Copyright: Copyright (c) 1993 WordPerfect Corporation.
Citation: Copyright (c) 1993 WordPerfect Corporation. All rights reserved.


Main Index
Contents

Welcome to WP Grammatik 5 for Windows Help

To find information on Grammatik's features, choose from the following items.  To search for information through Help, use the buttons along the top of the Help window.

Choose	For information about

Rule Classes 	helps you understand and correct the problems Grammatik identifies

Glossary 	defines terms to clarify any writing advice or analysis

Writing 	presents general topics that help improve your writing

Commands 	guides your use all of Grammatik's features

Show Parts of Speech 	displays the parts of speech Grammatik assigns

About Grammatik 	your license and version of WordPerfect's Grammatik


Rule Classes

Purpose

You can understand and correct the problems that Grammatik identifies in your writing.

Abbreviation

Adjective

Adverb

Advertising Style

Archaic

Article

Business Letter Style

Capitalization

Cliche

Colloquial

Comma Splice or Fused Sentence

Commonly Confused

Comparative/Superlative

Conjunction

Documentation Style

Double Negative

Doubled Word or Punctuation

Ellipsis

End-of-Sentence Preposition

End-of-Sentence Punctuation

Fiction Style

Foreign

Formalisms

Gender-Specific

General Style

Homonym

Incomplete Sentence

Incorrect Verb Form

Infinitive

Jargon

Journalism Style

Long Sentence

Memo Style

Noun Phrase

Number Style

Object of Verb

Overstated

Paragraph Problem

Passive Voice

Pejorative

Possessive Form

Preposition

Pronoun Case

Pronoun Number Agreement

Proposal Style

Punctuation

Questionable Usage

Question Mark

Quotation Marks

Redundant

Relative Pronoun

Report Style

Run-on Sentence

Second-Person Address

Sentence Variety

Sequence of Tenses

Similar Words

Spelling

Split Infinitive

Split Words

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subordination

Technical Style

Tense Shift

Trademark

Unbalanced (), {}, [], or"

Vague Adverb

Wordy


Commands Index
Commands

Purpose

Find information on menus, menu items, windows, and other parts of Grammatik.

Check Menu

Options Menu

Help Menu

Advice Box


Glossary

Purpose

You can learn terms that clarify any writing advice or analysis that you don't understand.

abbreviation

active verb

active voice

adjective

adjective clause

adverb

adverb clause

antecedent

appositive

article

auxiliary verb

base verb

clause

colloquial

common noun

comparative

complement

compound subject

conjunction

coordinating conjunction

correlative conjunction

countable noun

dependent clause

determiner

direct object

double negative

generic

generic reference

gerund

homonym

idiomatic

inactive verb

indefinite pronoun

independent clause

indirect object

infinitive

interjection

intransitive verb

linking verb

main clause

modal

modifier

nonstandard

noun

noun phrase

object

object pronoun

participle

passive voice

past participle

phrase

phrasal verb

possessive adjective

preposition

prepositional phrase

present participle

progressive

pronoun

proper noun

relative clause

relative pronoun

reflexive pronoun

subject

subject pronoun

subjunctive

subordinating conjunction

subordinator

superlative

synonym

tense

transitive verb

uncountable noun

verb

verb phrase

voice


Writing Index
Writing

Purpose

You can learn ways to improve your writing by reading categories in this topic. These categories do not answer questions about rule class categories.

Audience

Clause

Identifying Parts of Speech

Identifying Sentence Elements

Prepositional Phrase

Relative Clause

Using Active Verbs

References

Suggested Reading


Grammatik's Main Window
Grammatik Window

Purpose

When you start Grammatik, the Grammatik window appears.  The window gives you information about how Grammatik is currently set up.  Perform any Grammatik operation or change any Grammatik settings from this window.  You start operations or change settings by selecting commands from the menus on the menu bar.  To start checking a document, choose Start.  To leave Grammatik, choose Close.


Advice Box

Purpose

When Grammatik detects a problem during a proofreading session, it displays the problem in the Advice Box.

Choose from the following command buttons for more information:

Close	Stops proofreading and closes the document

Ignore Word	Ignores the specific word from now on

Add	Puts the word into the user's dictionary.

Skip	Skips to the next problem

Replace	Replaces the error with the correct word(s)

In some cases Grammatik might identify a problem that requires editing a document manually with the mouse and editing keys.  When this occurs, edit the problem and choose Resume.

If you are not sure why Grammatik identifies a problem, you can get Help for an explanation of the problem and Grammatik's advice.  To see how Grammatik analyzes a sentence, choose Show Parts of Speech in the Help menu.

While running a Grammar, Mechanics and Style check, you might find you need to change the proofreading options or writing style.  You can change any of these items at any time by opening  the Options menu and choosing the appropriate command.  For example, you can:

turn on or off Suggest spelling replacements

change the writing style

turn on or off rule classes by creating a custom style


Close

Purpose

This command appears as a button on the Grammatik window.  It stops proofreading and closes Grammatik.


Ignore Class

Purpose

To turn off the rule class for the rest of the proofreading session, click the Rule Class checkbox.  An empty checkbox means the rule is turned off for the session.  At the end of the proofreading session, Grammatik asks if you want to turn off the rule class for future proofreading sessions.  Answering Yes displays the dialog box used to create a custom writing style.  Answering No returns you to Grammatik's main window without saving the rule class changes made in this session.


Ignore Word

Purpose

This command lets you turn off error detection for a specific word or phrase.  Choosing Ignore Word forces Grammatik to ignore the highlighted word for the rest of the proofreading session.  This option is not valid for all error types.  For example, Grammatik will not ignore specific punctuation errors.

If the problem is a spelling error, the word is treated like any other phrase, and it is ignored for the rest of the proofreading session.  The word will not be added to the personal word list and is flagged if encountered again in a future proofreading session.  To add a word to the user's word list, choose Add.


Add

Purpose

When single-word spelling checking is turned on during a proofreading session, Grammatik flags any word not in its dictionary or the user spelling dicitonary as a spelling error.  If the word is spelled correctly and you often use it in your writing, choose Add.  Grammatik "learns" the new word and recognizes it as correct from now on.  Grammatik "learns" new words by adding them to the user spelling dictionary (GW51EN.USR).

Grammatik reads the words in GW51EN.USR into an in-memory list when proofreading your documents.  If the list runs out of room, you receive an error message.  If this happens, Grammatik continues to flag as incorrect any words it was unable to add to your user spelling dictionary.

To correct this problem, merge the words in GW51EN.USR with the MOR-PROOF Spelling dictionary using the Dictionary utility.  This Program removes words from GW51EN.USR and places them in the master spelling dictionary.


Skip

Purpose

If Grammatik identifies a problem that you do not want to change, choose Skip.  If you use Skip, Grammatik skips the current problem but flags it the next time it is encountered.

Pressing Enter has the same effect as choosing Skip.


Replace

Purpose

If you want to substitute a replacement word or phrase for a problem Grammatik has detected, choose Replace.  The replacement word or phrase will replace the highlighted problem.

If more than one replacement is available, highlight the replacement you want in the list before choosing Replace.  If you don't want to use any of the suggested replacements, edit the document manually.


Check Menu

Purpose

The Check menu allows you to choose what part of your document you want to proofread.

Choose from the following for more information:

Sentence	Checks only the current sentence

Paragraph	Checks only the current paragraph

Document	Checks the entire document from beginning to end

To End of Document	Checks from the current insertion point position to the end of the document

Selected Text	Checks a block of selected text

Steps

1	Place the insertion point within your document.  Open the Checking menu and choose a proofreading selection.


Show Parts of Speech

Purpose

As part of its analysis, Grammatik assigns parts of speech to each word in a sentence.  The analysis is based on context.  Grammatik cannot interpret the semantics (author's meaning) of the sentence.  Sometimes Grammatik is not sure what part of speech to assign a word.  At other times, Grammatik can only tell that a word is one of several parts of speech (e.g., "book" can be either a noun or a verb).  Although Grammatik attempts to narrow the part of speech assignment by context analysis, occasionally it makes an error.  This display shows the final parts of speech Grammatik assigns to each word.  It may help you to understand why Grammatik flagged an error incorrectly.

Steps

1	Choose Show Parts of Speech from the Help menu.

Grammatik displays the part-of-speech codes it assigns to each word in the document.  The list below explains the part-of-speech codes Grammatik uses.

abrv:	Abbreviation ("etc.," "St.").

adj:	Adjective, modifies a noun (a "good" book).

adv:	Adverb, usually modifies a verb (went "quickly").

aux:	An auxiliary verb, a form of "be," "have," or "do" ("is" coming, "had" not run, "did" he say).

det:	Determiner, a special type of adjective ("a," "an," "the," "some," "these," "any").

c/s:	Comparative or superlative form of an adjective or adverb ("happier," "slowest").

conj:	Conjunction, joins words, phrases, or clauses (the book "and" the pen; "because" it is late).

inf:	Infinitive verb form, "to" plus a base verb ("to" go, "to" read).

inter:	Interjection, an exclamation ("hi," "hey").

modal:	Modal, a type of auxiliary verb ("will," "must," "can," "should," "might").

num:	Number ("three," "51," "6:00").

past:	Past tense form of a verb.  (He "wrote" a book.)

past-p:	Past participle form of a verb.  (The note was "written" in ink.)

pn:	A plural noun ("books," "children").

poss:	Possessive form of a noun, indicates ownership ("dog's" leg; "students' " cars; "Joe's" son).

prep:	Preposition, relates nouns and pronouns to other words (folder "of" notes; gift "for" you).

pres-3:	Third-person present form of a verb (he "waits"; she "brushes" her hair; "does" it sing).

pres-p:	Present participle ("-ing") form of a verb.  (He is "writing" a book.)

pron:	Pronoun, takes the place of a noun ("I," "me," "mine," "yourself," "these," "who," "which").

punc:	Punctuation (period [.], comma [,], question mark [?]).

sn:	A singular noun, the name of a person, place, thing, or abstraction ("Tom," "pen," "health").

v:	Verb, shows action or existence ("read" the book; it "is" informative).


Restore Rule Classes

Purpose

During Grammar, Mechanics and Style proofreading, you can make Grammatik deactivate a rule class that you find inappropriate for the type of document you are checking.  You deactivate a rule class during Grammar, Mechanics and Style proofreading by using the Ignore Class checkbox.

If you change your mind and want to reactivate ignored rules at the end of proofreading, select the Restore Rule Classes command in the Options menu.  The instructions below show you how to use this command.

1	Choose Restore Rule Classes from the Options menu.

Grammatik activates the rule class and continues to proofread the document.

NOTE:  When checking a document using the Grammar and Mechanics command, if you use the Rule Class checkbox to turn off rule classes, the Restore Rule Classes command will not reset Grammatik to the Grammar and Mechanics settings.  The Restore Rule Classes command will restore Grammatik to the full settings of the currently selected writing style.  These are the same settings used when proofreading in Grammar, Mechanics and Style mode.


Options Menu

Purpose

The Options menu allows you to select a proofreading method, choose or edit a writing style, choose checking options or restore rule classes you have turned off.

Choose from the following for more information:

Writing Style	Choose or edit a writing style

Checking Options	Customize your proofreading

Restore Rule Classes	Restore rules you have turned off during proofreading

Show Spelling Errors	Show spelling errors

Proofreading Modes	Choose a proofreading mode

Steps

1	Choose Options from the menu bar, then select a dialog box or proofreading mode

See Also

Grammar,Mechanics and Style

Grammar and Mechanics

Statistics


Grammar, Mechanics and Style

Purpose

Choosing Grammar, Mechanics and Style begins a proofreading session on a document you select.  During proofreading, Grammatik displays each problem it finds on the Grammatik window along with advice and, if available, possible replacements.  Grammatik then waits for you to decide what to do about the problem before continuing.  Grammar, Mechanics and Style is the default proofreading method.

If you want a more thorough explanation of a problem Grammatik displays, choose Help.  Grammatik displays information about the problem.


Grammar and Mechanics

Purpose

The Grammar and Mechanics command checks using just the grammar, mechanics, and spelling rule classes of the currently selected writing style.  This command is useful for making a quick final check of your document.

Steps

To use the Grammar and Mechanics command from the Grammatik main window,

1	Choose Grammar and Mechanics from the Options menu.

NOTE:  When checking a document using the Grammar and Mechanics command, if you use the Rule Class checkbox to turn off rule classes, the Restore Rule Classes command will not reset Grammatik to the Grammar and Mechanics settings.  The Restore Rule Classes command will restore Grammatik to the full settings of the currently selected writing style.  These are the same settings used when proofreading in Grammar, Mechanics and Style mode.


Statistics

Purpose

Statistics provides information about the kinds and numbers of words in your document.

Steps

1	Choose Statistics from the Options menu to see a statistical summary of your work.


Show Spelling Errors

Purpose

Choose Show Spelling Errors from the Options menu when you want Grammatik to display spelling errors it finds.


Proofreading Modes

Purpose

Grammatik gives you three proofreading modes: Grammar, Mechanics and Style, Grammar and Mechanics, and Statistics.  Choose a mode from the Options menu.


Writing Style
Writing Styles

Purpose

Choose Writing Style from the Options menu to choose a new writing style, proofread your document, edit a writing style, change formality, or change thresholds.

When you select a writing style, Grammatik turns on different grammar, style, and mechanical rule classes to tailor proofreading to the specific style.  You have a choice of ten writing styles.

Writing Styles

General

Advertising

Business Letter

Documentation

Fiction

Journalism

Memo

Proposal

Report

Technical

When you do not select a writing style, Grammatik uses the General writing style by default.  To select a Writing Style,

Steps

1	Choose Writing Style from the Options menu.

See Also

Edit Writing Style

Change Formality Level

Changing Writing Thresholds

Style

Grammar

Mechanical


Change Formality Level

Purpose

The errors that Grammatik flags can be categorized into three levels of formality.  By default, a writing style will have an appropriate level for that style.  For example, Technical is checked at the formal level (strict rules of diction and usage) and Memo is checked at the more relaxed standard level of formality.

You can use this option to change the level of formality for the currently selected writing style.  You could, for example, use the Technical writing style at the informal level of formality if you were checking your postings to a technical but informal electronic bulletin board.

NOTE: Whenever you change to a new writing style your level of formality will change to the default for that writing style.

Steps.

1	Choose Writing Style from the Options menu.

2	Select a writing style in the list.

3	Choose Informal, Standard or Formal.

4	Choose OK to save the change.

Grammatik will now use the formality level you have just selected when proofreading documents.


