Henriette's Herbal Homepage | Medicinal herbFAQ - part 3 of 7For the full table of contents go to mediherb.html. Email me any comments: HeK@hetta.pp.fi - Last updated 29Dec97 - minor updates
Contents, this part only:
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2.1.10 Ginkgo biloba
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From Penny (Zhomankenh@aol.com):
HARVESTING THE LEAVES
Best time to harvest leaves for high flavonoid content is in the fall, after they begin to turn color. Flavonoids, which may be the most active anti-oxidants in ginkgo and exhibit a vessel-toning effect, reach their highest levels in the leaves at this time.
However, the most important active constituents in ginkgo leaves (the ginkgolides and bilobalide) reach their highest levels around Aug. or Sept., in late summer or early fall, before the leaves start to turn color. If you are interested in getting max. levels of these constituents, you should harvest the leaves when they are a dark, rich green, because these constituents drop the their lowest levels after the leaves have turned yellow and begin to fall off the tree.
Considering all of the above, the optimum time for harvesting ginkgo leaves may be just about the time they begin to turn color, or a little before in Sept.
After picking the leaves, shade-dry them on a screen, allowing good air circulation from the bottom and the top. Best condition is one that will dry the leaves quickly (in 2 to 3 days) but not overheat them. Never dry leaves in the sun. To test that the leaves are thoroughly dried, "snap" a leaf stem to make sure. When the leaves are dried, put them in a paper bag inside a plastic bag, and store them in a cool, dark place - in a tinted glass jar is best.
Tea is a traditional way to take ginkgo and when used over a longer period of time (up to 9 mos), it may provide good benefits, especially as a preventative supplement to the diet. A tea of the leaves can be a good way of taking ginkgo because most of the important active compounds in the live plant are water-soluble. Because of changes in the levels of active constituents during the growing season and variations in levels of these compounds between different populations of ginkgo, the use of the leaves is best as long-term therapy, mostly a prevention. One drawback of the tea, it has a bitter, astringent and slightly sour flavor - this formula is quite palatable:
Brain and Circulation Tea
ginkgo 1 part
lavender 1/2 part
wood betony 1 part
lemon balm 1 part
stevia herb 1/8 to 14 part
Adjust the amount of stevia according to how sweet you want your tea. Stevia is VERY Sweet, you might start on the low side.
SAFETY AND TOXICITY
Ginkgo leaves and cooked nuts have a safe history of use that goes back several thousand yrs. When using a preparation of the whole leaves or seeds, you can safely assume that within a normal dose range there will be no danger of negative side effects.
In one study involving 2,855 patients who took ginkgo extract, about 3.7% experienced minor gastric upset which had no lasting effects when the ginkgo was discontinued. Another test with 8,505 patients who took ginkgo for 6 mos revealed that only 0.4% (33 people) experienced minor side effects, most commonly mild stomach upset. It is noteworthy that tests show that even high doses of ginkgo extract do not change the hormonal balance in men, and that neither does ginkgo affect the sugar metabolism of the body - which means it is safe for diabetics, who often suffer from poor circulation and therefore might benefit from ginkgo treatment. Finally, no disturbances in the formation of new blood cells or the functioning of the liver and kidneys were observed, even after long-term use.
Highly purified extract (24%) is so concentrated, it has a stronger activity per amount of extract than the ginkgo preparations used for thousands of yrs. in Chinese medicine. Not only has the internal balance changed in the purified extract, but so has the potential toxicity, both short-term and long-term. Fortunately, Schwabe has done an enormous amount to testing which demonstrates that the purified and concentrated extract is safe. Thousands of people have taken high doses of the extract and have been rigorously examined for any undesirable bodily changes.
THE FRUITS
Ginkgo fruits have been the object of much bad press - due to their potentially foul odor, which smells something like rancid butter. Aside from its unaesthetic odor, the pulp of ginkgo can actually be irritating to the skin and cause rashes in some people, for it contains similar irritating chemical substances to those found in poison oak and ivy. Many cases of contact dermatitis have been reported from handling the fruit when its skin is cut or broken, though rashes have not been reported from contact with the leaves or any other part of the tree. In China, traditional processing methods are used to remove the pulp cleanly from the nuts.
Christopher Hobbs has done a book on Ginkgo. See 4.1 below.
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Ginkgo leaves and standardized extracts:
> Can you eat Ginkgo leaves whole, or is that not advisable? Can the leaves be made into a tea? What part of the ginkgo is used to make ginkgo biloba extract?
From Jonathan Treasure, http://www.teleport.com/~jonne:
Eating the leaves, or even infusing them is not common practice. There is nothing to *STOP* you from doing it I suppose, but it would not be an effective way of ingesting medicinal amounts of the herb. You need a lot for results - which is why some companies have produced concentrated extracts which are the equivalent of about 80:1 strength of what they consider to be the active ingredients. In other words one gram of standardised extract is like eating 80 grams of dried leaf. It is the leaf that is used in herbal medicine.
From Moses David Goldberg <mosesom@wco.com>:
We should not forget that Ginkgo has been used for thousands of years in practice before reductionistic capitalistic herbal companies came out with standardized extracts. The healing efficacy and synergy of the ginkgo leaves in tea or tinctures should not be underscored. It may not have 24% of Ginkgolodes per batch but I would rather take the tincture than all the packaging and environmental waste that comes along in your $20 box of Standard Extract Pills.
From Jonathan Treasure:
I agree with your predilection - it is the case that all the original European Ginkgo research was done with standard 1:3 tinctures. My own opposition to standardisation is not so much packaging although that is loathsome, but that it runs counter to the fundamental idea that the whole plant is the basis of its medicinal properties. Today's active ingredient is tomorrow's redundant constituent...who makes these decisions anyway? It is the scientific phytomedicine companies marketing departments... However - in the case of Ginkgo (and one or two other herbs) there IS an argument for taking a *concentrated* format because a large amount of regular tincture is needed to achieve results in e.g. senile memory performance. It does not have to be standardised - a regular reconstituted solid extract would do the job.
