DESTINATION KAZAKSTAN

Facts at a Glance

Back on top of the crust, Kazakstan has been badly ravaged by dodgy Soviet schemes which have poisoned, denuded and drained. The country was set aside for massive wheat production in the 1960s, setting off a train of ecological nightmares. Water from the Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya rivers was diverted for irrigation, causing the Aral Sea, which they fed, to shrink dramatically. The fishing port of Aralsk was left high and dry and became a ghost town; the fish died out from rising salt levels; rains stopped; salt, sand and dust blew in storms for hundreds of km around; birds and animals have fled the river delta. Chemical residues from agriculture have found their way into the rivers and into Kazakstan's drinking water, while the Kazak steppe has become eroded, arid and salinised from over-cultivation. In case Kazakstan hadn't had enough, Moscow used the area between Semey and Pavlodar as a testing ground for nuclear weapons between 1949 and 1989; around 40 million people have been adversely affected by radiation.

Amazingly, there's still a reasonably good chance you'll see some memorable beasts and plants once you get out of the dead zones. At the very least there are the millions of rooks that inhabit the towns and the Cannabis indica that grows thick and wild by the roadsides. You're likely to spot antelope, brown bear, wild boar, lynx, and eagles in Kazakstan's mountains, though sighting the elusive snow leopard may take a tad longer. Poppies and tulips grow wild in the grassy steppes, trampled upon by roe deer, wolves, foxes and badgers.

Summer is sizzingly hot with desert temperatures topping 40°C (105°F) during the day, but often dropping to less than half that at night. Snow starts to fall around November and the mountain passes fill with snow until April, sometimes even May. Winters are bitterly cold, even in the desert. Annual precipitation ranges from less than 100mm (3.9in) a year in the deserts to 1500mm (58.5in) in the mountains. Much of the summer rain on the steppes comes from violent thunderstorms which often cause local flash floods.

No one knows for sure when the miraculously fine, sensuous fabric spun from the cocoon of the Bombyx caterpillar first reached the west from China. Even after the secret of sericulture arrived in the Mediterranean world, Chinese silk producers consistently exercised the advantage of centuries of know-how. The demand for this thread saw unprecedented trade upon what became known as the Silk Road - a shifting web of caravan tracks rather than a single road.

For a thousand years after the birth of Christ, Central Asia was the scene of pendulum-like shifts of power between nomadic hordes and the sedentary civilisations of Eurasia's periphery. Horses, rather than silk, had the greatest influence over regional events, since the vast grasslands fed millions of them. Mounted archers were the most potent military force in the region. The Huns, the Western Turks, Arabs and the Chinese all ventured into the region during this period.

From 1219, Mongol hordes under the leadership of Jenghiz Khan swept through most of Eurasia. The ravages inflicted on the region were so harsh that settled civilisation in Central Asia did not begin to recover until Russian colonisation some 600 years later. Jenghiz was brutal but he also perceived the importance of reliable trade and communications, laying down networks of guard and post stations and introducing tax breaks to boost economic activity. In modern terms, the streets were safe and the trains ran on time. The resulting flurry of trade on the Silk Road was the background to many famous medieval travellers' journeys, including Marco Polo's.

The splits and religious divisions which followed the death of Jenghiz led to the fracturing of the Mongol Empire, the rise of the tyrant's tyrant Timur the Lame (aka Tamerlaine) at the end of the 14th century and the emergence of Kazaks as a distinct people for the first time. Springing from the descendants of Mongols, Turkic and other peoples, the Kazaks went on to form one of the world's last great nomadic empires, stretching across the steppe and desert north, east and west of the Syr-Darya and capable of bringing 200,000 horsemen into the field. The ruin of the Kazaks came thanks to the Oyrats, a warlike, expansionist Mongolian people who subjugated eastern Kazakstan, the Tian Shan and parts of Xinjiang to form the Zhungarian Empire in the 1630s. The Kazaks were savagely and repeatedly pummelled, particularly betwen 1690 and 1720. This 'Great Disaster' made them susceptible to the Russian expansion of the 19th century.

