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                         Entirely Unpredisposed
            The Cultural Background of UFO Abduction Reports
                 copyright (c) 1990 by Martin S. Kottmeyer
  [Reprinted from "Magonia" Magazine, Jan. 1990, by permission of the author]

 Culture is an admixture of repetition and variation, convention and
creativity, signals and noise. It is ever new and forever old as humanity
relives old dreams and nightmares or forgets and forges new ones.  Part of the
delight of  history is the recognition that however new a given event appears,
traces of the past can generally be discerned.  If the UFO phenomenon is an
artifact of culture one would reasonably expect that cultural antecedents could
be recognized for the major features it presents.  Extraterrestrials, however,
should be independent of culture and if they are newly arrived their character-
istics should represent a discontinuity with the past.  Abduction phenomenon
students have recently offered some provocative claims that such discontinu-
ities exist.  Implicitly they are claims for the weakness of the sociopsycholo-
gical paradigm and the converse power of the ETH.  David Jacobs argues that the
imagery of the UFO phenomenon sprang up _ex nihilo_ in 1947. Budd Hopkins
states that the complex, controlling, physically frail beings of abduction
reports bear no similarity to "traditional sci-fi gods and devils".  Thomas E.
Bullard makes the rather more modest claim that the keystone of the abduction
mystery, the interrupted journey of Betty and Barney Hill, had no cultural
sources from which to derive the experience they reported.  They were, to quote
him, "entirely unpredisposed" since they were the first.  These are forceful
challenges to the proponent of the cultural origin of UFO phenomena.  They have
"Falsify me, I dare you" plastered on them.  Can it be demonstrated that cul-
ture predisposed people to have these experiences?  The boldest claim is the
one by UFO historian David Jacobs.  Jacobs states "there was no precedent for
the appearance or the configuration of the objects in 1947" in popular science
fiction films, popular science fiction or popular culture in general.  They did
not resemble the fanciful rocketships or earthly space travel contraptions in
the SF literature.

[1] There is a trivial sense in which this is simply wrong.  Disc-shaped
spaceships have a number of precedents in popular culture.  They appear in Buck
Rogers as far back as 1930.

[2] They appear in a Flash Gordon comic strip in 1934.

[3] The science fiction illustrator Frank  R.  Paul was drawing saucer-like
craft as early as 1931 and did so repeatedly.

[4] Other SF illustrators also utilized the disc form long before 1947.

[5] But these are inevitable coincidences in a large body of artistic
creativity. The saucer form was not the dominant shape of spaceships in the
culture; it was the rocket.  In this larger sense Jacobs is correct that one
would expect an outbreak of ghost rockets over America if the images of SF were
the determinant of what people should be imagining.  They weren't.  The cul-
tural source of the UFO lies in a journalistic error.  Kenneth Arnold's report
of mysterious supersonic objects flying near Mount Rainier was a sensation that
made front-page news across the nation.  The speed was far beyond that of the
planes of the era and no one publicized the flight in advance.  It was an
exciting puzzle.  The shape of the objects Arnold saw is hard to describe in a
word or two.  It wasn't like a plane or rocket, or even a disc.  When the
newsman Bill Bequette wrote the story up for the news services he recalled
Arnold's describing the motion of the objects as like a saucer if you skip it
across the water.  Jumbling the metaphorical intent of the description,
Bequette labeled the objects "flying* saucers", Arnold said the term arose from
"a great deal of misunderstanding".  The public, however, did not know that.
No drawing accompanied the story.  People started looking for flying saucers
and that is exactly what they found.  They reported flat, circular objects that
look like flying saucers sound like they should look like.  Equally important:
no one reported objects like the drawing in Arnold's report to the Air Force.

[6] The implications of this journalistic error are staggering in the extreme.
Not only does it unambiguously point to a cultural origin of the whole flying
saucer phenomenon, it erects a first-order paradox into any attempt to
interpret the phenomenon in extraterrestrial terms: Why would extraterrestrials
redesign their craft to conform to Bequette's error?  This paradox is
especially bad news for abduction reports.  By Bullard's tally 82% of craft
descriptions fit the flying saucer stereotype.

