Click HERE for the 1996 edition of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The 1985 version below is only a historical reference.

AWIC
Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals
Provided by the Animal Welfare Information Center
United States Department of Agriculture
National Agricultural Library

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service
National Institutes of Health
Revised 1985

Prepared by the Committee on Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources Commission on Life Sciences National Research Council

Contract NO1-RR-2-2135
Animal Resources Program
Division of Research Resources
National Institutes of Health
Bethesda, Maryland 20205

NOTICE: This project was approved by the Governing Board of the
National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the
councils of the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of
Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. The members of the
committee responsible for the report were chosen for their
special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This report has been reviewed by a group other than the
authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review
Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of
Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of
Medicine.

The Research Council was established by the National Academy
of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science
and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. The Research
Council operates in accordance with general policies determined
by the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter
of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a private, nonprofit,
self-governing membership corporation. The Research Council has
become the principal operating agency of both the National
Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering in the
conduct of their services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. It is administered
jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The
National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine
were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the
charter of the National Academy of Sciences.

This edition of the Guide was prepared by ILAR for the
National Institutes of Health under contract NO1-RR-2-2135,
administered by the Animal Resources Program, Division of
Research Resources.

COMMITTEE ON CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

Steven P. Pakes, Division of Comparative Medicine, University of
Texas Health Sciences Center, Dallas (Chairman) Robert Ader,
Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester School of
Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York

Emerson L. Besch, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Florida, Gainsville

J. Derrell Clark, Animal Resources, College of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens

Larry L. Ewing, Department of Population Dynamics, The Johns
Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health,
Baltimore, Maryland

Clarence J. Gibbs, Jr., National Institute of Neurological and
Communicative Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of
Health, Bethesda, Maryland

Roy V. Henrickson, California Primate Research Center, University
of California, Davis

Thomas E. Hickey, Pharmaceutical Research and Development
Division, Bristol-Myers Company,, Evansville, Indiana

Fred W. Quimby, Center for Research Animal Resources, New York
State College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University,
Ithaca

Harry Rozmiarek, Office of Laboratory Animals Resources, The Ohio
State University, Columbus

Eric B. Sansone, Environmental Control and Research Program, NCI-
Frederick Cancer Research Facility, Frederick, Maryland

John G. Vandenbergh, Department of Zoology, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh

George D. Zuidema, Vice Provost for Medical Affairs, The
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Gerald L. Van Hoosier, Jr., Division of Animal Medicine,
University of Washington, Seattle (Invited Participant)

Staff

Earl W. Grogan Dorothy D. Greenhouse Andrea L. Cohen

The Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (ILAR) was
founded in 1952 under the auspices of the National Research
Council. A component of the Commission on Life Sciences, ILAR
serves as a coordinating agency and a national and international
resource for compiling and disseminating information on
laboratory animals, promoting education, planning and conducting
conferences and symposia, surveying existing and required
facilities and resources, upgrading laboratory animal resources,
and promoting high-quality, humane care or laboratory animals in
the United States.

Preface

The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals was
first published in 1963 under the title Guide for Laboratory
Animal Facilities and Care and was revised in 1965, 1968, 1972,
and 1978. It was given its current title in 1972 to reflect the
enlarged scope of its recommendations. More than 300,000 copies
have been distributed since it was first published, and it is
widely accepted by scientific institutions as a primary reference
on animal care and use. The changes and the new material in this
edition are in keeping with the belief that the Guide must be a
living document, subject to modification with changing conditions
and new information.

Before revision of this edition, members of the scientific
community and public were invited to comment on the Guide at
three open meetings held in Washington, D.C., on May 17, 1983; in
San Francisco, California, on July 11, 1983; and in Chicago,
Illinois, on July 12, 1983. Comments received at these meetings,
as well as all other written comments received, were reviewed and
considered by the committee.

The purpose of the Guide is to assist institutions in caring
for and using laboratory animals in ways judged to be
professionally and humanely appropriate. The recommendations are
based on published data, scientific principles, expert opinion,
and experience with methods and practices that have proven to be
consistent with high quality humane animal care and use.

The Guide provides information on common laboratory animals
housed under a variety of circumstances. It is not an exhaustive
review of all aspects of animal care and use; many different
species of animals are studied in biomedical research that might
not be covered in the Guide. Supplemental information on
breeding, care, and management of selected laboratory animals is
available in other publications prepared by the Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources (ILAR).

Readers who detect errors of omission or commission are
invited to send corrections and suggestions to the Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources, National Research Council, 2101
Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418.

Contents

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Monitoring the Care and Use of Animals. . . . . . . . . . . 2
Veterinary Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Personnel Qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Animal Resource Professional Personnel. . . . . . . . . . 3
Animal Care and Technical Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Research Staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Special Qualifications for Personnel Using
Hazardous Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Personal Hygiene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Occupational Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Animal Experimentation Involving Hazardous Agents . . . . . 6
Special Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Physical Restraint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Multiple Major Surgical Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2. LABORATORY ANIMAL HUSBANDRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Caging or Housing System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Social Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Space Recommendations for Laboratory Animals. . . . . .11
Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Animal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Micro- and Macroenvironments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Temperature and Humidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Illumination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Bedding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Waste Disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Vermin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Identification and Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Emergency, Weekend, and Holiday Care . . . . . . . . . . .27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

3. VETERINARY CARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Preventive Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Animal Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Quarantine and Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Separation by Species, Source, and Health Status . . . .33
Separation to Avoid Interspecies Disease Transmission.34
Separation by Source or Microbiological Status . . . .34
Surveillance, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control of Disease.35
Anesthesia and Analgesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Surgery and Postsurgical Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Euthanasia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

4. PHYSICAL PLANT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Physical Relationship of Animal Facilities to Laboratories.39
Functional Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Construction Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Corridors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Animal Room Doors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Exterior Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Temperature and Humidity Control . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Ventilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Power and Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Storage Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Noise Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Facilities for Sanitizing Equipment and Supplies . . . .44
Aseptic Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

5. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Genetics and Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Facilities and Procedures for Animal Research with
Hazardous Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Farm Animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

APPENDIXES

A. Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
B. Professional and Certifying Laboratory Animal
Science Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
C. Federal Laws Relevant to Animal Care and Use. . . . . . . .76
D. Public Health Service Policy and Government Principles
on Care and Use of Animals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

Introduction

The ability of biomedical scientists to enhance the well-
being of humans and animals depends directly on advancements made
possible by research, much of which requires the use of
experimental animals. The scientific community has long
recognized both a scientific and ethical responsibility for the
human care of animals, and all who care for or use animals in
research, testing, and education must assume responsibility for
their general welfare. It is especially important to recognize
that the intent of research is to provide data that will advance
knowledge of immediate or potential benefit to humans and
animals. Scientists have developed, and should continue to
develop and use, scientifically valid adjunctive or alternative
methods to animal experimentation. The guidelines stated herein
acknowledge these responsibilities.

Institutional animal facilities and programs should be
operated in accordance with the requirements and recommendations
of this Guide, the Animal Welfare Act (P.L. 89-544, as amended by
P.L. 91-579 and P.L. 94-279), and other applicable federal
(Appendixes C and D), state, and local laws, regulations, and
policies. Nothing in the Guide is intended to limit an
investigator's freedom--indeed, obligation--to plan and conduct
animal experiments in accord with scientific and humane
principles. It is envisioned that the Guide will encourage
scientists to seek improved methods of laboratory animal care and
use. Finally, it should be understood by all who use the Guide
that it is deliberately written in general terms so that the
recommendations can be applied in the diverse institutions that
produce or use animals for research, testing, and education.
Professional judgement is essential in the application of these
guidelines.

For the purposes of this Guide, laboratory animals include
any warm-blooded vertebrate animal used in research, testing and
education. Although marine mammals and cold-blooded animals are
not discussed specifically, the humane principles stated are
applicable to their care and use. The Guide deals with farm
animals in the context of their use in biomedical research--not
with their use in research on production agriculture.
1

Institutional Policies

Proper care and humane treatment of animals used in
research, testing, and education (referred to in this Guide as
animal care and use) require a scientific and professional
judgment, which is based on knowledge of the husbandry needs of
each species and the special requirements of research, testing,
and educational programs. The guidelines in this section are
intended to aid in developing institutional policies governing
the care and use of laboratory animals.

Each institution should establish an animal care and use
program that is managed in accordance with this Guide and in
compliance with applicable federal, state, and local laws and
regulations. An institutional animal care and use committee
should be established to monitor the program. Responsibility for
directing the program can be given either to a veterinarian with
training or experience in laboratory animal science and medicine,
or to another qualified professional; however, at least one
veterinarian should always be associated with the program.

MONITORING THE CARE AND USE OF ANIMALS

The appropriate administrative official at each institution
should appoint the animal care and use committee (hereafter
called the committee). The committee should include a scientist
from the institution with experience in research involving
animals; a doctor of veterinary medicine who is certified [see
American College of Laboratory Medicine (ACLAM), Appendix B], or
has training or experience in laboratory animal science and
medicine; a person who is not otherwise affiliated with the
institution; and other members as required by institutional needs
and by federal, state, and local regulations and policies.

The Committee should be responsible for evaluating the
animal care and use program. Its duties should include:

meeting at regular intervals appropriate to the
institution's program, but not less than annually, to ensure
compliance with the Guide;
ensuring that a mechanism exists at the institution to
review the humane and appropriate care and use of laboratory
animals in research, testing, and education;
providing a written report at least annually, to the
responsible administrative official on the status of the
laboratory animal care and use program; and
performing other functions as required by the
institutional
needs and by federal, state, and local regulations and policies.

VETERINARY CARE

Adequate veterinary care must be provided. Institutional
requirements will determine the need for full-time, part-time, or
consultative veterinary services. When outside services are
used, there should be frequent, regular participation and
visitation by the consulting veterinarian. For specific
responsibilities of the veterinarian, refer to Chapter 3 of this
Guide.

PERSONNEL QUALIFICATIONS

The number and qualifications of personnel required to
conduct and support an animal care and use program depend on
several factors. Among these are the type and size of the
institution; administrative structure for ensuring adequate
animal care; physical plant; number and species of animals
maintained; and nature of the research, testing, and educational
activities. It is the responsibility of the institution to
ensure that people caring for or using laboratory animals are
qualified to do so.

Animal Resource Professional Personnel

Employment of a full-time staff specifically concerned with
the program is highly recommended. The program can include a
broad range of services provided by personnel with expertise in
animal husbandry, administration, clinical medicine, diagnostic
laboratory procedures, and various aspects of research support.
It is recommended that professional staff participate in
continuing education activities relevant to their program
responsibilities.

In some instances, depending on the size of the program and
types of services provided, it might be appropriate for the
program to be directed by a qualified professional other than a
veterinarian. Adequate veterinary care can be provided through
part-time or consultative service by a veterinarian with training
or experience in laboratory animal science and medicine if the
program does not require a full-time veterinarian.

Animal Care and Technical Personnel

Animal care programs require technical and husbandry
support. Institutions should employ people trained in laboratory
animal science or provide for both formal and on-the-job training
to ensure effective implementation of the program. Several
institutions of higher learning offer programs in animal
technology [see American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA),
Appendix B]. Certification programs are also available [see
American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS),
Appendix B], and it is desirable that permanent, full-time animal
care personnel be certified. Many states require that veterinary
or animal health technicians be registered or licensed (see AVMA,
Appendix B). Animal care personnel should also participate
regularly in continuing education activities with relevance to
their responsibilities.

Research Staff

It is an institutional obligation to ensure that
professional and technical personnel and students who perform
animal anesthesia, surgery, or other experimental manipulations
are qualified through training or experience to accomplish these
tasks in a humane and scientifically acceptable manner. Special
training programs should be provided for technicians and faculty,
as well as undergraduate, graduate, and post-doctoral students.

Special Qualifications For Personnel Using Hazardous Agents

Professional staff conducting and supporting research
programs involving hazardous biological, chemical, or physical
agents should be qualified to assess dangers associated with
these programs and capable of selecting safeguards appropriate to
the dangers of using hazardous agents. Animal care staff should
understand the hazards involved and should be proficient in
implementing the required safeguards.

PERSONAL HYGIENE

It is essential that the animal care staff maintain a high
standard of personal cleanliness. Facilities and supplies for
meeting this obligation should be provided. Clothing suitable
for use in the animal facility should be supplied and laundered
by the institution. A commercial laundering service is
acceptable in many situations; however, institutional facilities
should be used to decontaminate clothing exposed to potentially
hazardous microbial agents or toxic substances. In some
circumstances, it is acceptable to use disposable gear such as
gloves, masks, head covers, coats, coverall,s and shoe covers.
Washing and showering facilities appropriate to the program
should be available.

Personnel should change clothing as often as is necessary to
maintain personal hygiene. Outer garments warn in the animal
rooms should not be worn outside the animal facility.

Personnel should not be permitted to eat, drink, smoke, or
apply cosmetics in animal rooms. A separate area or room should
be made available for these purposes.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

An occupational health program is mandatory for personnel
who work in laboratory animal facilities or have substantial
animal contact. This program should include a physical
examination and a medical and work history prior to work
assignment. Periodic physical examinations are advisable for
people in some job categories. In addition, an educational
program should be established to teach personnel about zoonoses,
personal hygiene, and other considerations, such as precautions
to be taken by pregnant women. Occupational hazards, including
animal bites and allergies (Enviro Control, Inc., 1979) should be
recognized and methods for preventing and treating them should be
developed.

An immunization schedule should be adopted. It is important
to immunize animal care personnel against tetanus. In addition,
an opportunity for protection by preexposure immunization should
be afforded to people who handle animals at substantial risk of
infection with such agents as rabies virus and hepatitis B virus.
Prophylactic vaccinations should be considered when research is
being conducted on infectious diseases for which effective
vaccines are available.

Zoonoses surveillance should be a part of an occupational
health program and should include keeping records of individual
work assignments, bite wounds, and unusual illnesses (CDC, 1984;
Fox et al., 1984). Personnel should be instructed to notify
their supervisors of illnesses and of suspected health hazards.
Furthermore, consideration should be given to obtaining and
storing individual pre- and post-employment serum samples for
future diagnostic purposes.

Nonhuman primate diseases that are transmissible for humans
can be a serious hazard. Personnel (including animal
technicians, clinicians, investigators, students, research
technicians, maintenance workers, and security personnel) who
have contact with nonhuman primates should undergo regularly
scheduled tests for tuberculosis. Protective clothing, such as
outer garments, gloves, masks, and face shields, should be used
when handling these animals.

There should be methods for monitoring exposure to
potentially hazardous biological, chemical, and physical agents
(CFR, 1984a,b). Protective devices should be provided, and other
safety measures consistent with current practices should be
adopted.

ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION INVOLVING HAZARDOUS AGENTS

Institutions should have policies governing experimentation
with hazardous agents. A biosafety committee whose members are
knowledgeable about hazardous agents should be appointed to
evaluate safety issues. Since the use of animals in such studies
requires special considerations, the procedures and the
facilities to be used must be reviewed by both the biosafety and
animal care and use committees. Formal safety programs should be
established to assess the hazards, determine the safeguards
needed for their control, and ensure that the staff is competent
(as discussed above in the section on "Special Qualifications for
Personnel Using Hazardous Agents") and the facilities are
adequate for the safe conduct of the research. Technical support
should be provided to monitor compliance with institutional
biosafety policies.

The use of certain hazardous agents necessitates compliance
with federal, state, and local regulations and with guidelines
issued by granting institutions. Applicable publications
containing these regulations and guidelines include:

Code of Federal Regulations. 1984. Title 10; Part 20,
Standards for Protection Against Radiation. Washington, DC:
Office of the Federal Register.
Code of Federal Regulations. 1984. Title 29; Part 1910,
Occupational Safety and Health Standards; Subpart G, Occupational
Health and Environmental control, and Subpart Z, Toxic and
Hazardous Substances. Washington, DC: Office of the Federal
Register.
Code of Federal Regulations. 1984. Title 40; Part 260,
Hazardous Waste Management System: General; Part 261,
Identification and Listing of Hazardous Waste; Part 262,
Standards Applicable to Generators of Hazardous Waste; Part 263,
Standards Applicable to Transporters of Hazardous Waste; Part
264, Standards for Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste
Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities; Pare 265, Interim
Status Standards for Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste
Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities; and Part 260, EPA
Administered Permit Programs: The Hazardous Waste Permit Program.
Washington, DC: Office of the Federal Register.
Centers for Disease Control and National Institutes of
Health. 1984. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical
Laboratories. DHHS Pub. No. (CDC) 84-8395. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 100 pp.
National Cancer Institute. 1974. National Cancer Institute
Safety Standards for Research Involving Oncogenic Viruses. DHEW
Pub. No. (NIH) 78-790. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare. 20 pp.
National Cancer Institute. 1976. Biological Safety Manual
for Research Involving Oncogenic Viruses. DHEW Pub. No. 76-1165.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare.
National Institutes of Health. 1979. Laboratory Safety
Monograph. A supplement to the NIH Guidelines for Recombinant DNA
Research. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare. 227 pp.
National Institutes of Health. 1981. NIH Guidelines for the
Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens. NIH Pub. No. 81-2385.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
National Institutes of Health. 1984. Guidelines for
Research Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules. Fed. Regist.
49(227):46266-46291.
Subcommittee on Arbovirus Laboratory Safety, American
Committee on Arthropod-Borne Viruses. 1980. Laboratory safety for
arboviruses and certain other viruses of vertebrates. Am. J.
Trop. Med. Hyg. 29:1359-1381.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Physical Restraint

Brief physical restraint of animals for examination,
collection of samples, and a variety of other clinical and
experimental manipulations can be accomplished manually or with
devices such as restraint stocks or squeeze cages. It is
important that such devices be suitable in size and design for
the animal being held and operated properly to minimize stress
and avoid injury to the animal.

Prolonged restraint of any animal, including the chairing of
nonhuman primates, should be avoided unless essential to research
objectives. Less restrictive systems, such as the tether system
or the pole and collar system, should be used when compatible
with research objectives (Wakeley et al., 1974; Byrd, 1979;
Bryant, 1980; Anderson and Houghton, 1983; McNamee et al., 1984).
The following are important guidelines for the use of restraint
equipment:

Animals to be placed in restraint equipment should be
conditioned to such equipment prior to initiation of the
research.
The period of restraint should be the minimum required to
accomplish the research objectives. Prolonged restraint for any
reason must be approved by the committee.
Restraint chairs or similar devices are not to be
considered "normal" methods of housing, although they may be
required for specific research objectives.
Restraint chairs or similar devices must not be used simply
as a convenience to investigators in handling or managing
animals. When such devices are used, their use must be
specifically approved by the committee.
Attention must be paid to the possible development of
lesions or illnesses associated with restraint, including
contusions, decubital ulcers, dependent edema, and weight loss.
If these or other problems occur, veterinary care must be
provided to treat the animal, which if necessary must be
temporarily or permanently removed from the restrain device.

