$Unique_ID{COW03411} $Pretitle{227} $Title{Sudan Front Matter} $Subtitle{} $Author{Harold D. Nelson} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{sudan percent country population national area foreign southern states government} $Date{1982} $Log{Global Map*0341101.scf Figure 1.*0341102.scf } Country: Sudan Book: Sudan, A Country Study Author: Harold D. Nelson Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1982 Front Matter Foreword This volume is one of a continuing series of books written by Foreign Area Studies, The American University, under the Area Handbook Program. Its title, format and substance reflect modifications introduced into the series in 1978. The last page of this book provides a listing of other country studies published. Each book in the series deals with a particular foreign country, describing and analyzing its economic, national security, political, and social systems and institutions and examining the interrelationships of those systems and institutions and the ways that they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic insight and understanding of the society under observation, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal of it. The study focuses on historical antecedents and on the cultural, political, and socioeconomic characteristics that contribute to cohesion and cleavage within the society. Particular attention is given to the origins and traditions of the people who make up the society, their dominant beliefs and values, their community of interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with the national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward the social system and political order within which they live. The contents of the book represent the work of Foreign Area Studies and are not set forth as the official view of the United States government. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Such corrections, additions, and suggestions for factual or other changes that readers may have will be welcomed for use in future revisions. William Evans-Smith Director, Foreign Area Studies The American University Washington D.C. 20016 Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to those individuals in various agencies of the United States government and in international and private organizations in Washington, D.C. who gave of their time, data, special knowledge of Sudan, and authoritative perspective. In particular they wish to thank Sudanese author Dunstan Wai, American scholar Sally Ann Baynard, and Harmon E. Kirby, former deputy chief of mission in the United States embassy at Khartoum. Gratitude is also extended to members of the Foreign Area Studies support staff who contributed directly to the preparation of the book. These persons include Karen R. Sagstetter, Kathryn R. Stafford, and Dorothy M. Lohmann, who edited the manuscript, and Harriett R. Blood, who prepared the graphics with the assistance of Gustavo Arce. The authors appreciate as well the assistance provided by Gilda V. Nimer, librarian; Ernest A. Will, publications manager; Eloise W. Brandt, administrative assistant; and John Dupont and Margaret Quinn, who typed the manuscript. The quality of this volume has been greatly enhanced by Marty Ittner's illustrations, which appear on the cover and title pages of the chapters. The inclusion of photographs has been made possible in part by the generosity of various individuals and public and private agencies. We acknowledge our indebtedness especially to those persons who contributed original photographs not previously published. Preface This study replaces the Area Handbook for Sudan, which was completed in 1972-just as the country had concluded a seventeen-year civil war generated by regional, ethnic, political, and religious differences. In light of the Sudanese government's subsequent efforts to achieve and maintain national reconciliation and unity, a fresh look at the country's society and its changing role in world affairs appears to be warranted. Like its predecessor, Sudan: A Country Study seeks to provide a compact and objective exposition of dominant social, economic, political, and national security aspects and to give the reader some idea of the forces involved at this time in the country's history. In presenting this new study, its authors have relied primarily on official reports of governmental and international organizations, journals, newspapers, and materials reflecting recent field research by several scholarly authorities. Detailed information on many aspects of the society were not always readily available, however, and gaps in the data as well as varied interpretations of certain matters existed among some of the sources consulted. Where appropriate, such gaps and differences have been noted in the text. Should readers require greater detail on appropriate subjects, the authors have noted the availability of amplifying materials in final bibliographic statements at the end of each chapter. Full references to these and other sources used or considered are included in the detailed Bibliography. The available literature on Sudan is frequently confusing because of various systems used by English-language writers in transliterating Arabic words and phrases. Many of them, particularly those working