[7] This is far in excess of the approximately one-third portion saucers and
discs make up in a more general population of UFO reports.

[8] If imagination and cultural expectations play a larger role in abductions
than in more reality-constrained misinterpretations of mundane stimu li, then
this fact makes sense.  The flying saucer mythos perfectly predisposes us to
include flying saucers in our fantasies and nightmares about extraterrestrials.
This takes care of the craft, but what of the entities?  Budd Hopkins empha-
sizes that they are complex, controlling, physically frail beings who are
forced by survival needs to search out and abduct earthlings.  This is quite
unlike the godly aliens of _Close Encounters of the Third Kind_, the kindly,
spiritual alien of _The Day The Earth Stood Still_, or the aliens of _War of
The Worlds_ who "mindlessly devour and conquer us", as Hopkins sees it.
Nothing by his abductees "in any way suggests traditional sci-fi gods and
devils", he wants us to know.

[9] Hopkins's descriptions leave something to be desired.  The godly aliens of
CE3K trash the home of the little boy Barry and they terrorize his mother as
they abduct him.  The disrupt the life and mind of Neary.  Kindly and spiritual
Klaatu happens to have a robot with him who is all business.  His offer to
leave a police force is eminently pragmatic.  The comparison is frivolous in
either case since any UFO aliens matching these descriptions go into the
contactee file.  Hopkins professes it is instructive that his abductees are not
devoured like in War of th e Worlds, but how would a myth devour a person?
That Hopkins is ignorant of science fiction would be apparent to any fan by the
fact that he used the repellent phrase "sci-fi'-a sure sign of an outsider to
the genre.

[10] War of the Worlds is one of the recognized masterpieces, yet it is grossly
evident Hopkins never read it or he would be co-opting Wells as an unconscious
abductee.  Far from "mindlessly" devouring us, Wells endowed his aliens with
"intellects vast, cool and unsympathetic.  The did not devour people but took
the fresh and living blood of other creatures and injected it into their own
bodies.  His aliens had "no extensive muscular mechanism".  The invaders also
brought along for provisions bipeds with flimsy siliceous skeletons and feeble
musculature.

[11] There are multiple similarities to other abduction narratives-an immense
pair of dark eyes possessing an extraordinary intensity, a mouth without lips,
greyish colour of skin, the skin glistening like wet leather, telepathy.  They
are also "absolutely without sex".  Add to this that the alien craft was
circular, made a peculiar humming sound, and when they flew the sky would be
alive with their lights. In fact Wells's aliens more resemble Hopkins's
abducting aliens than most abduction reports, Hopkins further  errs in thinking
the Wells aliens are mere "satanic monsters".

[12] Their motivation is survival.  Their world is dying and Earth is their
only escape.  Ironically, just a couple of pages before Hopkins mangles War of
the Worlds he quotes the impressions of an abductee that the aliens are from a
society millions of years old that is dying.  They desperately need to survive.
This places UFO aliens squarely in the main tradition of aliens in SF films.
Dying worlds are commonplace in alien invasion movies. It leads the aliens in
"This Island Earth" to borrow Earth scientists for their expertise in atomic
energy.  It motivates the aliens in "The 27th  Day" to give Earth people the
means of destroying human life.  It motivates the "Killers from Space" to
operate on a man, extract information from his mind, and compel him to become a
spy saboteur.  It leads the "Devil Girl from Mars" to abduct healthy males.  It
similarly motivates the aliens in "I Married a Monster from Outer Space", "The
Mysterians", and "Mars Needs  Women" to procure females for breeding stock. An
astronomer in "Invaders from Mars" theorises the secret operations aliens
engage in are motivated by the fact that Mars is a dying world.  The aliens in
the popular TV series "The Invaders" were also escaping a dying world.

[13] The fact is most film aliens have some implicit motivation to their
activities. One of the few exceptions I could find was the "so thin-so fragile"
aliens of "Target Earth!" and even they don't seem particularly satanic or
monstrous.

