$Unique_ID{bob00145} $Pretitle{} $Title{Brazil Chapter 5C. Administration, Organization, and Training} $Subtitle{} $Author{Eugene K. Keefe} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{military army officers air general command de armed forces navy see pictures see figures } $Date{1982} $Log{} Title: Brazil Book: Brazil, A Country Study Author: Eugene K. Keefe Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1982 Chapter 5C. Administration, Organization, and Training Under the Constitution the president is the supreme commander of the armed forces. In the broad area of national security, he is assisted at the top governmental level by a complex structure of agencies and offices that have overlapping membership and seemingly overlapping responsibilities. According to the Constitution the CSN is the highest level advisory group for national security policy. The president is designated presiding officier of the CSN, and the vice president and cabinet ministers are listed as members ex officio. The chiefs of the Civilian Household (Casa Civil), the Military Household (Casa Militar), and the National Intelligence Service (Servico Nacional de Informacoes-SNI), all of whom enjoy ministerial rank, are also in the CSN, raising the membership to more than 20. But the Constitution also states that by the law that regulates the organization, competence, and functioning of the council, others may be admitted as ex officio or special members. In the early 1980s it was believed that the membership, in addition to those named, also included the chief of the Armed Forces General Staff (Estado-Major das Forcas Armadas-EMFA), the chiefs of staff of the three armed services, and the various high-ranking generals and admirals who commanded the most important organizations and bases. In effect, the size of the CSN membership seemed large for its designated purpose, but some outside observers have expressed the opinion that the top military officials have the strongest voices in advising the president on security policy and decisionmaking (see Constitutional Basis, this ch.). The president was also advised on subjects dealing with the armed forces and with national security by the three members of his cabinet who headed the service ministries, that is, army, navy, and aeronautics. Some analysts have concluded that even though the president was supreme commander, the three service ministers held a great deal of power within their respective services. The ministers of army, navy, and aeronautics in late 1982 were General Pires, Admiral Maximiano Eduardo da Silva Fonseca, and Lieutenant Brigadier Delio Jardim de Mattos, respectively. As ministers they were members of the CSN but were also called on for advice concerning their specific services in addition to their input to the major security body. A proposal to establish a defense ministry, made after the military takeover of the government, was set aside because of opposition from navy and air force officers who feared domination of such a central ministry by army generals. The president was also able to call the members of the EMFA for direct consultation if he desired to hear from the armed forces chief of staff and the three service chiefs outside the CSN structure. Among the functions assigned to EMFA by decree-law are "to elaborate and propose to the President of the Republic principles, norms, and directives referring to subjects common to the Armed Forces." EMFA had a large staff of military personnel and civilians assigned to sections for personnel, intelligence, operations, logistics, mobilization and statistics, research and development, training, health, cartography, communications, and industry and technology. The office of the chief of staff of the armed forces does not have inherent power because the individual services have jealously guarded their individuality and have not surrendered any of their prerogatives to the ostensibly higher body. In day-to-day peacetime operations, for example, the chief of the EMFA cannot be compared to the chairman of the joint chiefs in the United States structure. Another ostensibly top-level armed forces agency, the High Command of the Armed Forces (Alto-Comando das Forcas Armadas), was established by law in the 1960s to provide "assistance to the President on decisions relative to military policy and the coordination of subjects pertinent to the Armed Forces." A small group designed to act like a board of directors, theoretically it would not duplicate the functions of EMFA, which served as a headquarters staff for the three services. The members were the three service ministers, the chief of staff of the armed forces, and the three service chiefs. As far as is known, the High Command has not held regular meetings, and only a few of its essions have been recorded. One of the more important meetings concerned the presidential succession after Costa e Silva was incapacitated. The choice of a successor was discussed by officers down to and including colonels (navy captains), who were allowed to indicate their preferences to their superiors. The results of this very informal polling were transmitted to the High Command, which sat as an electoral college in choosing General Medici, commander of the Third Army, to be president. In addition to the agencies and individuals already named, the chief of the Military Household is an important adviser