Edit Writing Style

Purpose

Use this command to create a custom style with handpicked rule classes.  You may create up to three custom writing styles.

Before creating a custom writing style, it is best to highlight the writing style that most closely approximates the custom style you intend to create.  Once you choose Edit, you can modify a writing style.  Escape out of the process at any time by choosing Cancel.  On-screen help is available at each step of the way.

Depending on the types of rules it contains, each rule class falls under one of three categories:

Style

Grammar

Mechanical

Steps

1	Choose Writing Style from the Options menu.

2	Select a predefined style from the list to use as a template, then choose Edit.

The dialog box lets you modify rules and thresholds.  Choose the set of rules you want to adjust by choosing the rule class name at the top of the dialog.

3	Select or deselect each rule class.  A radio button to the left of each rule class means the rule class is turned on.

4	Modify the style thresholds by highlighting the value in the edit box to the left of each option and typing the threshold value that you want.

5	Choose Save when you have completed your adjustments.

Grammatik can now use your custom writing style to proofread documents.


Style

The following rule classes are included in the Style rule class category:

Abbreviation

Archaic

Cliche

Colloquial

Commonly Confused

End-of-Sentence Preposition

Foreign

Formalisms

Gender-Specific

Jargon

Long Sentence

Overstated

Paragraph Problem

Passive Voice

Pejorative

Questionable Usage

Redundant

Second-Person Address

Sentence Variety

Split Infinitive

Trademark

Vague Adverb

Wordy


Changing Writing Thresholds

Purpose

Change the following writing style thresholds from the Edit Writing Style dialog box.

Consecutive Nouns

Consecutive Prepositional Phrases

Long Sentence Length

Spell Numbers Below or Equal to

Passive Sentences (of last 10)

Words Allowed in Split Infinitive

See Also

Edit Writing Style


Grammar

The following rule classes are included in the Grammar rule class category:

Adjective

Adverb

Article

Comma Splice or Fused Sentence

Comparative/Superlative

Conjunction

Double Negative

Homonym

Incomplete Sentence

Incorrect Verb Form

Infinitive

Noun Phrase

Object of Verb

Possessive Form

Preposition

Pronoun Case

Pronoun Number Agreement

Relative Pronoun

Run-on Sentence

Sequence of Tenses

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subordination

Tense Shift


Mechanical

The following rule classes are included in the Mechanical rule class category:

Capitalization

Doubled Word or Punctuation

Ellipsis

End-of-Sentence Punctuation

Number Style

Punctuation

Question Mark

Quotation Marks

Similar Words

Spelling

Split Words

Unbalanced (), {}, [], or"


Consecutive Nouns

Purpose

If a sentence contains this many or more consecutive nouns, Grammatik will report an error.  For example, if you set this value to three, the following phrase would be flagged as an error:

"Quality Assurance Analysis Report"


Consecutice prepositional phrases
Consecutive Prepositional Phrases

Purpose

If a sentence contains this many or more consecutive prepositional phrases, Grammatik will report an error.  If you set this value to three, the following sentence would be flagged as an error:

One of the many duties of the office of President of this company is to appear distinguished, or at least clean-shaven.


Long Sentence Length

Purpose

If a sentence contains this many words or more, Grammatik will report an error.


Passive Sentences (of last 10)

Purpose

This value controls how often Grammatik flags use of the passive voice.  If you set this value to one, Grammatik will flag every passive voice phrase it finds.  If you set it to a higher number, like three, Grammatik will not flag a passive voice error unless you have used the passive voice in three of the past ten sentences.

If you do not want to flag use of the passive voice as an error at all, turn off the Passive Voice option on the Style rule classes screen.


Spell Numbers Below or Equal to

Purpose

This option lets you specify the threshold value that Grammatik uses to determine if a number should be spelled out ("nine") or written as a figure ("10").  Set this value to zero if you don't want figures to be flagged as errors.


Words Allowed in Split Infinitive

Purpose

This value determines the number of words allowed to come between the first word ("to") and the last word (base verb) of an infinitive without reporting an error.  If you set this value to one, the phrase "to boldly go" would not be flagged, but the phrase "to very boldly go" would be called an error.


Checking Options

Purpose

Grammatik has many options that let you control how it proofreads a document.  Change the options by toggling the settings on or off.  A dot preceding the option means it is turned on.  An empty button means it is turned off.

Steps

1	Choose Checking Options from the Options menu.

2	Turn each option on or off by clicking it.

See Also

Check for Paragraph Errors

Ignore Periods within Words

Suggest Spelling Replacements

Start Checking Immediately


Check for Paragraph Errors

Purpose

Grammatik can usually tell where paragraphs end.  The most commonly-used indication of an end of paragraph is when you press the <Enter> key.  If you often use the <Enter> key to end a line instead of letting the line wrap automatically you will find that Grammatik generates errors such as "one sentence paragraph" or "missing punctuation."  If you turn off this option, Grammatik will ignore the end of paragraph marks.

NOTE: You will not get any statistical information about paragraphs if you turn this option off.


Ignore Periods within Words

Purpose

Documents written on PCs tend to have PC file names.  If this option is off, Grammatik flags a punctuation error whenever it encounters a file name (e.g., DOC.TXT) in your document.  Turning this option on prevents these errors.


Suggest Spelling Replacements

Purpose

When Grammatik finds a spelling error, it lists possible replacements for the error in the replacement box.  This occurs because the Suggest spelling replacements option is turned on by default.  If you turn off this option, you reap a slight benefit in performance.  However, you must do one extra step: choose Suggest to display spelling suggestions.


Start Checking Immediately

Purpose

This option tells Grammatik to begin checking as soon as you open a document.  When you start checking immediately, you cannot specify writing style, formality level or other options first.


Help Menu

Purpose

The Help menu provides information about Grammatik, Windows, and the Help system.

Choose from the following for more information:

Contents

Using Help

Show Parts of Speech

Hide Parts of Speech

Rule Class

About Grammatik


Contents

Purpose

Choose Contents from the Help menu to open Grammatik's Help Index.  From the Help Index you can access any help topic in Grammatik.  Help topics include information on Grammatik commands, Grammatik rule classes, and writing problems.


Using Help

Purpose

Choose Using Help from the Help menu to display information for using the Windows Help system.


Show Parts of Speech

Purpose

Choose Show Parts of Speech to display the parts of speech Grammatik has assigned as it parses your document.


Hide Parts of Speech

Purpose

Choose Hide Parts of Speech to close the Show Parts of Speech window.  Hide Parts of Speech is available only after Show Parts of Speech has been selected.


Rule Class

Purpose

Choose Rule Class to exhibit the rule class of the error Grammatik has flagged.


About Grammatik

Purpose

Choose About Grammatik in the Help menu to display information about Grammatik and WordPerfect Corporation International.  In particular, the version number of Grammatik is listed.

To return to the Grammatik main window after selecting the About Grammatik command, choose OK.


Define: abbreviation
abbreviation

A short form of another word:  "Dr." for "Doctor," "N.J." for "New Jersey," "vol." for "volume."  A pronounceable abbreviation formed from initials without periods (e.g., NASA) is called an acronym.


Define: active verb
active verb

A single-word action verb that creates a stronger, more economical style than verbs like "be" or "do" (inactive verbs).


Define: active voice
active voice

The form of a verb that stresses the subject over the subject's action.  ("Charles threw the ball.")  In the active voice, the subject acts rather than being acted upon.


Define: adjective
adjective

Describes (modifies) a noun or any noun word group.  Typical adjectives are "old," "funny," "five," and "lost."  Adjectives and adverbs are the only parts of speech in English that describe.


Define: adjective clause
adjective clause

A type of dependent clause that usually begins with a relative pronoun and acts as an adjective.  Also called relative clause.


Define: adverb
adverb

Describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.  Many adverbs end in "-ly" ("rarely," "quickly"), but many do not ("often," "very," "too").


Define: adverb clause
adverb clause

A type of dependent clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction and acts as an adverb.


Define: antecedent
antecedent

A noun, noun phrase, or pronoun to which a pronoun refers.  In the sentence, "He gave me the book, and I read it," "book" is the antecedent which the pronoun "it" refers to.  Pronouns and antecedents must agree in number.


Define: appositive
appositive

A word or phrase that renames a noun before it.  In "Biff, my trusty guide," "my trusty guide" is an appositive renaming "Biff."


Define: article
article

"A," "an," "the."  "A" and "an" are indefinite articles.  "A" precedes nouns that begin with a consonant sound ("a boy").  "An" precedes nouns that begin with a vowel sound ("an idea").  "The" is the definite article.


Define: auxiliary verb
auxiliary verb

A form of "be," "can," "do," "have," "may," or "will" which combines with a main verb to form a verb phrase.  Also called a helping verb.


Define: base verb
base verb

The form of a verb that follows "to" in infinitives ("to tickle") and "will" in the future tense ("will tickle").  Also called the "simple form "and the "dictionary form."


Define: clause
clause

A word group which contains a subject and a verb.  An independent clause is able to stand on its own coherently.  A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence but must be connected to an independent clause for coherence.


Define: colloquial
colloquial

Language appropriate only in conversation or informal writing.


Define: common noun
common noun

A noun that does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing but to any person, place, or thing.


Define: comparative
comparative

The form an adjective or adverb takes to show a difference of intensity between two things.  An adjective in its comparative form ends in "-er" or is preceded by "more."  An adverb in its comparative form is preceded by "more."


Define: complement
complement

A word that names (predicate noun) or describes (predicate adjective) the subject linked to it by a linking verb.  For example, in "He is serious," "serious" is a complement (predicate adjective).


Define: compound subject
compound subject

Two or more nouns or pronouns (or word groups acting as nouns or pronouns) functioning as the subjects of a clause.


Define: conjunction
conjunction

A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.  There are three types of conjunctions:  coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions.


Define: coordinating conjunction
coordinating conjunction

A type of conjunction that always connects the same parts of speech or same word groups to each other ("dignified but boring").  There are seven coordinating conjunctions:  "and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," "yet."


Define: correlative conjunction
correlative conjunction

A pair of words that connects the same parts of speech to each other.  Correlative conjunctions include "neither...nor," "not only...but also," and "both...and."


Define: countable noun
countable noun

A noun like "toy," "hand," and "penguin" that can be singular, plural, or show number ("a toy," "hands," six penguins").


Define: dependent clause
dependent clause

A group of words containing a subject and verb but unable to stand on its own coherently because it begins with a subordinator.  Also called "subordinate clause."


Define: determiner
determiner

Type of adjective that includes numbers, articles, possessives, demonstratives (this, those), and certain indefinite adjectives (each, all, many).  In the phrases "each new idea" and "fifty tired dogs," "each" and "fifty" are determiners.


Define: direct object
direct object

A noun or pronoun that directly receives the action of an action verb.  In the sentence, "He lost the pork," "pork" is the direct object, the thing being lost.  Objects can only follow transitive verbs.


Define: double negative
double negative

The incorrect placement of two negative words in the same clause (e.g., "I never have no money").


Define: generic
generic

General; applying to an entire group ("blonds" used for both men and women) or to products without a specified brand name ("photocopy" instead of "Xerox").


Define: generic reference
generic reference

Using an adjective as a noun to refer to a group ("the poor").  In such cases, always use a plural verb ("the poor are").


Define: gerund
gerund

The "-ing" form of a verb (present participle) without auxiliaries and acting as a noun (e.g., "Swimming is fun").


Define: homonym
homonym

A word that sounds like another word of different spelling and meaning (e.g., "to," "too," "two" and "stair," "stare").


Define: idiomatic
idiomatic

Accepted because of convention and usage.


Define: inactive verb
inactive verb

Forms of "be," "do," or "have" which create a weaker writing style than single word action verbs (active verbs).


Define: indefinite pronoun
indefinite pronoun

A pronoun that does not refer to a particular person, thing, or idea.  Examples include "anyone," "anybody," "nothing," "something," "someone," "none," "more," and "most."


Define: independent clause
independent clause

A group of words containing a subject and a verb and able to stand on its own coherently.  Also called main clause.


Define: indirect object
indirect object

A noun or pronoun that indirectly receives the action of a transitive verb.  An indirect object tells to whom or for whom an action is done.  In the sentence, "She asked him a question," "him" is the indirect object.


Define: infinitive
infinitive

The base or root form of a verb usually preceded by "to" (e.g., "to run").


Define: interjection
interjection

An exclamation such as "Aha!" or "No!" which conveys surprise, horror, or any strong emotion.


Define: intransitive verb
intransitive verb

A verb that does not require or allow an object after it.


Define: linking verb
linking verb

A verb that links a subject to a word or words that name or describe it.  The most common linking verbs are "be," "become," "seem," "appear," "look," and "feel."


Define: main clause
main clause

A group of words containing a subject and a verb and able to stand on its own coherently.  Also called independent clause.


Define: modal
modal

The auxiliary verbs "can," "could," "may," "might," "must," "ought to," "should," and "would."  Modal auxiliary verbs never change form and express necessity, desire, obligation, possibility, ability, or permission.


Define: modifier
modifier

A word or word group that describes or qualifies another word, phrase, or clause.  Modifiers are always adjectives or adverbs.


Define: nonstandard
nonstandard

Not considered acceptable in writing.


Define: noun
noun

A word that names a person, place, thing, creature, emotion, quality, measurement, or idea.


Define: noun phrase
noun phrase

A noun and its modifiers acting as a subject, object, or complement.


Define: object
object

A noun or pronoun that receives the action of an action verb (direct object), tells to whom or for whom an action was done (indirect object), or ends a prepositional phrase (object of preposition).


Define: object pronoun
object pronoun

A pronoun which receives action (direct object), tells to whom or for whom an action was done (indirect object), or ends a prepositional phrase (object of preposition).


Define: participle
participle

The form of a verb made by adding "-ing" (present participle) or "-ed" (past participle).  Both past and present participles require an auxiliary before them;  otherwise, they function as adjectives or nouns.


Define: passive voice
passive voice

The form of a verb that stresses the action over the subject.  ("The ball was thrown by Charles.")  In the passive voice, the subject is acted upon rather than acting.


Define: past participle
past participle

The form of a verb made by adding "-ed" (to regular verbs).  The past participle of a regular verb looks the same as the past tense.  A past participle needs an auxiliary, or it acts as an adjective.


Define: phrase
phrase

A group of words without a subject and a verb.


Define: phrasal verb
phrasal verb

A type of verb formed by the combination of a verb and preposition or adverb.  Typical phrasal verbs are "came to," "cut down," "drop off," "fall through," "give in," "hand in," "hold on," "make up," "shut down" and "start up."


