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Compiling a program
Compilation switches
Compile-time error messages
The LINK-80 linking loader
LINK-80 error messages
Storing your program on disk
Running your compiled program
Runtime error messages
Using M80
:COMPILING A PROGRAM
Is your BASIC program now saved in ASCII format on your diskette? (To save
your program in ASCII format when using the interpreter, add an "A" switch
to the "SAVE" command, as shown in SAMPLE SESSION, Step 3:
SAVE "<filename>[.<ext>]",A
Return to CP/M command level and enter:
BASCOM
BASIC will return the prompt: "*", informing you that the BASIC
Compiler is loaded and ready to accept a command.
Now enter the command of the form:
objfile,lstfile=source file
where objfile is the relocatable object file, lstfile is the listing file,
and source file is the BASIC source program file.
A command to BASIC conveys the name of the source file to be compiled, and
the names of the file(s) to be created. With CP/M filenames are up to eight
characters long with a three-character extension. The default filename
extensions supplied to CP/M are:
REL Relocatable object file
LST Listing file
BAS BASIC source file
MAC MACRO-80 source file
FOR FORTRAN-80 source file
COB COBOL-80 source file
COM Executable command file
If you have a multi-drive system, you can tell the compiler where to obtain
or put the files you are working with by adding a drive number to each
filename. For example:
A:MYPROG.REL=B:TEST
finds the program TEST.BAS on the diskette that is in drive B, compiles it,
and puts the object in MYPROG.REL (on the diskette that is in drive A).
If a drive is NOT specified, the object and listing files are placed on the
diskette that is in the default drive.
Either the object file or the listing file or both may be omitted. An
object file is created only if the lstfile field is filled. Therefore, if
you wish to omit either, simply leave its filename out of the command.
Examples:
TESTOBJ=TEST.BAS Compile the program TEST.BAS
and put object in TESTOBJ.REL
without producing listing file.
TEST,TEST=TEST Compile TEST.BAS, put object in
TEST.REL and listing in
TEST.LST.
,=TEST.BAS Compile TEST.BAS but produce no
object or listing file. Useful
for checking for errors.
RABBIT=TEST Compile the program TEST.BAS
and put object in RABBIT.REL
without producing listing file.
:BASIC COMPILATION SWITCHES
You can specify special parameters to be used during compilation by adding
a switch to the end of the command string. Switches are always preceded by
a slash, and more than one switch may be used in the same command. An
example of the format would be:
TEST,TEST=TEST/D/X
The default switch settings used if you don't specify any switches are:
/Z/4/T
The available switches and their actions are as follows:
SWITCH ACTION
/E The /E switch tells the compiler that the program contains the ON
ERROR GOTO statement. If a RESUME statement other than RESUME
<line number> is used with the ON ERROR GOTO statement, use /X
instead (see below). To handle ON ERROR GOTO properly, in a
compiled environment, BASIC must generate some extra code for the
GOSUB and RETURN statements. Therefore, do not use this switch
unless your program contains the ON ERROR GOTO statement. The /E
switch also causes line numbers to be included in the binary
file, so runtime error messages will include the number of the
line in error.
SWITCH ACTION
/X The /X switch tells the BASIC Compiler that the program contains
one or more RESUME, RESUME NEXT, or RESUME 0 statements. The /E
switch is assumed when the /X switch is specified. To handle
RESUME statements properly in a compiled environment, the
compiler must relinquish certain optimizations. Therefore, do not
use this switch unless your program contains RESUME statements
other than RESUME <line number>. The /X switch also causes line
numbers to be included in the binary file, so runtime error
messages will include the number of the line in error.
/N The /N switch prevents listing of the generated code in symbolic
notation. If this switch is not set, the source listing produced
by the compiler will contain the object code generated by each
statement.
SWITCH ACTION
/D The /D switch causes debug/checking code to be generated at
runtime. This switch must be set if you want to use TRON/TROFF.
The BASIC Compiler generates somewhat larger and slower code in
order to perform the following checks:
1. Arithmetic overflow. All arithmetic operations, integer and
floating point, are checked for overflow and underflow.
2. Array bounds. All array references are checked to see if the
subscripts are within the bounds specified in the DIM state-
ment.