to the president in the national security area. The Military Household provides liaison between the office of the president and EMFA as well as with the armed forces ministries and some other executive agencies. It is also responsible for the personal security of the president and the presidential palace. Brigadier General Danilo Venturini, chief of the Military Household under Figueiredo and also general secretary of the CSN, gave up the first position but retained the second in a change of cabinet appointments in late 1982. Brigadier General Rubem Carlos Ludwig, who had been minister of education and culture, took over the Military Household but not the CSN. An agency established by the Castello Branco government in 1964, the SNI, quickly gained influence in national security affairs. A federal agency staffed by military personnel and designed to combine many of the functions of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation and Central Intelligence Agency, the SNI was soon recognized as a locus of power within the military regime. Its first chief, General Golbery, was already well known as the author of books on geopolitics and as a strong advocate of the ESG ideology (see Training, this ch.). The SNI was established as a kind of clearinghouse for domestic and foreign intelligence and counterintelligence, and the scope of its activities spread into all facets of national security. By the end of the 1960s SNI agents were present in every governmental ministry to ensure that all policy makers stayed abreast of national security requirements. In the early 1970s the strength of the agent-staff of the SNI was estimated at about 200 military officers who were supported by an unknown number of administrative and technical personnel. Such an estimate was not available for the early 1980s, but the organization remained strong and influential. The chief of the SNI, General Octavio Aguiar de Medeiros in 1982, was a member of the cabinet and of the CSN. Two of the five military presidents-Medici and Figueiredo-earlier held the SNI post. The intelligence agencies of the three armed forces, as well as the federal and state police forces, had information-gathering intelligence units that fed the central files of the SNI, ensuring that dossiers existed on any Brazilian of interest to the federal authorities. Stepan in Authoritarian Brazil (1973), referring to the system and criticizing its reputation, said, "The result has been the creation of a vast information-gathering network, using both the most modern techniques of data processing and retrieval and the most medieval methods of 'data extraction,' that penetrates all private institutions and levels of government." Army The army, for a variety of reasons including its size, deployment, and historical development, is the most influential of the three armed forces. Senior army generals have occupied the presidency since 1964, and of the many military officers who have held cabinet posts during that time, most have been army generals and colonels rather than navy or air force officers. In late 1982, in addition to the three service ministries, active or retired officers headed the ministries of communications, interior, mines and energy, and the newly created Special Ministry for Land-Related Issues, as well as the Military Household and the SNI. General Pires, who at one time had headed the federal police forces, had been appointed minister of army by President-elect Figueiredo and has held the office since the latter was inaugurated on March 15, 1979. Cabinet ministers served indefinite terms at the pleasure of the chief of state. The London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), in The Military Balance, 1982-1983, listed army strength at 182, 750 (the same as the previous year) out of a total armed forces strength of 272,850. The army, therefore, accounted for about 67 percent of the total. The IISS also estimated that 132,000 conscripts served in the 1982 Brazilian army, a high percentage considering the short conscript tour (usually nine to 10 months) and the need for literate and skilled young men to handle modern weapons. In effect, the army has served as a training ground for a large reserve force. Its highly professional officer corps and NCO corps would serve as a nucleus around which the trained reserve would be mobilized if required. The army was deployed territorially in four numbered field armies-First, Second, Third, and Fourth-and two independent commands, the Amazon Military Command and the Brasilia Military Command. Under these six major field commands, the country was divided into 11 sequentially numbered military regions. The First Army, headquartered in Rio de Janeiro, historically has had the best troop units and the most modern equipment because of the importance of Rio to the overall economics, politics, and culture of the country, even after the move of the capital to Brasilia in 1960. The Vila Militar, the city's garrison or military community, continued to be regarded as one of the most important centers of military influence in the entire country, and command of the First Army has always been a coveted assignment because of the influence wielded by the incumbent. In 1982 the First Army was commanded by General Heitor de Almeida. The two military subdivisions of the First Army were the 1st Military Region, comprising the states of Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, and the 4th Military Region, the borders of which were the same as those of Minas Gerais. Next in importance among the four field armies was the Third Army, under the command in 1982 of General Tulio Chagas Nogueira, whose headquarters was located in Porto Alegre. The Third Army's importance derived from its historically strategic location in the extreme south of the country. It included the 3rd Military Region, consisting of Rio Grande do Sul, and the 5th Military Region, comprising Santa Catarina and Parana. Those three states border Uruguay and Paraguay and were the scenes of hard-fought wars in the nineteenth century. The whole area has been considered of strategic importance since then, and the Third Army has been kept strong in troops and equipment. Having noted the importance of the two armies that control the area along the southern Atlantic coast, it must be said that the Second and Fourth armies were also important organizations, although they were not maintained at the same level as the more prestigious First and Third. All armies were commanded by four-star generals, and all of those commanding generals were members of the Army High Command along with the minister, the chief of staff, and about four other four-star generals who occupied high-level staff positions. The Second Army, headquartered in Sao Paulo and commanded by General Sergio de Ary Pires in 1982, included the 2d Military Region, encompassing the state of Sao Paulo, and the 9th Military Region, comprising the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul. The Fourth Army covered Brazil's northeastern bulge, the area that was so important to the World War II Allies for patrol of the South Atlantic and easy access to Africa. Army headquarters was located at Recife; the 6th Military Region included Bahia and Sergipe, and the 7th Military Region included Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraiba, and Rio Grande do Norte. The commander of the Fourth Army in 1982 was General Enio Gouveia dos Santos. The Amazon Military Command was larger by far than any of the field armies, but because it was located in the sparsely settled backcountry, it did not rank in importance with the other field commands. It contained the 8th Military Region, which was made up of the states of Rondonia, Acre, Amazonas, and Para, and the territories of Roraima and Amapa; and the 10th Military Region, containing Maranhao, Piaui, and Ceara. Headquarters of the Amazon Military Command was located in Manaus. The remaining field command was the Brasilia Military Command, headquartered in the capital. This command contained the 11th Military Region, which consisted of the state of Goias and the Federal District. Subordinate to the armies, independent commands, and military regions were the major tactical units that in 1982 consisted of eight divisions, each containing four armored, mechanized, or motorized infantry brigades, or some combination of such. In addition to the divisions there were also three independent infantry brigades, two parachute brigades, and five light jungle units ranging in size from battalion to brigade. The divisions and separate brigades contained organic combat support and service support units. There were also support units-engineer, communications, and the like-at army level. Navy The navy is the senior service, tracing its heritage to the tiny Portuguese ships and crews that protected the earliest coastal colonies form seaborne marauders. The minister in 1982, Admiral Fonseca, assumed office on March 15, 1979, when President Figueiredo was inaugurated. The minister and the naval chief of staff (Admiral Jose Gerardo Albano de Aratanha in 1982) were both ex officio members of the CSN and the High Command. Naval operations were directed from the Ministry of Navy at Brasilia through six naval districts and one fleet command. The First Naval District was located at the country's main naval base at Rio de Janeiro. Other naval district headquarters locations were as follows: Second, Salvador; Third, Recife; Fourth; Belem; Fifth, Florianopolis; and Sixth, Sao Paulo. In addition to the cities where the district headquarters were located, other important naval bases were Ladario near Corumba on the Rio Paraguai, and Sao Pedro da Aldeia Naval Air Station at Rio de Janeiro. Total naval strength in 1982 was estimated to be slightly over 47,000, including the naval air arm and the Marine Corps (Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais). Only about 2,000 conscripts served in the navy. The flagship of the oceangoing navy was the aircraft carrier Minas Gerais (the ex-British H.M.S. Vengeance), which has been in service since 1945. Purchased from Britain in 1956, the Minas Gerais was reconstructed in the Netherlands in 1960 and extensively refitted in Brazil in the late 1970s, but in the view of many Brazilian and foreign observers, it was obsolescent and should be retired by the end of the 1980s if it could be replaced. Because of interservice rivalry between the navy and the air force, only the latter was allowed to operate fixed-wing aircraft. The complement of aircraft carried by the Minas Gerais included six Grumman S-2A antisubmarine planes in addition to several Sikorsky SH-3D Sea King helicopters and Aerospatiale HB-350 Esquilo helicopters. The S-2A aircraft were flown