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Culinary use of Ginkgo Nuts
From ac956@osfn.rhilinet.gov (Roy Collins):
I made a few inquiries to some of my Oriental friends and found that the *nuts* are used as an ingredient in stir fried veggies, and are added to soups and stuffing. The fresh nuts must first be prepared before use like this::
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2.1.11 Kava kava
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by Dennis McClain-Furmanski (dynasor@infi.net)
Kava-kava (Piper methysticum) is a plant native to the Pacific Islands, originally from the island of Vanuatu. Following the influx of missionaries over the last century, its cultivation and use has decreased but not disappeared. Several botanical houses in the US and elsewhere have begun regular cultivation. The supply remains low, as the harvest rotation period is from 1.5 to 5 years. Restrictions on import have been considered and may be imminent, meaning only locally grown supplies will be available. Indigenous growths are now being protected as endangered in some areas, but this does not preclude cultivation.
Kava is more of a social and ceremonial preparation than it is medicinal. Its primary action is as a relaxant, and at high levels an intoxicant and divinitory preparation. In normal use, the kava drinker becomes relaxed and sociable, and may later drift off into revery. Large doses, as used by village chieftains and seers, induces a trance-like state with vivid dreaming. It is still used in some areas as a medicinal liniment, being prepared there as a tincture. Modern use of kava has included a preparation given to electroshock therapy patients as a muscle relaxant.
The active constituents of the plant, such as the lactone resins yangonine and kawaine, are found primarily in the root rhizomes, although some preparations such as the Hawaiian liniment make use of the fresh stem. Most preparations use chopped root material. There are some commercial products in the form of tablets made from a powder, but these tend to suffer in strength, apparently due to excessive drying.
Use of kava requires bringing the insoluble resins into emulsion. Traditional preparation is done by chewing the stems and spitting them with copious saliva into a bowl, to which water and coconut juice is added. The mixture is then kneaded and strained through fiber and drunk immediately.
A more palatable preparation is to wrap about an ounce in a single layer of plain cotton cloth or a few layers of cheese cloth, and tied off to form a ball. This is dunked in a quart or so of water, lifted and squeezed out, repeating this until the bubbles forming from the dripping water tend to remain on the surface of the water -- about 10 to 15 minutes. As with the traditional preparation, this tastes strongly musty and not particularly pleasant. It is drunk immediately in gulps. A tablespoon of sugar helps, and my favorite additive is a tablespoon of Ovaltine or other malted mixture. Most non-traditional preparations such as herb teas and other mixtures are either too low a dosage or improperly prepared and so are ineffective, most probably due to the bad taste of effective dosages.
A tincture is made by soaking the chopped root material in 3 times its volume of alcoholic liquor such as brandy or gin. This is shaken daily over 2 or 3 weeks and then strained. Internal use is 1 to 2 ounces, and external use is an ounce rubbed into sore muscles or soaked into a cloth which is laid over the affected area.
Some reports have been made regarding chewing and swallowing fresh root. All the same effects are noted, with the addition of a decongestant-like opening of breathing passages. This is only in healthy individuals; there is no true decongestant effect in congested individuals.
Heavy daily use of kava for years has been reported to cause dry, flaking skin, yellowing of the eyes and persistent lethargy. The doses involved are those used by local chiefs and visionaries, and normal recreational or medicinal use will not cause this. When this syndrome does appear, 2 to 3 weeks of abstinence cures it. Reports of lowered peripheral blood flow seem to be anecdotal only.
The plant itself is available from some ethnobotanical houses, and seems to thrive even in non-tropical conditions, though it still requires indoor cultivation.
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2.1.12 Pau D'Arco
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by Dennis McClain-Furmanski (dynasor@infi.net)
Pau D'Arco (Tabebuia impetiginosa), also known as Taheebo and Lapacho
colorado, is a tree native to the Andes and nearby rain forests. The bark,
and in particular the inner bark lining, is scraped and turned into a tea.
It has been used for centuries by the indigenous peoples as an immunofortifier.
Recent pharmacologic studies have uncovered the anti-tumor agent lapachol,
as well as the anti-candidas agent xylidione, and the consistent effects
of both have gathered the interest of the global pharmacological community.
Claims that the tea contains a large proportion of oxygen in solution have
peaked the interest of the oxygen-therapy movement, and it is being considered
for anti-AIDS/HIV testing.
The normal preparation is a small amount of scraped bark prepared as a
normal tea. The taste is reported to be heady and pleasant.
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hrbmoore@rt66.com (Michael Moore), as a sidenote in a post on herbs and
fibroids:
I, frankly, have no idea why you would want to use Pau D'Arco (Tabebuia
spp.). It is a useful anti-oxidant and anti-fungal. I fail to see its
implication with fibroids. Besides, it is a pocket-change byproduct of
rain-forest timbering...don't let anyone fool you otherwise.
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2.1.13 Wild yam and contraception
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>...I recently read an article about the use of wild yam in gel caps
as a form of birth control. The article warned that it is only effective
if taken in regular doses (3 size 00 capsules twice a day) and then you
have to wait 2 months before it works. I would be willing to try it--I've
had a horrible time with conventional birth control, but the article had
no references or explanation of how the wild yams work. Has anyone else
heard of this? I'd appreciate any info.
From moon2peg@slip.net (Peggy Wilbur):
... I feel that it is important to nip this one in the bud. The following is based on my own extensive research on phytoestrogens. While my research has led me deep into the chemistry of phytoestrogens and the physiology of the endocrine system, I keep it very basic here:
Wild Yam, (Dioscorea villosa), contains a number of substances known as phytoestrogens. Phytoestrogens are those plant chemicals that bind to our cells' estrogen receptor sites and, theoretically, trigger the components of estrogenic activity (activity does not necessarily mean production).