Multiple Major Surgical Procedures

Multiple major survival surgical procedures on a single
animal are discouraged. However, under special circumstances
they might be permitted with the approval of the committee. One
situation in which multiple survival surgical procedures might be
justified is when they are related components of a research
project. Cost savings alone is not an adequate reason for
performing multiple survival surgical procedures.

REFERENCES

Anderson, J.H., and P. Houghton. 1983. The pole and collar
system: A technique for handling and training nonhuman primates.
Lab Anim. 12(6):47-49.
Bryant, J.M. 1980. Vest and tethering system to accommodate
catheters and a temperature monitor for nonhuman primates. Lab.
Anim. Sci. 30(4, Part I):706-708.
Byrd, L.D. 1979. A tethering system for direct measurement of
cardiovascular function in the caged baboon. Am. J. Physiol.
236:H775-H779.
CDC (Centers for Disease Control). 1984. Rat-bite fever in a
college student - California. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep.
33(22):318-320.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984a. Title 10; Part 20,
Standards for Protection Against Radiation. Washington, DC:
Office of the Federal Register.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984b. Title 29; Part 1910,
Occupational Safety and Health Standards; Subpart G, Occupation
Health and Environmental Control, and Subpart Z, Toxic and
Hazardous Substances. Washington, DC: Office of the Federal
Register.
Enviro Control, Inc. 1979. Allergies Associated with Employment
in Biomedical Research Laboratories. Bethesda, Maryland: Office
of Biohazard Safety, National Cancer Institute, 18 pp.
Fox, J.G., C.E. Newcomer, and H. Rozmiarek. 1984. Selected
zoonoses and other health hazards. Pp. 614-648 in Laboratory
Animal Medicine, J.G. Fox, B.J. Cohen, and F.M. Loew, eds. New
York: Academic Press.
McNamee, G.A., Jr., R.W. Wannemacher, Jr., R.E. Dinterman,
H. Rozmiarek, and R.D. Montrey. 1984. A surgical procedure and
tethering system for chronic blood sampling, infusion, and
temperature monitoring in caged nonhuman primates. Lab. Anim.
Sci. 34(3):303-307.
Wakeley, H., J. Dudek, and J. Kruckeberg. 1974. A method for
preparing and maintaining rhesus monkeys with chronic venous
catheters. Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. 6:329-331.

2

Laboratory Animal Husbandry

Proper management of animal facilities is essential to the
welfare of animals, validity of research data, and health and
safety of the animal care staff. A good husbandry program
provides a system of housing and care that permits animals to
grow, mature, reproduce, and maintain good health. Good
husbandry minimizes variations that can modify an animal's
response to experimentation. Specific operating practices depend
on many subjective and objective factors unique to individual
institutions. Well-trained and motivated personnel can often
ensure high quality animal care, even in institutions with less
than optimal @ plants or equipment.

HOUSING

Caging or Housing System

The caging or housing system is one of the most important
elements in the physical and social environment of research
animals. It should be designed carefully to facilitate animal
well-being, meet research requirements, and minimize experimental
variables. The housing system should:

provide space that is adequate, permits freedom of
movement
and normal postural adjustments, and has a resting place
appropriate to the species;
provide a comfortable environment;
provide an escape-proof enclosure that confines animals
safely;
provide easy access to food and water;
provide adequate ventilation;
meet the biological needs of the animals, e.g.,
maintenance
of body temperature, urination, defecation, and if appropriate,
reproduction;
keep the animals dry and clean, consistent with species
requirements;
avoid unnecessary physical restraint; and
protect the animals from known hazards.

Caging systems should facilitate research while maintaining
good health of the animals. They should be constructed of
sturdy, durable materials and designed to minimize
cross-infection between adjoining units. To simplify servicing
and sanitation, cages should have smooth, impervious surfaces
that neither attract nor retain dirt and a minimum number of
ledges, angles, and corners in which dirt or water can
accumulate. The design should allow inspection of cage occupants
without disturbing them. Feeding and watering devices should be
easily accessible for filling, changing, cleaning and servicing.

Cages, runs and pens must be kept in good repair to prevent
injury to animals, promote physical comfort, and facilitate
sanitation and servicing. Particular attention must be given to
eliminating sharp edges and broken wires, keeping cage floors in
good condition, and refurbishing or replacing rusted or other
deteriorating equipment.

Social Environment

The social environment includes all interactions among
individuals of a group or among those able to communicate. The
effects of social environment on caged animals vary with the
species and experience of the animals. They are often more
difficult to define than the effects of physical environment.
There is little objective evidence for defining adequate care in
relation to social environment (Davis, 1978). The date are
limited and contradictory (Brain and Benton, 1979) and lack
sufficient substance to establish absolute recommendations;
however, some guidance can be given based on current knowledge,
experience, and professional judgment.

In selecting a suitable social environment, attention should
be given to whether the animals are naturally territorial or
communal and whether they will be housed singly or in groups.
When appropriate, group housing should be considered for communal
animals. In grouping animals, it is important to take into
account population density and ability to disperse; initial
familiarity among animals; and age, sex, and social rank.
Population density can affect reproduction, metabolism, immune
responses, and behavior (Lindsey et al., 1978). Group
composition should be held as stable as possible, particularly
for canines, nonhuman primates,a nd other highly social mammals,
because mixing groups or introducing new members can alter
behavioral and physiological functions (Bernstein, 1964;
Bernstein et al., 1974a,b). Consideration should also be given
to enriching the environment as appropriate to the species,
especially when animals will be held for long periods.

Space Recommendations for Laboratory Animals

There are few critical and objective data on space
requirements for animals (Davis, 1978). Even if all the complex
factors affecting caged animals were known and could be
evaluated, it is unlikely that a single ideal or perfect system
could be developed. Therefore caging systems based on successful
experience and professional judgement must be utilized. Minimum
space recommendations for laboratory animals are given in Table
2-1. They are based on the best available information concerning

reasonable space allocations for housing laboratory animals.

Special housing provisions are sometimes necessary for
unusual laboratory species such as those with unique metabolic or
genetic characteristics or special behavioral or reproductive
requirements. Exercise areas, runs, or pens should be considered
for animals that will be held for long periods.

TABLE 2-1. Minimum Space Recommendations for Laboratory Animals

Type of
Animals
Height Weight Housing Floor Area/Animal in. cm.
g in. cm.

Mice < 10 Cage 6.0 38.71 5 12.70
10-15 Cage 8.0 51.62 5 12.70
15-25 Cage 12.0 77.72 5 12.70
> 25 Cage 15.0 96.78 5 12.70

Rats < 100 Cage 17.0 109.68 7 17.78
100-200 Cage 23.0 148.40 7 17.78
200-300 Cage 29.0 187.11 7 17.78
300-400 Cage 40.0 258.08 7 17.78
400-500 Cage 60.0 387.12 7 17.78
> 500 Cage 70.0 451.64 7 17.78

Hamsters < 60 Cage 10.0 64.52 6 15.24
60-80 Cage 13.0 83.88 6 15.24
80-100 Cage 16.0 103.23 6 15.24
> 100 Cage 19.0 122.59 6 15.24

Guinea
Pigs < 350 Cage 60.0 387.12 7 17.78
> 350 Cage 101.0 651.65 7 17.78

kg ft m

Rabbits < 2 Cage 1.5 0.14 14 35.56
2-4 Cage 3.0 0.28 14 35.56
4-5.4 Cage 4.0 0.37 14 35.56
> 5.4 Cage 5.0 0.46 14 35.56

Cats < 4 Cage 3.0 0.28 24 60.96
> 4 Cage 4.0 0.37 24 60.96

Dogs < 15 Pen/Run 8.0 0.74 --
15-30 Pen/Run 12.1 1.12 --
> 30 Pen/Run 24.0 2.23 --

< 15 Cage 8.0 0.74 32 81.28
15-30 Cage 12.1 1.12 36 91.44
> 30 Cage c c

Nonhuman
Primates

Group 1 < 1 Cage 1.6 0.15 20 50.80
Group 2 1-3 Cage 3.0 0.28 30 76.20
Group 3 3-10 Cage 4.3 0.40 30 76.20
Group 4 10-15 Cage 6.0 0.56 32 81.28
Group 5 15-25 Cage 8.0 0.74 36 91.44
Group 6 > 25 Cage 25.1 2.33 84 213.36

Pigeons -- Cage 0.8 0.074 e

Quail -- Cage 0.25 0.023 e

Chickens
0.25 Cage 0.25 0.023 e
0.25-0.5 Cage 0.50 0.046 e
0.5-1.5 Cage 1.00 0.093 e
1.5-3 Cage 2.00 0.186 e
> 3 Cage 3.06 0.285 e

Sheep and Goats
1-4/pen < 25 Pen 10.0 0.93 --
25-50 Pen 15.0 1.39 --
> 50 Pen 20.0 1.86 --

5/Pen < 25 Pen 8.5 0.79 --
25-50 Pen 12.5 1.16 --
> 50 Pen 17.0 1.58 --
> 5/Pen < 25 Pen 7.5 0.70 --
25-50 Pen 11.3 1.05 --
> 50 Pen 15.0 1.39 --
Swine
1-4/Pen < 25 Pen 6.0 0.56 --
25-50 Pen 12.0 1.11 --
50-100 Pen 24.0 2.23 --
100-200 Pen 48.0 4.46 --
>200 Pen 60.0 5.57 --

5/Pen <25 Pen 6.0 0.56 --
25-50 Pen 10.0 0.93 --
50-100 Pen 20.0 1.86 --
100-200 Pen 40.0 3.72 --
>200 Pen 52.0 4.83 --

>5/Pen < 25 Pen 6.0 0.56 --
25-50 Pen 9.0 0.84 --
50-100 Pen 18.0 1.67 --
100-200 Pen 36.0 3.34 --
> 200 Pen 48.0 4.46 --

Cattle < 350 Stanchion 16.0 1.49 --
350-450 Stanchion 18.0 1.67 --
450-550 Stanchion 22.0 2.04 --
550-650 Stanchion 24.0 2.23 --
> 650 Stanchion 27.0 2.51 --

1-4/Pen < 75 Pen 24.0 2.23 --
75-200 Pen 48.0 4.46 --
300-350 Pen 72.0 6.69 --
350-500 Pen 96.0 8.92 --
500-650 Pen 124.0 11.52 --
> 650 Pen 144.0 13.38 --

5/Pen < 75 Pen 20.0 1.86 --
75-200 Pen 40.0 3.72 --
200-350 Pen 60.0 5.57 --
350-500 Pen 80.0 7.43 --
500-650 Pen 105.0 9.75 --
> 650 Pen 120.0 11.15 --

>5/Pen < 75 Pen 18.0 1.67 --
75-200 Pen 36.0 3.34 --
200-350 Pen 54.0 5.02 --
350-500 Pen 72.0 6.69 --
500-650 Pen 93.0 8.64 --
> 650 Pen 108.0 10.03 --

Horses -- Tie Stall 44.0 4.09 --

-- Pen 144.0 13.38 --

Ponies
1-4/Pen -- Pen 72.0 6.69 --
>4/Pen > 200 Pen 60.0 5.57 --
> 200 Pen 72.0 6.69 --

a. From the resting floor to the cage top

b. Space recommendations are comparable to the current
regulations of the Animal Welfare Act. Mothers with litters
require more space (CFR, 1984a).

c. These recommendations may require modification according to
the body conformation of individual animals and breeds. Some
dogs, especially those toward the upper limit of each weight
range, may require additional floor space or cage height to
ensure compliance with the regulations of the Animal Welfare Act.

These regulations CFR, 1984a) mandate that the height of each
cage be sufficient to allow the occupant to stand in a
"comfortable position" and that the minimum square footage of
floor space be equal to the "mathematical square of the sum of
the length of the dog in inches, as measured from the tip of its
nose to the base of its tail plus 6 inches, expressed in square
feet." If dogs are housed in group pens or runs, only
compatible animals should be housed together.

d. The designated groups are based on approximate sizes of
various nonhuman primate species used in biomedical research.
Examples of species included in each group are:

Group 1 - marmosets, tamarins, and infants of various species
Group 2 - capuchins, squirrel monkeys and similar species
Group 3 - macaques and African species
Group 4 - male macaques and large African species
Group 5 - baboons and nonbrachiating species larger than 15 kg
Group 6 - great apes and brachiating species

Institutions are encouraged to provide alternatives to
individual caging. Infants and juveniles can be housed in group
cages, for example. If adults are to be housed in groups, it is
essential that only compatible animals be kept together. Newly
grouped animals must be closely monitored to detect injuries due
to fighting. Space in group cages should be enriched with
structures such as resting perches and shelters. The minimum
height of pens and runs used to house nonhuman primates should be
6 ft. (1.8 m). For chimpanzees and brachiating species
(orangutans, gibbons, spider monkeys, and wooly monkeys) the
minimum cage height should be such that the animals can, with
fully extended, swing from the cage ceiling without having their
feet touch the floor.

e. Sufficient headroom must be provided for birds to stand
erect.

f. Space recommendation is not applicable to sows housed in
gestation or farrowing stalls.

Activity

Animals maintained in a laboratory environment might have a
somewhat restricted activity relative to that in the "natural"
state. Unfortunately there are no unequivocal data relating the
quality or quantity of an animal's activity to its physical or
psychological well-being. For example, housing an animal in a
cage does not necessarily limit the amount of activity in which
the animal engages, although the form of activity might be
changed. Therefore, the need for exercise, defined here as
supplementary or induced activity, is subject to professional
judgment based on an understanding of species or breed
temperament, age, history, physical condition, nature of the
research, and expected duration of laboratory residence.
Examples of supplementary activity that can be provided including
using a treadmill or exercise wheel, walking on a leash,
providing access to a run, or releasing an animal from its cage
into an animal room. For large farm animals, such as sheep,
horses, and cattle, loafing areas, exercise lots, and pastures
are suitable. Provision should be made for animals with
specialized locomotor pattern to express these patterns,
especially when the animals are held for long periods. For
example, ropes, bars, and perches are appropriate for brachiating
nonhuman primates.

Cages are often used for short-term (up to 3 months) housing
of dogs and may be necessary for postsurgical care, isolation of
sick dogs, and metabolic studies. However, pens, runs, or other
out-of-cage space provide more opportunity for exercise, and
their use is encouraged when holding dogs for long periods.

ANIMAL ENVIRONMENT

The environment in which animals are held should be
appropriate to the species and its life history. Commonly used
laboratory animals such as rats and mice are highly versatile and
readily adapt to laboratory caging systems. Some less commonly
used animals may have specific needs of which both the
investigator and animal care staff should be aware (e.g.,
reproductive behavior in some species of voles can be disrupted
by changing cages too frequently). In the following sections
some considerations for common laboratory animals are discussed.

Micro- and Macroenvironments

The microenvironment of an animal is defined as the physical
environment immediately surrounding it, for example,m temperature
and humidity in the cage or primary enclosure. The physical
conditions in the room or secondary enclosure constitute the
macroenvironment. It has been known for many years that there
are differences between these two environments (Henriques and
Hansen, 1904; Reyniers, 1942; Woods, 1978). Temperature,
humidity, and concentrations of gases such as carbon dioxide and
ammonia are higher in cages (unless they are individually
ventilated) than in the surrounding room (Murakami, 1971;
Serrano, 1971). The extent of micro- and macroenvironmental
differences is influenced by cage design (Serrano, 1971; Besch,
1975; Keller et al., 1983). A few investigators have explored
the relationship of microenvironmental conditions to
physiological responses and health status of animals. Some have
shown that experimental exposure of rodents to elevated
temperature, humidity, and concentrations of ammonia can increase
their susceptibility to infections, toxic, and other harmful
agents (Baetjer, 1968; Broderson et al., 1976). Therefore it
should be recognized that microenvironmental conditions can
affect research animals.

Temperature and Humidity

Temperature and humidity are probably the two most important
factors in an animal's physical environment because the can
affect metabolism and behavior. The range of environmental
temperatures at which an animal's oxygen consumption is minimal
and virtually independent of changes in ambient temperature is
called the thermoneutral zone. Within this zone an animal does
not need physical or chemical mechanisms to control heat
production or loss (Weihe, 1976). At temperatures immediately
above this zone, metabolic rate increases; however, the animal
successfully avoids overheating by evaporative heat loss.
Experience has shown that for optimal development, comfort,
reactivity, and adaptability, recommended ranges for dry-bulb
temperature (Table 2-2) generally are lower than the reported
thermoneutral zones (Besch, 1985). No adverse effects to common
laboratory animals have been reported for these recommended
microenvironmental temperature or humidity ranges, and all are
within the facilities and operating standards established by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (CFR, 1984a).

TABLE 2-2. Recommended Relative Humidity and Dry-Bulb
Temperature for Common Laboratory Animals

Relative Dry-Bulb Temperature Animal
Humidity(%) C F

Mouse 40 - 70 18 - 26 64.4 - 78.8
Rat 40 - 70 18 - 26 64.4 - 78.8
Hamster 40 - 70 18 - 26 64.4 - 78.8
Guinea Pig 40 - 70 18 - 26 64.4 - 78.8
Rabbit 40 - 60 16 - 21 60.8 - 69.8
Cat 30 - 70 18 - 29 64.4 - 84.2
Dog 30 - 70 18 - 29 64.4 - 84.2
Nonhuman Primate 30 - 70 18 - 29 64.4 - 84.2
Chicken 45 - 70 16 - 27 60.8 - 80.6

a. From ILAR. 1965, 1966, 1973a, 1977, 1978a,b, 1980.

b. Temperature of 27-29C (80.6-84.2F) recommended in
post-operative recovery and whelping cages (ILAR, 1973a).

c. Recommended range of 60-65% for marmosets, tamarins, owl
monkeys, and some other species (ILAR, 1973b).

d. Recommendations for chickens 6 weeks of age or older. Higher
temperatures required for brooding chicks.

Ventilation

The purpose of ventilation is to supply adequate oxygen;
remove thermal loads caused by animal respiration, lights, and
equipment; dilute gaseous and particulate contaminants; and
control effects of infiltration and exfiltration (Clough and
Gamble, 1976; Edwards et al., 1983). The quality of an animal's
microenvironment is determined by the effectiveness of the
ventilation system in maintaining acceptable thermal conditions
and controlling contaminants within the primary enclosure.
The long-accepted ventilation guideline of 10 to 15 room air
changes per hour has been criticized in recent years as being
energy intensive and based on keeping odors below objectionable
levels for humans. Furthermore, Besch (1980) has shown that
ventilation based on room air changes, which does not take into
account spatial dimensions of the room or number of animals
present, is not necessarily as effective as ventilation rate per
animal or cage. Woods and his colleagues (1975) suggested that
ventilation rate per animal is not only effective but also
provides an odor-free environment and is energy efficient.
Nonetheless, years of experience have shown that 10 to 15 room
air changes per hour appears to provide adequate ventilation for
animal facilities. Other methods of providing equal or more
effective ventilation are also acceptable.

