$Unique_ID{COW02902} $Pretitle{272} $Title{Philippines Chapter 5D. Organization and Training} $Subtitle{} $Author{Melinda W. Cooke} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{forces national armed air defense pc army military training included} $Date{1983} $Log{} Country: Philippines Book: Philippines, A Country Study Author: Melinda W. Cooke Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1983 Chapter 5D. Organization and Training Responsibility for national security was vested in the Ministry of National Defense. The main functions of the ministry were to provide the state all necessary protection against internal and external threats, direct and maintain law and order throughout the country, and perform whatever other functions were provided for by law. The task of preserving national sovereignty has been broadly interpreted since the 1970s as requiring the participation of the ministry in national development to cure underlying social and economic ills that were themselves perceived as threatening national security. The minister of national defense is by law a civilian and a member of the cabinet. He has the duty of overseeing the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the national defense program. He also exercises executive supervision over bureaus, offices, and services under the jurisdiction of the ministry, including the Government Arsenal; the Office of Civil Defense; the Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey; the Philippine atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration; the Philippines Veterans' Affairs Commission; the Integrated National Police, and the National Police Commission. The Constitution mandates civilian control of the military and establishes the president as commander in chief. The president also heads the National Security Council, which is a policymaking and advisory body for matters connected with national defense. Its members include the prime minister and the ministers of justice, national defense, media affairs, and foreign affairs. The director general of the National Economic and Development Authority and the armed forces chief of staff serve as technical advisers. Operational control of the four branches is vested in the chief of staff of the armed forces. The chief of staff exercises command through the General Headquarters of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, which is located adjacent to the Ministry of National Defense in Manila. Immediately subordinate to him is a vice chief of staff, who is the commander of the PC and director general of the Integrated National Police, and a deputy chief of staff, who is his chief administrator. The chief of staff presides over the General Military Council, an advisory body to the commander in chief on defense matters. Other members of the council include the chiefs of each service and certain other designated general officers. In mid-1983 the armed forces were in the process of reorganizing the operational command structure to streamline command procedures. Thirteen unified commands, directly subordinate to the armed forces headquarters, were to be established, each of which was to encompass (with minor exceptions) the territory included in one of the 13 regions of the civil administration. The new regional unified commands (RUCs) were to replace five combined commands formerly in existence. As of mid-1983, four of the 13 RUCs had been set up, one each in the Southern Mindanao, Eastern Visayas, Western Visayas, and Bicol regions. The RUCs were given the authority to coordinate all large-scale military actions. Their commanders reported directly to the chief of staff of the armed forces and exercised operational control over various units under them-army, navy, air force, or PC. Support functions, such as training and logistics, were left to the separate branches. The armed forces maintained several military training institutions. Foremost of these was the Philippine Military Academy (PMA), founded in 1905 to train Filipino officers for the PC. Located at Fort del Pilar, Baguio, the academy trained future officers of all four services. It accepted cadets between the ages of 17 and 23 who were selected after taking a highly competitive examination to represent geographical constituencies around the nation. After a four-year course patterned on that of the United States Military Academy, graduates were assigned to different services according to quotas based on service requirements. Within the quota limits, cadets were given their preference, being asked in order of class standing; the PC was most often a cadet's first choice, reflecting the potential for developing supplementary income and local influence that came with the job. Those assigned to the navy and the air force usually attended orientation courses before being assigned to their units. Two bills in the interim National Assembly in 1983 proposed the creation of separate air force and naval academies to allow for more efficient training in those services; the PMA was felt to be oriented toward land-based officers. Most reserve officers and some regular officers received their commissions through either the ROTC at selected universities or the course at the Armed Forces School of Reserve Commissions. The four-year ROTC program was a prerequisite for final probationary training, leading to commissioning as a reserve second lieutenant or, for a small number, regular commissions. Two-year course graduates qualified