Define: possessive adjective
possessive adjective

A type of pronoun like "my," "your," "our" and "their" that comes before a noun and describes it by ownership.


Define: preposition
preposition

A word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.  Prepositions include such words as "with," "from," "to," "at," "of," and "by" and take nouns or pronouns as their objects.


Define: prepositional phrase
prepositional phrase

The combination of a preposition and its object (a noun or pronoun) including any possible modifiers between the two.


Define: present participle
present participle

The form of a verb made by adding "-ing."  A present participle functions as part of a verb, an adjective, or a noun.


Define: progressive
progressive

The tense made by a form of "to be" followed by a present participle (verb ending in "-ing").  The progressive tense shows a continuing action.


Define: pronoun
pronoun

A word that takes the place of a noun.  Pronouns are of several types:  personal (e.g., "he," "him"), relative (e.g., "who," "whom"), indefinite (e.g., "anyone," "something"), reflexive (e.g., "myself," "themselves"),  demonstrative (e.g., "this," "those"), possessive (e.g., "his," "mine"), and interrogative (e.g., "what," "which").


Define: proper noun
proper noun

A noun that names a particular person, place, or thing.  "Empire State Building," for example, is a proper noun;  "building" is a common noun.  Proper nouns should always be capitalized.


Define: relative clause
relative clause

A type of dependent clause that usually begins with a relative pronoun and acts as an adjective.  Also called adjective clause.


Define: relative pronoun
relative pronoun

A type of subordinator that begins noun clauses and adjective clauses ("who," "whom," "whose," "which," "that").  Relative pronouns refer to a noun or pronoun in a previous clause.


Define: reflexive pronoun
reflexive pronoun

A pronoun, like "myself" or "ourselves," that ends in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural) and emphasizes the antecedent.


Define: subject
subject

The main noun, pronoun, or word group of a sentence or clause that tells the reader who or what the sentence is about.  The subject does the action of an action verb and comes before a linking verb in a statement.


Define: subject pronoun
subject pronoun

A pronoun which acts as the subject of a clause. The pronouns "I," "he," "she," "we," "they," "who," and "whoever" will always act as subjects.  "You" and "it" may be subject or object pronouns.


Define: subjunctive
subjunctive

One of the three "moods" in English.  Used to express wishes, recommendations, and speculations.


Define: subordinating conjunction
subordinating conjunction

A type of subordinator that begins adverb clauses.  Examples include "although," "because," "since," and "while."


Define: subordinator
subordinator

A word or phrase that begins a dependent clause, making the clause unable to stand alone coherently.  There are two types of subordinators:  subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns.


Define: superlative
superlative

The form an adjective or adverb takes to contrast intensity among three or more things.  An adjective in its superlative form ends in "-est" or is preceded by "most."  An adverb in its superlative form is preceded by "most."


Define: synonym
synonym

A word similar in meaning to another word.


Define: tense
tense

The form a verb takes to indicate time.


Define: transitive verb
transitive verb

A verb that requires an object (a noun or pronoun) to follow it.


Define: uncountable noun
uncountable noun

A noun like "selfishness," "cooperation," and "news" that cannot be singular, plural, or quantified.


Define: verb
verb

The part of speech that shows the subject's action ("runs," "was walking") or state of being ("is," "becomes").  Every sentence must have a verb and a subject to be complete.  A verb can be a single word or a phrase.


Define: verb phrase
verb phrase

A verb preceded by an "auxiliary," or "helping," verb.  A verb phrase functions as a verb.


Define: voice
voice

The form of a sentence which indicates whether the sentence is active or passive.  The active voice stresses the subject ("Charles threw the ball") while the passive voice stresses the action apart from the subject ("The ball was thrown").


Abbreviation

Purpose

An abbreviation is a short form of another word:  "Dr." for "Doctor," "N.J." for "New Jersey," "vol." for "volume."  A pronounceable abbreviation formed from initials without periods (for example, NASA) is called an acronym.

It is better to avoid abbreviations in formal and business writing.  However, there are occasions when abbreviations are acceptable:

for times and dates ("a.m.," "p.m.," "B.C.," "A.D.")

for names and places usually abbreviated ("St. Louis")

for professional references, especially if repeating the full name would be awkward (for example, "NICU" instead of "Newborn Intensive Care Unit")

In a case like the last example, however, always let your reader know what the abbreviation stands for the first time you refer to it:

"The Newborn Intensive Care Unit (NICU) is the most heavily staffed unit in the hospital."

See Also

Jargon

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," p. 2

Strunk and White, "Elements of Style," p. 81

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 568-71


Adjective

Purpose

An adjective describes (modifies) a noun or any noun word group.  Typical adjectives are "old," "funny," "five," and "lost."  Adjectives and adverbs are the only parts of speech in English that describe.

Avoid using adjectives to describe actions (verbs), adverbs, or other adjectives.  That is the job of adverbs.  In the sentence, "The machine works perfect," the adjective "perfect" should be the adverb "perfectly."  "Perfectly" describes how the machine works, an action, not the machine itself.

"She sings beautiful."  [incorrect]

"She has a beautiful voice."  [correct]

Use "good" as an adjective, not an adverb.

"She is in good health."

[The adjective "good" describes "health."]

Use "well" as an adverb except when you mean "in good health":

"She is well."

["Well" is an adjective describing her health.]

Otherwise, use "well" only as an adverb.

"She writes well."

["Well" is an adverb describing how she writes.]

An adjective usually comes before the word it modifies ("amusing person," "cranky armadillo").  The exception to this occurs when an adjective follows a linking verb:

"He is serious."

Here, the adjective "serious" describes the subject "He."

See Also

Adverb

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 184-85

Gordon, "The Transitive Vampire," pp. 49-58


Adverb

Purpose

An adverb describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.  Many adverbs end in "-ly" ("rarely," "quickly"), but many do not ("often," "very," "too").

Be careful not to confuse adverbs and adjectives.

"She sings beautiful."  [incorrect]

"She sings beautifully."  [correct]

"I did good on the test."  [incorrect]

"I did well on the test."  [correct]

An adverb describes (verbs, adjectives, other adverbs) by telling how, how much, when, or where.

"She runs quickly."

[The adverb "quickly" tells how she runs.]

"My dog eats too much garbage."

[The adverb "too" tells how much garbage.]

"She tickled him yesterday."

[The adverb "yesterday" tells when she tickled him.]

"We dance there."

[The adverb "there" tells where we dance.]

Adverbs do not always have a fixed location.  The adverb "suddenly" can describe the verb "appeared" from any of the following positions:

"Suddenly, the man appeared at the door."

"The man suddenly appeared at the door."

"The man appeared suddenly at the door."

However, avoid splitting verb phrases by placing adverbs within them.  Instead, place the adverb before the verb phrase:

"He should probably tell her."  [incorrect]

"He probably should tell her."  [correct]

"She might also be considered a suspect."  [incorrect]

"She also might be considered a suspect."  [correct]

Many adverbs end in "-ly" ("slowly," "bravely," "fiercely"), but almost as many do not ("here," "often," "seldom," "so," "very," "not," "too").  Do not be fooled by an adjective that ends in "ly" ("lovely," "friendly").  The best way to identify an adverb, or any part of speech, is to recognize what it does in a sentence.

See Also

Adjective

References

Gordon, "The Transitive Vampire," pp. 49-58

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 185-87, 293-96


Advertising Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Advertising Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Advertising Style rule class.


Archaic

Purpose

An archaic word or expression is one no longer in use.  Words like "whilst" and "oftimes" and phrases like "not a whit" were common once but are now outdated.

Avoid archaisms.  Chances are good that they will only confuse your reader.  As the "Longman Guide to English Usage" notes, "Skilled writers may occasionally make good use of archaisms in poetry or in humorous writing, but they are inappropriate in normal prose."

See Also

Audience

References

Greenbaum and Whitcut, "Longman Guide to English Usage," pp. 54-55


Article

Purpose

The three articles in English -- "a," "an," and "the" -- appear at the beginning of noun phrases ("a book," "an old and tattered book").

Use "a" before nouns that begin with a consonant sound: "a brick," "a mouse," "a landscape."

Use "an" before nouns that begin with a vowel sound: "an idea," "an elephant," "an omelet."  Notice the awkward, hiccuping effect produced by trying to say "a idea" or "a elephant."

Use "a" before words that begin with "h" if you can hear the "h" ("a horse," "a house," "a hand").  If the "h" is silent, use "an" before the word ("an hour," "an honor").

"A" and "an" are called indefinite articles because they refer to general, nonspecific people, places, things, etc. ("a car," "an idea").  "The" is called the definite article because it refers to a specific person, place, thing, etc. ("the car," "the idea").

See Also

Adjective

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 178-79


Business Letter Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Business Letter Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Business Letter Style rule class.


Capitalization

Purpose

Always capitalize the first word of each sentence, the pronoun "I," any proper noun, and the adjective form of proper nouns (such as "Canadian" and "Shakespearean").

Do not capitalize a common noun like "horse" or "house" unless it begins a sentence.  The following list offers more specific help.

Capitalize:

PEOPLE'S NAMES

[Groucho Marx, Jim Thorpe, Toni Morrison, Batman]

NAMES OF PLACES

[St. Louis, Niagara Falls, but not "downtown"]

NAMES OF COUNTRIES, NATIONALITIES, RACES, AND RELIGIONS

[Mexico, American, Negro, Jewish, Buddhist]

NAMES OF LANGUAGES

[French, Russian]

NAMES OF PARTICULAR BUILDINGS AND LANDMARKS

[Empire State Building, Mount Rushmore]

NAMES OF DAYS AND MONTHS

[Saturday, December]

NAMES OF COMPANIES AND ORGANIZATIONS

[The New York Times, WordPerfect Corporation, Greenpeace]

TITLES OF WORKS

["Hamlet," "The Yellow Wallpaper," "Wuthering Heights," "It's a Wonderful Life," "Paradise Lost"]

TITLES OF PEOPLE

[King James, Senator Smith, Professor Carroll]

ACRONYMS

[WPA, NATO, NBA, CEO, SDS]

SALUTATION AND CLOSING OF A LETTER

[Dear Ms. Jones, Sincerely]

References

Brusaw, et al., "Handbook of Technical Writing," pp. 2-7

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 556-63


Cliche
Cliché

Purpose

A cliché is an overused expression.  Readers have seen "tip of the iceberg," "face the music," and "Achilles' heel" so often that these phrases have lost their freshness and original power.

In some cases, even the cliché's meaning has become lost through overuse.  Many people, for example, confuse "toe the line" with "tow the line" though their meanings, as the images suggest, are quite different.

Avoid clichés in your writing.  They may tempt you, but the reader has seen them before, and their appearance suggests a lack of original thought.

See Also

Jargon

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," pp.116-17

Jordan, "The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage," p.41

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 444-45


Colloquial

Purpose

Colloquial language, which includes slang and informal diction, is fine in speech but inappropriate for most nonfiction writing.  Its appearance suggests you may not be able to express yourself formally.

Expressions such as "off the wall" and "chill out" are obviously slang, but be wary of less obvious examples of informal writing like the following:

"Do not try and convince me I am wrong."

[Substitute "try to."]

"The issue is not all that important."

[Substitute "unimportant."]

"She's not about to change her mind."

[Substitute "not ready to" or "won't."]

"Do not miss out on this opportunity."

[Delete "out on."]

"We have less trees than the neighbors."

[Substitute "fewer."]

See Also

Questionable Usage

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 437-38


Comma Splice or Fused Sentence

Purpose

The comma splice and the fused sentence join two complete thoughts incorrectly.

The comma splice attempts to join the two thoughts with only a comma:

"Everyone disagreed with him, he did not care."

The fused sentence does the same thing but without any punctuation:

"Everyone disagreed with him he did not care."

Both errors can be very confusing to your reader.

You can correct comma splices and fused sentences by any of the following methods:

a	Put a period between the two thoughts and make two sentences.

["Everyone disagreed with him.  He did not care."]

b	Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet) between the two thoughts.

["Everyone disagreed with him, but he did not care."]

c	Subordinate one of the complete thoughts by placing a subordinator (although, because, since, when, etc.) in front of it.

["Although everyone disagreed with him, he did not care."]

d	Put a semicolon between the two thoughts.

["Everyone disagreed with him;  he did not care."]

e	Combine the two independent clauses by rewording.

["He was indifferent to their opinions."]

See Also

Subordination

Clause

Punctuation

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 318-32

Gordon, "The Transitive Vampire," pp. 111-16


Commonly Confused

Purpose

Some words and phrases are often confused due to similar meaning, sound, or spelling (such as "accept/except" and "advert/avert").

The words in this category are usually the same part of speech (such as "principal/principle").  Grammatik cannot tell from the context which is the correct word, so all instances of the words in this rule class will be flagged, which may lead to false errors.

You can turn off proofreading for any instance of these words by selecting the option, "Ignore phrase."  You also can ignore all errors of this type by turning off the entire rule class.

Many other words that are similar in meaning or spelling, such as "its" and "it's," are distinguishable by parts of speech and are flagged under the "Homonym" or "Similar Spelling" rule classes.

Example (accept/except):

"We will accept all your proposals except the third one."

See Also

Homonym

Similar Words

References

Strunk and White, "Elements of Style," pp. 39-65


Comparative/Superlative

Purpose

Avoid using double comparatives and superlatives, such as "more better" and "bestest."

The terms "comparative" and "superlative" describe the intensity levels of adjectives and adverbs.

There are three such levels of intensity:  the positive (or uncompared) level, the comparative level, and the superlative level.  Typical adjectives look like this in their three forms:

Positive:  slow, big, difficult, happy

Comparative:  slower, bigger, more difficult, happier

Superlative:  slowest, biggest, most difficult, happiest

NOTE: You form the comparative by adding "er" to the end of an adjective or by placing "more" before it.  You form the superlative by adding "est" to the end of the adjective or by placing "most" before it.

The choice of whether to use "more"/"most" or "er"/"est" depends mostly on the number of syllables in the word.  For adjectives of one or two syllables, use the "er"/"est" suffixes:

strange/stranger/strangest

simple/simpler/simplest.

For adjectives of three or more syllables, use "more" and "most" before the words:

outlandish/more outlandish/most outlandish

decisive/more decisive/most decisive.

Sound also plays a part in such a decision, however.  A word like "restful," even though it has only two syllables, sounds awkward with an "er"/"est" ending.  Always choose the less awkward alternative, but never combine the two forms, as in the following:

"Biff is more slower than Bob."  [incorrect]

"Biff is slower than Bob."  [correct]

"She is the most happiest person I know."  [incorrect]

"She is the happiest person I know."  [correct]

For adjectives that end in "y," always replace the "y" with an "i" and add "er" or "est":

lazy/lazier/laziest

easy/easier/easiest.

