The First Computer
Madup Orfer with the first part of his history of the first computer....
In the last few years a great deal of information has emerged about the work done at Bletchley Park during the second World War, and how this lead to the breaking of the German military codes generated by the Enigma machine. To computer enthusiasts the most interesting part of this story is the way that the first electronic computer and high speed tape reading system was built to unscramble the codes, and the amazing way in which these machines and all the advanced knowledge and research was subsequently deliberately destroyed. Not only did this delay the 'computer revolution' by as much as two decades, it lost this invaluable lead for British industry and prevented the brilliant mathematicians and engineers such as Alan Turing who had created these systems and devices from receiving the acclaim and appreciation which was rightly their due.
Of course 'everyone knows' that the first 'proper' computer was that designed by Charles Babbage in 1834. His Analytical Engine was never completed in his lifetime, though his earlier and much simpler Difference Engine (see below) which operated on 6 digit number and was designed to solve 2nd order differential equations was built and worked perfectly.
Rather than take up any more space in this article on this subject for anyone interested in finding out more about Charles Babbage and his work and that other computer pioneer, Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace, friend of Babbage and the world's first computer programmer I have suggest you visit this page of useful links.
In the 18th and 19th century, and even into the the 20th, the manifestation of the leading edge of scientific progress was often represented in naval technology. The wooden line-of battle ship might seem crude in comparison with todays' nuclear powered aircraft carrier with its complement of supersonic aircraft, but both represent the biggest and most complex self-propelled machines of their respective eras, and in relation to the skills and knowledge of its time as much expertise and effort went into the design, building and operation of HMS Victory as into the USS Nimitz.
In Babbage's time therefore the navy was a major driving force for technology. This was not just in the mechanical sciences but also in mathematics, because navigation required the preparation of accurate tables. The basis for these tables was precise celestial observations, and these observations then had to be translated into the tables used by navigators by complex calculations. The modern yachtsman takes things like tide tables for granted, but to produce them in an age without computers required an army of clerks to carry out the calculations and another army to check them - and still errors crept in. This requirement was what lead to so much money being spent on Babbage's inventions - not only would it have produced more accurate tables, it would have enabled the admiralty to dispense with all the clerks. However, the big problem with Babbage's device was that although it was brilliantly conceived and designed, it was just a little too complex for the technology of the age and required too precise manufacture.
However, new research has uncovered some records which show that there was an earlier attempt to produce something that could be described as a calculating engine or computer. Although much cruder than Babbage's designs, its construction and operation were well within the capabilities of the technology of the time, and many of its component parts survive to this day.
This device was conceived when Britain faced an almost identical threat as when the establishment at Bletchley Park was in operation, and, in just the same way, although for very different reasons, all knowledge and records of it were erased or buried in secret files.
In the opening years of the 19th century Britain was in a very similar position to that in which it found itself 60 years ago. Across the channel in French ports barges were being collected together and an army assembled to invade England. If this army were able to cross those few miles of water it was doubtful if the defending forces could prevail. In both cases the paramount requirement for a successful invasion was the same - control of the English Channel for a few days to ferry the invading army across. In the 1940's this control depended on air power, in the time of the threatened invasion by Napoleon's army it was the Royal Navy that guarded the channel. The invasion threat was finally effectively ended on 12th of October 1805 at the Battle of Trafalgar, when the combined French and Spanish navies were so reduced in strength that it would never be possible for them to protect an invasion fleet.
Strangely enough it was the architect of this victory, Admiral Viscount Horatio Nelson, who was also the driving force behind the very first computer. His involvement began in 1784 when, during the brief period of peace, he was unemployed on half pay. Rather than languish in England he went to France, where it was possible to live comfortably on his half-pay, with a Captain Macnamara and stayed in lodgings at St. Omers. His biographies report that that during this period he had some sort of affair with the daughter of an English clergyman, and only returned to England because he decided that, as a half-pay officer, he was not in a position to marry.
However, certain documents which have only recently come to light reveal that this was not, in fact, the case. See Note 1.
