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1992-12-13
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Version 8.8 of the Icon Programming
Language
Ralph E. Griswold, Clinton L.
Jeffery, Gregg M. Townsend, and
Kenneth Walker
Department of Computer Science, The
University of Arizona
1.__Introduction
The current version of Icon is Version 8.8. The second edi-
tion of the Icon book [1] describes Version 8.0. This report is
a supplement to that book.
Most of the language extensions in Version 8.8 are upward-
compatible with previous versions of Icon and most programs writ-
ten for earlier versions work properly under Version 8.8. The
language additions to Version 8.8 are:
+ an optional interface to the X Window system (for plat-
forms that have X)
+ new functions and keywords
+ several minor changes
There also are changes to the implementation in Version 8.8,
including support for multiple storage regions, that provide more
capabilities for some users. See Section 3.
2.__Language_Features
X_Graphic_Facilities
Version 8.8 provides support for X Window System facilities
through a combination of high-level support and a repertoire of
functions. The name X-Icon is used to distinguish versions of
Icon that support these X facilities. Note: There are several
changes to X-Icon in Version 8.8. Persons who used an earlier
version of X-Icon should consult the curent reference manual [2].
IPD210 - 1 - December 13, 1992
New_Functions_and_Keywords
The new functions and keywords are described briefly here. At
the end of this report there also is a sheet with more complete
descriptions in the style of the second edition of the Icon book.
This sheet can be trimmed and used as an insert to the book.
There are five new functions:
chdir(s) Changes the current directory to s but fails if
there is no such directory or if the change can-
not be made.
delay(i) Delays execution i milliseconds. This function
is not supported on all platforms.
flush(f) Flushes the input/output buffers for file f.
function() Generates the names of the Icon (built-in) func-
tions.
sortf(X,i) Produces a sorted list of the elements of X. The
results are similar to those of sort(X,i),
except that among lists and among records,
structure values are ordered by comparing their
ith fields.
There are five new keywords:
&allocated Generates the number of bytes allocated since
the beginning of program execution. The first
result is the total number of bytes in all
regions, followed by the number of bytes in the
static, string, and block regions.
&e The base of the natural logarithms, 2.71828 ...
&phi The golden ratio, 1.61803 ...
&pi The ratio of the circumference of a circle to
its diameter, 3.14159 ...
&progname The file name of the executing program. &prog-
name is a variable and a string value can be
assigned to it to replace its initial value.
The X interface adds additional new keywords [2].
Some UNIX platforms now support the keyboard functions
getch(), getche(), and kbhit(). Whether or not these functions
are supported can be determined from the values generated by
&features. Note: On UNIX platforms, ``keyboard'' input comes
from standard input, which may not necessarily be the keyboard.
Warning: The keyboard functions under UNIX may not work reliably
IPD210 - 2 - December 13, 1992
in all situations and may leave the console in a strange mode if
interrupted at an unfortunate time. These potential problems
should be kept in mind when using these functions.
Other_Enhancements
A record can now be subscripted by the string name of one of
its fields, as in
z["r"]
which is equivalent to
z.r
If the named field does not exist for the record, the subscript-
ing expression fails.
Multiple subscripts are now allowed in subscripting expres-
sions. For example,
L[i, j, k]
is equivalent to
L[i][j][k]
Minor_Changes
+ The invocable declaration is accepted but ignored by the
interpreter to provide source-language compatibility with
the Icon compiler. See [3] for a description of this
declaration.
+ Real literals that are less than 1 no longer need a lead-
ing zero. For example, .5 now is a valid real literal
instead of being the dereferencing operator applied to
the integer 5.
+ The identifiers listed by display() are now given in
sorted order.
+ In sorting structures, records now are first sorted by
record name and then by age (serial number).
+ The keyword &features now includes either interpreted or
compiled to indicate whether the program is interpreted
or compiled.
+ If X-Window facilities are supported, &features also
includes X Windows.
IPD210 - 3 - December 13, 1992
+ If multiple storage regions are supported, &features also
includes Multiple Regions.
+ Error message 101 now reads integer expected or out of
range to reflect the fact that not all operations support
large integers.
+ Error 120 now reads two csets or two sets expected to
more accurately reflect the fact that set operations
require arguments of the same type.
+ Error 125, list or set expected, has been added for
sortf().
+ Errors 140, window expected, and 141, program terminated
by window manager, have been added when X-Window facili-
ties are supported.
+ Errors 316, interpreter stack too large, and 318, co-
expression stack too large, have been added for 16-bit
platforms.
3.__Implementation_Changes
The implementation of Version 8.8 is different in many
respects from the implementation of Version 8.0. The most signi-
ficant differences are:
+ Icon now uses fixed-sized storage regions. Multiple
regions are allocated if needed.
