Copyright ã1995 by NeXT Computer, Inc.  All Rights Reserved.

13

The GNU Source-Level Debugger

This chapter describes how to debug a C program using the GNU debugger from the Free Software Foundation (the GNU debugger has been extended in NEXTSTEP to support the use of Objective C and Mach).

This chapter provides an overview of the GDB debugger and how to use it.  The chapter ends with a discussion of NEXTSTEP-specific extensions to GDB.  These NEXTSTEP extensions provide full compatibility with standard GDB, while offering the following additional features useful for developing programs within the NEXTSTEP software environment:

·	Additional debugger commands
·	Extensions to existing debugger commands
·	Support for debugging Objective C code

This chapter is a modified version of documentation provided by the Free Software Foundation; see the section ªLegal Considerationsº at the end of the chapter for important related information.

This chapter Copyright Ó 1988 by Free Software Foundation, Inc. and Copyright Ó 1990, 1991, 1992 by NeXT Computer, Inc.

Summary of GDB

The purpose of a debugger such as GDB is to allow you to execute another program while examining what's going on inside it.  We call the other program ªyour programº or ªthe program being debugged.º

GDB can do four kinds of things (plus other things in support of these):

·	Start the program, specifying anything that might affect its behavior.

·	Make the program stop on specified conditions.

·	Examine what has happenedÐwhen the program has stoppedÐso you can see bugs happen.

·	Change things in the program, so you can correct the effects of one bug and go on to learn about another without having to recompile first.

Compiling Your Program for Debugging

To debug a program effectively, you need to ask for debugging information when you compile it.  This information in the object file describes the data type of each variable or function and the correspondence between source line numbers and addresses in the executable code.

To request debugging information, specify the -g option when you run the compiler.  We recommend that you always use -g when you compile a program.  You may think the program is correct, but there's no sense in pushing your luck.

Unlike the UNIX C compiler, the GNU C compiler supports debugging with optimization (by using the -O compiler option).  Although GDB provides the capability to debug programs compiled with optimization, the debugger may provide confusing or misleading information when debugging optimized programs.  The intention is to provide some recourse in those situations where debugging optimized programs is necessary.  However, debugging optimized programs should not be done routinely.

With these warnings in mind, it can still be useful to debug optimized programs, provided that you're aware of the limitations of the debugger in these circumstances.  Most importantly, the debugger should be able to provide correct backtraces of your program's function call stack.  This is often all that is needed to find the problem.  Printing the values of variables, however, may give incorrect results, since the debugger has insufficient information to be sure where a variable resides at any given time.  Variables declared volatile will always have correct values, and global variables will almost always be correct; local variables, however, are likely to be incorrectly reported.

Variables declared register are optimized by the compiler even when optimizing is not requested with the -O compiler optionÐthese may also give misleading results.  To ensure a completely predictable debugging environment, it's best to compile without the -O flag and with the compiler option ª-Dregister=º.  This option causes the C preprocessor to effectively delete all register declarations from your program for this compilation.  (In fact, with the GNU C compiler, there's no need to declare any variables to be register variables.  When optimizing, the GNU C compiler may place any variable in a register whether it's declared register or not.  On the other hand, declaring variables to be register variables may make it more difficult to debug your program when not optimizing.  Therefore, the use of the register declaration is discouraged.)

Running GDB

On a NEXTSTEP computer, you're likely to use GDB by running it within a shell window using a conventional command-line interfaceÐyou enter commands at the GDB prompt, and debugger output appears on subsequent lines.  (You can also run GDB as a subprocess in the GNU Emacs editor, as described later in this chapter.)

To start GDB from within a shell window, enter the following command:

gdb name [core]

name is the name of your executable program, and core, if specified, is the name of the core dump file to be examined.  See the rest of this section for information about optional command-line arguments and switches.  Once started, GDB reads commands from the terminal until you quit by giving the quit command.

A GDB command is a single line of input.  There's no limit to how long it can be.  It starts with a command name, optionally followed by arguments (some commands don't allow arguments).

GDB command names may always be abbreviated if the abbreviation is unambiguous.  Sometimes even ambiguous abbreviations are allowed.  For example, s is equivalent to step even though there are other commands whose names start with s.  Possible command abbreviations are stated in the documentation of the individual commands.

A blank line as input to GDB means to repeat the previous command verbatim.  Certain commands don't allow themselves to be repeated this way; these are commands for which unintentional repetition might cause trouble and which you're unlikely to want to repeat.  Certain others (list and x) act differently when repeated because that's more useful.

A line of input starting with # is a comment; it does nothing.  This is useful mainly in command files (see the section ªCommand Filesº).

GDB prompts for commands by displaying the (gdb) prompt.  You can change the prompt with the set prompt command (this is most useful when debugging GDB itself):

set prompt newprompt 

To exit GDB, use the quit command (abbreviated q).  Control-C won't exit from GDB, but rather will terminate the action of any GDB command that is in progress and return to GDB command level.  It's safe to type Control-C at any time because GDB doesn't allow it to take effect until it's safe.  If your program is running, typing Control-C will interrupt the program and return you to the GDB prompt.

Specifying Files to Debug

GDB needs to know the file name of the program to be debugged.  To debug a core dump of a previous run, GDB must be told the file name of the core dump.

The simplest way to specify the executable and core dump file names is with two command arguments given when you start GDB.  The first argument is used as the file for execution and symbols, and the second argument (if any) is used as the core dump file name.  Thus,

gdb progm core

specifies progm as the executable program and core as a core dump file to examine.  (You don't need to have a core dump file if you plan to debug the program interactively.)

If you need to specify more precisely the files to debugged, you can do so with the following command-line options:

-s file 	Read symbol table from file.

-e file 	Use file as the executable file to execute when appropriate, and for examining pure data in conjunction with a core dump.

-se file 	Read symbol table from file and use it as the executable file.

-c file 	Use file as a core dump file to examine.

-x file 	Execute GDB commands from file.

-d directory 
Add directory to the path to search for source files.

All the options and command line arguments given are processed in sequential order.  The order makes a difference when the -x command is used.

Specifying GDB Modes

The following additional command-line options can be used to affect certain aspects of the behavior of GDB:

-nx 	Don't execute commands from the .gdbinit init files.  Normally, the commands in these files are executed after all the command options and arguments have been processed.  (See the section ªCommand Filesº for more information.)

-q	Quiet.  Don't print the usual introductory messages.

-batch 	Run in batch mode.  Exit with code 1 after processing all the command files specified with -x (and .gdbinit, if not inhibited).  Exit also if, due to an error, GDB would otherwise attempt to read a command from the terminal.

-fullname 	This option is used when Emacs runs GDB as a subprocess.  It tells GDB to produce the full file name and line number each time a stack frame is displayed (which includes each time the program stops).

Editing GDB Commands

GDB provides a history buffer that stores previously executed commands.  You can call any of these commands back to the command line for editing and reexecution.  For example, by pressing the up-arrow key repeatedly, you can step back through each of the commands that were issued since the beginning of the session; the down-arrow key steps forward through the history buffer.

Expansion of Variable, Function, and Method Names

GDB supports command-line expansion of variable, function and method names.  Type Esc-Esc or Tab to expand the current word on the command line to a matching name.  If there is more than one match, the unique part is expanded and a beep occurs.  Type Esc-l to display all possible completions.

History Substitution in Commands

GDB supports the csh history substitution mechanism.  For example, !foo retrieves the last command you typed that begins with foo.  History substitution is supported across gdb sessions by writing the command history to a .gdb_history file in the current directory.  Automatic creation of this history file can be disabled with the command:

set history save off

History substitution can  be contolled with the set history filename, set history size, set history save, and set history expansion commands.  Also see the section on history substitution in the csh(1) UNIX manual page for more information.

Emacs Command-Line Editing

You can use standard  Emacs editing commands to edit the contents of the command line.  All the basic Emacs command sequences work, as well as the arrow keys.  The left and right arrow keys move the cursor along the command line, and the up and down arrow keys take you backward and forward through the command history.

The following list of Emacs commands shows the default key combination associated with each command and a description of what that command does.  The name in parentheses can be used to associate a different key combination with the command, as described later in this section.

Insertion-Point Motion Commands

Control-B	Move back one character 
Control-F	Move forward one character  
Esc b	Move back one word  
Esc f	Move forward one word 
Control-A	Move to beginning of line  
Control-E	Move to end of line 

Deletion and Restoration Commands

Control-D	Delete current character  
Delete or Control-H	Delete previous character 
Esc d	Delete current word 
Esc h	Delete previous word  
Control-K	Kill forward to end of line  
Control-W	Kill region  
Control-Y	Restore previous kill from buffer 

Search Commands

Control-S	Search forward 
Control-R	Search backward  
Esc	Exit search mode

History Commands

Esc <	Move to beginning of history file
Esc >	Move to end of history file
Control-N	Go to next history file entry
Control-P	Go to previous history file entry 

Miscellaneous Commands

Control-C	Interrupt a program started by the Workspace 
Control-L	Clear screen 
Control-R	Redisplay current command line
Control-Q	Insert a literal character
Control-I	Insert a Tab
Control-T	Transpose characters
Control-U n	Repeat following command n times
Control-Z	Suspend debugger, return to shell
Control-@	Set mark 

Most of these commands are self-explanatory; the ones requiring more discussion are presented below.

Both delete commands and kill commands erase characters from the command line.  Text that's erased by a kill key (Control-K or Control-W) is placed in the ªkill buffer.º  If you want to restore this text, use the ªyankº command, Control-Y.  The yank command inserts the restored text at the current insertion point.  In contrast, text that's erased by one of the delete commands (Control-D, Control-H, Esc d, and Esc h) isn't placed in the kill buffer, so it can't be restored by the yank command.

To enter a character that would otherwise be interpreted as an editing command, you must precede it with Control-Q.  For example, to enter Control-D and have it interpreted as a literal rather than as the command to delete the current character, type:

Control-Q Control-D

Editing commands can be repeated by typing Control-U followed by a number and then the command to be repeated.  For example, to delete the last 15 characters typed, enter:

Control-U 15 Control-H

If you want to suspend the operation of GDB temporarily and return to the UNIX prompt, type Control-Z.  To return to GDB, type %gdb (a variant of the shell fg command; for more information, see the UNIX manual page for csh(1)).

Running GDB in a GNU Emacs Buffer

You can use GNU Emacs to run GDB, as well as to view (and edit) the source files for the program you're debugging with GDB.

To use the Emacs GDB interface, give the command Esc x gdb in Emacs.  Specify the executable file you want to debug as an argument.  This command starts a GDB process as a subprocess of Emacs, with input and output through a newly created Emacs buffer.  You can run more than one GDB subprocess by giving the command Esc x gdb more than once.

