THE ASSASSINATION of John Fitzgerald Kennedy
on November 22, 1963, was a cruel and shocking act of violence
directed against a man, a family, a nation, and against all mankind.
A young and vigorous leader whose years of public and private
life stretched before him was the Victim of the fourth Presidential
assassination in the history of a country dedicated to the concepts
of reasoned argument and peaceful political change. This Commission
was created on November 29, 1963, in recognition of the right
of people everywhere to full and truthful knowledge concerning
these events. This report endeavors to fulfill that right and
to appraise this tragedy by the light of reason and the standard
of fairness. It has been prepared with a deep awareness of the
Commission's responsibility to present to the American people
an objective report of the facts relating to the assassination.
At 11:40 a.m., CST., on Friday, November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy, Mrs. Kennedy, and their party arrived at Love Field, Dallas, Tex. Behind them was the first day of a Texas trip planned 5 months before by the President, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, and John B. Connally, Jr., Governor of Texas. After leaving the White House on Thursday morning, the President had flown initially to San Antonio where Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson joined the party and the President dedicated new research facilities at the U.S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine. Following a testimonial dinner in Houston for U.S. Representative Albert Thomas, the President flew to Fort Worth where he spent the night and spoke at a large breakfast gathering on Friday.
Planned for later that day were a motorcade through downtown Dallas, a luncheon speech at the Trade Mart, and a flight to Austin where the President would attend a reception and speak at a Democratic fundraising dinner. From Austin he would proceed to the Texas ranch of the Vice President. Evident on this trip were the varied roles which an American President performs--Head of State, Chief Executive, party leader, and, in this instance, prospective candidate for reelection.
The Dallas motorcade, it was hoped, would evoke a demonstration of the President's personal popularity in a city which he had lost in the 1960 election. Once it had been decided that the trip to Texas would span 2 days, those responsible for planning, primarily Governor Connally and Kenneth O'Donnell, a special assistant to the President, agreed that a motorcade through Dallas would be desirable. The Secret Service was told on November 8 that 45 minutes had been allotted to a motorcade procession from Love Field to the site of a luncheon planned by Dallas business and civic leaders in honor of the President. After considering the facilities and security problems of several buildings, the Trade Mart was chosen as the luncheon site. Given this selection, and in accordance with the customary practice of affording the greatest number of people an opportunity to see the President, the motorcade route selected was a natural one. The route was approved by the local host committee and White House representatives on November 18 and publicized in the local papers starting on November 19. This advance publicity made it clear that the motorcade would leave Main Street and pass the intersection of Elm and Houston Streets as it proceeded to the Trade Mart by way of the Stemmons Freeway.
By midmorning of November 22, clearing skies in Dallas dispelled the threat of rain and the President greeted the crowds from his open limousine without the "bubble top," which was at that time a plastic shield furnishing protection only against inclement weather. To the left of the President in the rear seat was Mrs. Kennedy. In the jump seats were Governor Connally, who was in front of the President, and Mrs. Connally at the Governor's left. Agent William R. Greer of the Secret Service was driving, and Agent Roy H. Kellerman was sitting to his right.
Directly behind the Presidential limousine was an open "follow-up" car with eight Secret Service agents, two in the front seat, two in the rear, and two on each running board. These agents, in accordance with normal Secret Service procedures, were instructed to scan the crowds, the roofs, and windows of buildings, overpasses, and crossings for signs of trouble. Behind the "follow-up" car was the Vice Presidential car carrying the Vice President and Mrs. Johnson and Senator Ralph W. Yarborough. Next were a Vice Presidential "follow-up" car and several cars and buses for additional dignitaries, press representatives, and others.
The motorcade left Love Field shortly after 11:50 a.m., and proceeded through residential neighborhoods, stopping twice at the President's request to greet well-wishers among the friendly crowds. Each time the President's car halted, Secret Service agents from the "follow-up" car moved forward to assume a protective stance near the President and Mrs. Kennedy. As the motorcade reached Main Street, a principal east-west artery in downtown Dallas, the welcome became tumultuous. At the extreme west end of Main Street the motorcade turned right on Houston Street and proceeded north for one block in order to make a left turn on Elm Street, the most direct and convenient approach to the Stemmons Freeway and the Trade Mart. As the President's car approached the intersection of Houston and Elm Streets, there loomed directly ahead on the intersection's northwest corner a seven-story, orange brick warehouse and office building, the Texas School Book Depository. Riding in the Vice President's car, Agent Rufus W. Youngblood of the Secret Service noticed that the clock atop the building indicated 12:30 p.m., the scheduled arrival time at the Trade Mart.