[14] It seems more sensible to flip Hopkins's allegation around.  He says
nothing about the aliens of UFO abductions resembling "sci-fi". I ask, is there
anything abou t UFO aliens that does not resemble science fiction?  An abductee
in the 1954 movie "Killers from Space" has a strange scar and a missing memory
of the alien encounter that caused  it.  The mysterious impregnation of women,
including virgins, and  the subsequent birth of intelligent hybrid children is
the theme of the 1960 film "Village of the Damned".  Brain implants are
featured in the 1953 movie "Invaders from Mars".

[15] Take a look at the creatures of the 1957 movie "Invasion of The Saucer
Men".  The bald, bulgy-brained, googly-eyed, no-nosed invaders match the
stereotype of UFO aliens delineated by Bullard to an uncanny extent.  It
prompts worries that abductees are not only plagiarists, but have bad taste as
well.

[16] "Earth versus the Flying Saucers" (1956) also precedes UFO lore in
featuring an abduction in which thoughts are taken.  Saucerians abduct a
general, make his head transparent, and suck out the knowledge to store it in
an Infinitely Indexed Memory Bank.  Though the frequency of the motif in
abduction narratives can be laid to psychological factors in the personalities
of abductees, one cannot rule out the movie enculturating the association.
Years from now we may have an epidemic of implanted parasites, potential chest-
bursters, due to the influence of the movie "Alien" starting such an
association.  Presently such a report would be too suspect, but eventually some
puzzling medical oddity might be associated with such a delusion and the UFO
lore would evolve in new directions. It could just as easily never happen be-
cause of the vagaries of social factors.  In a more esoteric vein even
abduction narrative structure has science fiction predecessors.  Thomas Bullard
has discovered a consistent structural order to events within abduction
reports.  There are eight types of events and they are preferentially ordered
in this manner:  (i) capture, (ii) examination, (iii) conference, (iv) tour,
(v) otherworldly journey, (vi) theophany, (vii) return, (viii) aftermath.  No
abduction has every event, but events avoid appearing out of this sequence.
Abductees aren't generally given a tour of the ship before examination or con-
ference and so forth.  Bullard considers the arrangement occasionally arbitrary
from a rational standpoint.  The fidelity of reports to this arrangement seems,
to Bullard, to indicate these are real experiences.  He would expect the ele-
ments of the story to get jumbled if they were subjective.

[17] What, then, are we to make of the 1930 comic strip story "Tiger Men of
Mars" in the series "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century"?  It adheres to Bullard's
structure most excellently.  Wilma experiences:  (i) capture by  a giant clamp
leading into  a spherical alien spaceship, (ii) examination while lying on a
table in an electro-hypnotic trance, (iii) conference with a subordinate and
then a leader, (vi) theophany while gazing at the Earth from an off-world
vantage point, (vii)return, In the aftermath  there is an instance of what
Bullard  calls "networking" in the aliens abducting Wilma's sister, Sally.
There is also an apocalyptic finale in which the Martian moon Phobos crashes on
Mars.

[18] Some idea of the structural impressiveness of this narrative can be gained
from observing that only one abduction in the UFO literature has a greater
number of these elements in the correct order.  Two abductions have the same
number of elements.  The other 163 correctly ordered abductions have 5 or fewer
elements in them.

[19] Obviously the presence of structure does not prove the cartoon is object-
ively real, and it must be granted that a long-forgotten cartoon is not a
credible influence on present-day abductions. It is more likely they share an
intuitive ordering principle subconsciously acquired fr om exposure to drama.
A relabeling of Bullard's elements should make the logic clearer: (i) character
introduced, (ii) peril and conflict, (iii) explanation and insight, (iv) good
will and attempt to impress, (v) excitement, (vi) climax, (vii) closure, (viii)
sequel.  Examination, as the peril, is the downer part of the story and would
ruin a happy ending if sequenced late.  Even in deviant cases the examination
is never put near the end.  Pragmatically, putting theophany before examination
might instill trust in the abductee and make testing go better.  Dramaturgi-
cally, however, such an order would be stupid since it ruins the intensity of
the peril and spoils the joy of the ending and the sense of closure.  Faceless
terror makes for more primordial fear.  Dramatically it would be unwise to
reduce the alienness before the peril by conferring with the aliens or have
them host a tour.  It is also bad behaviourism to place aversive stimuli after
sending one's signal-the message and information in the conference, tour and
theophany.  The otherworldly journey is a form of excitement and can appear any
place between the capture and climax.  Most of Bullard's deviant cases involve
the otherworldly journey not staying in the place he deemed correct.  To put it
simply, Bullard's correct order is the right way to tell a story.  At the very
least, his evaluation that "Objectivity wins a big one" on the issue of struct-
ure is problematic.

