B B B B B B B B B B B B B BrGLOSSARY:EARLY MYTH AND THE GODDESS INANCIENT CHINAB B B B B B B B B B B B B B E E E EIllustrations appear here and elsewhere in the registered versionof this glossary.⌐ 1994Ben BlumenbergReality SoftwarePO Box 105Waldoboro, ME 04572-0105Af Ahab - The son and successor of Omri, King of Israel (c.859 - 850 B.C.), AhabÆsqueen was Jezebel who was the daughter of Ethbaal King of Tyre. AhabÆs rulepromoted strong and stable government and he successfully defended Israel against theAramean kingdom of Damascus. He is also the first king of Israel to do battle againstthe Assyrian empire and in 853 B.C., he put 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers in thefield against Shalmaneser III at Qarqar. The Bible focuses upon AhabÆs encounterwith the prophets and judges him rather harshly, most likely because he allowed Jezebelto follow the cult of Baal.f ancestor worship - The worship and veneration of family ancestors, both topay respects to the elderly and the presumed wisest members of the clan is only oneaspect of ancestor worship. In China and elsewhere, ancestors could exert a powerfulinfluence on the events of this world and time and so were supplicated and prayed toboth in private moments and structured rituals. Such ancestors were not accorded thestatus of deities, however. They were, in effect, powerful but human immortals livingon an invisible plane. Ancestor worship so dominated Chinese ritual from the ChouDynasty onwards that it had the extraordinary effect, in conjunction withConfucianism, of reducing myth and the world of the gods to a realm of secondary andlesser importance. See the discussion in the text.f Annals of Master Lu - Lⁿ-shih chÆun-chÆiu was compiled by Master Lⁿ whodied in 235 B.C.. There is a Han Dynasty commentary upon it written by Kao Yu in205-212 A.D..f Anyang Period - Late in the Shang Dynasty, the capital was moved to Anyangwhich is northeast of the modern city of that name. Excavations have uncovered apalace and temple complex, housing for the aristocracy and commoners and workshops.There is also a royal cemetery of shaft tombs and sacrificial burials, nearly 1200 ofwhich are human. The Anyang Period lasted from c.1200 to c.1040 B.C. andencompassed the rule of eight or nine kings. The vast majority of the inscribed oraclebones of the Shang Dynasty come from this period. The ritual activities of Shangrulers are unusual in the extraordinary reliance that seems to have been placed upondivination through oracle bones which were primarily the plastrons of turtles. Seedivination and oracle/oracle bones below. Although the Shang aristocracy wrote with apictographic script whose characters are the precursors of those in modern Chinese,the only surviving examples of their writing are the divinations inscribed on the oraclebones. There is no evidence of a literature of any kind, be it mythic history or poetry,nor of the more prosaic business records which provide so many examples of earlyscripts and writing in the Near East. As discussed extensively in the text, Shang mythhas only recently been reconstructed by a process of backward extrapolation from Chouand Han Dynasty texts as tested against descriptions recorded on the oracle bones.f Aristotle - The extraordinary genius of Aristotle needs no introduction. Hewas born in 384 B.C., the son of a physician, and died in 322 B.C.. At the age of 17 heentered PlatoÆs Academy in Athens and remained there until PlatoÆs death in 347 B.C..He then journeyed first to Assos and then to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos, madefamous by the 7-6th century B.C. poetess Sappho. From 343 to 340 B.C., Artistotletutored Alexander (soon to be called ôThe Greatö) at the invitation of his father Philipof Macedon. In 335 he returned from Macedonia to Athens and founded a schooloutside the city in grove sacred to Appolo Lyceius and the Muses. He collectedmanuscripts and maps and organized research in all the sciences, history and religion.AristotleÆs reputation rests upon his surviving works in philosophy and religion whichwere not published until 84 B.C. by Sulla in Rome.f Atad - Atad is derived from the Akkadian etidu and means æthornsÆ or æbrambleÆ.In Genesis it is the name of the threshing floor east of the Jordan where JacobÆs familymourned his death. Atad may have an obscure but important ritual significance: seethe text.f axis mundi - A cosmic pillar, or axis mundi, is a connection between æearthÆ andæheavenÆ and therefore between secular and sacred time. The cosmic pillar may exist inthis æworldÆ and be a symbolic object constructed by humans or it may reside insupranatural dimensions and be forever æmythicalÆ.E E E E E E E E E EBf Baal - Baal was a Near Eastern thunder-sky god with lightening as his weaponwho was cast from the typical Indo-European mold. As a weather god, the windows inhis palace were openings through which rain flowed and he was therefore a god offertility essential to agricultural prosperity. Ugaritic literature preserves his myth cycleand tells of his battles against the Leviathan Lotan, Yamm (Sea) and Mot (Death).BaalsÆ cult was widespread in Syria and Palestine during the times of the OldTestament and his consort was Asherah and/or Astarte. The Israelites who followedtheir own thunder-sky god Yahweh saw themselves as waging constant battle againstthe followers of Baal as related in both Kings and Judges. Although Yahweh and Baalwere nearly identical in their primary roles as thunder-sky gods, reconciliation was notpossible because BaalÆs cult practice featured erotic sexual rituals that deeply offendedthe Israelites. Baal was a powerful nature god while the Israelite Yahweh wasultimately transcendent and visionary.E E E E E E E E E ECf ChÆang-hsi - The Mother of the Twelve Moons (Chang Xi) is the consort of theGod of Heaven Ti Chⁿn and plays a major role in the Mulberry Tree Myth of theShang Dynasty. She washed each moon after their nighttime journey. See the text.f ChÆ ia - The active force of the center is a complex philosophical concept centralto Taoism. ChÆia is an emptiness that links the ætwoÆ into a form equivalent to theoriginal state of unity. This is a paradise condition of total harmony which orders theinteraction and synthesis of the dual principles yin and yang. They cycle through acontinued process of going out (rising, swelling, expansion) and returning (contraction,coagulation, lowering) which is mediated by the æemptinessÆ of the center. In earliestTaoist thought, chÆia is the primordial principle that constantly connects allphenomenal forms with the Mother and thus reveals the presence of a Mother Goddessin early (?Shang) myth which is now almost beyond reconstruction (Giradot 1983:61). The practicing Taoist hopes to embrace Tao so as to be renewed by experiencingthe condition of æthreeÆ - dualities informed by chÆia.f ChÆing Dynasty - The ChÆing Dynasty was founded in 1644 by the Manchuand lasted until 1911 when it was succeeded by the ill-fated Republic. The Manchupeople of China are descendants of the nomadic Jurchens, who had both male andfemale shamans. They first impact the recorded history of China when they conqueredportions of the northeast and