Situated on the southeast African coast, Mozambique is bisected by the Zambezi River. South of the Zambezi lies a semiarid savanna lowland. The more fertile north-central delta provinces around Tete are home to most of Mozambique's ethnically diverse population. Following independence from Portugal in 1975, Mozambique was torn apart by civil war between the (then Marxist) FRELIMO government and the South African-backed Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO). The conflict finally ended in 1992 after UN arbitration. Multiparty elections in 1994 returned FRELIMO to power. Devastating floods in 2000 and 2001 created a desperate situation for this impoverished country, with famine a major threat.

Mozambique is ethnically diverse, with the overwhelming black African majority divided into numerous groups, and tiny minorities of whites, mixed-race groups, and Asians. However, the predominant social tensions are regional: RENAMO, strong in the north and central regions, accuses the FRELIMO government of consistently favoring the south. Antiwhite feelings are growing too, as "Africanists" claim that whites enjoy excessive political influence – incendiary charges in a country where average life expectancy is below 50 years and poverty is endemic.

Mozambican society centers on the extended family. In some provinces, notably Zambezia, Cabo Delgado, and Tete, this is matriarchal. Polygamy is fairly widespread among men who can support second wives. FRELIMO pays special attention to women's rights. Many women served in FRELIMO armies, and are now protected by divorce, child-custody, and husband-desertion laws. The Mozambican Women's Organization encourages participation in political life.

Strengths

Following IMF advice, the government has adopted privatization, exchange rate reforms, and trade liberalization. This has enabled Mozambique to attract aid and increase exports. Massive rural development programs target agriculture, which employs 85% of the workforce. The fisheries industry has great potential. Improved transport links with Maputo, Africa's second-largest harbor, will help it to service southern Africa's landlocked regions. The go-ahead for a new port at Dobela, in the south, was given in 2002.

Weaknesses

Overseas aid is essential to prevent at least half the population starving. Overdependence on foreign donors and companies is another long-term concern. The country is susceptible to drought, floods, and cyclones. Skilled workers often choose to work in other countries; their absence has delayed the return to normal economic activity.

Profile

Although Mozambique has enormous problems, the government in 1995 produced an optimistic plan, based on World Bank recommendations, to eradicate poverty and raise annual GDP growth to 8–9% by 2000. Devastation resulting from the floods of 2000 and 2001 has effectively destroyed such hopes, and GDP growth for 2000 is put at less than 4%.

Mozambique held its first multiparty elections in 1994.

Profile

Between 1977 and 1990, Mozambique was a one-party state ruled by the Soviet-backed FRELIMO. It had campaigned for independence since the 1960s. White South Africa and Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) both backed anti-Marxist RENAMO rebels, who fought against FRELIMO.

Changing international realities persuaded FRELIMO to adopt a democratic constitution in 1990. Meanwhile, RENAMO lost its external sponsors. Today little distinguishes the two ideologically. Although FRELIMO is the biggest party in parliament, RENAMO is clearly popular, and demands recognition for its 15 years of struggle. New groups, such as the antiwhite PALMO, COINMO, and UNAMO, have recently emerged; FRELIMO is pushing ahead with plans to decentralize power. Continuing disputes since 1999 between RENAMO and the government about provincial representation have rekindled fears for the future of multiparty democracy.

Main Political Issues

The move to democracy

In 1993, the UN secured, with difficulty, the $260 million and the 7500-strong multinational forces required to demobilize Mozambique's warring factions and to stage the first democratic elections.

Despite last-minute hitches, elections were held in 1994 which returned FRELIMO to power. However, support for RENAMO was stronger than had been expected. Their leader Afonso Dhlakama polled strongly in the presidential elections in both 1994 and 1999, contesting Joaquim Chissano's claim of victory.

Reconstruction

The government faces an enormous task in rebuilding a country where devastating floods came on top of the ravages of civil war. The fighting had left 900,000 dead, one million refugees, and an estimated 90% of the remaining population living below the poverty line.

Mozambique was a key Cold War battleground between Soviet-backed Marxism, and capitalism sponsored by the USA and South Africa. The resulting civil war devastated the country between 1977 and 1992.

In the early 1980s, however, the FRELIMO government's position began to shift as Soviet aid became erratic. Responding to President Samora Machel's overtures, the USA lifted its ban on economic assistance in 1984. Britain agreed to train FRELIMO's forces in 1987. South Africa continued tacitly to support RENAMO until at least 1990. Zimbabwean troops helped Mozambique guard the strategically important Beira and Limpopo corridors, but left in 1993.

In 1995, the UN withdrew its 6000 peacekeepers and a democratic Mozambique joined the Commonwealth, despite having no formal links with the old British Empire. President Chissano became deputy head of the SADC, but regional tensions persisted, with Mozambique accusing South Africans of gun-running, and Swaziland claiming Maputo Province as its own.

About 2.5 million men were deemed "fit for military service" in 1998, but since the civil war ended in 1992, the military's once dominant role in society has greatly diminished. Military figures, once prominent in the FRELIMO government, have been largely stripped of political influence.