with the Western media, have continued to spell the names of Sudanese people and places according to popularized forms that have existed since the era of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (1899-1955). Most scholars and organizations such as the Middle East Institute, however, prefer and use the transliteration system adopted by the United States Library of Congress. Further confusion arises from the inconsistent English versions used by Sudanese writers. This is particularly true of personal names, the spelling of which often reflects the form preferred by the name's owner or the degree of familiarity the writer enjoys with that individual. The name of the country's president, for example, appeared in no less than fifteen different forms in resource materials read and analyzed during the course of this research effort. The authors of Sudan: A Country Study have attempted to reduce this confusion and ensure consistency throughout the book by adhering whenever possible to the system known as BGN/PCGN, one agreed to by the United States Board on Geographic Names and the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use; it is essentially the one used by the Library of Congress. Place-names generally have been spelled in accordance with those established by the United States Board on Geographic Names in its current gazetteer (1962) and supplement of August 1972. An effort has been made to limit the use of foreign and technical words. When this has not been appropriate such terms have been defined briefly where they first appear in any chapter, or reference has been made to the Glossary, which is included as an appendix for the reader's convenience. All measurements are presented in the metric system. A conversion table will assist those readers who may not be familiar with metric equivalents (see table 1, Appendix). Country Profile [See Global Map: Map of Sudan on the globe.] Country Formal Name: Democratic Republic of Sudan. Short Form: Sudan. Term for Citizens: Sudanese. Capital: Khartoum. Independence Achieved: January 1, 1956. Flag: Three equidistant horizontal red, white, and black stripes overlaid by a green triangle on the staff side. Geography Size: Land area 2,505,813 square kilometers; coastline 716 kilometers; largest country in Africa. Topography: Plateau and plains predominate. Mountainous areas behind Red Sea coast, in far south, and in far west. Only interior highlands of consequence are the Nuba Mountains west of Nile River. All significant streams flow to White Nile and Blue Nile rivers, which join just north of Khartoum to form main Nile. Extensive swamps in south, especially along Bahr al Ghazal (southernmost portion of White Nile). Climate: Rainfall ranges from rare and occasional in far northern desert to relatively abundant and frequent (rainy seasons of six to nine months) in southern third of country. Central third has enough rain, but of varying reliability, to permit rainfed agriculture. Dust storms (often preceding rainstorms) common in north and northern portions of central Sudan, reducing visibility and causing much discomfort. Mean temperatures and daily maximums generally high; desert temperatures often quite cool at night. Society Population: Census of 1973 (particularly faulty in south) revealed less than 15 million people; roughly 20 million estimated in mid-1982. Annual growth rate between 2.8 and 3.2 percent. More than half of population under twenty years of age; roughly 45 percent under fifteen. Between 20 and 25 percent of population urban, concentrated chiefly in three cities-Khartoum, Omdurman, Khartoum North-constituting national capital area. About 10 percent of population nomadic. Languages: More than 100 languages, but Arabic is primary language of more than half of population and second language of many others. Dinka spoken by about 10 percent of population. English officially acknowledged as principal language of Southern Region. Ethnic Groups: Largest ethnic category (slightly over 50 percent of total) comprises those considering themselves Arabs, but category internally split by regional and tribal loyalties and affiliation to various Muslim politico-religious groups. Major Muslim (but non-Arab) groups are nomadic Beja in northeast, Fur in west, and Nubians in far north; latter more involved in national life than others. None constitutes more than 3 to 4 percent of population. Southern non-Muslim groups include Dinka (about 10 percent of total population and 40 percent in Southern Region), Nuer (about 3 percent of total), and several other smaller Nilotic groups. Of many other southern groups, only Zande exceed 2 percent of Sudan's population. Religion: More than half of total population Muslim, most living in northern regions where Muslims constitute 75 percent or more of population. Relatively few Christians, most living or originating in Southern Region. Most people in Southern Region and substantial number in north adherents of various local religions. Education: Six-year primary education increasingly available, but in early 1980s southern areas and many northern communities still suffered from shortage of schools and teachers. General secondary schools of three years duration had only one-fifth as many students as primary schools; upper secondary