$Unique_ID{COW02141} $Pretitle{258} $Title{Laos Chapter 7. Language, Communication, and the Arts} $Subtitle{} $Author{Donald P. Whitaker} $Affiliation{HQ, Department of the Army} $Subject{laotian lao language tai laos french languages literature khene religious} $Date{1973} $Log{} Country: Laos Book: Laos, A Country Study Author: Donald P. Whitaker Affiliation: HQ, Department of the Army Date: 1973 Chapter 7. Language, Communication, and the Arts The ethnic diversity of Laos, the problems of communication imposed by the terrain, the multiplicity of languages and the low level of literacy, and the influence of the cultures of the more powerful and populous countries that completely surround Laos have all worked to prevent the development of a cohesive Laotian culture. The Lao people, the biggest single component ethnically, have developed a relatively homogeneous cultural life for themselves centered on Theravada Buddhist worship and a shared language and literacy and artistic heritage. Also, their dominance in the Royal Lao Government gives Lao views and news broad dissemination in government-sponsored public information programs. Lao language and culture do not, however, have much effect or influence on internal developments in the rural enclaves of the minority peoples-the tribal Tai, the Lao Theung, the Meo, the Man, and the speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages. Neither do Lao language and culture dominate the cities, which are predominantly centers of foreign culture-Chinese, Vietnamese, and French (see ch. 4, Social Systems). Laotian Tai, also called Lao, is the official language, and the government places great stress on its acquisition by all citizens, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds. Perhaps the major means of achieving this objective has been the designation of Laotian Tai as the medium of instruction in all primary schools. Although many minority groups use their own languages among themselves, their children who attend school usually learn the official language and are becoming bilingual. Widespread illiteracy makes printed materials of minimal effectiveness. The number of newspapers, magazines, and books consequently is small and of limited circulation. Wider impact is exerted by several strategically located government radio stations, which are audible in all parts of the country. There were no television stations in late 1970, but a few motion picture theaters showed predominantly foreign films augmented by some locally produced newsreels and an occasional government documentary. Traditional news and information carriers-notably itinerant merchants, monks, ballad singers, and drama troupes-have been major information dissemination sources in regions under government control. The civil upheaval and insurgent control of northern areas and along the Laos-Vietnam border in eastern and southern Laos in 1971 generally excluded inhabitants of those areas from government news except that disseminated by radio (see ch. 14, National Defense and Internal Security). To some extent, the cultural exclusiveness of many remotely located ethnic groups has limited the spread of nonlocal information. For the Lao, despite their origin in southern China, the literature, religions, and art forms of India provided the cultural matrix. The influences of Mahayana Buddhism (see Glossary) and of Hinduism found their way to Laos through Ceylon and the ancient Khmer empire, centered on the site of the modern Khmer Republic (Cambodia). It was, however, the reception of Theravada Buddhism (see Glossary) in the fourteenth century that provided the major source from which most cultural expression has been derived. The introduction of Theravada Buddhism coincided roughly with the founding in 1353 of the ancient Lao state of Lan Xang by the son-in-law of the Khmer king. The power of the Khmer empire was in serious decline by the fourteenth century, however, and its cultural impact on Lan Xang was limited to the southern areas. A long series of political and military struggles involving Lan Xang, Siam (Thailand), and Burma added another dimension to the country's cultural life. Siamese and Burmese architecture established the basic patterns that would be followed in northern Laos. French influence seems to have been limited to a small number of Laotians who possessed the requisite economic and social status to pursue higher education in France or Vietnam. The French contribution to Laos artistic and literary heritage was important, however. A number of the country's architectural treasures were restored with French help and, through the efforts of French scholars, knowledge of Laotian culture was made available to the rest of the world. After independence this responsibility was assumed by a number of the Lao elite, including Prince Souvanna Phouma. Essays and monographs on Laotian literature, music, and language have been made available in French and English. For most Laotians art, poetry, and song are an integral part of daily life and are especially closely connected with religious worship. Art works are created and valued for their function in religious ritual and other purposes. Aesthetic merit is of secondary importance. Works are created to be used, and little thought is given to preserving them for posterity. The most striking example of the purely functional aspect of art is in the elaborate structures built for funeral pyres. They often involve much work and frequently achieve high levels of artistry but are completely destroyed in the course of the cremation. Even wat (see Glossary) buildings and other edifices are often built from such easily perishable materials as wood and stucco. Art is also used for the embellishment of human activities, for the enhancement of social prestige, and for the adornment of the body. The elaborateness of funeral pyres gauges social prestige, and the amount of jewelry worn by a Laotian woman is an indicator of wealth as well as a device for enhancing her appearance. Languages Laotian Tai Laotian Tai, or Lao, the native tongue of the dominant Lao ethnic group, is the country's standard spoken and literary, as well as its official, language. It is the language of government, education, the press, and the few films that are produced in Laos. Some Mon-Khmer groups have adopted it as a first language, and among non-Lao ethnic groups it serves as a lingua franca. Like other languages of the Tai linguistic family of which it is a member Laotian Tai is tonal. Many local dialects are often distinguished from one another not so much by differences in vocabulary as by the number of tones they possess and the way they are applied to the same basic syllables. In all dialects of Laotian Tai a complex vocabulary is used to express fine gradations of respect, deference, intimacy, and humility between speakers of different social status. Separate personal pronouns, for example, are used to apply to the person speaking or to those to whom, or about whom, he is speaking. In some cases, as when speaking to or about royalty or the sangha (see Glossary), totally different vocabularies are employed to show proper deference and respect. There are also geographical differences and differences in style based on education and the kind of literary material being produced. In its written form the Laotian Tai alphabet, which came into existence about the thirteenth century, is in all essentials identical to that used in Thailand. There are several styles or forms analogous to roman, italic, bold face, and similar styles in English, that are preferred variously and irregularly in different parts of the country. The Lu and the Tai Yuan, for example, use characters that are slightly different from those used by the Lao and show Burmese influence, although they stem from the same basic Indic source as the Lao writing. The spelling of the language is not standardized, and there are many variations; there is also no standard way to transcribe the alphabet into Latin letters, so that Lao names may appear in several versions in French or English publications and often look quite different from similar Thai (Siamese) names. In older literary Laotian Tai there was a large, specialized vocabulary of religious and other technical terms taken from Sanskrit and from Pali (the ancient Indic language in which the sacred books of Theravada Buddhism were written). During the French period new technical terms of French origin began to come into use. Since independence there has been a tendency to adopt technical terms in Siamese adaptations or analogues of words in Western languages. Tribal Tai Language and Dialects The various tribal Tai ethnic groups are linguistically related to the Lao, and their basic language and its many local dialects are of the same general structure as Laotian Tai. Their dialects are mutually intelligible, and the speakers of each can understand Laotian Tai at least partially. In any event, the tribal Tai can learn the official language with ease. Some of the tribal Tai languages have writing systems, usually based on the same Indic source as the Laotian Tai and Siamese alphabets. Few tribal people, however, can read or write, but the number is increasing with the spread of schools using only Laotian Tai. Mon-Khmer The many groups characterized as Lao Theung (also known as Lao Theung or Lao Thung) have no linguistic ties with the Lao, but many have adopted Laotian Tai as a first language. Their native languages are believed to belong to the Mon-Khmer family, although not all have been studied sufficiently to confirm the hypothesis. The Lao Theung group includes Khmer (Cambodian) speakers and speakers of various languages of the Mon-Khmer family that are also in use in Burma, Thailand, and the Malay Peninsula. Unlike some Mon-Khmer languages, however, the Lao Theung derivatives have not developed writing systems. Tibeto-Burman The Tibeto-Burman languages (Akha, Lahu, and Lolo) have no linguistic ties with Laotian Tai, although both originated in southern China. Tibeto-Burman dialects differ among the groups that speak them, but all are tonal and monosyllabic. The Lolo and Akha peoples each speak a single separate dialect, but the Lahu ethnic group contains several subordinate dialect groups. All three Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in Laos have similarities that allow for fairly easy intercommunication. There were probably under 10,000 speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages in Laos in 1971. Miao-Yao The Meo (Miao) and Man (Yao) have languages that are neither mutually intelligible nor intelligible with Laotian Tai but are regarded as belonging to one language family-the Miao-Yao. This language family has speakers located in the higher altitudes of much of mainland Southeast Asia and southern China. Although writing systems exist in these languages, few Man or Meo are literate. A center in Vientiane run by a Roman Catholic missionary group was reported in mid-1970 to be translating pamphlets on agricultural and social subjects into Meo and to be developing teaching materials to aid in training Meo to read and write their