Multimedia Mania/abacus-multimedia-mania.iso/dp/0023/00231.txt

Text File | 1993-07-27 | 30KB | 568 lines

$Unique_ID{bob00231}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{Indonesia
History. Ancient Times}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Department of Information Republic of Indonesia}
$Affiliation{Embassy of Indonesia, Washington DC}
$Subject{indonesia
dutch
indonesian
java
kingdom
ad
period
sumatra
later
king
see
pictures
see
figures
}
$Date{1990}
$Log{}
Title:       Indonesia
Book:        Indonesia 1990 an Official Handbook
Author:      Department of Information Republic of Indonesia
Affiliation: Embassy of Indonesia, Washington DC
Date:        1990

History. Ancient Times

     Indonesia did not exist as yet during the Palaeocene period (70 million
years BC), the Eocene period (30 million years BC), the Oligacene period (25
million years BC) and the Miocene period (12 million years BC). It is believed
that Indonesia must have existed during the Pleitocene period (4 million years
BC) when it was linked with the present Asian mainland. It was during this
period when the Homonids made their first appearance and the Java man
inhabited the part of the world now called Indonesia. The Java Man, named
Pitecanthropus Erectus by Eugene Dubois who found the fossils on the island
of Java, must have been the first inhabitant of Indonesia.

     When the sea level rose as the result of melting ice north of Europe and
the American continent, many islands emerged, including the Indonesian
archipelago. It was also during this period (3000-500 BC) that Indonesia was
inhabited by Sub-Mongoloid migrants from Asia who later inter-married with the
indigenous people. Later still (1000 BC) inter-marriage occurred with
Indo-Aryan migrants from the South-Asian sub-continent of India.

     The first Indian migrants mostly came from Gujarat in South-east India
during the first Christian era.

     The Caka period in Indonesia witnessed the introduction of the Sanskrit
language and the Pallawa script by the Indian Prince Aji Caka (78 AD).
Besides, the Devanagari script of the Sanskrit language was also used as shown
in ancient stone and copper inscriptions (paracasthies) which have been
unearthed. The language and scripts were adapted and called the Kawi language
which includes words and phrases derived from Javanese.

     Early trade relations were established between South India and Indonesia.
Sumatra was then named Swarnan Dwipa or "the island of gold", Java was called
Java Dwipa or "the rice island" and a Hindu kingdom in Borneo was named Kutai.
Relations between the Buddhist kingdom of Crivijaya in Sumatra and Nalanda in
South India were not confined to religious and cultural exchanges which later
developed into diplomatic relations, but even covered a wide range of trade.

     The influx of Indian settlers continued during the period from the first
to the seventh century AD. Peacefully and gradually the Hindu religion spread
throughout the archipelago. It was adopted by all layers of the people of
Java, but limited to the upper classes in the other islands.

THE PERIOD OF HINDU KINGDOMS

     Many well-organized kingdoms with a high degree of civilization were
ruled by indigenous kings who had adopted the Hindu or Buddhist religion. This
explains why this period in history is called the Period of Hindu Kingdoms
which lasted from ancient times to the 16th century AD. Because the culture
and civilization, which emanated from the Hindu and Buddhist religions, were
syncretized with the local cultural elements, the period was also referred to
as the Hindu-Indonesian period.

     Indian culture and customs were introduced, such as the system of
government in a monarchy, the ancestry system, the organization of military
troops, literature, music and dances, architecture, religious practice and
rituals, and even the division of laborers into castes or varnas. The Hindu
literary works known as Vedas and the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics were also
introduced through the wayang or shadow-play performance which is still very
popular in many parts of present day Indonesia.

     The first Indian Buddhists arrived in Indonesia between the 1st and 2nd
centuries AD. They brought with them Buddhism in its two sects, Hinayana and
Mahayana with the latter becoming more advanced in the 8th century AD.

     With the spread of Buddhism to China many Chinese pilgrims sailed to
India through the strait of Malacca. On the way there some of them called and
temporarily stayed in Indonesia to learn more about Buddhism.

     In 1944 AD a Chinese Buddhist saint, Fa Hsien, was caught in a storm and
landed in Java-Dwipa or Java island where he stayed for five months. The
northern part of the island was then ruled by an Indonesian Hindu King by the
name of Kudungga. Kutai on the island of Borneo was successively ruled by the
Hindu kings Devawarman, Aswawarman and Mulawarman.