Always form the comparative and superlative of adverbs by preceding them with "more" and "most":

easily/more easily/most easily

carelessly/more carelessly/most carelessly.

"Less" and "least" correspond to "more" and "most" and form negative comparisons:  "less likely," "least available."  There are no suffixes (like "er"/"est") to indicate the negative comparative or superlative.

A few adjectives and adverbs are irregular and do not follow the standard pattern:

some/more/most

many/more/most

good/better/best

bad/worse/worst

badly (adverb)/worse/worst

See Also

Adjective

Adverb

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 297-99


Conjunction

Purpose

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses to each other.  There are two major types of conjunctions:  coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions [and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet] always connect the same parts of speech:

"salt and pepper" [noun and noun]

"win or lose" [verb or verb]

"merciless but just" [adjective but adjective].

"So" and "for" can only connect independent clauses to each other, not words or phrases.

Coordinating conjunctions can also operate in pairs with other words.  When they do this, they are called "correlative conjunctions":

"NEITHER blackmail NOR whining could change his mind."

"BOTH ducks AND geese are waterfowl."

Other correlative conjunctions are "either/or," "not only/but," and "whether/or."

Some of the most common subordinating conjunctions are "although," "because," "if," "since," "unless," "until," and "whenever."  Subordinating conjunctions are a type of subordinator and always begin dependent clauses.  They ensure that the dependent clause is incomplete.  The thought following the subordinating conjunction would be complete if the subordinating conjunction were not there.

"Although the report was brief."  [dependent clause - incomplete thought]

"The report was brief."  [main clause - complete thought]

See Also

Subordination

Punctuation

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 189-90


Documentation Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Documentation Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Documentation Style rule class.


Doubled Word or Punctuation

Purpose

Doubled words and punctuation marks are almost always errors.  They are usually caused by typing mistakes, as in the following sentence:

"He went to the the store."

They can also be caused by incorrectly placing a period after an abbreviation like "etc.":

"He had already read Dickens, Balzac, Woolf, etc.."

In some instances, a doubled word is justified even if slightly awkward:

"I cannot believe that that is the reason he resigned."

"What it is is shameful."

However, doubled punctuation marks are always errors.

See Also

Punctuation


Double Negative

Purpose

Double negatives are two negative words in the same thought.  This is nonstandard in business and formal writing.

Any two of the following negative words in the same clause will trigger the double negative error:

no, never, not, none, nothing, hardly, scarcely, barely.

Delete one of the negatives as in the examples below:

"She does not have no money."  [incorrect]

"She does not have any money."  [correct]

"She has no money."  [correct]

"I cannot hardly wait."  [incorrect]

"I can hardly wait."  [correct]

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," p. 295


Ellipsis

Purpose

When you quote, you must use the author's exact words.  However, you may omit material from the middle of the quotation, as long as you let your reader know by using an ellipsis.

An ellipsis is three spaced periods [. . .].  It tells the reader you have omitted one or more words from the material you are quoting.

Example:

The committee's ideas, most of them useful, have less to do with overhauling management than improving attitude.

As the report notes, "The committee's ideas . . . have less to do with overhauling management than improving attitude."

You usually do not need to use the ellipsis at the beginning or end of quotations (since there will almost always be material that comes before or after the quotation).  However, when you are ending your sentence with a quotation that is clearly unfinished, an ellipsis makes your reader's job easier:

He saw "the pins, the balls of yarn, old spools. . . ."

(Notice that a fourth period is added to the ellipsis to close the sentence.)

Make sure you do not use punctuation from the quotation before or after the ellipsis, such as [,. . .] or [. . .,].

See Also

Quotation Marks

Punctuation

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 551-52

Jordan, "The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage," p. 205


End-of-Sentence Preposition

Purpose

Writers, teachers, and critics once considered ending a sentence with a preposition a serious writing fault, but this is rarely the case nowadays.  Ending with a preposition does, however, lend the sentence an informal tone.  Consider rephrasing when using a formal writing style.

The traditional argument is that ending a sentence with a preposition is "un-Latinate" and clumsy.  English, though, is a very different language from Latin, and the attempt to force it to follow Latin standards often produces unnecessary problems.

An end-of-sentence preposition can sometimes make a sentence flat and ugly:

"Home is where he was at."

[Compare "He was at home."]

But a sentence like the following would suffer if one tried to obey the rule and relocate the preposition:

"He asked the stranger where he was from."

Winston Churchill's remark that this rule "is nonsense up with which I will not put" wryly illustrates the awkwardness of straining too hard to follow the rule.  Many writers think that the best advice is to aim for clarity and grace and let the prepositions fall where they may.

See Also

Preposition

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," pp. 482-83

Brusaw, et al., "Handbook of Technical Writing," p. 516


End-of-Sentence Punctuation

Purpose

Only three punctuation marks can end a sentence:  a question mark, an exclamation point, and a period.

"There is a moon out tonight?"

"There is a moon out tonight!"

"There is a moon out tonight."

If you end a sentence with a question mark or an exclamation point, never follow it with a period.  If you end your sentence with a quotation, never punctuate inside and outside the second pair of quotation marks.  In other words, do not write

"All the world's a stage.".

Periods belong inside the second pair of quotation marks.  Question marks and exclamation points belong inside the second pair of quotation marks:

a	If they are part of the quotation:

She enjoyed reading "What Makes Sammy Run?"

Our theater company is staging "Oklahoma!"

b	If they apply to the tone of your sentence:

Who wrote "What Makes Sammy Run?"

I just got the lead role in "Oklahoma!"

Question marks and exclamation points belong outside the second pair of quotation marks if they apply to your sentence but not to what you are quoting:

Who wrote "East of Eden"?

Have you read "Frankenstein"?

I was so scared when I read "Frankenstein"!

See Also

Quotation Marks

Punctuation

Clause

Ellipsis

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 476-79


Fiction Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Fiction Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Fiction Style rule class.


Foreign

Purpose

You should omit foreign expressions from your writing unless your topic requires them.  There are two reasons for this.

First, foreign words and phrases will probably be lost on your reader.  Second, if they are not, their appearance suggests that you are using them merely to impress.

Always make clarity your first consideration.  Your reader stands a better chance of understanding "accomplished fact" than "fait accompli."  Other examples follow.

Instead of:  "He paints darkly, a la Rembrandt."

Use:  "He paints darkly, in the style of Rembrandt."

Instead of:  "cause celebre"

Use: "controversy"

See Also

Jargon

Audience


Formalisms

Purpose

Some of the rules in this class have more to do with purity of style than clarity of communication.  Others pertain to content but are so often misused that correct usage has become questionable.  While some writers see such "formalisms" as unnecessary, others see them as distinctions that protect the language from erosion.

Whether you choose to observe the following rules or not depends upon your audience and your own preferences.

What follows is a list of some of the most common "formalisms" and a brief discussion of their importance.

BEGINNING A SENTENCE WITH A CONJUNCTION.

Because conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses, some writers feel that a conjunction (like "and" or "but") should not begin a sentence since there is nothing yet to connect.

However, the conjunction at the beginning of a sentence still connects:  it connects the thought from the previous sentence to the thought that follows the conjunction.  Since sentences do not exist in isolated units but are dependent on each other, there is no reason why connections cannot cross sentence boundaries.  As with any formalism, the only question worth asking is, "Do my content and clarity suffer if I break this rule?"

"BETWEEN" and "AMONG"

Use "between" when referring to two people or items, "among" when referring to more than two.  Because this distinction relates to content, it is one you should observe.

DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier is an error that occurs when the implied subject of one clause clashes with the stated subject of another.  For instance, according to the following sentence the "memories" were standing in front of the old house.

"Standing in front of the old house, the memories came flooding back."

 According to this sentence, the nurse was only fifteen inches long.

"Although only fifteen inches long, the nurse declared that the infant was in good health,"

Though they often make for good comedy, dangling modifiers are real errors because they interfere with your content.  Correct them by making sure that the implied subject of the first clause begins the next one.  The above sentences would be corrected as follows:

"Standing in front of the old house, I felt the memories come flooding back."

"Although only fifteen inches long, the infant was in good health according to the nurse."

You can also correct such sentences by inserting a stated subject in the first clause or by general rewording.

"DISINTERESTED" and "UNINTERESTED"

"Disinterested" means "impartial"; "uninterested" means "not interested."  These words obviously have very different meanings and should not be used interchangeably.

"HOPEFULLY"

Many people use "hopefully" to mean "I hope," but its correct meaning is "with hope."  Thus, the sentence

"Hopefully, Biff will arrive on the next train,"

should mean that Biff will arrive, filled with hope, on the next train.  Unfortunately, the correct use of "hopefully" is becoming rarer.

This is an important concern because it has to do with content, not merely style.  As readers, we naturally hope that an author knows what he or she is saying.  Avoid misusing "hopefully" except in informal circumstances.

LATIN SINGULARS AND PLURALS

Few people today are aware of words like "datum," but such distinctions are still recognized in more formal writing styles.  A few of the most common examples of Latin singulars and plurals follow.

alumnus - singular (masculine)

alumni - plural (masculine, masculine and feminine)

alumna - singular (feminine)

alumnae - plural (feminine)

datum - singular

data - plural

medium - singular

media - plural

stratum - singular

strata - plural

"WHO" AND "WHOM"

"Who" is always a subject, "whom" an object.  Thus, in the question "Who do you want it for?" the pronoun "Who" should be "whom" because the person in question is receiving, not doing.  Many feel comfortable using "whom" only when it follows a preposition ("To whom it may concern," "someone for whom I have great affection"), but it is far more reliable to take a moment to understand whether the person represented by the pronoun is acting or receiving action.

This distinction should be preserved in formal use.

See Also

Preposition

Conjunction

Relative Pronoun

References

Williams, "Style," pp. 192-96

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," pp. 482-83


Gender-Specific

Purpose

Gender-specific language unnecessarily assigns a gender in situations when the reference could be to either gender.  While such an assumption was once acceptable, writers today realize that gender-specific language is imprecise and serves only to alienate one half of humanity.  Be especially careful of gender-specific language in the following areas.

JOB TERMINOLOGY

Avoid the temptation to make generic job titles masculine or feminine.  The use of "policeman" to refer to a police officer would understandably offend the thousands of women who work in police departments.  Similarly, it is no longer appropriate to assume that a "nurse" is always a woman, and a label like "male nurse" is as offensive as "woman doctor."

Never assume that a job title refers to a gender unless gender in some way determines the job (for instance, "wet nurse").

Instead of: "fireman"

Use: "firefighter"

Instead of: "poetess"

Use: "poet"

SEXIST GENERALIZATIONS

When you refer to a group or class of people, be careful not to apply an assumed gender to it.  Such an assumption would lead one to believe that all farmers are male and all feminists are female.  Until recently, it was the rare history book that avoided the trap of referring, for instance, to the "early American settlers and their wives."  Such phrasing is not only offensive to the women who endured the same hardships as men;  it is historically misleading.

PRONOUN USE AND AGREEMENT

A pronoun must agree in number and gender with its antecedent.  If the antecedent is masculine, the pronoun must also be masculine for the sake of agreement.  Things get complicated, however, when the antecedent's gender is not obvious.  In a sentence like this:

"Each board member is responsible for [pronoun] own case files."

the writer must decide whether the pronoun should be masculine (his), feminine (her), both (his or her), or plural (their).

Since the antecedent is singular, the possessive pronoun should also be singular, which would disqualify "their."  "His or her" is a logical but often awkward choice, especially if you have to repeat "his or her" throughout an entire document.  Using masculine or feminine pronouns generically has rightfully been labeled sexist.

Clearly, no simple solution to this problem exists.  However, consider these two alternatives:

1	Make the pronoun and antecedent plural when you can.  Thus, the sample sentence above would read, "All board members are responsible for their own case files."

2	Rewrite to eliminate the need for pronouns.  This sentence,

"A psychiatrist and his patients enjoy a unique relationship."

can be reworded in a way that sidesteps the need for a pronoun (and a sexist generalization) altogether:

"The psychiatrist-patient relationship is unique."

As Casey Miller and Kate Swift point out, "Sometimes the puzzle is not how to avoid using 'generic' pronouns, but how and why one ever crept into the sentence to start with."

See Also

Pronoun Number Agreement

Pejorative

References

Miller and Swift, "The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing," pp.51-64


General Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the General Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the General Style rule class.


Homonym

Purpose

A homonym is a word that sounds like another word with a different meaning and spelling.  Some of the most frequently confused homonyms are:

it's = contraction of "it is"

its = possessive form of "it"

their = possessive form of "they"

there = refers to a place

they're = contraction of "they are"

threw = past tense of "throw"

through = passing in and out of something; done with

to = preposition [to the store] or infinitive [to laugh]

too = means "also" or "overly"

two = the number "2"

who's = contraction of "who is," "who has"

whose = possessive form of "who".

If you are unsure about the distinction between other homonyms, consult your dictionary.

See Also

Commonly Confused

Similar Words

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 458-63


Incomplete Sentence

Purpose

All Standard and Formal writing styles in Grammatik require that sentences be complete.  To be complete, a sentence must have:

a subject (a noun or pronoun)

a verb

the ability to stand alone coherently.

If it is missing one of these, the result is an incomplete sentence (also called a sentence fragment).  Incomplete sentences are grammatically incorrect.  More importantly, they can confuse your reader.

You can correct most incomplete sentences by one of the following methods:

Connect the fragment to the sentence before or after it.

"Bob decided not to study marine biology.  Because he had never been in the marines."  [incorrect]

"Bob decided not to study marine biology because he had never been in the marines."  [correct]

Supply the fragment with its own subject and/or verb.

"He has several favorite pastimes.  For example, swimming, knitting, and tickling the dog."  [incorrect]

"He has several favorite pastimes.  For example, he enjoys swimming, knitting, and tickling the dog."  [correct]

Combine and reword the fragment and sentence before or after it.

"People who think directing traffic is fun.  They have never stood in a busy intersection."  [incorrect]

"People who think directing traffic is fun have never stood in a busy intersection." [correct]

See Also

Comma Splice or Fused Sentence

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 304-12

Williams, "Style," pp. 170-71

Gordon, "The Transitive Vampire," pp. 107-10


Incorrect Verb Form

Purpose

Even if they agree with their subjects, verbs can take nonstandard forms which you should avoid.