3. Line numbers are included in the generated binary so that
runtime errors can indicate the statement which contains the
error.
4. RETURN is checked for a prior GOSUB.
/Z The /Z switch tells the compiler to use Z80 opcodes.
SWITCH ACTION
/S The /S switch forces the compiler to write long quoted strings
(i.e. more than 4 characters) to the binary file as they are
encountered. This allows large programs with many quoted strings
to compile in less memory. However, there are two disadvantages:
1. Memory space is wasted if identical, long quoted strings
appear in the program.
2. Code generated while the -S switch is set cannot be placed
in ROM.
SWITCH ACTION
/4 The /4 switch allows the compiler to use the lexical conventions
of Microsoft 4.51 Disk BASIC interpreter. That is, spaces are
insignificant, variables with imbedded reserved words are
illegal, variable names are restricted to two significant
characters, etc. this feature is useful if you wish to compile a
source program that was coded without spaces, and contains lines
such as
FORI=ATOBSTEPC
Without the /4 switch, the compiler would assign the variable
"ATOBSTEPC" to the variable FORI. With the /4 switch, it would
recognize it as a FOR statement.
SWITCH ACTION
/C The /C switch tells the compiler to relax line numbering con-
straints. Whene /C is specified, line numbers may be in any
order, or they may be eliminated entirely. Lines are compiled
normally, but of course cannot be targets for GOTO's, GOSUB's,
etc. While /C is set, the underline character causes the
remainder of the physical line to be ignored, and the next
physical line is considered to be a continuation of the current
logical line. NOTE: /C and /4 may not be used together.
/T Use 4.51 execution conventions
/O (Newer versions only). Tells the compiler to construct a stand-
alone program instead of one requiring presence of the BRUN.COM
runtime module. This generates much bigger programs because all
of the runtime routines must be included.
:BASIC COMPILER ERROR MESSAGES
The following errors may occur while a program is compiling. The BASIC
Compiler outputs the two-character code for the err, along with an arrow.
The arrow indicates where in the line the error occurred. In those cases
where the compiler has read ahead before it discovered an error, the arrow
points a few characters beyond the error, or at the end of the line. The
error codes are as follows:
FATAL ERRORS
CODE ERROR
SN Syntax Error. Caused by one of the following:
Illegal argument name
Illegal assignment target
Illegal constant format
Illegal debug request
Illegal DEFxxx character specification
Illegal expression syntax
Illegal function argument list
Illegal function name
CODE ERROR
SN Syntax Error. Caused by one of the following:
Illegal function formal parameter
Illegal separator
Illegal format for statement number
Illegal subroutine syntax
Invalid character
Missing AS
Missing equal sign
Missing GOTO or GOSUB
Missing comma
Missing INPUT
Missing line number
Missing left parenthesis
Missing minus sign
Missing operand in expression
Missing right parenthesis
Missing semicolon
Name too long
Expected GOTO or GOSUB
CODE ERROR
SN Syntax Error. Caused by one of the following:
String assignment required
String expression required
String variable required here
Illegal syntax
Variable required here
Wrong number of arguments
Formal parameters must be unique
Single variable only allowed
Missing TO
Illegal FOR loop index variable
Missin THEN
Missing BASE
Illegal subroutine name
OM Out of memory
Array too big
Data memory overflow
Too many statement numbers
Program memory overflow
CODE ERROR
SQ Sequence Error
Duplicate statement number
Statement out of sequence
TM Type Mismatch
Data type conflict
Variables must be of same type
BS Bad Subscript
Illegal dimension value
Wrong number of subscripts
LL Line Too Long
UC Unrecognizable Command
Statement unrecognizable
Command not implemented
OV Math Overflow
/0 Division by Zero
DD Array Already Dimensioned
FN FOR/NEXT Error
FOR loop index variable already in use
FOR without NEXT
NEXT without FOR
CODE ERROR
FD Function Already Defined
UF Function Not Defined
WE WHILE/WEND Error
WHILE without WEND
WEND without WHILE
/E Missing "/E" Switch
/X Missing "/X" Switch
WARNING ERRORS
ND Array Not Dimensioned
SI Statement Ignored
Statement ignored
Unimplemented command
If the BASIC Compiler informs you of any of these errors, return to the
source program for debugging and try again.
