$Unique_ID{bob00231} $Pretitle{} $Title{Indonesia History. Ancient Times} $Subtitle{} $Author{Department of Information Republic of Indonesia} $Affiliation{Embassy of Indonesia, Washington DC} $Subject{indonesia dutch indonesian java kingdom ad period sumatra later king see pictures see figures } $Date{1990} $Log{} Title: Indonesia Book: Indonesia 1990 an Official Handbook Author: Department of Information Republic of Indonesia Affiliation: Embassy of Indonesia, Washington DC Date: 1990 History. Ancient Times Indonesia did not exist as yet during the Palaeocene period (70 million years BC), the Eocene period (30 million years BC), the Oligacene period (25 million years BC) and the Miocene period (12 million years BC). It is believed that Indonesia must have existed during the Pleitocene period (4 million years BC) when it was linked with the present Asian mainland. It was during this period when the Homonids made their first appearance and the Java man inhabited the part of the world now called Indonesia. The Java Man, named Pitecanthropus Erectus by Eugene Dubois who found the fossils on the island of Java, must have been the first inhabitant of Indonesia. When the sea level rose as the result of melting ice north of Europe and the American continent, many islands emerged, including the Indonesian archipelago. It was also during this period (3000-500 BC) that Indonesia was inhabited by Sub-Mongoloid migrants from Asia who later inter-married with the indigenous people. Later still (1000 BC) inter-marriage occurred with Indo-Aryan migrants from the South-Asian sub-continent of India. The first Indian migrants mostly came from Gujarat in South-east India during the first Christian era. The Caka period in Indonesia witnessed the introduction of the Sanskrit language and the Pallawa script by the Indian Prince Aji Caka (78 AD). Besides, the Devanagari script of the Sanskrit language was also used as shown in ancient stone and copper inscriptions (paracasthies) which have been unearthed. The language and scripts were adapted and called the Kawi language which includes words and phrases derived from Javanese. Early trade relations were established between South India and Indonesia. Sumatra was then named Swarnan Dwipa or "the island of gold", Java was called Java Dwipa or "the rice island" and a Hindu kingdom in Borneo was named Kutai. Relations between the Buddhist kingdom of Crivijaya in Sumatra and Nalanda in South India were not confined to religious and cultural exchanges which later developed into diplomatic relations, but even covered a wide range of trade. The influx of Indian settlers continued during the period from the first to the seventh century AD. Peacefully and gradually the Hindu religion spread throughout the archipelago. It was adopted by all layers of the people of Java, but limited to the upper classes in the other islands. THE PERIOD OF HINDU KINGDOMS Many well-organized kingdoms with a high degree of civilization were ruled by indigenous kings who had adopted the Hindu or Buddhist religion. This explains why this period in history is called the Period of Hindu Kingdoms which lasted from ancient times to the 16th century AD. Because the culture and civilization, which emanated from the Hindu and Buddhist religions, were syncretized with the local cultural elements, the period was also referred to as the Hindu-Indonesian period. Indian culture and customs were introduced, such as the system of government in a monarchy, the ancestry system, the organization of military troops, literature, music and dances, architecture, religious practice and rituals, and even the division of laborers into castes or varnas. The Hindu literary works known as Vedas and the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics were also introduced through the wayang or shadow-play performance which is still very popular in many parts of present day Indonesia. The first Indian Buddhists arrived in Indonesia between the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. They brought with them Buddhism in its two sects, Hinayana and Mahayana with the latter becoming more advanced in the 8th century AD. With the spread of Buddhism to China many Chinese pilgrims sailed to India through the strait of Malacca. On the way there some of them called and temporarily stayed in Indonesia to learn more about Buddhism. In 1944 AD a Chinese Buddhist saint, Fa Hsien, was caught in a storm and landed in Java-Dwipa or Java island where he stayed for five months. The northern part of the island was then ruled by an Indonesian Hindu King by the name of Kudungga. Kutai on the island of Borneo was successively ruled by the Hindu kings Devawarman, Aswawarman and Mulawarman. When the Greek explorer and geographer, Ptolemy of Alexandria, wrote on Indonesia, he named either the island of Java or Sumatra "Labadiou". His chronicles described