[20] The capture event in "Tiger Men of Mars" features an incredible kid-
inventor-type gizmo - a giant mechanical clamp which grabs the whole body of
the victim.  It's a grand cartoony contraption appropriate to its venue in a
Buck Rogers situation.  How odd, then, to note that such a thing appears in the
Steven Kilburn abduction in "Missing Time".  It seems such a ridiculously im-
practical thing for a technologically superior culture to bother with, yet
Hopkins includes it with not an indication of amusement.  One can understand it
in a 1930s cartoon, or even in an early script draft of "War of the Worlds".
At least someone realised it should be deleted.  But in a real abduction?
Lawson's suggestion that Kilburn was reliving a forceps-aided birth makes tons
more sense.

[21] I could have more fun demolishing Hopkins's claim, but it really doesn't
deserve more attention than this.  Time to turn to the last of our three hist-
orical allegations.  Thomas E. Bullard opens his massively impressive study of
the abduction mystery with a discussion of the legendary status of the
"interrupted journey" of Betty and Barney Hill.  It was the most sensational
UFO story of its time; a nasty little horror story which engraved itself on the
unconscious of a generation.  The growth of UFO abduction reports subsequent to
their appearance on the cultural scene is unsurprising.  The thing that puzzles
Bullard, is how _they_ got the idea.  He points out that occupant reports were
obscure items known only to the initiated in 1961.  He believes the Hills had
no knowledge they could construct a nightmare of this sort from, so he asserts
"the odds are strong that the Hills went to their interrupted journey entirely
unpredisposed." It is a "continuing mystery" how they originated it and as long
as it is unaccounted for "the cultural tradition explanation starts off handi-
capped."

[22] Part of the mystery is solved by a careful reading of "The Interrupted
Journey." It is on record that Betty Hill had read Donald Keyhoe's book  "The
Flying Saucer Conspiracy" shortly before she began having nightmares of ab-
duction.  Keyhoe's book cites nearly a dozen occupant cases.  Most of them are
outright rejected by Keyhoe.  These include such farces as zebra-striped
spacemen, an elephant-faced entity, 6-armed, 13-ft tall entities, space-man
monster tales and contactee hoaxes.  Keyhoe practically endorses, however, a
Pearl Harbor report of a flyer who frightfully proclaimed "I actually saw him"-
the saucer pilot.  Note the pronoun is him, not it.  No doubt this would have
impressed Betty as similar to Barney's experience of seeing the saucer's
occupants.

[23] Keyhoe also expresses a measure of acceptance of a series of UFO stories
from Venezuela involving hairy dwarfs.  One of these serves as a closer start-
ing point of Betty Hill's nightmares.  Two peasants first spot a bright light
like a car on the nearby road.  Hovering a few feet from the ground is a round
machine with a brilliant glow coming from the underside.  "Four little men"
come out and try to drag Jesus Gomez toward the object.  There is a struggle
and the evidence of that struggle gives it a special credibility in Keyhoe's
eyes.  Keyhoe next cites the experience of Jesus Paz who was found unconscious
after being set upon by a hairy dwarf.  He follows this with Jose Parra's
sighting of six small hairy creatures by a saucer and their transfixing him
with a bright light.

[24] In Betty Hill's nightmare she must fight for consciousness and she finds
herself surrounded by four short men.  Barney is unconscious and is being
dragged by another group of men.  They numbered eight to eleven when standing
in the middle of the road.  They are taken from the car to a glowing saucer-
shaped craft.  The behaviour of the aliens is very professional and business-
like and they are dressed in somewhat military style.  They are not frightening
per se. This is very much in keeping in tone with Keyhoe's speculations that
aliens were making a scientific study of the planet out of "neutral curiosity'
or as a prelude to a mass landing.