by air force pilots, and the helicopters, by navy pilots. In late 1982 the crew with full air complement consisted of about 1,300 officers and men. The interservice imperatives of who is allowed to fly what kind of aircraft cause what some critics called serious command and control problems. Nevertheless, the anomaly has existed since 1965 when Castello Branco decreed the division of responsibilities in order to settle the navy-air force dispute. The pride of the surface fleet in the early 1980s focused on the six Niteroi-class frigates that entered service in the late 1970s. Named Niteroi, Defensora, Constituicao, Liberal, Independencia, and Uniao, the frigates resulted from a contract between the Brazilian navy and Vosper-Thornycroft of Britain that called for the building of four of the ships in Britain and two in the Rio de Janeiro Navy Yard. A seventh frigate of similar design but modified to become a training ship was under construction in Rio in 1982. The first four frigates are specifically designed for antisubmarine warfare (ASW) as opposed to the other two, which are general-purpose vessels. Both configurations carried two Seacat surface-to-air missile (SAM) launchers, two single 40mm guns, one twin 375mm ASW rocket launcher, two triple torpedo mounts, and one Westland WG-13 Lynx helicopter. In addition, the ASW ships had one single 4.5-inch gun and a single Ikara ASW missile launcher; the general-purpose version had two 4.5-inch guns and two twin Exocet antiship missile launchers. The complement was the same on both versions-21 officers and 179 men. The destroyer fleet consisted in 1982 of 12 ex-United States ships, all of which had been commissioned during World War II. The Marcilio Dias and the Mariz e Barros were both Gearing Fram I class, armed with four 127mm guns, one eight-tube ASROC (antisubmarine rocket), and one Wasp helicopter. Each carried 274 officers and men. The Maranhao, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, and Santa Catarina were Fletcher class, carrying a complement of 260 and armed with four or five 127mm guns, two quad 40mm and one twin 40mm antiaircraft guns, and varying combinations of torpedo tubes and depth charge racks. The Alagoas, Espirito Santo, Mato Grosso, Rio Grande do Norte, and Sergipe were Sumner Fram II class, each carrying six 127mm guns, one Wasp helicopter, two triple torpedo tubes, and two Hedgehogs. Mato Grosso did not carry a Wasp but did have depth charges and a Seacat SAM system. The submarine inventory in 1982 included three of 1970s vintage and five veterans of World War II. The three newer boats were British Oberon class that were built for Brazil by Vickers-Barrow in Britain. Named Humaita, Riachuelo, and Toneleros, they each carried eight torpedo tubes and a crew of 68 men and were placed in service in the mid-1970s. The five older submarines were ex- United States Guppy II- and Guppy III-class boats commissioned in the 1940s, each carrying 10 torpedo tubes. The remainder of the fleet consisted of a large number and wide variety of patrol vessels, mine warfare ships, landing craft, and support vessels of many kinds. Brazil has become a major shipbuilding nation-both naval and merchant ships-and takes great pride in the home-built vessels that have entered service in recent years. A large number of river and coastal patrol craft have been constructed in Brazilian yards, and the modernization program for the 1980s called for the local production of many new ships, including patrol craft, corvettes, possibly a submarine, and-before the end of the decade-a start on the construction of a new aircraft carrier. Some of the design and production will be purely Brazilian, and other projects will be jointly undertaken with foreign companies operating in Brazilian shipyards. News reports in the summer of 1982 stated that two new submarines had been ordered built in Kiel and that the contract was awaiting approval by the government of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). Unconfirmed reports claimed that the deal included agreement for a third boat to be built in a Brazilian yard. Air Force The strength of the Brazilian Air Force (Forca Aerea Brasileira-FAB) of almost 43,000 officers and men and about 600 aircraft in 1982 made it the largest air force in Latin America. The minister of aeronautics, in addition to commanding the air force, had the added responsibility of controlling all civil air activities. The line of military command extended from the minister through his chief of staff down to the commanders of five major commands: Air Defense, Tactical, Maritime, Transport, and Training. There were also six territorial air commands that covered the entire country. Numbered from one to six, the headquarters of the regional air commands were located at Belem, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Porto Alegre, and Brasilia, respectively. The Air Defense Command consisted of a one-squadron wing, the 1st Air Defense Wing (1 degree Ala de Defesa Aerea, known as 1 degree ALADA), which operated 16 Mirage III aircraft, 12 interceptors, and four trainers. In early 1981 Mattos announced that construction of the country's first SAM missile base was to begin near Florianopolis, the capital city of Santa Catarina on the southern coast. This was to be the first in a planned series of such bases that would become part of the Air Defense