Room air in animal facilities should not be recirculated
unless it has been treated to remove particulate and toxic
gaseous contaminants. Air treatment is often ineffective in
animal facilities because of improper or insufficient maintenance
of the system (Gorton, 1978). If recirculating systems or other
energy-recovery devices are to be used, the system must be
carefully maintained.

Consideration also should be given to control of relative
air pressure in animal housing and service areas. For example,
areas for quarantine, isolation, soiled equipment, use of
biohazardous materials, and housing for nonhuman primates should
be kept under relative negative pressure with appropriate air
treatment of exhaust air, whereas clean equipment and
pathogen-free animal housing areas should be kept under relative
positive pressure.

Illumination

Lighting should be uniformly diffused throughout animal
facilities and provide sufficient illumination to aid in
maintaining good housekeeping practices, adequate inspection of
animals, safe working conditions for personnel, and the
well-being of the animals. Precise lighting requirements for
maintenance of good health and physiological stability of animals
are not known. In the past, illumination levels for animal rooms
of 807 to 1076 lx (75 to 100 ft. candles) have been recommended.
Such levels have been shown to cause retinal damage to albino
mice (Greenman et al., 1982) and rats (Stotzer et al., 1970).
Light levels of 323 lx (30 ft-candles) approximately 1.0 m (3.3
ft) above the floor appear to be sufficient for performance of
routine animal care (Bellhorn, 1980). This would provide the
equivalent of 32 to 40 lx (3.0 to 3.7 ft. candles) to a rodent in
the front of an upper cage in a cage rack. Stotzer et al. (1970)
reported that these levels do not cause retinal lesions in albino
rats held for up to 90 days. However, Weisse et al. (1974) found
minimal retinal lesions in albino rats examined after 790 days of
exposure to these levels. These observations should be
considered when housing albino animals.

Provision of variable-intensity controls is an acceptable
means of ensuring light intensities consistent with the needs of
animals and personnel working in animal rooms and energy
conservation. A time-controlled lighting system should be used
to provide a regular diurnal lighting cycle. Timer performance
should be checked periodically to ensure proper cycling.

Noise

Noise from animals and the animal care activities is
inherent in the operation of an animal facility (Pfaff and
Stecker, 1976), and noise control should be considered in
facility design. Separation of human from animal areas is the
best way to minimize disturbances to personnel due to the sounds
of animals and animal care routines.

Within animal facilities, noisy activities such as cage
washing and refuse disposal should be carried out in rooms or
areas separate from those for animal housing. Excessive noise
can be minimized by appropriate training of personnel and by the
use of cushioned casters and bumpers on carts, trucks, and racks.

Noisy animals, such as dogs and nonhuman primates, should be
housed away from rodents, rabbits, and cats. Continuous exposure
to acoustical levels above 85 dB can have both auditory and
nonauditory effects (Fletcher, 1976; Peterson, 1980), including
eosinopenia and increased adrenal weights in rodents (Geber et
al., 1966; Nayfield and Besch, 1981), reduced fertility in
rodents (Zondek and Tamari, 1964), and increased blood pressure
in nonhuman primates (Peterson et at., 1981). Noise from
colonies of nonhuman primates, dogs, and swine usually is
disturbing to other animals and to personnel working both inside
and outside animal facilities. It can also pose important public
relations problems. When personnel are exposed to noise levels
exceeding federal standards, appropriate hearing protection
programs should be established as outlined in the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR, 1984b).

FOOD

Animals should be fed palatable, noncontaminated, and
nutritionally adequate food daily or according to their
particular requirements (BARR, 1978; Pal et al., 1984), unless
the experimental protocol requires otherwise. Feeders should
allow easy access to food, while minimizing contamination by
urine and feces. Food should be available in amounts sufficient
to ensure normal growth in immature animals and maintenance of
normal body weight, reproduction, and lactation in adults. The
choice of laboratory animal diet will depend on animal
requirements and experimental objectives.

Numerous factors are involved in supplying food containing
adequate nutrition, including formulation and preparation;
quality assurance; freedom from chemical and microbial
contaminants; bio-availability of nutrients; palatability; and
methods of milling, storing, and transporting. Animal colony
managers should be judicious in purchasing, transporting,
storing, and handling food to ensure that it does not introduce
diseases, parasites, potential disease vectors (such as insects),
or chemical contaminants into animal colonies. Purchasers are
encouraged to consider manufacturers' and suppliers' procedures
and practices for protecting nutrient quality.

In general, laboratory animal diets should not be
manufactured or stored in facilities used for farm feeds or any
products containing additives such as rodenticides, insecticides,
hormones, antibiotics, fumigants, or other potential toxicants.
Areas in which diets are processed or stored should be kept clean
and enclosed to prevent entry of insects or other animals.
Precautions should be taken if perishable items such as meats,
fruits, and vegetables are fed, because these are potential
sources of biological and chemical contamination and can lead to
variation in the amount of nutrients consumed.

Contaminants in food can have dramatic effects on
biochemical and physiological processes, even when the
contaminants are present in concentrations too low to cause
clinical signs of toxicity. For example, some contaminants
induce the biosynthesis of hepatic enzymes, which can alter an
animal's response to drugs (Newberne, 1975). Diets can contain
mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1 a potential inducer of hepatic
neoplasms; pesticide residues; heavy metals such as lead and
cadmium; and other compounds such as diethylstilbestrol, an
estrogenic substance. For some studies, the valid interpretation
of experimental data might require the use of a pretested
laboratory animal diet, in which both biological and
nonbiological food contaminants are identified and their
concentrations documented.

The date of manufacture and other factors affecting shelf
life of food should be known by the user. Shelf life is not
determined by time alone; handling and storage are also factors
that must be considered. Stale food or food transported and
stored inappropriately can become deficient in nutrients. It is
necessary to pay careful attention to quantities received in each
shipment and to rotate stock so that the oldest food is used
first. Exposure to temperatures above 21C (70F), extremes in
relative humidity, unsanitary conditions, light, oxygen, and
insects hasten the deterioration of food. Experience has shown
that most natural-ingredient, dry laboratory animal diets that
contain preservatives and are stored properly can be used up to 6
months after manufacture. Vitamin C contained in food, however,
generally has a shelf life of only 3 months. Therefore if a
vitamin C-containing diet stored more than 3 months is to be fed
to animals requiring dietary vitamin C, it might be necessary to
add an appropriate vitamin supplement. Refrigeration preserves
nutritional quality and lengthens shelf life; nonetheless, food
storage time should be reduced to the lowest practical minimum
and the recommendations of the manufacturer considered. Purified
and chemically defined diets are less stable than natural
ingredient diets, and the shelf life is usually less than 6
months (Fullerton et al., 1982). These diets should be stored at
4C (39F) or colder.

Autoclave diets require adjustments in nutrient
concentrations, kinds of ingredients, and methods of preparation
to withstand degradation during sterilization (Wostman, 1975).
The date of sterilization should be recorded and the diet used
expeditiously.

Bulk supplies of food should be stored in designated,
restricted areas that are cool, dry, clean, and free of vermin
and other potential contaminants. Food should be stored off the
floor on pallets, racks, or carts. Meats, fruits, vegetables,
and other perishable items should be refrigerated. Unused, open
bags of food should be stored in vermin-proof containers to
minimize contamination and to avoid potential spread of disease
agents. Food containers should not be transferred from room to
room and should be cleaned and sanitized regularly.

BEDDING

Bedding should be absorbent, free of toxic chemicals or
other substances that could injure animals or personnel, and of a
type not readily eaten by animals. Bedding should be used in
amounts sufficient to keep animals dry between cage changes
without coming into contact with watering tubes. Aromatic
hydrocarbons from cedar and pine bedding materials can induce
the biosynthesis of hepatic microsomal enzymes (Vesell, 1967;
Vesell et al., 1976; Cunliffe-Beamer et al., 1981). Therefore
such beddings might be inappropriate for use in some experiments.

Bedding should be stored off the floor on pallets, racks, or
carts.

WATER

Ordinarily animals should have continuous access to fresh,
potable, uncontaminated drinking water, according to their
particular requirements. Periodic monitoring for pH, hardness,
and microbial or chemical contamination might be necessary to
ensure that water quality is acceptable. Water can be treated or
purified to minimize or eliminate contamination. Experimental
and testing protocols might require highly purified water.

Watering devices, such as drinking tubes and automatic
waterers, should be examined routinely to ensure their proper
operation. Sometimes it is necessary to train animals to use
automatic watering devices. It is better to replace water
bottles than to refill them; however, if bottles are refilled,
care should be taken that each bottle is replaced on the cage
from which it was removed.

SANITATION

Cleanliness

Sanitation is essential in an animal facility. Animal
rooms, corridors, storage spaces, and other areas should be
cleaned with appropriate detergents and disinfectants as often as
is necessary to keep them free of dirt, debris, and harmful
contamination. Cleaning utensils, such as mops, pails, and
brooms, should not be transported between animal rooms.

Bedding used in cages or pens should be changed as often as
is required to keep the animals dry and clean. For routine
maintenance of small rodents such as rats, mice, and hamsters,
one to three bedding changes per week will probably suffice. For
larger animals, such as dogs, cats, and nonhuman primates, soiled
litter material should be removed daily. Where animal waste is
removed by hosing or flushing, this should be done at least once
a day. Animals should be kept dry during such procedures.
Litter should be emptied from cages and pans in an area other
than in the animal rooms, and in a manner that minimizes exposure
of animals and personnel to aerosolized waste. In some instances
frequent cage changing is counterproductive, such as when
pheromones are essential for reproduction or to achieve certain
research objectives. Such instances necessitate reasonable
exceptions to the regular cage-cleaning schedule.

Cages should be sanitized before animals are placed in them.

Animal cages, racks, and accessory equipment, such as feeders and
watering devices, should be washed and sanitized frequently to
keep them clean and free from contamination. Ordinarily this can
be achieved by washing solid bottom rodent cages and accessories
once or twice a week and cage racks at least monthly.
Wire-bottom rodent cages and cages for all other animals should
be washed at least every 2 weeks. It is good practice to have
extra cages available at all times to that a systematic cage
washing schedule can be maintained. Cages can be disinfected by
rinsing at a temperature of 82.2C (180F) or higher for a period
long enough to ensure the destruction of vegetative pathogenic
organisms. Disinfection can also be accomplished with
appropriate chemicals; equipment should be rinsed free of
chemicals prior to use. Periodic microbiologic monitoring is
useful to determine the efficacy of disinfection or sterilization
procedures. Accumulations of detergents, acid-cleaning
solutions, volatile decontamination vapors, and other cleaning
and disinfection agents may be harmful to animals, personnel, and
the environment. Appropriate measures should be taken to protect
personnel and comply with legal requirements.

The use of mechanical equipment-washing machines is highly
recommended. The machines should provide wash and rinse cycles,
preferably with adjustable time settings for each. If sanitation
depends on heat for effectiveness, the equipment should be able
to supply rinse-water temperatures of at least 82.2C (180F).
Wash-water temperature might be considerably lower, depending on
the detergent being used. The performance of cage-washing
machines should be evaluated periodically.

Large pieces of equipment can be washed by hand; however,
portable cleaners that dispense detergent and hot water or steam
under pressure are more efficient. Some institutions wash cage
racks in a specially constructed booth in the cage-washing area.
An are of this type serves well when equipped with hot and cold
water, steam, a detergent dispenser, and a vent to exhaust steam.
If the size of the institution warrants such an investment, a
large washing machine for racks, large animal cages, and other
large piece of equipment is useful. If no machine is available,
small cages can be washed by hand in a sink or tub with
appropriate detergents, disinfectants, and vigorous scrubbing.

Water bottles, sipper tubes, stoppers, and other watering
equipment should be washed and then sanitized by rinsing with
water of at least 82.2C (180F) or appropriate chemical agents
(e.g. hyperchlorite) to destroy pathogenic organisms. A machine
for washing bottles and sipper tubes is recommended if large
numbers of water bottles are used. Some cage-washing machines
also can be used for this purpose. If bottles are washed by
hand, powered rotating brushes at the washing sink are useful,
and provision should be made for dipping or soaking the water
bottles in detergent and disinfectant solutions. A
two-compartment sink or tub is adequate for this purpose. Lines
of automatic watering systems can harbor bacteria and require
periodic flushing with water or appropriate chemical
antibacterial agents, followed by thorough rinsing to remove
chemicals.

Some means for sterilizing equipment and supplies, such as
an autoclave or gas sterilizer, is essential when pathogenic
organisms are present or for some specialized facilities or
animal colonies. Routine sterilization of cages, food, and
bedding is not considered essential if care is taken to use clean
materials from reliable sources. Where hazardous biological,
chemical, or physical agents are used, a system of equipment
monitoring might be appropriate.

Deodorizers or chemical agents should not be used to mask
animal odors. Such products are not a substitute for good
sanitation, and some have been shown to cause changes microsomal
enzymes (reference page 26).

Waste containers and implements should be cleaned
frequently. It is a good practice to use disposable liners and
to wash each waste can frequently using the methods suggested
above.

Waste Disposal

Wastes should be removed regularly and frequently. All
waste should be collected and disposed of in a safe and sanitary
manner. One method of waste disposal is incineration.
Incinerators should be in compliance with all federal, state, and
local regulations.

Waste cans, if used, should be metal or plastic, leak-proof,
and equipped with tight-fitting lids. Waste cans containing
animal tissues, carcasses, and hazardous wastes should be lined
with leak-proof, disposable liners. If wastes must be stored
before removal, the waste storage area should be separated from
other storage facilities and free of flies, cockroaches, rodents,
and other vermin. Cold storage might be necessary to reduce
decomposition of biological wastes.

The federal government and most states and municipalities
have statutes or ordinances controlling disposal of wastes.
Compliance with these regulations is an institutional
responsibility (see Chapter 1, "Animal Experimentation Involving
Hazardous Agents"). Hazardous wastes should be rendered safe by
sterilization, containment, or other appropriate means before
they are removed from an animal facility. The National Safety
Council has recommended procedures for disposal of potentially
hazardous wastes (NCS, 1979).

Vermin

Programs should be instituted to control, eliminate, or
prevent infestation by pests such as cockroaches, flies, and wild
or escaped rodents. The most effective program prevents entry of
vermin into the facility by screening openings, sealing cracks,
and eliminating breeding and refuge sites. Improper use of
pesticides can induce toxic effects in research animals (Hodgson,
1980) and interfere with experimental procedures. Whenever
possible, relatively nontoxic compounds (e.g. boric acid) or
drying substances (e.g. amorphous silica gel) should be used to
control cockroaches. Pesticides should be used in animal areas
only when necessary and then only after consultation with the
investigator(s) whose animals will be exposed to them.
Application of pesticides should be recorded and coordinated with
the animal care management staff and in compliance with federal,
state, or local regulations.

IDENTIFICATION AND RECORDS

Methods of animal identification include room,, rack, and
cage cards; collars, bands, plates, and tabs; colored stains; ear
notches and tags; tatoos; and freeze brands. Records on
experimental animals are essential and can take a variety of
forms, ranging from limited information on identification cards
to detailed reports on individual animals. Identification cards
should include such information as the source of the animal,
strain or stock, names and locations of the responsible
investigators, and pertinent dates. Research protocols sometimes
require records on individual animals. Individual clinical
records can also be valuable, especially for dogs, cats, nonhuman
primates, and farm animals. They should include a history of
surgical procedures, experimental use, and pertinent clinical and
diagnostic information. The source and eventual disposition of
animals is often valuable and sometimes essential information,
which should be included in individual records as required.

EMERGENCY, WEEKEND, AND HOLIDAY CARE

In the event of an emergency, institutional security
personnel and fire or police officials should be able to contact
those people responsible for the animals. This can be
accomplished by prominently posting names and phone numbers in
animal facilities or by listing them with the security department
or telephone center.

Animals should be observed and cared for by qualified
personnel every day, including weekends and holidays, both to
safeguard their well-being and to satisfy research requirements.
A procedure should be established for providing emergency
veterinary care after work hours, on weekends, and on holidays.

REFERENCES

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ed. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series.
Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 96 pp.
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107.
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Besch, E.L. 1975. Animal Care room dry-bulb and dew-point
temperature differentials. ASHRAE Trans. 81:549-558.
Besch, E.L. 1980. Environmental quality within animal
facilities. Lab. Anim. Sci. 30 (2, Part II):385-406.
Besch, E.L. 1985. Definition of laboratory animal environmental
conditions. Pp. 297-315 in Animal Stress, G.P. Moberg, ed.
Bethesda, Maryland: American Physiological Society.
Brain, P., and D. Benton. 1979. The interpretation of
physiological correlates of differential housing in laboratory
rats. Life Science 24:99-116.
Broderson, J.R., J.R. Lindsey, and J.E. Crawford. 1976. The role
of environmental ammonia in respiratory mycoplasmosis of rats.
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CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984a. Title 9; Subchapter A,
Animal Welfare. Washington, DC: Office of the Federal Register.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984b. Title 29; Part 1910.95,
Occupational Noise Exposure. Washington, DC: Office of the
Federal Register.
Cinti, D.L., M.. Lemelin, and J. Christian. 1976. Induction of
liver microsomal mixed-function oxidases by volatile
hydrocarbons. Biochem. Pharmacol. 25:100-103.
Clough, G., and M.R. Gamble. 1976. Laboratory Animal Houses. A
Guide to the Design and Planning of Animal Facilities. LAC
Manual Series No. 4. Carshalton, Surrey: Laboratory Animals
Centre, Medical Research Council. 44 pp.
Cunliffe-Beamer, T.L., L.C. Freeman, and D.D. Myers. 1981.
Barbiturate sleeptime in mice exposed to autoclaved or
unautoclaved wood beddings. Lab. Anim. Sci. 31(6):672-675.
Davis, D.E. 1978. Social behavior in a laboratory environment.
Pp. 44-63 in Laboratory Animal Housing. Proceedings of a
symposium organized by the ILAR Committee on Laboratory Animal
Housing. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
Edwards, R.G., M.F. Beeson, and J.M. Dewdney. 1983. Laboratory
animal allergy: The measurement of airborne urinary allergens
and the effect of different environmental conditions. Lab.
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Control of the Animal Handbooks 7, T. McSheehy, ed. London:
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responses of the albino rat to chronic noise stress. Arch.
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90):227-234.

3

Veterinary Care

Veterinary care is an essential part of an animal care program.
Adequate veterinary care consists of:

observing all animals daily to assess their health and
welfare
using appropriate methods to prevent, control, diagnose,
and treat diseases and injuries;
providing guidance to users regarding handling,
immobilization, anesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia; and
monitoring surgery programs and postsurgical care.