Java as a country with a good government system, with advanced agriculture, navigation and astronomy. There was even mention of the "batik" printing process of cloths that the people already knew. They also made metalware, used the metric system and printed coins. Chinese chronicles of 132 AD described the existence of diplomatic relations between Java-Dwipa and China. Ink and paper were already in use in China even since the 2nd century AD. Around 502 AD Chinese annals mentioned about the existence of the Buddhist Kingdom in South Sumatra, Kanto Li, presumably in the neighborhood of present day Palembang, which was ruled by king Gautama Subhadra and later by his son Pryawarman or Vinyawarman who established diplomatic relations with China. Because of a spelling or pronunciation difficulty, what the Chinese called "Kanto Li" was probably Crivijaya, a mighty Buddhist kingdom. On his way to India, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, I-Tsing, visited Crivijaya in 671 AD to study the Sanskrit language. He returned 18 years later in 689 AD. Crivijaya was then the center of Buddhist learning and had many well-known scholars in philosophy like Sakyakirti, Dharmapala and Vajrabudhi. The kingdom had diplomatic relations with the south Indian kingdom of Nalanda. The Crivijaya mission had built on its premises a school where Indians could learn the art of moulding bronze statues and broaden their knowledge of the Buddhist philosophy. With the spread of Buddhism, Crivijaya's influence reached out to many other parts of the archipelago. Another known Buddhist kingdom was Cailendra in Central Java. It was ruled by the kings of the Cailendra dynasty and during this period (750-850 AD) the famous Buddhist temple, Borobudur, was built. In 772 AD other Buddhist temples were built such as the Mendut, Kalasan and Pawon. All these temples are preserved as tourist objects near the city of Yogyakarta. The Cailendra kingdom was also known for its commercial and naval power, and its flourishing arts and culture. A guide to learn singing known as the Chandra Cha-ana was first written in 778 AD. One of the Pallawa language stone inscriptions of 732 AD mentioned the name of King Sanjaya who was later identified as the king of Mataram, a kingdom that replaced Cailendra in Central Java. The Prambanan temple, which was dedicated to Lord Civa, was started in 856 AD and completed in 900 AD by King Daksa. Earlier Civa temples were built in 675 AD on the Dieng mountain range, southwest of Medang Kamolan, the capital of the Mataram Kingdom. In West Java there were the kingdoms of Galuh, Kanoman, Kuningan and Pajajaran. The latter was founded by King Purana with Pakuan as its capital. It replaced the kingdom of Galuh. The kingdoms of Taruma Negara, Kawali and Parahyangan Sunda came later. At the end of the 13th century, the Crivijaya Empire began to fall as a result of severance by its vassal states and the frequent attacks by the south Indian kingdom of Chola and by the Majapahit Kingdom. In the end, Crivijaya was completely conquered by Majapahit with the support of King Aditiawarman of the Melayu kingdom. Earlier Majapahit had conquered the kingdom of Jambi in East Sumatra and by moving its expansion along the rivers, it finally annexed the kingdom of Pagar Ruyung in West Sumatra. Thus all of Sumatra was under Majapahit's rule. Meanwhile, for unknown reasons, the mighty kingdoms of Central Java disappeared from historic records and new, prosperous kingdoms emerged in East Java. King Balitung who ruled between 820 and 832 AD succeeded in uniting Central and East Java kingdoms. The disappearance of records was presumably caused by a natural disaster or an epidemic. At the end of the 10th century (911-1007 AD) the powerful kingdom of Singasari emerged in East Java under King Dharmawangsa. He codified laws and translated into Javanese the Mahabharata epic and its basic philosophy as exposed in the Bhisma Parva scripture. He also ordered the translation of the Hindu holy book, the Bhagavat Gita. Meanwhile, the island of Bali was reigned by King Airlangga who was known as a wise and strong ruler. He had water works built along the Brantas river which are still in use today. Before his death in 1409 AD he divided the kingdom into the kingdoms of Janggala and Daha or Kediri which were to be ruled by his two sons. Under Airlangga's rule literary works flourished. The Panji novels which were written during this period are still popular today and even taught in the arts faculties of the universities in Thailand, Campuchea and Malaysia. King Jayabaya of Kediri (1135-1157) wrote a book in which he foretold the downfall of Indonesia. Subsequently, so he wrote, the country would be ruled by a white race, to be followed by a yellow race. His prediction turned out to be the Dutch colonial rule and the Japanese occupation of the country during