Command. Whether or not the project ever started and what kind of missile was to be emplaced had not been made public as of late 1982. Meanwhile, however, a French company, Thompson CSF, had installed communications systems, computers, and radars in the Brasilia-Rio de Janeiro-Sao Paulo triangle that will be part of the overall air defense system. Army-operated Roland mobile SAM launchers were deployed in the same general area. The Tactical Command (Comando Aerotatico) comprised three groups of fighter aircraft equipped with a total of 32 Northrop F-5E fighters and four F-5B trainers. There were also six to eight counterinsurgency and reconnaissance squadrons equipped with 139 AT-26 Xavante strike-trainers (including 11 RT-26 reconnaissance version). The Maritime, or Coastal, Command (Comando Costeiro) operated the fixed-wing aircraft aboard the carrier Minas Gerais in addition to various land-based squadrons engaged in antisubmarine patrols and search-and-rescue activities. Aircraft used included the EMB-111, the maritime patrol and reconnaissance version of the Bandeirante; the Lockheed RC-130E Hercules; and the Grumman Albatross, production of which began in 1949. The command also had Bell 47G and SA-330 Puma helicopters. The major bases of the Maritime Command were located in Santa Cruz, Rio Grande do Sul; Florianopolis, Santa Catarina; Salvador, Bahia; and Recife. In late 1982 the Air Transport Group had various groups for general transport missions. Aircraft included two KC-130 Hercules for air-to-air refueling in addition to several other C-130s and Bandeirantes for routine transport. The Troop Transport Group (Grupo de Transporte de Tropas) at Campo dos Afoncas supported the army's paratroop units using 21 DeHaviland Buffalos, some of which operated as troop carriers at Camp Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Manaus, Amazonas. The Special Transport Group (Grupo de Transporte Especial) was equipped with a wide variety of aircraft for VIP transport and special missions. The Training Command also had a variety of aircraft, including Brazilian as well as foreign-made planes (see Training, this ch.). Training It has frequently been written that Brazil's annual conscript class contains large numbers of illiterates who, during their short conscript tour, are taught reading and writing in addition to various basic technical skills. In fact, the percentage of illiterate conscripts is usually quite small because the officers selecting those who will be drafted are well aware that the army's capability to fulfill its missions would be seriously hampered if it were required to carry on mass literacy training every year. The army, however, does recognize the importance of the public service it provides by teaching large numbers of conscripts basic skills that can be valuable to the overall economy when the young men return to civilian life. The relatively small number of illiterates who are drafted do learn to read and write, but for most conscripts the tour is devoted to basic military training, weapons familiarization, equipment handling and maintenance, and small-unit training. The conscript system is primarily a means of providing fundamental military training annually to a sizeable group of young men who then return to civilian life and are retained on the reserve rolls until age 45. For the regular enlisted personnel of the three services, training was a constant in their military careers. Much of their time was devoted either to retraining others or to being trained themselves in various military institutions. Like officers, NCOs who aspired to higher ranks were expected to complete advanced training and educational courses. Technical courses given by army branches, for example, were open to all who qualified; competition was strong for the courses that were prerequisites to advancement, and an added incentive was the importance placed on such technical training by employers after the serviceman had been discharged. The navy and air force also had a variety of educational institutions to train the technicians who were essential for the operation of modern weapons and equipment. An example of the importance placed on education by the military was the School for Sergeants of the Armed Forces (Escola de Sargentos das Armas), which acquired a reputation for excellence in the post-World War II period when the drive for professionalization of the military was particularly strong. In a manner similar to that used by officer candiate schools, the year-long course of instruction was opened to civilian applicants, as well as to lower ranking enlisted personnel, who aspired to become career NCOs. Although qualifications for admission were high and the entrance examination was difficult, competition for admission always remained strong. The curriculum has been weighted toward technical subjects to meet the demands of advancing technology in the services. One of the side effects of professionalization of the NCO corps came after the military takeover of the government when NCOs demanded and received the rights to vote and to run for office. The Constitution of 1967 includes those rights for NCOs whereas previous constitutions had granted them only to officers. The Brazilians considered the educational systems developed for their armed forces, particularly in the army, to be as good as any and better than most in the