     When the Greek explorer and geographer, Ptolemy of Alexandria, wrote on
Indonesia, he named either the island of Java or Sumatra "Labadiou". His
chronicles described Java as a country with a good government system, with
advanced agriculture, navigation and astronomy. There was even mention of the
"batik" printing process of cloths that the people already knew. They also
made metalware, used the metric system and printed coins.

     Chinese chronicles of 132 AD described the existence of diplomatic
relations between Java-Dwipa and China.

     Ink and paper were already in use in China even since the 2nd century AD.
Around 502 AD Chinese annals mentioned about the existence of the Buddhist
Kingdom in South Sumatra, Kanto Li, presumably in the neighborhood of present
day Palembang, which was ruled by king Gautama Subhadra and later by his son
Pryawarman or Vinyawarman who established diplomatic relations with China.
Because of a spelling or pronunciation difficulty, what the Chinese called
"Kanto Li" was probably Crivijaya, a mighty Buddhist kingdom. On his way to
India, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, I-Tsing, visited Crivijaya in 671 AD to
study the Sanskrit language. He returned 18 years later in 689 AD. Crivijaya
was then the center of Buddhist learning and had many well-known scholars in
philosophy like Sakyakirti, Dharmapala and Vajrabudhi.

     The kingdom had diplomatic relations with the south Indian kingdom of
Nalanda. The Crivijaya mission had built on its premises a school where
Indians could learn the art of moulding bronze statues and broaden their
knowledge of the Buddhist philosophy. With the spread of Buddhism,
Crivijaya's influence reached out to many other parts of the archipelago.

     Another known Buddhist kingdom was Cailendra in Central Java. It was
ruled by the kings of the Cailendra dynasty and during this period (750-850
AD) the famous Buddhist temple, Borobudur, was built. In 772 AD other Buddhist
temples were built such as the Mendut, Kalasan and Pawon. All these
temples are preserved as tourist objects near the city of Yogyakarta. The
Cailendra kingdom was also known for its commercial and naval power, and its
flourishing arts and culture. A guide to learn singing known as the Chandra
Cha-ana was first written in 778 AD.

     One of the Pallawa language stone inscriptions of 732 AD mentioned the
name of King Sanjaya who was later identified as the king of Mataram, a
kingdom that replaced Cailendra in Central Java.

     The Prambanan temple, which was dedicated to Lord Civa, was started in
856 AD and completed in 900 AD by King Daksa. Earlier Civa temples were built
in 675 AD on the Dieng mountain range, southwest of Medang Kamolan, the
capital of the Mataram Kingdom.

     In West Java there were the kingdoms of Galuh, Kanoman, Kuningan and
Pajajaran. The latter was founded by King Purana with Pakuan as its capital.
It replaced the kingdom of Galuh. The kingdoms of Taruma Negara, Kawali and
Parahyangan Sunda came later.

     At the end of the 13th century, the Crivijaya Empire began to fall as a
result of severance by its vassal states and the frequent attacks by the south
Indian kingdom of Chola and by the Majapahit Kingdom. In the end, Crivijaya
was completely conquered by Majapahit with the support of King Aditiawarman of
the Melayu kingdom.

     Earlier Majapahit had conquered the kingdom of Jambi in East Sumatra and
by moving its expansion along the rivers, it finally annexed the kingdom of
Pagar Ruyung in West Sumatra. Thus all of Sumatra was under Majapahit's rule.

     Meanwhile, for unknown reasons, the mighty kingdoms of Central Java
disappeared from historic records and new, prosperous kingdoms emerged in East
Java. King Balitung who ruled between 820 and 832 AD succeeded in uniting
Central and East Java kingdoms. The disappearance of records was presumably
caused by a natural disaster or an epidemic.

     At the end of the 10th century (911-1007 AD) the powerful kingdom of
Singasari emerged in East Java under King Dharmawangsa. He codified laws and
translated into Javanese the Mahabharata epic and its basic philosophy as
exposed in the Bhisma Parva scripture. He also ordered the translation of the
Hindu holy book, the Bhagavat Gita.

     Meanwhile, the island of Bali was reigned by King Airlangga who was known
as a wise and strong ruler. He had water works built along the Brantas river
which are still in use today. Before his death in 1409 AD he divided the
kingdom into the kingdoms of Janggala and Daha or Kediri which were to be
ruled by his two sons.

     Under Airlangga's rule literary works flourished. The Panji novels which
were written during this period are still popular today and even taught in
the arts faculties of the universities in Thailand, Campuchea and Malaysia.