This binding is possible due to striking similarities, in shape and structure, to the body's own steroids. By binding to these estrogen receptor sites when blood estrogen levels are high, phytoestrogens are, again theoretically, able to reduce overall estrogen activity (Key to the estrogen-induced breast cancer debate). Conversely, when estrogen levels are low, they are able to promote estrogenic action.
Well over 250 plant species contain phytoestrogens, including, for example, Dong quai (Angelica sinensis), Red clover (Trifolium pratense), Alfalfa (Medicago sativum), Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra), Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), and Soybean (Glycine max).
There is much controversy surrounding the uses of such plants both medicinally and nutritionally.
Some herbalists (and others) believe that the phytoestrogens found in the Wild Yam, including steroidal saponins (mainly diosgenin), are hormone "precursors", especially of progesterone. However, while diosgenin from D. villosa was once widely used, through an industrial five-step chemical degradation (e.g. the Marker degradation), in the industry manufacturing of progesterone-containing birth control pills, the human body is not capable of such a synthesis using phytoestrogens as a starting point. Our bodies simply do not have the enzymes necessary for such a "building block" conversion. The estrogenic effects that have been noted (i.e. in relation to relief of various menopausal discomforts) may very well be due to the previously mentioned binding of phytoestrogens to estrogen receptor sites, which occurs when phytosterols cross the cell membrane and bind to a specific cytoplasmic receptor molecule. The receptor-hormone combination then enters the nucleus, where it binds to a particular DNA sequence by attaching itself to a specific site on a chromosome. This attachment activates those genes responsible for hormone-induced changes. (It gets a bit more complicated than this, but I'll spare you!)
So again, while some steroids are bioconverted or biosynthesized through the metabolic action of the liver to produce sex hormones (i.e. cholesterol > estradiol), the liver does not produce estrogen or progesterone by "building" upon the diosgenin in D. villosa.
Very brief, but hope this is of some use to you. Wild Yam does not act as a birth control pill just because birth control pills were once synthesized from its constituents. While some women may write back and say that the Yam has been effective for them, I might ask what other factors may be at play in their lives that may be responsible for a lack of pregnancy.
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From: Paul Bergner <bergner@concentric.net>
As I understand it, the so-called "wild yam" natural progresterone
creams contain progesterone (purchased from pharmaceutical companies) that
happens to have had mexican wild yam as its starting material. There's
nothing natural about it. The wild yam constituent is beaten up chemically
and made to jump through artificial hoops until it's progesterone. The
companies don't label it as progesterone, I assume, because they couldn't
legally sell it if they said what was really in it.
Some call it "Wild Yam extract".
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2.1.14 Red raspberry and pregnancy
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You use an infusion of the leaf of Rubus idaeus to ease pregnancy
and/or childbirth. The controversy is when to use it - throughout the pregnancy
or just the last trimester. One piece of advice on the paracelsus list:
From: herbal@got.net (Roy Upton)
Almost all popular texts state that red raspberry is good to use throughout
pregnancy. On several occasions I have seen first trimester women experience
spotting each time they drank moderate amounts of the tea. When they discontinued
the tea, spotting stopped. Four tried the tea again and spotting began
again. I asked a few midwives about their experience and found that they
too had experienced the same thing, so did not generally recommend it in
the first trimester. I do not feel that red raspberry is inherently problematic,
but also feel that is not necessarily inherently benign.
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2.1.15 Green tea (and caffeine)
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The usual question is: does green tea contain caffeine? The answer is yes,
if it hasn't been decaffeinated. So does black tea, and oolong. A good
post on teas in general and green tea in particular:
From alczap@thorne.com (Al Czap):
It is thought that the traditional use of tea (Camellia sinensis)
began in China about 4700 years ago. Europeans were introduced to the beverage
in the 1500's, and by the second half of the 17th century it was being
widely consumed throughout Europe. Today, tea is the second most consumed
beverage in the world (water is #1) with 2.5 million tons of tea leaves
produced annually.
The Chinese produce over 300 varieties of tea, which can be separated
into three basic categories; black tea, oolong tea, and green tea.
These three types of tea can actually be derived from the exact same plant.
The difference between them is how the leaves are handled after harvesting.
Black tea is allowed to ferment, and is then dried. Oolong tea is partially
fermented. Green tea is dried without fermenting. Allowing the tea to ferment
oxidizes naturally-occurring catechins, transforming them into theaflavins
and thearubigin, chemicals responsible for the color and flavor of black
tea. An increase in theaflavins increases the commercial value of black
tea, but decreases the catechin content.
Green tea infusion contains intact catechin polyphenols, which give rise to its bitterness and astringency. Six catechin polyphenols have been isolated from green tea; (-)-epigallocatechin, (-)-epicatechin, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate (EGCG), gallocatechin-3-O-gallate (GCG), methyl-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate, and (-)-epicatechin-3-O-gallate (ECG). These substances were tested for their antioxidant activity, and the gallic acid esters EGCG and EGC were found to be the strongest antioxidants, with EGCG being over 200 times more active than Vitamin E in an in vitro model. In another test, EGCG was more active against fat rancidity (lipid peroxidation) than Vitamin C or Vitamin E, and also exhibited synergistic action with those vitamins.
Many nutritive and protective qualities have been associated with green tea, both in infusion and extract form. A Japanese epidemiological study of 9500 non-drinkers/non-smokers age 40 and above showed a decreased incidence of stroke (CVA) in those consuming green tea, with a direct correlation between increased consumption and decreased incidence, so that at 3-4 cups a day the overall incidence of CVA was 17 percent that of people drinking no tea. Other epidemiological studies show a decreased risk of esophageal, gastric, and colon neoplasms with tea consumption.
Numerous studies have shown that standardized green tea extracts or components of the extract exhibit antioxidant activity, stimulation of glutathione peroxidase and catalase, induction of phase II enzymes, and inhibition of cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase, and angiotensin converting enzyme. Green tea extract also has anti-platelet-aggregation activity, and inhibits delta-amylase and sucrase, in addition to the known effects of catechin: collagen stabilization, histidine decarboxylase inhibition, and hepatic support.
