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From: [e-mail] (Dr. Chris Ruckman)
Newsgroups: alt.sci.physics.acoustics,comp.dsp,alt.answers,comp.answers,news.answers
Subject: Active Noise Control FAQ v1996-03-14
Followup-To: alt.sci.physics.acoustics
Date: Fri, 15 Mar 96 01:50:30 GMT
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Summary: This FAQ describes active noise control, a novel method for controlling unwanted sound and vibration.
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Keyword: active control, noise, vibration, sound, anti-noise, cancellation, FAQ
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Archive-name: active-noise-control-faq
Posting-Frequency: monthly
Last-modified: 1996/02/22
Version: 1996-03-14

-------------------------------------------------------------
Frequently Asked Questions:  Active noise control
-------------------------------------------------------------

SUMMARY:

The FAQ you are now reading discusses active noise control, a novel
way of using basic physics to control noise and/or vibration.  What
is an FAQ, you say?  Well, the Internet supports thousands of
"newsgroups" -- discussion forums covering every imaginable topic.
An FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions list) is a summary written to
answer specific questions that arise repeatedly in the newsgroups.
This particular FAQ was written for the newsgroups
news:alt.sci.physics.acoustics and news:comp.dsp, which focus on
acoustics and digital signal processing, respectively.  This FAQ has
four purposes:

      *  Provide concise, accurate answers to common questions about
         active noise control.
      *  Dispel popular misconceptions about what active noise
         control can and cannot do.
      *  Refer interested readers to web links, magazine articles,
         technical references, and other sources of information.
      *  Stimulate public interest in acoustics.

CONTENTS
1. Introduction
  1.1. What's new in the Active Control FAQ
  1.2. Finding the most recent FAQ
  1.3. Contributors
  1.4. Administrative trivia
  1.5. Basics:  what is sound?  Frequency?  Wavelength?
2. General discussion of active control
  2.1. What is active control of noise/vibration?
  2.2. Is active control new?
  2.3. Are there different kinds of active control?
  2.4. Is active noise control like noise masking?
  2.5. How can adding sound make a system quieter?
  2.6. When does active control work best?
  2.7. What is adaptive active control?
  2.8. What are some typical applications?
  2.9. Are all 'active headphones' the same?
  2.10. What are the benefits of active control?
  2.11. What was that short story by Arthur C. Clarke?
  2.12. How can I do a simple, inexpensive active control demo?
3. Finding more information
  3.1. What is the active control newsletter?
  3.2. What companies produce active control products?
  3.3. What universities teach active noise control?
  3.4. How can I learn more via Internet?
  3.5. Are there short courses about active control?
  3.6. References from the general literature
  3.7. References from the technical literature


=============================================
Subject:  1. Introduction

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:    1.1. What's new in the Active Control FAQ

The Acoustical Society of America recently awarded its 1994 Science
Writing Award for this FAQ.  The Science Writing Award is intended to
"recognize and stimulate distinguished writing (or producing) that
improves public understanding and appreciation of acoustics."  The
award, one of two given each year, has never before been given for a
work published only on the Internet.

An article based on this FAQ appeared in the most recent issue of
_Echoes_, the quarterly newsletter of the Acoustical Society of
America (Spring 1996).

Date:       Topic added or changed:
1996/02/22  updated short course info (3.5)
1996/01/23  link to Digisonix home page (3.4)
1996/01/11  some info on anti-noise computer headset (2.9)
1995/12/12  links to universities (3.3)
1995/12/04  rearranged sections; added section on amplified earmuffs
            (2.9); new web links (3.4); buzzword generator (2.3);
            archive-name changed back to original
1995/11/27  archive-name changed
1995/11/06  Clarke story (2.11); low-cost ANC (2.12)
1995/10/23  link to acoustics FAQ (3.4); new popular references (3.6)
1995/08/24  Causal Systems home page (3.4)
1995/06/26  Digisonix short course (3.5)
1995/04/11  active control newsletter (3.1)
1995/03/03  cross-posted to *.answers
1995/02/24  expanded intro, revised format, added basics (1.5)
1995/02/23  new references (3.6); info on short courses (3.5)
1995/01/24  cross-posted to comp.dsp
1994/12/22  revised list of applications (2.8)
1994/12/12  added new references
1994/10/04  expanded description of mechanisms; corrected typoÆs
1994/06/14  initial release

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Subject:  1.2. Finding the most recent FAQ

The Active Noise Control FAQ is updated monthly; see the version date
cited above.  You have several options to obtain the latest version:

*  Usenet:  the FAQ is posted monthly to these newsgroups:
  news:alt.sci.physics.acoustics, news:comp.dsp, news:alt.answers,
  news:comp.answers, and  news:news.answers

*  Anonymous ftp:
ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/active-noise-control-faq

*  Email: [e-mail]
   (send usenet/news.answers/active-noise-control-faq)

Like most FAQs, this is a living, evolving document.  Please e-mail
contributions, comments, praise, and criticisms to the FAQ maintainer
([e-mail]) or post to news:alt.sci.physics.acoustics.
In particular, please contribute the following:

*  Companies/universities that teach courses on active control
*  Companies that sell active control products
*  Interesting references from the general literature
*  Comments from readers who do not know much about acoustics

To cite this FAQ as a reference, I suggest a citation like this:

Ruckman, C.E. (1995) "Frequently Asked Questions:  Active Noise
Control," Internet FAQ document.  Available via anonymous ftp from
ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/active-noise-control-faq,
or via Usenet in news:news.answers.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  1.3. Contributors
The following people contributed to the discussions upon which this
FAQ is based:

*  [e-mail] (Ralph T. Muehleisen)
*  [e-mail] (Chris Lawrenson)
*  [e-mail] (Stephen Lajoie)
*  [e-mail] (Susan Mercy)
*  [e-mail] (Rolf Diehl)
*  [e-mail] (Jeffrey Stuart Vipperman)
*  [e-mail] (Marcus Bronzel)
*  [e-mail] (Johan L. Nielsen)
*  [e-mail] (Colin Hansen)
*  [e-mail] (Michel Schonewille)
*  [e-mail]  (Soeren Laugesen)
*  Todd Toles ([e-mail])
*  [e-mail]
*  [e-mail] (John Gilliver)
*  [e-mail] (Lee Leggore)
*  and many others!