Veterinary care is the responsibility of a veterinarian who
is certified (see ACLAM, Appendix B) or has training or
experience in laboratory animal science and medicine. Daily
observation of animals can be accomplished by someone other than
a veterinarian; however, a mechanism of direct and frequent
communication should be adopted so that timely and accurate
information on problems in animal health, behavior, and
well-being is conveyed to the attending veterinarian. The
veterinarian can also contribute to the establishment of
appropriate policies and procedures for ancillary aspects of
veterinary care, such as advising on experimental models;
reviewing protocols and proposals with respect to veterinary
care, animal husbandry, and animal welfare; monitoring
occupational health, hazard containment, and zoonosis control
programs; and supervising animal nutrition, husbandry, and
sanitation.

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE

Prevention of disease should be the primary objective of a
veterinary care program. In addition to good husbandry
practices, there are a variety of activities that should be
included in a preventive medical program.

Animal Procurement

All animals must be acquired lawfully. An evaluation should
be made of animal quality for each potential vendor. A health
surveillance program for screening incoming animals is
recommended to assess animal quality. Methods of transportation
should also be taken into account. Each shipment of animals
should be inspected for compliance with procurement
specifications, and the animals should be quarantined and
stabilized according to procedures appropriate for the species
and circumstances. Vendor quality-control data can be helpful in
selecting these procedures.

Quarantine and Stabilization

Quarantine is the separation of newly received animals from
those already in the facility until the health of the newly
received animals has been evaluated. Effective quarantine
minimizes the introduction of disease agents into established
colonies. The veterinarian should formulate standard operating
procedures to evaluate the health status of newly received,
quarantined animals in accordance with acceptable veterinary
medical practice and federal, state, and local regulations.

Quality control by the vendor and a knowledge of the history
of the animals are acceptable parts of an institution's
quarantine protocol. This information may limit the quarantine
period for rodents to the time necessary for inspection on
arrival; however, all newly received animals should be allowed a
stabilization period prior to their use. This permits animals to
adapt to their surroundings, resulting in a more stable
physiological and behavioral state. The need for this
stabilization period has been demonstrated in mice (Wallace,
1976; Landi et al., 1982), rats (Jelinek, 1971), and guinea pigs
(Prasad, et al., 1978) and is probably required for other species
as well. If the history of newly received animals is incomplete
the quarantine procedure should be more comprehensive and of
sufficient duration to allow expression of diseases present in
the incubation stages. Some or all of the following should be
achieved during the quarantine and stabilization period:

diagnosis, control, prevention, and treatment of diseases,
including zoonoses;
physiological and nutritional stabilization; and
grooming, including bathing, dipping, and clipping, as
required.

Separation by Species, Source, and Health Status

Physical separation of animals by species is generally
recommended to prevent interspecies disease transmission, reduce
anxiety due to interspecies conflict, and meet experimental
requirements. This is usually accomplished by housing different
species in separate rooms. In some situations, it might be
appropriate to house different species of rodents in the same
room, such as when they are to be used for similar studies and
have a similar health status or when special containment is
provided within rooms (e.g., laminar flow cabinets or filtered or
microisolation cages).
Intraspecies separation is advisable when animals obtained
from multiple sources differ in microbiological status.

Separation to Avoid Interspecies Disease Transmission

Some species carry subclinical or latent infections that can
cause clinical disease or be fatal when transmitted to other
species. A few examples are provided as a guide in determining
the need for separate housing by species:

Rodents. Rats infected with Streptobacillus moniliformis
(Freundt, 1956) should be housed separately from mice, which are
usually free from this disease.

Lagomorphs. Rabbits frequently harbor Pasteurella
multocida and Bordetella bronchiseptica (Flatt, 1974). These
microorganisms are potentially pathogenic to other animals;
guinea pigs are especially susceptible to B. bronchiseptica.
Although definitive studies demonstrating transmission of these
agents between rabbits and other species have not been reported,
it seems prudent to maintain rabbits in separate rooms.

Nonhuman Primates. As a rule, New World (South American),
Old World African, and Old World Asian species of nonhuman
primates should be housed in separate rooms. Benign epidermal
monkey pox and simian hemorrhagic fever are two subclinical
infections of African species that can cause clinical disease in
Asian species (Hall and McNulty, 1967; Palmer et al., 1968;
London, 1977). Certain species should be house in separate rooms
even though they are from the same geographical region. Squirrel
monkeys (Saimiri sciureus), for example, are often latently
infected with Herpesvirus tamarinus, which can be transmitted to
owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) (Hunt and Melendez, 1966) and
some species of marmosets (Saguinus spp.) (Holmes et al., 1964)
and cause a fatal epizootic disease.

Separation by Source or Microbiological Status

It is not uncommon for animals from one source to harbor
microbial agents not found in animals from another source, e.g.,
rats with Mycoplasma pulmonis. Therefore, it is recommended that
animals from different sources be housed in separate rooms or
that some other means, such as laminar flow units, be used to
minimize the possibility of cross-infection. If such housing is
not feasible because of space limitations or experimental
objectives, animals should be grouped according to their known
exposure to microbial agents.

SURVEILLANCE, DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT, AND CONTROL OF DISEASE

All laboratory animals should be observed daily for signs of
illness, injury, or abnormal behavior by a person trained to
recognize such signs. Unexpected deaths and deviations from
normal should be reported promptly to the person responsible for
animal disease control. Sick or injured animals should receive
prompt veterinary medical care. Animals that are suspected of
having a contagious disease should be isolated from healthy
animals in the colony. When an entire group or room of animals
is known or believed to be exposed to an infectious agent, the
group should be kept intact during the process of diagnosis,
treatment, and control.

Methods of prophylaxis, diagnosis, therapy, and disease
control should follow currently accepted practice. Diagnostic
laboratory services supplement physical examination and
facilitate diagnosis of diseases. These service should include
gross and microscopic pathology, clinical pathology, hematology,
microbiology, clinical chemistry, and other appropriate
laboratory procedures.

Inapparent viral infections of rodents, which can occur with
mouse hepatitis virus, minute virus of mice, and lactic
dehydrogenase virus, can have an effect on some types of research
(Hsu et al., 1980). Although there are usually no clinical signs
in rodents infected with these viruses, there are often profound
changes in the immune, reticuloendothelial, and other systems
(Hsu et al., 1980). Serological surveillance of rodent colonies,
particularly breeding colonies, should be considered when there
is a potential for inapparent viral infections to affect research
results. Viral infections can also be transmitted through
transplantable tumors and cell lines (Stansly, 1965; Collins et
al., 1972; Biggar et al., 1976; Riley et al., 1978), which should
be evaluated prior to their introduction into a research colony.

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA

The proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, and tranquilizers
in laboratory animals is necessary for humane and scientific
reasons. In accordance with the Animal Welfare Act, the choice
and use of the most appropriate drugs are matters for the
attending veterinarian's professional judgment. The veterinarian
must provide research personnel with guidelines and advice
concerning choice and use of these drugs.

If a painful procedure must be conducted without the use of
an anesthetic, analgesic, or tranquilizers--because such use
would defeat the purpose of the experiment--the procedure must be
approved by the committee and supervised directly by the
responsible investigator.

Muscle relaxants or paralytic drugs (e.g. succinylcholine or
other curariform drugs) are not anesthetics. They must not be
used alone for surgical restraint, although they can be used in
conjunction with drugs known to produce adequate analgesia.

SURGERY AND POSTSURGICAL CARE

Aseptic surgery should be conducted only in facilities
intended for that purpose. These facilities must be maintained
and operated to ensure cleanliness and directed and staffed by
trained personnel. Surgery must be performed or directly
supervised by trained, experience personnel. Training in aseptic
surgery should be provided for those who require it.

Aseptic technique must be used on most animals, including
lagomorphs, that undergo major survival surgery. This technique
includes wearing of sterile surgical gloves, gowns, caps, and
face masks; use of sterile instruments; and aseptic preparation
of the surgical field. Major survival surgery is defined as any
surgical intervention that penetrates a body cavity or has the
potential for producing a permanent handicap in an animal that is
expected to recover. Survival surgery on rodents does not
require a special facility but should be performed using sterile
instruments, surgical gloves, and aseptic procedures to prevent
clinical infections.

Appropriate facilities and equipment should be available for
postsurgical care. Postsurgical care should include observing
the animal to ensure uneventful recovery from anesthesia and
surgery; administering supportive fluids, analgesics, and other
drugs as required; providing adequate care for surgical
incisions; and maintaining appropriate medical records.
Equipment and supply items that can be helpful for intensive care
include heating pads, vaporizers, vacuum equipment, respirator,
cardiac monitor, and oxygen. Proper monitoring by trained
personnel should be provided during recovery.

Minor surgical procedures, such as wound suturing and
peripheral vessel cannulation, can be performed under less
stringent conditions if they are performed in accordance with
standard veterinary practices.

EUTHANASIA

For the purpose of this Guide, euthanasia is the procedure
of killing animals rapidly and painlessly. It should be carried
out by trained personnel using acceptable techniques in
accordance with institutional policies and applicable laws. The
method used should not interfere with postmortem evaluation.

Techniques for euthanasia usually should follow current
guidelines established by the American Veterinary Medical
Association Panel on Euthanasia (AVMA, 1978). Other methods must
be reviewed and approved by the institutional veterinarian.
Acceptable methods of euthanasia are those that initially depress
the central nervous system to ensure insensitivity to pain
(Canadian Council on Animal Care, 1980). For this reason,
anesthetic agents are generally acceptable, and animals of most
species can be killed quickly and humanely by intravenous or
intraperitoneal injection of an overdose of barbiturates. Other
methods can be used of euthanasia of anesthetized animals because
the major criterion of humane treatment has been fulfilled
(Lucke, 1979).

Physical methods of euthanasia are acceptable for some small
animals (e.g. cervical dislocation in mice); however, for larger
animals physical methods should be scientifically justified and
restricted to those causing rapid death. Carbon dioxide in an
uncrowded chamber has been found satisfactory for several
different species. Although ether is effective it must be used
with care, because it is flammable and explosive and for safe use
requires special precautions. Signs indicating that ether is
present or in use should be posted conspicuously. To avoid
explosions, the carcasses of ether-killed animals should be
stored in explosion-safe refrigerators, and should not be
incinerated until the ether is volatilized. Chloroform should
not be used because it is toxic to personnel and potentially
carcinogenic.

Every attempt should be made to perform euthanasia on
animals in a manner that minimizes reactions with other living
animals. Proper euthanasia technique should include a follow-up
examination to confirm the absence of a heartbeat, which is a
reliable indicator of death. Monitoring respiration is not
sufficient. In some animals, particularly under deep carbon
dioxide anesthesia, heartbeat can be maintained after visible
respiration has ceased, and the animal might eventually recover.

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Hall, A.S., and W.P. McNulty, Jr. 1967. A contagious pox disease
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Holmes, A.W., R.G. Caldwell, R.E. Dedmon, and F. Deinhardt.
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Hsu, C.K., A.E. New, and J.G. Mayo. 1980. Quality assurance of
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Solleveld, eds. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
Hunt, R.D., and L.V. Melendez. 1966. Spontaneous herpes-T
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3:1-26.
Jelinek, V. 1971. The influence of the condition of the
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Landi, M.S., J.W. Kreider, C.M. Lang, and L.P. Bullock. 1982.
Effects of shipping on the immune function in mice. Am. J.
Vet. Res. 43:1654-1657.
London, W.T. 1977. Epizootiology, transmission, and approach to
prevention of fatal simian haemorrhagic fever in rhesus
monkeys. Nature 268:344-345.
Lucke, J.N. 1979. Euthanasia in small animals. Vet. Rec. 104:316-
318.
Palmer, A.E., A.M. Allen, N.M. Tauraso, and A. Skelokov. 1968.
Simian hemorrhagic fever. I. Clinical and epizootiologic
aspects of an outbreak among quarantined monkeys. Am. J. Trop.
Med. Hyg. 17:404-412.
Prasad, S., B.R. Gatmaitan, and R.C. O'Connell. 1978. Effect of a
conditioning method on general safety test in guinea pigs.
Lab. Anim. Sci. 28(5):591-593.
Riley, V., D.H. Spackman, G.A. Santisteban, G. Dalldorf, I.
Hellstrom, K.E. Hellstrom, E.M. Lance, K.E.K. Rowson, D.W.J.
Mahy, P. Alexander, C.C. Stock, H.O. Sjogren, V.P. Hollander,
and M.C. Horzinek. 1978. The LDH virus: An interfering
biological contaminant. Science 200:124-126.
Stansly, P.G. 1965. Non-oncogenic infectious agents associated
with experimental tumors. Prog. Exp. Tumor Res. 7:224-258.
Wallace, M.E. 1976. Effect of stress due to deprivation and
transport in different genotypes of house mouse. Lab. Anim.
(London) 10(3):335-347.
4

Physical Plant

The physical condition and design of animal facilities
determine, to a great extent, the efficiency and economy of their
operation. The design and size of an animal facility depend on
the scope of institutional research activities, animals to be
housed, physical relationship to the rest of the institution, and
geographic location. A well-planned, properly maintained
facility is an important element in good animal care. The animal
facility must be designed and constructed in accordance with all
applicable state and local building codes.

PHYSICAL RELATIONSHIP OF ANIMAL FACILITIES TO LABORATORIES

Good animal husbandry and human comfort and health
protection require separation of animal facilities from personnel
areas such as offices, conference rooms, and most laboratories.
This separation can be accomplished by having the animal quarters
in a separate building, wing, floor, or room. In designing
animal facilities, efficiency and economy in utilizing
researchers' time should be taken into consideration, as well as
research needs. Careful planning should make it possible to
place animal housing areas adjacent to or near laboratories, but
separated from them by barriers such as entry locks, corridors,
or floors. Modular units, such as specially designed trailers or
prefabricated structures, should be in accord with the
construction guidelines described later in this chapter.

If animals must be maintained in a laboratory area to
satisfy a research protocol, the area must be appropriately
prepared to house and care for the animals. Animals should not
be housed in laboratories merely for convenience.

FUNCTIONAL AREAS

The size and nature of a facility will determine whether areas
for separate service functions are possible or necessary.
Sufficient animal area is required to:

ensure separation of species or isolation of individual
projects when necessary;
receive, quarantine, and isolate animals; and
provide for animal housing.

In facilities that are small, maintain few animals, or
maintain animals under special conditions (e.g., facilities
exclusively used for housing germfree colonies or animals in runs
and pens), some functional areas listed below could be
unnecessary or included in a multipurpose area. Professional
judgement must be exercised when developing a practical system
for animal care. Generally, facilities should make provisions
for the following service functions:

specialized laboratories or individual areas contiguous
with or near animal housing areas for such activities as surgery,
intensive care, necropsy, radiography, preparation of special
diets, experimental manipulation, treatment, and diagnostic
laboratory procedures
containment facilities or equipment, if hazardous
biological, physical, or chemical agents are to be used
receiving and storage areas for food, bedding,
pharmaceuticals and biologics, and supplies
space for administration, supervision, and direction of
the facility
showers, sinks, lockers, and toilets for personnel
an area for washing and sterilizing equipment and supplies
and, depending on the volume of work, machines for washing cages,
bottles, glassware, racks, and waste cans; a utility sink; an
autoclave for equipment, food, and bedding; and separate areas
for holding soiled and clean equipment
an area for repairing cages and equipment
an area to store wastes prior to incineration or removal

CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES

Building materials should be selected to facilitate
efficient and hygienic operation of animal facilities. Durable,
moisture-proof, fire-resistant, seamless materials are most
desirable for interior surfaces. Paints and glazes, in addition
to being highly resistant to the effects of chemical solvents,
cleaning agents, and scrubbing, should be highly resistant to the
effects of high pressure sprays and impact. They should be
nontoxic if used on surfaces that come into direct contact with
animals.

Corridors

Corridors should be wide enough to facilitate the movement
of personnel and equipment. Experience has shown that 7 ft (2.1
m) is a practical width for corridors in most facilities.
Floor-wall junctions should be covered to facilitate cleaning.
Curbs, guardrails, or bumpers should be installed to protect
walls from damage, and exposed corners should be reinforced with
steel or other durable material. Corridors leading to dog
kennels should be provided with noise traps, such as double-door
entry locks. Wherever possible, such utilities as water lines,
drainpipes, and electrical connections should be accessible
through service panels or shafts in corridors outside the animal
rooms.

Animal Room Doors

Doors should open into animal rooms; however, if it is
necessary that they open toward a corridor, there should be
recessed vestibules. Metal or metal-covered doors with viewing
windows are preferable. Experience has shown that doors of at
least 42 in (106.7 cm) wide and 84 in (213.4 cm) high are
suitable for passage of racks and equipment. They should fit
tightly within their frames, and both doors and frames should be
completely sealed to prevent the entrance or harboring of vermin.

Self-sealing sweep strips are desirable. Doors should be
equipped with locks and kickplates and be self-closing. Recessed
or shielded handles and locks are recommended.

Exterior Windows

Exterior windows and skylights are not recommended in animal
rooms because they can contribute to unacceptable variations in
environmental characteristics such as temperature and
photoperiod.

Floors

Floors should be smooth, moistureproof, nonabsorbent, and
skid-proof, and be resistant to wear, acid, solvents, and adverse
effects of detergents and disinfectants. They should be capable
of supporting racks, equipment, and stored items without becoming
gouged, cracked, or pitted, Depending on the functions performed
in specific areas, floor materials should be monolithic, or have
a minimum number of joints. Some materials that have proved
satisfactory are epoxy aggregates, smooth hard-surfaced concrete,
and special hardened rubber-base aggregates. Other synthetic
products might also be satisfactory. A continuous moisture-proof
membrane might be needed. If sills are installed at the entrance
to a room, they should be designed to allow for convenient
passage of equipment.

Drains

Floor drains might not be essential in all animal rooms,
particularly those housing rodents. Floors in such rooms can be
maintained satisfactorily by wet vacuuming or mopping with
appropriate disinfectants or cleaning compounds. If floor drains
are used, the floors should be sloped and drain traps kept filled
with water. To prevent high humidity, drainage must be adequate
to allow rapid removal of water and drying of surfaces (Gorton
and Besch, 1974). Drainpipes should be at least 4 in (10.2 cm)
in diameter. The recommended minimum pitch of sloped floors is
0.25 in/ft (2.1 cm/m). In heavy-as areas, such as dog kennels,
rim flush drains at least 6 in (15.2 cm) in diameter are
recommended. A rim flush drain or heavy duty disposal unit set
in the floor is an effective aid for the disposal of solid waste.

A porous trap bucket in the drain can also be used to screen out
solid waste. All drainpipes should have short runs to the main
or be steeply pitched from the floor. When drains are not in use
they should be capped and sealed to prevent backflow of sewer
gases and other contaminants. Lockable drain covers are
advisable for preventing the use of the drains for disposal of
materials that should be cleaned up and removed by other means.

