Syria is regarded by many of its people as an artificial creation of French-mandated rule, which lasted from 1920 to independence. They identify instead with a Greater Syria, successor to the medieval Ummayad caliphate, encompassing Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. Since independence, Syria's foreign relations have been turbulent, but the authoritarian Ba'athist regime of Hafez al-Assad (1970–2000) brought a measure of internal stability.

Most Syrians live near the coast, where the largest cities are sited. About 90% are Muslim. They include the politically dominant Alawis, a heterodox offshoot of Shi'a, comprising 12% of the population, based in Latakia and Tartous provinces. There is also a sizable Christian minority. In the west and north a mosaic of groups includes Kurds, Turkic-speakers, and Armenians, the latter based in cities. Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo have small Jewish communities, and there are three villages where Aramaic is spoken. In addition, some 300,000 Palestinian refugees have settled in Syria. Minorities were initially attracted to the ruling Ba'ath Party because of its emphasis on the state over sectarian interests. However, disputes between factions led to the Alawis taking control, creating resentment among the Sunni Muslim majority.

The emancipation of women, promoted initially in the late 1960s, was carried forward under President Hafez al-Assad, whose first woman cabinet minister was appointed in 1976.

Strengths

Exporter of crude oil – production increasing as a result of new oil strikes. Manufacturing base has grown. Thriving agricultural sector. Low inflation.

Weaknesses

High defense spending a major drain. Large black market. Domination of inefficient state-run companies. Lack of foreign investment; foreign currency accounts banned. High population growth and unemployment. Vulnerable water supply. Slow implementation of reforms.

Profile

Billions of dollars flowed into the economy from the West and Gulf states after the 1990–1991 Gulf War. This cash injection, along with increased oil revenue, led to rapid growth. Diversion of water from the Euphrates toward fertile plains, rather than poorer land, led to a rise in agricultural output. However, long-term economic prospects remain uncertain. The public sector employs 20% of the workforce, and state controls inhibit private enterprise and investment, and have created a booming black market. Businessmen often channel funds through the freer Lebanese economy. An economic reform package in 2000 created a stock exchange and permitted private banks.

Syria is in effect a single-party state. Its military-backed leader from 1970 to 2000 was Hafez al-Assad, a lifelong Ba'ath Party militant. His personal dominance ensured the succession of his son Bashar after his death in June 2000.

Profile

The Ba'athist military swept to power in 1963 with a vision of uniting all Arab nations under a single Syrian-dominated socialist system. The coup ended the power of city elites and promoted citizens from rural areas.

When Hafez al-Assad came to power, he consolidated the Ba'ath Party as the major political force. Unrest among Islamic militants was crushed, notably in the army-led massacre at Hamah in 1982. Assad focused on foreign affairs, bidding to make Syria a major power, but plans to unite with fellow Ba'athist Iraq ended in 1981 amid mutual recriminations.

Main Political Issues

Human rights

Martial law has not been rescinded since 1963, but the regime has improved its human rights record in recent years. Political prisoners are released under frequent amnesties, and in 1994 all members of the Jewish minority were granted exit visas to travel abroad.

Political pluralism

President Assad dominated Syrian politics for 30 years. His military-backed regime, drawn mainly from his own Alawi minority grouping, kept a tight hold on power, although in his last decade Sunnis gained high political posts. Despite promises made under international pressure Assad never permitted genuine multipartyism. Shortly before Assad's death, the long-serving prime minister Mahmoud az-Zoubi, was forced from office and replaced by the modernizing Mohammed Miro. Assad's death was immediately followed by his son's election to the party leadership, which was overwhelmingly approved by referendum. Initial tentative reforms – like the spread of "discussion clubs" and a more varied cabinet – were later curtailed.

Since Egypt's 1979 accord with Israel, Syria sees itself as the major barrier to Israel's regional dominance. Syria extended its control over Lebanon and hosts radical Palestinian factions, as well as seeking alliances with north African states. The biggest issue with Israel remains the strategically vital Golan Heights, seized by Israel during the Six Day War in 1967. Peace negotiations foundered when Ariel Sharon became prime minister of Israel in 2001.

There are enduring tensions with Turkey over attitudes to Israel and to Turkish Kurdish guerrillas, access to water, and Syria's desire for the return of its former Alexandretta Province.

Syria, alone among Arab states, backed Iran in the 1980s Iran–Iraq War. Facing international isolation over its alleged backing of terrorists, Syria regained a measure of respectability by securing the release of Western hostages of Shi'a militants in Lebanon. Assad backed the US-led allies in the 1990–1991 Gulf War, and by contributing troops legitimized the action in the eyes of the Arab world. In 2000, however, Syria sent humanitarian aid to Iraq, in defiance of the UN blockade, and in 2002 was accused by the USA of continuing to support international "terrorists."

Syria sees its extensive military capability as a significant deterrent to Israel's territorial expansion. It has fought four wars against Israel since 1948, and is the Arab world's strongest military power after Egypt. Most of its military equipment was obtained from the former Soviet Union.

Throughout 2000, increasing numbers of Lebanese protested against the continuing presence of Syrian troops on their soil – in apparent contravention of the 1989 Taif Accords – and in 2001, Syrian troops were withdrawn from Beirut. In May 2002 a US State Department official accused Syria of harboring weapons of mass destruction.