Green tea extracts can contain a substantial amount of caffeine, and may be standardized to low levels of polyphenols. HPLC isolation and identification reveals that the main constituent of our extract is EGCG (epigallocatechin gallate), the most active compound in the extract.
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For some research abstracts on Green tea visit the Thorne Research Abstracts
page: http://www.thorne.com/thorne_abstracts.html
or go straight to the Green tea abstracts on that page: http://www.thorne.com/greentea.html
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2.1.16 Comfrey hepatotoxicity
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From: Rene Burrough <rburrough@dial.pipex.com>
Comfrey is the victim of a bad press, inaccurate reports, and four true cases of toxicity which in themselves are not straightforward, but suggest overdosing on comfrey. Governments in the UK & Australia have restricted the uses of comfrey root or banned the plant respectively.
The problem is two-fold: firstly there are two "comfreys" and reference to them is often casual. Regular, common, medicinal comfrey is Symphytum officinale. Russian comfrey, the great compost heap maker, is Symphytum x uplandicum. Medical herbalists in the UK, from whose written reports I am extrapolating, point out that Russian comfrey was probably the herb used in the toxicity trials yet regular comfrey is also restricted or banned.
Secondly, when the toxicity tests were done in the late 70s, a chemical constituent called pyrrolizidine alkaloid was isolated, extracted from <comfrey> leaves & injected into baby rats at what many medical herbalists consider an "unrealistic level". In other words far more comfrey than a human would eat to get such a toxic level of <PAs>. Also baby rats are smaller than humans; they do not have the same metabolism as humans; and an isolated chemical injected outside the rat's stomach wall is not the same as a human eating leaves with many chemical constituents and digesting them normally. A chemical in isolation will cause different reactions from a group of chemical constituents containing that one as well.
To digress, but to explain, I hope. Aspirin is a synthesized chemical, acetylsalicylic acid, based on a real life plant constituent found in meadowsweet & willow. Aspirin can cause ulcerations of the stomach lining; meadowsweet has a soothing, gummy constituent called mucilage which lines the stomach, preventing erosion of the stomach wall but allowing the anti inflammatory properties of the salicylates of the herb to be utilized. OK?
So -- the bad guys in <comfrey>, the <PAs> were isolated & did bad things. But that too must be qualified.
The early research, late 70s, concluded that these <PAs> do indeed cause liver damage in humans. Medical herbalists would point out that Pyrrolizidine alkaloids can cause obstructions of the veins in the human liver, known as hepatic veno-occlusion, but <were not shown to cause liver cell abnormalities> and that the level of alkaloids in comfrey was too low to <cause specific damage to liver circulation> in any case.
And finally, is comfrey carcinogenic? The carcinogenic alkaloid has been identified as symphytine which apparently is about 5% of the total alkaloids in comfrey.
The original, often cited report was written by Culver et al in 1980. There have been many criticisms since of the research itself; how the scientific testing was conducted, which comfrey was really used, etc. What I found most interesting was the tumors in all but three of the rats were benign -- out of three groups of 19-28 rats and 3 groups of 15-24 rats. <And the three malignant tumors were of low malignancy>. There were clear cut cases of liver damage. That's in rats.
There are four cases involving humans which do implicate comfrey. One involved a woman who was finally diagnosed as having veno-occlusive disease & did consume a quart of herbal tea/per day that contained comfrey. A second case involved a boy with Crohns disease who was treated with conventional medicine for some time before going over to comfrey root & acupuncture. The long running malnutrition may have weaken the liver predisposing it to the venal obstruction problem. Comfrey root was blamed. The drugs were not considered as possibilities. The third case involves a woman who overdosed: 10 cups of comfrey tea a day & handsful of comfrey pills. After 9 years, she had serious liver problems. The fourth case became a fatality. A vegetarian, given to specific food binges for weeks, took an unknown amount of comfrey for flu like symptoms possibly over a period of four months. The particulars of his case are blurred. All cases involve comfrey; in at least three, there are suggestions of overdose or abuse of the plant. WHICH plant, I don't know.
There are also disagreements about the efficacy & safety of leaves vs. root. Some studies show the leaf to be almost alkaloid free -- thus safe. The UK finally restricted the internal use of comfrey root... saying that there are still too many unanswered questions. Most medical herbalists I know will politely to vigorously disagree, but the law restricts the root. At least externally the root's OK here & the leaves can still be used as tea or poultice.
I'm sorry this is so long, but bear with me one more paragraph, please. I must credit Penelope Ode, MNIMH, former Editor, writing in Herbs, the British Herb Society magazine & Margaret Whitelegg, MNIMH, whose paper for the National Institute of Medical herbalists to the UK government in <Defence of Comfrey> was later published in the European Journal of Herbal Medicine. Both were published in 1993. I cannot do justice to their articles so briefly, but I do hope I have fairly summarized their writings. Any misstatements, confusion of explanations here are mine.
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2.1.17 Pennyroyal
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by Rene Burrough <rburrough@dial.pipex.com>
In answer to your question...how deadly & which one. The very brief answer is both IF you're talking about ingesting the isolated, essential oil. So, here's a longer answer.
Pennyroyal, European Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium). Labiatae.
American Pennyroyal, Mock Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides). Labiatae.
Other synonyms for American Pennyroyal: Pudding grass, Lurk-in-the-ditch,
Squaw mint, Mosquito plant.
I knew very little about pennyroyal, except that it seems to keep the ant population down in a large stone planter I have. Six feet long by 2 feet wide & 3 feet deep to ground level, it has been a hotbed of ant breeding for 15 years or so. Anything that grew there was by courtesy of millions of ants. I put two creeping pennyroyals in...and for the last two years there have been considerably fewer massive colonies of ants. Some have moved underground and over to the veggie patch, but that's beside the point. Ants don't like pennyroyal, so that's my starting point.