Perhaps the most common of these is the "ize" suffix which, when attached to a noun or adjective, creates a verb (for example, "prioritize").  Avoid such artificial verbs.  They are a form of jargon and will therefore exclude part of your audience.  Keep in mind, however, that many legitimate verbs, like "realize" and "sympathize," end in "ize."

Another common incorrect verb form is the confusion of "of" for "have" in phrases like "should of" and "could of."  The correct form is "should have" and "could have."  This confusion is due to the similar sound of "have" and "of."  Other examples of incorrect verb form follow:

Instead of:  "finalize"

Use:  "complete," "finish"

Instead of:  "if that was"

Use:  "if that were" (subjunctive mood)

Instead of:  "reoccur"

Use:  "recur"

Instead of:  "suppose to"

Use:  "supposed to"

See Also

Questionable Usage

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," p. 223, 512.


Infinitive

Purpose

The infinitive, also called infinitive phrase, is "to" plus the base form of  a verb ("to run," "to be").  Use only the base form of the verb after "to" ("to laugh," not "to laughs").

When an infinitive is the subject of your sentence, always match it with a singular verb:

"To err IS human."

"To leave now SEEMS rude."

Be careful not to confuse an infinitive with a present participle, as in the following examples:

"I hope visiting my Aunt Gert this summer."

[Replace "visiting" with the infinitive "to visit."]

"He enjoys to talk with people."

[Replace "to talk" with "talking."]

Certain verbs, like "decide" and "expect," invite infinitives to follow them:

"He decided to ask for a raise."

"I expect to graduate in June."

"I want to see the Grand Canyon."

Remember also that "to" can be a preposition.  If it is followed by a noun or pronoun, "to" is a preposition.  If it is followed by the base form of a verb, "to" is beginning the infinitive phrase:

"to propose"  [infinitive]

"to the moon"  [prepositional phrase]

"to see"  [infinitive]

"to him"  [prepositional phrase]

See Also

Split Infinitive

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," pp. 317-18

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 342-43

Williams, "Style," pp. 196-97


Jargon

Purpose

Avoid jargon unless you are writing for the specific audience that understands it.  Use words that your readers will immediately understand.

Jargon is the specialized vocabulary of a group or profession.  As such, it can be a compact and efficient means of communication.  An electrical engineer saves time and avoids confusion by referring to LEDs (light-emitting diodes) instead of "those funny blinking lights."  Terms such as "interface" in computer technology, "complex" in psychology, and "party" in law are other examples of jargon.

However, jargon may also be a way to keep those outside the group confused and intimidated, and the word itself usually has a negative connotation.  (Some writers make a distinction between "technical language," which aids communication, and "jargon," which obscures it.)

Jargon's "bad reputation" has another source.  Terms that are legitimate within a given field become distorted by misuse of them outside that field.  A word like "interface," which has a specific meaning in the computer field, becomes trivialized by people's vague use of it as a verb:  "I will try to interface with you next week over a power lunch."  This is not language for the purpose of communication.

Avoid jargon unless you are writing for the members of a specific profession or field.

See Also

Audience

Overstated

Abbreviation

References

Jordan, "The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage," p. 105

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 46-47

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," p. 331

Strunk and White, "The Elements of Style," pp. 81-84


Journalism Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Journalism Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Journalism Style rule class.


Long Sentence

Purpose

Long sentences can make your reader's job unnecessarily difficult.  While not every sentence needs to be, or should be, four or five words long, sentences such as this one that make your reader wait too long for such vital information as the main clause or the verb to a subject that appeared some thirty words before are tedious and confusing.  In a sentence like the last, the reader notices the sentence's length, not its content.

Avoid excessively long sentences.  If you do write one, perhaps for sentence variety, take pity on your reader.  Give the most important information first, and keep your subjects and verbs fairly close together.

See Also

Sentence Variety

References

Brusaw, et al., "Handbook of Technical Writing," pp. 625-26

Williams, "Style," pp. 108-19


Memo Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Memo Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Memo Style rule class.


Noun Phrase

Purpose

A noun phrase consists of a noun and its modifiers acting as a subject, object, or complement.  Most noun phrase errors are due to missing words, number disagreement, and scrambled word order.  The following list highlights the major error types:

Missing modifier before a noun.

["He let out dog."]

Missing modifier in a compound noun phrase with nouns of differing number.

["Our softball team consists of eight boys and girl."]

Number discrepancy.

["A family with five boy moved in next door."]

Scrambled word order.

["His time for the race sets a new record track."]

See Also

Article

Adjective


Number Style

Purpose

Depending on the writing style you have selected, Grammatik suggests spelling out numbers from zero to nine or from zero to ninety-nine instead of referring to them as figures (1,2,3, etc.).

If you are writing in the Report and Fiction writing styles, spell out numbers from zero to ninety-nine.  In all other writing styles, spell out only the numbers from zero to nine.  Whichever style you are in, however, avoid mixing spelled-out numbers and figures in the same sentence or paragraph.  Use figures if one or more numbers falls outside the range required by your writing style.

Example:

"He ordered 450 sandwiches, 56 side orders of potato salad, and 3 ducks."

The following are other rules governing the use of numbers:

Spell out any number that begins a sentence or clause.

["Thirteen people joined the dance troupe."]

Use figures when you refer to dates, times, addresses, measurements, fractions, identification numbers, chapters, and pages.

["We read Chapter 21, pp. 303-351, on August 19."]

Use a hyphen between spelled-out two-word numbers.

["twenty-three," "forty-six," "ninety-nine"]

Unless the numbers involved are statistics, spell out round numbers ("thirty thousand" instead of "30,000," "five hundred" instead of "500") unless doing so conflicts with another number rule.

References

Brusaw, et al., "Handbook of Technical Writing," pp. 440-43

"The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage," pp. 144-45

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 572-73


Object of Verb

Purpose

An object is a noun or pronoun that follows a transitive verb.  Be careful not to give an intransitive verb like "arrive" or "cough" an object.

A direct object receives the action of an action verb.  An indirect object tells to whom or for whom an action was done.  To identify a direct object, ask "whom?" or "what?" after the verb.  Your answer, if the verb is transitive, will be the direct object.

Example:

"I called Lou." ["Lou" = direct object.]

"He needs attention." ["attention" = direct object]

"Sarah asked a question." ["question" = direct object]

If we change the last sentence to read, "Sarah asked Jim a question," "Jim" is the indirect object because the action was done "for" him.  The question "for whom?" or "to whom?" will produce the indirect object just as a "whom?" or "what?" question will produce the direct object.

Example:

"She bought her dog diamonds."

[Bought what? diamonds (direct object)]

[Bought diamonds for whom? dog (indirect object)]

See Also

Subject-Verb Agreement

References

Brusaw, et al., "Handbook of Technical Writing," pp. 445-46

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 194-95


Overstated

Purpose

Overstated language is wordy, vague, and often pretentious.

Some writers mistakenly believe that inflated diction gives their writing an air of authority and sophistication.  But the best writing is the clearest, and clarity comes from simplicity.  Consider the silliness of a sentence like this:

"The council's postulation that canines of an unrestrained nature have bedecked the community with malodorous substances has been the raison d'etre of the recent legal imposition:  namely, that said canines be severely limited as to their freedom and that such limitation manifest itself in the physical form of a wire run or leash."

Translated, this sentence merely means, "The council recently passed a leash law."  There is no reason to subject your reader to such an assault.

Overstated language makes your reader's job difficult and undermines your credibility.  Take the following steps to keep your writing clear:

Avoid lofty, pretentious diction

Avoid using foreign expressions unnecessarily

Choose the active voice whenever possible

Always choose a word over a phrase (e.g., "law," not "legal imposition")

Replace abstractions with concrete language

See Also

Wordy

Jargon

Audience

Foreign

References

Strunk and White, "The Elements of Style," pp. 21-25

Williams, "Style," pp. 85-86, 104-06


Paragraph Problem

Purpose

The most common paragraph problem is the one-sentence paragraph.  This is not an error in journalism, advertising, and fiction.  In most writing styles, however, excessively short (or excessively long) paragraphs indicate a lack of focus.

Paragraphs and sentences communicate ideas, but they do so on different levels.  The paragraph conveys a general thought which each of the sentences within it should support.  In a paper arguing against capital punishment, each paragraph would present one reason why capital punishment should be abolished.  The sentences within each paragraph would support that one reason.  A one-sentence paragraph blurs this distinction between sentences and paragraphs and inadequately develops its point.

A one or two-sentence paragraph in most writing styles almost certainly belongs to the paragraph before or after it.  Similarly, an excessively long paragraph is probably overlapping ideas.

Always ask yourself, "What is the specific purpose of this paragraph?"  If you cannot provide a clear answer, chances are you need to combine paragraphs or break up lengthy ones.

See Also

Long Sentence

References

Strunk and White, "The Elements of Style," pp. 15-17

Williams, "Style," pp.42-43


Passive Voice

Purpose

Passive voice is the form of a verb that stresses the action over the subject.  ("The ball was thrown by Charles.")  In the passive voice, the subject is acted upon rather than acting.  The passive voice is unnecessary in most cases and can weaken your content.

The passive voice emphasizes the action of a sentence and makes the subject secondary.  For example, the subject or "doer" of the action may be missing in the passive voice, as shown in the sentences below:

"The ball was thrown."

"The report was presented."

The passive voice often causes the subject to appear in a prepositional phrase at the end of the sentence, for example:

"The ball was thrown by Joe."

"The report was presented by the department."

You should avoid the passive voice for most writing styles because:

It is wordier than the active voice (because it requires a verb phrase).

It is more vague.

It can be deceptive.

Some fields, notably the sciences, require the passive voice for the impersonal description of a process.  Choose the voice most appropriate for your audience.

See Also

Audience

Wordy

References

Brusaw, et al., "Handbook of Technical Writing," pp. 704-07

Strunk and White, "Elements of Style," pp. 18-19

Williams, "Style," pp. 22-27


Pejorative

Purpose

Pejorative language is the use of insulting terms to refer to a race, sex, nationality, religion, etc.  Words such as "broad" and "Jewess" are always offensive and have no place in nonfiction writing.

Pejorative language also calls attention to one's race or sex unnecessarily.  Sometimes, of course, it is necessary to refer to the race or sex of a person:

"Bessie Smith, the black blues singer, bled to death because a whites-only hospital refused to admit her."

But there is no good reason to mention that a "black man" robbed a convenience store or that a "woman scientist" discovered a cure for a certain disease.  In both instances, the assumptions are prejudiced:  that a "man" is white and a "scientist" male unless otherwise specified.

Avoid unnecessary references to race, sex, nationality, religion, etc.

See Also

Gender-Specific

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," p. 169

Miller and Swift, "The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing."


Possessive Form

Purpose

The possessive form indicates ownership.  There are two kinds of possessives:

possessive nouns (e.g. "Bill's")

possessive adjectives (also called "possessive pronouns").

Possessive adjectives consist of the following:

my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs, whose

Possessive adjectives need no apostrophe because the words themselves are possessive.  Possessive nouns are merely nouns made possessive by adding an apostrophe (and, usually, an "s").  This is also true of non possessive pronouns like "someone."

To make a non possessive noun or pronoun possessive, simply look at the last letter.  Words ending in "s" take an apostrophe [s'];  words not ending in "s" take an apostrophe "s" ['s]:

Bob's car, Chris' pancreas, The Smiths' house, nobody's business.

To indicate joint ownership in a pair or list, make only the last name possessive.  For example, "Dick and Jane's paintings" means that Dick and Jane own paintings together;  "Dick's and Jane's paintings" refers to separate ownership of paintings.

The possessive form has nothing to do with whether a word is singular or plural.  "Child," for example, is singular, and "children" is plural, but you form the possessive the same way in both cases by adding an apostrophe "s" ['s].

NOTE:  Some writers add apostrophe "s" to singular nouns which end in "s" (for example, "James's") in order to distinguish the singular possessive from the plural possessive.  This usage is more British than American but is also acceptable in the U.S.  Whichever form you choose, be consistent.

To see if you have formed the possessive correctly, turn the word receiving the possession and the word doing the possessing into a phrase like the following:

Chris' pancreas = the pancreas of Chris

the people's choice = the choice of the people

someone's idea = the idea of someone

See Also

Punctuation

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 526-527


Preposition

Purpose

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.  Prepositions include such words as "with," "from," "to," "at," "of," and "by" and take nouns or pronouns as their objects.

Preposition errors are caused by mismatching certain prepositions with other words or phrases.

Besides their use in prepositional phrases, prepositions can also accompany other words.  The correct choice of preposition is largely idiomatic.

For example, since it is correct to say "according to," it might seem that it should also be correct to say "in accordance to."  However, the correct preposition after "in accordance" is "with."  In such a case, the only way to know the correct preposition is through repeated use.  Other examples follow:

Instead of:  "authority about"

Use:  "authority on"

Instead of:  "comply to"

Use:  "comply with"

Instead of:  "desirous to"

Use:  "desirous of"

Instead of:  "prefer A over B"

Use:  "prefer A to B"

See Also

Questionable Usage

Incorrect Verb Form


Pronoun Case

Purpose

Pronoun case errors can confuse your reader and distort your meaning.

There are three cases in English:  subjective, objective, and possessive.  Pronouns in the subjective case act as subjects.  Pronouns in the objective case act as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions.  Pronouns in the possessive case indicate ownership and usually act as adjectives.  The following will help to identify the case of pronouns:

Subject pronouns: I, he, she, we, they

Object pronouns:  me, him, her, us, them

Possessive pronouns: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs

The sentence, "He handed the report to Jim and I," has a pronoun case error because "I" is a subject pronoun trying to be the object of the preposition "to."  The correct pronoun is "me."

In such a sentence, where there is more than one subject or object, block out the other subjects or objects.  This will make the case of the pronoun in question more clear.

Example:

"Wilson expects Jean and I to reorganize the committee."

[Omit "Jean and."]

The sentence, "Wilson expects I to reorganize the committee," is ungrammatical.  The pronoun "I," always a subject pronoun, is unable to act as the direct object of the verb, "expect."  The sentence should read, "Wilson expects Jean and me to reorganize the committee."

The following is a list of rules for correct pronoun case usage and examples:

Use "who" and "whoever" as subject pronouns.  Use "whom" and "whomever" as 	object 	pronouns.

"My rich uncle says he will give his money to whomever he wants."

"Here is the man who saved my life."

Use subject pronouns after linking verbs.

"The ones responsible are she and I."

"I am calling for Mr. Duffy."

"This is he."

Use subject pronouns after "than" or "as" when an implied verb could follow the 	pronoun.

"He is more desperate than I (am)."

"She likes squid more than I (do)."