World War II. However, Jayabaya also predicted that Indonesia would ultimately regain her independence. During the golden period of the Kediri Kingdom many other literary works were produced such as the Javanese version of the Mahabharata by Mpu (saint) Sedah and his brother Mpu Panuluh. This work was published in 1157. The kingdoms of East Java were later succeeded by the Majapahit Kingdom, first ruled by Prince Wijaya who was also known as King Kartarajasa. The Moghul emperor, Kubilai Khan attempted to invade Majapahit. His troops, however, were defeated and driven back to their ships. As Majapahit grew to a powerful empire, it conquered the kingdom of Crivijaya in South Sumatra. As mentioned earlier, this Kingdom was once attacked by the Indian kingdom of Chola. Under King Hayam Wuruk the Majapahit Empire became the most powerful kingdom in the history of Indonesia. It had dependencies in territories beyond the borders of the present archipelago, such as Champa in North Vietnam, Kampuchea and the Philippines (1331-1364). King Hayam Wuruk with his able premier Gajah Mada succeeded in gradually uniting the whole archipelago under the name of Dwipantara. During this golden period of Majapahit many literary works were produced, such as "Negara Kertagama" by the famous author Prapancha (1335-1380). Parts of the book described the diplomatic and economic ties between Majapahit and Southeast Asian countries like Burma, Thailand, Tonkin, Annam, Kampuchea and even India and China. Other works in the Kawi or old Javanese language were "Pararaton", "Arjuna Wiwaha", "Ramayana", "Sarasa Muschaya" and many more. These works were later translated into modern European languages for study purposes. THE PERIOD OF ISLAMIC KINGDOMS Moslem merchants from Gujarat and Persia began to visit Indonesia in the 13th century and established trade links between this country and India and Persia. Along with trade, they propagated Islam among the Indonesian people, particularly in the coastal areas of Java such as Demak. At a later stage they even influenced and converted Hindu kings to Islam, the first being the Sultan of Demak. This Moslem Sultan later spread Islam westwards to Cirebon and Banten, and eastwards along the northern coast of Java to the kingdom of Gresik. In the end he brought the downfall of the powerful kingdom of Majapahit (1293-1520). After the fall of Majapahit, Islam spread further east where the sultanates of Bone and Goa in Sulawesi were established. Also under the influence of Islam, the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore were established in the Moluccas. North of Java, the religion spread to Banjarmasin in Borneo and further west to Sumatra, where Palembang, Minangkabau (West Sumatra), Pasai and Perlak were converted. Meanwhile, descendants of the Majapahit aristocracy, religious scholars and Hindu Ksatriyas retreated through the East Java peninsula of Blambangan to the islands of Bali and Lombok. In a later period, however, the eastern part of Lombok was converted to Islam which entered the island from the South Sulawesi city of Makassar, now named Ujungpandang. The capital of the West Java kingdom of Pajajaran was Sunda Kelapa (1300 AD) which was located in the present capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta. In 1527 Sunda Kelapa was conquered by an Islamic troop commander of the Sultanate of Demak, Falatehan. Since then the city was renamed Jaya Karta, meaning "the great city", which was the origin of the present name, Jakarta. Falatehan had also on his record the defeat of the Portuguese who tried to seize the same city. THE PORTUGUESE IN INDONESIA In their search of spices, the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia in 1511 after their conquest of the Islamic kingdom of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. They were followed by the Spaniards. They both began to propagate Christianity and were most successful in Maluku or the Moluccas. THE BEGINNING OF DUTCH COLONIALISM On the meantime the Dutch had started their ventures to seek Indonesian spices for sale on the European market with big profits. For the purpose of a more-efficient-and-better-organized-merchant trade, they established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in 1602. To protect the merchant fleet from frequent pirate attacks on the high seas, Dutch warships were ordered to accompany it. After the nationalization of the VOC in 1799, the Dutch Government had a firm grip on the vital territories of the country. People in those territories were forced to surrender their agricultural produce to the Dutch merchants. It was the beginning of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Batavia. Meanwhile, the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram became Islamic and was ruled by the Muslim Sultan, Agung Hanyokrokusumo. He developed the political