established the Jin Dynasty in 1115 A.D. During theChÆing Dynasty the Manchu were at the height of their power, for they conquered andruled a unified China.f Chang O - Chang O was married to Yi the Archer and she stole the elixir ofimmortality from the Queen Mother of the West. She ascended to the moon and wastransformed into a toad, which explains the unusual association of the toad with boththe moon and immortality.f Chin Dynasty - This short-lived dynamic dynasty (221 - 206 B.C.) witnessedthe first unification of China and the establishment of an empire by its founderEmperor Shin-huang. During this period the Great Wall was built and there was aterrible intellectual cleansing of history which saw an attempt to burn all history andliterature unrelated to Chin in 213 B.C..f Chiu ko - The Nine Hymns are a collection of eleven (!) religious poems forceremonies in which sorceresses address various deities and they reveal importantdetail about the rituals. They were written by Yⁿan of ChÆⁿ (c.350 - c.285 B.C) who isconsidered one of ChinaÆs greatest poets.f Chou Dynasty - About 1040 B.C., the Shang were overthrown by the Chouand the change was revolutionary: a complete realignment of the political and mythiclandscape took place. The Chou originated in an area of the present-day north Chinaprovince of Honan, which was geographically different from that of the Shang people:see the map in the text. As discussed at great length in the book, the Chou replacedthe central Shang myth of the Mulberry Tree and reduced the number of suns from tento one, as the tale of Yi the Archer relates. Their ethnicity and mytho-poetics werevery different from the Shang. The Chou produced ChinaÆs first recorded literature,philosophy, myth and poetry, some of which preserved fragments of Shang thought.Their first king was Wu Wang and he established the Western Chou Dynasty whichlasted until 771 B.C. with several capitals, the most important of which was Hao. WuWang conquered the crown prince of the Shang, Wu Keng, and his successor ChÆengWang unified Shang and Chou territories into a single empire. Repeated incursions bynomads in the northwest forced the capital to be moved to Lo-yang in the east in 771B.C. and this event initiated the Eastern Chou Dynasty which was to last until 221B.C.. The number of walled city-states greatly increased as provincial feudal lordsbecame powerful and independent. The Chou established ChinaÆs longest liveddynasty and the first to rule most of what is now present-day China.f Chuang Tzu - The Chuang Tzu is a very important early Taoist book that is avaluable source for early myth. Although it bears the name of the great Taoistphilosopher Chuang Tzu (c.369-286 B.C.), it is a composite work representing severalauthors of divergent views working in different centuries. Giradot (1983) finds that aunified structure underlies the first seven chapters and the earliest material may datefrom the 4th century B.C..f Classic of History - The Shu ching is also known as the Shang shu oræAncient HistoryÆ. It is a compilation whose sections were written between the lateChou Dynasty and the 3rd century A.D. and it was regarded as the record of thegovernment and institutions of the Sage Kings, which was to be used as model for alloccupants of the ædragon throneÆ. A twenty chapter commentary was written in the 2ndcentury B.C. by KÆung An-kuo and a second commentary was authored by KÆung Ying-ta (574-648 A.D.). The section entitled ôDocuments of the Shang Dynastyö, whichhad been required study for the official government examinations for centuries, wasshown by Yen Jo-chⁿ (1636-1704) to be a forgery.f Classic of Mountains and Seas - The Shan hai ching (Shanhaijing) is acompilation of late Chou and Han Dynasty natural history and myth written betweenthe 3rd century B.C. and the 1st century A.D., which exists in several versions and isconsidered a primary reference for historians. It supposedly is a record of the speechesand acts of the Sage Kings and other important figures of the legendary Golden Age ofthe remote past. According to Birrell (1993), the Classic of Mountains and Seasprovides numerous examples of the conversion of myth into history.f Confucius - Confucius needs no introduction but details of his life are difficultto determine with precision. His proper name is KÆung ChÆiu and he was born aboutthe middle of the 6th century B.C. at Tsou, a small fortified provincial town of whichhis father was governor. His family claimed descent from the Dukes of Sung, theancient Sage Kings. His father had married at seventy and the family was very poor.We know nothing about the childhood or education of Confucius. In the last years ofthe 6th century, he attached himself to a young nobleman who attempted to usurp theposition of the Prime Minister of Chi, one of the three great states of China at thistime. The attempt failed and Confucius then acquired a position with the PrimeMinister whose family had held this hereditary position. He became a trustedadministrator of an important Chi city, Chung-tu. In 492 B.C. a new Prime Ministerdid not show him favor and he was forced to resign his posts and leave the court.Confucius, with several followers, then wandered from one state to another and hebegan to develop his philosophy of government, which was a look backward to theassumed morality and filial piety of the Sage Kings. Because of the favor accorded animportant disciple, he was able to return to Chi and he organized a formal school in thecapital. There are no writings from Confucius himself which have survived, indeed it isnot clear if he ever set down his ideas in writing: that task was apparently left to hisdisciples. He accepted all students even if they could not pay his full fee.Confucius is often portrayed in our times as a cerebral, intellectual philosopherbut such was hardly the case. He believed that the Duke of Chou, brother of thelegendary King Wen spoke to him in dreams and conveyed to him the wisdom of theSage Kings. He claimed to transmit ancient tradition, not create a new philosophy. Hetaught ancient books, ritual and politics. Individuality was of no concern. The Virtueof the emperor, which derived from the Mandate of Heaven, determined the balance ofgood and evil in the people and therefore the emperor was directly responsible for thebehavior and conduct of his people. Yet, every man could improve himself and changeby studying the ancient texts and acting with a superior morality and altruism. Theancient rites hold the key to this program of self improvement and the system wasaristocratic to the core. The ultimate goal was to have a superior man acquire a highposition in government and so influence the many.f cosmic snake - The earliest mythic snake as it appears in the Paleolithic andcontinues throughout the Neolithic was not a symbol of evil but a creature of 1)eternal renewal and immortality as exemplified by the sloughing off of its skin duringeach molt; and 2) a representative of dynamic, endlessly creative life energy. Thecompressed spiral assumed by a coiled snake is an archetypal symbol of powerful, latentenergy about to be released. When the Goddess became anthropomorphized during theevolution of