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(*^ ::[paletteColors = 128; currentKernel; fontset = title, inactive, noPageBreakBelow, noPageBreakInGroup, nohscroll, preserveAspect, groupLikeTitle, center, M7, bold, L1, e8, 24, "Times"; ; fontset = subtitle, inactive, noPageBreakBelow, noPageBreakInGroup, nohscroll, preserveAspect, groupLikeTitle, center, M7, bold, L1, e6, 18, "Times"; ; fontset = subsubtitle, inactive, noPageBreakBelow, noPageBreakInGroup, nohscroll, preserveAspect, groupLikeTitle, center, M7, italic, L1, e6, 14, "Times"; ; fontset = section, inactive, noPageBreakBelow, nohscroll, preserveAspect, groupLikeSection, grayBox, M22, bold, L1, a20, 18, "Times"; ; fontset = subsection, inactive, noPageBreakBelow, nohscroll, preserveAspect, groupLikeSection, blackBox, M19, bold, L1, a15, 14, "Times"; ; fontset = subsubsection, inactive, noPageBreakBelow, nohscroll, preserveAspect, groupLikeSection, whiteBox, M18, bold, L1, a12, 12, "Times"; ; fontset = text, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = smalltext, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 10, "Times"; ; fontset = input, noPageBreakInGroup, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeInput, M42, N23, bold, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = output, output, inactive, noPageBreakInGroup, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, L-5, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = message, inactive, noPageBreakInGroup, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = print, inactive, noPageBreakInGroup, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = info, inactive, noPageBreakInGroup, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeOutput, M42, N23, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = postscript, PostScript, formatAsPostScript, output, inactive, noPageBreakInGroup, nowordwrap, preserveAspect, groupLikeGraphics, M7, l34, w282, h287, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = name, inactive, noPageBreakInGroup, nohscroll, preserveAspect, M7, italic, B65535, L1, 10, "Times"; ; fontset = header, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, italic, L1, 12, "Times"; ; fontset = Left Header, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, italic, L1, 12, "Times"; ; fontset = footer, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, center, M7, italic, L1, 12, "Times"; ; fontset = Left Footer, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, center, M7, italic, L1, 12, "Times"; ; fontset = help, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = clipboard, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = completions, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12, "Courier"; ; fontset = special1, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = special2, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = special3, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = special4, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; fontset = special5, inactive, nohscroll, noKeepOnOnePage, preserveAspect, M7, L1, 12; next21StandardFontEncoding; ] :[font = subsubtitle; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Copyright ยช 1992 by Academic Press, Inc. Text Exercise 12.11 ;[s] 4:0,0;10,1;11,2;40,3;62,-1; 4:1,13,10,Times,0,14,0,0,0;1,0,0,Symbol,0,14,0,0,0;1,13,10,Times,0,14,0,0,0;1,13,10,Times,2,14,0,0,0; :[font = title; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Graphical Approximation to Integrals :[font = subsubtitle; inactive; preserveAspect; ] by K. D. Stroyan University of Iowa :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] copyright 1992 by Academic Press, Inc. - All rights reserved. :[font = section; inactive; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Approximations to Areas Under Curves :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] The Riemann sum approximates the area under a curve by dividing the region into rectangles. The sum of the areas of the rectangles is a better and better approximation of the actual area under the curve if the rectangles are taken smaller and smaller. The function leftrect[n] below divides the area under a function curve into n rectangles and then sums the areas of these rectangles to approximate the area under the curve. By activating the function cell and typing leftrect[n], Mathematica will partition the area under the function f[x] = 4/(1 + x^2) into n rectangles and sum over this partition. Mathematica also draws a graph of