Running GDB as an Emacs subprocess is just like using GDB in a Shell or Terminal window, except for two things:

·	All terminal input and output goes through the Emacs buffer.  This applies both to GDB commands and their output, and to the input and output done by the program you're debugging.  You can copy the text of previous commands and use them again; you can even use parts of the output in this way (all the facilities of Emacs's Shell mode are available for this purpose).

·	GDB displays source code through Emacs.  Each time GDB displays a stack frame, Emacs automatically finds the source file for that frame and puts an arrow (=>) at the left margin of the current line.

Explicit GDB list or search commands still produce output as usual, but you'll probably have no reason to use them.

You can use these special Emacs commands in the GDB buffer:

Esc s 	Execute to another source line, like the GDB step command.

Esc n 	Execute to the next source line in this function, skipping all function calls, like the GDB next command.

Esc i	Execute one instruction, like the GDB stepi command.

Esc u	Move up one stack frame (and display that frame's source file in Emacs), like the GDB up command.

Esc d 	Move down one stack frame (and display that frame's source file in Emacs), like the GDB down command.  (You can't use Esc d to delete words in the usual fashion in the GDB buffer.)

Control-C Control-F
Execute until exit from the selected stack frame, like the GDB finish command.

In any source file, the Emacs command Control-X space (gdb-break) tells GDB to set a breakpoint at the source line the point is on.

The source files displayed in Emacs are in ordinary Emacs buffers which are visiting the source files in the usual way.  You can edit the files in these buffers if you wish; but keep in mind that GDB communicates with Emacs in terms of the line numbers as they were at compile time.  If you add or delete lines from the text, the line numbers that GDB knows will no longer correspond properly to the code.

Startup Files

At startup, GDB reads configuration information from startup files in the following order:

1.	~/.gdbinit (your home directory startup file)
2.	./.gdbinit (the current directory's startup file)

To make your own customizations to GDB, put GDB commands in your home directory's .gdbinit startup file.  To make further customizations required for any specific project, put commands in a .gdbinit startup file within that project's directory.

For more information about making customizations to GDB, see the section ªDefining and Executing Sequences of Commandsº later in this chapter.

GDB Commands for Specifying and Examining Files

Usually you specify the files for GDB to work with by giving arguments when you invoke GDB.  But occasionally it's necessary to change to a different file during a GDB session.  Or you may run GDB and forget to specify the files you want to use.  In these situations the GDB commands to specify new files are useful.

add-symbol-file file addr
Load the symbols from file, assuming file has been dynamically loaded.  The second argument provides the starting address of the file's text.

core-file [ file ] 
Specify a core dump file to be used as the contents of memory.  Note that the core dump contains only the writable parts of memory; the read-only parts must come from the executable file.  core-file with no argument specifies that no core file is to be used.

This command has been superseded by the target core and detach commands.

exec-file [  file ]
Use file as program for getting contents of pure memory.  If file cannot be found as specified, your execution directory path is searched for a command of that name.  No argument means have no executable file.

file [  file ]	Use file as program to be debugged.  It is read for its symbols, for getting the contents of pure memory, and it is the program executed when you use the run command.  If file cannot be found as specified, your execution directory path ($PATH) is searched for a command of that name.  No argument means to have no executable file and no symbols.

info files 	Print the names of the executable and core dump files currently in use by GDB, and the file from which symbols were loaded.

kill	Cancel running the program under GDB.  This could be used if you want to debug a core dump instead.  GDB ignores any core dump file if it's actually running the program, so the kill command is the only sure way to go back to using the core dump file.

load file	Dynamically load file into the running program, and record its symbols for access from GDB.

load-file file
Dynamically load the specified file into the debugged program.  Any symbols are also added to GDB, so you can communicate with the new object file through the use of functions and variables.

path path
Add one or more directory to the beginning of the search path for object files.  $cwd in the path means the current working directory.  This path is like  the $PATH shell variable; it is a list of directories, separated by colons.  These directories are searched to find fully linked executable files and separately compiled object files as needed.

symbol-file [file] 
Read symbol table information from file file.  The environment variable PATH is searched when necessary.  Usually you'll use both the exec-file and symbol-file commands on the same file.

symbol-file with no argument clears GDB's symbol table.

While file-specifying commands allow both absolute and relative file names as arguments, GDB always converts the file name to an absolute one and remembers it that way.

The symbol-file command causes GDB to forget the contents of its convenience variables, the value history, and all breakpoints and auto-display expressions.  This is because they may contain pointers to the internal data recording symbols and data types, which are part of the old symbol table data being discarded inside GDB.

Running Your Program under GDB

To start your program under GDB, use the run command.  The program must already have been specified using the exec-file command or with an argument to the gdb command (see the section ªSpecifying Files to Debugº); what run does is create an inferior process, load the program into it, and set it in motion.

The execution of a program is affected by certain types of information it receives from its superior.  GDB provides ways to specify these, which you must do before starting the program.  (You can change them after starting the program, but such changes don't affect the program unless you start it over again.)  The types of information are:

The arguments	You specify the arguments to give the program by passing them as arguments to the run command.  You can also use the args command.

The environment	The program normally inherits its environment from GDB, but you can use the GDB commands set environment and delete environment to change parts of the environment that will be given to the program.

The working directory	The program inherits its working directory from GDB.  You can set GDB's working directory with the cd command in GDB.

After the run command, the debugger does nothing but wait for your program to stop.  See the section ªStopping and Continuingº for more information.

Your Program's Arguments

You specify the arguments to give the program by passing them as arguments to the run command.  They're first passed to a shell, which expands wildcard characters and performs redirection of I/O, and then passed to the program.

The run command with no arguments uses the same arguments used by the previous run.

With the args command you can specify the arguments to be used the next time the program is run.  If args has no arguments, it means to use no arguments the next time the program is run.  If you've run your program with arguments and want to run it again with no arguments, this is the only way to do so.

Your Program's Environment

Your program's environment consists of a set of environment variables and their values.  Environment variables conventionally record such things as your user name, your home directory, your terminal type, and your search path for programs to run.  Usually you set up environment variables with the shell and they're inherited by all the other programs you run.  When debugging, it can be useful to try running the program with different environments without having to start the debugger over again.

set environment varname value 
Set the environment variable varname to value (for your program only, not for GDB itself).  value may be any string; any interpretation is supplied by your program itself.

unset environment varname 
Cancel the variable varname from the environment passed to your program (thereby making the variable not be defined at all, which is different from giving the variable an empty value).  This doesn't affect the program until the next run command.

Your Program's Working Directory

Each time you start your program with run, the program inherits its working directory from the current working directory of GDB.  GDB's working directory is initially whatever it inherited from its superior, but you can specify the working directory for GDB with the cd command.

The GDB working directory also serves as a default for the commands that specify files for GDB to operate on.  See the section ªSpecifying Files to Debug.º

cd dir 	Set the working directory for GDB and the program being debugged to dir.  The change doesn't take effect for the program being debugged unitl the next time it is started.

pwd	Print GDB's working directory.

Your Program's Input and Output

By default, the program you run under GDB uses as its source of input and output the same terminal that GDB uses.

You can redirect the program's input and/or output using standard redirection commands with the run command.  For example,

run > outfile

starts the program, diverting its output to the file outfile.

Another way to specify what the program should use as its source of input and output is with the tty command.  This command accepts a file name as its argument, and causes that file to be the default for future run commands.  For example,

tty /dev/ttyb

causes processes started with subsequent run commands to default to using the terminal /dev/ttyb as their source of input and output.  An explicit redirection in run overrides the tty command.

When you use the tty command or redirect input in the run command, the input for your program comes from the specified file, but the input for GDB still comes from your terminal.  The program's controlling terminal is your terminal, not the terminal that the program is reading from; so if you want to type Control-C to stop the program, you must type it on your (GDB's) terminal.  Control-C typed on the program's terminal is available to the program as ordinary input.

Debugging an Already Running Process

The NEXTSTEP operating system allows GDB to begin debugging an already running process that was started outside GDB.  To do this you must use the attach command instead of the run command.

The attach command requires one argument, which is the process ID of the process you want to debug.

attach [ arg ]
Attach to a process or file outside of GDB.  This command attaches to another target, of the same type as your last target command (info files will show your target stack).  The command may take as argument a process id or a device file.    (The usual way to find out the process ID of the process is with the ps utility.)  For a process id, you must have permission to send the process a signal, and it must have the same effective uid as the debugger.  When using attach, you should use the file command to specify the program running in the process, and to load its symbol table.

The first thing GDB does after arranging to debug the process is to stop it.  You can examine and modify an attached process with all the GDB commands that are ordinarily available when you start processes with run.  You can insert breakpoints; you can step and continue; you can modify storage.  If you would rather the process continue running, use the cont (continue) command after attaching.

When you're finished debugging the attached process, you can use the detach command to detach the debugger from the attached process and resume execution of the process (or you can use Control-C to interrupt the process).  After you give the detach command, that process and GDB become completely independent, and you're ready to attach another process or start one with run.

detach	Detach a process or file previously attached.  If a process, it is no longer traced, and it continues its execution.  If you were debugging a file, the file is closed and GDB no longer accesses it.

If you exit GDB or use the run command while you have an attached process, you kill that process.  You'll be asked for confirmation if you try to do either of these things.

The following commands are for connecting to a target machine or process.

target [ args ]
Connect to a target machine or process.  The first argument is the type or protocol of the target machine.  Remaining arguments are interpreted by the target protocol.  For more  information on the arguments for a particular protocol, type help target followed by the protocol name.

target child
Unix child process (started by the run command).

target core file
Use a core file as a target.  Specify the filename of the core file.

target exec file
Use an executable file as a target.  Specify the filename of the executable file.

target remote device
Use a remote computer via a serial line, using a GDB-specific protocol.  Specify the serial device it is connected to (for example, /dev/ttya).

The following commands are for kernel debugging.

kattach hostname
Attach to a kernel on a remote host.

kreboot args 
Reboot an attached kernel.

Stopping and Continuing

When you run a program normally, it runs until exiting.  The purpose of using a debugger is so that you can stop it before that point, or so that if the program runs into trouble you can find out why.

Signals

A signal is an asynchronous event that can happen in a program.  The operating system defines the possible kinds of signals, and gives each kind a name and a number.  For example, SIGINT is the signal a program gets when you type Control-C; SIGSEGV is the signal a program gets from referencing a place in memory far away from all the areas in use; SIGALRM occurs when the alarm clock timer goes off (which happens only if the program has requested an alarm).

Some signals, including SIGALRM, are a normal part of the functioning of the program.  Others, such as SIGSEGV, indicate errors; these signals are fatal (that is, they kill the program immediately) if the program hasn't specified in advance some other way to handle the signal.  SIGINT doesn't indicate an error in the program, but it's normally fatal, so it can carry out the purpose of Control-C:  to kill the program.