power of the state and was a keen patron of the arts and culture. In 1633 he introduced the Islamic Javanese calendar. Sultan Agung was a fierce enemy of the Dutch. In 1629 he sent his troops to attack Batavia but these were repulsed by the troops of Governor General Jan Pieterszoon Coen. After the seizure of Ambon in the Moluccas in 1605 and Banda island in 1623, the Dutch secured the trade monopoly of the spice islands. A policy of ruthless exploitation by "divide and rule" tactics was carried out. In this way the indigenous inter-island trade such as between Makassar, Aceh, Mataram and Banten, as well as overseas trade, was gradually paralyzed. Indonesia was reduced to an agricultural country to supply European markets. Meanwhile, the Dutch adopted a so-called open-door policy to the Chinese in order that they could serve as middlemen in their trade with Indonesia. War Against the Dutch Sultan Hasanuddin of Goa waged a war against the Dutch in 1666 but was defeated and Goa was made a vassal state of the VOC under the treaty of Bunggaya of 1667. Prince Trunojoyo of Madura who fought the Dutch was defeated and killed in 1680. To reinforce their spice monopoly in the Moluccas, the Dutch undertook their notorious Hongi expeditions to burn down clove gardens of the people as there seemed to be overproduction which brought down the prices of cloves on the European markets. In these outrageous expeditions atrocities were committed against people who wanted to defend their crops. In 1740 the Dutch suppressed a rebellion in Jakarta, sparked by dissatisfied Chinese who were later joined by Indonesians. Ten thousand Chinese were massacred. The Kingdom of Mataram which slowly saw its dawnfall was divided by the VOC into the Principalities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. However, mismanagement and corruption forced the VOC into bankruptcy and on December 31, 1799, all its territories in Indonesia were taken over by the Dutch Administration in Batavia. BRITISH TEMPORARY RULE In 1814 the British came to Indonesia and built the Fort York in Bengkulu on the west coast of Sumatra. It was later renamed Fort Marlborough. During the Napoleonic wars in Europe when Holland was occupied by France, Indonesia fell under the rule of the British East India Company (1811-1816). Sir Thomas Stanford Raffles was appointed Lieutenant Governor General of Java and dependencies, subordinate to the Governor General in Bengal, India. Raffles introduced partial self-government and abolished the slave trade. In those days slaves were captured and traded by foreigners. He also introduced the land-tenure system, replacing the hated Dutch forced agricultural system whereby crops were grown and surrendered to the Government. The Borobudur and other temples were restored and researches conducted. Raffles wrote his famous book "The History of Java" in which he described Java's high civilization and culture. During the British' stay in Sumatra from 1814 till 1825, William Marsden wrote a similar book on the history of Sumatra which was published in 1889. At the end of the French occupation of Holland after the fall of Napoleon, the British and the Dutch signed a convention in London on August 13, 1814, in which it was agreed that Dutch colonial possessions dating from 1803 onwards should be returned to the Dutch Administration in Batavia. The Indonesian archipelago was recovered from the British in 1815. RETURN OF DUTCH RULE Soon the Dutch intensified their colonial rule but this only sparked widespread revolts to seize freedom. These revolts, however, were suppressed one after the other. To mention only a few, Thomas Matulessy alias Pattimura staged a revolt against the Dutch in the Moluccas (1816-1818). Prince Diponegoro of Mataram led the Java War from 1825 till 1830. Again it was a fierce struggle for freedom. Tuanku Imam Bonjol led the Padri War in West Sumatra, while Teuku Umar headed the Aceh War in North Sumatra (1873-1903). King Sisingamangaraja of the Bataks revolted against the Dutch in 1907. An attempt by Dutch troops to occupy Bali in 1908 was repelled by King Udayana. Revolts also were staged in Goa, South Sulawesi, and in South Kalimantan. NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS When all these regional wars of independence failed, Indonesian nationalists began to think of a more-organized struggle against Dutch colonialism. The move began with the founding of Boedi Oetomo , literally meaning "noble conduct", on May 20, 1908. This organization of Indonesian intellectuals was initially set up for educational purposes but later turned to politics. It was inspired by Japan's victory of Russia in 1901 which also gave an impetus to nationalist movements in many parts of Indonesia. The founder of Boedi Oetomo was Dr. Soetomo who was at the time a student of STOVIA, an institution to train Indonesian medical