as candidates for reserve noncommissioned officer status. Commissions for women could be obtained through the Women's Auxiliary Training Corps at selected universities. Women were commissioned into the Women's Auxiliary Corps, of which each service had a counterpart. The Armed Forces School of Reserve Commissions was an officer candidate school open to enlisted men in the armed forces. Admission was highly selective and based mainly on examination. The senior institution of tactical military education was the Command and General Staff School, which prepared officers of all services for command, staff, and managerial positions normally assigned to fieldgrade officers. The National Defense College conducted courses for senior officers and other government officials, as well as for civilian executives from industry, national organizations, and education. It was designed to provide the broad perspective necessary for national policymaking and to undertake research programs to contribute to the attainment of national goals. The armed forces also maintained the Research Center for National Defense and Development to provide continuous and intensive research on diverse subjects relating to national defense. Army The Philippine army was formally organized in 1936 after the United States accorded the Philippines commonwealth status, but it traced its origins to the army established in 1897 to fight for national independence. The army's structure included both operational and territorial commands under a conventional headquarters and staff organization located at Fort Bonifacio near Metro Manila. It was the largest of the four armed forces and in 1983 was commanded by a major general. The highest military rank, that of general, was held by an army officer who also held the post of chief of staff of the armed forces. Regular army strength in 1983 was an estimated 70,000 enlisted and officer personnel, representing approximately four times the army's strength in the early 1970s. The major tactical units included four light infantry divisions, one unconventional warfare brigade, two engineer brigades, one light armored regiment, four artillery regiments, and a Hawk surface-to-air missile unit. In order to boost its counterinsurgency capability, in early 1983 the army reactivated the First Scout Ranger Regiment, which was composed of five ranger companies, two ranger battalions, and one mountaineering battalion. Despite the presence of divisional structures, operations were rarely if ever conducted in units larger than battalions. The army comprised infantry, armor, artillery, engineer, signals, and logistics branches. Major ground forces arms included some 32 light tanks, approximately 165 armored personnel carriers and half-tracks, as well as light and medium artillery (see table 15, Appendix). The standard infantry weapon of the ground forces was the M16-A1 rifle, which was manufactured in the Philippines under license agreement. Most arms and equipment were of United States make or design, although since the 1970s sources of supplies have been diversified. The army appeared to be moving toward the establishment of an elite ranger force to be deployed in varying sized units throughout regions where the NPA was active. Rangers were to be very lightly armed in order to be quick enough to pursue NPA guerrillas. Counterparts were found in the other three armed forces. Formerly, the army and other ground forces had been deployed in battalion combat teams that contained armor and artillery units. These had proved unsuited to jungle guerrilla warfare operations. The army operated separate schools for its various arms and branches, all of which offered appropriate basic and advanced courses, as well as specialized technical courses. The Army School Center at Fort Bonifacio was open to both the army and the PC. The School for Combat Arms served artillery, armor, and infantry personnel; the School for Technical Services gave courses to signals, engineer, ordinance, quartermaster, and chemical service personnel; and the School for Administration and Finance offered courses in finance and administration. Navy Newest of the services, the navy traces its ancestry to the Off-Shore Patrol, which was formed as part of the army in February 1939. Redesignated the autonomous Philippine Naval Patrol in 1947, it became the Philippine Navy after the armed forces reorganization of 1950. Force levels of approximately 26,000 in 1983 included marine, coast guard, naval engineer, and naval air units. Headquarters of the navy was in proximity to its main base at Cavite on Manila Bay, where all major repairs and training activities were undertaken. The naval base complex at Subic Bay, facing the South China Sea west of Metro Manila, was probably without peer as a deep-water facility in the South Pacific. It continued to be used by United States naval forces in the early 1980s. The navy's principal mission was related to protecting and policing the nation's more than 7,100 islands, which have a combined coastline double that of the United States and are distributed over the Philippines' claimed Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ-see Glossary) of some 496,400 square nautical miles. The navy also had important support missions for the other armed forces and agencies of the government, especially in logistics roles around the islands. With its subordinate coast guard arm it was responsible for enforcement of maritime laws and regulations. The