[25] This takes us up to the saucer, but it doesn't give us much idea what
should take place inside.  Neutral curiosity would probably lead to some sort
of examination or questioning and this pretty much does happen.  Yet there is
that terror of the needle in the navel and the business with the star map.
Nothing in Keyhoe predisposes one to those sorts of things.  Movies provide
another cultural source  of expectations and imagery.  Bullard himself notes a
pair of movies from the fifties have medical motifs in an alien abduction
setting: "Invaders from Mars" (1953) and "Killers from Space" (1954).  Though
he understands the significance of the second one on some abduction cases sub-
sequent to the Hills, he overlooked the significance of "Invaders From Mars".

[26] Near the climax of the film a woman and a boy are abducted  by mutants
from Mars and taken to a room within a saucer.  The woman is placed on a rec-
tangular table which slides into the scene.  She struggles briefly till a light
shines on her face which causes her to relax and lose consciousness.  A needle
surrounded for part of its length by a clear plastic sheath is aimed at the
back of her neck.  A device at the end of the needle is going to be surgically
implanted there.

[27] In "The Interrupted Journey" we are dealing with a woman and a man abduct-
ed by aliens described as mongoloid - itself a type of mutation.  In the orig-
inal nightmare Betty compares the noses of the aliens to Jimmy Durante.  This
is a very apt description of the noses of the mutants in "Invaders From Mars".
Barney, oddly, didn't see the Durante noses of the aliens.  Perhaps it was in
deference to Barney's on-the-scene memories that this detail was edited out by
Betty in her hypnosis sessions.  It may also be that the big nose prompted
jokes after the speeches she gave and her unconscious took the opportunity to
remove the annoying detail when Benjamin Simon unleashed it.

[28] There are some preliminary tests of a routine sort.  Betty then lies down
on an examining table.  Needles are placed on various parts of her body includ-
ing the back of the neck.  Then appears a very long needle, longer than any
needle she's seen before, and it is placed into her navel.  She experiences
great pain.  The examiner puts his hand over her eyes, rubs, and the pain
stops.  The parallel to the calming light in "Invaders from Mars" is readily
apparent.  I am indebted to Al Lawson for calling attention to the fact that
the needle-in-the-navel motif owes its origin to imagery appearing during the
Martian operating room episode.  Shortly after the operation begins, the camera
cuts to a high-angle view of the surgical theatre.  At least, that is what it
is supposed to be.  The image has an ambiguous character in terms of scale and
content.  You are supposed to interpret it as a view of the architecture of the
interior of the saucer with the dominant structure being a tubular metal beam
or conduit connecting ceiling to floor.  It bears a stylistic similarity to the
neck implanter in having a clear plastic sheath surrounding the upper half of
its length.  The ambiguity of the image, however, admits an alternative inter-
pretation. The tubular metal beam and plastic sheath becomes a hypodermic
needle.  Lighting of the floor suggests the curvature of an abdomen.  The place
where the floor and tube intersects is surrounded by a round indentation.  It's
the navel. In the brief snatch of time the image is seen, some people will miss
the intended interpretation and see a huge hypodermic needle has been thrust
into the woman's navel.  Some have seen Betty Hill's needle-in-the-navel inci-
dent as revealing a medical procedure that did not exist at the time of the
encounter.  In fact the aliens' reference to the procedure as a pregnancy test
is quite contemporary for the period.  Amniocentesis has existed as a medical
procedure since the late l9th century.  Back then the needle was inserted in
the abdomen to draw off amniotic fluid when there was too much pressure during
a pregnancy.  In  the late 1950s, however, it became a testing procedure to
monitor preganacies of women with Rh-negative blood who might have blood group
incompatibility.  Subsequent to 1966 amniocentesis became a genetic screening
procedure.  Comparison of Mrs. Hill's ordeal to laparoscopy procedures suffers
in the details.

