DP Tool Club 26/CD_ASCQ_26_1295.iso/vrac/tibet10.zip/TIBET10.TXT

Text File | 1995-10-06 | 63KB | 1,578 lines

         questions (and their answers) about the central Asian
         country of Tibet. It should be read by anyone who
         wishes to post to the talk.politics.tibet newsgroup.


Archive-name: tibet-faq


This FAQ was created for the Usenet newsgroup talk.politics.tibet and
addresses various issues that are discussed in that newsgroup on a
recurring basis. Some controversial issues are dealt with by quoting
published arguments on both sides, in addition to relevant primary
source
material. Also included are the addresses of various organizations that
deal with Tibet and a guide to the additional sources of information
that
are available, both on the Internet and in print.

The maintainers of this FAQ are:

          Peter Kauffner <[e-mail]>
          Nima Dorjee <[e-mail]>

Suggestions for improvement should be sent to
<[e-mail]>.


 ----TABLE OF CONTENTS----

Introduction
  A1) What are the meanings of specialized words used on TPT (glossary)?

Historical Issues
  B1) What are the major events of Tibetan history (timeline)?
  B2) What were the roles of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas in Tibetan
history?
  B3) Did slavery exist in old Tibet?
  B4) What is the historical basis of the Chinese claim to Tibet?
  B5) What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644-1912)?
  B6) What was Tibet's status immediately prior to China's 1950-51
invasion?

Human Rights
  C1) Are Tibetan women being forced to have abortions?
  C2) How are Tibetan political prisoners treated?
  C3) How many Tibetans have died as a result of the Chinese occupation?

Statistical Issues
  D1) What is the total population of Tibet?
  D2) How many ethnic Chinese live in Tibet (population transfer)?
  D3) What are Tibet's economic statistics?

Further Information
  E1) What World-Wide Web sites have further information about Tibet?
  E2) Where do I find information concerning travel to Tibet?
  E3) What Tibet-oriented mailing lists can I subscribe to?
  E4) What are the addresses of some organizations that deal with Tibet?
  E5) What books about Tibet would you recommend?

F0) Sources


Section A: INTRODUCTION

A1) What are the meanings of specialized words used on TPT (glossary)?


 The following is a glossary of words related to Tibet. When the
 pronunciation of a word differs from what one might expect from the
 standard spelling, a phonetic spelling is given between slash marks
(//).
 Words in all CAPITAL letters have glossary entries of their own.