Walls

Walls should be free of cracks, unsealed utility
penetrations, or imperfect junctions with doors, ceilings, floors
and corners. Surface materials should be capable of withstanding
scrubbing with detergents and disinfectants and the impact of
water under high pressure. Walls should be protected from damage
by movable equipment.

Ceilings

Ceilings should be smooth, moisture-proof, and free of
imperfect junctions. Surface materials should be capable of
withstanding scrubbing with detergents and disinfectants.
Ceilings of plaster or fire-proof plaster-board should be sealed
and finished with a washable paint. Ceilings formed by the
concrete floor above are satisfactory, if properly smoothed,
sealed, and painted. Generally, suspended ceilings are
undesirable unless they are fabricated from impervious materials
and free of imperfect junctions. Exposed pipes and fixtures are
undesirable.

Temperature and Humidity Control

Temperature and humidity control prevents variations due to
changing climatic conditions or differences in the number and
kind of room occupants. Air conditioning is an effective means
of regulating these environmental parameters. Ideally,
capability should be provided to allow individual adjustments in
dry-bulb temperatures of +1C (+2F) within the range of
approximately 18 to 29C (64.4 to 84.2F), which includes the
temperature ranges recommended for common laboratory animals (see
Chapter 2, Table 2-2). The relative humidity should be
controllable within the range of 30% to 70% throughout the year,
depending on dry-bulb temperature and the needs of the species
housed, The range of temperature and humidity adjustments can be
reduced in institutions in which the entire animal facility or
extensive portions thereof are designed for species with similar
requirements. Each animal room or group of rooms service a
common purpose should have controls for regulating dry-bulb
temperature.

Ventilation

Ventilation requirements for laboratory animals are
discussed in Chapter 2. In renovating existing or in building
new animal facilities, consideration should be given to the
ventilation of the animals' primary enclosures.

Equipment reliability is very important. Heating,
ventilating, and air-conditioning systems should be designed so
that operation can be continued, even at reduced capacity, in
event of failure of the primary system. A means of monitoring
the system should be established. The animal facility and human
occupancy areas should be ventilated separately (Besch, 1980).

Power and Lighting

The electrical system should be safe and provide appropriate
lighting and a sufficient number of power outlets. In rooms
where explosive anesthetics are used, outlets should be
explosion-proof and located at least 5 ft (1.32 m) off the floor.
Moisture-proof switches and outlets should be installed where
water is used in cleaning.

It is suggested that a lighting system be installed that
provides adequate illumination while people are working in the
animal rooms and a lowered intensity of light of the animals (see
Chapter 2). Light fixtures should be properly sealed to prevent
harboring vermin and either surface mounted on or recessed in the
ceiling. Fluorescent lights are efficient and available in a
variety of acceptable fixtures. A time-controlled lighting
system should be used to ensure a regular diurnal lighting cycle.
Timer performance should be checked regularly to ensure proper
cycling. Emergency power should be available in the event of a
power failure.

Storage Areas

A separate vermin-proof area or room in which food and
bedding can be stored should be available. This space can be
held to a minimum in areas where delivery schedules are reliable.
Food and other storage areas should be separated from refuse
areas (see Chapter 2).

Refrigerated storage, separated from other cold storage, is
essential for storage of dead animals and animal tissue waste.
This storage area should be kept below 7C (44.6F) to reduce
putrefaction of wastes or animal carcasses. The ares should be
so constructed that it can be kept clean and free of vermin.

Adequate space is required for storage of unused equipment.
This area should be built so that it can be kept clean and free
of vermin.

Noise Control

Noise control is an important consideration in designing an
animal facility (see Chapter 2). Concrete walls are more
effective than metal or plaster walls in containing noise because
their density reduces sound transmission. The elimination of
windows also helps to control sound. Generally, acoustical
materials applied directly to the ceiling or as part of a
suspended ceiling of an animal room, presents problems in
sanitation and vermin control and is not recommended. However,
newer sound-attenuating materials bonded to walls or ceilings
might be appropriate for noise control. Experience has shown
that well-constructed corridor doors (e.g. double-door air locks)
can help control the transmission of noise along hallways.

Facilities for Sanitizing Equipment and Supplies

An area for sanitizing cages and ancillary equipment is
essential. It is best if there is a central area specifically
designed for the purpose. Consideration should be given to such
factors are the following:

location with respect to animal rooms and storage areas;
ease of access, including doors wide enough to ensure free
movement of equipment;
traffic flow that separates "clean" and "dirty" areas;
sound-proofing;
insulation of walls and ceilings where necessary;
utilities such as hot and cold water, steam, floor drains,
and electrical power; and
ventilation, including installation of proper vents and
provision for dissipation of steam and fumes from sanitizing
processes.

ASEPTIC SURGERY

Functional areas for aseptic surgery should include a
separate surgical support area, a preparation area, the operating
room or rooms, and an area for intensive care and supportive
treatment of animals. The interior surfaces of this facility
should be constructed of materials that are impervious to
moisture and easily cleaned. The surgical support area should be
designed for storing instruments and supplies and for washing and
sterilizing instruments. Items that are used on a regular basis,
such as anesthetic machines and suture materials, can be stored
in the operating room.

There should be a separate surgical preparation area for
animals. An area equipped with surgical sinks should be close
to, but apart from, the operating room. A dressing area should
be provided for personnel to change into surgical attire.

If explosive anesthetic agents are to be used, floors should
be conductive and outlets should be explosion-proof and located
not less than 5 ft (1.52 m) off the floor. Provision should be
made for scavenging or exhausting waste gases from anesthesia
machines. Explosion-proof hoods are preferable if volatile,
explosive agents like ether are to be used. Consideration should
be given to providing positive air pressure in the operating room
to reduce contamination.

A separate facility for rodent surgery is not necessary. A
rodent surgical area can be a room or portion of a room that is
easily sanitized and not used for any other purpose during the
time of surgery.

REFERENCES

Besch, E.L. 1980. Environmental quality within animal
facilities. Lab. Anim. Sci. 30(2, Part II):385-406.
Gorton, R.L., and E.L. Besch. 1974. Air temperature and humidity
response to cleaning water loads in laboratory animal storage
facilities. ASHRAE Trans. 80:37-52.

5

Special Considerations

GENETICS AND NOMENCLATURE

Genetic characteristics are among the most important factors
to be considered in selecting animals for use in biomedical
research. Inbred strains of various species, especially rodents,
have been developed to address specific research needs (Festing,
1979; Gill, 1980). The homozygosity of these animals must be
maintained to ensure the reproducibility and comparability of
experimental data. Management systems (Green, 1981) should be
designed to minimize genetic drift and genetic contamination
resulting from mutation or mismating. It is important to monitor
inbred animals periodically for genetic homozygosity (Festing,
1982). Several methods of monitoring have been developed that
use immunological, biochemical, and morphometric parameters
(Groen, 1977; Festing and Lovell, 1980; Festing and Totman, 1980;
Hoffman et al., 1980; Cramer, 1983).

Outbred animals are also used in biomedical research (Gill,
1980). To facilitate direct comparison of research data derived
from outbred stocks, these animals must be maintained by breeding
schemes designed to maximize genetic heterogeneity (Poiley, 1960;
Festing et al., 1972).

Accurate identification, using standardized nomenclature
where it is available, and recording both the strain and
substrain of the genetic background of all animals used in a
research project are important (ILAR, 1979). Several
publications provide rules developed by international committees
for standardized nomenclature for outbred rodents and rabbits
(Festing et al., 1972), inbred rats (Festing and Staats, 1973;
Gill, 1984), and inbred mice (International Committee on
Standardized Genetic Nomenclature for Mice, 1981a,b,c).

FACILITIES AND PROCEDURES FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH WITH HAZARDOUS
AGENTS

Special features and safety equipment are needed to protect
the animal care staff, other occupants of the facility,
laboratory animals, and the environment from exposure to
hazardous biological, chemical, and physical agents used in
animal experimentation. Hazardous agents should be contained
within the study environment. Ventilated hoods and animal caging
systems that minimize the escape of contaminants are primary
barriers used to contain hazardous materials. Special features,
such as air locks, negative air pressure, and air filters are
secondary barriers designed to protect against the accidental
release outside the facility. However, special safety features
are not substitutes for appropriate management and safe
practices. Rather, they are complementary. As a general rule,
safety depends on trained personnel, who rigorously follow safe
practices.

Facilities for laboratory animals sued for experimentation
with hazardous agents should be physically separate from other
animal housing and support areas, research and clinical
laboratories, and facilities that provide patient care. These
areas should be appropriately identified and access to them
limited to authorized personnel. Such facilities should be
designed and constructed to facilitate cleaning and housekeeping.
A properly managed double corridor facility is very useful in
reducing cross contamination (Sansone and Losikoff, 1979). Floor
drains should be installed only when clearly needed. If floor
drains are installed, the drain trap should always contain water
or the drain should be effectively sealed by other means.
Automatic trap priming can be provided to ensure that traps
remain filled.

In selecting specific safeguards for animal experimentation
with hazardous agents, careful attention should be given to
procedures for animal care and housing, agent storage and
disbursement, dosage preparation and administration, waste and
carcass disposal management, and personnel protection.

Experimental animals should be housed so that potentially
contaminated food, feces, urine, and bedding can be handled in a
controlled manner. The selection of appropriate animal caging
systems and ventilated cabinets or hoods requires professional
knowledge and judgement and depends on the nature of the
hazardous agents under study, type of animal used, and design of
the experiment. Ventilated cabinets or hoods should be used for
handling and administering hazardous agents and for necropsying
contaminated animals.

Animal care personnel should wear laboratory-issued
outerwear consisting of a fully fastened jumpsuit or its
equivalent, shoes or shoe covers, head covers, and gloves of
suitable material. Clean clothing should be provided as
frequently as necessary. Personnel should be encouraged to
shower when they leave the animal care or dosage preparation
areas. Under no circumstances should protective clothing and
equipment be worn beyond the boundary of the animal facility.
Personnel working in areas where exposure to potentially
contaminated airborne particulate material or vapors might occur
should be provided with suitable respiratory protection.

Recommended practices and procedures for work with some
hazardous chemicals are described in the NIH Guidelines for the
Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens (NIH, 1981). The CDC/NIH
(1984) publication Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical
Laboratories recommends practices and procedures, safety
equipment, and facility requirements for working with hazardous
biological agents. Guidelines for working with recombinant DNA
molecules have been prepared by NIH (1984).

In addition to the recommendations in Chapter 1, there
should be appropriate methods of monitoring exposure to
potentially hazardous biological, chemical and physical agents
(NIOSH, 1977-1979; CFR, 1984a,b). Protective devices and other
appropriate safety measures should be consistent with modern
practices.

FARM ANIMALS

Farm animals used in biomedical research, including cattle,
sheep, goats, swine, and fowl, can be housed in conventional
laboratory animal facilities, in hazardous agent containment
facilities, or on farms. The factors, criteria, and
consideration for caging and housing discussed in Chapter 2 apply
to farm animals; however, animals on farms may be housed under
less stringent conditions. This section deals with housing and
management of biomedical research animals on farms.

In general, housing and management practices should be
designed to provide optimal animal care. A basic requirement is
protection against environmental extremes. In determining
optimal care, the criterion should be animal well-being rather
than the mere ability to survive and produce under adverse
conditions such as climatic extremes or high population
densities.

Thermal environment has a strong influence on farm animals.
Physiological responses to the environment, thermoregulation,
adaption, and temperature zones have been reviewed by Hafez
(1968), Folk (1974), and Monteith and Mount (1974). There is no
standard temperature at which livestock must be maintained. In
determining the appropriate temperatures for farm animals,
numerous factors other than the dry bulb temperature should be
considered, including age, weight, feeding level, experience
(acclimatization), and husbandry. Ideally, the thermal
environment should be viewed in terms of effective ambient
temperature (NRC, 1981), which combines consideration of other
climatic events such as wind, precipitation, humidity, and
radiation. Recommendations for thermocomfort and thermoneutral
zones, upper and lower critical temperatures, and lethal
temperatures for several species have been reported by Webster
(1974) and Sainsbury and Sainsbury (1979). Estimates of lower
critical temperatures for sheep, cattle, swine, and poultry have
been summarized (NRC, 1981).

For maximum performance and physiological stability, animals
should be maintained in their thermocomfort zone - the
temperature range at which animals should no particular
preference for any specific location to keep warm or cool
(Sainsbury and Sainsbury, 1979). If this is not possible at all
times, at least they should be maintained in the thermoneutral
zone when housed indoors and most of the time when housed
outdoors. If the temperature falls below the lower critical
temperature, animals will need to eat more, change their behavior
(e.g., postural changes, huddling), change their hair disposition
(piloerection), and reduce surface blood circulation to keep
warm. If the temperature goes above the upper critical
temperature, animals attempt to reduce heat production by
lowering food consumption and productivity and by perspiring and
panting.

There are several acceptable systems for holding animals on
farms. These range from minimum protection (climatic housing) to
total environmental control. The selection of the appropriate
environment depends upon such factors as research and husbandry
objectives; species, breed, age, and pelage or feathers; and
climate.

Climatic housing can be outdoor or indoor and should provide
animals the opportunity to protect themselves from wind,
precipitation, and sun. Such housing is most suitable in
moderate climates and for adult animals that have had sufficient
opportunity to adapt to climatic stress. It can be used
satisfactorily to house animals in cold climates if proper
consideration is given to prevailing wind direction and if the
drainage and bedding used are adequate to keep the animals warm
and dry. Climatic housing in cold climates is most appropriate
for cattle, sheep, horses, some fowl, and adult swine. In
temperate climates, it is often possible to confine animals to
paddocks or pastures without shelter other than that provided by
trees, terrain, wind fences or sun shades. Shade should be
provided in feedlots and pastures in areas where summer
temperatures reach 29.4C (85F) or higher.

Loose housing of farm animals is defined as enclosed or
partially enclosed buildings without powered ventilation or
supplementary heat. Often animals are permitted unrestricted
movement to larger outside pens or paddocks.

In environmentally controlled systems, the macro- and
micro-environment are regulated as completely as required for the
particular species. For animals housed indoors, provisions
should be made for minimizing horizontal drafts; removal of moist
air, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide; building
insulation or supplementary heat, when appropriate; adequate
sanitation; and waste disposal. Controlled environmental housing
can be used for all animals, but it is especially appropriate for
young animals, bedded animals, and livestock requiring light
control.

Design criteria and choice of construction materials for
livestock housing should meet the needs for the specific research
and management practices. To the extent possible, all material
used for indoor facilities should be impervious to moisture,
insects, and vermin. Concrete and metal are the preferred
building materials. Wood can be satisfactory, but it must be
properly painted and sealed if extensive cleaning and
disinfection procedures are to be carried out. Adequate drainage
if often difficult to obtain without concrete floors and paved
lots. Large outdoor holding paddocks should have paved surfaces
along the areas of greatest animal traffic, such as in front of
buildings. Feeding and watering areas should be paved or mounded
to keep animals as dry and clean as possible. Floors and other
paved surfaces should have textures that minimize slipping and
possible injury. Fencing should be properly maintained to
prevent injury. Ruminants require a resting area either in a
well-drained outside area or bedded shelter. Control of air,
temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, moisture, dust,
light, gas accumulation, odors, space, and manure become of
increasing concern in shifting from climatic housing to a totally
controlled environment.

When animals are fed in groups, there should be sufficient
trough space or feeding points to avoid undue competition for
feed, especially if feed is restricted. Feeding space is
determined by the size and number of animals that must eat at one
time (Table 5-1). When animals are pastured, hay may be
scattered on the ground. When they are more restricted, forage
should be provided in a well-designed rack. This results in
better forage utilization and minimizes transmission of disease
agents and parasites.

An adequate water supply is also essential. Water sources
should be easily accessible to animals of all ages. In cold
climates, water sources should be protected or equipped with
heating devices to prevent freezing. Feed and water equipment
should be constructed of materials that can be easily and
effectively cleaned.

Additional information regarding facilities and management
of agricultural animals can be obtained from the Midwest Plan
Service Structures and Environment Handbook (Structures and
Environment Subcommittee, 1983) and from agricultural engineers
or animal science experts at state agricultural extension
services and land grant colleges and universities.

TABLE 5-1. Suggested Minimum Feeder Space for
Grouped Farm Animals
Ad Libitum Feeding
Ration Silage Grain or
Feeding or Hay Supplement Animals per
Species [cm (in)] [cm (in)] [cm (in)] Feeder Space
Per Animal
Cattle
270 kg 46-55 (18-22) 10-15 (4-6) 7-10 (3-4)
270 kg -ad 55-66 (22-36) 10-15 (4-6) 7-10 (3-4)
Adult 66-76 (26-30) 10-15 (4-6) 7-10 (3-4)

Sheep and Goats
Lambs, kids 23-30 (9-12) 10 (4)
Adults, sm 30-40 (12-16) 10-15 (4-6)
large 40-50 (16-20) 15-20 (6-8)

Swine
5-14 kg 15-20 (6-8) 2
4-23 kg 20-25 (8-10) 3
23-34 kg 25-30 (10-12) 4
34-90 kg 30-40 (12-16) 4-5
Adult 50-60 (20-24) 5

Per 100 Birds
Chickens
0-3 wk 244 (96)
3-6 wk 305 (120)
6-12 wk 366 (144)
12-16 wk 488 (192)
16-20 wk 762 (300)
Adult 914 (360)

Turkeys
0-4 wk 762 (300)
4-16 wk 1,219 (480)
16-24 wk 1,524 (600)

Data from Larson, 1976 and Structures and Environment
Subcommittee, 1983.

Dimensions refer to linear centimeters (inches) of trough.