navy was also active in developing and maintaining maritime navigation and rescue facilities. Carrying out these missions, it has conducted antismuggling and antipoaching operations, naval reconnaissance, and interception of supply lines to Moro insurgents on Mindanao and nearby islands. It has joined other services in planning for joint operations and amphibious assaults. Like the air force, the navy's combat forces-known collectively as the Naval Operating Force-were organized into three regional commands, one each for Luzon, the Visayan Islands, and the Mindanao-Sulu area. Consistent with the navy's mission, about three-fourths of fleet line vessels consisted of patrol boats and larger patrol craft (see table 16, Appendix). Larger vessels comprised seven frigates and 10 corvettes, all formerly United States craft. None of these was known to have a missile capability as of mid-1983, but six fast attack craft fitted with missiles were on order. Over 100 landing craft of various types and several support vessels ranging from oilers to a lighthouse tender formed the remainder of the navy's holdings. Mine countermeasures and antisubmarine warfare capability were virtually nonexistent, and the fleet contained no submarines. In mid-1983 the navy announced plans to acquire two additional frigates and as many as 50 locally produced patrol boats. Much of the navy's equipment was believed to be in need of upgrading and modernization. Several other major subordinate commands, in addition to the Naval Operating Force, were under the navy headquarters. The Naval Shore Establishment was responsible for providing support for the fleet, ship maintenance and repair, as well as administrative, supply, and training support to all naval personnel. The coast guard, established in October 1967, was the navy's law enforcement arm and operated several coastal patrol craft. Its responsibilities included maritime affairs, such as testing and licensing seamen and vessels, providing navigational aids, and protecting life and property at sea. The coast guard maintained its own system of eight operational districts, and personnel numbered some 2,000 in mid-1983. The small naval air arm flew one search-and-rescue squadron with nine Islander aircraft and was assigned three helicopters and three patrol boats. Two marine brigades, having a strength of approximately 6,800 in mid-1983, were trained to conduct amphibious operations. They were believed to be equipped with sufficient landing ships to mount and supply a full brigade-sized landing operation. In practice, however, the marines have generally been employed in assisting ground forces in counterinsurgency operations, for which duty they have been equipped with armored personnel carriers and howitzers. In 1982 a marine battalion was deployed to the city of Davao to strengthen forces fighting the NPA. The marines' performance there and elsewhere has earned them the reputation of being a well-disciplined and well-respected force. Air Force The Philippine Air Force was charged with providing aerial protection to the nation. It also performed air support roles for other forces, including counterinsurgency missions for the ground forces, search and rescue and reconnaissance for the navy, and transportation and communications for all services. The air force has also provided transportation and communications support to various government agencies, has regularly taken part in disaster relief and emergency operations in cooperation with civilian organizations, and has participated in national development programs. The 21 operational squadrons of the force were organized into three air divisions that included a fighter wing, a strike wing, two transport wings, and one each composite, liaison, and special mission wings. Combat elements included three fighter squadrons, one each of F-8H Crusaders, F-5A Freedom Fighters and T-34A Mentors-the last jointly performing a training role. Additional combat elements comprised four counterinsurgency squadrons, of which three flew aircraft and one, helicopters. Other air elements included two search-and-rescue and reconnaissance squadrons, seven transport squadrons (one reserved for the president's use), and three training squadrons. Total aircraft numbered approximately 284, of which 134 were combat craft (see table 17, Appendix). Of the force's 72 helicopters, 18 were fitted for combat. The air force also operated three air defense sites and the air raid warning system. Air-to-air missiles included the United States-made Sidewinder, which was fitted to the F-8H Crusader. All of the force's fighter aircraft were of United States origin, but the counterinsurgency elements also employed Italian aircraft. Transport and liaison craft have come from the United States, Australia, Britain, Japan, and the Netherlands. In line with the emphasis on self-reliance, in the late 1970s the Philippines began local production of several military aircraft under license agreements. Air force strength was approximately 16,800 as of mid-1983. This included a commando-type security group numbering some 500, which was formed in 1982-83 as an emergency force that could be airlifted to strengthen security at air bases. The unit was assigned to duty in central Luzon in late 1982, replacing a PC battalion that had been pulled out for retraining. Major air bases in addition to Clark Air Base, which was used mainly by the United States air forces in the Philippines, included Basa Air