Neolithic societies, one of her major epiphanies was that of the SnakeGoddess who combined these symbols into a powerful metaphor. Snake Gods arenonexistent in the Neolithic cultures of Old Europe and very rare elsewhere. (Orientaldragons are not snakes, although some scholars believe their ancestry includes inputfrom the India naga serpent.) The authors of Genesis, rewrote the character of theSnake Deity in a manner which has had a profound impact on all Western ritual andpsychology ever since. The Snake Goddess of the Near East, now dominated by anIndo-European thunder sky god (Yawheh), performs one last act of spiteful betrayalagainst her master. The snake in the Garden of Eden manipulates Eve into eating theapple of the Tree of Knowledge and seducing Adam to do the same. In the past, gnosisbrought forth a state of sublime spiritual grace and great understanding. However,Yawheh is a jealous, defensive and powerful god who wishes to reserve ultimateUnderstanding for himself. He will not tolerate the achievement of true insight byhuman beings. Rather than reward Adam and Eve, as would have been done in non-Christian myth, they are punished for both desiring an attribute of the gods andactually acquiring a bit of it. The Snake Goddess has performed her mission as in eonspast but She is now cursed by Yawheh to forever crawl in the dust on her belly. Heracolytes suffer terribly from the bestowal of her grace, acquiring a knowledge of goodand evil. They will be forever plagued by sin and guilt, as their behavior is labeledarrogant and deserving of a complete fall from YawhehÆs favor. Yawheh has establishedhis dominance in the opening chapters of the Old Testament, not by understanding orcompassion, but by rewarding what in former times would have been taken as animportant spiritual change with a cruel punishment which will be repeated again andagain as Israelite history of the first millennium B.C. unfolds. That legacy, in turn, wastransmitted to Christianity.f cosmology - This is the science of ultimate beginnings, the search for the FirstCause, and how it began the evolution of the universe and the æworldÆ. Cosmologyresearch is conducted with the tools of modern astrophysics or the ritual of myth.E E E E E E E E E EDf Daedalus - Daedalus is a Greek god whose biography contains Cretan, Dorianand Attic elements. He was a legendary craftsman, the inventor of carpentry and itstools, as well as ship masts and rigging. Among his craft accomplishments are thelabyrinth for the Minotaur on Crete, which he built for King Minos, and the sacredthread of Ariadne. He was a skilled metalworker and built wooden statues that walked.Enraged by the aid Daedalus gave Pasiphae, King Minos imprisoned him and his sonIcarus. Daedalus constructed two pairs of wings for himself and his son. They escapedbut when Icarus flew too near the sun, the wax in his wings melted and he plunged tohis death.f Dark Lady - She is the obscure Chinese Goddess of War who taught the YellowEmperor military strategy.f Dawenkou Culture - This is a Neolithic culture of ChinaÆs east coast whichpre-dates the Shang and produced pottery vessels whose legs are sculpted to resemblefemale breasts. See the text. Burials with rich grave goods speak to the emergence ofan aristocracy who partook of the benefits of a far flung trading network.f divination - The primary definition of ædivinationÆ in the American HeritageDictionary is ôthe art of foretelling future events or revealing occult knowledge bymeans of augury or an alleged supernatural agency.ö æTo divineÆ is to determine the willof the gods and such rituals are still widespread throughout the world in many religions.(It should be self evident why one would want to know the desires of the gods.) Inancient China, and to a lesser extent in Japan as well, divination was performed usinganimal bones which were subjected to intense heat from a flaming branch after theproblem at hand had been inscribed upon them by the diviner. The pattern of crackswhich then emerged was interpreted by the diviner who was the only functionarytrained to do so.The Shang ruling families and court, like few others, were obsessed withdivination and they used buffalo scapula and the plastrons (ventral half of the æshellÆ) ofturtles as the medium for contacting the gods. More than 100,000 such oracle boneshave been found and catalogued. Their inscriptions are about ritual propositions andthe proper offerings to be made to ancestors and nature spirits in order to influenceimportant events. The goal of the divination was to ascertain whether or not the kinghad obtained the favor of the spirits or High Lord. The problems addressed revealmuch about the Shang state and politics of the time. Much less is revealed about mythbut that which is known is of great importance: see the text.E E E E E E E E E EEf E Huang - The third wife of Ti Chⁿn is E Huang who gave birth to the Tribe ofthe Three Bodied People. She is also named as wife of the Sage King Shun: see text.f Elijah - The Biblical description of Elijah suggests that he came from a family ofshepherds in Transjordan. He was an important Israelite prophet who lived during thereigns of the kings Ahab and Ahaziah in the first half of the 9th century B.C.. Hefought vigorously against the Tyrian cult of Baal which had been imported into Israelby AhabÆs wife Jezebel. As related in 1 Kings 16, in order to establish YahwehÆssupremacy, he declared a drought as a direct challenge to Baal as a fertility god and topunish Israel for its idolatry. The drought occurred and Yahweh won this powercontest; the priests of Baal were killed. He survived a pursuit by Jezebel to continuehis confrontation with the cult of Baal.f epiphany - The manifestation of a deity in symbolic form as distinct from thedirect appearance of a god or goddess in their primary anthropomorphic form is anepiphany. The Bird Goddess often manifests as a swan: the swan is her epiphany.The Goddess of Death often manifests as a vulture: the vulture is her epiphany. Theappearance of the Great Goddess with the form of a human female would not beconsidered an epiphany; there is little, if any, symbolism to interpret in this case. Theanthropomorphic deity indicates that æwhat you see is, in fact, what isÆ. Nonetheless,the absence of an epiphany does not indicate an absence of metaphor, merely that suchmetaphor cannot be easily perceived in the outward physical form of the deity.f Esau - The oldest son of Isaac and Rebeccah, he forfeited the primary birthrightand blessing of his family either because of his own foolishness or JacobÆs trickery. Hewas the rejected son displaced by the younger Jacob and tradition portrays him as thegracious older brother. In later writings, Esau is linked with Edom which was IsraelÆsrival and thus becomes focus for hostility and political conflict.E E E E E E E E E EFf Feng Su TÆung - The Explanation of Social Customs was compiled by Ying Shaowho lived from c.140 to c.206 A.D..f Fu Hao - The most extraordinary woman of ancient China known to us by nameis Fu Hao, the consort of Wu Ting the fourth Shang king to rule at Anyang. Her royaltomb was discovered intact and undisturbed in 1976. Fu Hao was a woman