The young lady that Nelson met was a brilliant Vienese inventor and mathematician, Lana Gutrin. It is true that her father was a clergyman, but he was actually Austrian, not English as Nelson's biographies record. Lana's mother had died when she was very young, and as her father travelled a great deal she had accompanied him. He was a keen astronomer and mathematician, with many published works to his credit, and having been so much in his company Lana had learned his mathematical skills. In an age when women were regarded as intellectually inferior to men this was extremely unusual. Her main interest was in codes, both devising and breaking them, and she had constructed several simple devices to aid in this. Nelson became infected by her enthusiasm, and saw that it might be possible for the navy to employ these as an alternative to the cumbersome signals system presently used and to safeguard the security of despatched if, as sometimes happened, they should fall into enemy hands. It was this which precipitated his return to England. However, when he visited Lord Howe at the Admiralty to report upon these ideas he had only begun to broach the matter when he was offered a ship, the Boreas, and his surprise at this honour at a time when so many captains were unemployed drove all thoughts of his original purpose from his mind.
His subsequent service in the Boreas in the West Indies and his marriage there play no part in this narrative, except that whereas many frigate captains returned from a posting in the West Indies wealthy men, Nelson was little better off financially than when he had left England. Upon his return he expressed his complete dissatisfaction with the navy and the fraud and corruption prevalent in the naval dockyards and his intention to resign his commission. Once again when he met Lord Howe he found himself diverted from his purpose. Howe reminded him of their earlier conversation and asked if Nelson would like an appointment which would enable him to pursue the interest he had expressed in codes. This re-awakened his enthusiasm, and, with his wife, he went to stay with his (now unwell) father and sent agents to France to try to obtain news of the whereabouts of Lana Gutrin. However, while awaiting the outcome of his enquires Nelson was made aware that as a result of the matter of Nootka Sound during his service in the West Indies he might be pursued for damages by some American shipowners for a very large sum of money. This distressed him greatly, because were it to succeed it would have rendered him bankrupt, and even the cost defending himself in the courts would have ruined him.
The Admiralty assured Nelson that they would stand by him in the matter, and he continued his search for his mysterious and now vanished friend. His most earnest enquires produced no results, and he was informed that Lana seemed to have disappeared shortly after the French revolution and was presumed dead.
As always throughout Nelson's career, lack of money was once again becoming a problem, so he begged the Admiralty to find him a ship so that he could be restored to full pay. Eventually, the war with France having resumed and Lord Hood and the Duke of Chatham having intervened on his behalf, he was given the Agamemnon on 30th January 1792 and sent to the Mediterranean. His subsequent exploits at Cape St. Vincent, Tenerrife (where he lost his arm), Aboukir Bay and his sojourn in Naples where he formed an attachment with Lady Emma Hamilton are well known.
In the closing year of the century Nelson, now a national hero and admiral and made Duke of Bronte (but still with very little personal fortune) returned to England. He travelled overland, through Germany in company with Sir William and Lady Hamilton, taking ship in Hamburgh for England. The passage of such a famous hero did not go unmarked, and while they were at Leghorn he received a note asking if he would receive a Leonard Gutrig. Expecting a relative of his former friend Nelson had the man shown up to his room where he was amazed to discover that the person was none other than Lana herself. Having despaired of having her theories taken seriously by an all male establishment she had taken the opportunity of the confusion in France in the years following the revolution to 'change sex' as so many other talented women were obliged to do if they wished to pursue any scientific career.
Although she had been completely unable to obtain any serious financial help for her work she had continued to pursue her research. These had lead her to various mathematical systems for code breaking, and from this work she had begun to develop a series of almost unbreakable codes. Once again Nelson felt himself being drawn into this strange world, and assured Lana/Leonard that upon arriving in England he would do everything in his power to get the Admiralty to fund her work. It would have been sensible for Lana to travel with them, but for reasons which are unclear, but may have been his reluctance to have Lana in close proximity to his (now) mistress, Emma Hamilton, she was to make the journey separately.
When he landed in Yarmouth Nelson was greeted as a national hero. He was cheered wherever he went, feted by the city, but the scandal of his relationship with Emma Hamilton and the fact that he was separated from his wife meant that he was shunned by polite society.