officers. Dr. Soetomo was very much influenced by Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo and supported by Gunawan and Suradji. In 1912 the Sarekat Dagang Islam or Association of Moslem Merchants was formed by Haji Samanhudi and others. The objective was first to stimulate and promote the interest of Indonesian business in the Dutch East Indies. However, in 1912 this organization of middle class businessmen turned into a political party and was renamed "Sarekat Islam" under the leadership of H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, Haji Agoes Salim and others. In 1912 a progressive Moslem organization, Muhammadiyah, was established by K.H. Akhmad Dahlan in Yogyakarta for the purpose of social and economic reforms. In December of the same year the Partai Indonesia was founded by Douwes Dekker, later named Setyabudi, with Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar Dewantoro. The objective of the party was to strive for complete independence for Indonesia. All the three leaders of the party were exiled by the colonial government in 1913. In 1914 communism was introduced in the East Indies by Dutch nationals, Sneevliet, Baars and Brandsteder. In May 1920 Sarekat Islam split into a right and a left wing, the latter was to become the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI, the Indonesian Communist Party) under the leadership of Semaun, Darsono, Alimin, Muso and others. The Powerless People's Council or Volksraad In 1916 the Sarekat Islam party held its first convention in Bandung and resolved to demand self-government for Indonesia in cooperation with the Dutch. When the Sarekat Islam demanded a share in the legislative power in the colony, the Dutch responded by setting up the Volksraad in 1918 which was virtually a powerless people's council with an advisory status. Indonesian representatives on the council were indirectly elected through regional councils, but part of the other members were appointed colonial officials. The Volksraad later developed into a semi-legislative assembly. Among the members of this body were prominent nationalist leaders like Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo, H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, Abdul Muis, Dr. G.S.S.J. Ratulangi, M.H. Thamrin, Wiwoho, Sutardjo Kartohadikusumo, Dr. Radjiman, Soekardjo Wiryopranoto and others. Under the pressure of social unrest in the Netherlands at the end of World War I, the Dutch promised to grant self-government to Indonesians. This was known as the "November promise" which was never met. Besides the "Volksraad" there was another body, called the "Raad van Indie" or "the Council of the Indies", the members of which were appointed by the Government. Achmad Djajadiningrat and Sujono were among the very few Indonesian members of this council. Restrictions of Civil Liberties Deteriorating economic conditions and increasing labor strikes prompted the colonial government in 1923 to put severe restrictions on Indonesian civil liberties and make amendments to the colonial laws and penal codes. Freedom of assembly, of speech and expression in writing was restricted. Further Growth of Indonesian Organizations Despite the political restrictions, on July 3, 1922, Ki Hajar Dewantoro founded "Taman Siswa" which was an organization to promote national education. In 1924, the Indonesian Students Association "Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia" was formed by Drs. Mohammad Hatta, Dr. Sukiman and others. This organization became a driving force of the nationalist movement to gain independence. The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) staged revolts against the colonial government in November 1926 in West Java and in January 1927 in West Sumatra. After their suppression the Government exiled many non-communist nationalist leaders to Tanah Merah which the Dutch called "Boven Digul" in Irian Jaya. Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo was exiled to Bandaneira. In February 1927 Mohammad Hatta, Achmad Soebardjo and some other members of Indonesia's Movements attended the first international convention of the "League Against Imperialism and Colonial Oppression" in Brussels together with Jawaharlal Nehru and many other prominent nationalist leaders from Asia and Africa. In July 1927, Soekarno, Sartono and others formed the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), which adopted the Bahasa Indonesia as the official language. This party adopted a militant policy of non-cooperation with the Government as the result of a fundamental conflict of interest between Indonesian nationalism and Dutch colonialism. In the same year an all Indonesia nationalist movement was organized by the Indonesian youth and women to replace earlier organizations which were formed on the basis of regionalism, such as the "Young Java", the "Young