The President's car which had been going north made a sharp turn toward the southwest onto Elm Street. At a speed of about 11 miles per hour, it started down the gradual descent toward a railroad overpass under which the motorcade would proceed before reaching the Stemmons Freeway. The front of the Texas School Book Depository was now on the President's right, and he waved to the crowd assembled there as he passed the building. Dealey Plaza--an open, landscaped area marking the western end of downtown Dallas--stretched out to the President's left. A Secret Service agent riding in the motorcade radioed the Trade Mart that the President would arrive in 5 minutes.
Seconds later shots resounded in rapid succession. The President's hands moved to his fleck. He appeared to stiffen momentarily and lurch slightly forward in his seat. A bullet had entered the base of the back of his neck slightly to the right of the spine. It traveled downward and exited from the front of the neck, causing a nick in the left lower portion of the knot in the President's necktie. Before the shooting started, Governor Connally had been facing toward the crowd on the right. He started to turn toward the left and suddenly felt a blow on his back. The Governor had been hit by a bullet which entered at the extreme right side of his back at a point below his right armpit. The bullet traveled through his chest in a downward and forward direction, exited below his right nipple, passed through his right wrist which had been in his lap, and then caused a wound to his left thigh. The force of the bullet's impact appeared to spin the Governor to his right, and Mrs. Connally pulled him down into her lap. Another bullet then struck President Kennedy in the rear portion of his head, causing a massive and fatal wound. The President fell to the left into Mrs. Kennedy's lap.
Secret Service Agent Clinton J. Hill, riding on the left running board of the "follow-up" car, heard a noise which sounded like a firecracker and saw the President suddenly lean forward and to the left. Hill jumped off the car and raced toward the President's limousine. In the front seat of the Vice Presidential car, Agent Youngblood heard an explosion and noticed unusual movements in the crowd. He vaulted into the rear seat and sat on the Vice President in order to protect him. At the same time Agent Kellerman in the front seat of the Presidential limousine turned to observe the President. Seeing that the President was struck, Kellerman instructed the driver, "Let's get out of here; we are hit." He radioed ahead to the lead car, "Get us to the hospital immediately." Agent Greer immediately accelerated the Presidential car. As it gained speed, Agent Hill managed to pull himself onto the back of the car where Mrs. Kennedy had climbed. Hill pushed her back into the rear seat and shielded the stricken President and Mrs. Kennedy as the President's car proceeded at high speed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, 4 miles away.
At Parkland, the President was immediately treated by a team of physicians who had been alerted for the President's arrival by the Dallas Police Department as the result of a radio message from the motorcade after the shooting. The doctors noted irregular breathing movements and a possible heartbeat, although they could not detect a pulse beat. They observed the extensive wound in the President's head and a small wound approximately one-fourth inch in diameter in the lower third of his neck. In an effort to facilitate breathing, the physicians performed a tracheotomy by enlarging the throat wound and inserting a tube. Totally absorbed in the immediate task of trying to preserve the President's life, the attending doctors never turned the president over for an examination of his back. At 1 p.m., after all heart activity ceased and the Last Rites were administered by a priest, President Kennedy was pronounced dead. Governor Connally underwent surgery and ultimately recovered from his serious wounds.
Upon learning of the President's death, Vice President Johnson left Parkland Hospital under close guard and proceeded to the Presidential plane at Love Field. Mrs. Kennedy, accompanying her husband's body, boarded the plane shortly thereafter. At 2:38 p.m., in the central compartment of the plane, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the 36th President of the United States by Federal District Court Judge Sarah T. Hughes. The plane left immediately for Washington, DC., arriving at Andrews AFB, Md., at 5:58 p.m., EST. The President's body was taken to the National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Md., where it was given a complete pathological examination. The autopsy disclosed the large head wound observed at Parkland and the wound in the front of the neck which had been enlarged by the Parkland doctors when they performed the tracheotomy. Both of these wounds were described in the autopsy report as being "presumably of exit." In addition the autopsy revealed a small wound of entry in the rear of the President's skull and another wound of entry near the base of the back of the neck. The autopsy report stated the cause of death as "Gunshot wound, head" and the bullets which struck the President were described as having been fired "from a point behind and somewhat above the level of the deceased."
