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Two revolutions of Feb and Oct 1917 (Julian
calendar), which began with the overthrow of
the Romanov dynasty and ended with the
establishment of a Soviet state. The February
Revolution (Mar Western calendar) arose
because of food and fuel shortages, the
repressive nature of the tsarist government,
and military incompetence in World War I.
Riots in Petrograd led to the abdication of
Tsar Nicholas II and the formation of a
provisional government under Prince Lvov.
They had little support as troops,
communications, and transport were controlled
by the Petrograd workers' and soldiers'
council (soviet). Lenin returned to Russia in
Apr as head of the Bolsheviks. Kerensky
replaced Lvov as head of government in July.
During this period, the Bolsheviks gained
control of the soviets, and advocated land
reform (under the slogan `All power to the
Soviets') and an end to the war. The October
Revolution was a coup on the night of 25-26
Oct (6-7 Nov Western calendar). Bolshevik
workers and sailors seized the government
buildings and the Winter Palace, Petrograd.
The second All-Russian Congress of Soviets,
which met the following day, proclaimed
itself the new government of Russia, and
Lenin became leader. Bolsheviks soon took
control of the cities, established worker
control in factories, and nationalized the
banks. The Cheka (secret police) was set up
to silence the opposition. The government
concluded peace with Germany through the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, but civil war broke
out as anti-Bolshevik elements within the
army attempted to seize power. The war lasted
until 1920, when the Red Army, organized by
Trotsky, finally overcame `White' opposition,
but with immense losses.