ofextraordinary character and strength. She led military expeditions on behalf of WuTing and occasionally presided at state sacrifices. A number of Shang oracle bones areknown of divinations which were undertaken on her behalf. Questions were askedabout child birth, rituals and her military expeditions. Some of the inscriptions refer toher as royal consort or feudal vassal but others describe her as a military commanderwith the title of general.f Fu-hsi - He is the consort of the goddess Nⁿ-kua and male half of the primevaldivine couple, Fu Hsi is depicted on Shang bronzes as a snake deity, his lower body, asis that of Nⁿ-kua, is serpentine. He emerges in early myth as a culture hero, theinventor of hunting, fishing nets, the Eight Trigrams, cooking and is often depictedholding a carpenterÆs square and knotted rope.f Fu Sang Tree - The sacred Mulberry Tree of the central Shang myth is the FuSang Tree. It grows in the East and at its foot is the Valley of the Sun which containsa pool of water in which the Ten Suns bathe. The æYellow SpringÆ, which raneverywhere beneath the earth, came to the surface at the feet of the Fu Sang and itscounterpart in the West, the Ruo Tree. The Ten Suns which bathed in a pool of waterat the foot of the Fu Sang and dwelt on its branches were birds. This is an extremelycomplex myth whose explication is very concise: see the discussion in the text.E E E E E E E E E EGf Goddess of Salt River - Defeated by the Lord of the Granary in a mythrecorded from a Han Dynasty text, this petulant Sun Goddess revealed a wantondestructive nature that endangered the æworldÆ.E E E E E E E E E EHf Han Dynasty - The Han continued the legacy of their short-lived predecessors,the Chin. They established a strong central government and empire that lasted formore than four centuries, from 202 B.C. to 220 A.D., and sought to soften the brutalexercise of power wielded by the Chin. The government itself believed that it had aduty to investigate the workings of the universe and Han intellectuals spent enormousenergy in classifying phenomena into a hierarchical system so that all might beunderstood. This obsession with the creation of a single comprehensive science recallsthe conviction that grew out of the Scientific Revolution in the West that thepractitioners of reductionist, quantifiable, analytic science were journeying upon theonly path that could lead to complete a understanding of the universe. Nonetheless,Confucian philosophy of the Han Dynasty rested upon lofty, yet pragmatic principles.Heaven, earth and man formed a divine trinity. It was the duty of humankind tounderstand the laws of Heaven in both the religious and scientific sense. Economicwelfare, which had its foundation in attention to the earth and agriculture, was deemedthe basis of morality. Moral defects in the common people reflected moral deficienciesin the emperor who had been unable to create the conditions that would allow peopleto be virtuous. The path to profit and virtue must be identical because the massesdesire and deserve material wealth and cannot be expected to adopt the lifestyles ofenlightened scholars who deliberately choose poverty to enhance their spirituality.Peace and prosperity are the foundation of the society. Moral training and educationare accomplished through rituals and rites, music and the study of literature. Theultimate product of this system is the sage who because of his immense learning haddeveloped the most acute and refined moral sense possible. The proper role of the sageis not to teach or retire in contemplation to the wilderness but to engage in governmentservice and to advise the emperor. Thereby will his influence be most profound andaffect the greatest number of people. This short summary outlines the Confucianphilosophy which dominated the Han era and ironically, its elitist tone permeated adynastic era whose founder Liu Chi was of common origins (see de Bary 1960: 145-149).fth Hesychius - A lexicographer of the 5century A.D., his major work is knownonly from a badly preserved 15th century copy. What remains, however, is invaluablefor the close textual study of Greek dialects, inscriptions and poetry.f Hou-tÆu - Empress Earth is a shadowy primeval deity in China about whom littleis known but her existence serves to establish the presence of an earth goddess in theNeolithic. She was the grandmother of KÆua-fu, who with extreme hubris, challengedthe sun to a race against light and time and died of thirst. In later Chinese myth andphilosophy, the Earth is divine and sacred but of indeterminate sex. TheConfucianistÆs relentless pursuit of the pragmatic, demythologized the sacred andproduced abstract conceptions of deity that at first glance appear to be primitive. ThisæprimitivenessÆ is an illusion and ædegenerateÆ would be a more appropriate descriptionas they are the product of an overwrought intellectual distillation.f Hsi-Ho - She (Xihe) is the Mother of the Ten Suns and consort of the God inHeaven, Ti Chⁿn. See the extensive discussion in the text. Hsi Ho is also the name ofthe charioteer of the sun who in some traditions is explicitly female. Hsi and Ho arealso the names of the oldest sons of two families whose duties were to calculate thecelestial motion of the sun.f Hsia (Xia) Dynasty - The dynasty which preceded the Shang is known asthe Hsia and it most likely encompassed the time span c.2010 - 1324 B.C.. The Hsialived in southern Shansi and northwest Honan, which is the area of the earliest Shangcivilization. A royal genealogy is known from fragments of pre-Chin texts and was alsoorganized in the Shih chi. Some archeologists identify the lowest level of the excavationat Erh-li-tÆou as remnants of the Hsia Dynasty and it dates to 2010 to 1781 B.C..Above this level is what most archeologists agree is the site of Po, the capital cityestablished by King TÆang who founded the Shang Dynasty in 1766 B.C. according totraditional chronology although modern archeology assigns his reign to 1460-1441B.C.. Keightley (1983) sees all levels at Erh li-tÆou as properly belonging to the Hsia.Clay phalli point to the worship of male ancestors and divination with bovid scapulawas practiced. The Hsia also manufactured the first bronze vessels in China and underthe Shang that technology produced some of the worldÆs greatest art. Whether or notthe Hsia were a truly distinct dynastic lineage or the earliest phase of the Shang is aquestion still debated by some archeologists, although the evidence seems to favor itsdistinct identity.f Huai-nan Tzu - This classical text presents the views of several philosophicalschools, mostly those of Taoism. It was compiled and partly written c.139 B.C. by LiuAn, a member of the Han royal family. The title of the book comes from his title, Kingof Huai-nan. The Huai-nan Tzu contains valuable mythological writings among whichare several versions of early Chinese cosmology.f Huang O - The Son of the White Emperor successfully courted the goddessHuang O as told in a 6th century A.D. text. Their child was the god Shao Hao, one ofwhose other names was ChÆiung Sang or Exhausted Mulberry. The reference to theShang world tree of the east, the Fu Sang or sacred Mulberry, is unmistakable. Hisother