At the scene of the shooting, there was evident confusion at the outset concerning the point of origin of the shots. Witnesses differed in their accounts of the direction from which the sound of the shots emanated. Within a few minutes, however, attention centered on the Texas School Book Depository Building as the source of the shots. The building was occupied by a private corporation, the Texas School Book Depository Co., which distributed school textbooks of several publishers and leased space to representatives of the publishers. Most of the employees in the building worked for these publishers. The balance, including a 15-man warehousing crew, were employees of the Texas School Book Depository Co. itself.
Several eyewitnesses in front of the building reported that they saw a rifle being fired from the southeast corner window on the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository. One eyewitness, Howard L. Brennan, had been watching the parade from a point on Elm Street directly opposite and facing the building. He promptly told a policeman that he had seen a slender man, about 5 feet 10 inches, in his early thirties, take deliberate aim from the sixth-floor corner window and fire a rifle in the direction of the President's car. Brennan thought he might be able to identify the man since he had noticed him in the window a few minutes before the motorcade made the turn onto Elm Street. At 12 :34 p.m., the Dallas police radio mentioned the Depository Building as a possible source of the shots, and at 12 :45 p.m., the police radio broadcast a description of the suspected assassin based primarily on Brennan's observations.
When the shots were fired, a Dallas motorcycle
patrolman, Marrion L. Baker, was riding in the motorcade at a
point several cars behind the President. He had turned right from
Main Street onto Houston Street and was about 200 feet south of
Elm Street when he heard a shot. Baker, having recently returned
from a week of deer hunting, was certain the shot came from a
high-powered rifle. He looked up and saw pigeons scattering in
the air from their perches on the Texas School Book Depository
Building. He raced his motorcycle to the building, dismounted,
scanned the area to the west and pushed his way through the spectators
toward the entrance. There he encountered Roy Truly, the building
superintendent, who offered Baker his help. They entered the building,
and ran toward the two elevators in the rear. Finding that both
elevators were on an upper floor, they dashed up the stairs. Not
more than 2 minutes had elapsed since the shooting.
When they reached the second-floor landing
on their way up to the top of the building, Patrolman Baker thought
he caught a glimpse of someone through the small glass window
in the door separating the hall area near the stairs from the
small vestibule leading into the lunchroom. Gun in hand, he rushed
to the door and saw a man about 20 feet away walking toward the
other end of the lunchroom. The man was empty-handed. At Baker's
command, the man turned and approached him. Truly, who had started
up the stairs to the third floor ahead of Baker, returned to see
what had delayed the patrolman. Baker asked Truly whether he knew
the man in the lunchroom. Truly replied that the man worked in
the building, whereupon Baker turned from the man and proceeded,
with Truly, up the stairs. The man they encountered had started
working in the Texas School Book Depository Building on October
16, 1963. His fellow workers described him as a very quiet "loner."
His name was Lee Harvey Oswald.
Within about 1 minute after his encounter
with Baker and Truly, Oswald was seen passing through the second-floor
offices. In his hand was a full "Coke" bottle which
he had purchased from a vending machine in the lunchroom. He was
walking toward the front of the building where a passenger elevator
and a short flight of stairs provided access to the main entrance
of the building on the first floor. Approximately 7 minutes later,
at about 12:40 p.m., Oswald boarded a bus at a point on Elm Street
seven short blocks east of the Depository Building. The bus was
traveling west toward the very building from which Oswald had
come. Its route lay through the Oak Cliff section in southwest
Dallas, where it would pass seven blocks east of the rooming house
in which Oswald was living, at 1026 North Beckley Avenue. On the
bus was Mrs. Mary Bledsoe, one of Oswald's former landladies,
who immediately recognized him. Oswald stayed on the bus approximately
3 or 4 minutes, during which time it proceeded only two blocks
because of the traffic jam created by the motorcade and the assassination.
Oswald then left the bus.
A few minutes later he entered a vacant taxi
four blocks away and asked the driver to take him to a point on
North Beckley Avenue several blocks beyond his rooming house.