 AMBAN--A representative of the QING emperor who resided in the
territory of
      a tributary state or dependency. The Qing mission in Lhasa was
usually
      headed by two Ambans of equal status.
 AMDO /ahm'doh'/--The Tibetan name for a region located northeast of
Lhasa. It
      includes the bulk of QINGHAI Province, as well as the Kanlho
Tibetan
      Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province. Along with KHAM and U-
TSANG,
      it is one of Tibet's three historic regions. Each of these regions
      speaks its own distinctive dialect of Tibetan. Amdo is also known
as
      Dotoh province.
 BOD <Tibetan /puh/>--The Tibetan word for TIBET. The word _Bod_ may be
      derived from BON.
 BODPA <Tibetan /puh'ba'/>--The Tibetan word for `Tibetan,' both as a
noun
      and as an adjective.
 BON--Tibet's pre-Buddhist, animist religion. Cf. NYINGMAPA
 CCP--Chinese Communist Party. The ruling party of China since 1949.
(The
      Chinese government prefers `CPC'--Communist Party of China.)
 DALAI LAMA--Tibet's most renown line of incarnate LAMAs. The Dalai
Lamas
      reigned as kings of Tibet from 1642 until 1959. The current Dalai
Lama
      has lived in exile since 1959. See question B2.
 DL-- DALAI LAMA
 GELUGPA /ge'luk'pa'/--The dominate Buddhist sect in Tibet and Mongolia.
The
      literal translation of _gelugpa_ is `model of virtue.' The sect
was
      founded by the Tibetan monk Tsongkhapa in the 15th century and is
also
      known as the Yellow Hat sect. Cf. RED HAT.
 HAN--The Chinese word for an ethnic Chinese. More precisely, a _Han4_
is
      someone whose primary or ancestral language is Chinese
(_Han4yu3_), and
      who does not belong to any of China's various other officially
      recognized ethnic groups.
 KAGYUPA--Tibet's third largest monastic order. The name means
`transmitted
      word.' The Kagyupa order consists of several sub-orders, including
      Karma Kagyupa, practiced in Sikkim, and Dukpa Kagyupa, the
dominate
      faith of Bhutan. Cf. KARMAPA.
 KARMAPA--A line of incarnate LAMAs whose traditional residence is at
Tsurphu
      Monastery near Lhasa. The Karmapa heads the Karma Kagyupa branch
of the
      KAGYUPA order and is also known as the Black Hat lama. The 16th
Karmapa
      died in Chicago in 1981. A successor was enthroned at Tsurphu in
1993,
      although some Karma Kagyupa members have refused to recognize him.
 KHAM--Tibetan name for eastern Tibet. This region is also referred to
as the
      province of Domae. Western Kham is now in TAR (q.v.) while eastern
      Kham is in Sichuan (Szechwan) Province.
 KMT--Kuomintang <Chinese /gwo'min'dang'/> The ruling party of China
from
      1928 to 1949. The ruling party of Taiwan since 1949. It is also
known
      as the Nationalist Party.
 LAMA--The literal translation of this Tibetan word is `spiritual
teacher.'
      There are two types of lamas, TULKU and root lamas. A root lama is
a
      lay person who provides spiritual guidance to others. Prominent
root
      lamas in Tibetan history include Padmasambhava and Milarepa.
 LHASA--The capital and largest city in Tibet with a population of
170,000.
      Lhasa is a shortened form of _lha sacha_, which means `god's
place.'
 LOSAR--Tibetan new year. The next Losar will be on February 19, 1996.
      Cf. MONLAM CHENMO.
 MCMAHON LINE--The boundary for the eastern section of the frontier
between
      Tibet and India. It runs from the eastern end of Bhutan to the
great
      bend in the Brahmaputra River. British and Tibetan negotiators
agreed
      to this boundary in a conference held in Simla, India in 1914. The
line
      is named for Sir Henry McMahon, the head of the British
negotiating
      team. Although China claims territory south the McMahon Line, it
has
      generally respected the line in practice.
 MANCHU--a people who lived in what is now northeastern China for many
      centuries. Until 1636, they were known as the Jurchen. From 1644
to
      1912, China was ruled by emperors of Manchu ancestry. Cf. QING.
 MONLAM CHENMO--The `great prayer festival,' which begins three days
after
      LOSAR and continues for ten days. China currently prohibits the
public
      celebration of Monlam and other Buddhist holidays in Tibet.
 NYINGMAPA--`The old order,' Tibet's second largest monastic order.
Nyingmapa
      monks are not usually required to be celibate. The sect's rituals
      include many elements that were derived from BON.
 PANCHEN LAMA--A title used by the head LAMA of Tashilhunpo Monastery in
      Shigatse. His spiritual authority is second only to that of the
DALAI
      LAMA within the GELUGPA sect. See question B2.
 PAP--People's Armed Police. A paramilitary force created in 1983 to
patrol
      border areas and to guard government buildings. It was used
extensively
      to suppress demonstrations in Lhasa between 1987 and 1991. Cf.
PSB.
 PLA--People's Liberation Army. The official name of the Chinese armed
forces
      since 1949. The PLA is a combined service and includes ground,
air,
      and naval units.
 PRC--People's Republic of China. The official name of China since 1949.
 PSB--Public Security Bureau. China's principle agency for enforcing
criminal
      law, i.e. the regular police. Cf. PAP.
 QING /ching/--A dynasty of MANCHU origin which ruled China from 1644 to
1912.
 QINGHAI /ching'hi'/--A Chinese province created in 1928 to administer
the
      bulk of Tibet's AMDO region. In 1992, the population of Qinghai
was
      estimated to be 4.61 million, [Fiske94] of whom 58 percent were
ethnic
      Chinese, 20 percent were ethnic Tibetan, and 14 percent were Hui
      (Chinese Muslim). The ethnic Chinese population is concentrated in
the
      vicinity of Xining, the capital; all of the province's other
prefectures
      are classified as `Tibetan autonomous.'
 RANG-BTSAN /rang'dsen'/--The Tibetan word for `independence' or `self-
      government.'
 RED HAT--Any of various Tibetan monastic orders established prior to
the 15th
      century when the GELUGPA order was founded. The three largest Red
Hat
      sects, in order of membership, are: NYINGMAPA, KAGYUPA, and
Sakyapa.
 ROC--Republic of China, the official name of China from 1911 to 1949.
      Although the ROC government has ruled only Taiwan since 1949, it
still
      claims to be the legitimate government of all China, including
Tibet.
 SELF-DETERMINATION--The determining by a people of the form their
government
      shall have, without reference to the wishes of any other nation.
The
      Charter of the United Nations calls for, `respect for the
principle of
      equal rights and self-determination of peoples.'
 SERF--A peasant bound to perform feudal obligations for a lord. Prior
to
      1959, most Tibetan peasants were either `taxpayer' serfs (_treba_)
or
      `human lease' serfs (_mibogs_). Taxpayer serfs held hereditary
title to
      land, were generally wealthier, and often hired other serfs as
laborers.
      However, they also had considerable corvee and tax obligations.
Human
      lease serfs had far more modest obligations, but no land of their
own.
 TAR--Tibet Autonomous Region. China created TAR in 1965 to administer
the
      Tibetan regions of U-TSANG and western KHAM. Despite its name, the
TAR
      government does not in fact enjoy any significant degree of
autonomy.
      The region's top policymaker is CCP Secretary Chen Kuiyuan, an
ethnic
      Chinese appointed by Beijing.
 TASHI DELEK--A common Tibetan greeting.
 TGIE--Tibetan government-in-exile. See Question B2.
 TI-- Tibetan independence. TI can also stand for `Taiwan independence.'
 TIBET--The Tibetan government-in-exile refers to the entire Tibet-
Qinghai
      Plateau as `Tibet.' But the word can also be used to refer to TAR
(q.v.)
      only. `Tibet' is a word used in various European languages and was
      derived from the Arabic _Tibat_ or _Tobbat_, which was in turn
derived
      from the Chinese TUFAN. [Partridge66]
 TPT--Talk.Politics.Tibet. The Usenet newsgroup for which this document
is
      the FAQ.
 TSAMPA--roasted barley flour, a staple of the Tibetan diet. Various
Tibetan
      celebrations, such as LOSAR, are marked by tossing _tsampa_ into
the
      air.
 TSHONGDU--Tibet's national assembly, established in the 1860s. Included
the
      heads of major government departments as well as representatives
from
      the larger monasteries. Decisions were made by consensus.
 TUFAN--A Chinese name for Tibet used during the Tang dynasty (618-907).
The
      second syllable of _Tu3fan1_ was traditionally pronounced /bo/,
which
      means `warlike.' [Giles1]
 TULKU /te'ku'/--a monk who is considered to be the reincarnation of a
great
      spiritual teacher. The preferred translation of _tulku_ is
`incarnate
      LAMA.' An older, less accurate translation is, `living Buddha.'
The
      Dalai and Panchen Lamas are Tibet's best-known _tulku_.
 U-TSANG /oh'tsong'/--The Tibetan name for central Tibet, now included
in
      TAR (q.v.).
 XIZANG /she'tsong'/--The modern Chinese name for Tibet. The word is
derived
      from U-TSANG and has been in use since the 18th century.
[Kolmas67]
      The literal translation of _Xi1zang4_ is `western storehouse' or
      `western storeroom,' not `western treasure house' as is sometimes
      claimed. [Giles2]


Section B: HISTORICAL ISSUES

B1) What are the major events of Tibetan history?