Base in Pampanga Province, Fernando Air Base in Batangas Province, Sangley Point Air Base in Cavite Province, Mactan Air Base in Cebu Province, Edwin Andrew Air Base in Zamboanga del Sur Province, and Nichols Air Base in Metro Manila. Flight training was conducted at the Air Force Flying School located at Fernando Air Base. Pilot output during the late 1970s was approximately 120 annually, a significant increase over previous years. The rise was intended to bring the complement of pilots up to authorized strength and to provide replacements for retiring personnel. Gunnery training was undertaken at the unit level. Philippine Constabulary The oldest of the nation's four armed forces, the PC was created in 1901 to preserve peace and order in the Philippines. It provided the nucleus of the first regular division of the Philippine army in 1936 and remained an element within the army (after 1946 as the Military Police Command) until 1950 when it was reestablished as a separate force; it was not formally renamed the Philippine Constabulary until 1959, however. PC strength in late 1980 was some 33,500, up over 45 percent since 1971. Since 1959 the PC has formally constituted a national police force and essentially operated as a gendarmerie, holding primary authority for law enforcement and domestic security. In its law enforcement role it has maintained special units or task forces assigned to such crime prevention missions as land and close offshore aspects of smuggling and piracy, drug trafficking, "carnapping," and patrolling national and other highways. It had responsibility for large-scale crime, wide-area operations, and enforcing the peace and national laws in remote areas where other forces were nonexistent or ineffective. Since 1975 the PC has formed the nucleus of the Integrated National Police (see The Integrated National Police, this ch.). The PC's task of maintaining domestic security has also encompassed combating insurgency and subversion-a role that after 1972 assumed major importance in areas where communist and Moro insurgents were active. In light of this, it was felt necessary in 1975 to merge certain small units of the PC into a bigger one for tactical deployment, the new formation being called the PC Brigade. As of mid-1983 the PC Brigade, which at that time comprised 12 battalions, was being disbanded in response to Marcos' call for an increase in small-unit capability in all the armed forces. The brigade's personnel were being reassigned to fill out existing PC companies deployed throughout the nation. Organized and equipped on military lines, the PC was headed in 1983 by a lieutenant general, who served concomitantly as the director general of the Integrated National Police. He was assisted by deputy chiefs for constabulary, police matters, and home defense. The constabulary staff comprised sections for personnel; intelligence; operations, organization, and training; logistics; plans; and the comptroller. The PC had a number of specialized elements. The Highway Patrol Group operated throughout the nation and had special responsibility for suppressing the traffic in stolen goods. The Civil Security Force Command enforced regulations governing firearms, explosives, and private security agencies. It also had the responsibility for the civilian security forces under the civilian home defense program. Other special units in the PC included the Crime Lab, the Criminal Investigation Service, and the Constabulary Support Command. In mid-1983 the government announced plans to create the Special Action Force-a counterpart to ranger-style units formed by the other armed forces during the same period. The new unit was to possess airborne and mobile capability to combat terrorism, hijacking, and insurgency. Most line forces were assigned to one of the 13 regional constabulary commands, under which were provincial commands as well as posts and stations staffed by PC companies and other detachments of varying sizes. One of the 13 regional commands was the PC Metropolitan Command (METROCOM), which has formed the nucleus of the integrated police forces for Metro Manila. As of mid-1983 it was uncertain what status, if any, the PC regional commands would retain when the armed forces' RUCs were completely established. Reserves and Auxiliaries National defense policy, particularly since 1972, has assigned a leading role to citizen forces of trained reservists and auxiliaries. Most elements of the reserve program had existed for a number of years, in some cases since before World War II, but new policies in the mid-1970s gave these programs a priority and commitment they lacked earlier. The expanded and improved program initiated under martial law preserved the citizen army concept embodied in the National Defense Act of 1935. This principle called for a defense based on a limited professional cadre backed up by a mass base of citizen reservists rather than a large conscript army. The expansion of reserve and auxiliary forces also reflected the government's commitment to increased self-reliance in national defense and to harnessing military training to promote national development. It formed an important element in the Home Defense Program. According to the army reserve commander, Brigadier General Edon T. Yap, there were 1 million reservists nationwide in 1982. Yap stated that 15 to 17 battalions were capable of being mobilized within 72 hours and that an additional 15 home defense battalions organized provincially were