Earl St.Vincent was now First Lord of the Admiralty, and Nelson was well known to him, so when he explained the matter of Lana Gurtin (although he used her assumed name of Leonard and concealed her sex) the Earl at once saw the value of her work and assured Nelson that he would await her arrival in England and make funds available to her. However, before she appeared Nelson, now made Vice Admiral, was sent to the Baltic as second in command under Sir Hyde Parker. In fact, Nelson was St.Vincent's choice to command th expedition, but it was felt that a fleet of 23 ships of the line and over 30 other vessels was too large to be commanded by such a junior admiral. The expedition culminated in the Battle of Copenhagen, and once again Nelson failed to reap the financial rewards of victory that the taking of six line-of-battle ships as prizes should have brought as Sir Hyde Parker ordered that all but one, the Zealand, should be burnt.
In May 1800 Sir Hyde Parker was recalled, leaving Nelson as Commander in Chief. He remained in the Baltic until he received a message asking if he would meet with a Doctor Stephen Maturin. As he did not know the doctor he at first declined, but he was told that Dr. Maturin was a close friend of Captain Jack Aubrey, who had commanded a Bomb Vessel at the Battle of Copenhagen and who was known to Nelson. To his surprise Dr. Maturin produced credentials which revealed him to be a secret agent employed by the Admiralty, and explained that Nelson must return to England immediately for a 'very special service' which only he could undertake. During the journey, which, to keep their association secret, would be in a small vessel instead of a frigate as would normally be the case, they would be accompanied by another person who would explain all.
When he went on board the brig which was to convey him to England Nelson was amazed to discover that the 'person' was none other than his old friend Lana, now Leonard, and that Dr. Maturin was aware of her deception. It seemed that Lana had never managed to get to England, but had become caught up in events in war torn Europe. St. Vincent had therefore sent his trusted agent, Dr. Maturin, to try to find her. He had managed to do so, and upon reporting his success he was ordered to contact Nelson. As they sailed toward England Nelson discovered why Lana had become such an important person. Under the French revolutionary government Europe was a hotbed of plots and secrets. Agents and secret messages were everywhere, and the deciphering of these, when intercepted, would be of immense value to Britain. It is a fact that any coded message can be deciphered, but the real problem is time. If it takes many thousands of man- (or, in Lana's case, women) hours to decipher each message then, where there are large numbers of messages, by the time a message is deciphered it will almost certainly be too late for it to be of any use. Therefore the key to useful code breaking is speed.
Lara had designed a 'deciphering engine' which meant that processes that would previously have taken weeks of trial and error by dozens of people could be undertaken in a few hours or minutes by a handful. She had already built some simple models to prove that her methods were practical, all that was needed was sufficient funds to design and build the full sized machine. The fact that his superiors had gone to such lengths to ensure her safe (and secret) passage to England showed just how seriously they were taking the idea, and Nelson had no doubt that the necessary support would be forthcoming, or that he was destined to be involved in the project.
Such proved to be the case. A few weeks after his return he was given the task of acting as liaison between 'Leonard' Gutrin and the Admiralty and ensuring that sufficient funds were made available for the work. At the same time, and to help keep the operation secret, he was provided with another task, that of supervising the defences of the English south coast between Orfordness and Beachy Head against a threatened invasion by Napoleon. What the Admiralty had in mind was that Nelson would remain on shore and work with Lana, but, being Nelson, he hoisted his flag in the frigate Medusa and set off to harry the French channel ports. His masters at the Admiralty were not happy with this situation, but luckily the Treaty of Amiens halted hostilities with France and Nelson returned to England where he took a house in Merton in Surrey. The intention was to live there with Emma and Sir William Hamilton and spend his time continuing his work on the code breaking machines.