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  1.4. Administrative trivia

Copyright (c) 1994,1995,1996 by Christopher E. Ruckman

All rights are reserved.  Christopher E. Ruckman ("Author") hereby
grants permission to use, copy and distribute this document for any
NON-PROFIT purpose, provided that the article is used in its
complete, UNMODIFIED form including both the above Copyright notice
and this permission notice.  Reproducing this article by any means,
including (but not limited to) printing, copying existing prints, or
publishing by electronic or other means, implies full agreement to
the above non-profit-use clause.  Exceptions to the above, such as
including the article in a compendium to be sold for profit, are
permitted only by EXPLICIT PRIOR WRITTEN CONSENT of Christopher E.
Ruckman.

Disclaimer:  This document does not necessarily represent the opinion
of the US Government, nor of anyone other than the Author.  Any
mentions of commercial products, company names, or universities are
solely for information purposes and do not imply any endorsement by
the Author or his employer.  The Author provides this article "as
is."  The Author disclaims any express or implied warranties
including, but not limited to, any implied warranties of commercial
value, accuracy, or fitness for any particular purpose.  If you use
the information in this document in any way, you do so entirely at
your own risk.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  1.5. Basics:  what is sound?  Frequency?  Wavelength?

If you are not familiar with how sound works, the following brief
refresher course may help.  DonÆt be put off by occasional technical
jargon; most of the FAQ includes analogies and examples to illustrate
ideas in plain language.  (The author apologizes to acousticians
everywhere for presuming to summarize their craft in a mere three
paragraphs!)

Sound is a pressure wave traveling in air or water.  A sound wave
resembles the surface wave made when you throw a stone into a calm
pool of water, except that

* the sound wave consists of tiny fluctuations in the air pressure
rather than fluctuations in water height,
* a sound wave can travel in three dimensions rather than two, and
* the wave speed is much faster (340 meters per second in air).

Sound is usually generated by vibration of an object or surface such
as a speaker cone, a violin body, or human vocal cords.  The
vibrating surface "radiates" pressure waves into the adjoining air or
water as sound.  (Sound can also be generated by turbulent airflow,
by bubbles collapsing, or by many other phenomena.)

The frequency (number of wave crests per unit time that pass a fixed
location) measures the tone or pitch of a sound.  For example, a bass
guitar plays lower frequencies than a violin.  The wavelength, or
distance between wave crests, is related to frequency:  lower
frequencies have longer wavelengths.  In air, all frequencies of
sound travel at the same speed.  When bending waves travel through a
flexible structure, however, low frequencies travel faster than high
frequencies.

In this context, noise is simply *unwanted* sound.  There is an old
trick question: "If a tree falls in the forest and nobody is there to
hear it, does it make any noise?"  The answer is "no" because sound
cannot be *noise* unless somebody hears it and finds it offensive.
However, if the question is phrased "Does it make any *sound*," then
you have a deep philosophical question to ponder!


=============================================
Subject:  2. General discussion of active control

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Subject:  2.1. What is active control of noise/vibration?

The question is usually posed like this:  "I heard about a new noise
control technology called Active Something-Or-Other ... can I use it
to make my house quiet when the kid next-door plays 'Black Sabbath'
on his electric guitar?"

The technology in question is "active noise control," a.k.a. "active
noise cancellation," a.k.a. "anti-noise," and it is one of the hot
research topics in acoustics these days.  Here is the bottom line:
yes, active noise control works in the proper circumstances, but no,
you cannot use it to soundproof an entire house.

Active control is sound field modification, particularly sound field
cancellation, by electro-acoustical means.

In its simplest form, a control system drives a speaker to produce a
sound field that is an exact mirror-image the offending sound (the
"disturbance").  The speaker thus "cancels" the disturbance, and the
net result is no sound at all.  In practice, of course, active
control is somewhat more complicated; see below.

The name differentiates "active control" from traditional "passive"
methods for controlling unwanted sound and vibration.  Passive noise
control treatments include "insulation", silencers, vibration mounts,
damping treatments, absorptive treatments such as ceiling tiles, and
conventional mufflers like the ones used on todayÆs automobiles.
Passive techniques work best at middle and high frequencies, and are
important to nearly all products in todayÆs increasingly noise-
sensitive world.  But passive treatments can be bulky and heavy when
used for low frequencies.  The size and mass of passive treatment
usually depend on the acoustic wavelength, making them thicker and
more massive for lower frequencies.  The light weight and small size
of active systems can be a critically important benefit; see later
sections for other benefits.

In control systems parlance, the four major parts of an active
control system are:

*  The plant is the physical system to be controlled; typical
examples are a headphone and the air inside it, or air traveling
through an air-conditioning duct.

*  Sensors are the microphones, accelerometers, or other devices that
sense the disturbance and monitor how well the control system is
performing.

*  Actuators are the devices that physically do the work of altering
the plant response; usually they are electromechanical devices such
as speakers or vibration generators.