+ Memory monitoring is no longer supported.
+ Under MS-DOS, iconx now finds icode files at any place on
the PATH specification as well as in the current direc-
tory.
In addition, the tables used by icont now expand automati-
cally. The -S option is no longer needed. As a side effect of
this change, the sizes of procedures are no longer listed during
translation.
4.__Limitations,_Bugs,_and_Problems
+ Line numbers sometimes are wrong in diagnostic messages
related to lines with continued quoted literals.
+ Large-integer arithmetic is not supported in i to j and
seq(). Large integers cannot be assigned to keywords.
IPD210 - 4 - December 13, 1992
+ Large-integer literals are constructed at run-time. Con-
sequently, they should not be used in loops where they
would be constructed repeatedly.
+ Conversion of a large integer to a string is quadratic
in the length of the integer. Conversion of very a large
integer to a string may take a very long time and give
the appearance of an endless loop.
+ Right shifting of large negative integers by ishift() is
inconsistent with the shifting of ordinary integers.
+ Integer overflow on exponentiation may not be detected
during execution. Such overflow may occur during type
conversion.
+ In some cases, trace messages may show the return of
subscripted values, such as &null[2], that would be
erroneous if they were dereferenced.
+ If a long file name for an Icon source-language program
is truncated by the operating system, mysterious diag-
nostic messages may occur during linking.
+ Stack overflow checking uses a heuristic that is not
always effective.
+ If an expression such as
x := create expr
is used in a loop, and x is not a global variable,
unreferenceable co-expressions are generated by each
successive create operation. These co-expressions are
not garbage collected. This problem can be circumvented
by making x a global variable or by assigning a value to
x before the create operation, as in
x := &null
x := create expr
+ Stack overflow in a co-expression may not be detected
and may cause mysterious program malfunction.
Acknowledgements
The design and implementation of Version 8.8 of Icon was sup-
ported, in part, by National Science Foundation Grants CCR-
8713690 and CCR-8901573.
Sandra Miller and Richard Goerwitz contributed to the imple-
mentation of Version 8.8 of Icon.
IPD210 - 5 - December 13, 1992
References
1. R. E. Griswold and M. T. Griswold, The Icon Programming
Language, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, second
edition, 1990.
2. C. L. Jeffery, X-Icon: An Icon Windows Interface, The Univ.
of Arizona Tech. Rep. 91-1, 1991.
3. K. Walker and R. E. Griswold, Using Version 8.7 of the Icon
Compiler, The Univ. of Arizona Icon Project Document IPD191,
1992.
IPD210 - 6 - December 13, 1992
__________________________________________________
chdir(s) : n change directory
chdir(s) changes the directory to s but fails if
there is no such directory or if the change cannot
be made. Whether the change in the directory
persists after program termination depends on the
operating system on which the program runs.
Error: 103 s not string
__________________________________________________
delay(i) : n delay execution
delay(i) delays execution i milliseconds. This
function presently is supported only on UNIX
platforms.
Error: 101 i not integer
__________________________________________________
flush(f) : n flush buffer
flush(f) flushes the input/output buffers for f.
Error: 105 f not file
__________________________________________________
function() : s1, s2,...,sn generate function names
function() generates the names of the Icon
(built-in) functions.
__________________________________________________
sortf(X,i) : L sort list or set by field
sortf(X,i) produces a sorted list of the values in
X. Sorting is primarily by type and in most
respects is the same as with sort(X,i). However,
among lists and among records, two structures are
ordered by comparing their ith fields. i can be
negative but not zero. Two structures having equal
ith fields are ordered as they would be in regular
sorting, but structures lacking an ith field
appear before structures having them.
Default:i 1
Errors: 101 i not integer
115 X not list or set
205 i = 0
307 inadequate space in block region
__________________________________________________
&allocated : i1, i2, i3, i4 cumulative allocation
&allocated generates the total amount of space, in
bytes, allocated since the beginning of program
execution. The first value is the total for all
regions, followed by the totals for the static,
string, and block regions, respectively. The
space allocated in the static region is always
given as zero. Note: &allocated gives the
cumulative allocation; &storage gives the current
allocation; that is, the amount that has not been
freed by garbage collection.
__________________________________________________
&e : r base of natural logarithms
The value of &e is the base of the natural
logarithms, 2.71828 ... .
__________________________________________________
&phi : r golden ratio
The value of &phi is the golden ratio, 1.61803 ...
.
__________________________________________________
&pi : ratio of circumference to diameter of a circle
The value of &pi is the ratio of the circumference
of a circle to its diameter, 3.14159 ... .