Afghanistan lies landlocked in central Asia, three-quarters of its territory inaccessible terrain. Its political system, economy, and infrastructure have been devastated by decades of armed conflict. In the 1980s Islamic mujahideen factions defeated the Soviet-backed communist regime, but rivalries undermined their fragile power-sharing agreement and the hard-line taliban militia swept to power in 1996. Islamic dress codes and behavior were vigorously enforced and women left with few rights or opportunities. The taliban regime crumbled in the face of the US-led "war on terrorism" launched in late 2001.

Ethnic divisions largely determined intra-mujahideen feuding after 1992. Pashtuns have traditionally been the rulers of Afghanistan, and dominated the taliban. The fall of that regime in 2001 provided the opportunity for the Tajik–Uzbek alliance to enforce a power-sharing agreement. Pashtuns have since faced reprisal attacks, particularly in the north, where they are a minority. Religious differences between Sunnis and Shi'as became acute under the Sunni taliban regime.

Some two million of the country's population were killed in the ten-year conflict which followed the invasion by Soviet Union forces in 1979 and in the post-1992 civil war. As many people again were maimed. A further six million people were forced to flee to neighboring Pakistan and Iran; many returned, but the fighting in 2001 created a fresh wave of refugees and left hundreds of thousands more people internally displaced.

Women had few rights under the rigid Islamic regime of the taliban. The interim government has lifted the ban on women in employment and allowed girls to resume schooling.

Strengths

Very few, apart from illicit opium trade. Agriculture still the largest sector. Overseas assets unfrozen from 2002.

Weaknesses

Decades of fighting; agriculture, industry, and infrastructure in ruins. Communication links damaged by earthquakes and devastated by bombing in 2001.

Profile

The protracted fighting has left Afghanistan one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Estimates suggest that $4 billion is needed to rebuild the country and that over 80% of infrastructure has been destroyed. Agricultural activity has fallen back from pre-1979 levels; the Soviets' "scorched earth" policy laid waste large areas, and much of the rural population fled to the cities. Many farmers turned back to growing poppies for opium production, but saw little profit from the trade, despite Afghanistan being one of the world's largest sources of opium. Poppy cultivation was eventually banned by the taliban, and remains prohibited under the new regime.

The political system had virtually collapsed in Afghanistan prior to the 1996 taliban takeover. Rival mujahideen factions had been in control since April 1992, when the communist President Najibullah was forced to step down.

According to the 1993 Islamabad peace accord, elections were to be held by the end of the year. These were indefinitely postponed owing to factional fighting, which led in early 1995 to the emergence of a potent new force, the extremist Islamic taliban. Initially the product of Islamic schools in the refugee camps on the Pakistani border, the taliban were mostly ethnic Pashtuns, and their support strongest around Kandahar in the south. Kabul fell to them in 1996, and an opposition Northern Alliance headed by the former president, Burhanuddin Rabbani of the Jamiat-i-Islami, failed to reverse the position. On assuming power the taliban declared Afghanistan to be a "complete" Islamic state, and imposed a strict Islamic code.

The US-led intervention in late 2001 helped replace the taliban regime with groups allied to the Northern Alliance, which succeeded in gaining control of most major cities, including Kabul. Later that year UN-sponsored talks led to the formation of an interim government headed by Pashtun leader Hamid Karzai, who is committed to implementing the decisions of a Loya Jirga (grand council), pending elections in 2004. Ex-king Zahir Shah returned in April 2002 to Kabul, where he endorsed Karzai's election as head of state by the Loya Jirga in June. Political fragility was underlined by the assassination of Vice President Haji Abdul Qadir in July.

Natural gas and coal are the most important strategic resources. In 2002 Afghanistan signed a trilateral gas agreement with Pakistan and Turkmenistan, which could generate revenue estimated at $300 million. Restoring the power generation system is a government priority. The construction of dams on the Kunar and Laghman rivers is being considered. Coal production has fallen from prewar levels and mines are in urgent need of rehabilitation.

The health service has collapsed completely and almost all medical professionals have left the country. Infant and maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the world, and life expectancy is very low. Parasitic diseases and infections are a particular problem. The UN organized a program for the chlorination of well water, following an outbreak of cholera in Kabul, and launched a mass measles vaccination program in January 2002.

Under the taliban regime most women in Afghanistan had very little access to health care; their admission to hospital was strongly discouraged, as was the employment of female medical staff.

Under the taliban, education for women was strictly limited and segregation rigidly enforced; the literacy rate for women is the lowest in the world. The Northern Alliance announced the lifting of restrictions on female education in November 2001. Kabul University, which was closed in 1992, has been partially reopened..

The vast majority of Afghans live in conditions of extreme poverty. The country does not have the resources to feed its people at present – a situation exacerbated by the severe drought of 2000, the 2001 fighting, and the 2002 earthquakes. The return of refugees from neighboring Pakistan and Iran would make Afghanistan even more dependent on outside assistance for its rehabilitation.

A number of mujahideen leaders accumulated personal fortunes during the civil war. These derive in part from the substantial foreign aid that was once available and, in some cases, from the trafficking of opium.

The foundations of an Afghan state of Pashtun peoples were laid in the mid-18th century, when Durrani Ahmad Shah became paramount chief of the Abdali Pashtun peoples.

• 1838–1842 First Anglo-Afghan war.
• 1878 Second British invasion of Afghan territory.
• 1879 Various Afghan areas annexed by Britain under Treaty of Gandmak. Second treaty establishes Durand line, a contentious boundary between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
• 1919 Declaration of Afghan independence.
• 1933 Mohammed Zahir Shah ascends the throne.
• 1953–1963 Mohammed Daud Khan prime minister, resigns after king rejects his proposals for democratic reforms.
• 1965 Elections held, but monarchy retains power. Marxist Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) formed and banned. PDPA splits into the Parcham and Khalq factions.
• 1973 Daud mounts a coup, abolishes monarchy, and declares republic. Mujahideen rebellion begins. Thousands of refugees flee into Pakistan.
• 1978 Opposition to Daud from PDPA culminates in Saur revolution. Revolutionary Council under Mohammad Taraki takes power. Daud assassinated.
• 1979 Taraki ousted. Hafizullah Amin takes power. Amin killed in December coup backed by USSR. 80,000 Soviet Army troops invade Afghanistan. Mujahideen rebellion stepped up into full-scale guerrilla war, with US backing.
• 1980 Babrak Karmal, leader of Parcham PDPA, installed as head of Marxist regime.
• 1986 Najibullah replaces Karmal as head of government.
• 1989 Soviet Army withdraws. Najibullah remains in office.
• 1992 Najibullah hands over power to mujahideen factions.
• 1993 Mujahideen agree on formation of government.
• 1994 Power struggle between Burhanuddin Rabbani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar rekindles civil war.
• 1996 Taliban take power and impose strict Islamic regime.
• 1998 Earthquake in northern regions kills thousands.
• 1999 Power-sharing agreement between taliban and Northern Alliance breaks down.
• 2000 Country suffers worst drought in 30 years. UN imposes sanctions in response to taliban support for Osama bin Laden.
• 2001 Taliban government falls after intense US-led airstrikes from October – first campaign in "war on terrorism." Interim government formed; peacekeepers deployed in Kabul.
• 2002 Earthquakes kill thousands. Ex-king zahir Shah returns from exile. Loya Jirga convenes, elects Hamid Karzai head of state.