your partition and gives you the true value so you can see how closely the sum approximates the actual area. You may change the function and limits by changing the definition of f[x] or a and b below. :[font = subsubsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] The Approximation Functions Used to Make the Animations Below :[font = input; initialization; preserveAspect; ] *) leftrect[n_] := Block[ {dx}, dx = (b - a) / n ; Do[ x[i] = a + i (b - a) / n ,{i, 0, n}]; partition := Graphics[ {GrayLevel[0.4], Table[ Rectangle[ {x[i], 0}, {x[i+1], f[x[i]]} ], {i, 0, n - 1} ] } ] ; left = N[ Sum[ f[x[i]] dx, {i, 0, n - 1} ], 10]; label = "= area of rectangles" left ; Show[ partition, functionplot, PlotLabel -> label ]; ] ; (* :[font = input; initialization; preserveAspect; ] *) midrect[n_] := Block[ {dx}, dx = (b - a) / n ; Do[ x[i] = a + i (b - a) / n ,{i, 0, n}] ; partition := Graphics[ {GrayLevel[0.4], Table[ Rectangle[ {x[i], 0}, {x[i+1], f[x[i]+dx/2]} ], {i, 0, n - 1} ] } ] ; mid = N[ Sum[ f[x[i]+dx/2] dx, {i,0, n - 1} ], 10]; label = "= area of rectangles" mid ; Show[ partition, functionplot, PlotLabel -> label ]; ]; (* :[font = input; initialization; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] *) trapezoids[n_] := Block[ {dx}, dx = (b - a) / n ; Do[ x[i] = a + i (b - a) / n ,{i, 0, n}] ; partition := Graphics[ {GrayLevel[0.4], Table[Polygon[{{x[i], 0},{x[i],f[x[i]]}, {x[i+1], f[x[i+1]]},{x[i+1],0}}], {i, 0, n - 1} ] } ] ; trap = N[dx(f[a] + 2 Sum[f[x[i]],{i,1, n - 1}] + f[b])/2, 10]; label = "= area of trapezoids" trap ; Show[ partition, functionplot, PlotLabel -> label ]; ]; (* :[font = subsection; inactive; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] The function and limits :[font = input; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] f[x_] := 1/(1 + x^2); a = 0 ; b = 2 ; functionplot := Plot[ f[x], {x, a, b}, PlotRange -> {0,1} ]; Show[functionplot]; :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 205; pictureHeight = 127; endGroup; endGroup; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0 0.61803 [ [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.00725 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto stroke 0.2619 -0.00625 moveto 0.2619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.5 -0.00625 moveto 0.5 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.7381 -0.00625 moveto 0.7381 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.97619 -0.00625 moveto 0.97619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto stroke 0.01756 0.12361 moveto 0.03006 0.12361 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.24721 moveto 0.03006 0.24721 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.37082 moveto 0.03006 0.37082 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.49443 moveto 0.03006 0.49443 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.61803 moveto 0.03006 0.61803 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Mshowa grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.618034 lineto 0 0.618034 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.61803 moveto 0.02505 0.61803 lineto 0.02629 0.61802 lineto 0.02753 0.618 lineto 0.02877 0.61797 lineto 0.03001 0.61793 lineto 0.03125 0.61788 lineto 0.03373 0.61777 lineto 0.03621 0.61762 lineto 0.03869 0.61743 lineto 0.04365 0.61696 lineto 0.04861 0.61636 lineto 0.05357 0.61563 lineto 0.06349 0.61377 lineto 0.08333 0.60853 lineto 0.10317 0.60133 lineto 0.14286 0.58168 lineto 0.18254 0.55623 lineto 0.22222 0.52661 lineto 0.2619 0.49443 lineto 0.30159 0.46112 lineto 0.34127 0.42787 lineto 0.38095 0.39554 lineto 0.42063 0.36474 lineto 0.46032 0.33584 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.53968 0.28434 lineto 0.57937 0.26176 lineto 0.61905 0.24118 lineto 0.65873 0.22249 lineto 0.69841 0.20554 lineto 0.7381 0.19016 lineto 0.77778 0.17623 lineto 0.81746 0.1636 lineto 0.85714 0.15213 lineto 0.89683 0.14171 lineto 0.93651 0.13224 lineto 0.97619 0.12361 lineto stroke grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Left Rectangles :[font = text; inactive; preserveAspect; ] Run the Mathematica animation in the graphics cell below. (Press <Command> & <Y> ) :[font = input; preserveAspect; ] Do[leftrect[2^n], {n,1,6}]; Print[ "Actual Area (Definite Integral) = ", N[ Integrate[ f[x], {x, a, b} ], 10 ] ]; :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 235; startGroup; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0 0.61803 [ [(1.5 = area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.00725 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray 0 setgray [(1.5 = area of 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lineto 0.61905 0.24118 lineto 0.65873 0.22249 lineto 0.69841 0.20554 lineto 0.7381 0.19016 lineto 0.77778 0.17623 lineto 0.81746 0.1636 lineto 0.85714 0.15213 lineto 0.89683 0.14171 lineto 0.93651 0.13224 lineto 0.97619 0.12361 lineto stroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 235; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0 0.61803 [ [(1.303846154 = area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.00725 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % 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lineto fill 0.87202 0 moveto 0.87202 0.14811 lineto 0.8869 0.14811 lineto 0.8869 0 lineto fill 0.8869 0 moveto 0.8869 0.14423 lineto 0.90179 0.14423 lineto 0.90179 0 lineto fill 0.90179 0 moveto 0.90179 0.14048 lineto 0.91667 0.14048 lineto 0.91667 0 lineto fill 0.91667 0 moveto 0.91667 0.13687 lineto 0.93155 0.13687 lineto 0.93155 0 lineto fill 0.93155 0 moveto 0.93155 0.13338 lineto 0.94643 0.13338 lineto 0.94643 0 lineto fill 0.94643 0 moveto 0.94643 0.13001 lineto 0.96131 0.13001 lineto 0.96131 0 lineto fill 0.96131 0 moveto 0.96131 0.12675 lineto 0.97619 0.12675 lineto 0.97619 0 lineto fill grestore grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.61803 moveto 0.02505 0.61803 lineto 0.02629 0.61802 lineto 0.02753 0.618 lineto 0.02877 0.61797 lineto 0.03001 0.61793 lineto 0.03125 0.61788 lineto 0.03373 0.61777 lineto 0.03621 0.61762 lineto 0.03869 0.61743 lineto 0.04365 0.61696 lineto 0.04861 0.61636 lineto 0.05357 0.61563 lineto 0.06349 0.61377 lineto 0.08333 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area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Mshowa gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0.01472 moveto 1 0.01472 lineto stroke 0.2619 0.00847 moveto 0.2619 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.5)] 0.2619 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.5 0.00847 moveto 0.5 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.5 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.7381 0.00847 moveto 0.7381 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1.5)] 0.7381 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.97619 0.00847 moveto 0.97619 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(2)] 0.97619 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto stroke 0.01756 0.13244 moveto 0.03006 0.13244 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.13244 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.25016 moveto 0.03006 0.25016 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.25016 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.36788 moveto 0.03006 0.36788 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.36788 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.4856 moveto 0.03006 0.4856 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.4856 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.60332 moveto 0.03006 0.60332 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.01131 0.60332 1 0 Mshowa grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.618034 lineto 0 0.618034 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave gsave 0.4 setgray gsave 0.02381 0.01472 moveto 0.02381 0.4856 lineto 0.5 0.4856 lineto 0.5 0.01472 lineto fill 0.5 0.01472 moveto 0.5 0.19582 lineto 0.97619 0.19582 lineto 0.97619 0.01472 lineto fill grestore grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.60332 moveto 0.02505 0.60331 lineto 0.02629 0.6033 lineto 0.02753 0.60328 lineto 0.02877 0.60326 lineto 0.03001 0.60322 lineto 0.03125 0.60318 lineto 0.03373 0.60306 lineto 0.03621 0.60292 lineto 0.03869 0.60274 lineto 0.04365 0.6023 lineto 0.04861 0.60173 lineto 0.05357 0.60103 lineto 0.06349 0.59926 lineto 0.08333 0.59426 lineto 0.10317 0.58741 lineto 0.14286 0.5687 lineto 0.18254 0.54446 lineto 0.22222 0.51625 lineto 0.2619 0.4856 lineto 0.30159 0.45388 lineto 0.34127 0.42221 lineto 0.38095 0.39142 lineto 0.42063 0.36209 lineto 0.46032 0.33456 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.53968 0.28551 lineto 0.57937 0.26401 lineto 0.61905 0.24441 lineto 0.65873 0.22661 lineto 0.69841 0.21046 lineto 0.7381 0.19582 lineto 0.77778 0.18255 lineto 0.81746 0.17052 lineto 0.85714 0.1596 lineto 0.89683 0.14968 lineto 0.93651 0.14066 lineto 0.97619 0.13244 lineto stroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 233; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0.01472 0.5886 [ [(1.10878711 = area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.13244 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.25016 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.36788 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.4856 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.60332 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.001 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray 0 setgray [(1.10878711 = area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Mshowa gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0.01472 moveto 1 0.01472 lineto stroke 0.2619 0.00847 moveto 0.2619 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.5)] 0.2619 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.5 0.00847 moveto 0.5 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.5 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.7381 0.00847 moveto 0.7381 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1.5)] 0.7381 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.97619 0.00847 moveto 0.97619 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(2)] 0.97619 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto stroke 0.01756 0.13244 moveto 0.03006 0.13244 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.13244 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.25016 moveto 0.03006 0.25016 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.25016 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.36788 moveto 0.03006 0.36788 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.36788 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.4856 moveto 0.03006 0.4856 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.4856 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.60332 moveto 0.03006 0.60332 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.01131 0.60332 1 0 Mshowa grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.618034 lineto 0 0.618034 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave gsave 0.4 setgray gsave 0.02381 0.01472 moveto 0.02381 0.5687 lineto 0.2619 0.5687 lineto 0.2619 0.01472 lineto fill 0.2619 0.01472 moveto 0.2619 0.39142 lineto 0.5 0.39142 lineto 0.5 0.01472 lineto fill 0.5 0.01472 moveto 0.5 0.24441 lineto 0.7381 0.24441 lineto 0.7381 0.01472 lineto fill 0.7381 0.01472 moveto 0.7381 0.1596 lineto 0.97619 0.1596 lineto 0.97619 0.01472 lineto fill grestore grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.60332 moveto 0.02505 0.60331 lineto 0.02629 0.6033 lineto 0.02753 0.60328 lineto 0.02877 0.60326 lineto 0.03001 0.60322 lineto 0.03125 0.60318 lineto 0.03373 0.60306 lineto 0.03621 0.60292 lineto 0.03869 0.60274 lineto 0.04365 0.6023 lineto 0.04861 0.60173 lineto 0.05357 0.60103 lineto 0.06349 0.59926 lineto 0.08333 0.59426 lineto 0.10317 0.58741 lineto 0.14286 0.5687 lineto 0.18254 0.54446 lineto 0.22222 0.51625 lineto 0.2619 0.4856 lineto 0.30159 0.45388 lineto 0.34127 0.42221 lineto 0.38095 0.39142 lineto 0.42063 0.36209 lineto 0.46032 0.33456 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.53968 0.28551 lineto 0.57937 0.26401 lineto 0.61905 0.24441 lineto 0.65873 0.22661 lineto 0.69841 0.21046 lineto 0.7381 0.19582 lineto 0.77778 0.18255 lineto 0.81746 0.17052 lineto 0.85714 0.1596 lineto 0.89683 0.14968 lineto 0.93651 0.14066 lineto 0.97619 0.13244 lineto stroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 233; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0.01472 0.5886 [ [(1.107564293 = area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.13244 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.25016 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.36788 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.4856 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.60332 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.001 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray 0 setgray [(1.107564293 = area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Mshowa gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0.01472 moveto 1 0.01472 lineto stroke 0.2619 0.00847 moveto 0.2619 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.5)] 0.2619 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.5 0.00847 moveto 0.5 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.5 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.7381 0.00847 moveto 0.7381 