Lying in northwest South America, Colombia has coastlines on both the Caribbean and the Pacific. The east is densely forested and sparsely populated, and separated from the western coastal plains by the Andes mountains. The Andes divide into three ranges (cordilleras) in Colombia. The eastern range is divided from the two western ranges by the densely populated Magdalena river valley. The Colombian lowlands are very wet, hot, and fertile, supporting two harvests and allowing many crops to be planted at any time of year. A state plagued by instability and violence, Colombia is noted for its coffee, emeralds, gold, and narcotics trafficking.

The majority of Colombians are people of mixed blood. An estimated 450,000 indigenous Amerindians are largely concentrated in the southwest and Amazonia, although some communities are scattered throughout the country. A small black population lives along both coasts, particularly in Chocó, Colombia's poorest region. Blacks are the most unrepresented group.

Some progress has been made in giving Amerindians a greater political voice. In 1991, constitutional reforms reserved two seats in the Senate for indigenous representatives, and Amerindian pressure groups are increasingly active. Harassment by landowners and narcotics traffickers continues in Amazonia, and very few investigations into suspected human rights violations against Amerindians have led to prosecutions.

Women in Colombia have a higher profile than in much of the rest of Latin America. Many are prominent in the professions, though few reach the top in politics. The traditional extended Catholic family is still the norm. Regional identity is strong.

Strengths

Substantial oil and coal deposits plus well-developed hydroelectric power makes Colombia almost self-sufficient in energy. Diversified export sector – especially coffee and coal. Light manufactures. Worldwide market for cocaine.

Weaknesses

Narcotics-related violence, corruption, and political instability discourage foreign investors. Domestic industry uncompetitive owing to protection. High unemployment. Coffee and oil subject to world price fluctuations.

Profile

Of all the Latin American economies, Colombia's is probably the closest to the US model. The state has traditionally played a relatively minor role and Colombia has a successful private export sector. A program of privatization and macroeconomic stabilization was rewarded with IMF assistance of $1.5 billion in 2002.

Most wealth is found in the Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali regions. Rural areas are largely underdeveloped. The main obstacle to growth is the instability caused by the narcotics business and protracted conflict. Given stability and investment, Colombia's potential for growth is considerable.

Colombia is a presidential democracy, with a bicameral Congress. Presidents may not serve two consecutive terms.

Profile

The two-party system which had held sway from the late 1950s appeared to have been fractured by the 21st century. The dominance of the PSC and the PL, with few ideological differences, was undermined by electoral breakthroughs by new, smaller parties, culminating in the presidential victory of right-wing independent Alvaro Uribe Velez in 2002. Pervasive official corruption and the violence associated with drugs cartels, guerrillas, paramilitaries, and the military have seriously weakened public confidence in the state and the government, and have deterred foreign investors.

Main Political Issues

Elusive peace

Against a background of decades of civil conflict, former president Andres Pastrana Arango (1998–2002) took political risks in pursuit of a lasting peace, granting "safe havens" in remote areas to the Armed Revolutionary Forces of Colombia (FARC) and National Liberation Army (ELN). Mutual suspicions undermined these peace efforts, which were abandoned in early 2002. A renewed military offensive focused mainly on the FARC.

Violence

At least 2856 people were kidnapped in 2001, including 35 foreigners, with guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries blamed for 85% of cases. Unions said that 152 labor leaders were killed. The murder in 2002 of the Archbishop of Cali rocked the nation.

Good relations with the USA are conditional on tough measures to fight the narcotics trade. A $1.3 billion military aid package, approved in 2000, provided training, intelligence, and hardware, ostensibly to assist the "Plan Colombia" antidrug program. The boundary between this aim and the targeting of guerrilla groups was always blurred. The army's invasion in 2002 of the FARC's demilitarized haven reportedly was assisted by US military advisers. However, the US administration fought shy of describing events as a chapter in the US-led war on terrorism insisting that it was operating within legal limits set down by the Congress. Colombia's neighbors fear a "spillover" of violence and refugees.

The military is powerful, but rarely intervenes directly in politics. Human rights groups accuse the armed forces and their paramilitary allies of gross and systematic abuses, involving torture and murder, in their fight against guerrilla groups and the production of narcotics. Although restructured in 1998, the army high command remained suspicious of peace negotiations and supported a tougher stance against the rebels, successfully exploiting tensions to expand substantially under President Pastrana, with numbers set to rise still more. Orders were given in February 2002 to retake the FARC "safe haven."

Colombia participates in the joint Latin American Defense Force. The USA supplies most arms and training, especially through "Plan Colombia."

Colombia has substantial oil reserves but needs increasing investment to maintain production. Coal and gas are important, and it is a major producer of gold, platinum, silver, and emeralds.

Cattle-ranching, logging, coca growing, and spraying cause soil degradation and loss of natural habitats.

Roads in the north are in reasonable condition. Those in the south and east tend to be rutted and badly affected by the frequent rains. Continuing instability means that roads are frequently blocked by the guerrillas and the military. Most of the railroad is closed.

Rivers are an important means of transportation; the Magdalena, Orinoco, Atrato, and Amazon river systems are all extensively navigable. Plans exist to connect Colombia to the Pan-American Highway.