During this period he took much greater interest in Lana's work. She was still living as Leonard, and although it is not recorded exactly where she was at the time it must have been somewhere close to the house in Merton because Nelson's private journals record that he spent much of his time with her. The work was progressing, but there were many setbacks. No designs or proper description of the working of these machines has ever been found, but from comments made in his own journals by Nelson it appears that it was some type of calculating machine, originally using small lead shot falling into bowls. The downward path of these shot was diverted by various devices which could be set by the operator to enable the basic mathematical functions to be carried out. It was soon found, as the machine grew more complex, that controlling the path of the shot and feeding the correct numbers in to the correct point in the device was more difficult than had been anticipated. A radical re-design was undertaken making use of small quantities of water instead of shot. This proved much easier to control, as the water could be more easily conveyed to the correct points by valves and pipework. However, it became apparent that although the use of water simplified the control and 'programming' of the device the amount of water used in each stage had to be considerable to ensure accuracy. The machine was therefore, of necessity, becoming extremely large and complex, though as it consisted of many hundreds of almost identical components its construction should still not be too difficult once the design problems had been overcome.
It would seem that Nelson was becoming extremely close to Lara. His journals make no mention of any romantic attachment, but he was spending much of his time in her company and subsequent events seem to suggest that their relationship at this time may not have been entirely platonic.
In 1803 Sir William Hamilton died, and with him the considerable pension paid in recognition of his service to his country as Ambassador as the government were not prepared to continue to pay the pension to his widow. Nelson at once settled on her an equivalent annual amount, but as always his finances were not overly robust and this and the need to support some of his relatives, for Nelson came from a poor family, placed them under considerable strain. Shortly after this event war with France was renewed, and Nelson was appointed to command the Mediterranean fleet. He hoped that the war would be short, but this was not to be the case, and eventually Spain joined France in the war against England. In August 1805, after chasing the combined Spanish and French fleets halfway round the world and being unable to find them he arrived back in Portsmouth in the Victory where he found that there was new information about the whereabouts of the combined fleets.
His biographies record that he went to Merton and spent his final time in England, a little over three weeks, very happily with Emma and his young daughter. The secret journals recently discovered reveal that this was far from the true situation. In reality he found that almost everything about his home life had deteriorated. His relationship with Emma was extremely tense, and having spent so much time at sea he was a complete stranger to his daughter. As always, money worries made things even worse. It was therefore hardly surprising that he spent most of the time in these weeks with Lana. Things were not going well with her work. The design for the mechanism itself was complete, but although Lana's invention was brilliantly conceived she was not a practical engineer, and the need for absolute secrecy had made it impossible for her to seek the advice of others.
The machine consisted of a large number of modules, all of identical size and shape and of just six basic designs. The output of each stage was then fed, by gravity, into the stage below. As there were a number of different options for each output the assembled machine would assume the shape of a large triangular block. The operator would set the switches on each stage, according to the type of calculation required, and then set the machine into operation. Water to operate each stage would be supplied by a series of pipes running down one side, fed from a reservoir which would need to be higher than the top of the machine itself. The modular design made it possible for the parts to be made by people who needed to have no idea of the purpose of the assembled machine, and as each module could be removed from the structure it was easy for them to repaired or adjusted without the need to disassemble the complete machine.
The biggest difficulty was the size of the thing. Each module measured approximately 1 foot high by 2 feet wide and 4 feet deep. (300mm x 600 mm x 1200 mm). There were 72 stages, so the whole structure would be over 70 feet (more than 22 m.) high, and about the same width at the base. Although the framework that would hold the modules would be strong enough to bear their weight, the whole thing would still be rather fragile and all the pipework and platforms for the operators would have to be supported on surrounding structures. Many of the parts and modules for the machine had already been built, but producing plans for the supporting structures required an engineer rather than a mathematician and was beyond Lana's abilities, and she had begun to despair of ever seeing the machine assembled.
The problem was compounded because Lord Howe was no longer First Lord of the Admiralty, and his successor, Lord Barham, although aware of the project, did not seem to be taking much interest. Her only staunch supporter had been Dr. Maturin, but he, although adept at political intrigue and an extremely good medical doctor, could offer no direct advice, and was only very rarely in England, spending most of his time on various missions overseas. Although Nelson could not understand many aspects of the operation of the machine itself, he was a very practical man with an ability so see to the heart of any problem and quickly find a workable solution. Between them they soon began to devise a method for construction of the support systems.