names are Phoenix Bird and Metal Sky and although the latter refers to the west,Shao Hao ruled over the east and his tomb is believed to be in Shantung, the birthplaceof Confucius.f hun-chÆeng - Tao is the primordial source principle, or æthingÆ which controls thecreation of heaven and earth first, then the primordial world. It was a perfect, total orcomplete fusion of all things: a cosmic totality. Cosmic totality is hun-chÆeng, whichmay be a corruption of an interpolation for hun-tun, æPrimal Chaos CreatressÆ!Therefore in the entymology of hun-chÆeng, there is a wisp of evidence that a primalCreatrix existed in Chinese mythology during the Neolithic. Other evidence points tothe same conclusion as discussed in the text.f hun-tun - Giradot (1983: 64) believes that in Chapter 42 of the Tao te Ching,ôHun-tun must be identified with the symbolism of a female creatress, perhaps thediving bird in Shan Hai-Ching and also with her offspring (embryo, egg, seed, gourd,drum, cocoon, sack, bellows)ö. The practicing Taoist is hoping to embrace Tao so asto be renewed by experiencing the condition of æthreeÆ dualities informed by chÆia. He isfeeding from the primal Mother of All Things. The condition achieved is childlike orwomb-like (Giradot 1983: 74). The Taoist wishes to return to the Primal ChaosCreatrix and so reintegrate with cosmic totality.f hunter/gatherer - The economy of nonagricultural tribal peoples involvessome combination of hunting animals and gathering plant foods.E E E E E E E E E EIf I Ching - The Book of Changes is one of the most famous books in all history. Itwas first written in the last centuries of the Shang Dynasty and the early part of theChou Dynasty. The I Ching is a manual of divination based upon a belief in thesynchronicity of the universe; all events occurring at a particular time are interrelatedby both vertical and horizontal causality. Traditionally, yarrow stalks or coins werethrown to construct each of the 64 hexagrams. As with Tarot and Astrology, in thecrudest of hands the I Ching becomes a superstitious childÆs plaything or adult parlorgame with which to foretell the future. Wielded by a subtle, educated and refinedcreative intuition, it becomes a valuable device with which to contemplate the past,present and future. Within the interpretation of the hexagrams lies important aspectsof yin-yang philosophy as well as some of the most esoteric Taoist teachings.Authorship of the I Ching is attributed to four individuals: Fu Hsi, one of thelegendary Sage Kings of the Neolithic; King Wen and his son, the Duke of Chou, whowere active in the 11th century B.C.; and Confucius. Except for Fu Hsi, whosehistorical existence cannot be confirmed, each of these individuals no doubt hadimportant input into the text. King Wen and his son wrote important interpretativetext for each of the 64 hexagrams and for each of the six lines which comprise eachhexagram. Confucius is known to have edited the I Ching and written an importantcommentary which is now incorporated into the body of the text. He is reported tohave wished for fifty more years of life in order to further his study of the Book ofChanges.f iconography and icons - Icons are images created for religiouscontemplation and/or to have active use in ritual; the former connotation has come topredominate. Iconography refers to a coordinated ælibraryÆ of such images which can beidentified within the artistic products of a religious system.E E E E E E E E E EJf Jacob - Jacob, whose name in Hebrew means æheel grabberÆ or æsupplanterÆ is anOld Testament patriarch who is the brother of Esau and the son of Isaac and Rebekah.Jacob may be a shortened form of Jacob-el, æmay God supplantÆ. He is the father ofDinah and twelve sons, each of whom founded one of the famous twelve tribes ofIsrael. JacobÆs name was later changed by Yahweh to æIsraelÆ and he embodies thenation. He carries many attributes, that of trickster figure, a reverent worshipper,penitent brother and benevolent father. Tradition locates Jacob in northern Israel andTransjordan and the historic Jacob may date to c.1720-1570 B.C. or the early Iron Agec.1200-900 B.C.. Like Abraham and Isaac, Jacob receives a divine promise of land andplentiful children.E E E E E E E E E ELf Lao Tzu - The Classic of the Way and the Power is attributed to Lao Tzu of the3rd century B.C. a legendary philosopher whose historical identity has yet to bepinpointed. The Classic of the Way and the Power is a philosophy of government andguide for a life of high principle for the aristocracy, yet it is based upon the Tao and isrich in Taoist doctrine. Much of the text discusses The Way (Tao) as the unknowablefirst principle which, if followed, produces a life devoid of strife, desire and coercion andfilled with spontaneous, effortless and inexhaustible action. The ideal emperor wouldbe a Taoist sage who would guide the people back to the primeval state of innocence,simplicity and harmony with the Tao. Compare this view of government with that ofthe Confucianists as summarized under the Han Dynasty above: there seems to belittle in common.f Lord of the Granary - The Lord of the Granary and the Goddess of Saltengage in a mythic power contest between complementary forces as their mythdiscussed in the text explains. He is the victor over a petulant and wantonlydestructive sun goddess whose anger at being rejected threatens the all living things inthe æworldÆ.E E E E E E E E E EMf maimed king - Widely dispersed in time and space throughout the Neolithicwere kingdoms and states that required their king to be ritually maimed, usually by asevere injury to the foot or thigh. This ritual, which strikes us as barbaric, is discussedat length in the text. The rationale behind such a seemingly brutal act was to makevisible to the people, with imagery that could not be misunderstood, that the pricedemanded of those who wield absolute power was terrible indeed. Such permanentinjuries were a mark of divinity, an unmistakable sign that the Goddess had chosen herconsort and therefore her beneficence was available to the people. An additionalmotive may also have been to impress upon the ruler in the strongest terms theawesome nature of his responsibility which could not be born without consequences.Imagine todayÆs politics if we required a serious physical sacrifice from our leaders thatsomehow confirmed the power and responsibility of office with integrity. A willingnessto submit to exhausting work schedules and media humiliation hardly suffices inmythic terms.f Manchu - The Manchu people of China are descendants of the nomadicJurchens, who had both male and female shamans. They first impact the recordedhistory of China when they conquered portions of the northeast and established the JinDynasty in 1115 A.D.. During the ChÆing Dynasty (1644-1911), the Manchu were atthe height of their power, for they conquered and ruled a unified China. By this time,their royal houses had nearly lost their original culture and were acculturated accordingto the timeless Han paradigm. They sought to strengthen imperial power by promotingthe official worship of a supreme deity and the Han Chinese ôMandate of Heavenöconcept that vested power in the