*  The controller is a signal processor (usually digital) that tells
the actuators what to do; the controller bases its commands on sensor
signals and, usually, on some knowledge of how the plant responds to
the actuators.

Analog controllers may also be used, although they are somewhat less
flexible and thus more difficult to use.

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Subject:  2.2. Is active control new?

The idea of active noise control was actually conceived in the 1930Æs
(see the Lueg patent mentioned below), and more development was done
in the 1950Æs.  However, it was not until the advent of modern
digital computers that active control became truly practical.  Active
control became a "mainstream" research topic in the 1970Æs and
1980Æs, and in recent years research papers have been published at
the rate of several hundred per year.  There are now several rather
large companies that specialize in active control products, and the
topic is widely studied in universities and government research
laboratories.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  2.3. Are there different kinds of active control?

There are two basic approaches for active noise control:  active
noise cancellation (ANC) and active structural-acoustic control
(ASAC).  In ANC, the actuators are acoustic sources (speakers) which
produce an out-of-phase signal to "cancel" the disturbance.  Most
people think of ANC when they think of active noise control; some
examples are mentioned below.  On the other hand, if the noise is
caused by the vibration of a flexible structure, then ASAC may be
more appropriate than ANC.  In ASAC, the actuators are vibration
sources (shakers, piezoceramic patches, etc.) which can modify how
the structure vibrates, thereby altering the way it radiates noise.
(The distinction between ANC and ASAC is somewhat arbitrary, since
both cases correspond to a controller using actuators to reduce the
plant response.)

Active vibration control is a related technique that resembles active
noise control.  In either case, electromechanical actuators control
the response of an elastic medium.  In active noise control, the
elastic medium is air or water through which sound waves are
traveling.  In active vibration control, the elastic medium is a
flexible structure such a satellite truss or a piece of vibrating
machinery.  The critical difference, however, is that active
vibration control seeks to reduce vibration *without* regard to
acoustics.  Although vibration and noise are closely related,
reducing vibration does not necessarily reduce noise.

Actually, you can generate your own catchy phrases with the following
handy buzzword generator.  Simply choose one word from each column,
string them all together without commas, and paste the result or its
acronym into your document or conversation!

 / Column A    \    / Column B (optional) \    / Column C     \
 | ----------- |    | ------------------- |    | ------------ |
 | active      |    | vibration           |    | cancellation |
<  adaptive     >  <  noise                >  <  control       >
 | semi-active |    | sound               |    | damping      |
 |             |    | structural-acoustic |    | suppression  |
 \             /    \ vibro-acoustic      /    \              /


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Subject:  2.4. Is active noise control like noise masking?

Active noise control is quite different from noise masking.  Acoustic
masking is the practice of intentionally adding low-level background
sounds to either  a) make noise less distracting, or  b) reduce the
chance of overhearing conversations in adjoining rooms.  In active
noise control, the system seeks not to mask offending sound, but to
eliminate it.  Masking increases the overall noise level; active
control decreases it, in some locations if not all.

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Subject:  2.5. How can adding sound make a system quieter?

It may seem counter-intuitive to say that adding more sound to a
system can reduce noise levels, but the method can and does work.
Active noise control occurs by one, or sometimes both, of two
physical mechanisms: "destructive interference" and "impedance
coupling".  Here is how they work:

On one hand, you can say that the control system creates an inverse
or "anti-noise" field that "cancels" the disturbance sound field.
This works by the principle of destructive interference.  A sound
wave is a moving series of compressions (high pressure) and
rarefactions (low pressure).  If the high-pressure part of one wave
lines up with the low-pressure of another wave, the two waves
interfere destructively and there is no more pressure fluctuation (no
more sound).  Note that the matching must occur in both space *and*
time -- a tricky problem indeed.

On the other hand, you can say that the control system changes the
way the system "looks" to the disturbance, i.e., changes its input
impedance.  Consider the following analogy:

Picture a spring-loaded door, one that opens a few centimeters when
you push on it but swings shut when you stop pushing.  A person on
the other side is repeatedly pushing on the door so that it
repeatedly opens and closes at a low frequency, say, twice per
second.  Now suppose that whenever the other person pushes on the
door, you push back just as hard.  Your muscles are heating up from
the exertion of pushing on the door, but end result is that the door
moves less.  You *could* say that the door opens and that you "anti-
open" it to "cancel" the opening.  But that wouldn't be very
realistic; at least, you would not actually see the door opening and
anti-opening.  You would be more accurate to say that you change the
"input impedance" seen on the other side of the door:  when the other
person pushes, the door just doesn't open.

(The spring-loaded door is supposed to represent the spring effect of
compressing air in a sound wave.  This is not a perfect analogy, but
it helps illustrate impedance coupling.)

In some cases, destructive interference and impedance coupling can be
two sides of the same coin; in other cases destructive interference
occurs without impedance coupling.  The difference is related to
whether the acoustic waves decay with distance traveled:

Sound from a speaker hanging in the middle of a stadium decays (is
less loud) at a distance because of "spherical spreading."  The sound
energy is spread out over an increasingly large area as you get
farther away.  Go far enough away and, for all intents and purposes,
the sound decays completely down to nothing.  On the other hand,
sound in a "waveguide" such as a duct can travel long distances
without significant decay.

If a control system actuator is close to the disturbance source,
destructive interference and impedance coupling can both occur.  But
what about when the actuator is far away from the disturbance, so far
away that any wave it creates decays completely down to nothing
before reaching the disturbance?  There can still be destructive
interference near the actuator, even though the actuator cannot
possibly affect the impedance seen by the disturbance.  Example:  the
tiny speaker in an active control headphone will not affect the
impedance seen by a cannon firing a mile away, but it can create
destructive interference within the headphone.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  2.6. When does active control work best?