If no errors were encountered during compilation, and if you so chose, you
now have an object file containing machine readable code on your diskette.
Also on your diskette is a listing file which contains the BASIC program
statements along with the machine language generated by each statement.
The next step in the process is loading and executing the program with
LINK-80.
:LINK-80 LINKING LOADER
As demonstrated in SAMPLE SESSION, compiled BASIC object files are loaded
into memory and executed using the LINK-80 linking loader. The loader has
many uses. You may wish to simply load one compiled program and run it, or
you may load several programs, subprograms, or assembly language
subroutines at the same time. Programs may be loaded at user-specified
locations, and program areas and data areas may be separated in memory. A
memory image of the executable file produced by LINK-80 can be saved on
disk and run at a later time.
RUNNING LINK-80
At CP/M command level, enter:
L80
This loads LINK-80, which will respond with: * . The loader exits back
to CP/M if a CONTROL-C is typed after the asterisk. (The loader also exits
back to CP/M after an /E switch or /G switch is executed. More on these
switches later.)
LINK-80 COMMAND FORMAT
A command to LINK-80 is made up of the filename(s) of the file(s) to be
loaded. For example, to load the compiled program MYPROG.REL, enter:
MYPROG
(It is not necessary to type the default extension .REL.) This loads the
program but does not run it. Whenever LINK-80 loads a BASIC Compiler
program, it automatically searches the BASIC library for the necessary
routines and loads these as well. Therefore, BASLIB.REL must be on the
default drive during the loading process.
To run MYPROG, enter:
/G
This is the "go" or execute switch. LINK-80 prints two numbers and a BEGIN
EXECUTION message. LINK-80 always returns to TRSDOS after a /G switch has
been executed.
As you probably have guessed, it is not necessary to perform these
operations with separate commands. It is possible to type one command line
that runs LINK-80, loads MYPROG.REL and executes it. To do this, enter:
L80 MYPROG/G
MORE COMMANDS AND SWITCHES
LINK-80 provides other capabilities besides loading and executing
programs, such as looking at output without saving the program or
resetting the loader so that you can correct a mistake. Switches are
used to inform LINK-80 that you wish to perform special tasks.
Here is an example that loads and saves a program called TEST.REL.
>L80
*TEST,TEST/N/E
The first part of the command (TEST) loads the program called TEST.REL. The
next part (TEST/N) saves a copy of the loaded program on disk in a file
called TEST.COM. The last part (/E) causes LINK-80 to exit back to CP/M.
THE /N SWITCH
Take note of the /N switch. This switch saves a memory image of the
executable file on disk. The default extension for the saved file is .COM,
and this file is called a "command file". Once saved on disk, you need only
type the filename at CP/M command level to run the program. The /N switch
must immediately follow the filename of each file you wish to save, and it
does not take effect until a /E or /G switch is done.
The following example links several object files, saves the main program
image and executes the program TAXES.REL.
>L80
*SUB1,SUB2,TAXES/N,TAXES/G
Two subroutines (SUB1) and (SUB2) and an object file (TAXES) are linked and
loaded. The program is executed and the command file TAXES.COM is saved on
disk.
THE /R SWITCH
Another handy switch is /R. It returns LINK-80 to it's initial state by
"unloading" whatever you've loaded. Use it to reset the loader if you've
made a typing mistake or loaded the wrong program. The /R switch takes
effect as soon as LINK-80 sees it, so if you enter it at any time while
LINK-80 is running, the loader will reset. For example:
>L80
*INVEN1
*/R (oops-- meant to load INVEN2)
*INVEN2 (now only INVEN2 is loaded)
SPECIAL SWITCHES
For typical BASIC Compiler operation, only the above switches will be
needed. Some users may find that their applications require more
specialized capabilities. For this reason, the following switches are also
provided with LINK-80.
In these examples, all programs have been loaded at the default origins
of CP/M. In special cases, the user may wish to specify the origins of
the programs and data that are loaded. LINK-80 provides special switches to
do this.
/E:Name This is an optional form of the /E switch. Name is a global
symbol previously defined in one of the modules. LINK-80
uses Name for the start address of the program.