Certainly the essential oil used topically or the fresh leaves crushed and rubbed onto the skin will ward off mosquitoes and fleas (see section IX). Philbrick & Gregg, in their ancient & treasured _Companion Plants_ agree. They also state that the American pennyroyal yields a commercial oil which can repel gnats & mosquitoes. Soak a dog collar in an infusion of pennyroyal or add a strong decoction into the floor washing water are well regarded folklore remedies by Adele Dawson. Richard Mabey claims pennyroyal is also good with bites of all kinds, repelling ticks as well as the above. Tierra suggests using citronella oil with pennyroyal oil for external application against mosquitoes.
Topically, it is a refrigerant, antiseptic, insect repellent, and thus good for skin eruptions, itching, formication [the sensation of small insects crawling all over the skin] & gout [presumably for its cooling property applied to the affected, <burning> joint in an acute attack]. Parenthetically, it is only the _British Herbal Pharmacopoeia_ that includes gout in the pennyroyal portfolio.
I HISTORY OF THE NAME:
from Malcolm Stuart's _Encyclopedia of Herbs & Herbalism_
Pennyroyal was held in very high repute for many centuries throughout Europe
& was the most popular member of the mint family. Pliny is regarded
as the originator of its name "pulegium" ...derived from "pulex"
meaning flea...since both the fresh herb & the smoke from the burning
leaves (smudging) were used to eradicate the insects. Linnaeus retained
the association with fleas when he gave the plant its botanical name. Prior
to that scientific classification, the unusual aroma led some to consider
it a thyme.
"Puliol" was an old French name for thyme, & this plant was designated the royal thyme or "puliol royale" which was corrupted into pennyroyal. In modern French, the herb is called "la menthe Pouliot".
Herb books written in the US tend to list American Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides) first , and medical herbals written in the UK & Europe prefer Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium). All agree the <other> pennyroyal has the same or similar properties. Where the real differences lie are in the appearance & life cycle of the two herbs.
II DESCRIPTION OF PENNYROYAL:
Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) is an aromatic Perennial and is common wild or garden plant in the UK, France & Germany; found in wet grounds around the Med & in Western Asia. Mrs. Grieve says the more common, at least in the UK, is the creeping or <decumbens> pennyroyal. With weak, prostrate stems, though quadrangular -- as all mints have square stems -- it roots easily where ever the leaf nodes touch the ground. H 10-15cm or 4-6in. S indefinite. <Erecta> the upright or sub-erect has stouter stems, & obviously there's no rooting at leaf nodes. It is less common in the UK but better for cultivation according to Mrs. G.. H 20-30cm or 8-12in. S indefinite. A planting will last 4-5 years, though Mrs. G says frost may kill it, & a new planting should be made each year. Deni Brown lists pennyroyal as fully hardy [minimum -5C or 5F). Ethne Clarke's _Herb Garden Design_ shows pennyroyal appropriate for Zones 5-9.
The leaves of Pennyroyal are generally small, ovate, slightly serrate, slightly hairy, and opposite. For the record, the leaf of the non-creeping pennyroyal can be up to 3cm or 1.5in long and may be entire rather than slightly toothed. The color depends on the variety and whether wild or cultivar. Greyish-green to light green. The IMPRESSION of the appearance of the leaves is similar to that of wild oregano (Origanum vulgaris), marjorams (O. majorana, O. onites) & thymes...that is... tiny & crowded together on thin stems but with more rounded leaves. Not surprisingly Mrs. G described pennyroyal as <the smallest of the mints & very different in habit>.
The small flowers are produced in distinctive, dense whorls (similar to corn or fieldmint & gingermint in bloom. ) The tight, axillary clusters appear in July-August with colors ranging from reddish -purple to lilac. There are few flowering stems on the prostate form; they lie on top of what appears to be "a dense green turf". Seed is light brown, very small & oval.
To harvest: for drying, the stems should be gathered just before flowering in July. Pungently aromatic, it can be added to potpourris & insect sachets. The dried herb can also be made into infusions, liquid extract, tinctures for medicinal uses. (see section X)
III DESCRIPTION OF AMERICAN PENNYROYAL:
According to Deni Brown, there are 39 species of annuals & perennials in the NAmerican genus, Hedeoma. They have no great merit as garden plants, but are often seen in herb gardens. Its neat habit & aromatic foliage makes it especially suitable for containers & planting near seats & entrances, or between paving stones.
American pennyroyal is an Annual, found in dry fields & open woods from the East coast to Minnesota/Nebraska. It is bushy plant with erect, square stems. H 10-40cm (4-16in) S 7-24 cm (3-10in) it bears small, opposite, thin ovate leaves sparingly toothed. Axillary clusters of small, tubular lavender or purplish flowers appear from June-October. The whole plant has a pleasant, aromatic, mint-like smell. The name _Hedeoma_ comes from the Greek <hedys> for sweet and <osme> for scent. It has also been described as having an acrid taste and aroma; none-the-less it is used as the basic flavoring herb of North Carolina black pudding... hence the local name of Pudding Grass.
A culinary aside: In the north of England, Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) is also used in black pudding, and in Spain it is added to sausages.
To harvest: plants should be cut when in flower for drying. The fresh herb can be gathered and used almost as a "strewing herb" for deterring fleas.
IV THERAPEUTICS OF MENTHA PULEGIUM:
For the basic framework, I am using the information from the _British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, 1983_ supplemented by Potter's, Culpepper's Colour, David Hoffmann, Deni Brown, & Simon Mills.
Actions: Carminative, Spasmolytic = arresting or checking spasm especially of smooth muscle. [Antispasmodic means preventing or relieving.] Diaphoretic. Uterine stimulant/ Emmenagogue... principally used for delayed menses. (see section VIII)
Topically: Refrigerant. Antiseptic. Insect repellent.
