$Unique_ID{COW04137} $Pretitle{299} $Title{Yugoslavia Chapter 3D. Cropping Patterns and Production} $Subtitle{} $Author{Darrel R. Eglin} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{million tons production livestock feed hectares meat percent corn private} $Date{1982} $Log{} Country: Yugoslavia Book: Yugoslavia, A Country Study Author: Darrel R. Eglin Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1982 Chapter 3D. Cropping Patterns and Production Climatic conditions permitted cultivation of a wide variety of crops. Even in localized areas, the cropping alternatives were usually numerous. Cropping was guided in part by planning in the socialized agricultural units, the republics, and by national entities for the economy's various needs. The cooperation arrangements and purchase contracts between socialized agricultural and private farmers further facilitated planning and the distribution process. Most of the extensive private sector depended largely on relative prices, tradition, and weather expectations for making cropping decisions. There are two markets for agricultural produce-the official or socialized market and the informal peasant markets. The official market with authorized purchases and set prices accounted for about 40 to 50 percent of total sales of agricultural products. In the official market the government set purchase prices and guaranteed minimum prices for important products such as cereals and meat. Minimum prices, but not guaranteed, were set for a number of commodities, such as milk, sugar beets, tobacco, and other industrial crops to be processed, based on costs of production in the socialized sector. The official prices, announced at the beginning of the growing season, influenced planting decisions in both the socialized and private sectors. In the late 1970s, for example, relative prices favored wheat compared with sugar beets, causing the area planted in sugar beets to decline below that necessary fully to utilize processing capacity in 1980 even though refiners offered to pay nearly 30 percent more than the minimum price. Prices for some commodities, mostly those highly perishable, and products sold in peasant markets were largely uncontrolled. The government at the federal or republic level also sometimes paid premiums to encourage planting and production of basic commodities. The most important crop, grown in most parts of the country, was corn. Before World War II it was the basic bread grain, but 80 percent of the corn was used for livestock feed by 1980 and little for direct human consumption. Between 1975 and 1979 corn production alone accounted for 15 percent of total agricultural output and 59 percent of grain production. In the past half-century between 2 and 2.6 million hectares were devoted to corn; since 1975 corn acreage ranged between 2.1 and 2.4 million hectares. Corn production amounted to 10.1 million tons in 1979 and averaged 9.2 million tons between 1976 and 1979. Yields on large, modern state farms were among the highest in the world, but over 80 percent of corn output came from private farms where yields were usually much lower, in part because of cultivation under unsuitable conditions and lack of high-yield seeds and other inputs. A significant amount of corn was sold in isolated peasant markets above official prices to peasants requiring livestock feed, although less than one-fifth of the corn produced was marketed. Socialized agriculture sold about 55 percent of its output, but private farmers used nearly 90 percent of their output to feed their own livestock. Vojvodina, Serbia proper (excludes autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo), and Croatia were the major production areas. Wheat was the other major crop, and it was grown in many parts of the country. Between 1975 and 1979 wheat acreage ranged between 1.5 and 1.7 million hectares, and production, 4.4 to 6 million tons (4.5 million tons in 1979). In 1981 planned production of grains was 18 million tons, of which wheat would account for 6 million tons; corn, 11 million tons; and all other grains, 1 million tons. Wheat acreage has been slowly declining, but yields trended upwards to keep output close to consumption requirements except in years of unfavorable weather. Wheat is the basic bread grain, although some has been used for livestock feed when other fodder was unavailable. Complaints in the press indicated that many farmers failed to use cornstalks and other roughage for livestock feed as effectively as farmers in France and other parts of Western Europe, so that when feed imports had to be curtailed in the late 1970s, some peasants substituted wheat, reducing their surplus for marketing. Cropping and production of other produce was much less widespread. Production of grains other than corn and wheat altogether amounted to little more than 5 percent of total grain output. In 1979 potatoes occupied 296,000 hectares with production of 2.6 million tons; sugar beets, 140,000 hectares with production of 5.9 million tons; sunflowers, 257,000 hectares with seed production of 525,000 tons; and tobacco, 140,000 hectares with production of 56,000 tons. Outputs of major fruits were 1.3 million tons of grapes; 516,000 tons of plums; and 434,000 tons of apples. The country had a substantial wine and liquor industry based on its agricultural products. Tobacco was exported, up to about one-third of the crop in good years, after meeting domestic requirements. Yields for most crops have risen significantly since the early 1960s, largely reflecting introduction of high-yield seeds and increased use of fertilizer and modern practices. The gains have been much greater in the socialized sector than in private farming. The draft plan for agricultural development for 1981-85 anticipated that agriculture would expand at about 4 percent a year-6 percent a year in socialized farming and 4 percent a year by private farmers. Observers have questioned the ability of the socialized sector to achieve the planned rate of growth because it has reached a level of development at which substantially greater yields would be difficult to achieve. Conversely the goals for the private sector appeared to observers more attainable. They argued that the potential for increased production from individual farmers is quite large if the necessary investments and policy measures are implemented that would result in greater use of fertilizers and improved seeds. Livestock Raising of livestock has become the most important aspect of farming; its share of total agricultural production increased from about one-third after World War II to well over one-half by the mid-1970s in response to rising incomes and the demand for more meat in the diet. Exports of meat and live animals have also provided valuable foreign exchange, and officials hope to expand such exports in the 1980s. Two severe constraints had to be overcome for fuller exploitation of the country's livestock potential. Supplies of feed had to be increased and the quality of animals improved. Reducing both of the constraints was complicated by the concentration of animal husbandry in the private sector, often in