     King Jayabaya of Kediri (1135-1157) wrote a book in which he foretold the
downfall of Indonesia. Subsequently, so he wrote, the country would be ruled
by a white race, to be followed by a yellow race. His prediction turned out to
be the Dutch colonial rule and the Japanese occupation of the country during
World War II. However, Jayabaya also predicted that Indonesia would
ultimately regain her independence. During the golden period of the Kediri
Kingdom many other literary works were produced such as the Javanese version
of the Mahabharata by Mpu (saint) Sedah and his brother Mpu Panuluh. This work
was published in 1157.

     The kingdoms of East Java were later succeeded by the Majapahit Kingdom,
first ruled by Prince Wijaya who was also known as King Kartarajasa.

     The Moghul emperor, Kubilai Khan attempted to invade Majapahit. His
troops, however, were defeated and driven back to their ships. As Majapahit
grew to a powerful empire, it conquered the kingdom of Crivijaya in South
Sumatra. As mentioned earlier, this Kingdom was once attacked by the Indian
kingdom of Chola.

     Under King Hayam Wuruk the Majapahit Empire became the most powerful
kingdom in the history of Indonesia. It had dependencies in territories beyond
the borders of the present archipelago, such as Champa in North Vietnam,
Kampuchea and the Philippines (1331-1364). King Hayam Wuruk with his able
premier Gajah Mada succeeded in gradually uniting the whole archipelago under
the name of Dwipantara.

     During this golden period of Majapahit many literary works were produced,
such as "Negara Kertagama" by the famous author Prapancha (1335-1380). Parts
of the book described the diplomatic and economic ties between Majapahit and
Southeast Asian countries like Burma, Thailand, Tonkin, Annam, Kampuchea and
even India and China. Other works in the Kawi or old Javanese language were
"Pararaton", "Arjuna Wiwaha", "Ramayana", "Sarasa Muschaya" and many more.
These works were later translated into modern European languages for study
purposes.

THE PERIOD OF ISLAMIC KINGDOMS

     Moslem merchants from Gujarat and Persia began to visit Indonesia in the
13th century and established trade links between this country and India and
Persia. Along with trade, they propagated Islam among the Indonesian people,
particularly in the coastal areas of Java such as Demak. At a later stage they
even influenced and converted Hindu kings to Islam, the first being the Sultan
of Demak. This Moslem Sultan later spread Islam westwards to Cirebon and
Banten, and eastwards along the northern coast of Java to the kingdom of
Gresik. In the end he brought the downfall of the powerful kingdom of
Majapahit (1293-1520).

     After the fall of Majapahit, Islam spread further east where the
sultanates of Bone and Goa in Sulawesi were established. Also under the
influence of Islam, the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore were established in
the Moluccas.

     North of Java, the religion spread to Banjarmasin in Borneo and further
west to Sumatra, where Palembang, Minangkabau (West Sumatra), Pasai and Perlak
were converted.

     Meanwhile, descendants of the Majapahit aristocracy, religious scholars
and Hindu Ksatriyas retreated through the East Java peninsula of Blambangan
to the islands of Bali and Lombok. In a later period, however, the eastern
part of Lombok was converted to Islam which entered the island from the South
Sulawesi city of Makassar, now named Ujungpandang.

     The capital of the West Java kingdom of Pajajaran was Sunda Kelapa (1300
AD) which was located in the present capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta. In
1527 Sunda Kelapa was conquered by an Islamic troop commander of the Sultanate
of Demak, Falatehan. Since then the city was renamed Jaya Karta, meaning "the
great city", which was the origin of the present name, Jakarta. Falatehan had
also on his record the defeat of the Portuguese who tried to seize the same
city.

THE PORTUGUESE IN INDONESIA

     In their search of spices, the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia in 1511
after their conquest of the Islamic kingdom of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula.
They were followed by the Spaniards. They both began to propagate Christianity
and were most successful in Maluku or the Moluccas.

THE BEGINNING OF DUTCH COLONIALISM

     On the meantime the Dutch had started their ventures to seek Indonesian
spices for sale on the European market with big profits. For the purpose of a
more-efficient-and-better-organized-merchant trade, they established the Dutch
East India Company (VOC) in 1602. To protect the merchant fleet from frequent
pirate attacks on the high seas, Dutch warships were ordered to accompany it.

