' a VOR/DME
station from its actual location to a 'ghost' position (WayPoint) of the
pilots choice. So if the VOR and DME receivers in the aircarft are tuned to
MIA and the computer is instructed to move this 17.8 nm on a bearing of
231 degr from this station (to WP1) then the RNAV equipment will give the
the distance and bearing from the aircraft to WP1. You will get the
impression as if WP1 is an indepent facility.
A simplified form of RNAV is implemented in the program. It is not possible
to choose your waypoints freely, only 10 pre-progammed waypoints are
available. The location of these waypoints (WP0-9) are also (roughly)
indicated in the drawing below. The accurate 'moving' data is :
WP0: 20.0 MIA 279 WP1: 17.8 MIA 231 WP2: 12.4 MIA 205 WP3: 11.0 MIA 183
WP4: 18.0 MIA 214 WP5: 5.2 BSY 293 WP6: 4.8 BSY 061 WP7: 7.9 BSY 072
WP8: 10.4 BSY 044 WP9: 8.3 BSY 028
With this information and the bearing from the locater/outer marker MI it
must be possible to intercept the ILS beam before you have come down to
2500 ft. From this point on the ILS guides you down to the runway.
The selection of the runway you are going to land on (09R =087 degr or
27L =267 degr) must of course primarily be based on the groundwind direction.
WP0 * MIAMI (FLA/USA)
(WESTO) WESTO ONE RNAV ARR.
MIA TO RWY 09R/27L
+ 5 nm
|-------|
start o
WP2 WP3 RWY MI WP9 WP8
WP1 * * * === O * *
WP4 * * * *
WP5 + WP6 WP7
BSY
6.2.3 Differences in control facilities
It will be clear that all facilities for pilotcontrol of the aircraft itself
are unchanged (see chapter 3)
All European NDB-, VOR/DME- and ILS groundfacilities have been deleted.
The following possiblities are added :
HELP + L -autopilot- autoland
HELP + T autothrottle
HELP + F autoflare
HELP + da disconnect autopilot
D + 1 -destination- select RWY MIA 09R on the ILS and DME
D + 2 select RWY MIA 27L on the ILS and DME
W + 0..9 -waypoint- select WP0 to WP9 on the RNAV equipment
REFERENCES
* For practical information :
- D.P.Davies: 'Handling the big jets'
Third edition, Civil Aviation Aythority, London 1971
- J. Belson: 'A300 in the air'
Flight International, 11 dec 1976
- H. Varley, Ed: 'The fliers handbook'
Panbooks Ltd, London 1978
- G.D.P. Worthington: 'Airline instrument flying'
Pitman & Sons, London 1968
- N.H. Birch and A.E.Branson: 'Flightbriefing for pilots part 3:
radio aids to air navigation'
Fourth edition, Pitman publishing, London 1979
- D.J. Clausing: 'The aviator's guide to modern navigation'
TAB BOOKS Inc, USA 1987
- C. McAllister: 'Aircraft alive: aviation and airtraffic for enthusiasts'
Batsford, London 1980
- M.Horseman: 'Air Europe six seven zero'
Aircraft Illustrated, april + may + july 1981
- J.W.R. Taylor, Ed: 'The lore of flight'
Crescent books, New York 1978
- A.C. Kermode: 'Flight without formulae'
Fourth edition, Pitman publishing, London 1970
* For theoretical background :
- E. Torenbeek: 'Synthesis of subsonic airplane design'
Delft University Press 1976
- T.I. Ligum: 'Aerodynamics and flight dynamics of turbojet aircraft'
NASA Technical Translation ....
- D.M. McRae: 'The aerodynamic development of the wing of the A 300 B'
Areonautical Journal, july 1973
- W. McIntosh and W.K. Impress: 'Prediction and analysis of the low speed
stall characteristics of the Boeing 747'
AGARD Lectures Series No LS-74, march 1975
- J.G. Callaghan: 'Aerodynamic prediction methods for aircraft at low
speed with mechanical high lift devices"
AGARD Lectures Series No LS-67, may 1974
- J. Williams: 'Airfield performance prediction methods for transport
and combat aircraft'
AGARD Lectures Series No LS-56, april 1972
- H. Friedel: 'Flight manouvre and climb performance prediction'
AGARD Lectures Series No LS-56, april 1972
- I.E. Traeger: 'Aircraft gasturbine technoligy'
McGrawhill 1970
- R. von Mises: ' Theory of flight'
Dover publication, New York 1945, 1959
- E.W. Anderson: 'The principles of navigation'
Hollis and Carter, London 1966
- M. Kayton and W.R. Fried, Ed: 'Avionics navigation systems'
Wiley & Sons, New York ....
- Anon.: 'Air navigation today and in the year 2000'
Proceedings of the National Aerospace Symposium, 25-27 april 1978
in Atlantic City
The Institute of Navigation, Washington