[29] There is no conference with the aliens in "Invaders from Mars" and you
might not expect the star map scene to originate there, but dreams have an odd
penchant for distortion and condensation of memory materials.  Earlier in the
movie the boy and woman have a meeting with a scientist at an observatory.
This character, Dr. Kelson, has a large star map on the wall behind him.  He
points at the map during this meeting and discusses the proximity of Mars to
Earth. The most striking thing about this discussion, to the alert movie-goer,
is that, while he points to the map as though these two planets are represented
on it, in fact there is nothing there where the Earth should be.  Kelson is
faking it.  Any similarity between Kelston's star map and Betty Hill's is
almost purely accidental.  The paradox they share, however, is not.  Betty's
sketch has the two planets Kelston's lacks.  (Marjorie Fish treats them as
stars, ironically.  Stars don't have terminators.)  But when the alien asks
Betty where on the map the Earth is, she relives the movie-goer's puzzlement.
She has no idea.  The sizes of the planets bear comparison to the planets in
the star field in the credits of the film, incidentally.  Parenthetically, the
script of "Invaders From Mars" has Kelston present a large scrapbook with
newspaper columns about saucer activities to the boy before the star map
discussion.  This was not in the 78-minute video I saw, but an 82-minute
"European" version exists that has a longer observatory scene.  Does anyone
know if this scene was filmed?  It might explain the presentation of the large
book in Betty's account.

[30] [When this film  was shown in Britain several years ago there was indeed a
scene showing Kelston's UFO scrapbook -J R] The match between "Invaders from
Mars" and Betty Hill's nightmares is imperfect and obviously has none of the
rigor of a mathematical equation.  Dreams and nightmares by their nature are
almost never veridical memories.  Even if Betty Hill was really abducted, it
would be unusual for her nightmares to be a photographic reply of her trauma.
The felt emotions would resurface, but it would bear only a metaphoric simi-
larity in its dramatic content.  The most one would generally expect is
snatches of unique imagery to help in piecing together of the sources the dream
spun off from.  It is something of a wonder that enough elements exist of this
character - the Durante noses, and the navel-needle, and the optical tranquil-
ization idea, and the star map - to make an identification that can be called
convincing.  Barney's version of events probably owes much to what Betty said
in her speeches, but there is one facet which was clearly Barney`s own contri-
bution - the long wraparound eyes of the aliens.  Donald Keyhoe emphasised it
was "the worst feature" of their ugly faces.  It gave them a sinister look.
Their hideousness prompted Keyhoe to wonder what could have caused the Hills to
imagine such creatures.  It was "never fully explained".

[31] Wraparound eyes are an extreme rarity in science fiction films.  I know of
only one instance.  They appeared on the  alien of an episode of an old TV
series "The Outer Limits" entitled "The Bellero Shield".  A person familiar
with Barney's sketch in "The Interrupted Journey" and the sketch done in co-
llaboration with the artist David Baker will find a "frisson" of "deja vu"
creeping up his spine when seeing this episode. The resemblance is much abetted
by an absence of ears, hair, and nose on both aliens.  Could it be by chance?
Consider this: Barney first described and drew the wraparound eyes during  the
hypnosis session dated 22 February 1964.  "The Bellero Shield" was first broad-
cast on "10 February 1964.  Only twelve days separate the two instances.  If
the identification is admitted, the commonness of wraparound eyes in the ab-
duction literature falls to cultural forces.

[32] Wilder Penfield once proclaimed, "It is far better to be wrong than to be
without an opinion."  Penfield showed himself to be a wise scientist in formu-
lating that maxim.  Errors are much more fruitful than silence.  They goad one
into research and discovery.  Had Jacobs, Hopkins, and Bullard been cautious
and reserved, some of the surprises in this paper would never have surfaced.

  There are things here about the cultural nature of the UFO phenomenon I would
never have suspected.  The origin of flying saucers in a journalistic error,
especially, is the most deeply cosmic joke to have ever fallen into my life.
It may not be the ultimate refutation of the ETH in the minds of everyone, but
it will do for me.  For that am forever indebted to these fellows.  It is my
opinion that culture predisposes people to have the sorts of UFO experiences
they do to a degree we have yet to fully appreciate.  If I'm wrong, my ponti-
fications still won't be in vain.