     After the nationalization of the VOC in 1799, the Dutch Government had a
firm grip on the vital territories of the country. People in those territories
were forced to surrender their agricultural produce to the Dutch merchants. It
was the beginning of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia. Sunda Kelapa was renamed
Batavia.

     Meanwhile, the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram became Islamic and was ruled by
the Muslim Sultan, Agung Hanyokrokusumo. He developed the political power of
the state and was a keen patron of the arts and culture. In 1633 he introduced
the Islamic Javanese calendar.

     Sultan Agung was a fierce enemy of the Dutch. In 1629 he sent his troops
to attack Batavia but these were repulsed by the troops of Governor General
Jan Pieterszoon Coen.

     After the seizure of Ambon in the Moluccas in 1605 and Banda island in
1623, the Dutch secured the trade monopoly of the spice islands. A policy of
ruthless exploitation by "divide and rule" tactics was carried out. In this
way the indigenous inter-island trade such as between Makassar, Aceh, Mataram
and Banten, as well as overseas trade, was gradually paralyzed. Indonesia was
reduced to an agricultural country to supply European markets. Meanwhile, the
Dutch adopted a so-called open-door policy to the Chinese in order that they
could serve as middlemen in their trade with Indonesia.

War Against the Dutch

     Sultan Hasanuddin of Goa waged a war against the Dutch in 1666 but was
defeated and Goa was made a vassal state of the VOC under the treaty of
Bunggaya of 1667.

     Prince Trunojoyo of Madura who fought the Dutch was defeated and killed
in 1680.

     To reinforce their spice monopoly in the Moluccas, the Dutch undertook
their notorious Hongi expeditions to burn down clove gardens of the people as
there seemed to be overproduction which brought down the prices of cloves on
the European markets. In these outrageous expeditions atrocities were
committed against people who wanted to defend their crops.

     In 1740 the Dutch suppressed a rebellion in Jakarta, sparked by
dissatisfied Chinese who were later joined by Indonesians. Ten thousand
Chinese were massacred.

     The Kingdom of Mataram which slowly saw its dawnfall was divided by the
VOC into the Principalities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. However,
mismanagement and corruption forced the VOC into bankruptcy and on December
31, 1799, all its territories in Indonesia were taken over by the Dutch
Administration in Batavia.

BRITISH TEMPORARY RULE

     In 1814 the British came to Indonesia and built the Fort York in Bengkulu
on the west coast of Sumatra. It was later renamed Fort Marlborough.

     During the Napoleonic wars in Europe when Holland was occupied by France,
Indonesia fell under the rule of the British East India Company (1811-1816).
Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles was appointed Lieutenant Governor General of Java
and dependencies, subordinate to the Governor General in Bengal, India.

     Raffles introduced partial self-government and abolished the slave trade.
In those days slaves were captured and traded by foreigners.

     He also introduced the land-tenure system, replacing the hated Dutch
forced agricultural system whereby crops were grown and surrendered to the
Government.

     The Borobudur and other temples were restored and researches conducted.
Raffles wrote his famous book "The History of Java" in which he described
Java's high civilization and culture.

     During the British' stay in Sumatra from 1814 till 1825, William Marsden
wrote a similar book on the history of Sumatra which was published in 1889.

     At the end of the French occupation of Holland after the fall of
Napoleon, the British and the Dutch signed a convention in London on August
13, 1814, in which it was agreed that Dutch colonial possessions dating from
1803 onwards should be returned to the Dutch Administration in Batavia. The
Indonesian archipelago was recovered from the British in 1815.

RETURN OF DUTCH RULE

     Soon the Dutch intensified their colonial rule but this only sparked
widespread revolts to seize freedom. These revolts, however, were suppressed
one after the other.

     To mention only a few, Thomas Matulessy alias Pattimura staged a revolt
against the Dutch in the Moluccas (1816-1818). Prince Diponegoro of Mataram
led the Java War from 1825 till 1830. Again it was a fierce struggle for
freedom. Tuanku Imam Bonjol led the Padri War in West Sumatra, while Teuku
Umar headed the Aceh War in North Sumatra (1873-1903). King Sisingamangaraja
of the Bataks revolted against the Dutch in 1907. An attempt by Dutch troops
to occupy Bali in 1908 was repelled by King Udayana. Revolts also were staged
in Goa, South Sulawesi, and in South Kalimantan.

NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS

     When all these regional wars of independence failed, Indonesian
nationalists began to think of a more-organized struggle against Dutch
colonialism.