  Year                           Description of Event

  602    Namri Songtsen, lord of Yarlung, becomes the first king of
Tibet
  641    King Srongsten Gampo marries Princess Wencheng of China, his
2nd wife
  670    Tibet conquers Kokonor, Xinjiang; prolonged warfare with China
begins
  747    King Trisong Detsen invites Padmasambhava, yogin of Swat, to
Tibet
  763    Tibet captures Changan, capital of Tang China; tribute paid to
Tibet
  779    Samye, Tibet's 1st monastery, built by Trisong Detsen &
Padmasambhava
  792    Exponents of Indian Buddhism prevail in debate with Chinese at
Samye
  821    Tibet signs its last peace treaty with Tang China: `Tibetans
shall
             be happy in Tibet and Chinese shall be happy in China.'
[Walt1]
  842    King Langdarma murdered by a monk; Tibet splits into several
states
 1040    Birth of Milarepa, 2nd hierarch of Kagyupa order and a renown
poet
 1073    Founding of Sakya, the first monastery of the Sakyapa monastic
order
 1206    An assembly names Genghis Khan first ruler of a unified Mongol
nation
 1234    Mongols led by Ogodai Khagan defeat Jurchen and conquer north
China
 1247    Sakya Pandita submits to Godan Khan; beginning of the first
priest/
             patron relationship between a Tibetan lama and a Mongol
khan
 1261    Tibet is reunited with Sakya Pandita, Grand Lama of Sakya, as
king
 1279    Final defeat of Song by Mongols; Mongol conquest of China
complete
 1350    King Changchub Gyaltsen defeats Sakya and founds a secular
dynasty
 1368    China regains its independence from the Mongols under Ming
dynasty
 1409    Ganden, 1st Gelukpa monastery, built by monastic reformer
Tsongkhapa
 1435-81 In prolonged warfare, the Karmapa's supporters gain control of
court
 1578    Gelugpa leader gets the title of Dalai (`Ocean') from Altan
Khan
 1640    Gushri Khan, leader of Khoshut Mongols, invades and conquers
Tibet
 1642    Gushri Khan enthrones the 5th Dalai Lama as temporal ruler of
Tibet
 1644    Manchu overthrow Ming, conquer China, and establish the Qing
dynasty
 1653    `Great Fifth' Dalai Lama meets Qing Emperor Shunzhi near
Beijing
 1682    Fifth Dalai Lama dies; regent conceals death for the next 14
years
 1716-21 Italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri studies and teaches in
Lhasa
 1717    Dzungar Mongols invade Tibet and sack Lhasa; Fifth DL's tomb
looted
 1720    Dzungars driven out; Qing forces install Kesang Gyatso as the
7th DL
 1721    The position of Amban is created by a 13 point Qing decree on
Tibet
 1724    A Qing territorial government is created for Kokonor (now
Qinghai)
 1750    Ambans murder regent; rioters kill Ambans; Qing troops sent to
Tibet
 1792    Qing troops enter Tibet to drive out Gorkha (Nepalese) invaders
         A ban on visitation by non-Chinese is imposed; Ambans gain
powers
 1854-56 Nepal defeats Tibet; peace treaty requires that Tibet pay
tribute
 1904    British troops under Colonel Younghusband enter Tibet & occupy
Lhasa
 1910-12 Qing troops occupy Tibet, shoot at unarmed crowds on entering
Lhasa
 1911    Bogh Haan, the Urga `Living Buddha,' proclaims Mongolia
independent
 1912    Last Qing emperor abdicates; Republic of China claims
Mongolia,Tibet
 1913    13th Dalai Lama proclaims Tibet a `religious and independent
nation'
         Mongolia and Tibet recognize each other in a treaty signed in
Urga
 1914    Britain and Tibet agree to McMahon Line in a treaty signed in
Simla
 1917-18 Tibet defeats Chinese forces in Kham, recovers Chamdo (lost in
1910)
 1919-21 Mongolia occupied by a pro-Japanese faction of the Chinese army
 1921    Soviets recognize Mongolia with Bogh Haan restored as monarch
 1924    Mongolian People's Republic proclaimed; Urga is renamed Ulan
Bator
 1924-25 Monk-military tensions lead to dismissal of British-trained
officers
 1928    Chiang Kai-shek defeats the northern warlords and reunites
China
 1930-32 China captures Derge in Kham in first Sino-Tibetan clash since
1918
 1933    Truce made with Qinghai; the 13th Dalai Lama dies at the age of
58
 1934    Reting Rimpoche named regent; China permitted to open Lhasa
mission
 1937    Britain publishes Simla Convention and begins enforcing McMahon
Line
 1940    The five-year-old Tenzin Gyatso is enthroned as the 14th Dalai
Lama
 1941    Unable to keep celibacy vow, Reting is replaced as regent by
Taktra
 1942    U.S. army officer goes to Lhasa to present a letter for DL from
FDR
 1943    The British Foreign Office affirms that Tibet is `already self-
             governing and determined to retain [its] independence.'
[Walt2]
 1944    U.S. military aircraft crash lands near Samye; crew escorted to
India
 1945    Newly opened English-language school is closed after monks
protest
 1946    The Republic of China recognizes the Mongolian People's
Republic
 1947    ex-Regent Reting attempts to kill Regent Taktra with a package
bomb
         Reting dies while under house arrest; he was apparently
poisoned
         British mission in Lhasa is transferred to a newly independent
India
 1947-49 Tibetan Trade Mission travels to India, Britain, U.S., and
China;
             mission meets with British Prime Minister Clement R. Attlee
 1949    People's Republic of China is proclaimed by Chinese Communist
Party
         PRC recognizes Mongolia, announces its intention to `liberate'
Tibet
 1950    Red China invades Tibet; Tibetan army destroyed in battle at
Chamdo
 1951    17-point agreement between China and Tibet; Chinese occupy
Lhasa
 1956    Tibetans in Kham and Amdo (Qinghai) begin revolt against
Chinese rule
         Dalai Lama visits India for 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha's
birth
 1957    The United States begins to arm the Tibetan resistance via CIA
 1959    Anti-Chinese revolt spreads to Lhasa; 14th Dalai Lama flees to
India
 1960    International Commission of Jurists: `acts of genocide [have]
been
             committed...to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group.'
[ICJ1]
 1960-62 Tibet experiences its first famine as grain is requisitioned by
PLA
 1962    China-India War: China advances beyond McMahon Line, then
withdraws
         First communes set up in TAR; property collectivized w/o
compensation
 1964    The Panchen Lama is arrested after calling for Tibetan
independence
 1963    DL approves a democratic constitution for a future liberated
Tibet
 1965    China sets up Tibet Autonomous Region in U-Tsang and western
Kham
 1966-69 Cultural Revolution: Red Guards vandalize temples, attack `four
olds'
 1971    The United States cuts off military aid to the Tibetan
resistance
 1974    Nepal forces the Tibetan resistance to abandon its base in
Mustang
         Sikkim votes overwhelmingly to join India; Ladakh opened to
tourists
 1978    Visitors find 8 temples left in TAR, down from 2,700 in 1959
[Far95]
 1979    Tibet is opened to non-Chinese tourism for the first time since
1963
 1979-80 China allows a series of three delegations from DL to visit
Tibet
 1980    CCP leader Hu Yaobang visits Lhasa; he promises to `relax'
controls
             and `restore the Tibetan economy to its pre-1959
level.'[Strauss]

·


         `Responsibility system' distributes collectivized land to
individuals
 1982    Writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn calls CCP regime in Tibet `more
brutal
             and inhuman than any other communist regime in the
world.'[Walt3]
 1985    Bomb defused in Lhasa during the TAR 20th anniversary
celebration
 1987    Police fire on a massive pro-independence demonstration in
Lhasa
 1988    Qiao Shi, politburo member and internal security chief, visits
Tibet
             and vows to `adopt a policy of merciless repression.'
[Asia90]
         Speaking in Strasbourg, France, the Dalai Lama elaborates on
his 1987
             `five point' proposal for Tibetan self-government within
China.
 1989    Police kill 80-150 in Lhasa's bloodiest riots in 30 years
[Schwartz]
         Martial law imposed in Lhasa; Dalai Lama receives Nobel Peace
Prize
 1990    China lifts martial law in Lhasa 13 months after imposing it
 1992    China creates incentives to encourage foreign investment in TAR
         Chen Kuiyuan named CCP leader for Tibet, calls for a purge of
those
             who `act as internal agents of the Dalai Lama
clique.'[Kristof93]
         Over 30,000 visitors arrive in TAR's `Golden Year of Tibetan
Tourism'
 1993    Residents of Lhasa protest for independence, against inflation
and
             the charging of fees for formally free medical services
[Kaye93]
 1994    Potala, former residence of the DL, is restored at a cost of $9
mln.
 1995    A report on Chinese human rights violations, including one case
where
             a Tibetan nun was beaten to death, is narrowly rejected by
the UN
         DL recognizes 6-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as 11th Panchen
Lama
         The 60th birthday of Tenzin Gyatso, 14th DL, is celebrated on
July 6
         Lavish festivities are held to mark the TAR's 30th anniversary
(9/1)
         DL visits U.S.; criticizes U.S. for delinking human rights and
trade


B2) What were the roles of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas in Tibetan
history?