GDB can detect any occurrence of a signal in the program running under GDB's control.  You can tell GDB in advance what to do for each kind of signal.

Normally, GDB is set up to ignore non-erroneous signals like SIGALRM (so as not to interfere with their role in the functioning of the program) but to stop the program immediately whenever an error signal happens.  You can change these settings with the handle command.  You must specify which signal you're talking about with its number.

info signals [ signalnum ]
Print a table of all the kinds of signals and how GDB has been told to handle each one.  You can use this to see the signal numbers of all the defined types of signals. Specify a signal number in order to print information about that signal only.

handle signalnum keywords 
Change the way GDB handles signal signalnum.  The keywords say what change to make.

To use the handle command you must know the code number of the signal you're concerned with.  To find the code number, type info signal; this prints a table of signal names and numbers.

The keywords allowed by the handle command can be abbreviated.  Their full names are:

stop	GDB should stop the program when this signal happens.  This implies the print keyword as well.

print	GDB should print a message when this signal happens.

nostop	GDB shouldn't stop the program when this signal happens.  It may still print a message telling you that the signal has come in.

noprint	GDB shouldn't mention the occurrence of the signal at all.  This implies the nostop keyword as well.

pass	GDB should allow the program to see this signal; the program will be able to handle the signal, or may be terminated if the signal is fatal and not handled.

nopass	GDB shouldn't allow the program to see this signal.

When a signal has been set to stop the program, the program can't see the signal until you continue.  It will see the signal then, if pass is in effect for the signal in question at that time.  In other words, after GDB reports a signal, you can use the handle command with pass or nopass to control whether that signal will be seen by the program when you later continue it.

You can also use the signal command to prevent the program from seeing a signal, to cause it to see a signal it normally wouldn't see, or to give it any signal at any time.  See the section ªContinuingº below.

Breakpoints

A breakpoint can be used to make your program stop whenever a certain point in the program is reached.  You set breakpoints explicitly with GDB commands, specifying the place where the program should stop by line number, function name, or exact address in the program.  You can add various other conditions to control whether the program will stop.

Each breakpoint is assigned a number when it's created; these numbers are successive integers starting with 1.  In many of the commands for controlling various features of breakpoints, you use the breakpoint number to say which breakpoint you want to change.  Each breakpoint may be ªenabledº or ªdisabled;º if disabled, it has no effect on the program until you enable it again.

The info breakpoints command prints a list of all breakpoints set and not cleared, showing their numbers, their location in the program, and any special features in use for them.  Disabled breakpoints are included in the list, but marked as disabled.  info breakpoints with a breakpoint number as its argument lists only that breakpoint.  The convenience variable $_ and the default address for the x command are set to the address of the last breakpoint listed (see the section ªExamining Memoryº).  The info breakpoints command can be abbreviated as info break.

Breakpoints can't be used in a program if any other process is running that program.  Attempting to run or continue the program with a breakpoint in this case will cause GDB to stop it.  When this happens, you have two ways to proceed:

·	Remove or disable the breakpoints, then continue.

·	Suspend GDB, and copy the file containing the program to a new name.  Resume GDB and use the exec-file command to specify that GDB should run the program under that name.  Then start the program again.

Setting Breakpoints

Breakpoints are set with the break command (abbreviated b).  There are several ways to specify where the breakpoint should go:

break function 
Set a breakpoint at entry to function.  You can also set a breakpoint at the entry to a method, as described in the section ªMethod Names in Commands.º

break linenum 
Set a breakpoint at linenum in the current source file (the last file whose source text was printed).  This breakpoint will stop the program just before it executes any of the code from that line.

break file:linenum 
Set a breakpoint at linenum in file.

break file:function 
Set a breakpoint at entry to function found in file.  Specifying a file name as well as a function name is superfluous except when multiple files contain identically named functions.  This doesn't work for Objective C methods; see the section ªMethod Names in Commandsº for information on setting breakpoints for methods.

break *address 
Set a breakpoint at address.  You can use this to set breakpoints in parts of the program that don't have debugging information or source files.

break	Set a breakpoint at the next instruction to be executed in the selected stack frame (see the section ªExamining the Stackº).  This is a pointless thing to do in the innermost stack frame because the program would stop immediately after being started, but it's very useful with another stack frame, because it will cause the program to stop as soon as control returns to that frame.

break [args]  if cond 
Set a breakpoint with condition cond; evaluate the expression cond each time the breakpoint is reached, and stop only if the value is nonzero.  args stands for one of the possible arguments described above (or no argument) specifying where to break.  See the section ªBreak Conditionsº for more information.

tbreak [args] 
Set a breakpoint enabled only for one stop.  args are the same as in the break command, and the breakpoint is set in the same way, but the breakpoint is automatically ªdisabledº the first time it's hit.

GDB allows you to set any number of breakpoints at the same place in the program.  This can be useful when the breakpoints are conditional (see the section ªBreak Conditionsº).

Clearing Breakpoints

It's often necessary to eliminate a breakpoint once it has done its job and you no longer want the program to stop there.  This is called clearing (or deleting) the breakpoint.  A breakpoint that has been cleared no longer exists in any sense.

With the clear command you can clear breakpoints according to where they are in the program.  With the delete command you can clear individual breakpoints by specifying their breakpoint numbers.

It isn't necessary to clear a breakpoint to proceed past it.  GDB automatically ignores breakpoints in the first instruction to be executed when you continue execution at the same address where the program stopped.

clear	Clear any breakpoints at the next instruction to be executed in the selected stack frame (see the section ªSelecting a Frameº).  When the innermost frame is selected, this is a good way to clear a breakpoint that the program just stopped at.

clear function
clear file:function 
Clear any breakpoints set at entry to the function.

clear linenum
clear file:linenum 
Clear any breakpoints set at or within the code of the specified line.

delete bnum ...  
Clear the breakpoints whose breakpoint numbers are specified as arguments.  A deleted breakpoint is forgotten completely.

Disabling Breakpoints

Rather than clearing a breakpoint, you might prefer to disable it.  This makes the breakpoint inoperative as if it had been cleared, but remembers the information about the breakpoint so that you can enable it again later.

You enable and disable breakpoints with the enable and disable commands, specifying one or more breakpoint numbers as arguments.  Use info breakpoints to print a list of breakpoints if you don't know which breakpoint numbers to use.

A breakpoint can have any of four states of enablement:

·	Disabled.  The breakpoint has no effect on the program.

·	Enabled.  The breakpoint will stop the program.  A breakpoint made with the break command starts out in this state.

·	Enabled once.  The breakpoint will stop the program, but when it does so it will become disabled.  A breakpoint made with the tbreak command starts out in this state.

·	Enabled for deletion.  The breakpoint will stop the program, but immediately afterward it will be deleted permanently.

You can change the state of enablement of a breakpoint with the following commands:

enable bnum ...
Enable the specified breakpoints.  They become effective once again in stopping the program, until you specify otherwise.

enable once bnum ...
Enable the specified breakpoints temporarily.  Each will remain enabled only until the next time it stops the program (unless you use one of these commands to specify a different state before that time comes).  Also see the tbreak command, which sets a breakpoint and enables it once.

enable delete bnum ...
Enable the specified breakpoints to work once and then die.  Each of the breakpoints will be deleted the next time it stops the program (unless you use one of these commands to specify a different state before that time comes).

disable delete bnum ...
Disable the specified breakpoints.  A disabled breakpoint has no effect but isn't forgotten.  All options such as ignore counts, conditions, and commands are remembered in case the breakpoint is enabled again later.  This command may be abbreviated disable.

delete breakpoints [ bnum ... ]
Delete some breakpoints or auto-display expressions.  Arguments are breakpoint numbers with spaces in between.  To delete all breakpoints, give no argument.  This command may be abbreviated delete.

enable display [ arg ... ]
Enable some expressions to be displayed when the program stops.  Arguments are the code numbers of the expressions to resume displaying.  No argument means enable all automatic-display expressions.  Do info display to see the current list of code numbers.

disable display [ arg ... ]
Disable some expressions to be displayed when the program stops.  Arguments are the code numbers of the expressions to stop displaying.  No argument means disable all automatic-display expressions.  Do info display to see the current list of code numbers.

delete display [ arg ... ]
Cancel some expressions to be displayed when the program stops.  Arguments are the code numbers of the expressions to stop displaying.  No argument means cancel all automatic-display expressions.  Do info display to see the current list of code numbers.

catch [ arg ... ]
Set breakpoints to catch exceptions that are raised.  Argument may be a single exception to catch, multiple exceptions to catch, or the default exception default.  If no arguments are given, breakpoints are set at all exception handlers catch clauses within the current scope.

	A condition specified for the catch applies to all breakpoints set with this command.

Aside from the automatic disablement or deletion of a breakpoint when it stops the program, which happens only in certain states, the state of enablement of a breakpoint changes only when one of the above commands is used.

Break Conditions

The simplest sort of breakpoint breaks every time the program reaches a specified place.  You can also specify a condition for a breakpoint.  A condition is simply a boolean expression.  A breakpoint with a condition evaluates the expression each time the program reaches it, and the program stops only if the condition is true.

Break conditions may have side effects, and may even call functions in your program.  These may sound like strange things to do, but their effects are completely predictable unless there's another enabled breakpoint at the same address.  (In that case, GDB might see the other breakpoint first and stop the program without checking the condition of this one.)  Note that breakpoint commands are usually more convenient and flexible than break conditions for the purpose of performing side effects when a breakpoint is reached (see the section ªExecuting Commands at a Breakpointº).

Break conditions can be specified when a breakpoint is set, by using if in the arguments to the break command (see the section ªSetting Breakpointsº).  They can also be changed at any time with the condition command:

condition bnum expression 
Specify expression as the break condition for breakpoint number bnum.  From now on, this breakpoint will stop the program only if the value of expression is true (nonzero, in C).  expression isn't evaluated at the time the condition command is given.

condition bnum 
Remove the condition from breakpoint number bnum.  It becomes an ordinary unconditional breakpoint.

A special feature is provided for one kind of condition:  to prevent the breakpoint from doing anything until it has been reached a certain number of times.  This is done with the ªignore countº of the breakpoint.  When the program reaches a breakpoint whose ignore count is positive, then instead of stopping, it just decrements the ignore count by 1 and continues.

ignore bnum count 
Set the ignore count of breakpoint number bnum to count.  The next count times the breakpoint is reached, it won't stop.

To make the breakpoint stop the next time it's reached, specify a count of 0.

continue n
Continue execution of the program, setting the ignore count of the breakpoint that the program stopped at to n minus 1.  Continuing through the breakpoint doesn't itself count as one of n.  Thus, the program won't stop at this breakpoint until the nth time it's hit.