Indications: Flatulent dyspepsia. Intestinal colic. The common cold. Delayed menstruation. Topically: Cutaneous [skin] eruptions. Formication. Gout.
Specific indications: Delayed menstruation owing to chill or nervous
shock.
Contraindication: Inadvisable in pregnancy. (see section VIII)
In small doses & as an infusion, pennyroyal is used for colds (as it promotes sweating), With its richly aromatic volatile oil, pennyroyal will ease indigestion, wind, nausea, colic, dyspepsia, and painful menstruation. It is considered a warming & stimulant herb by Culpepper, while Adele Dawson also suggests its use in cases of stomach spasm & hysteria. Hoffmann explains that the volatile oil will relax spasmodic pain & ease anxiety. NB: This should NOT be construed as ingesting the isolated, essential oil which could be fatal. (see section IX) The volatile oil is a constituent of the plant & will be released in the preparation of the infusion.
Pennyroyal is given to children with stomach & bowel upsets & also to ease feverish symptoms in measles & whooping cough. Taken by infusion according to Culpepper.
BHP suggested dose: for an infusion: 1- 4gm of dried herb in 1C ** boiling
water; steeped for 10-15 minutes. 3 times a day.
Or 1-4ml of liquid extract (1:1 in 45% alcohol). 3 times a day.
Other herbals consulted tend to suggest smaller doses: up to 2 or 3gm dried
herb; up to 2ml tincture...though Potter's range is from 0.5ml - 5ml of
the liquid extract.
**NB: the general proportions for infusions are: 30gm dried herb or 75gm
fresh herb to 500ml boiling water. So "one cup" is the proverbial
length of a piece of string.
Pennyroyal is available on the General Sales List in the UK. [In itself, that is an indication of its considered safety.]
The BHP suggests the following combinations: for acute amenorrhea - may be combined with Chamaelirium (False Unicorn Root), Achillea millefolium (Yarrow), & Picrasma (Quassia, Quassia Wood, Jamaica Quassia); for flatulent dyspepsia - may be combined with Filipendula (Meadowsweet), Althaea Root (Marshmallow root) & Melissa (Lemon Balm); in the common cold - may be combined with Sambucus (Elderflower) & Achillea millefolium (Yarrow)
V THERAPEUTICS OF HEDEOMA PULEGIOIDES:
The basis of this information came from Lust's _Herb Book_, Deni Brown's _Encyclopedia of Herbs, Tierra's Plant Herbology, & Earl Mindell's _Herb Bible_
Properties & uses: carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, sedative, expectorant. The Amerindian tradition shows use of pennyroyal for headaches, feverish colds, & menstrual cramps & pain. It was also used as a digestive herbal tea. It was listed in the _US Pharmacopoeia_ (1831-1916).
It is still used internally for colds, whooping cough(the expressed
juice can be made into a lozenge/sucking candy). In childbirth, the PLANT
is used.
NB: the essential oil taken internally could be fatal. (see section IX).
It should be used by qualified practitioners only.
Topically: as a wash for skin eruptions, rashes, and itching.
Suggested dose: 1 tsp. herb/1C water. 1-2 cups/day. Tinctures 20-60 drops at a time, as needed. For children, small, frequent doses.
VI CONSTITUENTS OF MENTHA PULEGIUM.
(The American pennyroyal has similar constituents.) Sources: Potter's, Malcolm Stuart, Tierra, & David Hoffmann.
Volatile oil (0.5-1%) of which approx. 85% is a ketone, pulegone; also isopulegone, menthol, isomethone, limone, piperitone, neomenthol. There are also misc. bitters, tannins, & flavone glycosides.
Pulegone is described as a toxic compound, "notorious for causing abortions". It is present in both Mentha pulegium & Hedeoma pulegioides.
VII ADDITIONAL MEDICAL INTERPRETATIONS:
Tierra in _Planetary Herbology_ collectively describes Hedeoma pulegioides & Mentha pulegium ...in much the same way as mentioned above. He does add the following: The Energetics are spicy, bitter, warm . The Meridians/organs affected are liver & lungs.
In David Bellamy's & Andrea Pfister's _World Medicine_ they have a large section called The Families of Healing Plants. Mentha pulegium is listed with two sources of information: The 1907 British Pharmaceutical Codex and Book I of Avicenna's _Canon_. The BPC states that Oil of Pennyroyal (Ol. Pulegii) is given as an emmenagogue. During excretion, it mildly irritates the kidneys & bladder, and reflexly excites uterine contractions. Avicenna lists the herb as Mint (Podina in Urdu). The leaves are the part used. The herb's Temperament is described as Hot & Dry in the 2nd Degree.
VIII HOW DEADLY IS DEADLY...AND WHICH PENNYROYAL ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?
Simon Mills in _Out of the Earth_ issued the strongest warning that I found in my trawl of herbals. There are a number of herbs which should be avoided altogether because they can damage the fetus or provoke a miscarriage. In many popular herb books the term emmenagogue is found, widely but erroneously, having come to refer to a gynecological remedy. In fact, the effect of an emmenagogue is to bring on a delayed menstruation: it takes little imagination to realize that the most common reason for a delayed menstruation is pregnancy and that emmenagogues are thus abortifacients. Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) is among 21 herbs Simon Mills lists. This information was part of a short section of herbs in pregnancy..those quite safe, and those not so.
In his first book, _The Dictionary of Modern Herbalism_ written 6 years earlier, Mills quite carefully does NOT list emmenagogue among the actions. He does include uterine stimulant with this caution: <pennyroyal should not be used in pregnancy or when any delayed menstruation might denote pregnancy; it is as likely to damage the fetus as procure the abortion.>
The second most complete, cautionary listing was found in Earl Mindell's
_Herb Bible_.
He is talking about American pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides).