 The Dalai Lama was traditionally considered supreme in both temporal
and
 spiritual matters while the Panchen Lama was traditionally considered
 supreme in spiritual matters. A contradiction is therefore created when
the
 two lamas disagree, a recurring problem in Tibetan history.

 Tenzin Gyatso, the current Dalai Lama, was born to a Tibetan peasant
family
 in Qinghai in 1935. He was discovered at the age of two by a search
party of
 high-ranking monks who gave him various traditional tests and concluded
that
 he was the reincarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama (1876-1933). He was
 proclaimed 14th Dalai Lama in 1939 by the Tshongdu.

 When the Chinese occupied Tibet in 1951, the Dalai Lama at first
attempted
 to cooperate with the new rulers. But concern for his personal safety
 sparked an anti-Chinese revolt in 1959. He then fled to India, crossing
the
 border just ahead of pursuing Chinese troops. He now heads a government-
in-
 exile which administers Tibetan refugee camps and has its headquarters
in
 Dharamsala, India. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989 and has met
with U.S.
 Presidents George Bush and Bill Clinton. His autobiography, listed
under
 question E5, is banned in Tibet.

 The first Panchen Lama (1570-1662) was the tutor of the `Great Fifth'
Dalai
 Lama (1617-1682). As a result of a dispute between the Tibetan
government
 and the Panchen Lama's Tashilhunpo Monastery over tax arrears, the 9th
 Panchen Lama (1883-1937) fled to Mongolia in 1923. He died fourteen
years
 later at Jyekundo in Qinghai, still an exile.

 His officers (_labrang_) chose as 10th Panchen Lama (1938-89) a boy
born in
 Qinghai. At the insistence of China, the Tibetan government confirmed
this
 choice in 1951. The Panchen Lama was then brought to Tibet by a Chinese
 military escort and enthroned.

 Despite repeated Chinese demands that he do so, the Panchen Lama never
 denounced the Dalai Lama. In 1964, the Panchen Lama made a speech in
which
 he declared, much to the surprise of his Chinese handlers, that `Tibet
will
 soon regain her independence.' He also sent a `70,000 character letter'
to
 Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai which accused his government of pursuing a
policy
 aimed at `genocide and elimination of religion.'

 In response, the Chinese accused the Panchen Lama of
`counterrevolutionary
 crimes.' He was then arrested, imprisoned, and tortured. He was
released in
 1977, married an ethnic Chinese, and moved to a large house in the
center of
 Beijing. As a vice chair of the National People's Congress, China's
national
 assembly, he often appeared on Chinese television. He died in 1989 of a
heart
 attack, according to reports in the Chinese media. [Southerland89] In
1995,
 the Dalai Lama recognized the six-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the
11th
 Panchen Lama.


B3) Did slavery exist in old Tibet?


 The following account was written by Sir Charles Bell, who was the
British
 administrator for Chumbi Valley in 1904-05. At that time, Chumbi Valley
was
 under British occupation pending payment by Tibet of an indemnity which
 resulted from the Younghusband Expedition of 1904.

     Slaves were sometimes stolen, when small children, from their
     parents. Or the father and mother, being too poor to support their
     child, would sell it to a man, who paid them _sho-ring_, `price of
     mother's milk', brought up the child and kept it, or sold it, as a
     slave. These children come mostly from south-eastern Tibet and the
     territories of the wild tribes who dwell between Tibet and Assam.

     Two slaves whom I saw both appeared to have come from this tribal
     territory. They had been stolen from their parents when five years
     old, and sold in Lhasa for about seven pounds each. Of their
country
     they remembered but little save that it was isolated, and outsiders
     who entered it were killed. [Bell24]

 In China, slavery was officially banned in 1909. But it continued to
exist
 in practice well into the 1950s. It is estimated that in 1930 China
 had about 4 million child slaves (_nu2bei4_). [Meltzer93]


B4) What is the historical basis of the Chinese claim to Tibet?


 Here is how the Chinese Communist magazine _Beijing Review_ explains
it:

     From ancient times, the Mongolians had been one of China's
     nationalities. In the 13th century, their power expanded rapidly.
     Genghis Khan united the tribes under a centralized Khanate in 1206.
     The outcome was a unified country [China] and the formation of the
     Yuan Dynasty in 1271.

     In the process, the Mongol Khanates peacefully incorporated Tibet
     in 1247 after defeating the Western Xia and the Jin.

     With a unified China, the Yuan Dynasty contributed greatly to the
     political, economic and cultural development of the nation's
various
     nationalities--in strict contrast to the feuding that had gone on
     since the late years of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). To argue that
the
     Mongolians' campaign to unify China was fundamentally the
imposition
     of rule by a foreign power is wrong because it misses the basic
point
     of Chinese history that China is a multi-national country. Whether
it
     was the Mongolians, the Manchus (who founded the Qing Dynasty), or
any
     other peoples, it has always been a case of one Chinese nationality
     replacing another. It is completely out of the question to claim
that
     the Mongolians or the Manchus were outsiders who conquered China.
     [BR-F89]

 A Tibetan view is provided by the current Dalai Lama:

     During the Vth Dalai Lama's time [1617-1682], I think it was quite
     evident the we were a separate sovereign nation with no problems.
The
     VIth Dalai Lama [1683-1706] was spiritually pre-eminent, but
     politically, he was weak and disinterested. He could not follow the
     Vth Dalai Lama's path. This was a great failure. So, then the
Chinese
     influence increased. During this time, the Tibetans showed quite a
     deal of respect to the Chinese. But even during these times, the
     Tibetans never regarded Tibet as a part of China. All the documents
     were very clear that China, Mongolia and Tibet were all separate
     countries. Because the Chinese emperor was powerful and
influential,
     the small nations accepted the Chinese power or influence. You
cannot
     use the previous invasion as evidence that Tibet belongs to China.
In
     the Tibetan mind, regardless of who was in power, whether it was
the
     Manchus, the Mongols or the Chinese, the east of Tibet was simply
     referred to as China. In the Tibetan mind, India and China were
     treated the same; two separate countries. [Gyatso89]


B5) What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644-1912)?