This command is allowed only when the program stopped due to a breakpoint.  At other times, the argument to cont is ignored.

If a breakpoint has a positive ignore count and a condition, the condition isn't checked.  Once the ignore count reaches 0, the condition will start to be checked.

You could achieve the effect of the ignore count with a condition such as $foo--<= 0 using a debugger convenience variable that's decremented each time.  That's why the ignore count is considered a special case of a condition.  See the section ªConvenience Variables.º

Executing Commands at a Breakpoint

You can give any breakpoint a series of commands to execute when the program stops due to that breakpoint.  For example, you might want to print the values of certain expressions, or enable other breakpoints.

commands bnum 
Specify commands for breakpoint number bnum.  The commands themselves appear on the following lines.  Type a line containing just end to terminate the commands.

To remove all commands from a breakpoint, use the command commands and follow it immediately by end; that is, give no commands.

Breakpoint commands can be used to start up the program again.  Simply use the continue command, or step, or any other command that resumes execution.  However, any remaining breakpoint commands are ignored.  When the program stops again, GDB will act according to why that stop took place.

If the first command specified is silent, the usual message about stopping at a breakpoint isn't printed.  This may be desirable for breakpoints that are to print a specific message and then continue.  If the remaining commands also print nothing, you'll see no sign that the breakpoint was reached at all.  silent isn't really a command; it's meaningful only at the beginning of the commands for a breakpoint.

The commands echo and output, which allow you to print precisely controlled output, are often useful in silent breakpoints.  See the section ªCommands for Controlled Output.º

Here's how you could use breakpoint commands to print the value of x at entry to foo whenever it's positive.  We assume that the newly created breakpoint is number 4; break will print the number that's assigned.

break foo if x>0 
commands 4 
silent 
echo x is\040 
output x 
echo \n 
cont 
end

One application for breakpoint commands is to correct one bug so you can test another.  Put a breakpoint just after the erroneous line of code, give it a condition to detect the case in which something erroneous has been done, and give it commands to assign correct values to any variables that need them.  End with the cont command so that the program doesn't stop, and start with the silent command so that no output is produced.  Here's an example:

break 403 
commands 5 
silent 
set x = y + 4 
cont 
end

One deficiency in the operation of breakpoints that continue automatically appears when your program uses raw mode for the terminal.  GDB reverts to its own terminal modes (not raw) before executing commands, and then must switch back to raw mode when your program is continued.  This causes any pending terminal input to be lost.

You could get around this problem by putting the actions in the breakpoint condition instead of in commands.  For example,

condition 5  (x = y + 4), 0

is a condition expression that will change x as needed, then always have the value 0 so the program won't stop.  Loss of input is avoided here because break conditions are evaluated without changing the terminal modes.  When you want to have nontrivial conditions for performing the side effects, the operators &&, || , and ?: may be useful.

Continuing

After your program stops, most likely you'll want it to run some more if the bug you're looking for hasn't happened yet.  You can do this with the continue command:

continue	Continue running the program at the place where it stopped.

If the program stopped at a breakpoint, the place to continue running is the address of the breakpoint.  You might expect that continuing would just stop at the same breakpoint immediately.  In fact, continue takes special care to prevent that from happening.  You don't need to clear the breakpoint to proceed through it after stopping at it.

You can, however, specify an ignore count for the breakpoint that the program stopped at, by means of an argument to the continue command.  See the section ªBreak Conditionsº above.

If the program stopped because of a signal other than SIGINT or SIGTRAP, continuing will cause the program to see that signal.  You may not want this to happen.  For example, if the program stopped due to some sort of memory reference error, you might store correct values into the erroneous variables and continue, hoping to see more execution; but the program would probably terminate immediately as a result of the fatal signal once it sees the signal.  To prevent this, you can continue with signal 0.  You can also act in advance to prevent the program from seeing certain kinds of signals, using the handle command (see the section ªSignalsº).

Stepping

Stepping means setting your program in motion for a limited time, so that control will return automatically to the debugger after one line of code or one machine instruction.  Breakpoints are active during stepping and the program will stop for them even if it hasn't gone as far as the stepping command specifies.

step [count]
Proceed the program until control reaches a different line, then stop it and return to the debugger.  If an argument is specified, proceed as in step, but do so count times.  If a breakpoint or a signal not related to stepping is reached before count steps, stepping stops right away.  You can abbreviate this command as s.

next [count]
Similar to step, but any function calls appearing within the line of code are executed without stopping.  Execution stops when control reaches a different line of code at the stack level which was executing when the next command was given.  An argument is a repeat count, as in step.  You can abbreviate this command as n.

finish	Continue running until just after the selected stack frame returns (or until there's some other reason to stop, such as a fatal signal or a breakpoint).  Upon return, the value returned is printed and put in the value history.  Contrast this with the return command, described in the section ªReturning from a Function.º

until linenum
Continue running until line number linenum is reached or the current stack frame returns.  This is equivalent to setting a breakpoint at linenum, executing a finish command, and deleting the breakpoint.

stepi [count]
Proceed one machine instruction, then stop and return to the debugger.  It's often useful to do display/i $pc when stepping by machine instructions.  This will cause the next instruction to be executed to be displayed automatically at each stop (see the section ªAutomatic Displayº).  An argument is a repeat count, as in step.  You can abbreviate this command as si.

nexti [count]
Proceed one machine instruction, but if it's a subroutine call, proceed until the subroutine returns.  An argument is a repeat count, as in next.  You can abbreviate this command as ni.

watch exp
Single-step the program until exp is true.  This method is slow, but accurate.  For a similar method that's faster but less accurate, see the section on data breakpoints.

A typical technique for using stepping is to put a breakpoint at the beginning of the function or the section of the program in which a problem is believed to lie, and then step through the suspect area examining interesting variables until the problem happens.

The cont command can be used after stepping to resume execution until the next breakpoint or signal.

Data Breakpoints

Data breakpoints are implemented using a scheme that involves calling a handler function at the end of every function.  This allows the program to break at the end of the function that changed the data, thereby narrowing the search for the offending line to a space between the last function called within a function and the last line of that function.  The offending line is somewhere before the stopping pointÐspecifically, somewhere between the end of the last function that was called and the end of this function.

The following commands provide support for data breakpoints:

data-break [ address size ]
data-break [ expression ]
Causes the program to break at the end of the function that changes the specified data.  The first form specifies that the data starts at address for size bytes.  The second form specifies that the data starts at &expression and continue for the size of expression (an Objective C object is considered to be the size that its class dictates at the time of the data-break command).  With no arguments, data-break removes any  data-break condition currently in effect.

set-exit-handler [ function-name ]
Causes function-name to be called every time a function is exited. The prototype of the function is int (handlerFunction)(void).  If a non-zero value is returned, the program will break at the end of the last function that was called.  With no arguments, this command removes the exit handler.

There are two caveats.  First, functions without frame pointers are exempt from checking.  Second, the address being checked must be readable at all times that the data breakpoint handler will be called.  Otherwise an exception will be generated inside the inferior program.  gdb will catch this, and you'll have to turn off checking by using the data-break command with no arguments.  

The following examples illustrate the use of the data-break command.

·	The program will stop if anything in the range 0x1000 through 0x100b changes:

data-break 0x1000 12

·	An assigment to foo will cause the program to stop:

char *foo;
data-break foo

·	An assigment to foo[0] will cause the program to stop:

char *foo;
foo = malloc(20);
data-break *foo

·	An assigment to any of the characters from foo[0] through foo[19] will cause the program to stop:

char *foo;
data-break foo 20

·	An assigment to foo will cause the program to stop:

int foo;
data-break foo

·	An assignment to foo will cause the program to stop.

struct _foo {
    int a;
    int b;
};
struct _foo *foo;
data-break foo

·	An assignment to foo->a will cause the program to stop:

struct _foo {
    int a;
    int b;
};
struct _foo *foo;
foo = malloc(sizeof(*foo));
data-break foo->a

·	An assignment to foo->a or foo->b will cause the program to stop:

struct _foo {
    int a;
    int b;
};
struct _foo *foo;
foo = malloc(sizeof(*foo));
data-break *foo

·	An assignment to foo will cause the program to stop:

id foo;
data-break foo

·	An assigment to foo->appSpeaker will cause the program to stop:

id foo = [Application new];
data-break foo->appSpeaker

·	An assignment to any of the instance variables of foo will cause the program to stop:

id foo;
data-break *foo

Examining the Stack

When your program has stopped, the first thing you need to know is where it stopped and how it got there.

Each time your program performs a function call, the information about where in the program the call was made from is saved in a block of data called a stack frame.  The frame also contains the arguments of the call and the local variables of the function that was called.  All the stack frames are allocated in a region of memory called the call stack.  When your program stops, the GDB commands for examining the stack allow you to see all this information.

Stack Frames

The call stack is divided into contiguous pieces called frames; each frame is the data associated with one call to one function.  The frame contains the arguments given to the function, the function's local variables, and the address at which the function is executing.

When your program is started, the stack has only one frame, that of the function main().  This is called the initial frame, or the outermost frame.  Each time a function is called, a new frame is made.  Each time a function returns, the frame for that function invocation is eliminated.  If a function is recursive, there can be many frames for the same function.  The frame for the function in which execution is actually occurring is called the innermost frame.  This is the most recently created of all the stack frames that still exist.

Inside your program, stack frames are identified by their addresses.  A stack frame consists of many bytes, each of which has its own address; each kind of computer has a convention for choosing the address of one of those bytes to serve as the address of the frame.  Usually this address is kept in a register called the frame pointer register while execution is going on in that frame.

GDB assigns numbers to all existing stack frames, starting with 0 for the innermost frame, 1 for the frame that called it, and so on upward.  These numbers don't really exist in your program; they simply give you a way of talking about stack frames in GDB commands.

At any given time, one of the stack frames is selected by GDB; many GDB commands refer implicitly to this selected frame.  In particular, whenever you ask GDB for the value of a variable in the program, the value is found in the selected frame.  You can select any frame using the frame, up, and down commands; subsequent commands will operate on that frame.

When the program stops, GDB automatically selects the currently executing frame and describes it briefly, as the frame command does (see the section ªInformation about a Frameº).

Backtraces

A backtrace is a summary of how the program got where it is.  It shows one line per frame, for many frames, starting with the currently executing frame (frame 0) followed by its caller (frame 1), and on up the stack.