schools had little more than one-third the pupils in junior secondary schools; most schools in urban locations; many lacked adequately trained teachers. Technical schools had very small proportion of secondary pupils; universities producing adequate numbers of highly educated graduates, but Sudanese with skills relevant to largely agricultural economy still in short supply. Estimates of adult literacy from 10 to 20 percent; latter figure probably more accurate. Extent of literacy in English and Arabic not known, but many educated elite in north well versed in both. Health: Weak modern medical infrastructure suffering personnel shortages and urban-rural imbalance; most personnel and facilities concentrated in capital area. Malaria and gastrointestinal diseases prevalent through much of country; tuberculosis widespread in north but also occurs in south; schistosomiasis (snail fever) more restricted to territory near White Nile and Blue Nile rivers and adjacent irrigated areas; sleeping sickness in far southwest. Economy Salient Features: Government-dominated mixed economy. Modern agriculture sector and most of modern industry controlled by government corporations directly or through joint ventures; virtually all small- and medium-sized industry, most services, traditional agriculture, and handicrafts controlled privately. Economic development at reduced level and pace in early 1980s, result of overcommitments in late 1970s and subsequent financial strains. Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries, and Forestry: Agriculture and livestock raising provided livelihood for about 80 percent of population and roughly 95 percent of exports in early 1980s. Agriculture characterized by modern market-oriented sector of irrigated and mechanized rainfed farming concentrated in central part of country and large traditional sector that engages in subsistence activities elsewhere. Principal modern sector crops: cotton, sorghum, groundnuts, sugarcane, wheat, sesame. Traditional sector crops: sorghum, millet, sesame, groundnuts. Fisheries still largely subsistence occupation. Forests used mainly for fuel. Manufacturing: Public enterprises dominant in modern manufacturing activity, mainly foodstuffs, beverages, textiles. Output of government plants generally well below capacities because of raw materials shortages, power outages, lack of spare parts, lack of competent managerial staff and skilled laborers. Three-quarters of large-scale modern manufacturing in Khartoum Province. Mining: Minor contributor to gross domestic product (GDP) in 1982. Principal production: construction materials. Petroleum-producing potential since major discoveries of domestic oil deposits in 1980; significant exploitation unlikely before mid-1980s. Energy: Chief sources of energy in 1982: domestic wood, charcoal, hydroelectric power, imported petroleum; large hydroelectric potential only partially exploited. Central area of country served by electric power grid; less than twenty widely scattered towns had local generating facilities. Approximately fifty towns in outlying regions still without electricity in 1982. Foreign Trade: Agricultural products (cotton, groundnuts, sesame, gum arabic) dominate exports. Large trade deficit since late 1970s, accentuated by increased costs of petroleum imports. Main destinations of exports at beginning of 1980s: European Economic Community (EEC), Saudi Arabia, China, Japan, Yugoslavia. Main suppliers: Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (petroleum), EEC, United States, Japan, China. Currency: Sudanese pound (Sd pound), comprised 100 piasters or 1,000 millimes. Official exchange rate (March 1982): US$1 equaled Sd090 pound or ninety piasters. Fiscal Year: July 1 through following June 30. Transportation Railroads: Government-owned Sudan Railways, 4,800 route kilometers in length from Port Sudan to most major interior production and consumption centers except in far south. Substantial loss of rail traffic to road transport after mid-1970s attributable to inefficient operations, but railroad still important for low-cost volume movement of agricultural exports and for inland delivery of heavy capital equipment, construction materials, other goods for economic development. Roads: Road system of 16,000 to 18,000 kilometers, inadequate for size of country; in 1982 only about 2,200 kilometers of asphalt all-weather roads, all in the north-half in one road between Khartoum and Port Sudan. Another 2,000 to 3,000 kilometers of gravel roads in south also passable most of year. Remaining roads fairweather earth and sand tracks. Inland Waterways: In 1982 only two sections of Nile River used for regular commercial traffic. Principal section (1,436-kilometer stretch between Kusti and Juba on White Nile) was major surface transport connection between central and far southern parts of country; service inefficient and characterized by long delays; improvements under way in 1982 through provision of new equipment and staff training. Other section (287-kilometer stretch on main Nile from Dunqulah to Kuraymah) serving local population from railhead at Kuraymah. Civil Aviation: Government-owned Sudan Airways provided scheduled domestic air transport service to about sixteen towns; international service by Sudan