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1.5)] 0.7381 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.97619 0.00847 moveto 0.97619 0.02097 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(2)] 0.97619 0.00222 0 1 Mshowa 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto stroke 0.01756 0.13244 moveto 0.03006 0.13244 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.13244 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.25016 moveto 0.03006 0.25016 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.25016 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.36788 moveto 0.03006 0.36788 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.36788 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.4856 moveto 0.03006 0.4856 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.4856 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.60332 moveto 0.03006 0.60332 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.01131 0.60332 1 0 Mshowa grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.618034 lineto 0 0.618034 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave gsave 0.4 setgray gsave 0.02381 0.01472 moveto 0.02381 0.59426 lineto 0.14286 0.59426 lineto 0.14286 0.01472 lineto fill 0.14286 0.01472 moveto 0.14286 0.53075 lineto 0.2619 0.53075 lineto 0.2619 0.01472 lineto fill 0.2619 0.01472 moveto 0.2619 0.43798 lineto 0.38095 0.43798 lineto 0.38095 0.01472 lineto fill 0.38095 0.01472 moveto 0.38095 0.34808 lineto 0.5 0.34808 lineto 0.5 0.01472 lineto fill 0.5 0.01472 moveto 0.5 0.27451 lineto 0.61905 0.27451 lineto 0.61905 0.01472 lineto fill 0.61905 0.01472 moveto 0.61905 0.21834 lineto 0.7381 0.21834 lineto 0.7381 0.01472 lineto fill 0.7381 0.01472 moveto 0.7381 0.17639 lineto 0.85714 0.17639 lineto 0.85714 0.01472 lineto fill 0.85714 0.01472 moveto 0.85714 0.14506 lineto 0.97619 0.14506 lineto 0.97619 0.01472 lineto fill grestore grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.60332 moveto 0.02505 0.60331 lineto 0.02629 0.6033 lineto 0.02753 0.60328 lineto 0.02877 0.60326 lineto 0.03001 0.60322 lineto 0.03125 0.60318 lineto 0.03373 0.60306 lineto 0.03621 0.60292 lineto 0.03869 0.60274 lineto 0.04365 0.6023 lineto 0.04861 0.60173 lineto 0.05357 0.60103 lineto 0.06349 0.59926 lineto 0.08333 0.59426 lineto 0.10317 0.58741 lineto 0.14286 0.5687 lineto 0.18254 0.54446 lineto 0.22222 0.51625 lineto 0.2619 0.4856 lineto 0.30159 0.45388 lineto 0.34127 0.42221 lineto 0.38095 0.39142 lineto 0.42063 0.36209 lineto 0.46032 0.33456 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.53968 0.28551 lineto 0.57937 0.26401 lineto 0.61905 0.24441 lineto 0.65873 0.22661 lineto 0.69841 0.21046 lineto 0.7381 0.19582 lineto 0.77778 0.18255 lineto 0.81746 0.17052 lineto 0.85714 0.1596 lineto 0.89683 0.14968 lineto 0.93651 0.14066 lineto 0.97619 0.13244 lineto stroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 233; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0.01472 0.5886 [ [(1.107252816 = area of rectangles)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 0.00222 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.13244 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.25016 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.36788 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 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0.01472 lineto fill 0.96131 0.01472 moveto 0.96131 0.13392 lineto 0.97619 0.13392 lineto 0.97619 0.01472 lineto fill grestore grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.60332 moveto 0.02505 0.60331 lineto 0.02629 0.6033 lineto 0.02753 0.60328 lineto 0.02877 0.60326 lineto 0.03001 0.60322 lineto 0.03125 0.60318 lineto 0.03373 0.60306 lineto 0.03621 0.60292 lineto 0.03869 0.60274 lineto 0.04365 0.6023 lineto 0.04861 0.60173 lineto 0.05357 0.60103 lineto 0.06349 0.59926 lineto 0.08333 0.59426 lineto 0.10317 0.58741 lineto 0.14286 0.5687 lineto 0.18254 0.54446 lineto 0.22222 0.51625 lineto 0.2619 0.4856 lineto 0.30159 0.45388 lineto 0.34127 0.42221 lineto 0.38095 0.39142 lineto 0.42063 0.36209 lineto 0.46032 0.33456 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.53968 0.28551 lineto 0.57937 0.26401 lineto 0.61905 0.24441 lineto 0.65873 0.22661 lineto 0.69841 0.21046 lineto 0.7381 0.19582 lineto 0.77778 0.18255 lineto 0.81746 0.17052 lineto 0.85714 0.1596 lineto 0.89683 0.14968 lineto 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trapezoids)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Mshowa gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto stroke 0.2619 -0.00625 moveto 0.2619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.5 -0.00625 moveto 0.5 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.7381 -0.00625 moveto 0.7381 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.97619 -0.00625 moveto 0.97619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto stroke 0.01756 0.12361 moveto 0.03006 0.12361 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.24721 moveto 0.03006 0.24721 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.37082 moveto 0.03006 0.37082 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.49443 moveto 0.03006 0.49443 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.61803 moveto 0.03006 0.61803 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Mshowa grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.618034 lineto 0 0.618034 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave gsave 0.4 setgray gsave 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.5 0 lineto fill 0.5 0 moveto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.97619 0.12361 lineto 0.97619 0 lineto fill grestore grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.61803 moveto 0.02505 0.61803 lineto 0.02629 0.61802 lineto 0.02753 0.618 lineto 0.02877 0.61797 lineto 0.03001 0.61793 lineto 0.03125 0.61788 lineto 0.03373 0.61777 lineto 0.03621 0.61762 lineto 0.03869 0.61743 lineto 0.04365 0.61696 lineto 0.04861 0.61636 lineto 0.05357 0.61563 lineto 0.06349 0.61377 lineto 0.08333 0.60853 lineto 0.10317 0.60133 lineto 0.14286 0.58168 lineto 0.18254 0.55623 lineto 0.22222 0.52661 lineto 0.2619 0.49443 lineto 0.30159 0.46112 lineto 0.34127 0.42787 lineto 0.38095 0.39554 lineto 0.42063 0.36474 lineto 0.46032 0.33584 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.53968 0.28434 lineto 0.57937 0.26176 lineto 0.61905 0.24118 lineto 0.65873 0.22249 lineto 0.69841 0.20554 lineto 0.7381 0.19016 lineto 0.77778 0.17623 lineto 0.81746 0.1636 lineto 0.85714 0.15213 lineto 0.89683 0.14171 lineto 0.93651 0.13224 lineto 0.97619 0.12361 lineto stroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 235; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0 0.61803 [ [(1.103846154 = area of trapezoids)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.00725 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray 0 setgray [(1.103846154 = area of trapezoids)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Mshowa gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto stroke 0.2619 -0.00625 moveto 0.2619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.5 -0.00625 moveto 0.5 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.7381 -0.00625 moveto 0.7381 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.97619 -0.00625 moveto 0.97619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto stroke 0.01756 0.12361 moveto 0.03006 0.12361 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.24721 moveto 0.03006 0.24721 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.37082 moveto 0.03006 0.37082 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.49443 moveto 0.03006 0.49443 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Mshowa 0.01756 0.61803 moveto 0.03006 0.61803 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Mshowa grestore grestore 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto 1 0.618034 lineto 0 0.618034 lineto closepath clip newpath 0 setgray gsave gsave gsave 0.4 setgray gsave 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto 0.2619 0.49443 lineto 0.2619 0 lineto fill 0.2619 0 moveto 0.2619 0.49443 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.5 0 lineto fill 0.5 0 moveto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.7381 0.19016 lineto 0.7381 0 lineto fill 0.7381 0 moveto 0.7381 0.19016 lineto 0.97619 0.12361 lineto 0.97619 0 lineto fill grestore grestore grestore gsave gsave gsave 0.004 setlinewidth 0.02381 0.61803 moveto 0.02505 0.61803 lineto 0.02629 0.61802 lineto 0.02753 0.618 lineto 0.02877 0.61797 lineto 0.03001 0.61793 lineto 0.03125 0.61788 lineto 0.03373 0.61777 lineto 0.03621 0.61762 lineto 0.03869 0.61743 lineto 0.04365 0.61696 lineto 0.04861 0.61636 lineto 0.05357 0.61563 lineto 0.06349 0.61377 lineto 0.08333 0.60853 lineto 0.10317 0.60133 lineto 0.14286 0.58168 lineto 0.18254 0.55623 lineto 0.22222 0.52661 lineto 0.2619 0.49443 lineto 0.30159 0.46112 lineto 0.34127 0.42787 lineto 0.38095 0.39554 lineto 0.42063 0.36474 lineto 0.46032 0.33584 lineto 0.5 