world. Many officers on active duty in 1982 entered the system at the secondary level, beginning at one of the military preparatory schools that were supervised and directed by the armed forces. These officers, therefore, began their military careers at about age 12 or 13. Qualified graduates of these schools and other secondary schools were permitted to take the written examination that determined who would be admitted to the Military Academy of the Black Needles (Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras). The odd name derives from nearby mountains, but the school is usually referred to simply as the Military Academy or frequently by the acronym AMAN. Those who survive the competition for admission enroll as cadets to face a difficult four-year course leading to an army commission. Since 1964 the curriculum has stressed the national security doctrine, but more emphasis has also been placed on social science courses in addition to the engineering and science subjects that have always been given priority. Midway through the course, cadets indicate the branch to which they desire assignment (infantry, artillery, armor, engineers, etc.), and during the last two years at the academy they receive some specialized branch training. After commissioning, young officers usually attend a branch school. For the officer who aspires to high rank in the army, successful completion of each step in the educational system is essential. For those who would be generals, finishing each academic step in the highest percentile is required; high standing in graduating classes is among the most important criteria for promotion. After commissioning, the system begins for company-grade officers with attendance at the Officers' Postgraduate School (Escola Aperfeicomento de Oficias-EsAO), which offers a one-year course that is required for promotion to field grade. Routinely during a career, officers maintain contact with branch schools through correspondence or refresher courses. The prize achievement for an army officer climbing the rungs of the education system, however, is admittance to the Army Command and General Staff School (Escola de Comando e Estado Maior do Exercito-ECEME). The stiff entrance examination regularly weeds out about 75 percent of the field-grade applicants, and without successful completion of the three-year course, promotion to general officer rank is unheard of. Appointment to faculty positions at military schools (including ECEME) and attainment of the highly coveted general staff badge also require completion of the command and general staff course. In the navy an officer's education begins at the Naval School (Escola Naval) in Rio de Janeiro, where midshipmen receive a four-year academic course equivalent to that given to cadets at the Military Academy. Graduation is followed by a year of shipboard training, and naval officers also attend a network of specialist schools similar to the branch schools of the army. In addition, naval officers attend courses at the Naval Research Institute and the Naval War College. As its name implies, the research institute is concerned with naval science and technology and research in advanced concepts. The war college, the navy's highest educational institution, offers a nine-month curriculum for qualified officers, usually those who have reached the rank of commander. The education of air force officers follows two different paths, depending on whether a cadet will become a flying officer or a technical officer. The Air Force Academy at Pirassununga, Sao Paulo, is primarily a flight training school to which students are admitted after completion of the Air Cadets' Preparatory school in Barbacena, Minas Gerais. Technical officers are trained at the Sao Jose dos Campos Aerospace Technical Center, Sao Paulo. Before attaining field grade, all officers attend the Officers' Advanced Training School at Sao Paulo, for courses in command, leadership, and administration. The next step in the educational progression of the air force officer is the Air Force Command and General Staff School, but admission requirements and the entrance examination eliminate many applicants. From among its graduates come the relatively small number of officers who will be promoted to general officer rank. Several Brazilian officers are sent abroad annually to military schools in various countries, including the United States. Many Brazilian officers have attended United States basic and advanced service schools, and many senior officers have attended the command and staff schools as well as the service war colleges, the National War College, and the Inter-American Defense College. During the period of strained relations between Brazil and the United States from 1977 through 1980, Brazilian students were rare on United States military campuses, but in 1981 they began returning to the United States for various kinds of training. The top of the educational ladder for armed forces officers in Brazil was the Superior War College (Escola Superior de Guerra-ESG), located in Rio de Janeiro. Students were selected from among colonels and generals or navy captains and admirals, as well as from among civilians who had attained high government status or prominence in varied fields, such as business and industry, education, medicine, economics, and even religion. Since the early 1970s a few civilian women have also