Active noise control works best for sound fields that are spatially
simple.  The classic example is low-frequency sound waves traveling
through a duct, an essentially one-dimensional problem.  The spatial
character of a sound field depends on wavelength, and therefore on
frequency.  Active control works best when the wavelength is long
compared to the dimensions of its surroundings, i.e., low
frequencies.  Fortunately, as mentioned above, passive methods tend
to work best at high frequencies.  Most active noise control systems
combine passive and active techniques to cover a range of
frequencies.  For example, many active mufflers include a low-back-
pressure "glass-pack" muffler for mid and high frequencies, with
active control used only for the lowest frequencies.

Controlling a spatially complicated sound field is beyond today's
technology.  The sound field surrounding your house when the
neighbor's kid plays his electric guitar is hopelessly complex
because of the high frequencies involved and the complicated geometry
of the house and its surroundings.  On the other hand, it is somewhat
easier to control noise in an enclosed space such as a vehicle cabin
at low frequencies where the wavelength is similar to (or longer
than) one or more of the cabin dimensions.  Easier still is
controlling low-frequency noise in a duct, where *two* dimensions of
the enclosed space are small with respect to wavelength.  The extreme
case would be low-frequency noise in a small box, where the enclosed
space appears small in all directions compared to the acoustic
wavelength.

Often, reducing noise in specific localized regions has the unwanted
side effect of amplifying noise elsewhere.  The system reduces noise
locally rather than globally.  Generally, one obtains global
reductions only for simple sound fields where the primary mechanism
is impedance coupling.  As the sound field becomes more complicated,
more actuators are needed to obtain global reductions.  As frequency
increases, sound fields quickly become so complicated that tens or
hundreds of actuators would be required for global control.
Directional cancellation, however, is possible even at fairly high
frequencies if the actuators and control system can accurately match
the phase of the disturbance.

Aside from the spatial complexity of the disturbance field, the most
important factor is whether or not the disturbance can be measured
*before* it reaches the area where you want to reduce noise.  If you
can measure the disturbance early enough, for example with an
"upstream" detection sensor in a duct, you can use the measurement to
compute the actuator signal (feedforward control).  If there is no
way to measure an upstream disturbance signal, the actuator signal
must be computed solely from error sensor measurements (feedback
control).  Under many circumstances feedback control is inherently
less stable than feedforward control, and tends to be less effective
at high frequencies.  For a concise comparison of feedforward vs.
feedback control, see Hansen, IS&VD 1(3).

Bandwidth is also important.  Broadband noise, that is, noise that
contains a wide range of frequencies, is significantly harder to
control than narrowband (tonal or periodic) noise or a tone plus
harmonics (integer multiples of the original frequency).  For
example, the broadband noise of wind flowing over an aircraft
fuselage is much more difficult to control than the tonal noise
caused by the propellers moving past the fuselage at constant
rotational speed.

Finally, lightly damped systems are easier to control than heavily
damped ones.  (Damping refers to how quickly the sound or vibration
dies out; it should not be confused with "dampening", which describes
whether the system is wet!)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  2.7. What is adaptive active control?

Adaptive control is a special type of active control.  Usually the
controller employs some sort of mathematical model of the plant
dynamics, and possibly of the actuators and sensors.  Unfortunately,
the plant can change over time because of changes in temperature or
other operating conditions.  If the plant changes too much,
controller performance suffers because the plant behaves differently
from what the controller expects.  An adaptive controller is one that
monitors the plant and continually or periodically updates its
internal model of the plant dynamics.

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Subject:  2.8. What are some typical applications?

The most successful demonstrations of active control have been for
controlling noise in enclosed spaces such as ducts, vehicle cabins,
exhaust pipes, and headphones.  Note, however, that most
demonstrations have not yet made the transition into successful
commercial products.

One exception, active noise control headphones, has achieved
widespread commercial success.  Active headphones use destructive
interference to cancel low-frequency noise while still allowing the
wearer to hear mid- and high-frequency sounds such as conversation
and warning sirens.  The system comprises a pair of earmuffs
containing speakers and one or more small circuit boards.  Some
include a built-in battery pack, and many allow exterior signal
inputs such as music or voice communications.  Used extensively by
pilots, active headphones are considered indispensable in helicopters
and noisy propeller-driven aircraft.  Prices have dropped in recent
years, and now start around US$650 for active pilots headsets.  (See
Section 2.11 for information about an active control conversion kit
available for US$100.)

Another application that has seen some commercial success is active
mufflers for industrial engine exhaust stacks.  Active control
mufflers have seen years of service on commercial compressors,
generators, and so forth.  As unit prices for active automobile
mufflers have fallen in recent years, several automobile
manufacturers are now considering active mufflers for future
production cars.  However, if you ask your local new car dealer about
the active muffler option on their latest model, you will likely
receive a blank stare:  no production automobiles feature active
mufflers as of this writing.

Large industrial fans have also benefited from active control.
Speakers placed around the fan intake or outlet not only reduce low-
frequency noise downstream and/or upstream, but they also improve
efficiency to such an extent that they pay for themselves within a
year or two.

The idea of canceling low-frequency noise inside vehicle cabins has
received much attention.  Most major aircraft manufacturers are
developing such systems, especially for noisy propeller-driven
aircraft.  Speakers in the wall panels can reduce noise generated as
the propeller tips pass by the aircraft fuselage.  For instance, a
system by Noise Cancellation Technologies (NCT) now comes as standard
equipment on the new Saab 2000 and 340B+ aircraft.  The key advantage
is a dramatic weight savings compared to passive treatments alone.