REFERENCES

CDC/NIH (Centers for Disease Control and National Institutes of
Health). 1984. Bio-safety in Microbiological and Biomedical
Laboratories. DHHS Pub. No. (CDC) 84-8395. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 100 pp.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984a. Title 10; Part 20,
Standards for Protection Against Radiation. Washington, DC:
Office of the Federal Register.
CFR (Code of Federal Regulations). 1984b. Title 29; Part 1910,
Occupational Safety and Health Standards; Subpart G, Occupation
Health and Environmental Control, and Subpart Z, Toxic and
Hazardous Substances. Washington, DC: Office of the Federal
Register.
Cramer, D.V. 1983. Genetic monitoring techniques in rats. ILAR
News 26(4):15-19.
Festing, M.F.W. 1979. Inbred Strains in Biomedical Research.
London: Macmillan Press. 433 pp.
Festing, M.F.W., and D.P. Lovell. 1980. Routine genetic
monitoring of commercial and other mouse colonies in the U.K.
using mandible shape; five years of experience. Pp. 341-348 in
Animal Quality and Models in Biomedical Research, A. Spiegel,
S. Erichsen, and H.A. Solleveld, eds. Stuttgart: Gustav
Fischer Verlag.
Festing, M., and J. Staats. 1973. Standardized nomenclature for
inbred strains of rats. Fourth listing. Transplantation
12(3):221-245.
Festing, M.F.W., and P. Totman. 1980. Polyvalent strain-specific
alloantisera as tools for routine genetic quality control of
inbred and congenic strains of rats and mice. Lab. Animal
(London) 14(2):173-177.
Festing, M.F.W., K. Kondo, R. Loosli, S.M. Poiley, and A.
Spiegel. 1972. International standardized nomenclature for
outbred stocks of laboratory animals. ICLA Bull. 30:4-17.
Folk, G. E., Jr., 1974. Textbook of Environmental Physiology.
Second ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 465 pp.
Gill, T.J. 1980. The use of randomly bred and genetically defined
animals in biomedical research. Am. J. Pathol. 101(3S):S21-S32.
Gill, T.J., III. 1984. Nomenclature of alloantigenic systems in
the rat. ILAR News 27(3):11-12.
Green, E.L. 1981. Genetics and Probability in Animals Breeding
Experiments. New York: Oxford University Press. 271 pp.
Groen, A. 1977. Identification and genetic monitoring of mouse
inbred strains using biomedical polymorphisms. Lab. Anim.
(London) II(4):209-214.
Hafez, E.S.E., ed. 1968. Adaptation of Domestic Animals.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 415 pp.
Hoffman, H.A., K.T. Smith, J.S. Crowell, T. Nomura, and T.
Tomita. 1980. Genetic quality control of laboratory animals
with emphasis on genetic monitoring. Pp. 307-317 in Animal
quality and Models in Biomedical Research, A. Spiegel, S.
Erichsen, and H.A. Solleveld, eds. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer
Verlag.
ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources). 1979. Laboratory
animal management: Genetics. ILAR News 23(1):A1-A16.
International Committee on Standardized Genetic Nomenclature for
Mice. 1981a. Rules and guidelines for gene nomenclature. Pp. 1-
7 in Genetic Variants and Strains of the Laboratory Mouse, M.C.
Green, ed. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
International Committee on Standardized Genetic Nomenclature for
Mice. 1981b. Rules for nomenclature of chromosome anomalies.
Pp. 314-316 in Genetic Variants and Strains of the Laboratory
Mouse, M.C. Green, ed. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.
International Committee on Standardized Genetic Nomenclature for
Mice. 1981c. Rules for nomenclature of inbred strains. Pp. 368-
372 in Genetic Variants and Strains of the Laboratory Mouse, M.
C. Green, ed. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.
Larson, R.E., and R.O. Hegg. 1976. Feedlot and Ranch Equipment
for Beef Cattle. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1584. Washington, DC:
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
20 pp.
Monteith, J.L., and L.E. Mount, eds. 1974. Heat Loss from
Animals and Man: Assessment and Control. London: Butterworths.
457 pp.
NIH (National Institutes of Health). 1981. NIH Guidelines for the
Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens. NIH Pub. No. 81-2385.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
NIH (National Institutes of Health). 1984. Guidelines for
research involving recombinant DNA molecules. Fed. Regist.
49(227):46266-46291.
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health).
1977-1979. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods. Second ed.,
Vols. 1-5. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare.
NRC (National Research Council). 1981. Effect of Environment on
Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals. A report of the
Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on
Environment Stress, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press. 152 pp.
Poiley, S.M. 1960. A systematic method of breeder rotation for
non-inbred laboratory animal colonies. Proc. Anim. Care Panel
10(4):159-166.
Sainsbury, D., and P. Sainsbury. 1979. Livestock Health and
Housing. London: Bailliere Tindall. 388 pp.
Sansone, E.B., and A.M. Losikoff. 1979. Potential contamination
from feeding test chemicals in carcinogen bioassay research:
Evaluation of single- and double-corridor animal housing
facilities. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 50:115-121.
Structures and Environment Subcommittee, Midwest Plan Service.
1983. Midwest Plan Service Structures and Environment Handbook.
Eleventh ed. Ames: Iowa State University.
Webster, A.J.F. 1974. Heat loss from cattle with particular
emphasis on the effects of cold. Pp. 205-231 in Heat Loss from
Animals and Man: Assessment and Control, J.L. Monteith and L.E.
Mount, eds. London: Butterworths.

APPENDIX A

Selected Bibliography

SERIAL PUBLICATIONS

Advances in Veterinary Science. Vols. 1-12. 1953-1968.
New York: Academic Press.
Advances in Veterinary Science and Comparative Medicine (annual,
continuation of Advances in Veterinary Science). New York:
Academic Press.
American Journal of Pathology (monthly). Philadelphia: American
Association of Pathologists.
American Journal of Primatology (quarterly). New York: Alan R.
Liss.
Animal Models of Human Disease: A Handbook. Washington, DC: The
Registry of Comparative Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of
Pathology.
Current Primate References (monthly). Seattle: Washington
Regional Primate Research Center, University of Washington.
Folia Primatologica (International Journal of Primatology).
Basel: S. Karger AG.
ILAR News (quarterly). Washington, DC: Institute of Laboratory
Animal Resources, National Research Council.
International Zoo Yearbook (annual). London: Zoological Society
of London.
Journal, The Institute of Animal Technicians (quarterly).
Herefordshire, England: the Institute of Animal Technicians.
Mailing address: 21 Glebe Road, Welywyn, Herefordshire,
England.
Journal of Medical Primatology (bi-monthly). New York: Alan R.
Liss.
Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine (quarterly). Atlanta: American
Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Emory University.
Laboratory Animal Science (bi-monthly). Joliet, Illinois:
American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. Mailing
address: 2317 W. Jefferson Street, Suite 208, Joliet, IL
60435.
Laboratory Animals (quarterly). Journal of the Laboratory Animal
Science Association. London: Laboratory Animals Ltd. Mailing
address: The Registered Office, Laboratory Animals Ltd., 1
Thrifts Mead, Theydon Bois, Essex, CM16 7NF, United Kingdom.
Laboratory Primate Newsletter (quarterly). Providence, Rhode
Island: Primate Behavior Laboratory, Brown University.
Mouse News Letter (semiannual). Available to the western
hemisphere and Japan from The Jackson laboratory, Bar Harbor,
ME 04609; available to other locations from Mrs. A. Wilcox,
MRC Experimental Embryology and Teratology Unit, Woodmansterne
Road, Carshalton, Surrey SM5 4EF, England.
Primates: A Journal of Primatology (quarterly). Aichi, Japan:
Japan Monkey Centre. Mailing address: 26 Kanrin, Inuyama,
Aichi, Japan.
Rat News Letter (semiannual). Available from Dr. D.V. Cramer,
ed., Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of
Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261.
Zeitschrift fuer Versuchstierkunde (quarterly). Jena, German
Democratic Republic: Gustav Fischer Verlag.

GENERAL REFERENCES
(concerning more than one species or subject)

Animal Models in Dental Research. J.M. Navia. 1977. University,
Alabama: University of Alabama Press. 466 pp.
Animal Models of Thrombosis and Hemorrhagic Diseases. Institute
of Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Animal Models for
Thrombosis and Hemorrhagic Diseases. 1976. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH)
76-982. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare. (Available from the Institute of Laboratory
Animal Resources, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution
Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20418).
Animals for Medical Research: Models for the Study of Human
Disease. B.M. Mitruka, H.M. Rawnsley, and D.V. Vadehra. 1976.
New York: John Wiley and Sons. 591 pp.
Animals for Research: Principles of Breeding and Management.
W. Lane-Petter, ed. 1963. New York: Academic Press. 531 pp.
An Atlas of Laboratory Animal Haematology. J.H. Sanderson and
C.E. Phillips. 1981. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 473 pp.
The Behavior of Domestic Animals. 2nd ed. E.S.E. Hafez, ed.,
1969. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. 662 pp.
Bibliography of Induced Animal Models of Human Disease. G.
Hegreberg and C. Leathers, eds. 1981. Pullman: Washington State
University. 304 pp. (Available from Students Book Corporation,
N.E. 700 Thatuna Street, Pullman, WA 99163).
Bibliography of Naturally Occurring Animal Models of Human
Disease. G. Hegreberg and C. Leathers, eds. 1981. Pullman:
Washington State University. 146 pp. (Available from Students
Book Corporation, N.E. 700 Thatuna Street, Pullman, WA 99163).
Biology Data Book. 2nd ed. P.L. Altman and D.S. Dittmer. Vol. 1,
1971, 606 pp.; Vol 2, 1973, 1432 pp.; Vol. 3, 1974, 2123 pp.
Bethesda, Maryland: Federation of American Societies for
Experimental Biology.
The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents. 2nd ed. J.E.
Harkness and J.E. Wagner. 1983. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
210 pp.
Clinical Chemistry of Laboratory Animals. W.F. Loeb and F.W.
Quimby. In press. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Clinical Laboratory Animal Medicine. D.D. Holmes. 1984. Ames,
Iowa: IOWA State University Press. 138 pp.
Cost Analysis and Rate Setting Manual for Animal Resource
Facilities. Animal Resources Program (ARP), Division of
Research Resources (DRR), National Institutes of Health (NIH).
1979 revised. NIH Pub. No. 80-2006. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 115 pp. (Available
from ARP, DRR, NIH, Building 31, Room 5B59, Bethesda, Maryland
20205).
Environmental and genetic factors affecting laboratory animals:
Impact on biomedical research. Introduction. C.M. Lang and
E.S. Vesell. 1976. Fed. Proc. 35:1123-1124.
Frozen Storage of Laboratory Animals. G.H. Zeilmaker, ed., 1981.
Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer. 193 pp.
Fur, laboratory and zoo animals. O.H. Siegmund. 1979. Pages
1155-1262, Part IV, in The Merck Veterinary Manual. 5th ed.
Rahway, New Jersey: Merck and Co., Inc.
The Future of Animals, Cells, Models, and Systems in Research,
Development, Education and Testing. ILAR (Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources). 1977. Proceedings of a symposium
organized by an ILAR committee. Washington, DC: National
Academy of Sciences. 341 pp.
Jones' Animal Nursing. 3rd ed. D.R. Lane, ed., 1980. Oxford:
Pergamon Press. 605 pp.
Laboratory Animal Medicine. J.G. Fox, B.J. Cohen, and F.M. Loew,
eds., 1984. New York: Academic Press. 750 pp.(1).
Laboratory Animal Welfare. National Library of Medicine (NLM)
Specialized Bibliography Series. Compiled by F.P. Gluckstein.
1984. SBS No. 1984-1. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services. 85 citations; 18 pp. (Available from
Reference Services Division, NLM, Bethesda, MD 20209).
Laboratory Animal Welfare: Supplement 1. National Library of
Medicine (NLM) Specialized Bibliography Series. Compiled by
F.P. Gluckstein. 1985. SBS No. 1985-1. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services. 31 citations; 6 pp.
(Available from Reference Services Division, NLM, Bethesda, MD
20209).
Laboratory Animals: An Annotated Bibliography of Informational
Resources Covering Medicine-Science (Including Husbandry)-
Technology. J.S. Cass, ed., 1971. New York: Hafner Publishing.
446 pp.
Mamalian Models for Research on Aging. NRC (National Research
Council). 1981. A report of the Institute of Laboratory Animal
Resources Committee on Animal Models for Research on Aging.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 587 pp.
The Management of Wild Mammals in Captivity. L.S. Crandall. 1964.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 761.pp.
Methods of Animal Experimentation. W.I. Gay, ed. Vol. 1, 1965,
382 pp.; Vol. 2, 1965, 608 pp.; Vol. 3, 1968, 469 pp.; Vol. 4,
1973, 384 pp.; Vol. 5, 1974, 400 pp.; Vol. 6, 1981, 365 pp.
New York Academy Press.
Of Mice, Models, and Men: A Critical Evaluation of Animal
Research. A.N. Rowan. 1984. Albany, New York: State University
of New York Press. 323 pp.
Pheromones and Reproduction in Mammals. J.G. Vandenberg, ed.
1983. New York: Academic Press. 298 pp.
Practical Guide to Laboratory Animals. C.S.F. Williams. 1976.
St. Louis: C.V. Mosby. 207 pp.
Principles of Pharmacology: Mosby's Fundamentals of Animal Health
Technology R. Giovanoni, ed. 1983. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby.

(Footnote 1: Academic Press is now located in Orlando,
Florida.)

Recent Advances in Germfree Research. S. Sasaki, A. Ozawa, and
K. Hashimoto, eds. 1981. Tokyo: Tokai University Press. 776 pp.
Reproduction and Breeding Techniques for Laboratory Animals.
E.S.E. Hafez, ed. 1970. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 275 pp.
Restraint of Animals. 2nd ed. J.R. Leahy and P. Barrow. 1953.
Ithaca, New York: Cornell Campus Store. 269 pp.
Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals. M.E.
Fowler. 1978. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 332 pp.
Roentgen Techniques in Laboratory Animals. B. Felson. 1968.
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 245 pp.
Scientific Perspective on Animal Welfare. W.J. Dodds and F.B.
Orlans, eds. 1982. New York: Academic Press. 131 pp.
Spontaneous Animal Models of Human Disease. E.J. Andrews, D.C.
Ward, and N.H. Altman, eds. 1979. Vol. 1, 322 pp.; Vol. 2, 324
pp. New York: Academic Press.
The UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management of Laboratory
Animals. 5th ed. UFAW (Universities Federation for Animal
Welfare), ed. 1976. New York: Churchill Livingstone. 635 pp.
Veterinary Hematology. 3rd ed. O.W. Schalm, N.C. Jain, and E.J.
Carroll. 1975. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 807 pp.
Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine. M.E. Fowler. 1978. Philadelphia:
W.B. Saunders. 951 pp.

REFERENCES ON SPECIFIC LABORATORY ANIMALS

Cats and Dogs

Anatomy of the Dog. M.E. Miller, C. Christensen, and H.E. Evans.
1964. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 941 pp.
The Beagle as an Experimental dog. A.C. Andersen, ed. 1970.
Ames: Iowa State University Press. 616 pp.
The Canine as a Biomedical Research Model: Immunological,
Hematological, and Oncological Aspects. M. Shifrine and F.D.
Wilson, eds. 1980. Washington, DC: Technical Information
Center, U.S. Department of Energy. 425 pp. (Available as report
no. DOE/TIC-10191 from National Technical Information Service,
U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA 22161).
Laboratory Animal Management: Cats. ILAR (Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources) Committee on Cats. 1978. ILAR News
21(3):C1-C20.

Domestic Animals

The Biology of the Pig. W.G. Pond and K.A. Houpt. 1978. Ithaca,
New York: Comstock Publishing. 371 pp.
The Calf. Management and feeding. 3rd ed. J.H.B. Roy. 1970.
University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 183 pp.
The Calf. Nutrition and Health. 3rd ed. J.H.B. Roy. 1970.
University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 164 pp.
The Care and Management of Farm Animals. 2nd ed. W.N. Scott,
ed. 1978. London: Bailliere Tindall. 254 pp.
Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. 2nd ed. J.J. Kancko
and C.E. Cornelius, eds. Vol. 1, 1970, 439 pp.; Vol. 2 1971,
352 pp.
Domesticated Farm Animals in Medical Research. R.E. Doyle, S.
Garb, L.E. Davis, D. K. Meyer, and F.W. Clayton. 1968. Ann.
N.Y. Acad. Sci. 147:129-204.
Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals. 9th rev. ed. M.J. Swenson,
ed. 1977. Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing. 928 pp.
Essentials of Pig Anatomy. W.O. Sack. 1982. Ithaca, New York:
Veterinary Textbooks. 192 pp.
The Pig as a Laboratory Animal. L.E. Mount and D.L. Ingram.
1971. New York: Academic Press. 175 pp.
Ruminants: Cattle, Sheep, and Goats. Guidelines for the Breeding,
Care and Management of Laboratory Animals. ILAR (Institute of
laboratory Animal Resources) Subcommittee on Standards for
Large (Domestic) Laboratory Animals, committee on Standards.
1974. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 72 pp.
The Sheep as an Experimental Animal. J.F. Heckler. 1983. New
York: Academic Press, 216 pp.

Mice (see also "Rodent")

Biology of the House Mouse. Symposia of the Zoological Society
of London. No. 47. R.J. Berry, ed. 1981. London: Academic
Press. 715 pp.
Guide for the Care and Use of the Nude (Thymus-Deficient) Mouse
in Biomedical Research. ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal
Resources) Committee on Care and Use of the "Nude" Mouse, 1976.
ILAR News 19(2): M1-M20.
Handbook on the Laboratory Mouse. C.G. Crispens, Jr. 1975.
Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 267 pp.
Histological Atlas of the Laboratory Mouse. W.D. Gude, G.E.
Cosgrove, and G.P. Hirsch. 1982. New York: Plenum. 151 pp.
The Laboratory Mouse: Selection and Management. M.L. Simmons
and J.O. Brick. 1970. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall. 184 pp.
The Mouse in Biomedical Research. H.L. Foster, J.D. Small, and
J.G. Fox, eds. Vol. I, History, Genetics, and Wild Mice, 1981,
306 pp.; Vol. II, Disease, 1982, 449 pp.; Vol. III, Normative
Biology, Immunology, and Husbandry, 1983 447.; Vol. IV,
Experimental Biology and Oncology, 1982, 561 pp. New York:
Academic Press.
The Nude Mouse in Experimental and Clinical Research. J. Fogh and
B.C. Giovanella, eds. Vol. 1, 1978, 502 pp.; Vol. 2, 1982, 587
pp. New York: Academic Press.
Origins of Inbred Mice. H.C. Morse, ed. 1978. New York: Academic
Press. 719 pp.
Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Nude Mice. J.
Rygaard and C.O. Povlsen, eds. 1974. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer
Verlag. 301 pp.
Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Nude Mice:
The Potentialities and Limitations of the Nude Mouse. T.
Nomura, N. Ohsawa, N. Tamaoki, and K. Fujiwara, eds. 1977.
Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. 600 pp.
Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Nude Mice.
N.D. Reed, ed. 1982. Vol. 1, Invited Lectures, Infection,
Immunology, 330 pp.; Vol. 2, Oncology, 343 pp. New York: Gustav
Fischer New York.