Be careful, however, not to convey a different meaning than you intend by confusing subject and object pronouns.  Contrast the above sentence with the following:

"She likes squid more than me."

This last sentence means that "She" likes squid more than she likes me.  When in doubt which pronoun to use, see if you can insert an implied verb after the pronoun in question.

See Also

Object of Verb

Pronoun Number Agreement

Subject-Verb Agreement

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 248-53


Pronoun Number Agreement

Purpose

Pronouns must agree in number with the nouns or pronouns they refer to (called "antecedents").  A singular pronoun must reflect a singular antecedent;  a plural pronoun must reflect a plural antecedent.

When the numbers of the antecedent and pronoun do not agree, the result is a pronoun (or number) error, as in the following:

"In this tropical paradise, a PERSON can really lose THEMSELVES."

The simplest way to fix such an error is to make the pronoun and antecedent plural.  This solution sidesteps the problem of using masculine (or feminine) pronouns generically.

Another solution is to use "he or she," or, for the above sentence, "himself or herself."  This has the disadvantage of being awkward, especially upon repeated use.

A third solution is simply to reword the sentence in such a way as to avoid the need for a pronoun:

"In this tropical paradise, cares and responsibilities disappear."

The following rules offer help for different types of problems:

Use a plural pronoun for antecedents joined by "and."

"Laurel and Hardy made THEIR best films for Hal Roach Studios."

Use a singular pronoun for antecedents joined by "or."

"Either Ralph or Sam left HIS shoes in the sink."

When pronouns joined by "or" or "nor" differ in number or gender, make the pronoun agree with the closest antecedent:

"Neither the twins nor SHEILA has HER passport."

"Neither Sheila nor the TWINS have THEIR passports."

Use a singular pronoun for most indefinite pronoun antecedents.

"Everyone needs to pay for HIS OR HER ticket."

"Someone is taking more than HIS OR HER share."

Indefinite pronouns are words like "someone," "anyone," "everybody," and "nobody."  Most indefinite pronouns are singular, but some, like "none," "some," "any," and "all," can be singular or plural, depending on context:

"Some set their goals impossibly high."

"Some of the difficulty has its origins in misunderstanding."

Use a singular pronoun when "each" and "every" precede singular nouns joined by "and."

"Every language and culture has ITS own richness."

"Each child and adult should do HIS OR HER best."

See Also

Gender-Specific

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 284-88


Proposal Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Proposal Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Proposal Style rule class.


Punctuation

Purpose

Punctuation lets your reader know how to read what you have written.  Punctuation marks are somewhat like traffic signals:  both give order to what would otherwise be chaos.  What follows is a list of the major punctuation marks and their functions.

APOSTROPHE

Apostrophes have two purposes:

1	For use in contractions, to represent a missing letter or letters.  For instance, the apostrophe in "I'm" represents the missing "a" ("I am");  the apostrophe in "doesn't" represents the missing "o" in "does not."

2	To show possession.  To make a noun (or non possessive pronoun) that does not end in "s" possessive, add apostrophe and "s" ['s].  If the word does end in "s," simply add an apostrophe after it.

COLON

The colon has one purpose:

1	To separate the general from the specific.  (The preceding sentence is itself a good model for colon use.)

In the above sentence, the general information is "one purpose."  To learn what that one purpose is, we need to look to the right of the colon.  The colon, in essence, "promises" to specify the general information that comes before it.  You should always be able to pick out the word or phrase that represents the general information:

"There is only one reason [General] he feeds the homeless: money."[Specific].

"Two subjects [General] plagued her throughout college: math and gym."[Specific].

NOTE:  The "General" part must be a complete thought;  the "Specific" part may be but does not need to be.  Never put a colon where you could not put a period, as in the following example:

"My favorite colors are:  red, yellow, and black."  [incorrect]

COMMA

Use a comma according to the following four rules:

1	After an introductory word, phrase, or clause.

2	To separate items in a series [a,b,c, and d].  (NOTE: Do not omit the comma before the "and" which closes the series.  Although some writers disagree on this point, this comma tells the reader that "c" and "d" are separate items, not halves of one item.  This is especially helpful when the items in a list consist of more than one word, for example, Laurel and Hardy.)

3	Before a coordinating conjunction but only when the conjunction connects two complete thoughts.

4	Before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses.  (If the nonessential element begins the sentence, consider it introductory (rule 1); if the nonessential ends the sentence, the period replaces the second comma.)

SEMICOLON

The semicolon has two purposes:

1	To separate two complete thoughts (equivalent to comma plus conjunction; see comma rules).

2	To separate items in a series when there is any question where one item ends and another begins.

See Also

Conjunction

Comma Splice or Fused Sentence

Possessive Form

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 481-532


Questionable Usage

Purpose

Words and phrases of questionable usage may be either incorrect or less preferred than a more standard alternative.  The following are common examples of such errors.  When in doubt, consult your dictionary.

Instead of:  dreamt

Use:  dreamed (in U.S.)

Instead of:  inferior than

Use:  inferior to

Instead of:  irregardless

Use:  regardless

Instead of:  one's self

Use:  oneself

Instead of:  orientate

Use:  orient

Instead of:  preventative

Use:  preventive

See Also

Incorrect Verb Form


Question Mark

Purpose

Use a question mark after any direct question.

"What will you be wearing tonight?"

"He asked, 'When is the report due?'"

Do not use a question mark after indirect questions.

"He asked if there were any dip left."

"They wondered whether or not to adopt the new plan."

Remember that a direct question asks a question, and an indirect question tells that a question was asked.  Remember too not to place a period or comma before or after a question mark.

If you are quoting a question, the question mark belongs inside the second pair of quotation marks:

He asked, "Have you seen my armadillo?"

Place the question mark outside the second pair of quotation marks if the question is yours and not part of the quote:

Who was it who said, "Give me liberty, or give me death"?

If you are asking a question and you are also quoting a question, place the question mark inside the second pair of quotation marks.  Never double punctuate by placing one question mark inside the second pair of quotation marks and one outside.

See Also

Punctuation

Quotation Marks

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 477-78


Quotation Marks

Purpose

Quotation marks [" "] operate in pairs.  They tell your reader that the words in between are someone else's exact words, written or spoken.  Always be sure to close a quotation with the second pair of quotation marks.

You can introduce a quotation in one of four ways:

1	With a colon, if what precedes the colon is a complete thought.

He spoke as if possessed:  "Out of my sight!"

2	With a comma after a verb that implies a "that" clause (or, in the case of questions, an "if" clause)

Hopkins writes, "Nothing is so beautiful as Spring."

3	With a "that" after the verb (no comma -- "that" substitutes for the comma and vice-versa.  See above example.)

Hopkins writes that "Nothing is so beautiful as Spring."

4	By blending the quoted words in with your own

E.M. Forster declares that the people he most admires "represent the true human tradition."

NOTE: It is unnecessary to put a comma before this quotation.  In such cases, when you are trying to decide how to punctuate, treat the quoted words as if they were your own.

Avoid beginning a sentence with a quotation and making a quotation its own sentence.  Provide a context for a quotation before you give it.

Punctuate the end of quotations as follows.

Place commas and periods inside the second pair of quotation marks.

Place semicolons and colons outside the second pair of quotation marks.

Place question marks and exclamation points inside the second pair of quotation marks if they are part of the quotation, outside if they are yours and do not apply to the quotation.

If you and the quotation are asking (or exclaiming), place the question mark (or exclamation point) inside the second pair of quotation marks.  That single punctuation mark applies to you and the quotation.  Never double punctuate (e.g., ?"? or ?".).

See Also

Punctuation

Ellipsis

Question Mark

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 534-42


Redundant

Purpose

A redundant phrase says the same thing twice.  "Frozen ice," for example, is redundant because there is no other type of ice.  Similarly, "illegal crime" and "free gift" should be revised simply as "crime" and "gift."

Avoid redundancies.  They clutter your writing and undermine your credibility as a writer.  Correct redundancies by deleting the unnecessary word in the phrase.

Instead of	Use

'add on'	'add'

'join together'	join'

'past history'	'past'

'recur again'	'recur'

'red in color'	'red'

See Also

Wordy

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," pp. 512-13

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 368-69


Relative Pronoun

Purpose

Many people use the relative pronouns "that" and "which" incorrectly to begin clauses.

Use "which" to begin clauses that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence.  "That" is always incorrect in the following construction:

"Her new red car, that she bought last week, is already rusting."  [incorrect]

Use "that" to begin clauses that are essential to the meaning of the sentence.  These clauses are not set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.  (NOTE:  Grammatik flags these errors in the "Formalisms" rule class.)

Use "who" to refer to people in either type of clause.

Always set off nonrestrictive (nonessential) clauses with commas.  Do not set off restrictive (essential) clauses with commas.

Examples:

"Biff's new movie, which is being released this summer, is about the McCarthy era."  [nonrestrictive, requires commas]

"The issue that began the Civil War was the debate over slavery."  [restrictive, no commas]

"The man who rescued a basset hound from a burning building is receiving a medal for heroism."  [restrictive, no commas]

"Sid's girlfriend, who tried to kill him last year, has agreed to marry him."  [nonrestrictive, requires commas]

See Also

Formalisms

Relative Clause

Subordination

Punctuation

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 264-65


Report Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Report Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Report Style rule class.


Run-on Sentence

Purpose

A run-on sentence is simply one that runs on too long.  This error is usually due to using conjunctions to connect an excessive number of clauses in a single sentence, as in the following example:

"He loved the penguin and wanted to marry her, BUT he feared their differences would drive a wedge between them, SO he kept his feelings to himself EVEN THOUGH they threatened to overpower him and interfere with his work, YET he could think of no other solution, FOR he knew their love could never be."

Break up such sentences by replacing some of the conjunctions with a period and beginning a new sentence.

See Also

Long Sentence

Wordy

Conjunction


Second-Person Address

Purpose

The second person ["you"] is considered informal.  It seems to presume an intimacy towards the reader which is inappropriate in formal writing; it is also too easily repeated, and overuse can threaten to bury the reader under an avalanche of "yous."  If you are writing in a style such as "Memo," "you," of course, is not only allowed but may be essential.  In formal writing styles, however, try to find an alternative to this overused pronoun.  Two possibilities follow:

1	Substitute the third person ("he," "she," "it," "they," or any noun which could be represented by these pronouns) for the second person.

Instead of:

"When you walk down the avenue, you can see many varieties of flowers"

Use:

"When one walks down the avenue, one can see many varieties of flowers"

or

"When people walk down the avenue, they can see . . . ."

However, "one" and "people" can be just as repetitive as "you."  For this reason, the second possibility is usually preferable.

2	Reword to avoid the need for pronoun reference altogether.  The above sentence could simply read:

"Many varieties of flowers line the avenue."

Notice that such a revision also improves the sentence by eliminating its wordiness.

See Also

Audience

Sentence Variety

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," p. 263


Sentence Variety

Purpose

Repetition of sentence parts or sentence structures can make your writing monotonous.  You can keep your writing fresh and your readers interested by varying the following.

Introductory words.  Are you using an introductory word (like "However" or "Obviously") to begin every sentence?  Even if you vary the particular word, using any introductory word to begin all or most of your sentences is repetitious.

Your Subjects.  Identify your subjects.  Do they change, or are you repeating the same subject sentence after sentence?

Your verbs.  Are many or most of your verbs merely forms of "to be" (am, is, are, was, were) or "to seem"?  Keep these to a minimum.  Action verbs will diversify and animate your sentences better than an "is" or an "are."

Pronouns.  Even if your pronoun references are clear, sentences filled with "hes," "shes," or "its" have no sparkle.  Try to vary your word choices and strike a balance between your nouns and pronouns.

Sentence Structures.  The same sentence structure (for example, dependent clause/main clause) can be annoying and tedious for your reader.  No particular structure is "bad," but the repetition of the same structure soon becomes tedious.

Sentence Lengths.  Paragraphs filled with only long or short sentences will either lull your readers to sleep or give them whiplash.  (Keep in mind, however, that writing styles will dictate the length of your sentences to some degree.  "Technical," for example, will use longer sentences than "Advertising.")  Strive to vary the length of your sentences;  spare your reader the monotony of either extreme.

Prepositional Phrases.  Try to avoid long strings of prepositional phrases.  You can turn some prepositional phrases into possessives, some into adverbs, and reword or omit others.

Examples:

Change "choice of the people" to "the people's choice."

Change "the charm of it" to "its charm."

Change "in a sudden manner" to the adverb "suddenly."

Change "jolly by nature" to "jolly."

Consecutive Nouns.  Overusing nouns can deaden your writing and produce sentences as shown in the following:

"The proposal for the allowance of additions to the number of ramps providing accessibility for citizens with disabilities has met levels of resistance."

Such a writing style is certain to lose your reader.  You can salvage the above sentence by turning some nouns into verbs and others into adjectives, as shown in the following:

"The proposal to allow additional access ramps for disabled citizens has met some resistance."

Notice that reducing the number of nouns in a sentence makes it clearer and less wordy.

See Also

Long Sentence

Prepositional Phrase

Noun Phrase

Overstated

References

Brusaw, et al., "Handbook of Technical Writing," pp. 625-29

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 398-415

Williams, "Style," pp. 159-161


Sequence of Tenses

Purpose

When an independent clause contains the modal auxiliary "would have," always use "had" (not "would have") in the accompanying "if" clause.

Examples:

"If I would have noticed that your hand was stuck in the jelly jar, I would have helped you."  [incorrect]

"If I had noticed that your hand was stuck in the jelly jar, I would have helped you."  [correct]

"I would have told you if I would have known."  [incorrect]

"I would have told you if I had known."  [correct]

See Also

Tense Shift

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," p. 236


Similar Words

Purpose

One way to misspell a word is to mistake it for another.  This may be because the word you misspell looks or sounds like the word you have in mind.

Words that look alike may have the same letters in common, only arranged slightly differently, perhaps because you have mistyped them.  Words that sound alike, called homonyms, often present the most difficulty.  It may be helpful to distinguish such words by means of a mnemonic (or memory) device.  Perhaps the best-known of these is "the princiPAL is your PAL."

The following is a very partial list of the most frequently confused words.  When in doubt, consult your dictionary.

closest/closet

farther/further

form/from

past/passed

personal/personnel

principal/principle

quiet/quite

than/then

to/too/two

united/untied

weather/whether

See Also

Homonym

Split Words

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 458-462


Spelling

Purpose

This rule class finds spelling errors with single words using the MorProof dictionary.