Sumatra" and the "Young Ambon" associations. On October 28, 1928, delegates to the second Indonesian Youth Congress in Jakarta, pledged allegiance to "one country, one nation and one language, Indonesia". Meanwhile, the Technical Faculty was set up in Bandung in 1920. The Law Faculty was opened in Jakarta in 1924 to replace the former Law School. The Medical Faculty was opened in Jakarta in 1927 to replace the old Medical School. Except the Technical Faculty in Bandung, all the faculties in Jakarta were merged in the University of Indonesia in 1946 in independent Indonesia. Concerned about the growing national awareness of freedom, the colonial authorities arrested the PNI leader, Soekarno, in December 1929. This touched off widespread protests by Indonesians. In 1930 the world was in the grip of an economic and monetary crisis. The severe impact was felt in the Indies which was a raw material producing country. The colonial government adopted a strict balanced budget policy which aggravated economic and social conditions. Two other leaders of the PNI, Gatot Mangkupradja and Maskun Supriadinata were arrested and tried in court on charges of plotting against the Government. Soekarno was released in September 1931 but exiled again in August 1933. He remained in Dutch custody until the Japanese invasion in 1942. In January 1931, Dr. Soetomo founded the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia" or the Indonesian Unity Party, the objective of which was to improve the social status of the Indonesian people. In April of the same year, the PNI was abandoned. A new party was formed by Sartono, LLM. and named the "Partai Indonesia" or the Indonesian Party. Its basis was nationalism, its line was independent. In that same year, Sutan Syahrir formed the "Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia", known as the new PNI which envisaged national education. Mohammad Hatta joined this organization. In 1933 a mutiny broke out on the Dutch warship "De Zeven Provincien" for which Indonesian nationalists were held responsible. The following year Sutan Syahrir and Mohammad Hatta and other nationalist leaders were arrested and banished until 1942. In 1935, Soetomo merged the "Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia" and the "Boedi Oetomo" in the "Partai Indonesia Raya" (Parindra). Its fundamental goal was the independence of Great Indonesia. The Indonesian Petition In July 1936, Sutardjo submitted to the "Volksraad" a petition calling for greater autonomy for Indonesia. This petition was flatly rejected by the Dutch-dominated Council. In 1937, Dr. A.K. Gani started the Indonesian People's Movement or "Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia" which was based on the principles of nationalism, social independence and self-reliance. In 1939, the All Indonesian Political Federation "GAPI" called for the establishment of a full-fledged Indonesian parliament. This demand was rejected by the Government in Holland in 1940. "GAPI" also demanded an Indonesian military service for the purpose of defending the country in times of war. Again this was turned down notwithstanding the impending outbreak of World War II. At the time there were widespread movements for fundamental and progressive reforms in the colonies and dependencies in Asia. THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION After their attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, the Japanese forces moved southwards to conquer several Southeast Asian countries. When Singapore had fallen, they invaded the Dutch East Indies and the colonial army surrendered in March 1942. Soekarno and Hatta were released from their detention. The Japanese began their propaganda campaign for what they called "Great East Asia Coprosperity". But Indonesians soon realized it was only a camouflage for Japanese imperialism in place of Dutch colonialism. To further the cause of Indonesia's independence, Soekarno and Hatta appeared to cooperate with the Japanese authorities. In reality, however, Indonesian nationalist leaders went underground and masterminded insurrections in Java, such as in Blitar (East Java), Tasikmalaya and Indramayu (West Java), in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Under the pressure of the Pacific war, where their supply lines were interrupted and the increasing impact of Indonesian insurrections, the Japanese ultimately gave in to allow the red-and-white flag to fly as the Indonesian national flag. Recognition followed of "Indonesia Raya" as the national anthem and the "Bahasa Indonesia" as the national language. Hence the youth's pledge of 1928 was fulfilled. After persistent demands, the Japanese finally agreed to place the civil administration of the country in Indonesian hands. This was a golden opportunity for nationalist leaders to prepare for the proclamation of Indonesia's independence.