"Social Criticism in Literature, As Found
                    in George Orwell's Animal Farm and
                  Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities."


     Many authors receive their inspiration for writing their literature
from outside sources.  The idea for a story could come from family,
personal experiences, history, or even their own creativity.  For authors
that choose to write a book based on historical events, the inspiration
might come from their particular viewpoint on the event that they want to
dramatize.  George Orwell and Charles Dickens wrote Animal Farm and A Tale
of Two Cities, respectively, to express their disillusionment with society
and human nature.  Animal Farm, written in 1944, is a book that tells the
animal fable of a farm in which the farm animals revolt against their
human masters.  It is an example of social criticism in literature in
which Orwell satirized the events in Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution.
He anthropomorphises the animals, and alludes each one to a counterpart in
Russian history.  A Tale of Two Cities also typifies this kind of
literature.  Besides the central theme of love, is another prevalent theme,
that of a revolution gone bad.  He shows us that, unfortunately, human
nature causes us to be vengeful and, for some of us, overly ambitious.
Both these books are similar in that both describe how, even with the best
of intentions, our ambitions get the best of us.  Both authors also
demonstrate that violence and the Machiavellian attitude of "the ends
justifying the means" are deplorable.

     George Orwell wrote Animal Farm, ". . . to discredit the Soviet system
by showing its inhumanity and its back-sliding from ideals [he]
valued . . ."(Gardner, 106)  Orwell noted that " there exists in England
almost no literature of disillusionment with the Soviet Union.'  Instead,
that country is viewed either with  ignorant disapproval' or with
uncritical admiration.'"(Gardner, 96)  The basic synopsis is this: Old
Major, an old boar in Manor Farm, tells the other animals of his dream of
"animalism": " . . . Only get rid of Man, and the produce of our labour
would be our own.  Almost overnight we would become rich and free.'"
(Orwell, 10)  The other animals take this utopian idea to heart, and one
day actually do revolt and drive the humans out.  Two pigs emerge as
leaders: Napoleon and Snowball.  They constantly argued, but one day, due
to a difference over plans to build a windmill, Napoleon exiled Snowball.
Almost immediately, Napoleon established a totalitarian government.  Soon,
the pigs began to get special favours, until finally, they were
indistinguishable from humans to the other animals.  Immediately the reader
can begin to draw parallels between the book's characters and the
government in 1917-44 Russia.  For example, Old Major, who invented the
idea of "animalism," is seen as representing Karl Marx, the creator of
communism.  Snowball  represents Trotsky, a Russian leader after the
revolution.  He was driven out by Napoleon, who represents Stalin, the most
powerful figure in the country.  Napoleon then proceeded to remove the
freedoms of the animals, and established a dictatorship, under the public
veil of "animalism."  Pigs represent the ruling class because of their
stereotype: dirty animals with insatiable appetites.  Boxer, the
overworked, incredibly strong, dumb horse represents the common worker in
Russia.  The two surrounding farms represent two of the countries on the
global stage with Russia at the time, Germany and England.

     Orwell begins his book by criticizing the capitalists and ruling
elite, who are represented in Animal Farm by Mr. Jones, the farmer.  He
is shown as a negligent drunk, who constantly starved his animals.  "His
character is already established as self-indulgent and uncaring."
(King, 8) Orwell shows us how, "if only animals became aware of their
strength, we should have no power over them, and that men exploit animals
in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat."(Gardner, 97)
What was established in Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution was not
true communism ("animalism"), which Orwell approved of, where the people
owned all the factories and land.  Rather,  "state communism" was
established, where a central government owned them.  Orwell thought that
such a political system, "state communism," was open to exploitation by
its leaders.  Napoleon, after gaining complete control, did anything he
wished - reserved the best for the pigs, and treated the animals cruelly.
The animals could not do anything, unless they again realized their
strength in numbers against their own kind.  Unfortunately, they were too
stupid to realize this and accepted the "status quo."  It began when the
milk and apples were appropriated to the pigs, and continued to when the
pigs could drink and sleep on beds, until finally the pigs were the "human
masters" to the rest of the animals.  Orwell criticized Germany,
representing it as Pinchfield Farm, which betrayed Animal Farm by paying
for lumber with counterfeit money.  In real life, this represents the
Soviet-Germany non-aggression pact during World War II which Germany
eventually broke.  Eventually, towards the end of the story, the term,
"absolute power corrupts absolutely," is proven, as the pigs, who retained
all the privileges for themselves, have evolved into a different caste
from the other animals.  Orwell's implication is that "real" communism
cannot exist in the countries which claim to be communist.  The ruling
class - politicians - own everything and ironically are therefore in total
control.