 The Tibetan view of their relationship with the Qing Empire was
expressed
 by the 13th Dalai Lama in his 1913 proclamation of independence: `The
 relationship between Tibet and [imperial] China was that of priest and
 patron and was not based on the subordination of one to the other.'
 [Walt4]

 Subordination was, however, an integral part of the Chinese view of
 international affairs. In traditional Chinese legal doctrine, the
emperor
 was a universal ruler. Any territory that was not under direct imperial
 administration was considered to be either tributary or rebellious.
 In the official records of the Qing dynasty, _Da Qing Lichao Shilu_,
 various nations with a wide variety relationships with the Qing Empire
 are listed as tributary states (_shu2guo2_), including Korea, Vietnam,
 Tibet, Britain, and even the Papacy. [Walt5]

 In Qing documents written during the early years of the dynasty, Tibet
is
 referred to as a _guo2_ (nation). [Brunnert12] This suggests a status
 equivalent to that of, say, Korea or Vietnam. In later years, however,
 Tibet is referred to as a _fan1bu4_ (dependency). [Walt6]

 In reaction to a British military expedition to Lhasa in 1904, the Qing
 government began to assert itself more vigorously in Tibetan affairs.
 This change in policy is reflected in the maps that were published in
 China during this period.

 The earliest example I have found of a map which shows Tibet as a part
of
 China was published in Shanghai in 1910. [Atlas10] In contrast, a
popular
 Chinese atlas first published in 1879 has a map of the Qing Empire
which
 shows Korea, Manchuria, Taiwan, and China proper, but not Tibet.
[Yang75]

 While the Qing (or Manchu) Empire is often referred to as `China,' it
was
 in fact a multi-national dynastic state. Turks, Mongols, Manchus,
Koreans,
 and ethnic Chinese (Han) were each governed on a separate basis and no
 attempt was made to create a common nationality or citizenship. Since
1911,
 however, the Chinese government has based its legitimacy on ethnic
Chinese
 nationalism.


B6) What was Tibet's status immediately prior to China's 1950-51
invasion?


 In international law, there are four requirements that an entity must
 satisfy to be considered an independent state. They are:

              1) a permanent population
              2) a defined territory
              3) a government
              4) the capability of entering into relations with other
states

 In a report published in 1960, the International Commission of Jurists,
a
 Geneva-based human rights organization, concluded that the Dalai Lama's
 government satisfied these requirements:

     The view of the COMMITTEE was that Tibet was at the very least a
_de
     facto_ independent State when the Agreement on Peaceful Measures in
     Tibet was signed in [May] 1951, and the repudiation of this
agreement
     by the Tibetan Government in 1959 was found to be fully justified.
In
     examining the evidence, the COMMITTEE took into account events in
     Tibet as related in authoritative accounts by officials and
scholars
     at first hand with the recent history of Tibet and official
documents
     which have been published. These show that Tibet demonstrated from
     1913 to 1950 the conditions of statehood as generally accepted
under
     international law. In 1950, there was a people and a territory, and
a
     government which functioned in that territory, conducting its own
     domestic affairs free from any outside authority. From 1913-1950
     foreign relations of Tibet were conducted exclusively by the
     Government of Tibet and countries with whom Tibet had practice as
an
     independent State. [ICJ2]

 There are, however, a number of governments which satisfy the legal
 requirements for independence, but which are nonetheless not generally
 considered to be independent states. For example, the Soviet republics
of
 Byelorussia and Ukraine certainly had permanent populations, defined
 territories, governments, and were even members of the United Nations.
 But before the breakup of the Soviet Union, few considered them to be
 independent.

 It is perhaps more useful to exam whether Tibet was considered to be
 independent both by the Tibetan government itself and by those
governments
 that dealt with the Tibetan government. Several quotations that
represent
 the views of such governments are given below.

 The official view of the British government was expressed in the
following
 note sent to the governments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and
South
 Africa on 4 June 1943:

     Tibetans are a different race from Chinese and have a different
     religion, language, and culture. They have never been absorbed
     culturally by the Chinese; on the contrary, Chinese in Tibet have
     often become more Tibetan than Chinese. For over thirty years they
     have enjoyed _de facto_ independence and do not wish to be
     resubjugated. Their memories of Chinese rule are those of disorder
of
     and incompetence, whereas the Dalai Lama's administration has great
     moral authority. Chinese nationalists claim all territories
formerly
     incorporated in the Manchu dynastic empire, but as the new China is
     based on a purely Chinese nationalism there appear to be few
grounds
     on which China can justifiably assert unqualified control over a
     nation isolated by geography, already self-governing and determined
to
     retain the same independence which China advocates for other
countries
     of the Far East such as Burma and the Malay States. [Walt2]

 A `Treaty of Friendship and Alliance' was concluded between Mongolia
and
 Tibet in Urga on 11 January 1913. Its first paragraph is as follows:

     Mongolia and Thibet, having freed themselves from the dynasty of
the
     Manchus and separated from China, have formed their own independent
     States, and, having in view that both States from time immemorial
have
     professed one and the same religion, with a view to strengthening
     their historic and mutual friendship...[they] have made the
following
     agreement. [Walt7]

 Finally, a Chinese view is provided by _Beijing Review_:

     The word "independence" has different meanings. In the early stage
of
     the revolution, many provinces declared "independence." In this
     context, "independence" involved ending the Qing Dynasty rule
rather
     than the establishment of a new nation separate from the country as
a
     whole. This is clearly expressed in Sun Yat-sen's declaration of
     January 1912 on the republicanization of the Han, Manchu,
Mongolian,
     Hui and Tibetan nationalities when he was interim president:

         "After Wuhan took the lead to revolt, several other provinces
         declared independence. This `independence' meant exclusion of
the
         Qing court through alliances with other provinces. This also
         applies to Mongolia and Tibet."

     In October 1912 when the government of the Republic of China
     reconfirmed the 13th Dalai Lama's right to his title, Tibet did
     neither refuse to accept the decision nor demand independence.

     At this point, it is worth mentioning the so-called "Mongolia-Tibet
     Treaty" that was much rumoured at the beginning of 1913. According
to
     some foreign newspapers, this treaty opened with a statement that
     following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia and Tibet had
     declared themselves independent nations. The 13th Dalai Lama and
his
     followers denied this rumour (as has been recorded in various books
     written by some foreigners), unlikely behaviour if he had really
     wanted independence. [BR-F89]

 In view of the allegation made in the last paragraph, it should be
noted the
 the existence and validity of the Mongolia-Tibet Treaty is acknowledged
in
 _Information Mongolia_ (1990), a book compiled by the Mongolian Academy
of
 Sciences. [Academy90].


Section C: HUMAN RIGHTS

C1) Are Tibetan women being forced to have abortions?


 The following account is from _Sky Burial_ (1993) by Blake Kerr. Kerr
is
 an American physician who visited Tibet in 1987.

     I spoke with a Tibetan nurse named Chimi who had worked for three
     years at Lhasa's People's Hospital. She explained to me China's
     family-planning policy for urban Tibetans. Chimi had learned
English
     well and we were able to speak without a translator.

     "Tibetan women are allowed to have two children," Chimi said, "but
if
     they have one this is considered best. The work unit leader is in
     charge of enforcing the central government's policies. In public
     meetings that everyone is required to attend, women are told that
it
     is best to have one child. If they are sterilized after the first
     child, praise will be given for being a good citizen.