Automobile manufacturers are considering active control for reducing
low-frequency noise inside car interiors.  The car stereo speakers
superpose cancellation signals over the normal music signal to cancel
muffler noise and other sounds.  For example, Lotus produces such a
system for sale to other automobile manufacturers.  Unit cost is a
major consideration for automobile use.  While such systems are not
at all common, at least one vehicle (currently offered only in Japan)
includes such a system as a factory option.

The following list of applications for active control of noise and
vibration was compiled by Colin Hansen and is used by permission; see
IS&VD 1(2).   The list includes topics which are currently being
investigated by research groups throughout the world.

---------- begin quote from C. Hansen, IS&VD 1(2) ----------
1.  Control of aircraft interior noise by use of lightweight
vibration sources on the fuselage and acoustic sources inside
the fuselage.
2.  Reduction of helicopter cabin noise by active vibration isolation
of the rotor and gearbox from the cabin.
3.  Reduction of noise radiated by ships and submarines by active
vibration isolation of interior mounted machinery (using active
elements in parallel with passive elements) and active reduction
of vibratory power transmission along the hull, using vibration
actuators on the hull.
4.  Reduction of internal combustion engine exhaust noise by use of
acoustic control sources at the exhaust outlet or by use of high
intensity acoustic sources mounted on the exhaust pipe and
radiating into the pipe at some distance from the exhaust
outlet.
5.  Reduction of low frequency noise radiated by industrial noise
sources such as vacuum pumps, forced air blowers, cooling towers
and gas turbine exhausts, by use of acoustic control sources.
6.  Lightweight machinery enclosures with active control for low
frequency noise reduction.
7.  Control of tonal noise radiated by turbo-machinery (including
aircraft engines).
8.  Reduction of low frequency noise propagating in air conditioning
systems by use of acoustic sources radiating into the duct
airway.
9.  Reduction of electrical transformer noise either by using a
secondary, perforated lightweight skin surrounding the
transformer and driven by vibration sources or by attaching
vibration sources directly to the transformer tank.  Use of
acoustic control sources for this purpose is also being
investigated, but a large number of sources are required to
obtain global control.
10.  Reduction of noise inside automobiles using acoustic sources
inside the cabin and lightweight vibration actuators on the body
panels.
11.  Active headsets and earmuffs.
---------- end quote from C. Hansen, IS&VD 1(2) ----------

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  2.9. Are all 'active headphones' the same?

No.  Two types are often called "active," but only one actually uses
noise cancellation.  For the sake of discussion, let's call the two
types "active headphones" and "amplified earmuffs".

Active headphones rely primarily on noise cancellation for low-
frequency quieting.  In some, the earmuffs themselves provide
relatively little passive noise reduction.  In others, the earmuffs
provide as much passive reduction as possible, using noise
cancellation to get even better performance at low frequencies.  In
any case, the unit includes a microphone *inside* each earcup to
monitor the "error" -- the part of the signal that has not been
cancelled by the speakers.  A pilot's headset also includes a
microphone boom to transmit the pilots voice, and an input jack to
transmit communication signals into the earcups.  The noise
cancellation works best on tones or periodic noise like that from an
aircraft propeller.

Amplified earmuffs are quite different, as they do not use noise
cancellation at all.  A heavy passive earmuff attenuates as much
noise as possible.  Microphones on the *outside* of the unit pick up
sounds that would ordinarily be heard by the ears.  These microphone
signals are then filtered before being played by speakers inside the
earcups.  The most common filtering is to mute loud, impulsive sounds
such as gunshots; amplified earmuffs are therefore becoming quite
popular at weapons firing ranges.  (Example:  the popular Peltor
Tactical 7-S retails for around US$130.)

Amplified earmuffs have also been suggested for use by sufferers of
tinnitus ("ringing of the ears"), a condition that can be aggravated
by loud noises.  But amplified earmuffs should not be confused with
true active noise control headphones.

A new product has recently come to market:  the Andrea Anti-Noise
Computer Headset.  This product includes an earpiece with a boom-
mounted microphone, and is used to filter out background noise from
voice signals recorded by the microphone.  Details on this product
will be included in a forthcoming posting; in the mean time,
interested readers should contact Andrea directly and mention this
FAQ.  (Andrea Electronics Corporation, 11-40 45th Road, Long Island
City, NY 11101, USA, phone [phone]).


- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  2.10. What are the benefits of active control?

The many practical benefits of active control technology are not all
obvious at first glance.  The main payoff, of course, is low-
frequency quieting that would be too expensive, inconvenient,
impractical, or heavy by passive methods alone.  For example, the
lead-impregnated sheets used to reduce aircraft cabin propeller noise
impose a severe weight penalty, but active control might perform as
well with a much smaller weight penalty.

Other possible benefits reflect the wide range of problems on which
active control can be applied.  For instance, with conventional car
mufflers the engine spends extra energy to push exhaust gasses
through the restrictive muffler passages.  On the other hand, an
active control muffler can perform as well with less severe flow
restrictions, thus improving performance and/or efficiency.
Additional benefits include:

*  increased material durability and fatigue life
*  lower operating costs due to reduced facility down-time for
installation and maintenance
*  reduced operator fatigue and improved ergonomics

Of these, the potential for reduced maintenance and increased
material fatigue life have received new emphasis in the last few
years.  In the long-term, however, benefits may extend far beyond
those mentioned above.  The compact size and modularity of active
systems can provide additional flexibility in product design, even to
the point of a complete product redesign.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  2.11. What was that short story by Arthur C. Clarke?