emperor. Today, remote Manchu communities innortheastern China retain some of their original culture.f Mesolithic - This is the cultural stage that followed the Upper Paleolithic andis distinguished by the absence of agriculture and a great diversity of food acquiringeconomies. Big game hunting as a priority occupation for many peoples was no longeravailable as the great herds of megafauna had decreased and retreated northward withthe shrinking ice sheets and glaciers.f metaphor - See symbol vs. metaphor.f Mother of the Ten Suns - See Hsi-Ho.f Mulberry Tree Myth - See Fu Sang Tree.f mytho-poetics - This term emphasizes the poetic nature of mythicconstructs. Robert Graves believes that poetry first arose to sing the praises of thegods, worship the Muse (Goddess) and to express divine rapture. There is muchevidence to support this idea; poetry in the service of personal feelings without anyreference to æheavenÆ is decidedly rare in the ancient world, with only a handful ofexamples from Sumer and Egypt. Those cultivated sensibilities that rode the crest ofthe intellectual tidal wave in Greece and Rome more easily portrayed their privateworlds, but then they were the products of cultures in which consciousness arose inthe breakdown of the bicameral mind. The same may be said of the great poets ofclassical China. Indeed Confucianism, and to a lesser extent Taoism, can be seen tohave promoted in East Asia what is described by Julian Janes in the Origin ofConsciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Read Julian Jaynes (1976 ) ifyou have not yet done so. His work is one of the great insights of this century and ifyou take your myth and poesy seriously, neither will ever be the same again in yourhead after reading this work.E E E E E E E E E ENf Neolithic - The cultural stage which follows the Mesolithic is termed theNeolithic. The reference to ælithicÆ - stone tools - is a carryover from 19th centuryarcheology and misleading. Many of the most extraordinary developments of humanhistory began during this period: the Agricultural Revolution; incipient urbanism withlarge towns; hierarchical and class structured societies; serious, highly organizedwarfare; the rise and fall of Old European Goddess culture and the appearance andrapid spread of the Indo-Europeans.f node - A node is a point or region of minimum (zero) amplitude in a periodicsystem. It is also either of two diametrically opposite points at which the orbit of aplanet intersects the ecliptic or the two points at which the orbit of a satellite intersectsthe orbital plane of its planet. Astronomers in ancient China and elsewhere were awarethat the phases of the moon were amplitude variations in a periodic system. Theawareness of such astronomical knowledge as genuine science did not prevent itsincorporation into the fundamental mechanisms of astrology; in fact, it enhanced andlegitimized astrology.f Nu-kua - The transformative primeval Goddess in ancient China was theCreatrix of humankind and savior of the cosmos. As was her consort Fu Hsi, she wasfirst depicted as a theriomorph with a serpentine lower body. In later myth she marriedher brother and this act establishes the paradigm of marriage. Her life and times, mythsand deeds, are discussed extensively in the text.E E E E E E E E E EOf oracle bones - See divination.f Origin of Hereditary Families - The author of the Han era Shi pen isunknown. There is an extensive commentary written by Sung Chung in the late 2nd orearly 3rd century A.D..E E E E E E E E E EPf PÆan Ku - PÆan Ku is a great titan who appears in Chinese myth several centuriesafter the earliest records of Nⁿ-kua. He was born when sky and earth were separatedat creation: PÆan means coiled and Ku means antiquity. On his death his body partsgave rise to the different parts and inhabitants of the universe: his body lice becamehumans. The myth of a great god or titan whose body parts give rise to the ætenthousand thingsÆ is archetypal and found in many cultures world wide. Birrell (1993)believes this myth originated in southwest Asia among a non-Chinese people.f Paleolithic - Paleolithic means Stone Age and is an archeological designationapplied to the first stages of human culture wherein there was an extensive use of stonefor making tools. The Upper Paleolithic is the last of three Paleolithic stages and makeits first appearance in the archeological record in Eurasia, c.100,000 B.C.,approximately coincident with the beginning of the last great ice age. The last part ofthe Upper Paleolithic which started c.35,000 B.C. saw the appearance and spread ofHomo sapiens sapiens, anatomically modern humans indistinguishable from ourselves.These people created the most elaborate culture of the Upper Paleolithic and their artand sculpture bears witness to a complex mythology and religion which I havediscussed elsewhere (Blumenberg 1993). Global warming brought an end to the rapidsuccession of ice sheet advance and retreat, helping to cause a rapid dwindling of thegreat herds of megafauna. Upper Paleolithic culture came to an end, dependent as itwas upon the hunting of big game, and the Mesolithic era began.f Pliny - Gaius Plinius, known as Pliny The Elder (c.23 - 79 A.D.), was born atComum and educated at Rome. He spent twelve years in the Roman cavalry mostly inGermania. He disliked NeroÆs rule but found Vespasian congenial and, toward the endof his life, was a counselor to both Vespasian and Titus. He was appointed commanderof the fleet at Misenum and when observing the eruption of Vesuvius from a boatoffshore he was overcome by the volcanic fumes and died. Seven major writingprojects of his are known but only his 37 volume Naturalis Historia has survived,which set a new standard for comprehensiveness.f Plutarch - L.(? )Mestrius Plutarchus of Chaeronea, the famous philosopherand biographer, was born c. 50 A.D. and died c. 120 A.D.. He visited Egypt and Italyand taught in Rome. He was scholar of antiquities and for the last 30 years of his lifeserved as a priest at Delphi. A catalog of PlutarchÆs works lists 227 items, many ofwhich have survived thanks to Byzantine scholars. PlutarchÆs writings and historieshad a profound influence on the Renaissance.E E E E E E E E E EQf Queen Mother of the West - She (Xi Mu) a wild and unkempt Goddesswho appears in early Chinese mythology. She rules a mountain kingdom in the Westand she bears a strong resemblance to the Greek Artemis. The Queen Mother of theWest has a pantherÆs tail and tigerÆs fangs. Wild beasts and birds bring her messagesand food. Her sacred mountain range is KÆun-lun which is an axis mundi, a sacrednodal place that links Heaven and Earth. It is a paradise where mortals who arefavored become immortal and can communicate with the gods. Like Artemis, she is anavenging Goddess and can bring the plague; in this latter aspect she resembles theGoddess of Disease in India and Tibet.E E E E E E E E E ERf Record of Immortals - The Yung-chÆeng chi hsien lⁿ was compiled inYung-chÆeng by Tu Kuang-tÆing (850-933 A.D.).f Researches of Lost Records - The Shih yi chi is attributed to Wang Tzu-nien who was active c.335 to 386 A.D.. The text was reconstructed by Hsiao ChÆi inthe 6th century A.D..E E E E