     "If a woman has a second child," she continued, "the child will
have
     rights. But this is discouraged. Sterilization is done
automatically
     on many women delivering their second child at Chinese hospitals.

     "Having a third child is strongly discouraged. An illegal child has
     no ration card for the monthly allotment of Tibetan dietary staples
     at government stores: seven kilos of _tsampa_, one-half kilo yak
     butter, and cooking oil. Without a ration card a child cannot go to
     school, do organized work, travel, or own property.

     "In villages there are thousands of illegal children. Tibetans
would
     rather have their own way." When asked how these children survived,
     Chimi said that such "illegal persons" had to do things like
collect
     dung....

     My stomach felt queasy as Chimi described how "unauthorized"
     pregnancies were routinely terminated with lethal injections. Chimi
     said that she herself had given hundreds of these
injections....[Kerr93]


C2) How are Tibetan political prisoners treated?


 The following quote is from a 1988 news story that appeared in _The
 Washington Post_. It is based on the interviews of two former prisoners
 arrested on March 5, 1988 during a large pro-independence
demonstration.
 Both former prisoners were held at the Gutsa detention center near
Lhasa.

     [The released lay prisoner] said that interrogators beat seven
monks
     from one monastery, and then stuffed all seven into a small
confined
     water channel. The guards then "stomped all over their bodies," he
said.

     "They beat us with whatever was at their disposal, including wash
     basins and mugs," he said. "They kicked us and used pistol butts
and
     ...wooden sticks on us."

     The released prisoner said that interrogators used electric cattle
     prods as an instrument of torture. Some prisoners also underwent
the
     "Chinese rope torture," he said.

     "I saw people hanging from ropes tied to their arms behind their
     backs, suspended with their feet off the ground. Two of the people
I
     saw had their shoulders dislocated by the rope. Many became

·


     unconscious as a result."

     Both former prisoners said that those who were treated most harshly
     in the prisons were Tibetan nuns. Most of the imprisoned nuns have
     been released from prison but were said to be reluctant to talk
about
     the experience.

     The most brutal of the guards were said to be Tibetans, not
Chinese.
     [Southerland88]

 A recent Amnesty International report includes a list 628 Tibetans who
spent
 at least some time in prison during the period 1992-94 as result of
their
 political beliefs. [Strib95]


C3) How many Tibetans have died as a result of the Chinese occupation?


 The following table was made up by the Bureau of Information of the
 Tibetan government-in-exile:


             TIBETAN DEATHS UNDER CHINESE OCCUPATION (through 1988)

  CAUSE OF DEATH       U-Tsang            Kham         Amdo
Total
 ------------------------------------------------------------------------
---
  Prisons,Labor Camps   93,560           64,877       14,784
173,221
  Torture               27,951           48,840       15,940
97,731
  Execution             28,267           32,266       96,225
156,758
  Uprisings            143,253          240,410       49,042
432,705
  Starvation           131,072           89,916      121,982
342,970
  Suicide                3,375            3,952        1,675
9,002

  TOTAL                427,478          480,361      299,648
1,207,387

 Source: [Kewley90]


Section D: STATISTICAL ISSUES

D1) What is the total population of Tibet?


                      Tibetan Population (in millions)

      Year    All Ethnic Tibetans     Tibet Aut. Reg.       Source
   ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     1268           1.0                     --           [Goldstein81]
     1900           1.0                     --            [McEvedy78]
     1953           2.776                 1.274           [Banister87]
     1964           2.501                 1.251           [Banister87]
     1982           3.870                 1.892           [Banister87]
     1990           4.593                 2.196         [BR-D90][BR-N90]
     1992            --                   2.28             [Fiske94]

 The figure for 1268 is an estimate made by American scholar Melvyn
Goldstein
 on the basis of a Mongol census taken during that year. The figures for
1953,
 1982, and 1990 are Chinese census results. The 1992 figure is an
official
 Chinese estimate.

 Although officially described as census results, the figures for 1964
are
 actually estimates published by China's State Statistical Bureau in its
 report on the 1982 census. The apparent decline in population between
1953
 and 1964 is more likely to be the result of an overcount in the 1953
census
 than of any actual decline in population.


D2) How many ethnic Chinese live in Tibet (population transfer)?


 The view of the Tibetan government-in-exile is provided by its
Department
 of Information and International Relations:

     Despite the lack of exact figures, and despite Chinese denials, the
     evidence points to a deliberate and long-standing population
transfer
     policy. The policy is carried out largely with the help of
Government
     incentive programs for Chinese from various Chinese provinces to
     relocate in Tibet. Higher wages, special housing, business and
pension
     benefits are but some of the incentives provided. China's fourth
     population census in 1990 put the Chinese population (including a
     small number of Mongols) in the Tibetan provinces of Kham and Amdo
at
     4,927,369. However, it is said that there is at least one
unregistered
     Chinese against every two registered ones. The actual Chinese
     population, both registered and unregistered, in these areas should
be
     about 7.5 million. In the recent years, China is reported to have
     stepped up the transfer of its population to the "TAR" also.
[Info93]

 Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) states that, `The
 Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian
 population into the territory it occupies.'

 In the previous quote, the word `Tibet' is used to refer to the entire
 Tibet-Qinghai Plateau. In contrast, the quote below, from a 1994
_Washington
 Post_ news article, uses the word to refer to TAR only, a much smaller
area.

     Accurate figures for the ethnic breakdown of Tibet's population are
     difficult to obtain and are disputed by Chinese officials and the
     Tibetan exile community. Many Western analysts say the exile
     community's figures are highly exaggerated.

     Of Tibet's population of about 2.2 million, there are an estimated
     66,000 ethnic Chinese with permanent residence status, according to
     Chinese officials. Not included are another 40,000 Chinese
     entrepreneurs who are part of an unofficial "floating population"
and
     between 40,000 and 65,000 soldiers and paramilitary police, putting
     the total Chinese population in Tibet at no more than 8 percent...

     In Lhasa, about 50 percent of the population of 150,000 is now
     Chinese, longtime residents and Western analysts say. [Sun94]

 A 1995 report by the Tibet Support Group UK estimated TAR's `total non-
 Tibetan population to be between 250,000 and 300,000, not including
small
 groups of peoples indigenous to the region.' The report also concluded
that,

     For all the Chinese defined Tibetan autonomous areas (including the
     TAR) we estimate the total non-Tibetan population to be between 2.5
     to 3 million; figures based on Chinese statistics from 1990 claimed
     the non-Tibetan total population to be 1.5 million; figures based
on
     Chinese statistics from 1990 claimed the total Tibetan population
for
     all the Tibetan autonomous areas to be 4.34 million. [Tibet95]


D3) What are Tibet's economic statistics?


                               Tibet (TAR)   China (PRC)      USA
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------
  Per capita GNP in U.S.
    dollars (1991)                254           370          22,535
  Average annual growth in
    real income (1985-91)         5.5           8.1            0.8
  Telephone main lines per
    100 population (1992)         0.01           1             56
  Percentage of adults who
    are literate (1990)           56            74             97

  Sources: [Fiske94], [Overholt93], [US Census94], [World94]


Section D: FURTHER INFORMATION

E1) What World-Wide Web sites have further information about Tibet?