<Back in the days when abortion was illegal, this herb was used to induce
abortion. In some cases, it resulted in hemorrhaging & serious complication
for the mother. Therefore, it should never be used for this purpose. Today,
pennyroyal is one of the herbs used by herbalists to facilitate labor &
delivery. It should be used only under the supervision of a knowledgeable
practitioner. If you do use this herb, do not exceed the recommended dose
& do not take for more than a week at a time.>
Richard Mabey in _The Compete New Herbal_ warns <...the oil taken internally can be highly toxic and there are a number of cases of the deaths of women who tried to procure abortions by taking the oil.>
Tierra in _Planetary Herbology_ goes further in his explanation. <To take the oil internally to terminate an unwanted pregnancy is very dangerous, and in a few cases has resulted in death. All essential oils are life-threatening if taken internally. There is a possibility of fetal damage from the use of pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides or Mentha pulegium) to induce abortion, but this may be true only of the undiluted oil and not the infusion.>
Malcolm Stuart raises an important, tangential danger. <Although
long considered an abortifacient, it has been found that this effect is
usually only possible with a dose of the oil which is highly toxic and
leads to irreversible kidney damage.>
He then goes on to state:
<The plant oil can therefore be used as a flavoring agent, but only
when the concentration of pulegone does not exceed 20mg parts per 1kg of
the final product being flavored.>
IX PS ON PESTS
And just to round things out, he adds that the plant may cause contact dermatitis which is certainly worth noting before rubbing crushed, fresh leaves on your skin to avoid mosquito bites. He adds that the pennyroyal leaves are also good for insect bites after-the-fact. They act as a rubefacient...that is drawing more blood to the area which improves its cleansing action on the affected tissue.
X ODDS AND SODS
While some herbalists maintain that a fresh herb/plant is medically more efficacious, I have not seen any preferences specified for either Pennyroyal or American Pennyroyal. Most herbals referred to the dried herb...so by omission one can assume dried is the preferred state. Why? I don't know.
Forms of internal dosage:
The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Mrs. Grieve, & Potter's call for
a liquid extract to be taken. Hoffmann & de Baiiracli Levy use infusions.
Lust calls for a tincture to be used.
As a reminder, the differences are:
Tincture: solution of substances (both active & inactive therapeutically)
extracted from medicinal plants by the maceration or percolation of the
plant with alcohol or alcohol-water solutions.
Liquid extract: product obtained by treating plant material with a solvent
or mixture of solvents designed to extract the desired constituents.
Infusion: made by pouring a given volume of boiling or just boiled water
over a given quantity weight of herb and letting it steep/infuse for a
given time.
Always cover to keep the volatile oils in the infusion...otherwise they'll
escape...evaporating into the air.
==========
2.1.18 Cat's Claw
-----
From Kris Gammon <ancientone@gnn.com>
Latin name: Uncaria tomentosa. Peruvian name: una de gato.
Cat's Claw is a thick, long, slow growing woody vine that grows between 400 and 800 meters above sea level in the Amazon jungle. This vine gets its name from the small, sharp thorns, two at the base of each pair of leaves, which looks like a cat's claw. These claws enable the vine to attach itself around trees climbing to a height of 100 feet or higher.
In 1959, Nicole Maxwell made a journey to the Rio Putumayo. She painstakingly began her collection of specimens and data of medicinal plants in the Amazon. This was her first long jungle trip although she had made previous excursions. Her findings are well written in "Witch- Doctor's Apprentice: Hunting for Medicinal Plants in the Amazon". She describes a number of plants and their applications, among which is una de gato.
Research began on Cat's Claw in the early 1970's. Mr. Klaus Keplinger filed the first patent in the US on Uncaria tomentosa in 1989 when the plant's alkaloids were isolated and tested. There are mainly six oxindole alkaloids most prevalent in the Cat's Claw bark, known as: isopteropodine, pteropodine, mitraphylline, isomitraphylline, ryncophylline, and isorynchophylline. Three of these have been proven to be effective immuno-stimulants. Ryncophylline has been shown in laboratory testing to display an ability to inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombosis. This means this alkaloid may be useful in the prevention of stroke and reducing the risk of heart attack by lowering blood pressure, increasing circulation, and inhibiting both the formation of plaque on the arterial walls and formation of blood clots in the vessels of the brain, heart and arteries.
As well as these alkaloids, Peruvian and Italian researchers have discovered other beneficial phytochemicals inherent in the plant, including proanthocyanidins, polyphenols, triterpines, and the plant sterols: beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol. These might explain the antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-tumor and anti- inflammatory properties attributed to this plant.
In 1991 there was a new study to isolate the chemical compounds found naturally within the plant that would be responsible for anti- inflammatory principles. This led to "the isolation and characterization of a new quinovic acid glycoside called glycoside 7 as one of the most active anti-inflammatory principles to be uncovered."
Many species of the genus Uncaria exist in nature...more than 30. It is the U. tomentosa species that offers the most promise as a therapeutic agent. Uncaria guianensis is frequently confused with Uncaria tomentosa. Consumers should check the Cat's Claw bottles they buy for "Uncaria tomentosa" and choose from a reputable company. Cat's Claw is available in capsules, extract and the raw bark for brewing tea.
Cat's Claw is used for: Crohn's disease, diverticulitis, leaky bowel syndrome, colitis, hemorrhoids, fistulas, gastritis, ulcers, parasites, intestinal flora imbalance, cancer, arthritis, diabetes, chronic fatigue syndrome, environmental toxic poisoning, organic depression and those infected with the HIV virus.
Most of the clinical research which show these alkaloids to be antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulating, antimutagenic, antioxidant, etc., are tests done "in-vitro" (proven in the test tube) not "in-vivo" (proven in the human body).
Cat's Claw root should never be used as the medicinal qualities are most prevalent in the inner bark and harvesting the root kills the plant. Consumers should refuse to buy any Cat's Claw root products in order to ensure the plant is not destroyed. Peruvian law is now in place to help protect Uncaria tomentosa.