E E E E E ESf Sage King - Sage King is a title given to six male culture heroes of the ChineseNeolithic, who may or may not have been entirely mythical. The traditional datesassigned to them all fall in the latter centuries of the Yang-shao culture which precedesthe first ædynastyÆ in Chinese history. See the introductory table and its footnotes inthe text.f shamanism - Shamanism is not a religion per se, although it is often found inconjunction with animism and tribal goddess culture. It is a suite of ætechniques ofecstasyÆ of great difficulty and those who have mastered the methodology are shamans.The techniques facilitate soul journeys to æother worldsÆ, often the underworld or theDreamtime, in order to communicate with spirits and deities of varying degrees ofsignificance. Shamans are obligated by their very residence within the community andtheir unusual skill in these matters to communicate the fruits of such experiences to allmembers of the clan. Such communication ensures that the extraordinary insights areavailable to all, at least second hand. Therefore all may derive benefit from theknowledge so gained from supradimensions and, to the limit of oneÆs ability, integrate itin a personal manner and grow spiritually. Such knowledge is powerful and shamanshave a particular role in healing. Depending upon the culture, the profession is eitherhereditary or one is æcalledÆ to it by virtue of natural inclination. Although it origins arein the dim mists of the Paleolithic, shamanism survives today both in rural and cityenvironments and is central to the cultural re-awakening of the indigenous peoples ofboth the Americas and Australia.f Shang Dynasty - The Shang people established dynastic rule from a base insouthern Shansi and northwest Honan, c.1460 to 1040 B.C., and their culture is thefirst in China for which we have a great deal of information besides archeology. Duringtheir later period their rulers became obsessed with divination with oracle bones: seedivination and Anyang above. The earliest Chinese mythology which we canreconstruct in detail comes from the Shang and its substance and interpretation areexhaustively explored in the text.f Shih chi - The Records of the Historian or Historical Records was the firstcomprehensive history of the Chinese nation and comprised 130 chapters. It waswritten by Ssu-ma ChÆien (c.145 - 86 B.C.). Extensive commentaries were written byPÆei Yin in the 5th century A.D., Ssu-ma Chen in 730 A.D. and Chang Shou-chieh whowas active from 725 to 737 A.D..f Shuo-wen chieh tzu - An Explication of Written Characters (Showen) waswritten by Hsu Shen c. 100 A.D. and edited by Hsu Hsuan in 986 A.D..f Son of Heaven - During the Chou Dynasty the emperor was deemed the Son ofHeaven, empowered to rule by the great Lord in Heaven, Ti Chⁿn. This appellationcontinued to be applied to emperors until the fall of the last Chinese dynasty, that ofthe Manchu, in 1912 A.D.. As with many ancient mytho-poetics, Confucian valuesdictated that the emperors physical health and morality would direct the well being andbehavior of his subjects. This relationship defines one of the great gulfs between Eastand West. In the Old European cultures of pre-Indo-European Eurasia, the king wasthe semi-divine consort of the Goddess and empowered to rule by Her. Publicinauguration ceremonies established this fact with rituals that invoked extremelypowerful imagery that could not be forgotten by any of those who were present.f Songs for Suburban Sacrifice, in 19 Parts - The set of hymns wehave from the reign of the Han Emperor Wu is called Songs for Suburban Sacrifice, in19 Parts. Some of the songs praise deities associated with the seasonal cycle and otherscelebrate contemporary æhistoricalÆ miracles. Emperor Wu (141-87 B.C.) was a longlived, powerful ruler with a deep interest in the arts and religion. He personallyintervened at the highest policy levels to impose his taste upon literary, musical andliturgical forms. In 113 B.C. he established devotion to TÆai-i, Great Unity during thewinter solstice of 113 B.C. and also the honoring of a Spirit Mistress in the imperialpark. He founded and introduced many cults and rituals during these two years andpersonally attended worship at major ceremonies. Hymns for religious rituals were putinto a framework of contemporary music and dance.f Songs of ChÆu - The ChÆu TzÆu (Chuci) is a goldmine of early history andmythology. It was compiled with a commentary during the Han Dynasty by Wang Yi(89-158 A.D.).f Songs to Set the World at Ease, for Private Performance -These are a set of hymns from the reign of the founder of the Han Dynasty EmperorKao-tsu (c.200 B.C.). They had been set to music by a consort of Emperor Kao-tsu,Lady TÆang, who was skilled in ChÆu music. These 17 hymns recited the ethical valuesof Confucianism and were performed at both rites of worship for the imperial ancestorsand court banquets.f symbol vs. metaphor - Symbols are codes for the actual thing. They are thesimple elements out of which complicated metaphors are constructed and theirinterpretation is usually linear. Red denotes warmth or blood; white, purity andgoodness; black coldness and death (for Indo-Europeans), etc. Metaphors arecomplicated multilayered icons or narratives in which symbols interact and combine tomake a deep, textural statement. The legend of King Arthur may be read as ametaphor for the wise, compassionate, but old society of any timeless time, fighting tosurvive the onslaught of a new, more powerful arrival which lacks the wisdom andinsight of the established order.E E E E E E E E E ETf Taliesin - An early and important Welsh bard (or druid?) who was active c.540A.D.. Several poems survive that are attributed to him.f Talus - Talus was the son of a sister of Daedalus and the inventor of the saw,compass and other mechanical instruments. His uncle became jealous of his fame andeither murdered him or threw him down from the citadel of Athens. The gods thenchanged Talus into a partridge.f Tao - The primordial source principle, or æthingÆ which controls the creation ofheaven and earth first, then the primordial world. It is a perfect, total or completefusion of all things: a cosmic totality - ôa chaotically complete one bodyö (Shao Po-wen1057-1134 A.D.). See chÆia and Lao-Tzu.f Tao Te Ching - The Classic of the Way and Power is most likely not the productof a single author such as Lao Tzu but ôthe result of a period of oral composition thatlasted ... from circa 650-350 B.C.. During this period, it was common for philosophersto travel from state to state within the disintegrating Chinese [Chou] empire, lookingfor a king who would put their ideas into practice. Initially their doctrines wereformulated orally and transmitted in the same fashion from generation to generationamong their followers. Finally one of the adherents would take it upon himself torecord the teachings of his master or school in short, pithy, classical Chinesestatements. Still later, others might make additions or correctionsö (Mair 1990: 120).f Ti Chun - The earliest personification of the high Lord in Heaven is Ti Chⁿn. Heis the consort of both the Sun Goddess Hsi-Ho and the Moon Goddess ChÆang-hsi inShang