Airways and sixteen foreign airlines. Khartoum International Airport and the Juba airport only all-weather facilities. Marine Ports and Shipping: Port Sudan on Red Sea only deep-water port; some modern port equipment available, but most of cargo handling manual. Modern national merchant marine (fifteen ships of 152,800 deadweight tons in 1982) operated to Red Sea, Mediterranean, European ports. Pipelines: Petroleum-products pipeline, 815 kilometers long, from Port Sudan to Khartoum; intermediate offtake point at Atbarah. Annual throughput capacity (early 1982) about 600,000 tons. Government and Politics Government Structure: Single-party state under President Jaafar al Nimeiri, who came to power in 1969 after military coup d'etat overthrew civilian government. Constitution introduced in 1973 ostensibly requiring president to share legislative and budget-making powers with unicameral People's Assembly. All but fifteen of 153 assembly seats elective; geographic, sectoral, and organizational representation assured. President also empowered to govern by decree, subject to perfunctory subsequent ratification by legislature. Administrative Divisions: Seventeen-year civil war ended in 1972 by grant of limited autonomy to non-Muslim Southern Region; remainder of country reorganized in 1981 into five semiautonomous regions (plus Khartoum capital area), each having own legislative assembly and governor appointed by president from list of three candidates. Local government based on district councils dispensing services financed with funds allocated by regional authorities. Politics: Offer of national reconciliation in 1977 resulted in return to public life of many imprisoned and exiled politicians associated with Ansar, Khatmiya, and Muslim Brotherhood politico-religious factions. Exercise of restored political rights limited to activity within single umbrella party (Sudan Socialist Union). Cabinet and policymaking bodies opened to some former opposition figures, but their influence on Nimeiri-controlled government minimal. Judicial System: Court and legal system heavily influenced by English law and procedures; president appoints and removes judges with advice of judiciary council. Separate sharia courts deal with Islamic personal law; amalgamation of sharia and civil judiciary planned. Pressure for Islamization of laws by Muslim fundamentalists viewed with mistrust by secular and southern elements. Foreign Relations: Active in League of Arab States and Organization of African Unity; aligned with radical Arab states and beneficiary of aid from Soviet Union and Eastern Europe from 1969 to 1971; orientation increasingly pro-Western after communist-led coup attempt in 1971; since 1978 heavily dependent on Western and Arab financial assistance to resolve acute economic difficulties. Relations in Arab world complicated by Sudanese unwillingness to join in condemnation of Egypt-Israel peace treaty. In 1982 Sudan bitterly hostile to radical Libyan leader Muammar al Qadhaafi, who was accused of abetting several plots against Nimeiri. Intervention of Libyan troops in internal strife in neighboring Chad prompted clashes along Sudan's western border in 1981 and motivated appeal for priority military assistance from United States. National Security Armed Forces: In 1982 Sudanese People's Armed Forces (SPAF) totaled approximately 66,000 personnel; army of nearly 60,000, air force of 2,000, navy of 1,500, air defense force of 3,000 operated under unified command structure. Military service voluntary; no reserves. Major Tactical Units: SPAF organized into six regionally based commands; field units included four army divisions and Khartoum Garrision comprising ten infantry brigades, one armored corps, one artillery corps, one engineer corps; elite paratroop brigade and border brigade operated independently. Serious equipment shortages aggravated by poor maintenance. Air force had three interceptor/strike squadrons, two helicopter squadrons, one transport squadron; equipment included thirty-four combat aircraft, but most grounded for maintenance; two American F-5F fighter-bombers and six Chinese F-6 fighter-bombers delivered early 1982. Navy, organized for river patrol and coastal defense, had eighteen vessels in 1982, six fast attack craft; most inoperable. Major Military Suppliers: Most military equipment supplied by Soviet Union 1968-71; limited military cooperation with Soviet Union continued until 1977. Other major suppliers: China, Egypt, European countries; United States in early 1980s becoming important supplier of military aircraft, armored fighting vehicles. Defense Costs: After 1955-72 civil war, military spending fell from 29.5 percent of total government expenditures in fiscal year (FY) 1970-71 to 15.9 percent by FY 1974-75: has since accounted for 14 to 15 percent of national budget. Major equipment purchases virtually all financed by foreign countries, not included in defense budget. Internal Security Forces: National police (Sudan Police Force) totaled about 27,000; State Security Organization (under Ministry of State Security) provided domestic and foreign intelligence, performed internal security duties; 1,500-man national militia (People's Defense Force) being expanded in 1982. [See Figure 1.: Democratic Republic of Sudan, 1982]