Zimbabwe is situated in southern Africa. Its upland center is crisscrossed by rivers flowing into Lake Kariba and the Zambezi River, on which lies Zimbabwe's most spectacular natural feature, the Victoria Falls. Attempts to preserve white rule in the former British colony led to a long guerrilla war before independence in 1980. Robert Mugabe, the country's leader since then and its president since 1987, has become increasingly authoritarian and divisive. Violent seizure of white-owned farmland and severe drought have contributed to virtual economic collapse.

There are two main ethnic groups, the majority Shona in the north and the Ndebele in the south. Europeans and Asians comprise 2% of the population.

Ethnic tensions plagued the 1980s. 1500 Ndebele were massacred by the army in 1983 alone as the ruling, Shona-dominated, ZANU–PF attempted to suppress the predominantly Ndebele Zimbabwe African People's Union (PF–ZAPU). A Unity Accord in 1987 eased the conflict, and ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo was appointed vice president in 1990.

As a legacy of colonial rule, whites remain generally far more affluent than blacks. This imbalance has been redressed in part by policies to improve black education and increase office employment. Land redistribution, which was previously slow and dogged by accusations of corruption, was stepped up in 2000, when the government backed a movement to seize white-owned farms, raising tensions between blacks and whites.

Families are large, and almost half the population is under 15. Zimbabwean society is traditionally patriarchal. In 1999 a Supreme Court ruling provoked protest by according only "junior male" status to black women, especially those marrying under traditional law.

Strengths

Most broadly based African economy after South Africa. Sound infrastructure. Virtual self-sufficiency in energy. Founder member of regional free trade area. Gold, coal, tobacco, horticulture.

Weaknesses

Agricultural and hydroelectric output affected by drought. Large budget deficits. High unemployment and inflation. Labor unrest, bank collapses, food price riots. Currency value halved in 1998; devalued again in 2000. Cheap imports damage local industries. Political violence and economic collapse in 2000 scared off investors. Massive food shortages.

Profile

The socialist policies of the 1980s were superseded by a more market-oriented economy, introduced in 1991, which increased unemployment and inflation. Prospects for the mining industry appear particularly bleak: privatization of state copper interests was repeatedly delayed, while collapsing mineral prices have forced the closure of diamond, gold, platinum, and chromium mines. The cost of living and inflation soared during the economic chaos of 2000. Prices for basic provisions were fixed in 2001. Land acquisition is a perennial issue.

80% of MPs are elected for a five-year term. The president is directly elected every six years.

Profile

ZANU–PF emerged victorious in 1980 from the long struggle with Ian Smith's white-supremacist government. Rivalries with ZAPU were resolved in 1987 and Robert Mugabe led the country in his socialist experiment. In reality repression flourished and the civil service is closed to non ZANU–PF members.

The influence of ZANU–PF was rocked in 2000 when the MDC won a convincing share of votes despite widespread pre-electoral intimidation. Since then the MDC and its supporters have been the focus of a violent campaign by government thugs.

Main Political Issues

The rule of President Mugabe

Mugabe was appointed president in 1987. His attempts to create a one-party socialist state were called off in 1991 as opposition to white South Africa and support for the Soviet bloc became meaningless. His ZANU–PF has lost support in the face of economic collapse and a reinvigorated opposition led by the MDC. It only just won elections in 2000, making Mugabe's position increasingly precarious, and he has resorted to authoritarian and violent policies to maintain his grip on power. His reelection as president in 2002 drew widespread criticism.

Land redistribution

Though all are agreed that the distribution of farmland unfairly favors the white minority, the speed and method of belated land redistribution has provoked protest. Mugabe drew up plans in 2000 to confiscate white-owned farms without compensation and supported the violent occupation led by "war veterans." The seizure of white-owned farms has been blamed for the huge drop in grain production in 2001–2002.

Zimbabwe enjoys reasonably solid relations with its African neighbors and is an active member of the SADC and the Preferential Trade Area for East and South Africa. Relations with post-apartheid South Africa are particularly strong. Zimbabwean troops have been active in the DRC since 1998.

As a consequence of this active involvement in African affairs, and of Mugabe's own role as an anticolonial champion, the government has received regional support for its confrontational policy against white commercial farmers. However, his increasingly antidemocratic stance has brought near total isolation from the wider international community. The EU and the UK have been particularly vociferous in their condemnation of the autocratic and violent regime: recent sanctions and aid suspensions have severely damaged the economy. Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth in a rare show of African anger at the fraudulent reelection of Mugabe in 2002.

Nationalist guerrillas were the heroes of independence in 1980. By the late 1990s, however, resentment grew when ex-combatants demanded enormous pensions.

Although formally nonaligned, Zimbabwe supported the Mozambican regime against RENAMO guerrillas and backed the US-led operation in Somalia in 1992–1995. The withdrawal of troops from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, dispatched there in 1998 to help President Kabila fight rebels, began in April 2001, following the Lusaka peace accord. Although the withdrawal was officially completed in 2002, troops remain in the DRC.