NOTES:
 1.  Jacobs, David M ., "The New Era of UFO Research", _Pursuit_ , no. 78,
     1987, p.  50
 2.  Dille, Robert C. (ed), "The Collected Works of Buck Rogers in the 25th
     Century", Chelsea House Publishers, 1969, p. 159.
 3.  Lundwall, Sam J., "Science Fiction: An Illustrated History", Grosset &
     Dunlap, 1977, p. 107
 4.  Sadoul, Jacques, "2000 AD: Illustrations from the Golden Age of Science
     Fiction Pulps", Henry Regnery, 1973, pp. 63, 66, 148.
 5.  Ibid, pp. 69, 70
 6.  Steiger, Brad, "Project Blue Book", Ballantine, 1976.  Arnold, Kenneth,
     "How it All Began", in Fuller, Curtis G., "Proceedings of the First
     International UFO Conference", Warner, 1980
 7.  Bullard, Thomas E., "UFO Abductions: The Measure of a Mystery.  Volume 1:
     Comparative Study of Abduction Reports."  Fund for UFO Research, 1987,
     p. 196.
 8.  Story, Ronald D., "Encyclopedia of UFOs", Dolphin, 1980, pp. 330-4
 9.  Hopkins, Budd, "Intruders", Random, 1987, p. 192.
10.  Nicholls, Peter, "The Science Fiction Encyclopedia", Dolphin, 1979, p.
     207.
11.  Wells, H.  "The War of the Worlds"
12.  Hopkins, op. cit., pp. 189-90.
13.  Warren, Bill, "Keep Watching the Skies: American Science Fiction Movies of
     the Fifties" (2 vols ), McFarland, 1982.  Naha, Ed., "The Science
     Fictionary", Wideview, 1980; Hardy, Phil, "The Encyclopedia  of Science
     Fiction Movies", Woodbury, 1984, p. 180
14.  Warren, op. cit. p. 187.
15.  Bullard, op. cit., p. 14.  Naha, op. cit. p. 218
16.  Rebello, Stephen, "Selling Nightmares: Movie Poster Artists of the
     Fifties", Cinefantastique, March, 1988, p. 42
17.  Bullard, op. cit., pp. 47-53, 372
18.  Dille, op. cit. pp. 142-5.
19.  Bullard, op. cit. pp. 54-5
20.  Bullard, op. cit. p. 372
21.  Hopkins, Budd: "Missing Time", Richard Marke, 1981, p. 77.  Warren, op.
     cit., p. 153.  "Magonia", No. 10, 1982, pp. 16-7
22.  Bullard, op. cit. pp. i-ii, 275, 365
23.  Fuller, John G., "The Interrupted Journey: Two Lost Hours Aboard a Flying
     Saucer", Dell, 1966, pp. 45-9.  Keyhoe, Donald E., The Flying Saucer
     Conspiracy", Fieldcrest, 1955, pp. 63-64, 204-5.
24.  Keyhoe, op. cit., pp. 240-6.
25.  Fuller, op. cit, p. 343-4.  Keyhoe, op. cit., pp. 58, 65, 190, 208.
26.  Bullard, op. cit., p. 14
27.  "Invaders From Mars" (1953), video, Fox Hills Video, 1987.
28.  Fuller, op. cit., p. 344.  Bullard, op. cit., p. 245.
29.  Friedman, Stanton and Slate, B. Ann, "UFO Star Base Discovered", UFO
     Report, 2, no. 1, fall 1974, p. 61.
30.  Battle, John Tucker, "Invaders From Mars", Script City, n.d.  p. 42
31.  Keyhoe, Donald E., "Aliens From Space", Doubleday, 1973, p. 243-5.
32.  Schow, David J. and Frentzen, Jeffrey, "The Outer Limits-The Official
     Companion", Ace, 1986, pp. 170, 384.  Bullard, op. cit., p. 243.