isolated upland regions. In 1979 nearly 90 percent of the livestock by weight was privately owned and a higher percentage in terms of numbers alone. Pigs were the most numerous of the farm animals (except for chickens) and the most important source of meat. The number of pigs increased from 4.1 million in 1949 to 7.7 million in 1979, accompanied by a substantial increase in the body weight as improved varieties were introduced. The amount of pork produced for meat consumption amounted to almost 500,000 tons in 1979. The number of cattle increased from 5.3 million in 1949 to 5.5 million in 1979, but the increase of body weight approached nearly three-fold, reflecting a substantial upgrading of the herds for both meat and milk production. The country had relatively good veterinary services, although outlying areas had less access than major agricultural centers. Beef production was 338,000 tons in 1979. Sheep, concentrated in upland and mountain areas where natural grazing land existed, were raised more for wool than meat. The number of sheep declined from nearly 11.7 million in 1949 to 7.3 million in 1979. Meat from lamb and mutton amounted to 62,000 tons in 1979. Macedonia, Serbia proper, and Bosnia and Hercegovina were the major sheep raising regions. Commercial poultry farming expanded rapidly in the 1960s as it did in many places in the world. The number of poultry increased from 19.4 million in 1949 to 61.5 million in 1979 while body weight also increased three-fold, resulting from concentrated feed. Consumption of chickens rose from very modest levels to become an important protein source in the 1970s. In 1979 production of poultry meat amounted to 253,000 tons. Commercial chicken farms were located in all of the republics and provinces, but the most important producers were Croatia, Serbia proper, Vojvodina, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Hercegovina. Per capita consumption of meat increased rapidly, by 37 percent between 1971 and 1979. In the latter year it amounted to 52 kilograms per person. Animals are slaughtered throughout the country; an unofficial count indicated perhaps 1,500 slaughterhouses, most of which were small, inefficient, and operated at a loss. A 1978 law established standards for processing meat for export that only a few could meet. Observers expected slaughtering eventually to become concentrated in the efficient and more hygienic processing units. The rise of consumption and the shortage of feed have hurt exports. In 1980 exports of meat products and livestock amounted to US $361 million (137,700 tons). The most important product was baby beef, largely exported to Greece and in smaller amounts to Italy, Iran, and Iraq. Other important livestock exports were horses and canned pork. Baby beef and piglets had been important exports to Western Europe, but agricultural policy of the European Economic Community (EEC) in the late 1970s imposed a levy on Yugoslav meat exports that made it difficult to market such products. Yugoslav officials anticipated reduced sales in the early 1980s to all EEC countries, which also included Greece. In 1980 imports of livestock products and feed were at about the same level as exports of livestock products. The most important constraint that inhibited growth of meat and dairy production was a shortage of feed. Alfalfa, clover, and corn were the main supplements to natural pastures. Journalists noted that France obtained much more feed from corn and its stalks than Yugoslavia did. By 1981 officials were attempting to expand the supply of livestock feed, including silage from cornstalks, through a variety of programs. Although plants to process concentrated feed had been constructed during the 1970s, the country depended on imports in 1981 for high-protein additives such as fish meal from Peru and soybean cake from China and the United States. The country appeared to have a comparative advantage in livestock products, partly because of the low incomes of many of the private farmers. It will be difficult, however, for officials to implement programs in the 1980s to improve the quality of animals and the supply of feed in order to meet the increasing domestic demand and to attain the hoped-for exports, considering the concentration in the private sector and the dispersed and isolated nature of most livestock activity. Fishing In spite of the long, indented Adriatic coastline and numerous rivers and lakes, the fishing industry was underdeveloped and of minor economic importance. One of the basic causes was that fish had not become a part of the diet, except in localized areas, until modern refrigeration was introduced. Even though annual per capita consumption of fish doubled between 1952 and 1977, in the latter year it only amounted to 2.5 kilograms. The other fundamental deficiency was that the industry lacked dynamism in upgrading its fishing equipment, extending its activities, and marketing its product. Although the fishing industry has been expanding, its progress has been much slower than planned, particularly in the late 1970s. An ambitious program was adopted in 1977 for implementation by 1980, but by 1980 it was uncertain that it could be attained even by 1985. A major shortfall was undertaking long-distance fishing in collaboration with developing countries. In 1978 the total fish catch amounted to 63,000 tons, consisting of 37,000 tons from salt water (almost entirely from the Adriatic) and 26,000 tons from fresh water. The goal for 1980 was 135,000 tons of saltwater fish alone. Officials wanted to increase the fish catch to help the balance of payments. In 1979 the country imported 28,000 tons of fish products for human consumption, mainly frozen fish, worth about US $23 million. In the same year fish exports, largely canned, were 24,000 tons, worth nearly US $39 million. In 1979, however, 82,000 tons of fish meal costing about US $40 million were imported for concentrated livestock feed as well as larger amounts of soybean cake. Development of the fishing industry could eliminate the payments for imported protein additives used in livestock feed. Forestry The country had large forest areas, surpassing a number of countries in Europe. In 1978 official statistics showed 9.2 million hectares of woodland, 6.3 million of which was publicly owned. Bosnia and Hercegovina had 2.4 million hectares of forests, Croatia 2.1 million hectares, Serbia proper 1.8 million hectares, and Slovenia 1 million hectares. Improvements in forest management have been steady since World War II and included an extensive and expanded afforestation program. Afforestation rose from about 19,000 hectares in 1958 to 43,000 hectares in 1978, the bulk of which in the 1970s was conifers. Timber cutting increased from 13.3 million cubic meters in 1958 to 19.7 million cubic meters in 1978, the bulk of which was in public forests. Broad-leaved trees were the main source of timber, although cutting of conifers was increasing, reflecting the emphasis in the afforestation program. Lack of roads and facilities hampered cutting and management in some of the country's valuable virgin forests lying in isolated mountainous areas.