 CMU Lycos: the Catalog of the Internet
http://www.lycos.com/

     Carnegie-Mellon University's Internet search engine. Not
specifically
     a Tibetan-related site: can be use to find information on any
topic.
     Point Survey's number-one-rated Web site.

 DharmaNet Electronic
   Files Archive             http://sunsite.unc.edu/dharma/defa.html

     An online Buddhist library maintained by DharmaNet International.

 Free Tibet Home Page        http://www.manymedia.com/tibet/index.html

     This site maintains a list of Tibetan support organizations and
their
     programs; articles with suggestions for action you can undertake to
     help Tibetans; and a Tibetan reading and resource list.

 Global Network Navigator--Travel Center

http://nearnet.gnn.com/gnn/meta/travel/features/bigworld/bigworld14.html

     `Live from the Yak Hotel,' a traveller's tale by Jeff Greenwald.

 Home Page of Tibet
http://sage.cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/Welcome.html

     This site features an essay on Tibetan history from a Chinese
     perspective by Professor T.T. Moh of the America-Tibet Association.

 IHEP/China (US mirror site)
http://solar.rtd.utk.edu/~china/tour/tb.html

     This site is maintained by the Institute of High Energy Physics in
     Beijing.

 Janis Font's Home Page
http://www.voicenet.com/voicenet/homepages/kunga

 Milarepa Project
http://www.nando.net/music/gm/BeastieBoys/Info/Milarepa/

     The Milarepa Project is part of the Music Kitchen site. Its file on
     Tibet was supplied by Adam Yauch of the Beastie Boys.

 Snow Lion Web Site          http://www.well.com/user/snowlion/

     A catalog of books on Tibet available from Snow Lion Publications.

 Talk.Politics.Tibet FAQ (An indexed version of this document.)

http://www.manymedia.com/tibet/TibetResourcesPolFAQ.html

 Tibet Awareness Page
http://www.earthlight.co.nz/users/sonamt/tibetinf.html

 Tibetan Studies WWW Virtual Library

     text     http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVL-TibetanStudies.html
     images
http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Map/tibetmaps.html
     images
http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Art/tibetart.html

     These URLs are part of the Asian Studies WWW Virtual Library
maintained
     by the COOMBS Computing Unit of Australian National University,
     Canberra. They provide web links to 120 facilities worldwide with
Tibet-
     related information.

 Tibet Current Affairs
     http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Current/tin-
bulletins.html

     An on-line archive of current affairs analyses and news bulletins
     maintained by the London-based Tibet Information Network.

 Tsurphu Foundation Home Page
http://www.maui.net/~tsurphu/karmapa

     Information about Tsurphu Monastery, home of the Karmapas.


E2) Where do I find information concerning travel to Tibet?


 An FAQ on traveling to Tibet was written by <[e-mail]>.
 It can be accessed via the following URL:

 http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Travel/travel-faq.html


E3) What Tibet-oriented mailing lists can I subscribe to?


 You can have news about Tibet from a variety of viewpoints e-mailed to
 you by subscribing to World Tibet News. To subscribe, send an e-mail
 request to <[e-mail]>. In the body of the message, type
 `SUB WTN-L' followed by your full name (NOT your e-mail address). For
 example: SUB WTN-L Jane Q. User

 Tibet-L is a mailing list for discussing issues related to Tibet.
According
 to the description provided by Sonam Darjyay
<[e-mail]>,
 owner of the list, `News and views, comments and questions are welcome
 on topics such as tours of lamas, conferences, exhibitions, and
seminars
 too. Particularly welcome are submissions on political developments in
 Tibet.'

 To subscribe, send an e-mail request to
<[e-mail]>.
 In the body of the message type `SUBSCRIBE TIBET-L' followed by your
full
 name. To cancel your subscription, send the command `SIGNOFF TIBET-L'
in
 e-mail to <[e-mail]>. Send articles to be posted
on
 the list to <[e-mail]>.


E4) What are the addresses of some organizations that deal with Tibet?


   AUSTRALIA

 Office of Tibet
  3 Weld Street, Yarralumla, Canberra ACT, 2600
  Tel: [phone] and (61-6) 282-4306  Fax: [phone]
  [The Australian office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.]


   CANADA

 Canada-Tibet Committee
  4675 Coolbrook, Montreal, Quebec H3X 2K7
  Tel: [phone]      Fax: [phone]
  E-mail: <[e-mail]>
  [Publishes World Tibet Network News, which is distributed weekly on
  both the talk.politics.tibet newsgroup and on the Tibet-L mailing
  list. The CTC is currently raising funds to improve Internet access
  for Tibetans living in India.]


   INDIA

 Bureau of His Holiness the Dalai Lama
  10 Ring Road, Lajpat Nagar IV, New Delhi 110024
  Tel: [phone]      Fax: [phone]
  [The Dalai Lama can be e-mailed at the Tibetan Computer Resource
  Center <[e-mail]>. Use "TO: His Holiness" as the
  subject.]

 Department of Information and International Relations
  Central Tibetan Administration, Gangchen Kyishong, Dharamasala 176 215


   UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 International Campaign for Tibet
  1735 Eye Street, NW, Suite 615, Washington, DC 20006
  Tel: [phone]      Fax: [phone]
  E-mail: <[e-mail]>
  [The ICT has produced a tourist map entitled `On This Spot: An
  Unconventional Map and Guide to Lhasa,' which includes `uncensored
  stories behind Lhasa's tourist sites.' The mail order cost is $6.95.
The
  ICT also publishes _Tibet Press Watch_, a bi-monthly magazine for ICT
  members. Membership costs $25 a year.]

 Office of Tibet
  241 E 32nd St., New York, NY 10016
  Tel: [phone]      Fax: [phone]
  E-mail: <[e-mail]>
  [The North American office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.]

 Students for a Free Tibet
  241 E 32nd St., New York, NY 10016
  Tel: [phone]      Fax: [phone]
  E-mail: <[e-mail]>

 Tibetan Review, Potala Publications
  241 East 32nd St., New York, NY 10016
  [_Tibetan Review_ is published monthly in New Delhi by Tibetans. A
  subscription is $20 a year.]

 Tibetan Women's Association
  241 E. 32nd St., New York, NY 10016
  Tel: [phone]
  [Working to see that the interests of Tibetan women are represented at
  the United Nations Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995.]


   UNITED KINGDOM

 Campaign Free Tibet
  30 Hollingbourne Gardens, Ealing, London W13
  Tel: [phone]

 Office of Tibet
  Tibet House, 1 Culworth Street, London NW8 7AF
  Tel: [phone]      Fax: [phone]
  [The British office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.]

 Tibet Information Network
  7 Beck Road, London E8 4RE
  Tel: [phone]     Fax: [phone]
  E-mail: <[e-mail]>
  [Independent news gathering and distribution service on Tibet]


E5) What books about Tibet would you recommend?