The following errors show the variety of errors found:

capitalization

wrong endings

typographical errors

transposed letters

See Also

Split Words

Similar Words


Split Infinitive

Purpose

An infinitive, or infinitive phrase, is "to" plus the base form of a verb:  "to see," "to run," "to feel."  Avoid "splitting" infinitives by placing a word or phrase between "to" and the base form of the verb.

Instead of:  "I had failed to, for some reason, notice him."

Use:  "For some reason, I had failed to notice him."

Instead of:  "He likes to occasionally play billiards."

Use:  "Occasionally, he likes to play billiards."

Sometimes, however, it is more awkward not to split the infinitive.  In this sentence

the split infinitive both sounds better than any of its alternatives and places the emphasis of the sentence where it belongs:

"He decided to really read the books he had only skimmed."

Rely upon your judgment and your ear in making such decisions.  If you want Grammatik to allow you to split infinitives, select a threshold number in the Custom Writing Style.

See Also

Infinitive

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," pp.317-18

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 342-43


Split Words

Purpose

Split word spelling errors divide single words like "someone" into two: "some one."  Some of the most common examples of this error are the following:

any more

can not

every one

off shore

some one

what ever

with out.

This is an easy error to make since these expressions also exist as single words.  Be careful not to join words that should be separate:

"Every one of these tricks will entertain everyone."

"If there are any more disruptions, we will not have a festival anymore."

See Also

Similar Words

Spelling

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," p. 463


Subject-Verb Agreement

Purpose

Subjects and verbs must agree.  You can correct disagreement errors by changing the number of the verb or of the subject.  Specific help for types of subject-verb disagreements follows:

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT WITH PREPOSTIONAL PHRASES

Prepositional phrases begin with a preposition like "of," "at," and "in" and end with a noun or pronoun called the object of the preposition.  Be careful not to confuse the object of a preposition with the subject of a clause or sentence.  For instance, in the following sentence, the subject is "Each," not "them" (which is the object of the preposition "of").

"Each of them is distinct."

Similarly, in the sentence below, the subject is "suggestions," not "proposal."

"The suggestions in his proposal have merit."

Confusing subjects with objects of prepositions is easy to do because our "ear" can mislead us.  It is tempting (to use the above sentence as an example) to try to make "have" agree with the noun closest to it, in this case, "proposal" ("proposal has").  Be careful!

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT AND COMPOUND SUBJECTS

Sometimes, there may be more than one subject in a clause or sentence.  Two or more subjects joined by "and" require the plural form of a verb:

"Biff, Susan, Andy, and I ARE Scout leaders."

Remember, the pronoun substitute for these subjects would be "They" ("They are").  The exception to this rule occurs when plural subjects refer to the same person or thing:

"My best friend and college roommate IS arriving this weekend."

Plural subjects joined by "or" will take the singular form of a verb because the subject is one or the other, not both (or all):

"Either Sally or Sheila IS in charge of the department."

When you connect subjects with any of the following,

or, nor, either/or, neither/nor, not (only)/but(also)

the verb should agree with the subject closest to it:

"Neither armies nor a DICTATOR KILLS the desire for freedom."

"Not only Jim but also the TWINS ARE coming."

"Not guns but FOOD IS needed."

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT AND INVERTED WORD ORDER

The usual word order in English looks like this:

Subject - Verb - Object (or Complement).

However, sometimes the verb comes before the subject in a sentence like this:

"There are several reasons for his strange behavior."

In such a sentence, the verb "are" comes before the subject "reasons."  "There" and "here" are adverbs; they will never be subjects.  Do not be fooled by them or by other adverbs which may begin a sentence, as in the following:

"Never are [V] we [S] safe from our own fears."

You will not see many sentences like the one above, but sentences beginning with "There is (are)" or "Here is (are)" are quite common.  The subject in such a sentence will always be the first nonpossessive noun or pronoun.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT AND LINKING VERBS

Linking verbs act like equal signs.  They link the subject to a word that names or describes that subject.  A linking verb is a form of "to be," "to become," "to seem" (always) and "to appear," "to look," and "to feel"(sometimes), to name only the most common.

Sometimes, when the linking verb links the subject to a noun, the subject and noun disagree in number.  Always make the verb agree with the subject, not the noun, as in the following examples:

"His CHILDREN ARE the JOY of his life."

"The JOY of his life IS his CHILDREN."

"The ALPS WERE the hardest PART of the journey."

"The hardest PART of the journey WAS the ALPS."

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT AND PRONOUNS

The number of most pronouns is clear.  However, certain pronouns may give you some difficulty when you try to match them with your verbs.  The following lists may be helpful:

Always Singular:  he, she, it, another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, each one, everybody, everyone, everything, either, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something, whatever, whichever, whoever

Always Plural:  we, they, both, few, others, several, these, those

May Be Singular or Plural:  all, any, more, most, none, some

The pronouns that vary in number are singular or plural depending on the word, phrase, or idea to which they refer.  For example, in the sentence below, "some" needs the plural verb "are" because "some" refers to the plural word "people."

"SOME of the people ARE hungry."

However, in this sentence, "some" needs the singular verb "has" (been eaten) because "some" refers to the singular word "food."

"SOME of the food HAS been eaten."

Compare other examples:

"ALL of the choices ARE absurd."

"ALL of the money IS missing."

"NONE of the major polluters HAVE been arrested."

"NONE of the oil HAS been cleaned up."

See Also

Tense Shift

Prepositional Phrase

Incorrect Verb Form

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 270-83


Subordination

Purpose

Subordination errors make it unclear to your reader which information you consider primary and which you consider secondary.

Subordination is a way of assigning secondary importance to a part of your sentence.  It lets the reader know that the information being subordinated is not as important as the information in your independent (or main) clause.

The primary way to subordinate information is to place it in a dependent (or subordinate) clause.  This type of clause is unable to stand on its own because it begins with a word known as a subordinator which ensures the incompleteness of the clause.

"Although it rained."  [dependent clause]

"It rained."  [main clause -- complete thought]

Subordinators fall into two groups:

Subordinating Conjunctions:  after, although, as, as if, as soon as, because, before, even though, if, in order that, once, provided that, since, so that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while

Relative Pronouns:  that, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose

A dependent clause can be in any part of the sentence.  However, the rules for punctuating vary according to the location of the dependent clause.  If the dependent clause begins your sentence, treat it as introductory and place a comma after it:

"Whenever the phone rings, Biff sneezes uncontrollably."

If the dependent clause is in the second half of your sentence, there is no need to place a comma between it and the main clause:

"Biff sneezes uncontrollably whenever the phone rings."

In both sentences, the primary information is "Biff sneezes uncontrollably."

You can also subordinate information by placing it between pairs of commas, within parentheses, or within pairs of dashes.  This punctuation tells the reader that the words within are nonessential (or "nonrestrictive").

See Also

Clause

Conjunction

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 378-385

Gordon, "The Transitive Vampire," pp. 97-106


Technical Style

Purpose

This rule class is turned on only when you proofread your document using the Technical Writing Style.  For every writing style, there is one writing style rule class to contain rules--especially user-defined ones--that apply to that writing style only.

The writing style rule classes do not appear in the lists of grammar, style, and mechanics rule classes viewed through the Preferences menu.  You must use the Rule Designer to add, delete, or change rules in the Technical Style rule class.


Tense Shift

Purpose

The tense of a verb shows the time of its action or condition.  Tense errors are caused by using the wrong tense or by unnecessary tense changes in a given thought.

Form the present tense of a regular verb by using its base form (or infinitive) or by adding "s" to it (e.g., "walk," "walks").  Form the past tense of a regular verb by adding "ed" (e.g., "walked").  Form the future tense by preceding the base form with "will" (for example, "will walk").  Some verbs, however, are irregular:

INFINITIVE	PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
to go	go, goes	went	will go
to be	am, is	was, were	will be
to catch	catch(es)	caught	will catch

Most business and formal writing styles call for the present tense.  However, you should stay in whatever tense you choose unless necessity demands otherwise.  It is necessary, for instance, to change tenses in the following example:

"In 'Shooting an Elephant,' George Orwell WRITES of his experiences in Burma when he WAS an Imperial police officer."

In the following example, however, the tense shift is unnecessary and therefore incorrect:

"The preliminary report IS concise, but the recommendations on page three NEEDED more elaboration."

Use the present tense when writing about ideas or anything written (for example, books, articles, reports, poems).

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 224-32

Strunk and White,"The Elements of Style," pp. 31-32

Shertzer, "The Elements of Grammar," pp. 27-31


Trademark

Purpose

Avoid using trademark names in most cases.

A trademark is the name a company gives to one of its products, for example, "Coca Cola", "Scotch Tape", "Band-Aid."  Companies register these names in order to protect their exclusive use of them.  For this reason, and for reasons of precision, you should not use trademark names or confuse them with the type of product they represent.

Instead of:  Coca Cola, Xerox, Scotch Tape

Use:  cola, photocopy, tape

References

William and Mary Morris, "Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage," pp. 589-90

Jordan, "The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage," p. 209


Unbalanced (), {}, [], or "

Purpose

Use parentheses, square brackets, curly braces, and quotation marks in pairs.  Grammatik flags these symbols when they do not appear to be part of a pair.

PARENTHESES ()

Use parentheses to surround incidental material.  Frequent use can make your writing seem disorganized.  Instead, try to rephrase the sentence and avoid the parenthetical remark.

Instead of:  "Penelope Panache bought roller skates (bright red ones) for her mother-in-law."

Use:  "Penelope Panache bought bright red roller skates for her mother-in-law."

SQUARE BRACKETS [] and CURLY BRACES {}

Square brackets and curly braces are rarely used in business writing, but they are often seen in scientific or mathematical writing.

References

Strunk and White, "Elements of Style," p. 36

"The AP Stylebook," p. 272

"The Chicago Manual of Style," 5.97-101.


Vague Adverb

Purpose

Certain adverbs, like "really," "fairly," "pretty," and "naturally," serve no clear purpose.  While such words are not incorrect, they are vague and too informal for most writing styles.  Consider omitting such adverbs or replacing them with more concrete words and phrases.

Instead of:  "The weather has been fairly mild."

Use:  "The weather has been mild."

See Also

Wordy


Wordy

Purpose

Wordiness clutters your writing and makes it difficult to read.  Throw out any words, phrases, or sentences that are unnecessary or contribute little to your meaning.  There are a variety of ways to do this:

Use words instead of phrases:

Instead of:  "He did not know by what means he would get to the airport."

Use:  "He did not know how he would get to the airport."

Use adverbs instead of prepositional phrases:

Instead of:  "He speaks in a loud voice."

Use:  "He speaks loudly."

Shorten phrases when you can:

Instead of:  "An example of this is"

Use:  "For example"

Omit phrases when you can:

Examples:  "for certain," "in point of fact"

Use the active voice instead of the passive voice:

Instead of:  "The memo was sent by Biff."

Use:  "Biff sent the memo."

Avoid redundancies:

Instead of:  "illegal crime," "red in color," "free gift"

Use:  "crime," "red," "gift"

Omit cluttering phrases like "who are" and "to be"

Instead of:  "Rich people often think people who are poor are lazy."

Use:  "Rich people often think poor people are lazy."

Instead of:  "He is considered to be the world's worst juggler."

Use:  "He is considered the world's worst juggler."

Omit constructions like "There are (is) . . . who (that)"

Instead of:  "There are some people who prefer reading to watching television."

Use:  "Some people prefer reading to watching television."

See Also

Jargon

Passive Voice

Redundant

References

Williams, "Style," pp. 82-92

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 358-69


Audience

Purpose

A writer's audience consists of anyone who reads what the writer has written.

Your audience should determine how you write: your tone, word choice, sentence length, and the voice you choose.  An article for a scholarly journal, for example, will use the technical language of that particular field to reach its strictly defined audience.  A news article, on the other hand, aims for as wide an audience as possible and avoids technical terms except as needed.  Both, however, will discourage the use of the second person ("you") except as part of direct quotations.

Similarly, the editor of a scientific journal will ask you to use the passive voice for its impersonal description of processes.  Most journal editors, however, will ask you to use the active voice to make it clearer who is doing what.  Always consider your audience before you use foreign expressions, slang, archaisms, or abbreviations.  Don't assume these are common knowledge.

Be aware of your readers; use the vocabulary and style best suited to them.

See Also

Jargon

Passive Voice

Archaic

Abbreviation

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 9-12

Williams, "Style," pp. 4-5, 29-30


Clause

Purpose

A clause is a word group containing a subject and a verb:

"It [subject] rained [verb] last night."

"We [subject] went [verb] to the movies."

There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent.

An independent (or main) clause can be a sentence by itself.  It is also the main clause of any sentence containing more than one clause.  A dependent (or subordinate) clause, however, lacks a complete meaning and depends on an independent clause for coherence:

After it [subject] rained [verb] last night, [dep. cl.]

we [subject] went [verb] to the movies. [ind. cl.]

Like an independent clause, a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb.  But, unlike a independent clause, a dependent clause cannot stand on its own because it begins with a part of speech known as a subordinator.  A subordinator always makes the thought that follows it incomplete.  (Some common subordinators are "although," "as soon as," "because," "if," "since," "so that," "that," "unless," "until," and "whenever.")

Any complete thought (or independent clause) can be made into a dependent clause by beginning it with a subordinator.  For instance, if you place the subordinator "as soon as" in front of the following complete thought the sentence becomes a dependent clause beginning with the subordinator:

"He finished tickling the armadillo."

"as soon as he finished tickling the armadillo."

Remove the subordinator from any dependent clause, and the dependent clause becomes an independent clause, or complete thought.

There are two types of dependent clauses:  adjective (relative) clauses and adverb clauses.

There are two types of subordinators:  relative pronouns and subordinating conjunctions.

Relative pronouns begin adjective (relative) clauses, and subordinating conjunctions begin adverb clauses.

Avoid using dependent clauses as sentences, especially in formal and business writing.  Connect the dependent clause to the complete thought before or after it.

See Also

Subordination

Incomplete Sentence

Comma Splice or Fused Sentence

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 202-06

Shertzer, "The Elements of Grammar," pp. 7, 46-47

Gordon, "The Transitive Vampire," pp. 97-106


Identifying Parts of Speech

Purpose

These are the major parts of speech with a brief explanation of their function.

NOUN:

Names a person, place, thing, creature, quality, emotion, idea, and measurement.  Nouns fall into three major types.  A common noun names any person, place, thing, etc.  A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, etc.  A collective noun names a group but usually acts as a single unit.