Each line in a backtrace shows the frame number, the program counter, the function and its arguments, and the source file name and line number (if known).  For example:

(gdb) backtrace 
#0  0x3eb6 in fflush () 
#1  0x24b0 in _fwalk () 
#2  0x2500 in _cleanup () 
#3  0x2312 in exit ()

backtrace [n]
Print a backtrace of the entire stack:  one line per frame for all frames in the stack.  You can stop the backtrace at any time by typing the system interrupt character, normally Control-C.  With a positive argument, the command prints the innermost n frames; with a negative argument, it prints the outermost n frames.  You can abbreviate this command as bt.  An alias for this command is where.

Selecting a Frame

Most commands for examining the stack and other data in the program work on whichever stack frame is selected at the moment.  Below are the commands for selecting a stack frame.

frame n	Select and print frame number n.  Recall that frame 0 is the innermost (currently executing) frame, frame 1 is the frame that called the innermost one, and so on.  The highest-numbered frame is main's frame.

frame addr 
Select and print the frame at address addr.  This is useful mainly if the chaining of stack frames has been damaged by a bug, making it impossible for GDB to assign numbers properly to all frames.  In addition, this can be useful if the program has multiple stacks and switches between them.

up n	Select and print the frame n frames up from the frame previously selected.  For positive numbers n, this advances toward the outermost frame, to higher frame numbers, to frames that have existed longer.  n defaults to 1.

up-silently n
Same as the up command, but doesn't print anything (this is useful in command scripts).

down n	Select and print the frame n frames down from the frame previously selected.  For positive numbers n, this advances toward the innermost frame, to lower frame numbers, to frames that were created more recently.  n defaults to 1.

down-silently n
Same as the down command, but doesn't print anything (this is useful in command scripts).

All these commands (except  up-silently and down-silently) end by printing some information about the frame that has been selected:  the frame number, the function name, the arguments, the source file and line number of execution in that frame, and the text of that source line.  For example:

#3  main (argc=3, argv=??, env=??) at main.c, line 67 
67      read_input_file (argv[i]);

After such a printout, the list command with no arguments will print ten lines centered on the point of execution in the frame.  See the section ªPrinting Source Lines.º

Information about a Frame

There are several other commands to print information about the selected stack frame.

frame [n]	This command prints a brief description of the selected stack frame.  With an argument, this command is used to select a stack frame (the argument can be a stack frame number or the address of a frame); with no argument, it doesn't change which frame is selected, but still prints the same information.  You can abbreviate this command as f.

info frame 
This command prints a verbose description of the selected stack frame, including the address of the frame, the addresses of the next frame down (called by this frame) and the next frame up (caller of this frame), the address of the frame's arguments, the program counter saved in it (the address of execution in the caller frame), and which registers were saved in the frame.  The verbose description is useful when something has gone wrong that has made the stack format fail to fit the usual conventions.

info frame addr 
Print a verbose description of the frame at address addr, without selecting that frame.  The selected frame remains unchanged by this command.

info args	Print the arguments of the selected frame, each on a separate line.

info locals	Print the local variables of the selected frame, each on a separate line.

Examining Source Files

GDB knows which source files your program was compiled from, and can print parts of their text.  When your program stops, GDB spontaneously prints the line it stopped in.  Likewise, when you select a stack frame (see the section ªSelecting a Frameº), GDB prints the line in which execution in that frame has stopped.  You can also print parts of source files by explicit command.

Viewing Files in Edit

To be able to dynamically open and view source files in Edit, use the view command.  This command is executed automatically when you start GDB from the Project Builder application.

view [ host ]
Cause source files to be viewed in Edit, either on the local machine or on a remote host.  When you first execute this command, a Gdb command is added to Edit's main menu.  This command brings up a control panel that allows you to control some of GDB's basic functions from within Edit (see Chapter 4 for details).

unview	Cause source files not to be viewed in Edit.

Printing Source Lines

To print lines from a source file, use the list command (abbreviated l).  There are several ways to specify what part of the file you want to print.

Here are the most commonly used forms of the list command:

list linenum 
Print ten lines centered around linenum in the current source file.

list function 
Print ten lines centered around the beginning of function.

list	Print ten more lines.  If the last lines printed were printed with a list command, this prints ten lines following the last lines printed; however, if the last line printed was a solitary line printed as part of displaying a stack frame (see the section ªExamining the Stackº), this prints ten lines centered around that line.

list - 	Print ten lines just before the lines last printed.

You can repeat a list command by pressing the Return key; however, any argument that was used is discarded, so this is equivalent to typing simply list.  An exception is made for an argument of -; that argument is preserved in repetition so that each repetition moves up in the file.

In general, the list command expects you to supply zero, one, or two linespecs.  Linespecs specify source lines; there are several ways of writing them but the effect is always to specify some source line.  The possible arguments for list are as follows:

list ,last	Print ten lines ending with last.

list first,	Print ten lines starting with first.

list +	Print ten lines just after the lines last printed.

list - 	Print ten lines just before the lines last printed.

list linespec 
Print ten lines centered around the line specified by linespec (described below).

list first,last 
Print lines from first to last.  Both arguments are linespecs.

Here are the possible ways to specify a value for linespec:

linenum	Specifies line linenum of the current source file.  When a list command has two linespecs, this refers to the same source file as the first linespec.

+offset	Specifies the line offset lines after the last line printed.  When used as the second linespec in a list command, this specifies the line offset lines down from the first linespec.

-offset	Specifies the line offset lines before the last line printed.

file:linenum
Specifies line linenum in the source file file.

function	Specifies the line of the left brace ({) that begins the body of function.

file:function 
Specifies the line of the left brace ({) that begins the body of function in file.  The file name is needed with a function name only for disambiguating identically named functions in different source files.

*addr	Specifies the line containing the program address addr.  addr may be any expression.

The info line command is used to map source lines to program addresses:

info line [ line ]
Print the starting and ending addresses of the compiled code for source line line, which can be specified as:

	linenum, to list around that line in current file,
file:linenum, to list around that line in that file,
function, to list around beginning of that function, or
file:function, to distinguish among like-named static functions.

With no argument, the command describes the last source line that was listed.

	The default address for the x command is changed to the starting address of the line, so that x/i is sufficient to begin examining the machine code (see the section ªExamining Memoryº).  Also, this address is saved as the value of the convenience variable $_ (see the section ªConvenience Variablesº).

Searching Source Files 

The forward-search command (or its alias, search) and the reverse-search command are useful when you want to locate text within the current source file.

forward-search regexp 
This command checks each line, starting with the one following the last line listed, for a match for regexp, which must be a UNIX regular expression (see the UNIX manual page for ed).  It lists the line that's found.  You can abbreviate this command as fo.

reverse-search regexp 
The command checks each line, starting with the one before the last line listed and going backward, for a match for regexp.  It lists the line that's found.  You can abbreviate this command as rev.

Specifying Source Directories

Executable programs don't record the directories of the source files they were compiled from, just the names.  GDB remembers a list of pathnames of directories in which it will search for source files; this list is called the source path (note that GDB doesn't use the environment variable PATH to search for source files).  Each time GDB wants a source file, it tries each directory in the list, starting from the beginning, until it finds a file with the desired name.

When you start GDB, its source path is set to  $cdir:$cwd (the current working directory, and  the directory in which the source file was compiled into object code).  To add other directories, use the directory command:

directory dirname 
Add directory with the pathname dirname to the beginning of the source path.

directory	Reset the source path to $cdir:$cwd, the default.This requires confirmation.

Examining Data

The most common way to examine data in your program is with the print command (abbreviated p):

print exp	This command evaluates and prints the value of any valid expression of the language the program is written in (currently, only C and Objective C).  Variables accessible are those of the lexical environment of the selected stack frame, plus all those whose scope is global or an entire file.

	exp is any valid expression, and the value of exp is printed in a format appropriate to its data type.  To print data in another format, you can cast exp to the desired type or use the x command.

	$num gets previous value number num.  $ and $$ are the last two values.  $$num refers to the num'th value back from the last one.  Names starting with $ refer to registers (with the values they would have if the program were to return to the stack frame now selected, restoring all registers saved by frames farther in) or else to debugger convenience variables (any such name that isn't a known register).  Use assignment expressions to give values to convenience variables.

	{type}adrexp refers to a datum of data type type, located at address adrexp.  @ is a binary operator for treating consecutive data objects anywhere in memory as an array.  foo@num gives an array whose first element is foo, whose second element is stored in the space following where foo is stored, etc.  foo must be an expression whose value resides in memory.

	exp may be preceded with /fmt, where fmt is a format letter but no count or size letter (see the description of the x command).

print-object object
Print object by sending printForDebugger: to it.

set exp	The set command works like the print command, except that the expression's value isn't displayed.  This is useful for modifying the state of your program.  For example:

set x=3
set close_all_files()

Another way to examine data is with the x command (see ªExamining Memoryº below).  It examines data in memory at a specified address and prints it in a specified format.

Expressions

Many different GDB commands accept an expression and compute its value.  Any kind of constant, variable, or operator defined by the programming language you're using is legal in an expression in GDB.  This includes conditional expressions, function calls, casts, and string constants.

GDB supports three kinds of operator in addition to those of programming languages:

file-or-function::variable-name 
:: allows you to specify a variable in terms of the file or function it's defined in.

@	@ is a binary operator for treating parts of memory as arrays.  See the section ªArtificial Arraysº below for more information.

{type} addr 
Refers to an object of type type stored at address addr in memory.  addr may be any expression whose value is an integer or pointer (but parentheses are required around nonunary operators, just as in a cast).  This construct is allowed no matter what kind of data is officially supposed to reside at addr.

Program Variables

The most common kind of expression to use is the name of a variable in your program.

Variables in expressions are understood in the selected stack frame (see the section ªSelecting a Frameº); they must be either global (or static) or visible according to the scope rules of the programming language from the point of execution in that frame.  This means that in the function

foo (a) 
    int a; 
{ 
    bar (a); 
    { 
        int b = test (); 
        bar (b); 
    } 
}

the variable a is usable whenever the program is executing within the function foo(), but the variable b is usable only while the program is executing inside the block in which b is declared.

Artificial Arrays

It's often useful to print out several successive objects of the same type in memory (for example, a section of an array, or an array of dynamically determined size for which only a pointer exists in the program).

This can be done by constructing an ªartificial arrayº with the binary operator @.  The left operand of @ should be the first element of the desired array, as an individual object.  The right operand should be the length of the array.  The result is an array value whose elements are all of the type of the left argument.  The first element is actually the left argument; the second element comes from bytes of memory immediately following those that hold the first element, and so on.  For example, if a program says

int *array = (int *) malloc (len * sizeof (int));

you can print the contents of array with

p *array@len

The left operand of @ must reside in memory.  Array values made with @ in this way behave just like other arrays in terms of subscripting, and are coerced to pointers when used in expressions.