Arthur C. Clarke's short story entitled "Silence Please" appeared in
his 1954 collection "Tales from the White Hart" (reprinted in 1970 by
Harcourt, Brace & World Inc., New  York).  In it, Harry Purvis
recounts the tale of the ill-fated "Fenton Silencer," an anti-noise
device that goes disastrously awry.

In the tradition of Clarke's other works, the story itself is
entertaining and well-told.  Strictly speaking, however, the basic
premise requires some poetic license regarding the physics of sound
cancellation.  Well-informed readers must rely on their "willing
suspension of disbelief" to overlook the inconsistencies.  [Easy for
me to say, with the benefit of over fourty years' hindsight!  CR]

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  2.12. How can I do a simple, inexpensive active control
demo?

Because active control employs some interesting physics, readers
often ask how to construct a simple, low-cost demonstration as a
student project or for instructional purposes.  Here are three
possibilities:

First, the hard way:  it is possible to construct an analog feedback
controller using op-amps, capacitors, speakers, and other parts
available from any electronics supplier.  While simple in concept,
constructing such a demonstration requires a pretty solid foundation
in acoustics, electronics, and control theory, and is well beyond the
scope of this FAQ.  [Please DO NOT ask the author for instructions.
CR]

A second approach is much more powerful and flexible, but only if you
have a budget on the order of US$2000 or so:  the EZ-ANC from Causal
Systems.  This comprehensive kit includes hardware, software, and a
complete theoretical/user's manual.  (See Section 3.2 for contact
information, or check out their web page:
http://www.io.org/~causal/cs/csdir01.htm)

A third alternative is much less expensive, but not as flexible:  the
"ANR Adapter" from Headsets, Inc.  The ANR Adapter is an add-on kit
that transforms an ordinary passive pilot's headset into an active
noise control headset.  The kit costs only US$100; you supply the
headset.  The makers claim roughly 22 dB attenuation from 20 Hz to
700 Hz.  If you simply want a demonstration in which you flip a power
switch to hear active noise control at work, this kit may be for you.
(See Section 3.2 for contact information.  For a review of the
product, see the following magazine article:  Picou, Gary, "Low-Rent
ANC," The Aviation Consumer, vol.25, No.7, MAY 01 1995, p.10-12.)


=============================================
Subject:  3. Finding more information

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  3.1. What is the active control newsletter?

An informative newsletter about active control is published monthly.
"Active Sound & Vibration Control News" describes itself as "An
independent publication focusing on Research and Development in the
field of Active Sound and Vibration Control (AS/VC) among Industry,
Universities, and Government."  The current price is US$419/year.
Interested readers may contact the publisher for a free sample.

Published by:
Tech Pubs Inc., 8858 Blue Sea Drive, Columbia, Maryland 21046 USA
voice 410.381.9359, fax [phone]

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  3.2. What companies produce active control products?

Some readers may wish to contact vendors for product literature.  The
following companies, LISTED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER, produce active
noise control products.  No endorsement of any kind is implied by
inclusion in this list, nor is this meant to be a complete list.

There are many other companies that produce system components or are
involved in active control research and development -- *far* too many
to list here.  The companies listed below are *only* companies that
produce commercially available products intended specifically for
active noise control.  Please suggest others as appropriate!

*  Active Vibration Control Instrumentation, PCB Piezotronics, Inc.,
3425 Walden Ave. Depew, NY 14043-2495, phone [phone]
*  BBN Acoustic Technologies, 10 Moulton Street, Cambridge, MA 02138-
1119, phone [phone], fax [phone], e-mail [e-mail]
(Robert W. Oliphant)
*  Causal Systems Pty Ltd., P.O. Box 100, Rundle Mall, South
Australia 5000, Australia, phone [phone], fax [phone], e-
mail [e-mail] (Colin Hansen), Web
http://www.io.org/~causal/cs/csdir01.htm
*  Digisonix, Inc., 8401 Murphy Drive, Middleton, WI 53562-2243 USA,
phone [phone], fax [phone]
*  dSPACE Inc., 26677 W. Twelve Mile Road, Southfield, Michigan
48034, 810.354.1694
*  Headsets, Inc., 2330-B Lakeview, Amarillo, Texas 79109, USA, phone
806.358.6336, fax [phone], Paige Brittain, President.
*  Noise Cancellation Technologies, Inc., Headquarters:  Stamford,
Connecticut, 203.961.0500 (Joanna Lipper).  Engineering facilities:
Linthicum, Maryland, USA, 410.636.8700
*  Sennheiser electronic KG, D-30900 Wedemark, Germany
*  Also:  Bose, David Clark, Peltor, Sony, others

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  3.3. What universities teach active noise control?