Nelson was not acquainted with Lord Barham, so when he travelled up to London to meet him neither of them knew what to expect. Both men quickly formed a rapport, Barham finding that Nelson was not the hotheaded and reckless leader he had been lead to expect, and Nelson discovering that Lord Barham's apparent failure to support Lana's work was because he had not been made fully aware of it's potential uses. Indeed, when Nelson explained it to him he became extremely enthusiastic. The main reason for this renewed interest was because Napoleon had built strings of semaphore towers across France between the major military centres. These enabled him to pass instructions to all the major ports and to receive intelligence at his headquarters in Paris very quickly. Indeed, the Admiralty were building a similar system to link London with Portsmouth and the other main naval ports. For the first time there was no need to physically intercept messages and couriers, they could be plainly seen by anyone, but of course this meant that they were all coded. Lana's machine would enable Lord Barham to read all communications between Napoleon and his naval ports within a few hours of their being sent. He would always know in advance when ships were to put to sea.
With the promise of almost unlimited funds and support for the project Nelson would have loved to be able to get on with the work without delay, but he knew this was impossible. While the combined French and Spanish fleets threatened the channel England could never be safe from invasion, and he would be needed at sea.
It has been suggested by many historians that Nelson's demeanor before he departed to fight the combined fleet and immediately before the battle indicated that he did not expect to survive this conflict. However, the documents on which this account is based indicate that there is another explanation. He had realised that his relationship with Emma Hamilton was effectively at an end. He was physically worn out by so many years at sea, and had now formed a new attachment with Lana Gutrin. It was his intention to first ensure his country's safety with a naval victory, and then retire and live with Lana, who, with Nelson to act for her would be able to resume her true identity, allowing Leonard to vanish. Between them they would finish the calculating engine.
Nelson's departure for Cadiz in September in the Victory and his subsequent triumph over the combined fleet at Cape Trafalgar need not be repeated here. But one part of the historical account is completely erroneous. As history records, Nelson was struck by a musket ball fired from the Redoutable, and was carried below to the orlop. With him there were several other men, officers and common seamen, who had also been hit in a similar manner. The ball had entered high up on his back as the official accounts record, but it now appears that it broke his left shoulder and exited below his left armpit. On the way out it had touched his left lung. The surgeon could see that the lung was damaged, and therefore assumed the wound would be fatal. Everything possible was done to make Nelson comfortable, but all about him assumed he had only a short time to live. As the battle raged above Nelson's breathing became easier and he realised that the bleeding into his lung had ceased and it was possible that he might live. However, in the weeks at sea before the battle he had begun to see that the plans for his future made while he was with Lana in England were just not practical. He was such a well known figure that it would not be possible for them to be together while she was engaged in her secret task. Although a national hero he was still comparatively poor, and the financial strain of trying to support his large number of brother, sisters, in-laws and other relatives, none of whom would understand that he was not a wealthy man, was becoming too much. Furthermore the scandal of his leaving Emma would tarnish his heroic image. It might be better if he were to die at his hour of triumph.
So that is what he decided to do.
In the next instalment I shall describe how Nelson returned secretly to England after Trafalgar and how he and Lana together began the construction of the calculating machine. How Nelson was killed, the plans were lost and then re-discovered and how Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Wellesley took up the project.
Note 1
In the same way as the wartime story of Bletchley Park was buried for 50 years, so was Nelson's secret work. The manner in which this whole affair was concealed, so well that for more than two centuries national landmarks and major events in English history have been misrepresented, will be only briefly touched upon here, indeed, the way the system was uncovered forty years ago could itself fill a book.