Output Formats

GDB normally prints all values according to their data types.  Sometimes this isn't what you want.  For example, you might want to print a number in hexadecimal, or a pointer in decimal.  Or you might want to view data in memory at a certain address as a character string or an instruction.  These things can be done with output formats.

The simplest use of output formats is to specify how to print a value already computed.  This is done by starting the arguments of the print command with a slash and a format letter.  The format letters supported are:

x	Regard the bits of the value as an integer, and print the integer in hexadecimal.

d	Print as integer in signed decimal.

u	Print as integer in unsigned decimal.

o	Print as integer in octal.

a	Print as an address, both absolute in hexadecimal and then relative to a symbol defined at an address below it.

c	Regard as an integer and print as a character constant.

f	Regard the bits of the value as a floating-point number and print using typical floating-point syntax.

For example, to print the program counter in hexadecimal (see the section ªRegistersº), type

p/x $pc

No space is required before the slash because command names in GDB can't contain a slash.

To reprint the last value in the value history with a different format, you can use the print command with just a format and no expression.  For example, p/x reprints the last value in hexadecimal.

Examining Memory

The command x (for ªexamineº) can be used to examine memory under explicit control of formats, without reference to the program's data types.

x is followed by a slash and an output format specification, followed by an expression for an address:

	x/fmt addr

The expression addr doesn't need to have a pointer value (though it may); it's used as an integer, as the address of a byte of memory.

The output format fmt in this case specifies both how big a unit of memory to examine and how to print the contents of that unit.  It's done with one or two of the letters listed below.

These letters specify the size of unit to examine:

b	Examine individual bytes.

h	Examine halfwords (two bytes each).

w	Examine words (four bytes each).

g	Examine giant words (eight bytes).

These letters specify how to print the contents:

x	Print as integers in unsigned hexadecimal.

d	Print as integers in signed decimal.

u	Print as integers in unsigned decimal.

o	Print as integers in unsigned octal.

a	Print as an address, both absolute in hexadecimal and then relative to a symbol defined as an address below it.

c	Print as character constants (this implies size b).

f	Print as floating point.  This works only with sizes w and g.

s	Print a null-terminated string of characters.  The specified unit size is ignored; instead, the unit is however many bytes it takes to reach a null character (including the null character).

i	Print a machine instruction in assembler syntax (or nearly).  The specified unit size is ignored; the number of bytes in an instruction varies depending on the type of machine, the opcode and the addressing modes used.

If neither the manner of printing nor the size of unit is specified, the default is the same as was used last.  If you don't want to use any letters after the slash, you can omit the slash as well.

You can also omit the address to examine.  Then the address used is just after the last unit examined.  This is why string and instruction formats actually compute a unit-size based on the data:  so that the next string or instruction examined will start in the right place.  The print command sometimes sets the default address for the x command; when the value printed resides in memory, the default is set to examine the same location.  info line also sets the default for x, to the address of the start of the machine code for the specified line and info breakpoints sets it to the address of the last breakpoint listed.

When you repeat an x command by pressing the Return key, the address specified previously (if any) is ignored; instead, the command examines successive locations in memory rather than the same one.

You can examine several consecutive units of memory with one command by writing a repeat count after the slash (before the format letters, if any).  The repeat count must be a decimal integer.  It has the same effect as repeating the x command that many times except that the output may be more compact with several units per line.

x/10i $pc

Prints ten instructions starting with the one to be executed next in the selected frame.  After doing this, you could print another ten following instructions with

x/10

in which the format and address are allowed to default.

The addresses and contents printed by the x command aren't put in the value history because there's often too much of them and they would get in the way.  Instead, GDB makes these values available for subsequent use in expressions as values of the convenience variables $_ and $__ (that is, $ followed by one or two underscores).

After an x command, the last address examined is available for use in expressions in the convenience variable $_.  The contents of that address, as examined, are available in the convenience variable $__.

If the x command has a repeat count, the address and contents saved are from the last memory unit printed; this isn't the same as the last address printed if several units were printed on the last line of output.

Automatic Display

If you find that you want to print the value of an expression frequently (to see how it changes), you might want to add it to the ªautomatic display listº so that GDB will print its value each time the program stops.  Each expression added to the list is given a number to identify it; to remove an expression from the list, you specify that number.  The automatic display looks like this:

2: foo = 38 
3: bar[5] = (struct hack *) 0x3804

showing item numbers, expressions, and their current values.

display exp 
Add the expression exp to the list of expressions to display each time the program stops.

display/fmt exp 
Add the expression exp to the automatic display list, and display it in the format fmt.  fmt should specify only a display format, not a size or count.

display/fmt addr 
Add the expression addr as a memory address to be examined each time the program stops.  fmt should be either i or s, or it should include a unit size or a number of units.  See the section ªExamining Memory.º

undisplay [ n ... ]
Remove item number n from the list of expressions to display.  With no argument, cancels all automatic-display expressions.

display	Display the current values of the expressions on the list, just as is done when the program stops.

info display 
Print the list of expressions to display automatically, each one with its item number, but without showing the values.

Value History

Every value printed by the print command is saved for the entire session in GDB's ªvalue historyº so that you can refer to it in other expressions.

The values printed are given ªhistory numbersº for you to refer to them by.  These are successive integers starting with 1.  print shows you the history number assigned to a value by printing $n = before the value, where n is the history number.

To refer to any previous value, use $ followed by the value's history number.  The output printed by print is designed to remind you of this.  $ alone refers to the most recent value in the history, and $$ refers to the value before that.

For example, suppose you have just printed a pointer to a structure and want to see the contents of the structure.  It's enough to type

p *$

If you have a chain of structures where the component next points to the next one, you can print the contents of the next one with

p *$.next

It might be useful to repeat this command many times by pressing the Return key.

Note that the history records values, not expressions.  If the value of x is 4 and you type

print x 
set x=5

then the value recorded in the value history by the print command remains 4 even though x's value has changed.

Convenience Variables

GDB provides ªconvenience variablesº that you can use within GDB to hold a value for future reference.  These variables exist entirely within GDB; they aren't part of your program, and setting a convenience variable has no effect on further execution of your program.  That's why you can use them freely.

Convenience variables have names starting with $.  Any name starting with $ can be used for a convenience variable, unless it's one of the predefined set of register names (see the section ªRegistersº).

You can save a value in a convenience variable with an assignment expression, just as you would set a variable in your program.  For example:

set $foo = *object_ptr

would save in $foo the value contained in the object pointed to by object_ptr.

Convenience variables don't need to be explicitly declared; using a convenience variable for the first time creates it.  However, its value is void until you assign it a value.  You can alter the value with another assignment at any time.

Convenience variables have no fixed types.  You can assign a convenience variable any type of value, even if it already has a value of a different type.  The convenience variable as an expression has whatever type its current value has.

One way to use a convenience variable is as a counter to be incremented or a pointer to be advanced.  For example:

set $i = 0 
print bar[$i++]->contents 
    repeat that command by typing RET.

Some convenience variables are created automatically by GDB and given values likely to be useful.

$_	The variable $_ (single underscore) is automatically set by the x command to the last address examined (see the section ªExamining Memoryº).  Other commands which provide a default address for x to examine also set $_ to that address; these commands include info line and info breakpoint.

$__	The variable $__ (two underscores) is automatically set by the x command to the value found in the last address examined.

Registers

Machine register contents can be referred to in expressions as variables with names starting with $.

The names $pc and $sp are used for the program counter register and the stack pointer.  $fp is used for a register that contains a pointer to the current stack frame.  To see a list of all the registers, use the command info registers.

Some registers have distinct ªrawº and ªvirtualº data formats.  This means that the data format in which the register contents are saved by the operating system isn't the same one that your program normally sees.  For example, the registers of the 68882 floating-point coprocessor are always saved in ªextendedº format, but all C programs expect to work with ªdoubleº format.  In such cases, GDB normally works with the virtual format only (the format that makes sense for your program), but the info registers command prints the data in both formats.

Register values are relative to the selected stack frame (see the section ªSelecting a Frameº).  This means that you get the value that the register would contain if all stack frames farther in were exited and their saved registers restored.  In order to see the real contents of all registers, you must select the innermost frame (with frame 0).

Some registers are never saved (typically those numbered 0 or 1) because they're used for returning function values; for these registers, relativization makes no difference.

info registers [regname]
With no argument, print the names and relativized values of all registers.  With an argument, print the relativized value of register regname.  regname may be any register name valid on the machine you're using, with or without the initial $.

For example, you could print the program counter in hexadecimal with

p/x $pc

or print the instruction to be executed next with

x/i $pc

or add 4 to the stack pointer with

set $sp += 4

The last is a way of removing one word from the stack.  This assumes that the innermost stack frame is selected.  Setting $sp isn't allowed when other stack frames are selected.

Miscellaneous Commands

call arg	Call a function in the inferior process.  The argument is the function name and arguments, in standard C notation.  The result is printed and saved in the value history, if it isn't void.

disassemble [ arg [ arg ] ]
Disassemble a specified section of memory.  The default is the function surrounding the pc of the selected frame.  With a single argument, the function surrounding that address is dumped.  Two arguments are taken as a range of memory to dump.

whereis variable
Print the location of the specified variable.

Examining the Symbol Table

The commands described in this section allow you to make inquiries for information about the symbols (names of variables, functions, and types) defined in your program.  GDB finds this information in the symbol table contained in the executable file; it's inherent in the text of your program and doesn't change as the program executes.

whatis [exp]
With no argument, print the data type of $, the last value in the value history.  With an argument, print the data type of expression exp.  exp isn't actually evaluated, and any operations inside it that have side effects (such as assignments or function calls) don't take place.

info address symbol 
Describe where the data for symbol is stored.  For register variables, this says which register.  For other automatic variables, this prints the stack-frame offset at which the variable is always stored.  Note the contrast with print &symbol, which doesn't work at all for register variables, and which for automatic variables prints the exact address of the current instantiation of the variable.

info functions [regexp] 
With no argument, print the names and data types of all defined functions.  With an argument, print the names and data types of all defined functions whose names contain a match for regular expression regexp (for information about regular expressions, see the UNIX manual page for ed).  For example, info fun step finds all functions whose names include step; info fun ^step finds those whose names start with step.

info sources 
Print the names of all source files in the program for which there is debugging information.

info types [regexp] 
With no argument, print all data types that are defined in the program.  With an argument, print all data types that are defined in the program whose names contain a match for regular expression regexp.

info variables [regexp] 
With no argument, print the names and data types of all top-level variables that are declared outside functions.  With an argument, print the names and data types of all variables declared outside functions, whose names contain a match for regular expression regexp.

printsyms file 
Write a complete dump of the debugger's symbol data into the file file.

ptype typename 
Print a description of data type typename.  typename may be the name of a type, or for C code it may have the form struct struct-tag, union union-tag or enum enum-tag.  The selected stack frame's lexical context is used to look up the name.