Some readers may wish to contact universities regarding curricula
that include active noise control.  Many universities teach active
noise control (primarily at the graduate level).  The following
schools, LISTED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER, have reasonably extensive
graduate research programs in active noise control. No endorsement of
any kind is implied by inclusion in this list, nor is this meant to
be a complete list.  [Editor's note:  Please help me add to this
list, especially universities outside the USA. CR]

*  Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
     http://www.tudelft.nl/home.html
*  Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
     http://www.duke.edu/
*  Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
     http://www.gatech.edu/
*  Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Norway
     http://www.unit.no/
*  Massachusettes Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
     http://web.mit.edu/
*  Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, USA
     http://www.niu.edu/
*  Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA
     http://www.odu.edu/
*  Pennsylvania State University:  The Graduate Program in Acoustics,
     Penn State University, PO Box 30, State College, PA 16804, Phone
     [phone], Fax [phone]
     http://www.acs.psu.edu
*  Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
     http://www.purdue.edu/
*  RWTH Aachen, Germany
     http://www.itm.rwth-aachen.de/
*  Southampton University, Southampton, England
     http://www.soton.ac.uk/
*  Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
     http://www.dtu.dk/dtu/dtu.html
*  Technical University of Berlin, Germany
     http://www.tk.tu-berlin.de/
*  Technical University of Erlangen, Germany
*  Technical University of Munich, Germany
*  Technical University of Stuttgart, Germany
*  University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
*  University of Goettingen, Germany
*  University of Hamburg, Germany
*  University of Karlskrona/Ronneby, Ronneby, Sweden
     http//hk-r.se/isb/research.html
*  University of Salford, England
*  Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
     http://www.usherb.ca/index.html
*  Universite de Technologie de Compiegne, Compiegne, France
     http://www.univ-compiegne.fr/
*  University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
     http://www.utah.edu/HTML_Docs/Campus_Info.html
*  Villanova University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
     http://www.vill.edu/
*  Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg,
     Virginia, USA
     http://www.vt.edu/


- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  3.4. How can I learn more via Internet?

Besides the FAQ you are now reading, there are several Internet
resources dedicated solely to active control.  Two of the best are
the home pages for Digisonix and Causal Systems Limited, both of
which contain plenty of technical detail for those who want more than
this FAQ provides.  These two excellent resources may be found at:

  http://www.io.org/~causal/cs/csdir01.htm
  http://www.mailbag.com/users/dgsnx_mr

New since last time:
  http://www.mailbag.com/users/dgsnx_mr

Other URLs that at least mention active control:
  http://www.elen.utah.edu:80/~douglas/EE620_Winter96.txt
  http://www.signal.se/
  http://www.magi.com/~blairc/ancp.html
  http://cac.psu.edu/~lnl/aiaa96/aiaa96.html
  http://helmholtz.ecn.purdue.edu/OtherPages/Bernhard.html
  http://www.arl.psu.edu/general/expert1.html/
  http://kirkof.psu.edu/cav/
  http://www.fie.com/web/fed/nas/prog/naspgbmx.htm
  http://www.sm.luth.se/~gunnarh/
  http://mecmac3.tm.chiba-u.ac.jp/documentation/movic/MOVIC96E.html
  http://baloo.dc.luth.se/depts/mt/ene/articles/rigg/A_cab.html
  http://www.larc.nasa.gov/tops/Exhibits/Ex_V-611/Ex_V-611.html
  http://leoleo.mme.tcd.ie/Groups/SAV/asanca.html
  http://www.mme.tcd.ie/~m.carley/Acoustics/acoustics.faq
  http://www.acs.psu.edu/Acoustics.html
  http://www.mech.kuleuven.ac.be/pma/annual93/2_11b.html
  http://sun-valley.stanford.edu/users/howjo/mace.html
  http://web.mit.edu/org/a/avlab/www/vl.home.html
  http://www.yahoo.com/Science/Acoustics
  http://www-gaus.gme.usherb.ca/axeact_a.html

Here are some other resources that deal with general acoustics and
vibration topics:

*  The Acoustics FAQ is now available, thanks to Andrew Silverman:
   http://www.mme.tcd.ie/~m.carley/Acoustics or, in the US,
   ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/alt.sci.physics.acoustics/Acoustics_FAQ
*  If you have access to USENET newsgroups, check out the following:
   news:alt.sci.physics.acoustics (general acoustics)
   news:comp.dsp (digital signal processing)
*  Check out the new home page of the Acoustical Society of America:
   http://asa.aip.org
*  Penn State University has an excellent acoustics home page:
   http://www.acs.psu.edu
*  If you have access to e-mail, you can subscribe to the
   International Sound & Vibration Digest by sending e-mail to
   [e-mail].


- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  3.5. Are there short courses about active control?

Some readers may wish to contact universities or vendors that teach
short courses on active noise control.  There are many.  Some are
listed below.  [Please help me expand this list.  CR]

Title:  "Implementing active control:  Designing & integrating active
sound & vibration control systems"
Instructors:  R.J. Bernhard, L.J. Eriksson, L.R. Miller, and H.K.
Pelton
Contact:  Digisonix, Inc., 8401 Murphy Drive, Middleton WI 53562-2543
USA, Fax [phone], Phone [phone] ([e-mail])
Next offered:  7-8 May 1996, Detroit, MI (register by 19 April 1996)

Title:  "Active control of sound & vibration"
Instructors:  A.H. von Flotow, C. Fuller, and S. Elliott
Contact:  Flotow & Associates, 1750 Country Club Road, Hood River OR
97031-9641 USA, Phone [phone]
Next offered:  27-29 March, 1996, Alexandria, VA (register by 10
March 1996)

Title:  ??
Instructors:  ??
Contact:  The Graduate Program in Acoustics, Penn State University,
PO Box 30, State College, PA 16804, Phone [phone], Fax (814)
865-3119 (http://www.acs.psu.edu)
Next offered:

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  3.6. References from the general literature

Listed below are a handful of articles from popular sources, i.e.,
non-technical magazines that you might find in a public library.  If
you know any other good articles, please e-mail references to
[e-mail] or post them on
news:alt.sci.physics.acoustics.