Oil, mostly good-quality light crude, was discovered along the Euphrates in the 1980s. Gas was found in substantial quantities near Palmyra. Other important minerals are phosphates and iron ore. Hydroelectric power satisfies most other energy requirements. In 2001 a joint project was launched to link the electricity grids of Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. Manufacturing is largely in oil-derived industries, including plastics and chemicals, textiles, and food products. Cotton is the main cash crop; fruit and vegetables are also grown. Livestock, especially sheep and goats, support the rural economy.

The Assad regime's most expensive and controversial environmental project has been the Euphrates dam, power plant, and irrigation network at Tabaqah. The dam's vast man-made reservoir, Lake Buhayratal al Asad, engulfed some 300 villages and destroyed 25,000 hectares (62,000 acres) of fertile farmland. A giant cement factory, built by former East Germany at Tartus in the mid-1970s, has increased pollution along Syria's Mediterranean coastline.

The road network is unreliable in rural areas, especially during the winter after rain. Bus services operate to most towns from Damascus and Aleppo. Roads are integrated with the railroads, which carry over four million passengers a year and are vital to freight transportation. The rail link from Aleppo to Mosul, Iraq, reopened in mid-2000. Damascus is the main international airport and Latakia the main port.

An adequate system of primary health care has been set up since the Ba'ath Party came to power. Treatment is free for those unable to pay. However, hospitals often lack modern equipment and medical services are in need of further investment. Rural areas in particular need assistance to combat the spread of heart, respiratory, and infectious diseases.

A modern and universally accessible system of education remains an important objective. Free and compulsory primary education for all was a priority of the Ba'ath Party when it came to power. Coeducation began in the cities and spread to rural areas under the Assad regime.There are seven state universities, notably at Damascus, Aleppo, Tishrin, and Homs. Private universities were allowed from 2001. Education ranks second, though is far behind defense, in government expenditure. UK and US politicians protest at racial incitement in Syrian school textbooks.

There is no truly independent judiciary. The powerful security services exercise arbitrary powers of arrest and detention. There are widespread reports of torture in custody. Most politicians overthrown by President Hafez al-Assad in the 1970s have been released from prison in Damascus.

Syria is far from the equitable society that early Ba'ath Party thinkers envisioned. The gulf between Syria's rich and poor is widening. The political elite, many of whom live in the West Malki suburb of Damascus, is more numerous and richer than ever before. Palestinian refugees and the urban unemployed make up the poorest groups.

Years of political turbulence, allegations of human rights abuses committed under Hafez al-Assad's regime and strict, complex travel regulations retarded the development of tourism. However, just before the 1990–1991 Gulf War, Syria began to compete with other Middle Eastern states as a tourist destination. Modern hotels were built in most cities and facilities improved to cater for growing numbers of Western visitors. Following the war, tourist numbers dropped sharply, but are now gradually recovering. Syria's main attractions are its antiquities and historic cities, with their covered markets (soukhs), baths, and mosques – Damascus, said to be the oldest inhabited city in the world; the ruined desert city of Palmyra; and Aleppo, with its citadel. Syria has a wealth of castles dating back to the Crusades and sites associated with the advent of Islam. In addition, there are as many as 3500 as yet unexcavated archaeological sites. Syria's coastline on the Mediterranean has fine beaches, and there are mountain resorts in Latakia.

Under French mandate from 1920, Syria declared independence in 1941, and achieved full autonomy in 1946. From 1958 to 1961 Syria merged with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic.

• 1963 Ba'athist military junta seizes power. Maj. Gen. Amin al-Hafez president.
• 1966 Hafez ousted by military coup supported by radical Ba'ath Party members.
• 1967 Israel overruns Syrian positions above Lake Tiberias, seizes Golan Heights, and occupies Quneitra. Syria boycotts Arab summit and rejects compromise with Israel.
• 1970 Hafez al-Assad seizes power in "corrective coup."
• 1971 Assad elected president for a seven-year term.
• 1973 New constitution confirms dominance of Ba'ath Party. War launched with Egypt against Israel to regain territory lost in 1967. Further territory temporarily lost to Israel.
• 1976 With peacekeeping mandate from Arab League, Syria intervenes to quell fighting in Lebanon.
• 1977 Relations broken off with Egypt after President Sadat's visit to Jerusalem.
• 1978 National charter signed with Iraq for union. Assad returned for second term.
• 1980 Membership of Muslim Brotherhood made capital offense. Treaty of Friendship with USSR.
• 1981 Israel formally annexes Golan Heights. Charter with Iraq collapses.
• 1982 Islamic extremist uprising in Hamah crushed. Israel invades Lebanon; Syrian missiles in Bekaa Valley destroyed.
• 1985 USA claims Syrian links to airport bombings at Rome and Vienna.
• 1986 Syrian complicity alleged in planting of bomb aboard Israeli airliner in London. EU states, with exception of Greece, impose sanctions and arms embargo.
• 1989 Diplomatic relations reestablished with Egypt.
• 1990–1991 Syrian forces crush renegade Gen. Aoun in Beirut. Steers Taif Accords over Lebanon.
• 1991 Troops take part in Operation Desert Storm. Damascus Declaration regional aid and defense pact signed.
• 1995 Ultimately inconclusive talks with Israel.
• 2000 Forced resignation after 13 years and subsequent suicide of prime minister, Mahmoud az-Zoubi. Death of Hafez al-Assad. Succession of his son Bashar.
• 2001 Israel bombs Syrian radar base in Lebanon.