Nonhuman Primates

Aging in Nonhuman Primates. D.M. Bowden, ed. 1979. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold. 393 pp.
The Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta). C.G. Hartman
and W.L. Strauss, Jr., eds. 1933. Baltimore: Williams and
Wilkins. 383 pp. (Reprinted in 1970 by Hafner, New York).
An Atlas of Comparative Primate Hematology. H.J. Huser. 1970.
New York: Academic Press. 405 pp.
Behavior and Pathology of Aging in Rhesus Monkeys. R.T. Davis
and C.W. Leathrus, eds. In press. New York: Alan R. Liss.
Breeding Simians for Developmental Biology. Laboratory Animal
Handbooks 6. F.T. Perkins and P.N. O'Donoghue, eds. 1975.
London: Laboratory Animals Ltd. 353 pp.
Captivity and Behavior - Primates in Breading colonies,
Laboratories and Zoos. J. Erwin, T.L. Maple, and G. Mitchell,
eds. 1979. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 286 pp.
A Handbook of Living Primates: Morphology, Ecology, and Behaviour
of Nonhuman Primates. J.R. Napier and P.H. Napier. 1967
London: Academic Press. 456 pp.
Laboratory Animal Management: Nonhuman Primates. ILAR (Institute
of Laboratory Animal Resources) Subcommittee on Care and Use,
Committee on Nonhuman Primates. 1980. ILAR News 23(2-3):P1-P44.
Laboratory Primate Handbook. R.A. Whitney, Jr., D.J. Johnson,
and W.C. Cole. 1973. New York: Academic Press. 169 pp.
Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini). Vol. 1. P. Hershkovitz.
1977. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 117 pp.
Macaca mulatta. Management of a Laboratory Breeding Colony.
D.A. Valerio, R.L. Miller, J.R.M. Innes, K.D. Courtney, A.J.
Pallotta, and R.M. Guttmacher. 1969. New York: Academic Press.
140 pp.
Primates: Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy. Vols. 1-7. W.C.O.
Hill, ed. 1953-1974. New York: Interscience Publishers.
The Squirrel Monkey. L.A. Rosenblum and R.W. Cooper, eds. 1968.
New York: Academic Press. 451 pp.

Rabbits

Bensley's Practical Anatomy of the Rabbit. 8th ed. E.H. Craigie,
ed. 1949. Philadelphia: Blackiston. 391 pp.
The Biology of the Laboratory Rabbit. S.H. Weisbroth, R.E.
Flatt, and A.L. Kraus, eds. 1974. New York: Academic Press.
496 pp.
Laboratory Anatomy of the Rabbit. 2nd ed. C.A. McLaughlin and
R.B. Chiasson. 1979. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown. 68 pp.
A Laboratory Guide to the Anatomy of the Rabbit. 2nd ed. E.H.
Craigie. 1966. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 115 pp.
The Rabbit: A Model for the Principles of Mammalian Physiology
and Surgery. H.N. Kaplan and E.H. Timmons. 1979. New York:
Academic Press. 167 pp.

Rats (see also "Rodents")

Anatomy of the Laboratory Rat. R. Hebel and M.W. Stromberg. 1976.
Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. 173 pp.
Anatomy of the Rat. E.C. Greene. Reprinted 1970. New York:
Hafner. 370 pp.
The Brattleboro Rat. H.W. Sokol and H. Valtin, eds. 1982. Ann.
N.Y. Acad. Sci. 394:1-828.
The Laboratory Rat. H.J. Baker, J.R. Lindsey, and S.H.
Weisbroth, eds. Vol. I, Biology and Diseases, 1979, 435 pp.;
Vol. II, Research Applications, 1980, 276 pp. New York:
Academic Press.
Research Techniques in the Rat. C. Petty. 1982. Springfield,
Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 382 pp.
Spontaneously Hypertensive (SHR) Rats: Guidelines for Breeding,
Care and Use. ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources)
Committee on Care and Use of Spontaneously Hypertensive (SHR)
Rats. 1976. ILAR News 19(3):G1-G20.

Rodents

Anatomy of the Guinea Pig. G. Cooper and A.L. Schiller. 1975.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 417 pp.
The Biology of the Guinea Pig. J.E. Wagner and P.J. Manning,
eds. 1976. New York: Academic Press. 317 pp.
The Golden Hamster: Its Biology and Use in Medical Research.
R.A. Hoffman, P.F. Robinson, and H. Magalhaes, eds. 1968. Ames:
Iowa State University Press. 545 pp.
Laboratory Animal Management: Rodents. ILAR (Institute of Animal
Resources) Committee on Long-Term Holding of Laboratory
Rodents. 1976. ILAR News 19(4):L1-L25.

Other Animals

Laboratory Anatomy of the Turtle. L.M. Ashley. 1955. Dubuque,
Iowa: Wm. C. Brown. 50 pp.
Laboratory Animal Management: Marine Invertebrates. NRC
(National Research Council). 1981. A report of the Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources Committee on Marine Invertebrates.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 382 pp.
Laboratory Animal Management: Wild Birds. ILAR (Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources) Subcommittee on Birds, Committee
on Standards. 1977. Washington, DC: National Academy of
Sciences. 116 pp.
Mammals of the Sea. S.H. Ridgway, ed. 1972. Springfield,
Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 830 pp.
Physiology and Behaviour of the Pigeon. M. Abs, ed. 1983.
London: Academic Press. 360 pp.
The Pigeon. W.M. Levi. 1974 (reprinted 1981). Sumter, South
Carolina: Levi Publishing. 667 pp.

GENETICS AND NOMENCLATURE

Genetics and Probability in Animal Breeding Experiments. E.L.
Green. 1981. New York: Oxford University Press 271 pp.
Holders of Inbred and Mutant Mice in the United States. Including
the Rules for Standardized Nomenclature of Inbred Strains, Gene
Loci, and Biochemical Variants. D.D. Greenhouse, ed. 1984. ILAR
News 27(2):1A-30A.
Inbred and Genetically Defined Strains of Laboratory Animals.
P.L. Altman and D.D. Katz, eds. 1979. Part 1, Mouse and Rat,
418 pp.; Part 2, Hamster, Guinea Pig, Rabbit, and Chicken, 319
pp. Bethesda, Maryland: Federation of American Societies for
Experimental Biology.
International Standardized Nomenclature for Outbred Stocks of
Laboratory Animals. Issued by the International Committee on
Laboratory Animals. M. Festing. K. Kondo, R. Loosli, S.M.
Poiley, and A. Spiegel. 1972. ICLA Bull. 30:4-17 (March 1972).
(Available from the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources,
National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.,
Washington, DC 20418).
Laboratory Animal Management: Genetics. ILAR (Institute of
Laboratory Animal Resources). 1979. ILAR News 23(1):A1-A16.

DISEASES AND THERAPY

General References

Comparative Neuropathology. J.R.M. Innes and L.Z. Saunders, eds.
1962. New York: Academic Press. 839 pp.
Current Veterinary Therapy. VIII. Small Animal Practice. 6th ed.
R.W. Kirk, ed. 1983. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 1267 pp.
Diseases Transmitted From Animals to Man. 6th ed. W.T. Hubbert,
W.F. McCulloch, and P.R. Schnurrenberger, eds. 1975.
Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 1206 pp.
Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation. C.A. Lawrence and
S.S. Block. 1968. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 808 pp.
Drug Dosage in laboratory Animals: A Handbook C.D. Barnes and
L.G. Eltherington. 1966. Berkeley: University of California
Press. 302 pp.
Handbook of Veterinary Drugs: A Compendium for Research and
Clinical Use. I.S. Rossoff. 1975. New York: Springer
Publishing. 730 pp.
Immunologic Defects in Laboratory Animals. M.E. Gershwin and B.
Merchant, eds. 198 1. Vol. 1, 360 pp.; Vol. 2, 382 pp. New
York: Plenum.
An Introduction to Comparative Pathology: A Consideration of Some
Reactions of Human and Animal Tissues to Injurious Agents.
G.A. Gresham and A.R. Jennings. 1962. New York: Academic Press.
412 pp.
Laboratory Profiles of Small Animal Diseases. C. Sodikoff. 1981.
Santa Barbara, California: American Veterinary Publications.
215 pp.
Nutrition and Disease in Experimental Animals. W.D. Tavernor,
ed. 1970. Proceedings of a Symposium organized by the British
Small Animal Veterinary Association, the British Laboratory
Animal Veterinary Association, and the Laboratory Animal
Scientific Association. London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell.
165 pp.
Outline of Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 3rd ed. M.M. Benjamin.
1978. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 352 pp.
An Outline of the Zoonoses. P.R. Schnurrenberger and W.T.
Hubert. 1981. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 157 pp.
Parasites of Laboratory Animals. R.J. Flynn. 1973. Ames: Iowa
State University Press. 884 pp.
Pathology of Laboratory Animals. K. Benirschke, F.M. Garner, and
T.C. Jones. 1978. Vol. 1, 1050 pp.; Vol. 2, 2171 pp. New York:
Springer Verlag.
The Pathology of laboratory Animals. W.E. Ribelin and J.R.
McCoy, eds. 1965. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 436
pp.
The Problems of Laboratory Animal Disease. R.J.C. Harris, ed.
1962. New York: Academic Press. 265 pp.
Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine: Diseases of the Dog and
Cat. 2nd ed. 2 Vols. S.J. Ettinger, ed 1983. Philadelphia:
W.B. Saunders. 2260 pp.
Veterinary Clinical Parasitology. 5th ed. M.W. Sloss and R.L.
Kemp. 1978. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 276 pp.
Veterinary Clinical Pathology. 3rd ed. E.H. Coles. 1980.
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 562 pp.
Veterinary Pathology. 5th ed. T.C. Jones and R.D. Hunt. 1983.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 1792 pp.
Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 5th ed. L.M. Jones,
N.H. Booth, and L.E. McDonald. 1982. Ames: Iowa State
University Press. 1134 pp.

Domestic Animals

Current Veterinary Therapy. Food Animal Practice. J.L. Howard,
ed. 1981. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 1233 pp.
Diseases of Poultry. 8th ed. M.S. Hofstad, B.W. Calnek, C.F.
Helmboldt, W.J. Reid, and H.W. Yoder, Jr., eds. 1984. Ames:
Iowa State University Press. 832 pp.
Diseases of Sheep. R. Jensen. 1974. Philadelphia: Lea and
Febiger. 389 pp.
Diseases of Swine. 5th ed. A.D. Leman, R.D. Glock, W.L.
Mengeling, R.H.C. Penny, E. Scholl, and B. Straw, eds. 1981.
Ames: Iowa State University Press. 844 pp.
Nematode Parasites of Domestic Animals and of Man. N.D. Levine.
1968. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Publishing. 600 pp.
Pathology of Domestic Animals. 2nd ed. K.V.F. Jubb and P.C.
Kennedy. 1970. Vol. 1, 593 pp.; Vol. 2, 613 pp. New York:
Academic Press.

Fishes

Diseases of Fishes. 1971. Book 2A, Bacterial Diseases of Fishes,
G.L. Bullock, D.A. Conroy, and S.F. Snieszko, 151 pp.; Book 2B,
Identification of Fish Pathogenic Bacteria, G.L. Bullock, 41
pp. Neptune, New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications.
Diseases of Fishes. Book 4, Fish Immunology. D.P. Anderson.
1974. Neptune, New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications. 239 pp.
Diseases of Fishes. Book 5, Environmental Stress and Fish
Diseases. G.A. Wedemeyer, F.P. Meyer, and L. Smith. 1976.
Neptune, New Jersey: T.F.H. Publications. 192 pp.
Fish Pathology. R.J. Roberts, ed. 1978. London: Bailliere
Tindall. 328 pp.
Parasites of Freshwater Fishes: A Review of Their Treatment and
Control. G.L. Hoffman and F.P. Meyer. 1974. Neptune, New
Jersey: T.F.H. Publications. 224 pp.
The Pathology of Fishes. W.E. Ribelin and G. Migaki, eds. 1975.
Madison: University of Wisconsin. 1004 pp.

Nonhuman Primates

Comparative Pathology in Monkeys. B.A. Lapin and L.A. Yakovleva.
l963. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 272 pp.
Diseases of Laboratory Primates. T.C. Ruch. 1959. Philadelphia:
W.B. Saunders. 600 pp.
Pathology of Simian Primates. R.N.T.W. Fiennes, ed. 1972. Part
I, General Pathology; Part II, Infectious and Parasitic
Diseases. Basel: S. Karger.
The Primate Malarias. G.R. Coatney, W.E. Collins, McW. Warren,
and P.G. Contacos. 1971. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare. 366 pp.
Zoonoses of Primates. The Epidemiology and Ecology of Simian
Diseases in Relation to Man. R.N.T.W. Fiennes. 1967. London:
Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 190 pp.

Rabbits and Rodents

Common Lesions in Aged B6C3F (C57BL/6N x C3H/HeN)F and
BALB/cStCrlC3H/Nctr Mice. Syllabus. Registry of Veterinary
Pathology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 1981.
Washington, DC: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 44 pp.
Common Parasites of Laboratory Rodents and Lagomorphs.
Laboratory Animal Handbook. D. Owen. 1972. London: Medical
Research Council. 140 pp.
A Guide to Infectious Diseases of Guinea Pigs, Gerbils, Hamsters,
and Rabbits. ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources)
Committee on Laboratory Animal Diseases. 1974. Washington, DC:
National Academy of Sciences. 16 pp
Pathology of Aging Rats: A Morphological and Experimental Study
of the Age Associated Lesions in Aging BN/BI, WAG/Rij, and (WAG
x BN)F Rats. J.D. Burek. 1978. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
230 pp.
Pathology of Aging Syrian Hamsters. R.E. Schmidt, R.L. Eason,
G.B. Hubbard, J.T. Young, and D.L. Eisenbrandt. 1983. Boca
Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 272 pp.
Pathology of Laboratory Rats and Mice. E. Cotchin and F.J.C.
Roe, eds. 1967. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific. 848 pp.
Pathology of the Syrian Hamster. F. Homburger, ed. 1972. Progr.
Exp. Tumor Res. 16:1-637.

Other Animals

Disease Diagnosis and Control in North American Marine
Aquaculture. C.J. Sindermann. 1977. New York: Elsevier. 329 pp.
Pathology of Zoo Animals. L.A. Griner. 1983. San Diego,
California: Zoological Society of San Diego. 608 pp.
Th Principal Diseases of Lower Vertebrates. H.
Reichenbach-Klinke and E. Elkan. 1965. New York: Academic
Press. 600 pp.

ANESTHESIA AND SURGERY

Anesthesiology: Selected Topics in Laboratory Animal Medicine.
Vol. 5. S.H Cramlet and E.F. Jones. 1976. Brooks Air Force
Base, Texas: U.S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine. 110
pp. (Available as Accession No. ADA 031463 from National
Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Springfield, VA 22161).
Animal Pain. Perception and Alleviation. R.L. Kitchell, H.H.
Erickson, E. Carstens, and L.E. Davis. 1983. Bethesda,
Maryland:
American Physiological Society. 221 pp.
Animal Physiologic Surgery. 2nd ed. C.M. Lang, ed. 1982. New
York:
Springer-Verlag. 180 pp.
Basic Surgical Exercises Using Swine. M.M. Swindle. 1983. New
York: Praeger. 237 pp.
Canine Surgery: A Text and Reference Work. 2nd ed. J. Archibald,
ed. 1974. Wheaton, Illinois: American Veterinary Publications.
1172 pp. (Publisher is now located in Santa Barbara,
California).
Comparative anesthesia in laboratory animals. E.V. Miller, M.
Ben,
and J.S. Cass, eds. 1969. Fed. Proc. 28:1369-1586 and Index.
Experimental Surgery: Including Surgical Physiology. 5th ed. J.
Markowitz, J. Archibald, and H.G. Downie. l964. Baltimore:
Williams and Wilkins. 659 pp.
Experimental and Surgical Technique in the Rat. H.B. Waynforth.
1980. New York: Academic Press. 269 pp.
Large Animal Anesthesia: Principles and Techniques. T.W.
Riebold,
D.O. Goble, and D.R. Geiser. 1982. Ames: Iowa State University
Press. 154 pp.
The relief of pain in laboratory animals. P.A. Flecknell. 1984.
Lab. Anim. 18:147-160.
Small Animal Anesthesia: Mosby's Fundamentals of Animal Health
Technology. R.G. Warren, ed. 1983. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby. 367
pp.
Small Animal Surgical Nursing: Mosby's Fundamentals of Animal
Health Technology. D.L. Tracy, ed. 1983. St. Louis: C.V.
Mosby.
347 pp.
Surgery of the Digestive System in the Rat. R. Lambert. 1965.
(Translated from the French by B. Julien). Springfield,
Illinois:
Charles C. Thomas. 501 pp.
Textbook of Veterinary Anesthesia. L.R. Soma, ed. 1971.
Baltimore:
Williams and Wilkins. 621 pp.
Veterinary Anesthesia. 2nd ed. W.V. Lumb and E.W. Jones. 1984.
Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger. 693 pp.

NUTRITION

Control of Diets in Laboratory Animal Experimentation. ILAR
(Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources) Committee on
Laboratory Animal Diets. 1978. ILAR News 21(2):A1-A12.
Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic
Animals.
NRC (National Research Council). 1981. A report of the Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on
Environmental
Stress, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC:
National
Academy Press. 152 pp.
Feeding and Nutrition of Nonhuman Primates. R.S. Harris, ed.
1970.
New York: Academic Press. 310 pp.
Feeds and Feeding. 3rd ed. E. Cullison. 1981. Reston, Virginia:
Reston Publishing, 600 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle. 6th rev. ed. NRC (National
Research Council). 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic
Animals Series. A report of the Board on Agriculture
Subcommittee on Beef Cattle Nutrition, Committee on Animal
Nutrition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 90 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Cats. Rev. ed. BARR (Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Panel on Cat Nutrition,
Subcommittee on Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Committee on
Animal
Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals
Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 49 pp.
(See also Taurine Requirement of the Cat).
Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. 5th rev. ed. BARR (Board
on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Subcommittee on Dairy
Cattle
Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient
Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC:
National
Academy of Sciences. 76 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. Rev. ed. BARR (Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Subcommittee on Dog
Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1974. Nutrient
Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC:
National Academy of Sciences. 71 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Goats: Angora, Dairy, and Meat Goats in
Temperate and Tropical Countries. NRC (National Research
Council). 1981. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals
Series.
A report of the Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources
Subcommittee on Goat Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 84 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Horses. 4th rev. ed. BARR (Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Subcommittee on Horse
Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient
Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC:
National Academy of Sciences. 33 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Laboratory Animals. 3rd rev. ed. BARR
(Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Subcommittee on
Laboratory Animal Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition.
1978.
Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington,
DC: National Academy of Sciences. 96 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Nonhuman Primates. BARR (Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Panel on Nonhuman Primate
Nutrition, Subcommittee on Laboratory Animal Nutrition,
Committee
on Animal Nutrition. 1978. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic
Animals Series. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
83 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 8th rev. ed. NRC (National
Research Council). 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Domestic
Animals Series. A report of the Board on Agriculture
Subcommittee on Poultry Nutrition, Committee on Animal
Nutrition.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 71 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Rabbits. 2nd rev. ed. BARR (Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Subcommittee on Rabbit
Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1977. Nutrient
Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC:
National
Academy of Sciences. 30 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Sheep. 5th rev. ed. BARR (Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Subcommittee on Sheep
Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1975. Nutrient
Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC:
National Academy of Sciences. 72 pp.
Nutrient Requirements of Swine. 8th rev. ed. BARR (Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources) Subcommittee on Swine
Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. 1979. Nutrient
Requirements of Domestic Animals Series. Washington, DC:
National Academy of Sciences. 52 pp.
Nutrition and Disease in Experimental Animals. W.D. Tavernor, ed.
1970. London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cassell. 165 pp.
Taurine Requirement of the Cat. NRC (National Research Council).
1981. A report of the Board on Agriculture and Renewable
Resources Ad Hoc Panel on Taurine Requirement of the Cat,
Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC: National
Academy Press. 4 pp.
United States-Canadian Tables of Feed Composition. Third
revision.
NRC (National Research Council). 1982. A report of the Board on
Agriculture and Renewable Resources Subcommittee on Feed
Composition, Committee on Animal Nutrition. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press. 148 pp.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF ANIMAL
QUARTERS AND CAGES

Comfortable Quarters for Laboratory Animals. Rev. ed., 1979.
Animal Welfare Institute. Washington, DC: Animal Welfare
Institute. 108 pp.
Control of the Animal House Environment. T. McSheely, ed. 1976.
London: Laboratory Animals Ltd. 335 pp.
Design of Biomedical Research Facilities. D.G. Fox, ed. 1981.
Cancer Research Safety Monograph Series, Vol. 4. NIH Pub. No.
81-2305. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services. 206 pp.
Estimating heat produced by laboratory animals. N.R. Brewer.
1964. Heat. Piping Air Cond. 36:139-141.
Laboratory Animal Houses: A Guide to the Design and Planning of
Animal Facilities. G. Clough and M.R. Gamble. 1976. LAC Manual
Series No. 4. Carshalton, Surrey: Laboratory Animals Centre,
Medical Research Council. 44 pp.
Laboratory Animal Housing. ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal
Resources) Committee on Laboratory Animal Housing. 1978.
Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 220 pp.

TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

Clinical Textbook for Veterinary Technicians. D.M. McCurnin.
1985. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 511 pp.
The Education and Training of Laboratory Animal Technicians. S.
Erichsen, W.J.I. van der Gulden, O. Hanninen, G.J.R. Hovell, L.
Kallai, and M. Khemmani. 1976. Prepared for the International
Committee on Laboratory Animals. Geneva: World Health
Organization. 42 pp.
Educational Opportunities in Comparative Pathology-United States
and Foreign Countries. Registry of Comparative Pathology,
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. 1984. Washington, DC:
Universities Associated for Research and Education in
Pathology, Inc. 34 pp.
Laboratory Animal Medicine: Guidelines for Education and
Training. ILAR (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources)
Committee On Education. 1979. ILAR News 22(2):MI-M26.
Laboratory Animal Medicine and Science Audiotutorial Series. G.L.
Van Hoosier, Jr., Coordinator. 1976-1979. Distributed by Health
Sciences Learning Resources Center. University of Washington,
Seattle.
Lesson Plans: An Instructor's Guide for Laboratory Animal
Technician Training. A.M. Campbell. 1977. AALAS (American
Association for Laboratory Animal Science) Pub. No. 77-4.
Joliet, Illinois: American Association for Laboratory Animal
Science. 225 pp.
Manual for Assistant Laboratory Animal Technicians. AALAS
(American Association for Laboratory Animal Science). 1984.
AALAS Pub. No. 84-1. Joliet, Illinois: American Association for
Laboratory Animal Science. 454 pp.
Manual for Laboratory Animal Technicians. AALAS (American
Association for Laboratory Animal Science). 1984. AALAS Pub.
No. 84-2. Joliet, Illinois: American Association for Laboratory
Animal Science. 248 pp.
Syllabus of the Basic Principles of Laboratory Animal Science.
Ad Hoc Committee on Education of the Canadian Council on Animal
Care (CCAC). 1984. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Council on Animal
Care. 46 pp. (Available from CCAC, 1105-151 Slater Street,
Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5H3, Canada).
Syllabus for the Laboratory Animal Technologist. AALAS (American
Association for Laboratory Animal Science). 1972. AALAS Pub.
No. 72-2. Joliet, Illinois: American Association for
Laboratory Animal Science. 462 pp.

BIOHAZARDS IN ANIMAL RESEARCH

Biohazards and Zoonotic Problems of Primate Procurement,
Quarantine and Research. M.L. Simmons, ed. 1975. Cancer
Research Safety Monograph Series, VoI. 2. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH)
76-890. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare. 137 pp.
Biological Safety Manual for Research Involving Oncogenic
Viruses. National Cancer Institute. 1976. DHEW Pub. No.
76-1165. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare.
Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories. 1st ed.
Centers for Disease control and National Institutes of Health.
1984. DHHS Pub. No. (CDC) 84-8395. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services. 100 pp.
Classification of Etiologic Agents on the Basis of Hazard. 4th
ed. U.S. Public Health Service Ad Hoc Committee on the Safe
Shipment and Handling of Etiologic Agents. 1974. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Code of Federal Regulations. 1984. Title 40; Part 260, Hazardous
Waste Management System: General; Part 261, Identification and
Listing of Hazardous Waste; Part 262, Standards Applicable to
Generators of Hazardous Waste; Part 263, Standards Applicable
to Transporters of Hazardous Waste; Part 264, Standards for
Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and
Disposal Facilities; Part 265, Interim Status Standards for
Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage, and
Disposal Facilities; and Part 270, EPA Administered Permit
Programs: The Hazardous Waste Permit Program. Washington, DC:
Office of Federal Register.
Design Criteria for Viral Oncology Research Facilities. National
Cancer Institute. 1975. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH)76-891. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 24 pp.
Guidelines for Carcinogen Bioassay in Small Rodents. J.M. Sontag,
N.P. Page, and U. Saffiotti. 1976. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 76-801.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare. 65 pp.
Guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA molecules.
National Institutes of Health. 1984. Fed. Regist. 49(227):
46266-46291.
Laboratory safety for arboviruses and certain other viruses of
vertebrates. Subcommittee on Arbovirus Safety, American
Committee on Arthropod-Borne Viruses. 1980. Am. J. Trop. Med.
Hyg. 29:1359-1381.
Laboratory Safety Monograph: A Supplement to the NIH Guidelines
for Recombinant DNA Research. National Institutes of Health.
1979. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare. 227 pp.
National Cancer Institute Safety Standards for Research Involving
Oncogenic Viruses. National Cancer Institute. 1974. DHEW Pub.
No. (NIH) 78-790. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare. 20 pp.
NIH Guidelines for the Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens.
National Institutes of Health. 1981. NIH Pub. No. 81-2385.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
15 pp.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS

Effect of environmental factors on drug metabolism: Decreased
half-life of antipyrine in workers exposed to chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides. B. Kolmodin, D.L. Azarnoff, and F.
Sjoqvist. 1969. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 10:638-642.
Effect of essential oils on drug metabolism. A. Jori, A.
Bianchett, and P.E. Prestini. 1969. Biochem. Pharmacol.
18:2081-2085.
Effect of intensive occupational exposure to DDT on
phenylbutazone and cortisol metabolism in human subjects. A.
Poland, D. Smith, R. Kuntzman, M. Jacobson, and A.H. Conney.
1970. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 11:724-732.
Effect of red cedar chip bedding on hexobarbital and
pentobarbital sleep time. H.C. Ferguson. 1966. J. Pharm. Sci.
55:1142-1143.
Environmental and genetic factors affecting the response of
laboratory animals to drugs. E.S. Vesell, C.M. Lang, W.J.
White, G.T. Passananti, R.N. Hill, T.L. Clemens, D.K. Liu, and
W.D. Johnson. Fed. Proc. 35:1125-1132.
Further studies on the stimulation of hepatic microsomal drug
metabolizing enzymes by DDT and its analogs. L.G. Hart and
J.R. Fouts. 1965. Arch. Exp. Pathol. Pharmakol. 249:486-500.
Induction of drug-metabolizing enzymes in liver microsomes of
mice and rats by softwood bedding. E.S. Vesell. 1967. Science
157:1057-1058.
Influence on pharmacological experiments of chemicals and other
factors in diets of laboratory animals. P.M. Newberne. 1975.
Fed. Proc. 34:209-218.
The provision of sterile bedding and nesting materials with their
effect on breeding mice. G. Porter and W. Lane-Petter. 1965.
J. Anim. Tech. Assoc. 16:5-8.

ANIMAL TESTING ALTERNATIVES

"Animal Testing Alternatives" is a new heading appearing for
the first time in 1985 editions of the National Library of
Medicine's catalogs and computer data bases. The heading will be
used to index books, articles and audiovisual materials that
describe lab procedures "used or advocated for use in place of
procedures requiring live animals."

APPENDIX B

Professional and Certifying Laboratory
Animal Science Organizations

American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care
(AAALAC), 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814
(301-564-5111).

This nonprofit corporation was formed to 1965 by leading
U.S. scientific and educational organizations to promote high
quality animal care and use through a voluntary accreditation
program. Any institution maintaining, using, importing, or
breeding laboratory animals for scientific purposes is eligible
to apply for AAALAC accreditation. The animal care facilities of
applicant institutions are visited and thoroughly evaluated by
experts in laboratory animal science, who submit a detailed
report to the Council on Accreditation. The Council reviews
applications and site visit reports, using the guidelines in the
Guide for the Care and Use of laboratory Animals, to determine
whether full accreditation should be granted. Accredited
facilities are required to submit annual reports on the status of
their animal facilities, and site revisits are conducted at
intervals of 3 years or less. The Council on Accreditation
reviews the annual and site revisit reports to determine whether
full accreditation should be continued.

Fully accredited animal care facilities receive a
certificate of accreditation and are included on a list of such
facilities published in the association's Activities Report.
Full accreditation by AAALAC is accepted by the National
Institutes of Health as assurance that the animal facilities are
in compliance with PHS policy.

American Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS), 70
Timber Creek Drive, Suite #5, Cordova, TN 38018 (901-754-8620).

The American Association for Laboratory Animal Science is an
organization made up individuals and institutions professionally
concerned with the production, care, and use of laboratory
animals. It provides a means for collection and exchange of
information on all phases of laboratory animal care and
management. The association meets annually and publishes
Laboratory Animal Science (a bimonthly journal), the AALAS
Bulletin, and other documents.

AALAS' Animal Technician Certification Board provides a
means of developing uniform requirements for technician training
by defining the qualifications, preparing and approving
examinations for training programs, and certifying successful
candidates.

American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), 930 North Meacham
Road, Schaumburg, IL 60196 (800-248-AVMA).

The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) is the
major national organization of veterinarians. Its objective is
to
advance the science and art of veterinary medicine, including its
relationship to public health and agriculture. The AVMA is the
recognized accrediting agency for schools and colleges of
veterinary medicine. It sponsors specialization in veterinary
medicine through the formal recognition of specialty certifying
organizations, including the American College of Laboratory
Animal Medicine. The AVMA Committee on Animal Technician
Activities and Training accredits 2-year programs in animal
technology at institutions of higher learning throughout the
United States. A list of accredited programs and a summary of
individual state laws and regulations relative to veterinarians
and animal technicians is available from the AVMA.

American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine (ACLAM), Dr. C.
Max Lang, Secretary-Treasurer, Department of Comparative
Medicine, The Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, The Pennsylvania
State University, P.O. Box 850, Hershey, PA 17033
(717-531-8462).

The American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine is a
specialty board recognized by the American Veterinary Medical
Association (AVMA). It was founded in 1957 to encourage
education, training, and research; to establish standards of
training and experience for qualification; and to certify, by
examination, qualified laboratory animal specialists as
diplomates. To achieve these goals, the college seeks to
interest veterinarians in furthering both training and
qualifications in laboratory animal medicine.

ACLAM meets biannually in conjunction with the AVMA and the
American Association for Laboratory Animal Science. It
emphasizes and sponsors continuing-education programs; cosponsors
symposia; cosponsors approximately 30 autotutorial programs on
use, husbandry, and diseases of animals commonly used in
research; and publishes texts, such as The Laboratory Rat and The
Mouse in Biomedical Research.

American Society of Laboratory Animal Practitioners (ASLAP), Dr.
Farol N. Tomson, Secretary-Treasurer, 182 Grinter Hall,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0001
(904-392-9917).

ASLAP, founded in 1966, is open to any graduate of a
veterinary college accredited or recognized by the American
Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) or Canadian Veterinary
Medical Association (CVMA) who is engaged in laboratory animal
practice and maintains membership in the AVMA, CVMA, or any other
national veterinary medical association recognized by the AVMA.
Its purpose is to disseminate ideas, experiences, and knowledge
among veterinarians engaged in laboratory animal practice through
education, training, and research at both pre- and post-doctoral
levels. Two educational meetings are held annually, one each in
conjunction with the annual meetings of the AVMA and American
Association for Laboratory Animal Science.

APPENDIX C

Some Federal Laws Relevant
To Animal Care and Use

ANIMAL WELFARE

The Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-544), as amended by
the Animal Welfare Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-579) and 1976 Amendments
to the Animal Welfare Act (P.L. 94-279), contains provisions to
prevent the sale or use of animals that have been stolen;
prohibit animal fighting ventures; and ensure that animals used
in research, for exhibition, or as pets receive humane care and
treatment. The law provides for regulating the transport,
purchase, sale, housing, care, handling, and treatment of such
animals.

Regulatory authority under the Animal Welfare Act is vested
in the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and
implemented by USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(APHIS). Rules and regulations pertaining to implementation are
published in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 9
(Animals and Animal Products), Subchapter A (Animal Welfare),
Parts 1, 2, and 3. Copies can be obtained from the Deputy
Administrator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, APHIS-VS, Federal
Building, 6505 Belcrest Road, Hyattsville, MD 20782.

ENDANGERED SPECIES

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205; 87 Statute
884) became effective on December 28, 1973, supplanting the
Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-135; 83
Statute 275). The new law seeks "to provide a means whereby the
ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species
depend may be conserved, to provide a program for the
conservation of such endangered species and threatened species,
and to take such steps as may be appropriate to achieve the
purposes of the treaties and conservation of wild flora and fauna
worldwide".

Regulatory authority under the Endangered species Act is
vested in the Secretary of the U.S. Department of the Interior
(USDI) and implemented by USDI's Fish and Wildlife Service.
Implementing rules and regulations are published in the CFR,
Title 50 (Wildlife and Fisheries), Chapter 1 (U.S. fish and
Wildlife Service, Department of Interior), subchapter B, Part 17
(Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants). Copies of the
regulations, including a list of species currently considered
endangered or threatened, can be obtained by writing to the
Office of Endangered Species, U.S. Department of Interior, Fish
and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC 20240.

APPENDIX D

Public Health Service Policy and Government Principles
Regarding The Care and Use of Animals

PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE POLICY ON HUMANE CARE AND USE OF LABORATORY
ANIMALS BY AWARDEE INSTITUTIONS

The Public Health Service (PHS) Policy on Humane Care and
Use of Laboratory Animals by Awardee Institutions was updated in
1985. In the policy statement, the PHS endorses the U.S.
government "Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate
Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Education" (reprinted
below), which were developed by the Interagency Research Animal
Committee. The PHS policy implements and supplements these
principles. Information concerning the policy can be obtained
from the Office for Protection from Research Risks, National
Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 4B09, Bethesda, MD
20205.

PRINCIPLES FOR THE CARE AND USE OF ANIMALS USED IN TESTING,
RESEARCH, AND EDUCATION

The principles below were prepared by the Interagency
Research Animal Committee. This committee, which was established
in 1983, serves as a focal point for federal agencies'
discussions of issues involving all animal species needed for
biomedical research and testing. The committee's principal
concerns are the conservation, use, care, and welfare of research
animals. Its responsibilities include information exchange,
program coordination, and contributions to policy development.

Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate
Animals Used in Testing, Research and Training

The development of knowledge necessary for the improvement
of health and well-being of humans as well as other animals
requires in vivo experimentation with a wide variety of animal
species. Whenever U.S. Government agencies develop requirements
for testing, research, or training procedures involving the use
of vertebrate animals the following principles shall be
considered; and whenever these agencies actually perform or
sponsor such procedures, the responsible institutional official
shall ensure that these principles are adhered to:

I. The transportation, care, and use of animals should be
in accordance with the Animal Welfare Act (7 U.S.C. 2131 et seq.)
and other applicable Federal Laws, guidelines and policies(2).

II. Procedures involving animals should be designed and
performed with due consideration of their relevance to human or
animal health, the advancement of knowledge, or the good of
society.

III. The animals selected for a procedure should be of an
appropriate species and quality and the minimum number required
to obtain valid results. Methods such as mathematical models,
computer simulation, and in vitro biological systems should be
considered.

IV. Proper use of animals, including the avoidance or
minimization of discomfort, distress, and pain when consistent
with sound scientific practices, is imperative. Unless the
contrary is established, investigators should consider that
procedures that cause pain or distress in human beings may cause
pain or distress in other animals.

(Footnote 2: For guidance throughout these Principles the
reader is referred to the Guide for the Care and Use of
Laboratory Animals prepared by the Institute of Laboratory Animal
Resources, National Research Council).

V. Procedures with animals that may cause more than
momentary or slight pain or distress should be performed with
appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. Surgical or
other painful procedures should not be performed on
unanesthetized animals paralyzed by chemical agents.

VI. Animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic
pain or distress that cannot be relieved should be painlessly
killed at the end of the procedure or, if appropriate, during the
procedure.

VII. The living conditions of animals should be appropriate
for their species and contribute to their health and comfort.
Normally, the housing, feeding, and care of all animals used for
biomedical purposes must be directed by a veterinarian or other
scientist trained and experienced in the proper care, handling,
and use of the species being maintained or studied. In any case,
veterinary care shall be provided as indicated.

VIII. Investigators and other personnel shall be
appropriately qualified and experienced for conducting
procedures on living animals. Adequate arrangements shall be
made for their in-service training, including the proper and
humane care and use of laboratory animals.

IX. Where exceptions are required in relation to the
provisions of these Principles, the decisions should not rest
with the investigators directly concerned but should be made,
with due regard to Principle II, by an appropriate review group
such as an institutional animal research committee. Such
exceptions should not be made solely for the purposes of teaching
or demonstration.

AWIC
Animal Welfare Information Center
United States Department of Agriculture
National Agricultural Library
USDA Cooperative Agreement No. 58-0520-5-076 - July, 1995

Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals

Provided by the Animal Welfare Information Center United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Library

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service National Institutes of Health Revised 1985

Animal Welfare Information Center United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Library

USDA Cooperative Agreement No. 58-0520-5-076 - July, 1995

Provided by the Animal Welfare Information Center
United States Department of Agriculture
National Agricultural Library

Public Health Service
National Institutes of Health
Revised 1985

Animal Welfare Information Center
United States Department of Agriculture
National Agricultural Library