     The move began with the founding of Boedi Oetomo , literally meaning
"noble conduct", on May 20, 1908. This organization of Indonesian
intellectuals was initially set up for educational purposes but later turned
to politics. It was inspired by Japan's victory of Russia in 1901 which also
gave an impetus to nationalist movements in many parts of Indonesia. The
founder of Boedi Oetomo was Dr. Soetomo who was at the time a student of
STOVIA, an institution to train Indonesian medical officers. Dr. Soetomo was
very much influenced by Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo and supported by Gunawan
and Suradji.

     In 1912 the Sarekat Dagang Islam or Association of Moslem Merchants was
formed by Haji Samanhudi and others. The objective was first to stimulate and
promote the interest of Indonesian business in the Dutch East Indies. However,
in 1912 this organization of middle class businessmen turned into a political
party and was renamed "Sarekat Islam" under the leadership of H.O.S.
Tjokroaminoto, Haji Agoes Salim and others.

     In 1912 a progressive Moslem organization, Muhammadiyah, was established
by K.H. Akhmad Dahlan in Yogyakarta for the purpose of social and economic
reforms.

     In December of the same year the Partai Indonesia was founded by Douwes
Dekker, later named Setyabudi, with Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar
Dewantoro. The objective of the party was to strive for complete independence
for Indonesia. All the three leaders of the party were exiled by the colonial
government in 1913.

     In 1914 communism was introduced in the East Indies by Dutch nationals,
Sneevliet, Baars and Brandsteder.

     In May 1920 Sarekat Islam split into a right and a left wing, the latter
was to become the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI, the Indonesian Communist
Party) under the leadership of Semaun, Darsono, Alimin, Muso and others.

The Powerless People's Council or Volksraad

     In 1916 the Sarekat Islam party held its first convention in Bandung and
resolved to demand self-government for Indonesia in cooperation with the
Dutch. When the Sarekat Islam demanded a share in the legislative power in the
colony, the Dutch responded by setting up the Volksraad in 1918 which was
virtually a powerless people's council with an advisory status.

     Indonesian representatives on the council were indirectly elected through
regional councils, but part of the other members were appointed colonial
officials.

     The Volksraad later developed into a semi-legislative assembly. Among the
members of this body were prominent nationalist leaders like Dr. Tjipto
Mangunkusumo, H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, Abdul Muis, Dr. G.S.S.J. Ratulangi, M.H.
Thamrin, Wiwoho, Sutardjo Kartohadikusumo, Dr. Radjiman, Soekardjo
Wiryopranoto and others.

     Under the pressure of social unrest in the Netherlands at the end of
World War I, the Dutch promised to grant self-government to Indonesians. This
was known as the "November promise" which was never met.

     Besides the "Volksraad" there was another body, called the "Raad van
Indie" or "the Council of the Indies", the members of which were appointed by
the Government. Achmad Djajadiningrat and Sujono were among the very few
Indonesian members of this council.

Restrictions of Civil Liberties

     Deteriorating economic conditions and increasing labor strikes prompted
the colonial government in 1923 to put severe restrictions on Indonesian civil
liberties and make amendments to the colonial laws and penal codes. Freedom of
assembly, of speech and expression in writing was restricted.

Further Growth of Indonesian Organizations

     Despite the political restrictions, on July 3, 1922, Ki Hajar Dewantoro
founded "Taman Siswa" which was an organization to promote national education.

     In 1924, the Indonesian Students Association "Perhimpunan Mahasiswa
Indonesia" was formed by Drs. Mohammad Hatta, Dr. Sukiman and others. This
organization became a driving force of the nationalist movement to gain
independence.

     The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) staged revolts against the colonial
government in November 1926 in West Java and in January 1927 in West Sumatra.
After their suppression the Government exiled many non-communist nationalist
leaders to Tanah Merah which the Dutch called "Boven Digul" in Irian Jaya. Dr.
Tjipto Mangunkusumo was exiled to Bandaneira.

     In February 1927 Mohammad Hatta, Achmad Soebardjo and some other members
of Indonesia's Movements attended the first international convention of the
"League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression" in Brussels together with
Jawaharlal Nehru and many other prominent nationalist leaders from Asia and
Africa.

     In July 1927, Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian
Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted the Bahasa Indonesia as the official
language. This party adopted a militant policy of non-cooperation with the
Government as the result of a fundamental conflict of interest between
Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism.