Enter the Bolsheviks (stage Left), who quickly liberated the Central Asians from any ideas of self determination. Although there were frequent demonstrations of discontent, these were quickly and soundly defeated by the communists. Meanwhile a charismatic Young Turk named Enver Pasha had bent Lenin's ear and convinced the Soviet leader he could deliver him all of Central Asia and British India. In reality Pasha had decided to ditch Lenin and win himself a Pan Turkic state with Central Asia as its core. A large army and some clever concessions to the Islamic religion saw Pasha's support wane and Moscow's reign prevail.

Kazakstan's traditional tribal divisions - the Great Horde in the south, the Middle Horde in the centre and north-east, and the Little Horde in the west - were pasted over by the Russians and simply ignored by the Soviets but remained important as social and ethnic identifiers. In fact, nationalist confusion is one of the major legacies of Soviet rule. Since the republics of Kazak, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Turkmen and Uzbek began to be created in the 1920s each was carefully shaped to contain pockets of differing nationalities with long-standing claims to the land. The present face of Central Asia is a product of this `divide and rule' policy.

Soviet rule in Central Asia was a parade of ridiculous ideas: assimilating the region's ethnic groups, converting the steppe into a giant cotton plantation, using Kazakstan as a 'secret' nuclear testing zone. The political, social, economic and ecological disasters resulting from these experiments meant all five republics had little to lose by declaring their sovereignty when glasnost and perestroyka led to the disintegration of the USSR in 1991. Later that year they joined with 11 other former Soviet states to form the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Today Kazakstan is grappling with the free market and an enthusiastic brand of deregulation which tends toward anarchy. President Nazarbayev, a former Communist, is imposing his peculiar ideas about democracy (weakened parliament, handy constitutional changes) on the country he hopes to turn into Central Asia's economic tiger. Nazarbayev's sweeping election victory in early 1999 was aided by the banning of major opponents on frivolous grounds and the fact that one of the remaining candidates based his campaign on an ability to crush glass with his bare hands.

The spring festival of Nauryz ('New Days') is by far the biggest holiday. It's an Islamic adaptation of pre-Islamic vernal equinox or renewal celebrations and can include traditional games, music and drama festivals, street art and colourful fairs. Medeu, outside Almaty, hosts the Voice of Asia rock festival in August when bands from all over the CIS and Asia dribble on the drum riser.

Important Muslim holy days, scheduled according to the lunar calendar, include Ramadan, the month of sunrise to sunset fasting; Eid-ul-Fitr, the celebrations marking the end of Ramadan; and Eid-ul-Azha, the feast of sacrifice, when those who can afford to, slaughter an animal and share it with relatives and the poor.

Kazakstan has the most advanced banking system in Central Asia, and credit card use is on the increase. Generally, though, you can't rely on anything but cash. US dollars are the easiest to exchange (particularly on the black market) but Deutschmarks can also come in handy. Most banks will only accept new notes. You may be able to change travellers cheques in Almaty - American Express are the most widely accepted.

Tipping is not common, although a few top end restaurants automatically add a 5% to 15% service charge to the bill. Tipping runs counter to many people's Islamic sense of hospitality, and may even offend them. Shops have fixed prices but bargaining in bazaars is expected.

Almaty is clean (apart from its air) and easy on the eye, with long straight avenues and low-rise uniform architecture bearing the unmistakable imprint of Russia. The Zailiysky Alatau mountains rise like a wall along Almaty's southern fringe and form a superb backdrop when weather and smog permit. There are lots of parks, space and greenery, and many of the Soviet-era buildings are striking if you look at them individually. That said, there's not a great deal to do in Almaty, which is why, for many travellers, it is little more than a way-station.