The trip required 5 or 6 minutes. At about 1 p.m. Oswald arrived
at the rooming house. The housekeeper, Mrs. Earlene Roberts, was
surprised to see Oswald at midday and remarked to him that he
seemed to be in quite a hurry. He made no reply. A few minutes
later Oswald emerged from his room zipping up his jacket and rushed
out of the house.
Approximately 14 minutes later, and just 45
minutes after the assassination, another violent shooting occurred
in Dallas. The victim was Patrolman J. D. Tippit of the Dallas
police, an officer with a good record during his more than 11
years with the police force. He was shot near the intersection
of 10th Street and Patton Avenue, about nine-tenths of a mile
from Oswald's rooming house. At the time of the assassination,
Tippit was alone in his patrol car, the routine practice for most
police patrol officers at this time of day. He had been ordered
by radio at 12:45 p.m. to proceed to the central Oak Cliff area
as part of a concentration of patrol car activity around the center
of the city following the assassination. At 12:54 Tippit radioed
that he had moved as directed and would be available for any emergency.
By this time the police radio had broadcast several messages alerting
the police to the suspect described by Brennan at the scene of
the assassination--slender white male, about 30 years old, 5 feet
10 inches and weighing about 165 pounds.
At approximately 1:15 p.m., Tippit was driving
slowly in an easterly direction on East. 10th Street in Oak Cliff.
About 100 feet past the intersection of 10th Street and Patton
Avenue, Tippit pulled up alongside a man walking in the same direction.
The man met the general description of the suspect wanted in connection
with the assassination. He walked over to Tippit's car, rested
his arms on the door on the right hand side of the car, and apparently
exchanged words with Tippit through the window. Tippit opened
the door on the left side and started to walk around the front
of his car. As he reached the front wheel on the driver's side,
the man on the sidewalk drew a revolver and fired several shots
in rapid succession, hitting Tippit four times and killing him
instantly. An automobile repairman, Domingo Benavides, heard the
shots and stopped his pickup truck on the opposite side of the
street about 25 feet in front of Tippit's car. He observed the
gunman start back toward Patton Avenue, removing the empty cartridge
cases from the gun as he went. Benavides rushed to Tippit's side.
The patrolman, apparently dead, was lying on his revolver, which
was out of its holster. Benavides promptly reported the shooting
to police headquarters over the radio in Tippit's car. The message
was received shortly after 1:16 p.m.
As the gunman left the scene, he walked hurriedly
back toward Patton Avenue and turned left, heading south. Standing
on the northwest corner of 10th Street and Patton Avenue was Helen
Markham, who had been walking south on Patton Avenue and had seen
both the killer and Tippit cross the intersection in front of
her as she waited on the curb for traffic to pass. She witnessed
the shooting and then saw the man with a gun in his hand walk
back toward the corner and cut across the lawn of the corner house
as he started south on Patton Avenue.
In the corner house itself, Mrs. Barbara Jeanette
Davis and her sister-in-law, Mrs. Virginia Davis, heard the shots
and rushed to the door in time to see the man walk rapidly across
the lawn shaking a revolver as if he were emptying it of cartridge
cases. Later that day each woman found a cartridge case near the
home. As the gunman turned the corner he passed alongside a taxicab
which was parked on Patton Avenue a few feet from 10th Street.
The driver, William W. Scoggins, had seen the slaying and was
now crouched behind his cab on the street side. As the gunman
cut through the shrubbery on the lawn, Scoggins looked up and
saw the man approximately 12 feet away. In his hand was a pistol
and he muttered words which sounded to Scoggins like "poor
dumb cop" or "poor damn cop."
After passing Scoggins, the gunman crossed
to the West side of Patton Avenue and ran south toward Jefferson
Boulevard, a main Oak Cliff thoroughfare. On the east side of
Patton, between 10th Street and Jefferson Boulevard, Ted Callaway,
a used car salesman, heard the shots and ran to the sidewalk.
As the man with the gun rushed past, Callaway shouted "What's
going on?" The man merely shrugged, ran on to Jefferson Boulevard
and turned right. On the next corner was a gas station with a
parking lot in the rear. The assailant ran into the lot, discarded
his jacket and then continued his flight west on Jefferson.