     In the same year an all Indonesia nationalist movement was organized by
the Indonesian youth and women to replace earlier organizations which were
formed on the basis of regionalism, such as the "Young Java", the "Young
Sumatra" and the "Young Ambon" associations.

     On October 28, 1928, delegates to the second Indonesian Youth Congress in
Jakarta, pledged allegiance to "one country, one nation and one language,
Indonesia".

     Meanwhile, the Technical Faculty was set up in Bandung in 1920. The Law
Faculty was opened in Jakarta in 1924 to replace the former Law School. The
Medical Faculty was opened in Jakarta in 1927 to replace the old Medical
School. Except the Technical Faculty in Bandung, all the faculties in Jakarta
were merged in the University of Indonesia in 1946 in independent Indonesia.

     Concerned about the growing national awareness of freedom, the colonial
authorities arrested the PNI leader, Soekarno, in December 1929. This touched
off widespread protests by Indonesians.

     In 1930 the world was in the grip of an economic and monetary crisis. The
severe impact was felt in the Indies which was a raw material producing
country. The colonial government adopted a strict balanced budget policy which
aggravated economic and social conditions.

     Two other leaders of the PNI, Gatot Mangkupradja and Maskun Supriadinata
were arrested and tried in court on charges of plotting against the
Government. Soekarno was released in September 1931 but exiled again in August
1933. He remained in Dutch custody until the Japanese invasion in 1942.

     In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo founded the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia" or
the Indonesian Unity Party, the objective of which was to improve the social
status of the Indonesian people.

     In April of the same year, the PNI was abandoned. A new party was formed
by Sartono, LLM. and named the "Partai Indonesia" or the Indonesian Party. Its
basis was nationalism, its line was independent.

     In that same year, Sutan Syahrir formed the "Pendidikan Nasional
Indonesia", known as the new PNI which envisaged national education. Mohammad
Hatta joined this organization.

     In 1933 a mutiny broke out on the Dutch warship "De Zeven Provincien" for
which Indonesian nationalists were held responsible. The following year Sutan
Syahrir and Mohammad Hatta and other nationalist leaders were arrested and
banished until 1942.

     In 1935, Soetomo merged the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia" and the "Boedi
Oetomo" in the "Partai Indonesia Raya" (Parindra). Its fundamental goal was
the independence of Great Indonesia.

The Indonesian Petition

     In July 1936, Sutardjo submitted to the "Volksraad" a petition calling
for greater autonomy for Indonesia. This petition was flatly rejected by the
Dutch-dominated Council.

     In 1937, Dr. A.K. Gani started the Indonesian People's Movement or
"Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia" which was based on the principles of nationalism,
social independence and self-reliance.

     In 1939, the All Indonesian Political Federation "GAPI" called for the
establishment of a full-fledged Indonesian parliament. This demand was
rejected by the Government in Holland in 1940.

     "GAPI" also demanded an Indonesian military service for the purpose of
defending the country in times of war. Again this was turned down
notwithstanding the impending outbreak of World War II. At the time there were
widespread movements for fundamental and progressive reforms in the colonies
and dependencies in Asia.

THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION

     After their attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the Japanese forces moved
southwards to conquer several Southeast Asian countries. When Singapore had
fallen, they invaded the Dutch East Indies and the colonial army surrendered
in March 1942.

     Soekarno and Hatta were released from their detention. The Japanese began
their propaganda campaign for what they called "Great East Asia Coprosperity".
But Indonesians soon realized it was only a camouflage for Japanese
imperialism in place of Dutch colonialism.

     To further the cause of Indonesia's  independence, Soekarno and Hatta
appeared to cooperate with the Japanese authorities. In reality, however,
Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground and masterminded insurrections
in Java, such as in Blitar (East Java), Tasikmalaya and Indramayu (West Java),
in Sumatra and Kalimantan.

     Under the pressure of the Pacific war, where their supply lines were
interrupted and the increasing impact of Indonesian insurrections, the
Japanese ultimately gave in to allow the red-and-white flag to fly as the
Indonesian national flag. Recognition followed of "Indonesia Raya" as the
national anthem and the "Bahasa Indonesia" as the national language. Hence the
youth's pledge of 1928 was fulfilled.

     After persistent demands, the Japanese finally agreed to place the civil
administration of the country in Indonesian hands. This was a golden
opportunity for nationalist leaders to prepare for the proclamation of
Indonesia's independence.