Highlights include Panfilov Park, a pleasant rectangle of greenery surrounding the bright Zenkov Cathedral. The cathedral is one of the few tzarist-era buildings to survive the 1911 earthquake, despite the fact that it is built entirely of wood and constructed without nails. Facing the west end of the park is the elaborate Arasan Baths where you can take your salami and vodka and contemplate the differences between Turkish, Russian and Finnish bathing habits. The Central State Museum provides a worthwhile, if patchy, introduction to Kazakstan's history and includes a miniature replica of the country's chief archaeological treasure, the Golden Man - a warrior's costume made from 4000 gold pieces, many finely decorated with animal motifs.

It's a friendly and fairly low-rise town, with some attractive tree-lined streets, but prone to strong steppe winds. The population is around 70% Russian, Ukrainian and German, and 30% Kazak. There are no plans to move embassies and consulates from Almaty, so the only reason you're likely to end up in Astana is if your train passes through. If you're deadset on getting there, daily flights go to/from Almaty. Buses run to/from Qaraghandy and other regional centres.

Aqsu-Zhabaghly Nature Reserve

The nerve centre of the test zone was the purpose-built town of Kurchatov, named after the leader of the team who invented the Soviet atom bomb. Today the town is known locally as `Konechnaya' - Russian for 'The End'. The town is usually restricted to official delegations but you can visit the Atomic Lake, a huge circular water-filled hole in the ground blasted out to create a reservoir in 1965. The bleak beauty of the steppe is a fitting testimony to this terrible environmental disaster. To get there, take a train north from Almaty to Semey where you should be able to pick up a car and driver.

Shymbulaq is Central Asia's best known downhill ski area and is only a day trip from Almaty. January and February are the peak months of the ski season. A few local travel agents offer ski-mountaineering trips in the central Tian Shan in July and August, and in the Alatau range between Almaty and Lake Issyk-Kul from February through April. Nearly every sports related agency offers heli-skiing to remote high peaks in old Aeroflot helicopters.

Rafting and canoeing trips on remote rivers can be arranged by several travel agencies. There is easy rafting and canoeing on the Ili River between Lake Qapshaghay and Lake Balqash, north of Almaty, from mid-April to mid-October.

Long-distance rail connections include a daily Moscow-Almaty service and another line to Almaty from China via Ürümqi. The latter route is notable for the unpleasant China-Kazakstan border crossing (think eight hours, no toilets, plundering officials). There's an overland route from Ürümqi to Almaty via the border post at Khorgos and Zharkent, accessible year round. There are two other China-Kazakstan crossings farther north, at Bakhty (Tacheng on the China side) and Maykapchigay (Jeminay in China), but it's a toss up whether they're open to foreigners.

If you're more into travelling than arriving, there's a hybrid journey by air from Turkey to Baku (Azerbaijan), by cargo vessel across the Caspian Sea to Turkmenbashi in Turkmenistan, and from there to Ashghabat, Bukhara and beyond by train.

Trains are cheap, slow and easy going, but crowded, grotty and increasingly crime-ridden. Buses are the most frequent and convenient way to get between towns cheaply, and the best way to see what remains of the land of the nomads, though long trips can be tedious and cramped, and vehicles are prone to breakdowns. An option in many areas is to hire a car and driver: taxis and private citizens are often willing to take travellers between cities.

• Trekking in Russia & Central Asia by Frith Maier is an unrivalled guide to the wild places in Central Asia.
• Journey to Khiva by Phillip Glazebrook and Apples in the Snow; A Journey to Samarkand by Geoffrey Moorhouse are accounts of travel in Central Asia on what turned out to be the eve of independence. Moorhouse's book was published in the USA as On the Other Side; A Journey Through Soviet Central Asia.
• Martha Brill Olcott's The Kazakhs is the ultimate English-language tome on the folk round these parts.
• The Silk Road: A History by Irene Frank and David Brownstone is a well illustrated and mapped history of the caravan routes that began crossing Central Asia in the 2nd century BC.
• Central Asia; A Traveller's Companion by Kathleen Hopkirk is a handy historical background to the region.
• The Great Game by Peter Hopkirk is a very readable history of the 19th-century cold war between Britain and Russia as it unfolded across Europe and Asia.
• Kim by Rudyard Kipling is the master storyteller's classic epic of the Raj during the Great Game.

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