/G:Name This is an optional form of the /G switch. Name is a global
symbol previously defined in one of the modules. LINK-80
uses Name for the start address of the program.
/P and /D /P and /D allow the origin(s) to be set for the next program
loaded. /P and /D take effect when seen (not deferred), and
they have no effect on programs already loaded. The form is
/P:<address> or /D:<address>, where <address> is the desired
origin in the current typeout radix. (Default radix is
hexadecimal. /O sets radix to octal; /H to hex.) LINK-80
does a default /P:<link origin> (i.e., 100h).
If no /D is given, data areas are loaded before program
areas for each module. If a /D is given, All Data and Common
areas are loaded starting at the data origin and the program
area at the program origin. Example:
*/P:200,FOO
DATA 200 300
*/R
*/P:200-D:400,FOO
DATA 400 480
PROGRAM 200 280
/U List the origin and end of the program and data area and all
undefined globals as soon as the current command line has
been interpreted. The program information is only printed if
a /D has been done. Otherwise, the program is stored in the
data area.
/M List the origin and end of the program and data area, all
undefined globals and their values, and all undefined
globals followed by an asterisk. The program information is
only printed if a /D has been done. Otherwise, the program
is stored in the data area.
/X If a filename/N was specified, /X will cause the file to be
saved in INTEL ascii HEX format with an extension of .HEX.
/Y If a filename/N was specified, /Y will create a filename.SYM
file when /E is entered. This file contains the names and
addresses of all Globals for use with Digital Research's SID
and ZSID debuggers.
SYSTEM LIBRARY SEARCHES
Whenever a BASIC Compiler program is loaded, LINK-80 automatically searches
the BASIC Compiler library for the routines it needs and loads them. If you
gat an "Undefined" error, it means the compiler couldn't find something it
needed to finish compiling the program. Usually this is the name of a
subroutine that you forgot to load.
If you are using the BASIC Compiler in conjunction with Microsoft's
FORTRAN-80, you may also be referencing some of FORTRAN's library routines.
For this reason, the /S switch is included in LINK-80 to force a search of
particular library modules. For example:
*FORLIB/S,TEST/G
Unless you are using FORLIB (supplied with FORTRAN-80), you should not need
the /S switch.
:LINK-80 ERROR MESSAGES
LINK-80 has the following error messages:
?No Start Address A /G switch was issued, but no main
program had been loaded.
?Loading Error The last file given for input was
not a properly formatted LINK-80
object file.
?Out of Memory Not enough memory to load program.
?Command Error Unrecognizable LINK-80 command.
?<file> Not Found <file>, as given in the command string,
did not exist.
%2nd COMMON larger The first definition of COMMON
block /XXXXXX/ was not the largest
definition. Reorder module loading
sequence or change COMMON block
definitions.
%Mult. Def. Global YYYYYY
More than one definition for the
global (internal) symbol YYYYYY was
encountered during the loading
process.
%Overlaying Program Area ,Start = xxxx
Data ,Public = <symbol name>(xxxx)
,External = <symbol name>(xxxx)
A /D or /P will cause already
loaded data to be destroyed.
?Intersecting Program Area
Data The program and data area intersect
and an address or external chain
entry is in this intersection. The
final value cannot be converted to
a current value since it is in the
area intersection.
?Start Symbol - <name> - Undefined
After a /E: or /G: is given, the
symbol specified was not defined.
Origin Above (Below) Loader Memory, Move Anyway (Y or N)?
After a /E or /G was given, either
the data or program area has an
origin or top which lies outside
loader memory (i.e., loader origin
to top of memory). If a Y CR is
given, LINK-80 will move the area
and continue. If anything else is
given, LINK-80 will exit. In either
case, if a /N was given, the image
will already have been saved.
?Can't save Object File A disk error occurred when the file was being
saved.
:STORING YOUR PROGRAM ON DISKETTE
Once it has been loaded by LINK-80, the object file is in a form that can
be executed by any CP/M computer. You can save this compiled program on
your own diskette so that it can be executed at a later time without using
the BASIC Compiler at all.
The /N switch (discussed in the LINK-80 section) is the switch that causes
your object file to be saved. The default extension for the saved file is
.COM and this file is called a "command file".