Note:  %A=author, %B=book title, %C=city, %D=date, %I=publisher,
%J=journal, %K=keywords, %N=number, %P=pages, %T=article title,
%V=volume, %X=comments

%A Picou, Gary
%T Low-Rent ANC: For a hundred bucks and a couple of evening's work,
build your own noise-canceling headset.
%J The aviation consumer.
%D MAY 01 1995 v 25 n 7
%P 10-12
%X Describes the ANR Adapter, an add-on kit that you can use to add
active noise control to almost any pilot's headset ($100, you supply
the headset).

%A Higginson, Steven
%T First-Class Communications
%X To decide which headset/intercom system would best serve your
needs, settle down with our 1995 buyer's guide.
%J Plane & pilot
%D FEB 01 1995 v 31 n 2
%P 47

%A Wilhelmsen, George R.
%T Noise Jammer: The Telex ANR 4000 headset uses proven electronic
noise-neutralizing technology to protect your ears
%J Plane & pilot
%D APR 01 1994 v 30 n 4
%P 56

%A Lert, Peter
%T "It's Still Too Quiet Out There"
%X Improvements for the Bose headset
%J Air progress
%D JAN 01 1994 v 56 n 1
%P 12

%A Antonoff, Michael
%A Rick De Meis
%T Noise Reduction: Quiet in the Sky
%J Popular Science
%D Dec 1994
%X Cabin-wide noise suppression system

%A Foster, Edward J.
%T Switched On Silence
%J Popular Science
%D 7/94
%V 245
%N l
%P 33
%X Active noise control headphones

%T Saab 340Bs get active antinoise system
%J Aviation week and space technology
%D MAY 09 1994
%V 140
%N 19
%P 55
%X Standard feature gives Swedish firm a jump on competitors

%A Jerram, Mike
%T Lotus aims to silence airplanes. (Lotus Engineering develops
antinoise control system)
%J Flying
%P 42
%D March  1993  %V 120
%N 3
%X Lotus Engineering has spent 10 years to develop an active noise
control for its cars and is now applying the same principles to
aircraft. The effectiveness of the Antinoise system the company has
developed is evaluated.

%A Mecham, Michael
%T Active noise control cuts aircraft emissions.
%X The German Research Establishment's (DLR) Acoustics Division has
developed a simple procedure to reduce general aviation aircraft
noise. The active noise control (ANC) procedure, which involves
modification of the propeller and exhaust systems, also reduces
pollution.
%J Aviation Week & Space Technology
%P 63
%D Nov 2  1992
%V 137 %N 18

%A Adcock, Ian
%T Lotus adaptive engine mounts. (Lotus Engineering technology to
combat car noise)
%J Motor Trend
%P 72
%D May  1992
%V 44
%N 5
%X Lotus Engineering is developing two technologies to combat
automobile noise and vibration. Adaptive Noise Control systems cancel
noise by generating sound waves of opposite frequencies. Active
Engine Mounts consist of hydraulic engine mounts that counter
vibration.

%A Mayersohn, Norman S.
%T Hear no evil
%J Popular science
%D APR 01 1992
%V 240
%N 4
%P 84
%X The roar of a garbage truck; the whine of a lawn mower.  These
annoying sounds and others may soon be nullified by active noise
cancellation systems.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Subject:  3.7. References from the technical literature

The articles listed below are textbooks and technical journal
articles not usually carried by public libraries.  There is a huge
and rapidly expanding body of technical literature on active control,
with hundreds of papers published annually.  The handful shown here
describe active control in general terms and/or provide lists of
references.  If you know any other good articles, please e-mail
references to [e-mail] or post them to
alt.sci.physics.acoustics.

One of the best technical references to date is the book by Nelson
and Elliott, listed first.  Two of the most recent are the articles
by Hansen, listed second and third, that were published recently in
the electronic journal "International Sound and Vibration Digest."

Note:  %A=author, %B=book title, %C=city, %D=date, %I=publisher,
%J=journal, %K=keywords, %N=number, %P=pages, %T=article title,
%V=volume, %X=comments

%A Nelson, P.A.
%A Elliott, S.J.
%B Active control of sound
%I Academic Press
%C London
%D 1992
%X well-done textbook and reference, good bibliography.

%A Hansen, C.H.
%T Current research in active control of noise
%J International Sound & Vibration Digest
%V 1
%N 2
%D Nov 12 1994
%K active control, review
%X published in electronic journal, good summary of new research

%A Hansen, C.H.
%T Overview of active noise control systems
%J International Sound & Vibration Digest
%V 1
%N 3
%D Jan 26 1995
%X compares feedforward vs. feedback control

%A Elliott, S.J.
%A Nelson, P.A.
%T Active Noise Control
%J IEEE Signal Processing Magazine
%V 10
%N 4
%D October 1993
%P 12

%A Widrow, B.
%A Stearns, S.D.
%B Adaptive Signal Processing
%I Prentice Hall
%C Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
%D 1985
%X classic reference on the LMS control algorithm

%A Stevens, J.C.
%A Ahuja, K.K.
%T Recent advances in active noise control
%J AIAA journal
%V 29
%N 7
%D July 1991
%X good bibliography

%A Elliott, S.J.
%A Nelson, P.A.
%D August, 1990
%T The active control of sound
%J Electronics & Communication Engineering Journal
%P 127-136
%X general review of active control

%A Lueg, P.
%D 1936
%T Process of silencing sound oscillation
%J U.S. Patent No. 2 043 416
%X generally considered the first published work on the subject,
although Lueg's German patent application predates it by a few weeks

%A H.F. Olson
%D 1953
%T Electronic sound absorber
%J Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
%V 25
%P 1130-1136
%X another early reference

Copyright (c) 1994,1995,1996 by Christopher E. Ruckman
---------- end of the Active Noise Control FAQ ------------


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