Almost 30% of Zimbabwe's electricity needs are met by hydropower, notably from the Kariba Dam, jointly owned with Zambia. The state power company is seeking to maximize capacity. In 1991, the government agreed to build an extension facility at Kariba South, and with Zambia a joint HEP plant at Bartoka Gorge. An oil pipeline from Beira, Mozambique, to Mutare is being extended to Harare. Coal mining is expanding at Hwange, where Malaysian investments are helping to exploit deposits of 400 million tonnes.

The 1991–1992 drought left half the population in need of drought relief, and used up 20% of public spending.

In communal areas, the land is suffering from overpopulation and overstocking. Deforestation, soil erosion, and deterioration of wildlife and water resources are widespread.

Measures have been taken to protect the black rhinoceros, including moving animals to safer areas and combating poaching – patrols have killed 150 poachers since 1986. The government also supports a scheme for dehorning rhinos – the horn is the poachers' main target. In 1997 Zimbabwe led the move at the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species to allow a limited resumption of international trade in ivory. An increase in ivory poaching since 1999 has led to calls for more protection for elephants.

The number of international air links is being increased. Zimbabwe's rail network, among the densest in sub-Saharan Africa, is being updated.

The largest threat to health is AIDS. It has reduced average life expectancy to just 43 years, created some 800,000 orphans, and kills 700 people a week. A belated AIDS program, offering generic drugs, is now in place. Malaria and tuberculosis account for many other deaths. The beleaguered health system is free for the poor.

Improving education has been one of ZANU–PF's great successes. In barely ten years, primary school attendance rose from 820,000 to some 2.3 million. Education is compulsory and instruction is in English. Fees were introduced after 1992. The government built two new universities, at Bulawayo and Mutare; it encourages vocational training to create a workforce with skills in agriculture, medicine, and engineering.

Murder and narcotics-related offenses are rife in urban areas. The illegal occupation of white-owned farms, supported by the government, and electoral violence have led to many deaths. The secret service and the army have been criticized for human rights abuses.

Socialist policies in the 1980s lessened the gap between blacks and whites. But currency depreciation and inflation have since greatly reduced real wages.

Zimbabwe's principal attractions are the Victoria Falls, the Kariba Dam, numerous national parks, the Great Zimbabwe ruins near Masvingo, and World's View in the Matopo Hills.

Invasions of commercial farms led by "war veterans" and the violence in the run-up to the 2000 parliamentary elections put Zimbabwe on the list of unsafe destinations for visitors. Fuel and foreign currency shortages have further undermined the tourism sector.

In addition, Zimbabwe is wary that mass-market tourism might seriously damage the environment. However, the lure of foreign exchange has encouraged the development of conference facilities in Harare and vacation complexes around Victoria Falls, such as Elephant Hills. State law requires that there be 30% local ownership of tourist ventures.

In 1953, the British colony of Southern Rhodesia became part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland with Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now Malawi).

• 1961 Joshua Nkomo forms ZAPU.
• 1962 ZAPU banned. Segregationist Rhodesian Front (RF) wins elections.
• 1963 African nationalists in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland demand dissolution of Federation. ZANU, offshoot of ZAPU, formed by Rev. Sithole and Robert Mugabe.
• 1964 New RF prime minister Ian Smith rejects British demands for majority rule. ZANU banned.
• 1965 May, RF reelected. November, state of emergency declared (renewed until 1990). Smith's unilateral declaration of independence. UK imposes economic sanctions. ANC, ZANU, and ZAPU begin guerrilla war.
• 1974 RF regime agrees cease-fire terms with African nationalists.
• 1976 ZANU and ZAPU unite as Patriotic Front (PF).
• 1977 PF backed by "frontline" African states: Mozambique, Tanzania, Botswana, and Zambia.
• 1979 Lancaster House talks produce agreement on constitution.
• 1980 Independence as Zimbabwe. Following violent election campaign, Mugabe becomes prime minister of ZANU–PF/ZAPU–PF coalition. Relations severed with South Africa.
• 1983–1984 Unrest in Matabeleland, ZAPU–PF's power base.
• 1985 Elections return ZANU–PF, with manifesto to create one-party state. Many ZAPU–PF members arrested.
• 1987 September, provision for white seats in parliament abolished. December, ZANU–PF and ZAPU–PF sign unity agreement (merge in 1989). Mugabe elected president.
• 1990 Elections won by ZANU–PF. Mugabe reelected president.
• 1991 Mugabe abandons plan for one-party state.
• 1998 Nationwide strikes, student protests and talk of attempted military coup.
• 1999 Death of Vice President Nkomo. Opposition forms MDC.
• 2000 Government loses referendum on new constitution. Expropriations of white-owned farmland by squatters. Strong MDC performance in June election. ZANU–PF accused of using intimidation to retain majority.
• 2002 Mugabe reelected in flawed poll. Zimbabwe's Commonwealth membership temporarily suspended. Serious food shortages threaten mass starvation and economic collapse.