:RUNNING YOUR COMPILED PROGRAM
Your compiled program (previously saved on your own diskette) can now be
executed any time you wish. When you are at CP/M command level the diskette
on which you saved your program is inserted into a drive, simply enter:
<filename>
At this point, your program should execute and your output should appear on
the screen. However, you may get a runtime error message. If you do, look
it up in the following list, and debug your program as best you can before
trying to store it on diskette again.
:RUNTIME ERROR MESSAGES
The following errors may occur while a compiled program is executing. The
error numbers match those issued by the BASIC-80 interpreter. The compiler
runtime system prints long error messages followed by an address, unless
/D, /E, or /X is specified. In those cases the error message is followed by
the number of the line in which the error occurred.
NUMBER MESSAGE
2 Syntax error
A line is encountered that contains an incorrect
sequence of characters in a DATA statement.
3 RETURN without GOSUB
A RETURN statement is encountered for which there
is no previous, unmatched GOSUB ststement.
4 Out of Data
A READ statement is executed when there are no
DATA statements with unread data remaining in the
program.
NUMBER MESSAGE
5 Illegal function call
A parameter that is out of range is passed to a
math or string function. An FC error may also
occur as the result of:
1. a negative or unreasonably large subscript
2. a negative or zero argument with LOG
3. a negative argument to SQR
4. a negative mantissa with a non-integer
exponent
5. a call to a USR function for which the
starting address has not yet been given
6. an improper argument to ASC, CHR$, MID$,
LEFT$, RIGHT$, INP, OUT, WAIT, PEEK, POKE,
TAB, SPC, STRING$, SPACE$, INSTR, or
ON...GOTO
7. a string concatenation that is longer than
255 characters
NUMBER MESSAGE
6 Floating overflow or integer overflow
The result of a calculation is too large to be
represented in BASIC-80's number format. If
underflow occurs, the result is zero and execution
continues without an error.
9 Subscript out of range
An array element is referenced with a subscript
that is outside the dimensions of the array.
11 Division by zero
A division by zero is encountered in an
expression, or the operation of involution results
in zero being raised to a negative power. Machine
infinity with the sign of the numerator is
supplied as the result of the division, or
positive machine infinity is supplied as the
result of the involution, and execution continues.
14 Out of string space
String variables exceed the allocated amount of
string space.
NUMBER MESSAGE
20 RESUME without error
A RESUME statement is encountered before an error
trapping routine is entered.
21 Unprintable error
An error message is not available for the error
condition which exists. This is usually caused by
an ERROR with an undefined error code.
50 Field overflow
A FIELD statement is attempting to allocate more
bytes than were specified for the record length of
a random file.
51 Internal error
An internal malfunction has occurred in Disk
BASIC-80. Report to Microsoft the conditions under
which the message appeared.
52 Bad file number
A statement or command references a file with a
file number that is not OPEN or is out of the
range of file numbers specified at initialization.
NUMBER MESSAGE
53 File not found
A RUN, CHAIN, KILL, or OPEN statement references a
file that does not exist on the current disk.
54 Bad file mode
An attempt is made to use PUT, GET, or LOF with a
sequential or to execute an OPEN with a file mode
other than I, O, R, D.
55 File already open
A sequential output mode OPEN is issued for a file
that is already open; or a KILL is given for a
file that is open.
57 Disk I/O error
An I/O error occurred on a disk I/O operation. It
is a fatal error, i.e., theoperating system cannot
recover from the error.
58 File already exists
The filename specified is identical to a filename
already in use on the disk.
61 Disk Full
All disk storage space is in use.
NUMBER MESSAGE
62 Input past end
An INPUT statement is executed after all the data
in the file has been INPUT, or for a null (empty)
file. To avoid this error, use the EOF function to
detect the end of file.
63 Bad record number
In a PUT or GET statement, the record number is
either greater than the maximum allowed (32767) or
equal to zero.
64 Bad file name
An illegal form is used for the filename with RUN,
CHAIN, KILL, or OPEN (e.g., a filename with too
many characters).
67 Too many files
An attempt is made to create a new file (using
OPEN) when the directory is full.
::M80.HQP
d file is .COM,
and this file is called a "command file". Once saved