battle worthy. The core of the enlisted reserve program was the Trainee Program, under which a limited number of 20-year-old males were recruited to undergo military instruction for a six- to 18-month period. These were mostly out-of-school youths who were provided with housing and vocational training and were paid a small salary. A few reservists were veterans of the career military services, who were automatically placed on reserve until a certain age. Other additions to the reserve force came from a variety of sources, including a compulsory military training and indoctrination course for all high school youth and the ROTC, which was open to physically fit college males. A counterpart organization for women, the Women's Auxiliary Training Corps, was voluntary. More specialized reserve programs included one under which certain key technicians and executives of utilities or companies deemed vital to the military received reserve commands and annual active-duty assignments in their specialties. All reservists periodically were required to undergo training and participate in mobilization exercises. In addition to maintaining reserve forces, the Home Defense Program also called for the use of civilian auxiliary forces. These comprised the Integrated Civilian Home Defense Forces (ICHDF) and other groups that supported the ICHDF or contributed to defense and security in villages. The ICHDF was administered by the PC and had both armed and unarmed components. The largest of the armed elements were the Civilian Home Defense Forces (CHDF)-civilian volunteers organized on the local level to provide self-defense and assist the armed forces and the police. There were an estimated 71,000 persons serving in the CHDF in 1981. Most units were organized in areas troubled by insurgency. Several special paramilitary forces composed of former rebels and others who had surrendered to the government were also incorporated into the ICHDF. These forces were located mainly in the south and were administered by local military authorities but were sometimes commanded by local political leaders. Other armed groups, including private and public security guards and watchmen as well as forces maintained by the Bureau of Forestry Development, the office of the Presidential Assistant for National Minorities (PANAMIN-see Glossary), logging firms, corporations, and others were also part of the ICHDF framework. All were legally answerable to the PC but in practice sometimes operated at the behest of military commanders, local officials, or others. Unarmed components of the ICHDF included volunteer groups, such as the Red Cross and civic and religious associations that would be involved in disaster relief. Under the program, those employed in public works, transportation, and other government agencies have received training in civil defense and disaster relief. Groups of workers in cities have also received instruction on crowd control so they might function as auxiliaries to law enforcement during civil disturbances. In general, the various armed components of the ICHDF were widely dispersed geographically and located in remote areas where few military and PC officers were stationed. Many had been given only rudimentary training, their internal organization and discipline not reaching military standards. Critics of the ICHDF have charged that several units contained local criminals and toughs who regularly abused the authority they enjoyed. The government has insisted, however, that the ICHDF performed an important counterinsurgency role and that any isolated abuses that have occurred have been dealt with severely. Conditions of Service The rank structure within the Philippine armed forces was very similar to that in counterpart units in United States forces (see fig. 12). There were, however, no warrant officer ranks in any of the four armed forces, and all four maintained seven enlisted ranks, rather than nine as in the United States system. Officer ranks corresponded to their United States counterparts, except that the top naval officer was called an admiral but was equivalent to a rear admiral in the United States Navy. The army, air force, and PC used the same rank terminology and insignia; the single full general in the nation was an army officer who had received his fourth star by virtue of his position as the chief of staff of the armed forces. Uniform khaki dress has been adopted for all services, the color of rank insignia rather than uniforms differentiating the separate services. Pay, when combined with other emoluments in the armed forces, has traditionally been fairly competitive in relation to the civilian economy and the standard of living of the average Filipino, but it did not enable armed forces personnel, even the most senior officers, to live lavishly. Substantial increases in the kinds and levels of compensation were provided in the 1970s as a concomitant of the government policy of according priority to the development of the national defense establishment. This included not only increases in base pay scales and other fringe benefits but also improved allowances, housing, combat pay, and retirement and death benefits as well as enhanced promotional opportunities for senior officers. As of mid-1983 the Philippine armed forces had 90 officers of flag rank. Service emoluments included a commissary system established in 1973 and the Government Service Insurance system, which was extended in 1972 to include armed forces personnel.