In a shoe store a few blocks farther west
on Jefferson, the manager, Johnny Calvin Brewer, heard the siren
of a police car moments after the radio in his store announced
the shooting of the police officer in Oak Cliff. Brewer saw a
man step quickly into the entranceway of the store and stand there
with his back toward the street. When the police car made a U-turn
and headed back in the direction of the Tippit shooting, the man
left and Brewer followed him. He saw the man enter the Texas Theater,
a motion picture house about 60 feet away, without buying' a ticket.
Brewer pointed this out to the cashier, Mrs. Julia Postal, who
called the police. The time was shortly after 1 :40 p.m.
At 1:29 p.m., the police radio had noted the
similarity in the descriptions of the suspects in the Tippit shooting
and the assassination. At 1:45 p.m., in response to Mrs. Postal's
call, the police radio sounded the alarm: "Have information
a suspect just went in the Texas Theater on West Jefferson."
Within minutes the theater was surrounded. The house lights were
then turned up. Patrolman M.N. McDonald and several other policemen
approached the man, who had been pointed out to them by Brewer.
McDonald ordered the man to his feet and heard
him say, "Well, it's all over now." The man drew a gun
from his waist with one hand and struck the officer with the other.
McDonald struck out with his right hand and grabbed the gun with
his left hand. After a brief struggle McDonald and several other
police officers disarmed and handcuffed the suspect and drove
him to police headquarters, arriving at approximately 2 p.m. Following
the assassination, police cars had rushed to the Texas School
Book Depository in response to the many radio messages reporting
that the shots had been fired from the Depository Building. Inspector
J. Herbert Sawyer of the Dallas Police Department arrived at the
scene shortly after hearing the first of these police radio messages
at 12:34 p.m. Some of the officers who had been assigned to the
area of Elm and Houston Streets for the motorcade were talking
to witnesses and watching the building when Sawyer arrived. Sawyer
entered the building and rode a passenger elevator to the fourth
floor, which was the top floor for this elevator. He conducted
a quick search, returned to the main floor and, between approximately
12:37 and 12:40 p.m., ordered that no one be permitted to leave
the building.
Shortly before 1 p.m. Capt. J. Will Fritz,
chief of the homicide and robbery bureau of the Dallas Police
Department, arrived to take charge of the investigation. Searching
the sixth floor, Deputy Sheriff Luke Mooney noticed a pile of
cartons in the southeast corner. He squeezed through the boxes
and realized immediately that he had discovered the point from
which the shots had been fired. On the floor were three empty
cartridge cases. A carton had apparently been placed on the floor
at the side of the window so that a person sitting on the carton
could look down Elm Street toward the overpass and scarcely be
noticed from the outside. Between this carton and the half-open
window were three additional cartons arranged at such an angle
that a rifle resting on the top carton would be aimed directly
at the motorcade as it moved away from the building. The high
stack of boxes, which first attracted Mooney's attention effectively
screened a person at the window from the view of anyone else on
the floor.
Mooney's discovery intensified the search
for additional evidence on the sixth floor, and at 1:22 p.m. approximately
10 minutes after the cartridge cases were found, Deputy Sheriff
Eugene Boone turned his flashlight in the direction of two rows
of boxes in the northwest corner near the staircase. Stuffed between
the two rows was a bolt-action rifle with a telescopic sight.
The rifle was not touched until it could be photographed. When
Lt. J.O. Day of the police identification bureau decided that
the wooden stock and the metal knob at the end of the bolt contained
no prints, he held the rifle by the stock while Captain Fritz
ejected a live shell by operating the bolt. Lieutenant Day promptly
noted that stamped on the rifle itself was the serial number "C2766"
as well as the markings "1940" "MADE ITALY"
and "CAL.6.5." The rifle was about 40 inches long and
when disassembled it could fit into a handmade paper sack which,
after the assassination, was found in the southeast corner of
the building within a few feet of the cartridge cases.