0.30902 lineto 0.53968 0.28434 lineto 0.57937 0.26176 lineto 0.61905 0.24118 lineto 0.65873 0.22249 lineto 0.69841 0.20554 lineto 0.7381 0.19016 lineto 0.77778 0.17623 lineto 0.81746 0.1636 lineto 0.85714 0.15213 lineto 0.89683 0.14171 lineto 0.93651 0.13224 lineto 0.97619 0.12361 lineto stroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 235; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0 0.61803 [ [(1.106316632 = area of trapezoids)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.00725 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: Graphics [ ] 0 setdash 0 setgray 0 setgray [(1.106316632 = area of trapezoids)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Mshowa gsave gsave 0.002 setlinewidth 0 0 moveto 1 0 lineto stroke 0.2619 -0.00625 moveto 0.2619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.5 -0.00625 moveto 0.5 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.7381 -0.00625 moveto 0.7381 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.97619 -0.00625 moveto 0.97619 0.00625 lineto stroke 0 setgray [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Mshowa 0.02381 0 moveto 0.02381 0.61803 lineto stroke 0.01756 0.12361 moveto 0.03006 0.12361 lineto stroke 0 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lineto 0.7381 0.19016 lineto 0.77778 0.17623 lineto 0.81746 0.1636 lineto 0.85714 0.15213 lineto 0.89683 0.14171 lineto 0.93651 0.13224 lineto 0.97619 0.12361 lineto stroke grestore grestore grestore grestore % End of Graphics MathPictureEnd :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 3; pictureWidth = 377; pictureHeight = 235; ] %! %%Creator: Mathematica %%AspectRatio: 0.61803 MathPictureStart % Scaling calculations 0.02381 0.47619 0 0.61803 [ [(1.106940463 = area of trapezoids)] 0.5 0.62428 0 -1 Msboxa [(0.5)] 0.2619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1)] 0.5 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(1.5)] 0.7381 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(2)] 0.97619 -0.0125 0 1 Msboxa [(0.2)] 0.01131 0.12361 1 0 Msboxa [(0.4)] 0.01131 0.24721 1 0 Msboxa [(0.6)] 0.01131 0.37082 1 0 Msboxa [(0.8)] 0.01131 0.49443 1 0 Msboxa [(1)] 0.01131 0.61803 1 0 Msboxa [ -0.001 -0.00725 0 0 ] [ 1.001 0.61903 0 0 ] ] MathScale % Start of Graphics 1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin newpath %%Object: 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(1/3)Trapezoids =", 2 mid/3 + trap/3]; Print[ "Area to more than machine precision = ", N[ Integrate[ f[x], {x, a, b} ], 10 ] ]; :[font = print; inactive; preserveAspect; endGroup; endGroup; ] Left Rectangles = 1.186615896 Mid Rectangles = 1.107414937 Area of Trapezoids = 1.106615896 Simpson's rule = (2/3) Midpoints + (1/3) Trapezoids =1.10715 Area to more than machine precision = 1.107148718 :[font = subsection; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] Random Riemann Sums - Beyond the Basic Theory :[font = text; inactive; Cclosed; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] A general Riemann sum (needed for discontinuous functions) can have variable size partitions and random points of evaluation. As the number of rectangles approaches infinity, the Riemann sum will still approach the area under the curve provided that the size of the biggest increment in x tends to zero. When you activate the following function cell and type riemannsum[n], Mathematica will divide the area under the curve into rectangles of random widths and sum their areas. :[font = input; preserveAspect; endGroup; ] f[x_] := 1/(1 + x^2); a = 0 ; b = 2 ; riemannsum[n_] := Block[ {dx}, maxstep := 2 (b - a) / n ; x[0] = a ; x[n] = b ; Do[ upperlimit = Min[ x[i-1] + maxstep, b ] ; x[i] = Random[ Real, {x[i-1], upperlimit} ] ; xp[i] = Random[ Real, {x[i-1], x[i]} ] ; dx[i] = x[i] - x[i-1], {i,1,n-1} ] ; xp[n] = Random[ Real, {x[n-1], x[n]} ] ; dx[n] = x[n] - x[n-1] ; functionplot := Plot[ f[x], {x, a, b} ] ; partition := Graphics[ { GrayLevel[0.4], Table[ Rectangle[ {x[i-1], 0}, {x[i], f[ xp[i] ]} ], {i, 1, n} ] } ] ; Show[ partition, functionplot ] ; Print[ "Riemann Sum = ", N[ Sum[ f[xp[i]] dx[i], {i, 1, n} ], 10 ] ] ; Print[ "Actual Area (Definite Integral) = ", N[ Integrate[ f[x], {x, a, b} ], 10 ] ] ; ] ; :[font = input; preserveAspect; startGroup; ] riemannsum[20] :[font = postscript; PostScript; formatAsPostScript; output; inactive; preserveAspect; pictureLeft = 0; pictureTop = 1; pictureWidth = 312; pictureHeight = 193; ] %! 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