     A Tale of Two Cities is a love story which chronicles the lives of
Charles Darnay, a Frenchman who renounced his link with the aristocracy,
and Sydney Carton, a wastrel who lived in England.  Both these characters
fall in love with Lucie Manette, the daughter of Dr. Alexandre Manette,
unjustly imprisoned in France for 17 years.  Though Lucie marries Darnay,
Carton still loves her and in the end, gives his life to save Darnay for
her.  Dickens, who was fascinated with French history, especially the
French Revolution, begins by criticizing the aristocrats' treatment of the
poor people of France.  In the seventh chapter of book two, the Monsieur
the Marquis had accidentally driven his carriage over a young child, killing
him.  Instead of worrying about the child's welfare, the Monsieur's reaction
was to worry about his horses: "One or the other of you is for ever in the
way.  How do I know what injury you have done to my horses."(Dickens, 111)
He deemed their lives inferior and insignificant, as illustrated when he
threw a gold coin to the child's devastated father as compensation.  The
Monsieur the  Marquis revealed his true sentiments to his nephew:
"Repression is the only lasting philosophy. . .  fear and slavery, my
friend, will keep the  dogs obedient to the  whip. . ."(Dickens, 123)
Dickens makes it abundantly obvious that the aristocrats are to meet doom,
with symbolic references to fate and death.  For instance, as the Monsieur
the Marquis rides through the country, a glowing red sunset appeared over
him, signifying his bloody death.  In the words of the author, ". . . the
sun and the Marquis going down together. . ."(Dickens, 114)   Madame
Defarge's knitting is also a symbol of impending doom, as she records the
names of all those who are to die when the revolution takes place.

     Dickens also expresses his disillusionment with some of the outcomes of
the French Revolution.  He believed that the people did not just liberate
themselves, but also took vengeance towards the aristocracy.  This is
confirmed in the conversation between the revolutionaries: " Well, well,
but one must stop somewhere.  After all, the question is still where?'
At extermination,' said madame."(Dickens, 341)  Madame Defarge embodies
this attitude, as she wants to have Charles Darnay killed, not because he
has done something wrong, but because he is related to the Evr‚monde family,
which killed her relative.  Though "Dickens seems almost to regard violence
as the one way to bring about social change,"(Lucas,288) he then began to
denounce the actions taken by some of the revolutionaries.  The citizens
let their righteous cause turn into vengefulness.  Even servants and maids
to the aristocrats were beheaded, although they had not really done
anything wrong.

     Animal Farm and A Tale of Two Cities were written to express their
authors' disenchantment with the state of evolution of human nature.  They
seem to be saying, that even when we begin with honourable intentions, there
will be some of us who will let their base instincts take control.  Orwell,
in Animal Farm portrays this nature by parodying events in real history.
Given the right conditions, those events could happen anywhere - a leader
becoming overly ambitious, to the point of harming his people for morepower.
In A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens examines the inner soul, and shares with us
how people are driven to the valley of human emotions, where desperation and
anger reign, and what could happen afterwards if we let these emotions build
up inside.  Every human being is capable of becoming a ruthless,
opportunistic being like Napoleon or Madame Defarge, if placed in the right
place, at the right time.

--
                           Works Cited


Coles Editorial Board.  Coles Notes: Animal Farm.
        Toronto: Coles Publishing Company, 1996.
Dickens, Charles.  A Tale of Two Cities.
        London: Orion Publishing Group, 1994.
Gardner, Averil.  George Orwell.
        Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1987.
Kaplan, Fred.  Dickens: A Bibliography.
        New York: William Morrow & Company, Ltd., 1988.
King, Martin.  Students' Guide to Animal Farm.
        Scotland: Tynron Press, 1989.
Lucas, John.  The Melancholy Man: A Study of Dickens' Novels.
        London: N.P., N.D.
Orwell, George.  Animal Farm.
        London: Penguin Books, 1985.
Shelden, Michael.  Orwell: The Authorised Biography.
        London: Mandarin Paperbacks, 1992.

Written in Toronto, 1996.