As Fritz and Day were completing their examination
of this rifle on the sixth floor, Roy Truly, the building superintendent,
approached with information which he felt should be brought to
the attention of the police. Earlier, while the police were questioning
the employees, Truly had observed that Lee Harvey Oswald, 1 of
the 15 men who worked in the warehouse, was missing. After Truly
provided Oswald's name, address, and general description, Fritz
left for police headquarters. He arrived at headquarters shortly
after 2 p.m. and asked two detectives to pick up the employee
who was missing from the Texas School Book Depository. Standing
nearby were the police officers who had just arrived with the
man arrested in the Texas Theater. When Fritz mentioned the name
of the missing employee, he learned that the man was already in
the interrogation room. The missing School Book Depository employee
and the suspect who had been apprehended in the Texas Theater
were one and the same Lee Harvey Oswald.
The suspect Fritz was about to question in
connection with the assassination of the President and the murder
of a policeman was born in New Orleans on October 18, 1939, 2
months after the death of his father. His mother, Marguerite Claverie
Oswald, had two older children. One, John Pic, was a half-brother
to Lee from an earlier marriage which had ended in divorce. The
other was Robert Oswald, a full brother to Lee and 5 years older.
When Lee Oswald was 3, Mrs. Oswald placed him in an orphanage
where his brother and half-brother were already living, primarily
because she had to work.
In January 1944, when Lee was 4, he was taken
out of the orphanage, and shortly thereafter his mother moved
with him to Dallas, Tex., where the older boys joined them at
the end of the school year. In May of 1945 Marguerite Oswald married
her third husband, Edwin A. Ekdahl. While the two older boys attended
a military boarding school, Lee lived at home and developed a
warm attachment to Ekdahl, occasionally accompanying his mother
and stepfather on business trips around the country. Lee started
school in Benbrook, Tex., but in the fall of 1946, after a separation
from Ekdahl, Marguerite Oswald reentered Lee in the first grade
in Covington, La. In January 1917, while Lee was still in the
first grade, the family moved to Fort Worth, Tex., as the result
of an attempted reconciliation between Ekdahl and Lee's mother.
A year and a half later, before Lee was 9, his mother was divorced
from her third husband as the result of a divorce action instituted
by Ekdahl. Lee's school record during the next 5 and a half years
in Fort Worth was average, although generally it grew poorer each
year. The comments of teachers and others who knew him at that
time do not reveal any unusual personality traits or characteristics.
Another change for Lee Oswald occurred in
August 1952, a few months after he completed the sixth grade.
Marguerite Oswald and her 12-year-old son moved to New York City
where Marguerite's oldest son, John Pic, was stationed with the
Coast Guard. The ensuing year and one-half in New York was marked
by Lee's refusals to attend school and by emotional and psychological
problems of a seemingly serious nature. Because he had become
a chronic school truant, Lee underwent psychiatric study at Youth
House, an institution in New York for juveniles who have had truancy
problems or difficulties with the law, and who appear to require
psychiatric observation, or other types of guidance. The social
worker assigned to his case described him as "seriously detached"
and "withdrawn" and noted "a rather pleasant, appealing
quality about this emotionally starved, affectionless youngster."
Lee expressed the feeling to the social worker that his mother
did not care for him and regarded him as a burden. He experienced
fantasies about being all powerful and hurting people, but during
his stay at Youth House he was apparently not a behavior problem.
He appeared withdrawn and evasive, a boy who preferred to spend
his time alone, reading and watching television. His tests indicated
that he was above average in intelligence for his age group. The
chief psychiatrist of Youth House diagnosed Lee's problem as a
"personality pattern disturbance with schizoid features and
passive-aggressive tendencies." He concluded that the boy
was "an emotionally, quite disturbed youngster" and
recommended psychiatric treatment.
In May 1953, after having been at Youth House
for 3 weeks, Lee Oswald returned to school where his attendance
and grades temporarily improved. By the following fall, however,
the probation officer reported that virtually every teacher complained
about the boy's behavior. His mother insisted that he did not
need psychiatric assistance. Although there was apparently some
improvement in Lee's behavior during the next few months, the
court recommended further treatment. In January 1954, while Lee's
case was still pending, Marguerite and Lee left for New Orleans,
the city of Lee's birth.
Upon his return to New Orleans, Lee maintained
mediocre grades but had no obvious behavior problems. Neighbors
and others who knew him outside of school remembered him as a
quiet, solitary and introverted boy who read a great deal and
whose vocabulary made him quite articulate. About 1 month after
he started the 10th grade and 11 days before his 16th birthday
in October 1955, he brought to
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