The civil service two centuries ago was already well established, and many of its modes of operation would be recognised today. One of these is the reluctance to destroy any documents, no matter how secret or potentially damaging. The normal method of ensuring that such material is not revealed while it may still have the power to do harm but will be available to historians and later generations it to 'seal' it for a number of years, normally 30, 50 or 100. However, there is a method of ensuring that documents are almost guaranteed never to see the light of day while still being kept safe. This is the 'cache' system, and the very existence of the system is itself top secret and known to only a very few high ranking officials. Under this system documents are kept secret indefinitely, except for brief periods of only seven days duration at fixed time intervals. Only someone who knows exactly what to ask for, at exactly which office to enquire, and, more importantly, exactly when it will be available will ever be permitted to see the material. At all other times its existence would be denied. Indeed, the very catalogue of what material is concealed in this way is itself kept under the same system, only being available during seven days at 16 month intervals in a small nondescript office in Whitehall.
By using irregular periods the possibility of a chance enquiry is reduced to a minimum, and the most highly classified documents are only accessible every twenty one years and nine months.
Note 2
Shortly after the second World War an American writer discovered that some WWII research material he required relating to his own experiences had completely vanished. His curiosity aroused, he spent six years trying to break through the wall of secrecy that prevented him from gaining access to documents he knew existed. Eventually he learned of the cache scheme, and by extraordinary good luck and a series of fortuitous coincidences he was able to gain access to the catalogue. There were many items he would have dearly loved to see, but the one whose period of availability was closest was that relating to Nelson's secret project, and so he was able to obtain and make notes on all those documents. Our account of this project is based upon the brief notes he made. Knowing that he had no official authorisation (merely knowing when, where and for what to ask was all the authority required) he became worried he might be found out, yet he felt that the existance of this information should be revealed. He therefore decided to write a novel containing many coded references to the cache system, hoping that some of the people who had a suspicion of its existance would recognize them, in particular the highly secret twenty one and three quarter year version. By the time the authorities realised that their secret was out it would be impossible to suppress the book. Unfortunately his publishers decided the title was too long and rounded it up, simultaneously misspelling one of the words, thereby destroying many of the carefully constructed references. Joseph Heller, despite the fame his acclaimed novel brought him, was so distraught that its primary purpose had been rendered defunct that it was more than a decade before he was able to work on another book.
Note 3
By the Navigation Act no foreign vessels were allowed to trade with any of the British colonies. Many American vessels, which had been British before American independence, were taking advantage of earlier practice to trade between the U.S. and the British West Indies although they were no longer British vessels. Sir Richard Hughes, the senior officer on the station, was persuaded by Nelson that it was the navy's duty to enforce the act, and accordingly when he arrived at St. Kitts, where there were many American vessels trading illegally, he proclaimed his intention to enforce the act, and that any who did not depart immediately would be seized according to law. Although most of his superior officers did not support him, many of them having financial involvement in the trade, it was decided that the law must be upheld. When at Nevis the Boreas found four American vessels Nelson gave them 48 hours to depart, but they refused to do so declaring that they were in American territory. By various legal devices they began a lawsuit against Nelson for the huge sum of £40,000, but eventually, after a trial and the intervention of the Secretary of State, Nelson prevailed, and the Register Act was framed to clarify the situation.
Note 4
At this time if a warship should capture an enemy vessel, whether a naval or merchant ship, the ship could be sent, normally with a skeleton crew, to a British port. Here the vessel could be declared a lawful prize. by a prize court. A merchant ship and her cargo would then be sold, normally at public auction, and the proceeds divided among the crew(s) of all the ships that were present when she was taken. The proportion each received was in a predetermined ratio according to their rank, the Admiral in charge of the area also receiving a portion even if he was not present. Captured warships were normally not sold in this way but were 'bought into service' by the Admiralty and commissioned into the navy, often retaining their original name as seamen thought it unlucky to change it. As it was acknowledged that the French built bigger, faster and better ships than the English yards many of the best ships in the Royal Navy began their lives in French dockyards and ended up being used against their original owners.
For a frigate captain, being sent to the West Indies where it was possible to take many rich prizes was the foundation of many fortunes, and most admirals retired from this appointment made very wealthy from their share of the bounty.
The fact that the (wealthy) Sir Hyde Parker burned six very valuable ships at Copenhagen when his share of the prize money as Rear Admiral would have made a vast difference to Nelson's finances had they been sailed to England left him extremely bitter, and he tried to gain compensation for the fleet for those deprived of the prize money.
Madup Orfer