Mozambique's new post-peace, British-trained permanent army was formally inaugurated in August 1994. Truly national in character, and only 9–10,000 strong, it consists of both former government and RENAMO troops.

However, one byproduct of reorganization was the demobilization of some 75,000 battle-hardened soldiers. Their severance pay ended in mid-1996, and it has not been easy to retrain them, or reintegrate them into civilian life. Some have turned to banditry.

The war's end also saw the departure of external forces, such as the Zimbabwean troops who once guarded strategic railroads against RENAMO attack, and about 6000 UN peacekeepers.

Reserves of coal, iron, bauxite, uranium, and gas are under-exploited, but a gas pipeline to South Africa is to be completed by 2004. Cotton vies with cashew nuts as the chief crop. Fishing is a vital sector; shrimps are a lucrative export. Electricity supplies are being restored, and the Mozal aluminum smelter opened in 2000.

Floods followed by droughts are often devastating. The floods of early 2000, resulting from a combination of cyclones and torrential rain, affected an estimated one million people. More than 200,000 were displaced by the floods of 2001. The worst drought in living memory was in 1982–1984; it killed 100,000 and left four million people close to starvation. Civil war pushed rural populations toward the cities and coasts, resulting in overcrowding, disease, pollution, and desertification on abandoned farms. However, ecological concerns are still low on the agenda.

The billion-dollar Maputo Corridor, launched in 1995, reconnects South African industrial centers with the Mozambican coast, and should also facilitate port modernization. CFM, the state-owned railroad company, is cooperating with other neighboring states. The national airline is returning profits. Even so, millions of land mines still hamper access, damaged bridges have yet to be rebuilt, and remote communities remain isolated.

Thousands of people lost limbs from land mines, or suffered other appalling injuries and psychological trauma, during Mozambique's savage civil war. Health services have improved since the war's end, and preventive medicines and antenatal care are provided free. Doctors serve a mandatory two years in rural areas. Many private clinics have been established since 1987. However, in 1999 cholera, a lingering byproduct of war, was reported in Beira, and in Niassa, Cabo Delgado, and Nampula provinces. An estimated one million Mozambicans have AIDS.

At independence, between 85% and 95% of the adult population were illiterate, and school closures during the civil war created a lost generation of uneducated people. A target of educating at least 86% of children was set for 2000. The government used World Bank/IMF debt relief to strengthen the education budget in 2001.

Mozambique is awash with weapons. There are many bandits, often former soldiers, in rural areas; road travel is unsafe. Senior officials stand accused of misappropriating food aid money.

Mozambique is one of the world's poorest countries, with over 90% of the people living below the breadline even before the floods of 2000 and 2001, which left thousands homeless. Measures adopted in the 1990s to attract Western aid made conditions tougher, raising the price of rice by 600%. The recent export boom has generally bypassed the traditional subsistence farmer. Only the higher echelons of FRELIMO, RENAMO, and other political parties have cars, air-conditioning, and brick-built apartments. Free-market reforms, however, are gradually increasing access to consumer goods.

Mozambique used to attract around 300,000 South Africans and Rhodesians a year in the 1970s, but the tourist industry was destroyed by the civil war and is only slowly being rebuilt. Land mines still render travel outside the capital hazardous, while food shortages, poor infrastructure, and costly international flights are added obstacles. Further setbacks followed the floods in 2000.

Given political stability, though, Mozambique could yet exploit its excellent beaches and game reserves, which include the Gorongosa Game Park. Some hotel groups are once more targeting Maputo as a luxury tourist and conference venue.

The Portuguese tapped the local trade in slaves, gold, and ivory in the 16th century and made Mozambique a colony in 1752. Large areas were run by private companies until 1929.

• 1964 FRELIMO starts war of liberation.
• 1975 Independence. FRELIMO leader Samora Machel is president.
• 1976 Resistance movement RENAMO set up inside Mozambique by Rhodesians.
• 1976–1980 Mozambique closes Rhodesian border and supports Zimbabwean freedom fighters. Reprisals by RENAMO.
• 1977 FRELIMO constitutes itself as Marxist–Leninist party.
• 1980 South Africa takes over backing of RENAMO.
• 1982 Zimbabwean troops arrive to guard Mutare–Beira corridor.
• 1984 Nkomati Accord: South Africa agrees to stop support for RENAMO, and Mozambique for ANC, but fighting continues.
• 1986 RENAMO declares war on Zimbabwe. Tanzanian troops reinforce FRELIMO. Machel dies in mysterious air crash in South Africa. Joaquim Chissano replaces him.
• 1988 Nkomati Accord reactivated. Mozambicans allowed back to work in South African mines.
• 1989 War and malnutrition said to claim one million lives. FRELIMO drops Marxism–Leninism.
• 1990 Multipartyism and free-market economy in new constitution. RENAMO breaches cease-fire.
• 1992 Chissano signs peace agreement with RENAMO.
• 1994 Democratic elections return FRELIMO to power.
• 1995 Joins Commonwealth. Economic reforms begun.
• 1999 G7 chooses Mozambique as flagship for international debt relief initiative. RENAMO disputes results of December elections.
• 2000–2001 Thousands displaced by devastating floods.