Common noun:  city, author

Proper noun:  Boston, Mark Twain

Collective noun:  team, audience

PRONOUN:

Substitutes for a noun.  Pronouns are of several types:

Personal:  I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them

Possessive:  my, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs

Indefinite:  anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something, everybody, everyone, everything, both, few, any, some, one, another, many, most

Demonstrative:  this, these, that, those

Reflexive:  myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves (all "-self" or "-selves" words)

Relative:  that, which, who, whom, whose

Interrogative:  who, whose, what, which

ADJECTIVE:

Describes a noun or a pronoun.  Adjectives precede the word they're describing unless they follow a linking verb (for example, "She seems confident").  To be certain if a word is an adjective, place it before a common noun like "car" or "person."  If the combination is illogical (like "an often person"), the word in question is not an adjective but another part of speech, probably an adverb.

Examples:

red car, sixteen tons, wingless bird, faded color

ADVERB:

Describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.  If the adverb is describing an adjective or another adverb, it directly precedes those words.  However, if an adverb is describing a verb, it may take one of several possible positions.  In the following sentences, the adverb "sometimes" describes the verb "make" from different locations:

"Sometimes, people make mistakes."

"People sometimes make mistakes."

"People make mistakes sometimes."

Many adverbs end in "ly" (quickly, suddenly, tactfully), but almost as many do not (often, not, too, very, seldom).

VERB:

Shows the action (action verb) or state of being (linking verb) of the subject (a noun or pronoun):

They laugh.  ["laugh" = action verb]

I think.  ["think" = action verb]

He is dedicated.  ["is" = linking verb]

You seem worried.  ["seem" = linking verb]

Linking verbs are usually forms of "be," "become," "seem" (always) and "look," "taste," "feel," and "sound" (sometimes).  Action verbs can show mental or emotional "action," not just physical action.  Verbs like "consider" and "intend" are action verbs.  Verbs must agree in number with their subjects:  "He laughs," not "He laugh."

Verbs can combine with auxiliaries (had, will, should) to form verb phrases.

INFINITIVE:

"To" plus the base form of a verb:  "to be," "to tickle," "to run."

PREPOSITION:

Shows relation between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.  Prepositions begin prepositional phrases which end with a noun or pronoun called the object of the preposition.  Some of the most common prepositions are "at," "by," "for," "from," "of," "to," and "with."  The prepositional phrase must be at least two words long, but there can be adjectives and adverbs between the preposition and its object.  There may also be multiple objects, as in the following example:  "with Spike, Roxanne, Sally, Bart, and Babette."  ["Spike," "Roxanne," "Sally," "Bart and "Babette" are all objects of the preposition "with."]

CONJUNCTION:

A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.  There are two major types of conjunctions:  coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.  Coordinating conjunctions are seven:  "and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," "yet."  Subordinating conjunctions are numerous, but the most common are "although," "because," "if," "once," "since," "unless," and "until."

ARTICLE:

There are three articles in English: "a," "an," and "the."  "A" and "an" are called indefinite articles, and "the" is called the definite article.  Articles are also referred to as determiners or limiting adjectives.

SUBJECT:

The main noun or pronoun in a clause or thought.  Every complete thought must have a subject (and a verb).

OBJECT:

A noun or pronoun that directly [direct object] or indirectly [indirect object] receives the action of an action verb.  An action verb that requires or allows an object is called transitive .  An action verb that cannot take an object is called intransitive.

COMPLEMENT:

Follows a linking verb and names or describes the subject.  A complement that names the subject is called a predicate noun.  A complement that describes the subject is called a predicate adjective.  In the sentence, "She is a doctor," "doctor" is the complement (predicate noun).  In the sentence, "He is anxious," "anxious" is the complement (predicate adjective).

PARTS OF SPEECH WITHIN A SENTENCE:

In the following sentences, each word is identified as a part of speech.

"The man lifted the two children."

The = article

man = subject (noun)

lifted = verb (action)

the = article

two = adjective (describing "children")

children = direct object (noun)

"She seemed sad today."

She = subject (pronoun)

seemed = verb (linking)

sad = complement (predicate adjective)

today = adverb (describing "seemed")

"Biff ate two meals quickly and then felt ill."

Biff = subject (noun)

ate = verb (action)

two = adjective (describing "meals")

meals = direct object (noun)

quickly = adverb (describing "ate")

and = conjunction (connecting the two verbs)

then = adverb (describing "felt")

felt = verb (linking)

ill = complement (predicate adjective)


Identifying Sentence Elements

Purpose

There are three word groups in English:  phrases, dependent clauses, and main clauses.

A phrase is the least complete of these.  It will never have a subject or a verb in it.  A clause (dependent or main) will always have a subject and a verb in it.  A main clause is the most complete word group and can stand on its own as a complete thought.

A dependent clause will have a subject and verb but will be unable to stand on its own because it always begins with a subordinator which makes the thought following it incomplete.  If you remove the subordinator, the dependent clause becomes a main clause.  If you place a subordinator before a main clause, the main clause becomes a dependent clause.  Some common subordinators are "although," "as," "because," "if," "since," "that," and "when."

There is no rule governing the position or number of clauses or phrases in a sentence.  As long as there is a main clause, clauses and phrases can be anywhere in a given sentence.

The following is a breakdown of the structures of sample sentences:

"The man removed his hat after a while."

Phrase = after a while

Dep. clause = none

Main clause = The man removed his hat

"During the electrical storm, while Aunt Edie was baking bread, the dog began running madly around the house."

Phrase = During the electrical storm / around the house

Dep. clause = while Aunt Edie was baking bread

Main clause = the dog began running madly

"Although penguins can't fly, they can drive."

Phrase = none

Dep. clause = Although penguins can't fly

Main clause = they can drive


Prepositional Phrase

Purpose

The typical prepositional phrase is two to four words long and looks like this:

"upon the desk"

"to him"

"against the oak tree."

Prepositions are numerous, but some of the most common are "across," "at," "for," "from," "in," "of," and "with."

Prepositional phrases begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun called the object of the preposition.  Between the preposition and its object, there may also be adjectives and adverbs.  Prepositional phrases also act as other parts of speech.  For example, in the sentence below, the prepositional phrase "through the wooden door" acts as an adverb, telling us where he ran.

"He ran through the wooden door."

Prepositional phrases frequently refer to time and location:

"after the first act"

"during the rainstorm"

"by the stairs"

"under the bridge"

"past noon"

"past the sign."

Be careful not to confuse the object of a preposition with the subject of a sentence.  In a sentence like the following you might be tempted to make the verb "rises" agree with "people" and write "people rise."

"The number of homeless people rises everyday"

However, "people" is the object of the preposition "of," and the object of a preposition can never be the subject of a sentence.  Put another way, it's not the people doing the rising;  it's the number.

Also be careful to distinguish the preposition "to" from the "to" that usually begins an infinitive.  To avoid confusion, look at the word following "to."  If it is a verb, then "to" is beginning an infinitive phrase.  If it is not, then "to" is acting as a preposition:

to leave = infinitive

to the store = prepositional phrase

to him = prepositional phrase

to see = infinitive

Remember that a prepositional phrase, or any phrase, can never contain a subject or a verb.

See Also

Subject-Verb Agreement

Sentence Variety

References

Troyka, "Handbook for Writers," pp. 187-88


Relative Clause

Purpose

A relative (or adjective) clause is a type of dependent clause.  It always begins with a relative pronoun ("who," "whom," "whose," "which," "that"), which is a type of subordinator.

When a clause is essential to the meaning of a sentence, it is called "restrictive."  "Nonrestrictive" clauses are not essential to the meaning of a sentence.


Using Active Verbs

Purpose

Active verbs are single word action verbs that make for a more forceful writing style than forms of "to be," "to do," or "to have."  There is nothing wrong with such verbs, of course, but when they appear more than occasionally, they can dilute the strength of your writing.  Consider the following passage:

"He was in agreement with their ideas, but he was not fond of pushy people.  Consequently, he was not usually at their meetings."

Grammatically, there is nothing wrong with these two sentences, but contrast the strength and economy of the above passage with the following:

"He agreed with their ideas, but he disliked pushy people.  Consequently, he usually avoided their meetings."

The content of both is the same, but the second passage is more compact and more forceful.  The single word "agreed" replaces the wordy "was in agreement with";  "disliked" replaces "was not fond of";  and "avoided" replaces "was not usually at."

Do not attempt to avoid forms of "be," "do," and "have," but when you can replace them with active verbs, doing so will strengthen your writing.


References

Brusaw, Charles T.; Alred, Gerald J.; and Oliu, Walter E.  Handbook of Technical Writing.  3rd ed.  New York:  St. Martin's Press, 1987.

Gordon, Karen Elizabeth.  The Transitive Vampire:  A Handbook of Grammar For the Innocent, the Eager, and the Doomed.  New York:  Times Books, 1984.

Greenbaum, Sidney and Whitcut, Janet.  Longman Guide to English Usage.  Essex:  Longman, 1988.

Jordan, Lewis.  The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage.  New York:  Times Books, 1976.

Miller, Casey and Swift, Kate.  The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing.  2nd ed.  New York:  Harper and Row, 1988.

Morris, William and Mary.  Harper Dictionary of Contemporary Usage.  2nd ed.  New York:  Harper and Row, 1985.

Shertzer, Margaret.  The Elements of Grammar.  New York:  Macmillan, 1986.

Strunk, William Jr. and White, E.B.  The Elements of Style.  3rd ed.  New York:  Macmillan, 1979.

Troyka, Lynn Quitman.  Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers.  2nd ed.  Englewood Cliffs:  Prentice Hall, 1990.

Williams, Joseph M.  Style:  Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace.  3rd ed.  Glenview:  Scott, Foresman and Company, 1989.


Suggested Reading

American Heritage Dictionary.  2nd college ed.  Boston:  Houghton Mifflin Co., 1982.

The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual.  rev. edition.  Ed. Christopher W. French.  Reading:  Addison-Wesley, 1987.

The Chicago Manual of Style.  13th ed.  Chicago:  The University of Chicago Press, 1982.

Dictionary of Occupational Titles.  4th ed.  U.S. Dept. of Labor, Employment & Training Administration, 1987.

Ernst, Margaret and Thurber, James.  In a Word.  New York:  Harper and Row, 1960.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell.  Guide to Concise Writing.  New York:  Webster's New World, 1990.

Flesch, Rudolf.  How to Test Readability.  New York:  Harper and Brothers, 1951.

Flesch,Rudolf.  On Business Communications.  New York:  Barnes & Noble Books, 1972.

Fowler, H.W.  A Dictionary of Modern English Usage.  2nd ed. rev.  Oxford:  Oxford University Press, 1965.

Gordon, Karen Elizabeth.  The Well-Tempered Sentence:  A Punctuation Handbook For the Innocent, the Eager, and the Doomed.  New Haven and New York:  Ticknor & Fields, 1983.

Gunning, Robert.  The Technique of Clear Writing.  New York:  McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1983.

Heffernan, James A. W. and Lincoln, John E.  Writing:  A College Handbook.  2nd ed.  New York:  W.W. Norton and Co., 1986.

Kirszner, Laurie G. and Mandell, Stephen R.  The Holt Handbook.  2nd ed.  Fort Worth:  Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1989.

Maggio, Rosalie.  The Dictionary of Bias-Free Usage:  A Guide to Nondiscriminatory Language.  Phoenix:  The Oryx Press, 1991.

Quirk, Randolph, et al.  A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.  London:  Longman, 1985.

Random House Dictionary of the English Language.  2nd ed.  New York:  Random House, 1987.

Scott, DeWitt.  Secrets of Successful Writing.  San Francisco:  Reference Software International, 1989.

Turabian, Kate L.  A Manual For Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations.  5th ed.  Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, 1987.

Zinsser, William.  On Writing Well:  An Informal Guide to Writing Nonfiction.  3rd ed.  New York:  Harper and Row, 1985.

Zinsser, William.  Writing With a Word Processor.  New York:  Harper and Row, 1980.


General

This style is intended for a broad range of documents written at Standard formality.  The General writing style permits prepositions at the end of sentences and the use of "you."  Parameters like Long Sentence Length are at moderate settings.  Select this style for typical business writing for a general audience.

Formality level: Standard


Business Letter

This style is intended for most formal business correspondence.  All rule classes in this style are turned on except for Second-Person Address and Paragraph Problem, which are turned off to allow for the use of "you" and one-sentence paragraphs, respectively.  For less formal business documents, use the Memo writing style.

Formality level: Formal


Memo

This style is intended for interoffice memoranda.  It is a less formal alternative to the Business Letter writing style.  One-sentence paragraphs, the use of "you," and conjunctions (like "and" and "but") at the beginning of sentences are allowed.  Parameters like Long Sentence Length are at moderate settings.  For more formal business correspondence, select the Business Letter writing style.

Formality level: Standard


Report

This is the most formal and restrictive of the writing styles and the only one for which every rule class is turned on.  Select this style for business reports, academic papers, and any writing that demands strict adherence to the traditional rules of grammar, mechanics, and diction.

Formality level: Formal


Technical

Select this style for technical and scientific reports.  The Technical writing style expects longer and more complex phrases, a technical vocabulary, and occasional use of the passive voice.  Foreign phrases and prepositions at the end of sentences are also allowed.

Formality level: Formal


Documentation

This style is appropriate for manuals and instruction booklets intended for a general audience.  Parameters like Words Allowed in Split Infinitive are at moderate settings, and the use of "you," trademark references, and prepositions at the end of sentences are permitted.  This style resembles General except that Documentation does not flags references to Trademark names.

Formality level: Standard


Proposal

Select this style to check long documents that need to follow strict grammar, mechanics, and diction rules.  All rule classes are turned on except for Commonly Confused.  Proposal is intended to shape your document conservatively and to flag anything in your writing that does not reflect formal usage.

Formality level: Formal


Journalism

This style is appropriate for articles, editorials, and magazine and newspaper writing.  Journalism allows the use of jargon, colloquial language, the second person ("you"), and one-sentence paragraphs.  Select this style for any writing equivalent to journalism.

Formality level: Standard


Advertising

This style allows for the flexibility required in advertising writing.  It emphasizes mechanics and grammatical accuracy and flags such errors as subject-verb disagreements, misspellings, and incorrect or missing punctuation marks.  Advertising permits incomplete sentences, the use of "you," and one-sentence paragraphs.  Select this writing style for shorter, less formal documents.

Formality level: Informal


Fiction

This is the most permissive of the writing styles.  The Fiction writing style flags punctuation and capitalization errors but does not flag errors like incomplete sentences, tense shifts, and comma splices.  Such errors are overlooked to allow for dialogue and stylistic flexibility.  Select this style for any writing that does not demand grammatical strictness.

Formality level: Informal