Setting Variables

set	Perform an assignment var = exp.  You must type the =.  var may be a debugger convenience variable (a name starting with $), a register (one of a few standard names starting with $), or an actual variable in the program being debugged.  exp is any expression.  Use set variable for variables with names identical to set subcommands.

	With a subcommand listed below, the set command modifies parts of the GDB environment (you can see these environment settings with show and its subcommands).    In general, use on (or no argument) to enable a feature, and off to disable it.

set args arg ...
Set arguments to give the program being debugged when it is started.  Follow this command with any number of arguments to be passed to the program.

set autoload-breakpoints on/off
Set automatic resetting of breakpoints in dynamic code.

set autoload-symbols on/off
Set automatic loading of symbols of dynamic code.

set catch-user-commands-errors on/off
Set whether to ignore errors in user commands.

set complaints num
Set the maximum number of complaints about incorrect symbols.

set confirm on/off
Set whether to confirm potentially dangerous operations.

set editing on/off 
Set command-line editing.

set environment var value
Set environment variable and value to give the program.  Arguments are var value where var is the variable name and value is the value.  Values of environment variables are uninterpreted strings.  This command does not affect the program until the next run command.

set history expansion on/off 
Set history expansion on command input.

set history filename file
Set the filename in which to record the command history (the list of previous commands of which a record is kept).

set history save on/off 
Set whether the history record is saved when you exit gdb.

set history size size
Set the size of the command history (the number of previous commands to keep a record of).

set lazy-read on/off
Set whether inferior's memory is read lazily.

set print address on/off
Set printing of addresses.

set print array on/off
Set pretty printing of arrays.

set print asm-demangle on/off
Set demangling of C++ names in disassembly listings.

set print demangle on/off
Set demangling of encoded C++ names when displaying symbols.

set print elements size
Set limit on string chars or array elements to print.  The value 0 causes there to be no limit.

set print object on/off
Set printing of object's derived type based on vtable info.

set print sevenbit-strings on/off
Set printing of 8-bit characters in strings as \nnn.

set print vtbl on/off
Set printing of C++ virtual function tables.

set print union on/off
Set printing of unions interior to structures.

set print pretty on/off
Set pretty printing of structures.

set prompt string
Set GDB's prompt.  The argument is an unquoted string.

set radix on/off
Set the default input and output number radix.

set unload-symbols on/off
Set whether symbols from dynamically loaded code are forgotten for future loads.

set verbose on/off 
Set whether verbose printing of informational messages is enabled or disabled.

set view-host host
Set the host to connect to when viewing.

set view-program name
Set the name of the program to connect to when viewing.

set variable var = exp
Same as set; use set variable in cases where var is identical to one of the set subcommands.

Status Inquiries

info address var
Describe where the specified variable is stored.

info args	Provide information about the argument variables of the current stack frame.

info breakpoints [ num ]
Provide information about the status of all breakpoints, or of breakpoint number num.  The second column displays y for enabled breakpoints, n for disabled, o for enabled once (disable when hit), or d for enabled but delete when hit.  The address and the file/line number are also displayed.

	The convenience variable $_ and the default examine address for x are set to the address of the last breakpoint listed.  The convenience variable $bpnum contains the number of the last breakpoint set.

info catch
Provide information about the exceptions that can be caught in the current stack frame.

info classes
Show all Objective C classes.

info copying
Show conditions for redistributing copies of GDB.

info display
Show expressions to display when program stops, with code numbers.

info files	Show the names of targets and files being debugged.  Shows the entire stack of targets currently in use (including the exec-file, core-file, and process, if any), as well as the symbol file name.

info float	Show the status of the floating point unit.

info frame [ addr ]
Provide information about the selected stack frame, or the frame at addr.

info functions [ regexp ]
Show all function names, or those matching regexp.

info line [ line_spec ]
Core addresses of the code for a source line.  line_spec can be specified as

	linenum, to list around that line in current file,
file:linenum, to list around that line in that file,
function, to list around beginning of that function, or
file:function, to distinguish among like-named static functions.

The default is to describe the last source line that was listed.

	This sets the default address for x to the line's first instruction so that x/i suffices to start examining the machine code.  The address is also stored as the value of $_.

info locals
Provide information about the local variables of the current stack frame.

info program
Show the execution status of the program.

info registers [ register_name ]
Show a list of registers and their contents for the selected stack frame.  A register name as argument means describe only that register.

info selectors
Show all Objective C selectors.

info set	Show all GDB settings.

info signals [ sig_num ]
Show what GDB does when the program gets various signals.  Specify a signal number to print information about that signal only.

info sources
Show the names of source files in the program.

info source
Provide information about the current source file.

info stack [ count ]
Provide a backtrace of the stack, or of the innermost count frames.

info target
Same as info files.

info terminal
Print inferior's saved terminal status.

info types [ regexp ]
Show all type names, or those matching regexp.

info user [ command ]
Show the definition of a user-defined command.  With no argument, show the definitions of all user-defined commands.

info variables [ regexp ]
Show all global and static variable names, or those matching regexp.

info warranty
Show information pertaining to warranty.

info watchpoints [ num ]
Provide information about the status of all watchpoints, or of watchpoint number num.  The second column displays y for enabled watchpoints or n for disabled ones.

show autoload-breakpoints
Show automatic reseting of breakpoints in dynamic code.

show autoload-symbols
Show automatic loading of symbols of dynamic code.

show args	Show arguments to give program being debugged when it is started.

show catch-user-commands-errors
Show whether to ignore errors in user commands.

show commands
Show the status of the command editor.

show complaints
Show the maximum number of complaints about incorrect symbols.

show confirm
Show whether to confirm potentially dangerous operations.

show convenience
Show the debugger convenience variables.  These variables are created when you assign them values; thus, print $foo=1 gives $foo the value 1.  Values may be of any type.

	A few convenience variables are given values automatically:  $_ holds the last address examined with x or info lines, and $__ holds the contents of the last address examined with x.

show directories
Current search path for finding source files.  $cwd in the path means the current working directory.  $cdir in the path means the compilation directory of the source file.

show editing
Show command-line editing.

show environment [ var ]
Show the environment to give the program, or one variable's value.  With an argument var, prints the value of environment variable var to give the program being debugged.  With no arguments, prints the entire environment to be given to the program.

show history expansion
Show history expansion on command input.

show history filename
Show the filename in which to record the command history (the list of previous commands of which a record is kept).

show history save
Show saving of the history record on exit.

show history size
Show the size of the command history (that is, the number of previous commands to keep a record of).

show lazy-read
Show if inferior's memory is read lazily.

show paths
Show the current search path for finding object files.  $cwd in the path means the current working directory.  This path is like the $PATH shell variable; that is, a list of directories separated by colons.  These directories are searched to find fully linked executable files and separately compiled object files as needed.

show print address
Show printing of addresses.

show print array
Show prettyprinting of arrays.

show print asm-demangle
Show demangling of C++ names in disassembly listings.

show print demangle
Show demangling of encoded C++ names when displaying symbols.

show print elements
Show limit on string chars or array elements to print.

show print object
Show printing of object's derived type based on vtable info.

show print pretty
Show pretty printing of structures.

show print sevenbit-strings
Show printing of 8-bit characters in strings as \nnn.

show print union
Show printing of unions interior to structures.

show print vtbl
Show printing of C++ virtual function tables.

show prompt
Show GDB's prompt.

show radix
Show the default input and output number radix.

show unload-symbols
Show whether symbols from dynamically loaded code are forgotten for future loads.

show values [ idx ]
Elements of value history around item number idx (or last ten).

show verbose
Show whether verbosity is on or off.

show version
Report what version of GDB this is.

show view-host
Show host to connect to when viewing.

show view-program
Show name of program to connect to when viewing.

Debugging PostScript Code

This section describes three commands that are useful when debugging PostScript source files.

These commands aren't built-in commands; rather, the NEXTSTEP environment defines them in a system .gdbinit file located in the directory /usr/lib.  This file is read when you start running GDB (the contents of this file are shown later in this chapter).

showps, shownops
The showps and shownops commands turn on and off (respectively) the display of PostScript code being sent from your application to the Window Server.  Your application must be running before you can issue either of these commands.

flush	The flush command sends pending PostScript code to the Window Server.  This command lets you flush the application's output buffer, causing any PostScript code waiting there to be interpreted immediately.  Your application must be running before you can issue this command.

Debugging Objective C Code

This section provides information about some commands and command options that are useful for debugging Objective C code.

Method Names in Commands

The following commands have been extended to accept Objective C method names as line specifications:

clear 
break 
info line 
jump 
list

For example, to set a breakpoint at the create instance method of class Fruit in the program currently being debugged, enter:

break [Fruit create]

It's also possible to specify just a method name:

break create

If your program's source files contain more than one create method, you'll be presented with a numbered list of classes that implement that method.  Indicate your choice by number, or type 0 to exit if none apply.  To narrow the scope of GDB's search, you can use a preceding plus or minus sign to specify whether you're referring to a class or an instance method.  For example, to list the ten program lines around the initialize class method, enter

list +[Text initialize]

or

list +initialize

You must specify the complete method name, including any colons.  For example, to clear a breakpoint established at the orderWindow:relativeTo: method of the Window class, enter:

clear [Window orderWindow:relativeTo:]

Command Descriptions

This section describes commands and options that are useful in debugging Objective C code.  Some of these are new commands that have been implemented in NEXTSTEP, and some are previously existing GDB commands that have been extended in NEXTSTEP.

The info Command

The info command takes three additional options:

info classes [regexp] 
Display all Objective C classes in your application, or those matching the regular expression regexp.

info selectors [regexp] 
Display all Objective C selector names (or those matching the regular expression regexp), and also each selector's unique number.

If you don't limit the command's scope by entering a regular expression, the resulting listing can be quite long.  To terminate a listing at any point and return to the GDB prompt, type Control-C.

Two standard info command options have been extended.  The info types command recognizes and lists the Objective C id type.  The info line command recognizes Objective C method names as line specifications.