gained admittance to the ESG. The ESG academic year was divided into segments of varying length during which lectures and seminars covered national security doctrine as it pertained to all aspects of Brazilian life. Several weeks of discussions on basic doctrine were followed by a longer period devoted to national and international affairs as they affected security and development. Lecturers included senior military officers, cabinet ministers, key government officials, academic specialists , and, occasionally, foreign diplomats. Subject matter concerned all those areas that have a bearing on the government, politics, economics, and society of the world power that the military hierarchy expects Brazil to become in the remaining years of the twentieth century. The idea for the establishment of the ESG grew out of the close association of Brazilian and United States army officers during World War II and the experience of the FEB (see Military Traditions, this ch.). After the war several high-ranking FEB veterans, dissatisfied with their own staff operations and particularly with joint service staffs, requested that a United States mission be sent to Brazil to assist in the establishment of a war college. A mission arrived in 1948, helped with the founding of ESG in 1949, and remained in an advisory capacity until 1960. The chief of the United States mission enjoyed faculty status at the ESG. According to Stepan in The Military in Politics, General Oswaldo Cordeiro de Farias, who was charged with planning for the war college in 1948, wanted the school to have "the functions of the U.S. Industrial College of the Armed Forces and the National War College" and further advocated that "emphasis on internal aspects of development and security be greater than in the U.S. National War College." The other major distinction that the Brazilians wanted to make was that there be much greater civilian participation in the ESG than was true of the American school. Stepan quotes a decree of December 1963, just four months before the military coup, stating the mission of the ESG as preparing "civilians and military to perform executive and advisory functions especially in those organs responsible for the formulation, development, planning, and execution of the politics of national security." In the curriculum of ESG, development and security were inseparably linked. The ESG philosophy, as taught to the highest level military and civilian leaders during the school's more than three decades, has had an incalculable effect on the country's five military governments since 1964. The influence of the ESG on its alumni has been perpetuated by the Association of Graduates (Associacao dos Diplomados da Escola Superior de Guerra-ADESG), which has maintained contact with graduates and has kept them informed of ESG policies and events. The ADESG has been a powerful force in the military governments, always keeping the ideology of the school foremost in the minds of the many graduates who have attained positions of power. Under the direction of powerful luminaries, such as Golbery, who served as chief of intelligence under Castello Branco and chief of the Civilian Household under both Geisel and Figueiredo, the philosophy of the school was incorporated into the curricula of all service schools, including the army's influential ECEME. A dichotomy has long existed in the armed forces officer corps concerning, albeit an oversimplification, the emphasis that should be given to political liberalization vis-a-vis that given to security. The ESG people, known as the Sorbonne group, stressing the crucial need for continuing general development of the society along with its security, have been opposed by the hard-line (linha dura) adherents who have championed security as the country's foremost need (see The Military in Power, ch. 1). Uniforms, Ranks, and Insignia In 1982 the three armed forces used several different uniforms, including full dress, dress, service, and fatigue. The army service uniform was green; the navy, dark blue; and the air force, a lighter blue. The senior commissioned rank in the army was marshal (marechal); in the navy, admiral (almirante); and in the air force, air marshal (marechal-do-ar). Officer rank insignia were worn on shoulder boards by army and air force officers and on the sleeve cuffs by navy officers. Each service had 10 officer grades, excluding officer candidates. Army officer grades from second lieutenant to colonel equated directly with counterparts in the United States Army. A Brazilian brigadier general (general de brigada) wore two stars, and the next higher rank, known as division general, wore three. There was no rank corresponding to the United States lieutenant general. The next higher rank, designated by four stars, was the army general (general de exercito), and the marshal wore five stars, but that rank was rarely attained on active duty. Air force ranks had the same designations through colonel, and there was also no rank corresponding to lieutenant general. The air force general officer ranks were brigadier, major brigadier, lieutenant brigadier, and air marshal. Again, the five-star rank was rarely seen. Navy ranks corresponded directly to the United States Navy counterparts except that there was no rank of commodore. The flag ranks were rear admiral, vice admiral, squadron admiral, and admiral (see fig. 10).