 Goldstein, Melvyn C. _A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: the Demise
of
     the Lamaist State_, Berkeley, 1989, xxv+898 pages. A nonpartisan,
     authoritative account by the foremost scholar of modern Tibetan
     history.

 Grunfeld, A. Tom. _The Making of Modern Tibet_, London, 1987, x+277
     pages. A pro-Chinese account by a Canadian sinologist.

 Gyatso, Tenzin, Dalai Lama XIV. _Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of
the
     Dalai Lama_, New York, 1990, xiv+288 pages. The life story of a man
who
     describes himself as `a human being, and incidently a Tibetan, who
     chooses to be a Buddhist monk' (p. xiii).

 Harrer, Heinrich. _Seven Years in Tibet_, New York, 1953, xiii+288
pages.
     A classic tale of travel and adventure, told by an Austrian
mountain
     climber who became a tutor to the Dalai Lama.

 Richardson, Hugh Edward. _Tibet and its History_, Boulder, 1984, 327
pages.
     A British view, previously published as _A Short History of Tibet_.

 Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. _Tibet: a Political History_, New Haven, 1967,
     xii+369 pages. Shakabpa led the 1947-49 Tibetan Trade Mission which
     `travelled around the world on _Tibetan_ passports' (p. 323).

 Snellgrove, David L. and Richardson, Hugh Edward. _A Cultural History
of
     Tibet_, Boston, 1986, 307 pages. A classic survey, now updated.
     Richardson was head of the British mission in Lhasa from 1937 to
1947.

 Walt van Praag, Michael C. van. _The Status of Tibet: History, Rights
and
     Prospects in International Law_, Boulder, 1987, xxiv+381 pages.
Makes
     a thoroughly documented case for Tibet's status as an independent
     nation.


Section F: SOURCES


 [Academy90] Academy of Sciences, MPR. _Information Mongolia: The
     Comprehensive Reference Source of the People's Republic of Mongolia
     (MPR)_, Oxford, 1990, p. 119.
 [Asia90] Asia Watch Committee. _Merciless Repression: Human Rights
Abuses
     in Tibet_, New York, 1990, p. 1. A UPI report said that this remark
     was made in a meeting with TAR local administrators in July 1988.
 [Atlas10] _Atlas of China = Ta-Ch'ing Ti-kuo Ch'uan-t'u_, Shanghai,
1910,
     map I.
 [Banister87] Banister, Judith. _China's Changing Population_, Stanford,
1987,
     pp. 322-23.
 [Bell24] Bell, Charles, _Tibet: Past and Present_, Oxford, 1924, pp. 78-
79.
 [BR-D90] `Population of China's Ethnic Nationalities,' _Beijing
Review_,
     Beijing, 24 Dec 1990, p. 34.
 [BR-F89] "`Tibetan Independence'-- Fact or Fiction?" _Beijing Review_,
     Beijing, 13 Feb 1989, pp. 25-30.
 [BR-N90] `Tibetan Population Outgrows Average,' _Beijing Review_,
Beijing,
     26 Nov 1990, p. 10.
 [Brunnert12] Brunnert, H. S. and Hagelstrom, V.V. _Present Day
Political
     Organization of China_, Shanghai, 1912. p. 467. This example is
from
     a 1694 decree issued by the Kangxi emperor.
 [Far95] `High Stakes,' _Far East Economic Review_, Hongkong, 22 June
1995.
 [Fiske94] Fiske, John D., _China Facts & Figures Annual: 1994_, Gulf
Breeze,
     1994, pp. 88, 260, 293, 296.
 [Giles1] Giles, Herbert A. _A Chinese English Dictionary_, London,
1912,
     pp. 415, 1496.
 [Giles2] Ibid. pp. 504, 1434-35.

·


 [Goldstein81] Goldstein, Melvyn C. `New Perspectives on Tibetan
Fertility
     and Population Decline,' _American Ethnologist_, Washington, Nov
1981,
     pp. 721-38.
 [Gyatso89] Gyatso, Tenzin, Dalai Lama XIV. _Tibet, China and the World:
A
     Compilation of Interviews_, Dharamsala, 1989, p. 31.
 [ICJ1] International Commission of Jurists, Legal Inquiry Committee on
Tibet.
     _Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic_, Geneva, 1960, p. 3.
 [ICJ2] Ibid. pp. 5-6.
 [Info93] Department of Information and International Relations, Central
     Tibetan Administration. `Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts,'
Dharamasala,
     1993.
 [Kaye93] Kaye, Lincoln. `Raging Inflation: Lhasa Price Protest
Escalates into
     Anti-Chinese Riot,' _Far Eastern Economic Review_, Hongkong, 3 Jun
1993,
     p. 13.
 [Kerr93] Kerr, Blake. _Sky Burial: An Eyewitness Account of China's
Brutal
     Crackdown in Tibet_, Chicago, 1993, pp. 163-64.
 [Kewley90] Kewley, Vanya. _Tibet: Behind the Ice Curtain_, London,
1990,
     p. 392.
 [Kolmas67] Kolmas, Josef. _Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino-
     Tibetan Relations up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912_,
     Canberra, 1967, pp. 27-28.
 [Kristof93] Kristof, Nicholas D. `Communist Party Chief Calls for a
Purge
     in Tibet,' _The New York Times_, New York, 14 Feb 1993, p. 11.
 [Meltzer93] Meltzer, Milton, _Slavery: A World History_, New York,
1993,
     Vol. II, p. 258.
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 [Southerland88] Southerland, Daniel. `Tibetan Tells of Torture: Monk
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 [Southerland89] Southerland, Daniel. `The Panchen Lama, Religious
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 [Schwartz] Schwartz, Ronald D. _Circle of Protest: Political Ritual in
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 [Tibet95] Tibet Support Group UK. _New Majority Chinese Population
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 [US Census94] U.S. Bureau of the Census. _Statistical Abstract of the
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 [Walt1] Walt van Praag, Michael C. van. _The Status of Tibet: History,
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 [Walt2] Ibid. p. 79.
 [Walt3] Ibid. p. 196. The quote is from a speech Solzhenitsyn made in
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 [Walt4] Ibid. p. 318.
 [Walt5] Ibid. p. 112.
 [Walt6] Ibid. p. 36. This example is from a telegram sent by the Qing
     Foreign Ministry to the Ambans in Lhasa in 1904.
 [Walt7] Ibid. p. 320.
 [World94] _World Almanac and Book of Facts: 1995_, New York, 1994, p.
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Peter Kauffner                                      Copyright 1994, 1995
Minneapolis, Minnesota
[e-mail]

`There are many great nations on this earth who have achieved
unprecedented
wealth and might, but there is only one nation which is dedicated to the
well-
being of humanity and that is the religious land of Tibet, which
cherishes a
joint spiritual and temporal system.'--resolution of the Tibetan
National
Assembly, 1946