Located in northeast Africa, the former empire of Ethiopia is the cradle of an ancient civilization which adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 4th century. It has been landlocked since 1993, when Eritrea, on the Red Sea, seceded. Ethiopia is mountainous except for desert lowlands in the northeast and southeast, and is prone to devastating drought and famine. A long civil war ended in 1991 with the defeat of the Stalinist military dictatorship that had ruled since 1974. A free-market, multiparty democratic system now provides substantial regional autonomy. War with Eritrea in 1998–2000 brought heavy losses on both sides before a peace agreement was signed in December 2000. Arbitrators finished redefining the border in spring 2002.

There are 76 nations in Ethiopia, speaking 286 languages. Oromos (or Gallas) form the largest group. whereas less than 5% of the population are Tigreans.

Civil war was sparked by fighting between different ethnic groups, but they later united in opposition to the Mengistu regime. Ethnic tensions are still near the surface, in spite of the new federal structure, and there have been reports of boundary disputes in several regions. The Oromos withdrew from the Tigrean-dominated government in 1992. Hostility to the government has also been voiced by disaffected Amharas, who had been dominant for several centuries, and by the Orthodox Church. The aspirations of ethnic Somalis in the southeast are another source of tension.

Most of the small Jewish community, which has lived in Ethiopia for 2000 years, was evacuated to Israel in 1991, but more than 20,000 remain, waiting for Israel to offer them citizenship.

The participation of women in rural organizations is increasing, reflecting the key role women played in the war.

Strengths

Increased economic aid in 1990s. End of total state control. Coffee production.

Weaknesses

Overwhelming dependence on agriculture. Periodic serious droughts. War-damaged infrastructure. Massive displacement of population by war and drought. Small industrial base. Lack of skilled workers. Legacy of Mengistu regime's centrally planned economy.

Profile

After the end of the civil war in 1991, Ethiopia began moving toward a market economy by encouraging foreign investment and reforming land tenure. Economic decline was reversed in 1993 as agricultural and industrial output grew, with foreign aid used to fund the purchase of parts and raw materials for manufacturing. These gains were undermined by war with Eritrea in 1998–2000 and the renewed danger of severe drought-related famine in 2000.

The transitional period which followed the collapse of the Mengistu military dictatorship in 1991 ended in 1995 with multiparty elections.

Profile

The current government, reelected in 2000, succeeded that set up in 1991 by the EPRDF, the strongest of the groups that fought Mengistu's Marxist regime and chiefly responsible for winning the civil war. Prime Minister Meles Zenawi is the leader of the Tigrean People's Liberation Front, the largest group within the EPRDF. There is growing opposition from the Oromos and Amharas to the dominance of Tigreans. The nine states are largely governed by elected governments dominated by local liberation movements.

Main Political Issue

Ethnic representation

The 1994 constitution establishing a nine-state federation grants the states considerable autonomy, including the right to secede, as Eritrea did in 1993. The EPRDF government believes this to be the best way to prevent secessionist conflict and maintain national unity. The ruling broad-based coalition is ideologically dominated by Tigrean politicians.

Manpower and financial constraints have prevented a systematic survey of mineral resources. At present, mining contributes less than 1% of GDP. Ethiopia has great potential for hydroelectric power which, in the long run, could offset a domestic reliance on fuelwood and slow massive deforestation and soil erosion. Current exploration for oil and gas has revealed reserves in the Ogaden, but exploitation has not begun. When Eritrea seceded in 1993, Ethiopia lost other substantial oil reserves and many oil concessions.

Only about half of the population lives within 12 km (8 miles) of a health unit. Hospital building, distribution of resources to rural areas, outpatient visits, and referrals are all very slow. Skin and eye diseases are common, and incidence of HIV/AIDS is among the highest in the world. Mission hospitals are of a reasonably high standard. The use of traditional remedies is widespread.

Secondary education is in English and Amharic. Schools are basic and classes crowded; education was severely disrupted during the civil war. Addis Ababa University, a center of political activity (usually anti-EPRDF), suffers periodic closures and the dismissal of leading academics.

Most Ethiopians are extremely poor, many of the country's wealthier families having fled into exile in recent years. Ethiopian Christian culture places more value on maintaining traditional social structures than on realising individual ambition. Living at subsistence level and a reliance on traditional agriculture remain the general expectation.

After repelling a devastating Muslim invasion in 1523, Ethiopia developed as an isolated empire until Egyptian and Sudanese incursions in the 1850s led to its renewed political power under Emperor Teodros. His successor, Menelik II, doubled the empire southward and eastward.

• 1896 Italian invasion of Tigre defeated. Europeans recognize Ethiopia's independence.
• 1913 Menelik II dies.
• 1916 His son, Lij Iyasu, deposed for his conversion to Islam and proposed alliance with Turkey. Menelik's daughter, Zauditu, becomes empress with Ras Tafari as regent.
• 1923 Joins League of Nations.
• 1930 Zauditu dies. Ras Tafari crowned Emperor Haile Selassie.
• 1936 Italians occupy Ethiopia. League of Nations fails to react.
• 1941 British oust Italians and restore Haile Selassie, who sets up a constitution, parliament, and cabinet, but retains personal power and the feudal system.
• 1952 Eritrea, ruled by Italy until 1941, then under British mandate, federated with Ethiopia.
• 1962 Unitary state created; Eritrea loses autonomy despite demands of secessionists.
• 1972–1974 Famine kills 200,000.
• 1974 Strikes and army mutinies at Haile Selassie's autocratic rule and country's economic decline. Dergue (Military Committee) stages coup.
• 1975 Becomes socialist state: nationalizations, worker cooperatives, and health reforms.
• 1977 Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam takes over. Somali invasion of Ogaden defeated with Soviet and Cuban help.
• 1978–1979 Thousands of political opponents killed or imprisoned.
• 1984 Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE) set up on Soviet model. One million die in famine after drought and years of war. Live Aid concert raises funds for relief.
• 1986 Eritrean rebels now control the whole northeastern coast.
• 1987 Serious drought again threatens famine.
• 1988 Eritrean and Tigrean People's Liberation Fronts (EPLF and TPLF) begin new offensives. Mengistu's budget is for "Everything to the War Front." Diplomatic relations with Somalia restored.
• 1989 Military coup attempt fails. TPLF in control of most of Tigre. TPLF and Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Movement form alliance – EPRDF.
• 1990 Military gains by opponents of Mengistu regime. Moves toward market economy and restructuring of ruling party to include non-Marxists. Distribution of food aid for victims of new famine is hampered by government and rebel forces.
• 1991 Mengistu accepts military defeat and flees country. EPRDF enters Addis Ababa, sets up provisional government, promising representation for all ethnic groups. Outbreaks of fighting continue, between mainly Tigrean EPRDF and opposing groups.
• 1993 Eritrean independence recognized following referendum.
• 1995 Transitional rule ends. EPRDF wins landslide in multiparty elections, sets up first democratic government. New nine-state federation.
• 1998–2000 Border war with Eritrea.
• 2000 OAU peace treaty signed. Haile Selassie's remains buried in Trinity Cathedral, Addis Ababa.
• 2001 Ethiopia completes troop withdrawal from Eritrea.
• 2002 Border redefined.