Budget cuts have reduced health spending. Private care is growing. Only 16% of Colombians benefit from any social security system, rather fewer than in most Latin American states. Rural areas have little health provision, since most doctors work in the larger cities. A polio vaccination campaign has largely eradicated the virus from Colombia, except in coastal regions.

Education in Colombia is free and compulsory, and is a mix of French and US models, with a baccalauréat examination taken at the end of secondary school. Provision in rural areas is poor and absenteeism high. Where provided, public and university education is generally of a high standard, but the resources available to public education have decreased due to budget cuts. The rich send their children to private schools and universities in the USA.

Colombia is one of the most violent countries in the world. Armed groups assassinated 20 mayoral candidates and 20 mayors, and kidnapped 200 other candidates, in regional and local elections in 2000. In late 2001, the local monitoring group Fundación País Libre reported 2856 cases of kidnapping that year, mostly by guerrillas and paramilitaries, the rest blamed on other criminal groups. Anonymous gunmen murdered the Archbishop of Cali in 2002. NGOs estimate that 2 million people have been displaced over the last 14 years. Homicide is the main cause of death among young men in cities; overall, it rates after cancer in the mortality stakes. Much of the violence is narcotics-related, and Barracabermeja, Bogotá, Cali, and Medellín can be dangerous; the army, police, paramilitaries, and guerrillas are thought to be involved. Frequent armed robberies and kidnappings make wealthy residents extremely security conscious. A relatively new phenomenon is that of "social cleansing," the murder of street children and beggars by armed gangs, some in Bogotá funded by businesses.

There is little social mobility; the historically wealthy Spanish families are still dominant in political and business life, but the entry of drugs-related money has created new layers of rich in cities and among landowners. Drug money also finances the import of consumer goods such as TV sets, computers, and perfume. The wealthy go to the USA for medical treatment and educate their children overseas. The rural poor are mostly landless. The inhabitants of shanty towns in Barranquilla, Buenaventura, Cali, and Cartagena form the poorest groups.

Tourism in Colombia is largely limited to the beaches of the Caribbean coast. Cartagena, Barranquilla, and Santa Marta are the main resorts. Cartagena has also been developed as a major Latin American conference center.

The expansion of tourism has been limited by Colombia's political instability and the prevalence of narcotics-related crime. The well-publicized activities of drugs cartels in Medellín and Cali, and instances of kidnappings in Bogotá are major deterrents.

Limited infrastructure makes many regions of the country, particularly Amazonia to the east of the Andes, almost inaccessible. The Caribbean coast is also barely exploited.

In 1525, Spain began the conquest of Colombia, which became its chief source of gold.

• 1819 Simón Bolívar defeats Spanish at Boyacá. Republic of Gran Colombia formed with Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama.
• 1830 Venezuela and Ecuador split away during revolts and civil wars.
• 1849 Centralist Conservative and federalist Liberal parties established.
• 1861–1886 Liberals hold monopoly on power.
• 1886–1930 Conservative rule.
• 1899–1903 Liberal "War of 1000 Days" revolt fails; 120,000 die.
• 1903 Panama secedes, but is not recognized by Colombia until 1921.
• 1930 Liberal President Olaya Herrera elected by coalition in first peaceful change of power.
• 1946 Conservatives take over.
• 1948 Shooting of Liberal mayor of Bogotá and riot known as El Bogotazo spark civil war, La Violencia, to 1957; 300,000 killed.
• 1953–1957 Military dictatorship of Rojas Pinilla.
• 1958 Conservatives and Liberals agree to alternate government in a National Front until 1974. Other parties banned.
• 1965 Left-wing guerrilla National Liberation Army and Maoist Popular Liberation Army founded.
• 1966 Pro-Soviet FARC guerrilla group formed.
• 1968 Constitutional reform allows new parties, but two-party parity continues. Guerrilla groups proliferate from now on.
• 1984 Minister of justice assassinated for attempting to enforce antidrugs campaign.
• 1985 M-19 guerrillas blast way into Ministry of Justice; 11 judges and 90 others killed. Patriotic Union (UP) party formed.
• 1986 Liberal Virgilio Barco Vargas wins presidential elections, ending power-sharing. UP wins ten seats in parliament. Right-wing paramilitary start murder campaign against UP politicians. Violence by both left-wing groups and death squads run by drugs cartels continues.
• 1989 M-19 reaches peace agreement with government, including the granting of a full pardon. Becomes legal party.
• 1990 Presidential candidates of UP and PL murdered during campaign. Liberal César Gaviria elected on antidrugs platform.
• 1991 New constitution legalizes divorce, prohibits extradition of Colombian nationals. Indigenous peoples' democratic rights guaranteed, but territorial claims not addressed.
• 1992–1993 Medellín drugs cartel leader, Pablo Escobar, captured, escapes and shot dead by police.
• 1995–1996 President Samper cleared of charges of receiving Cali cartel drug funds for elections.
• 1999 Earthquake kills thousands.
• 2001 US-backed spraying of coca plantations and destruction of food crops by herbicides provokes resentment.
• 2002 Peace talks abandoned. Renewed military offensive. Independent candidate Alvaro Uribe Velez elected president.