Dynasty myth which is discussed extensively in the text. He is favored by thebird of paradise. Ti Chⁿn gave Yi The Archer the bow and arrows with which to shootdown the Ten Suns when they all rose at once from the branches of the sacredMulberry Tree. He also ordered Yi to go down to earth and save mankind.f Treatise on Extraordinary and Strange Things - The Tu yi chihwas compiled by Li Jung who lived during the Tang Dynasty c.846-874.f Treatise on Research into Nature - The Po wu chih is attributed toChang Hua (232-300 A.D.) but may be an anonymous work written during the SixDynasties.E E E E E E E E E EVf vessel types: bi, hu, li, jue, kuang, yu and zun - These are some ofthe types of bronze and/or pottery vessels, with and without legs, that weremanufactured from the Shang Dynasty onwards. Consult Chang (1977) or Lawton(1991) for illustrations.E E E E E E E E E EWf water symbolism - Water symbolism, such as parallel wavy lines orrectangular areas of dots, permeates the iconography of Neolithic Old Europe and isfound throughout Neolithic cultures of Asia as well. Water was viewed as an endlesssource of divine creativity and a wellspring of all life. To the extent that a GreatGoddess lived in an ancient culture, she would be closely associated with cosmic wateras the primal creatrix. Water symbolism also merges with that of the cosmic snake(see above) whose sinuous form is also a symbol for cosmic water.f wattle and daub - An ancient technique of lightweight building constructionin which an interlaced wall of sticks and twigs (wattle) is covered with plaster or clay(daub).f Woman ChÆou - There are two myths of Woman ChÆou in the Classic ofMountains and Seas which are quite important because they suggest that shamanessesduring the Shang and Chou Dynasties in China may have undergone a ritual mutilationwith fire in order to counter the effects of a life threatening drought. It is known thatmale shamans were tortured and killed to bring relief from such natural calamities.E E E E E E E E E EYf Yang Shao Culture - The Yang Shao is one of the earliest farming culturesof the Chinese Neolithic which was centered in the Huang Ho Valley and it was verylong lasting (5700 to 2100 B.C.). The traditional dates assigned to the legendary SageKings place them in the last centuries of the Yang Shao. The Huang Ho Valley wasalso the location of the first three historic dynasties: Hsia, Shang and Chou. Villageswere characterized by a communal house at the center of a plaza surrounded by smallhouses whose doors faced the center. A pottery making center was located outside thevillage proper as was a village cemetery. Female symbols and those of cosmic water andcosmic snake are common on their pottery, which suggests that the early Neolithicgoddess was present in China.f Yaodian or æAnnals of YaoÆ- The Yaodian (Annals of Yao) is the firstchapter of the Shang shu (Classic of History) and is written in an archaic language. Itdates from the Chou Dynasty but whether c.800 B.C. or c.300 B.C. is the correct dateis at this time an unresolved problem. In the Yaodian the second section concerns theheavens and the calendar and is important to the attempt to reconstruct early myth.f Yellow Emperor - The Yellow Emperor is named Chi and was born of ShaoTien and is the half brother of the Flame Emperor who he defeated in a contest for theworld. Using the elemental weapon of water he also defeated the God of War, ChÆihYu, and then proceeded to conquer a number of deities. In later mythic tradition theYellow Emperor is portrayed as a culture hero who brought knowledge of boats, oars,agriculture, the fire drill and musical instruments. He was taught the secrets of thecosmos and supernatural beings by the Beast of White Marsh and the military arts ofwar by the Dark Lady. The Yellow Emperor is the third of the six legendary Sage Kingsof late Yang Shao times and he became the supreme deity of Taoism.f Yi The Archer - In Chou mythology, Yi was given a divine bow and arrows bythe Lord of Heaven Ti Chⁿn and ordered to save the people of earth by shooting nineof the Ten Suns when they rose in the east from the branches of the sacred MulberryTree. Exactly why such a mysterious act should be viewed as saving humankind is acomplicated matter. This myth, which is examined in detail in the text, tells of thesupplanting of the central Shang myth - that of the sacred Mulberry and its ten suns -by the mytho-poetics of the Chou who conquered them and believed in only one sun.Yi also received the elixir of immortality from the Queen Mother of the West but itwas stolen by his wife who ascended to the moon and metamorphosed into a toad. Hewas later killed by his rival Feng Meng.f yin-yang - The subtlety of Taoist yin-yang philosophy has been mangled in theWest by the familiar list of opposites joined in pairs: male-female, hot-cold, dark-light,etc. Nonetheless, there is a grain of realism in enumerating such pairs because yin-yang refers to the union of complementary forces without which there can be no trueunity, no complete wholeness. The union of such complements is a melding in whichthe identities of the individual components are not lost even while they have formed anew completeness. Taoists thus speak of 1 + 1 = 3; i.e. the two individualcomponents have not been lost even while they have combined. Yin plus yang plus thenew unified creation equal three æthingsÆ. See chÆia above.ReferencesAchtemeirer, P. J. 1985. HarperÆs Bible Dictionary. San Francisco: Harper & Row.Allen, S. 1991. The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art and Cosmos in Early China. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.Birrell, A. 1993. Chinese Mythology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.Blumenberg, B. 1993. Origins of Mythology v1.3. Waldoboro, ME: Reality Software, book on disk.Chang, K-C. 1977, 3rd ed. The Archeology of Ancient China. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.Cleary, T. 1986, transl. The Taoist I Ching. Boston: Shambala.De Bary, W. T. et al. 1960. Sources of Chinese Tradition: Vol. 1. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Hammond, N.G.L. and H.H. Scullard. 1979, 2nd ed. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Girardot, N.J. 1983. Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism. Berkeley: Univ. California Press.Keightley, D. N. 1978. Sources of Shang History. Berkeley: Univ. California Press.Keightley, D.N. 1983. ôThe Late Shang State: When, Where and What?ö In D.N. Keightley, ed. The Origins of Chinese Civilization. Berkeley: Univ. California Press.Legge, J. 1963, 2nd ed. The I Ching. New York: DoverLempriΦre, J. 1984, 3rd ed. LempriΦreÆs Classical Dictionary of Proper Names mentioned in Ancient Authors Writ Large. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Jaynes, J. 1976. The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Lawton, T. ed. 1991. New Perspectives on Chu Culture during the Eastern Zhou Period. Washington, D.C.: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery.Mair, V.H. 1990. Tao Te Ching. New York: Bantam Books.Maspero, H. 1978. China in Antiquity. Folkstone: Wm Dawson & Son. E E E E
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