The print Command

The print command has been extended to allow the evaluation of Objective C objects and message expressions.  Consider, for example, this program excerpt:

@implementation Fruit : Object
{
    char *color;
    int diameter;
}

+ create  {
    id newInstance;
    newInstance = [super new];       // creates instance of Fruit
    [ newInstance color:"green" ];   // set the color
    [ newInstance diameter:1];       // set the diameter
    return newInstance;              // return the new instance
}
. . .
@end

Once this code has been executed, you can use GDB to examine newInstance by entering:

print newInstance

The output looks something like this (of course, the address wouldn't be the same):

$1 = (id) 0x1a020

As declared, newInstance is a pointer to an Objective C object.  To see the structure this variable points to, enter:

print *newInstance

GDB displays:

$3 = {
    isa = 0x120b4;
    color = 0x26bf "green";
    diameter = 1;
}

This structure contains the instance variables defined above for objects of the Fruit class.  It also contains a pointer, called isa, that points to its class object.  To see the identity of this class, enter:

print *newInstance->isa

GDB displays:

$4 = {
    isa = 0x12090;
    super_class = 0x124a4;
    name = 0x125a2 "Fruit";
    version = 0;
    info = 17;
    instance_size = 12;
    ivars = 0x1203c;
    methods = 0x120ec;
    cache = 0x22080;
}

The instance variable name verifies that this is an instance of the Fruit class.

You can also evaluate a message expression with the print command.  As a by-product of the evaluation, the message is sent to the receiving object.  For example, the following command sets the color of the Fruit object to red:

print [newInstance color: "red"]

The set Command

The set command can be used to evaluate and send a message expression.  For example, the following command sets the color of the Fruit object to red:

set [newInstance color: "red"]

The step Command

The step command has been extended to let you step through the execution of an Objective C message.  By repeatedly executing the step command, you can watch the chain of events that make up the execution of a message.

If you step into a message and don't want to follow the details of its execution, enter:

finish

This command completes the execution of the message and stops the program at the next statement.  To avoid stepping into the message in the first place, use the next command rather than step.  The next command instructs GDB to execute the current command and stop only when control returns to the current stack frame.

Debugging Mach Threads

The following commands have been provided in the NEXTSTEP version of GDB to support the debugging of Mach threads.

thread-list thread 
List all threads that exist in the program being debugged (abbreviated tl).

thread-select thread 
Select a thread (abbreviated ts).  For example, ts 2 selects thread 2.

tsuspend thread 
Suspend execution of thread.

tresume thread 
Resumes execution of a particular thread.

Debugging NEXTSTEP Core Files

NEXTSTEP GDB has been extended to allow debugging of NEXTSTEP core files, which are in the Mach-O file format.  Core files are generated in the /cores directory, if it exists; otherwise, they're generated in the current working directory.

The info files command lists information about the contents of the core file.  This tells you what segments of address space exist in the core file, how many threads exist in the core image, and what the program counter is for each thread.  Thread 0 is selected by default, so if you do a bt it will apply to thread 0.  The thread-list and thread-select commands, documented in the section ªDebugging Mach Threadsº above, work with core files.  All the normal debugger commands can also be used while debugging the core image.

Altering Execution

There are several ways to alter the execution of your program with GDB commands.

Assignment to Variables

To alter the value of a variable, evaluate an assignment expression.  For example:

print x=4

would store the value 4 into the variable x, and then print the value of the assignment expression (which is 4).

If you aren't interested in seeing the value of the assignment, use the set command instead of the print command.  set is the same as print except that the expression's value isn't printed and isn't put in the value history.  The expression is evaluated only for side effects.

GDB allows more implicit conversions in assignments than C does; you can freely store an integer value into a pointer variable or vice versa, and any structure can be converted to any other structure that's the same length or shorter.

All the other C assignment operators such as += and ++ are supported as well.

To store into arbitrary places in memory, use the {...} construct to generate a value of specified type at a specified address.  For example:

set {int}0x83040 = 4

Continuing at a Different Address

jump linenum 
Resume execution at line number linenum.  Execution may stop immediately if there's a breakpoint there.

The jump command doesn't change the current stack frame, or the stack pointer, or the contents of any memory location or any register other than the program counter.  If linenum is in a different function from the one currently executing, the results may be wild if the two functions expect different patterns of arguments or of local variables.  For this reason, the jump command requests confirmation if the specified line isn't in the function currently executing.

jump *address 
Resume execution at the instruction at address address.

A somewhat similar effect can be obtained by storing a new value into the register $pc.  For example:

set $pc = 0x485

specifies the address at which execution will resume, but doesn't resume execution.  That doesn't happen until you use the cont command or a stepping command.

Returning from a Function

return [exp] 
You can make any function call return immediately by using the return command.

First select the stack frame that you want to return from (see the section ªSelecting a Frameº).  Then type the return command.  If you want to specify the value to be returned, give that as an argument.

The selected stack frame (and any other frames inside it) is popped, leaving its caller as the innermost remaining frame.  That frame becomes selected.  The specified value is stored in the registers used for returning values of functions.

The return command doesn't resume execution; it leaves the program stopped in the state that would exist if the function had just returned.  Contrast this with the finish command, which resumes execution until the selected stack frame returns naturally.

Defining and Executing Sequences of Commands

GDB provides two ways to store sequences of commands for execution as a unit:  user-defined commands and command files.

User-Defined Commands

A ªuser-defined commandº is a sequence of GDB commands to which you assign a new name as a command.  This is done with the define command.

define commandname 
Define a command named commandname.  If there's already a command by that name, you're asked to confirm that you want to redefine it.

The definition of the command is made up of other GDB command lines, which are given following the define command.  The end of the command definition is marked by a line containing just the command end.  For example:

define w 
    where 
end

document commandname 
Create documentation for the user-defined command commandname.  The command commandname must already be defined.  This command reads lines of documentation just as define reads the lines of the command definition.  After the document command is finished, help on command commandname will print the documentation you have specified.

You may use the document command again to change the documentation of a command.  Redefining the command with define doesn't change the documentation, so be sure to keep the documentation up to date.

User-defined commands don't take arguments.  When they're executed, the commands of the definition aren't printed.  An error in any command stops execution of the user-defined command.

Commands that would ask for confirmation if used interactively proceed without asking when used inside a user-defined command.  Many GDB commands that normally print messages to say what they're doing omit the messages when used in a user-defined command.

Command Files

A command file for GDB is a file of lines that are GDB commands.  Comments (lines starting with #) may also be included.  An empty line in a command file does nothing; it doesn't cause the last command to be repeated, as it would from the terminal.

When GDB starts, it automatically executes its ªinit filesº (command files named .gdbinit).  GDB first reads the init file (if any) in your home directory and then the init file (if any) in the current working directory.  (The init files aren't executed if the -nx option is given.)  You can also request the execution of a command file with the source command:

source file
Execute the command file file.

The lines in a command file are executed sequentially.  They aren't printed as they're executed.  An error in any command terminates execution of the command file.

Commands that would ask for confirmation if used interactively proceed without asking when used in a command file.  Many GDB commands that normally print messages to say what they're doing omit the messages when used in a command file.

Commands for Controlled Output

During the execution of a command file or a user-defined command, the only output that appears is what's explicitly printed by the commands of the definition.  This section describes three additional commands useful for generating exactly the output you want.

echo text	Print text.  Nonprinting characters can be included in text using C escape sequences, such as \n to print a newline.  No newline will be printed unless you specify one.

A backslash at the end of text is ignored.  It's useful for producing a string ending in spaces, since trailing spaces are trimmed from all arguments.  A backslash at the beginning preserves leading spaces in the same way, because the escape sequence backslash-space stands for a space.  Thus, to print ª variable foo = º, do

echo \ variable foo = \ 

output expression 
Print just the value of expression.  A newline character isn't printed, and the value isn't entered in the value history.

output/fmt expression 
Print the value of expression in format fmt.  See ªOutput Formatsº in the section ªExamining Dataº for more information.

printf format-string, arg [, arg] ...
Print the values of the arguments, under the control of format-string.  This command is identical in its operation to its C library equivalent (see the UNIX manual page for printf() for format codes).

Miscellaneous Commands

browse [ object ]
Browse an object

dump-me
Produce a fatal error and make GDB dump its core.

dump-strings [ file ]
Dump all the strings seen into file.

make [ args ]
Run the make program using the rest of the line as arguments.

select-frame
Select the frame at fp, pc.

shell [ command ]
Execute the rest of the line as a shell command.  With no arguments, run an inferior shell.

Legal Considerations

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this chapter provided its copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this chapter under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the section entitled ªGDB General Public Licenseº (below) is included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this chapter into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the section entitled ªGDB General Public Licenseº may be included in a translation approved by the author instead of in the original English.

Distribution

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You may obtain a complete machine-readable copy of any NEXTSTEP-modified source code for Free Software Foundation software under the terms of Free Software foundation's general public licenses, without charge except for the cost of media, shipping and handling, upon written request to Technical Services at NeXT Computer, Inc.

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GDB General Public License

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Specifically, we want to make sure that you have the right to give away copies of GDB, that you receive source code or else can get it if you want it, that you can change GDB or use pieces of it in new free programs, and that you know you can do these things.

To make sure that everyone has such rights, we have to forbid you to deprive anyone else of these rights.  For example, if you distribute copies of GDB, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have.  You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code.  And you must tell them their rights.

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Therefore we (Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation, Inc.) make the following terms which say what you must do to be allowed to distribute or change GDB.

Copying Policies

1.	You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of GDB source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy a valid copyright notice ªCopyright (c) 1988 Free Software Foundation, Inc.º (or with whatever year is appropriate); keep intact the notices on all files that refer to this License Agreement and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other recipients of the GDB program a copy of this License Agreement along with the program.  You may charge a distribution fee for the physical act of transferring a copy.

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·	cause the whole of any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or in part contains or is a derivative of GDB or any part thereof, to be licensed at no charge to all third parties on terms identical to those contained in this License Agreement (except that you may choose to grant more extensive warranty protection to some or all third parties, at your option).

·	You may charge a distribution fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.

Mere aggregation of another unrelated program with this program (or its derivative) on a volume of a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other program under the scope of these terms.

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For an executable file, complete source code means all the source code for all modules it contains; but, as a special exception, it need not include source code for modules which are standard libraries that accompany the operating system on which the executable file runs.

4.	You may not copy, sublicense, distribute or transfer GDB except as expressly provided under this License Agreement.  Any attempt otherwise to copy, sublicense, distribute or transfer GDB is void and your rights to use the program under this License agreement shall be automatically terminated.  However, parties who have received computer software programs from you with this License Agreement will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

5.	If you wish to incorporate parts of GDB into other free programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the Free Software Foundation at 675 Mass. Ave., Cambridge, MA  02139.  We have not yet worked out a simple rule that can be stated here, but we will often permit this.  We will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing and reuse of software.

Your comments and suggestions about our licensing policies and our software are welcome!  Please contact the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass. Ave., Cambridge, MA  02139, or call (617)876-3296.

No Warranty

BECAUSE GDB IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, WE PROVIDE ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE STATE LAW.  EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING, FREE SOFTWARE FOUNDATION, INC, RICHARD M. STALLMAN AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE GDB ªAS ISº WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF GDB IS WITH YOU.  SHOULD GDB PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION.

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