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2.1.19 Golden Seal appeal - and Goldthread too
-----
Please use alternatives to Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) whenever
possible. If you have to use Goldenseal please grow your own.
Here's why:
-----
From Michael Moore (hrbmoore@rt66.com):
The condition of Golden Seal is DISASTROUS these days. Most of what is on the market is being illegally poached from the grimly diminished wild populations, since the floods and heavy precipitation of the last couple of years has ruined a large part of the Golden Seal that was in cultivation.
Golden Seal and Echinacea preparations are the BEST selling herb formulas over the last several years, with every product line brainlessly adding to the problem by HAVING to include another one in THEIR product line...meanwhile the plants are disappearing from the wild at an ever-quickening pace to feed our nitwit lemming marketing fads.
Sorry...I am NOT down on wildcrafting...I have done it for almost 30 years, and taught it for over 20 years...but EVERY GODDAMN STAND of Golden Seal that I coppiced for years in the Missouri and Arkansas Ozarks (I use primarily the secondary leaf for fresh plant tincturing, and rarely gather roots unless to transplant) has been wiped out in the last four years...three years ago I found perhaps a dozen plants that still survived in SEVEN localities in SIX counties in TWO states... there had been thousands the year before.
-----
From Anita Hales <hales1@ktn.net>:
There are some other plants that contain berberine, an active constituent of Goldenseal. I use them regularly in place of Goldenseal. They are Goldthread and Oregon Grape, roots of both. Goldthread is very common in my area and it is a small prolific plant. It is a very potent medicinal plant and is good for maybe most of the things one would use Goldenseal for.
-----
From luna@bbs.tsf.com:
Like Michael, I found not a single plant of wild goldenseal last summer, despite rambling and foraging at least 400 miles last summer on foot through some of the most remote mountainous areas of the Northeastern US. I found a few ginseng plants, quite a few wild orchids, but not ONE specimen of goldenseal. They MAY still be out there..... we can only hope......
Like Anita I have been using gold thread (Coptis trifolia) the past two years in place of goldenseal.
Gathering goldthread is a labor of love; carefully following those tiny threads through the rotting leaf mold on the forest floor takes time, if one is not to disturb the surrounding plants. But what a way to spend a fall day... out of the wind, sitting on the forest floor cushioned by newly fallen leaves, soaking up the fading sun's warmth, and gathering medicine for the coming winter. It's not a "grab it and dash off" kind of plant. Maybe that "difficulty" in gathering gold thread will save it from the destructive overharvesting that has decimated the goldenseal population?
Praying for spring and the return of things green, here in the frozen north...
vicki - luna@bbs.tsf.com
-----
From Michael Moore
If you want to see what Coptis (Goldthread) LOOKS like, I have three JPEGS of Goldthreads that can be viewed on my web site. The 800 or so images are all listed by genus, although I plan on getting up a linkpage by common name pretty soon. Goldthread, in my opinion, is possibly the queen of remedies for stomatitis and slowly healing mouth sores (Myrrh and Anemopsis being preferable for acute problems).
If you ever get a chance to gather some, be sure to use the leaves and stems as well...all parts of the plant are active. The constant reference to Goldthread Roots is a clumsy remnant of the crude drug trade of a century ago...the dried roots could be stored in burlap bags for a DECADE, the foliage lasted but a year or two. With drastic loss of wild places in the last century, we need to revamp our often wasteful use of herbs, gathered according to standards set in greener (and profligate) times.
Michael Moore http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/HOMEPAGE
-----
Added 29Dec97:
==========
2.1.20 Ma Huang or Ephedra sinensis
-----
Someone wrote:
I am just curious, is Ephedra really as dangerous as they say it
is?
From callie@writepage.com (Callie):
If you use the leaves occasionally, as a weak tea for clearing congested
lungs, it's a great plant.
If you buy the ephedra concentrate capsules from the corner market or the
"health food" store ... the ones that claim "energizers",
pop a few of them so you can dance all weekend .. and drink ... and not
sleep ... it can be dangerous. These mixes often contain caffeine (guarana)
and other stimulants. Not good to totally bankrupt your energy reserves
by forcing the body to ignore exhaustion. When you crash, you will crash
big time, and while you are "up" you can hallucinate. It's not
a fun trip for some people ... and you can die.
That, of course, really ruins your life.
Callie (http://www.writepage.com)
thatjoeguy@nortexinfo.net (Maven) wrote:
Ephedra, Ma Huang, Mormon Tea - All herbs containing ephedrine.
Ephedrine- an herbal stimulent similar to epinephrine.
Epinephrine - another name for adrenaline, this was how it was explained
to me by an herbalist.
From: awest@mail.net-connect.net (August West)
Ephedrine is a moderately powerful stimulant. In fact, it's molecular structure
is VERY SIMILAR to methamphetamine. (SPEED!) When it is used in it's natural
form, the herbs also contain other alkaloids that keep the heart rate and
blood pressure down, making it a bit safer than MINI-THINS (ephedrine hcl).
Still for sensitive people, people with thyroid problems, heart disease,
high blood pressure etc, it should be avoided. If you are already high
strung, you shouldn't need this stuff anyway. Personally, I find it creates
a "crash" that leaves me worse off than I started. Even in herbal
form. Hope this helps :).
-----
On Ma Huang and drug tests:
From "Michael M. Zanoni" <zanoni@netcom.com>:
Ma Huang (the Chinese variety Ephedra chinensis, not the American
Ephedra plant) can produce a positive urine test for amphetamine
metabolites that will also be read by the mass spec as being meth metabolites.
It is because of the combination of both l- and d- forms of ephedrine.
Things such as Ephedra nevadensis have only the non-psychoactive
form of ephedra.
If someone were to take a moderate amount of Ma Huang for a few days it
is possible that the serum titer could go high enough to be beyond the
threshold level of detection used by most labs for gas chromatograph screening.
Pseudophedrine found in OTC drugs will not test as a meth metabolite.
==========
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