own language and Laotian Tai. Other Languages in Common Use French, once the official language of the colonial power and of all persons participating in the educational and political system of the country, has been demoted to the status of a useful foreign language. In the first draft of a constitution for independent Laos, French was retained as an official language, but this provision was eliminated by later amendment. All the principal leaders of the country in 1971, however, had been educated either in France or in French schools in Southeast Asia and were accustomed to the use of French in official and technical writing as well as in foreign communications. Also, the lack of adequate technical vocabulary in Laotian Tai has made it necessary to publish many official and technical documents in both French and Laotian Tai. Consequently, in 1971 the use of French remained widespread. Virtually all persons who spoke French were literate in it, and some were also literate in English and other European languages. Information available in 1971 did not indicate to what extent English was being studied in Laos, but it was offered as a subject in several secondary schools, and there was an increasing number of leaders who knew it in addition to French. Siamese Tai was comprehensible to many Lao, and literate Lao often could read books, newspapers, and other literature from Thailand. The Chinese and Vietnamese living in Laos use their native languages among themselves. Urban Chinese were at least partly literate in their own language, and most of them knew Lao as well. The Vietnamese in the country were chiefly tradesmen and technicians; some knew French and probably also some Laotian Thai. The Arts Architecture and Sculpture The construction of religious edifices has been the focal point of artistic endeavor in Laos. Most of the ancient buildings, although stylistically connected with the stone architecture of the ancient Khmer empire, were built of perishable materials and have been destroyed by fire, weather, or invading armies. The Siamese sack of Vientiane in the nineteenth century, during which the Emerald Buddha was taken to Bangkok, deprived the country of one of its major historical art treasures (see ch. 3, Historical Setting). The That Luang, a stupa (see Glossary), was spared by the Siamese, only to be later destroyed by invading Chinese. It was restored under the French. Architectural forms are derived chiefly from the classic styles of Angkor, the capital of the Khmer empire. Cambodian influence, however, was modified by the subsequent Siamese and Burmese domination of the country and was confined to the area of southern Laos. The style of Chieng Mai, a town in northern Thailand that was once a part of Lan Xang, is evident in the steep upward sweep of Laotian wat roofs. It is perhaps in the woodcarving of temple doors, pulpits, and manuscript chests that art in Laos reached its highest level of development. Temple doors are usually composed of highly stylized, elegant human figures standing upright on a more or less mythical, and usually quite fanciful, beast traditionally associated with the personage being represented. These figures are superimposed on a powerful relief of intricately carved foliage. The art is essentially abstract; nature represented in the animals and foliage is stylized almost to the point of distortion. The clear and vigorous rhythm achieved by the deft use of line and color-the carvings are often painted and gilded-give the work remarkable life and vitality, however. Sculpture-primarily stone, bronze, brick, or wooden figures of the Buddha-has also been heavily influenced by foreign cultures. One source claims that traces of Persian and Greek forms can be seen in some sculpture and woodcarving. Some figures show a strong Cambodian influence in the rigid design of the face and a block treatment of the head. A common image in Lao sculpture is the walking Buddha. The figure is standing and leaning slightly forward and has been carved so that the body appears to be covered by filmy drapery. A trait common to all Buddha images is their serene and contemplative gaze. Some Laotian bronze statues are remarkable for their size and for a high degree of stylization. The original statue of the Buddha in the Wat Manorum in Luang Prabang was said to have been more than eighteen feet high. It was carried off to Bangkok by the Thai in 1827. The School of Fine Arts (Ecole des Beaux Arts) in Vientiane is designed to give higher education in the arts but, according to one observer writing in the late 1960s, the activities of the school had as yet made little impact on the cultural life of the nation. The medium of instruction was Lao, but in general Laotians seeking to advance professionally in the fine arts continued to go to France or to other foreign countries. Crafts Weaving is perhaps the outstanding Laotian craft, although basketry, wood and ivory carving, tattooing, silversmithing, and goldsmithing are also practiced. Many of these crafts are considered household arts rather than the specialty of professional artisans. There are, however, villages of specialists in silver and gold work near Luang Prabang, which enjoy royal patronage. Weaving, a common feminine domestic occupation, becomes an art as Laotians practice it. Scarves, skirts, and other clothing are woven of cotton or silk, often with gold of silver threads in a variety of designs. Skirts are usually of a rather somber color with faint vertical stripes. Gold or silver braid is often used in trimming at the bottom; and a belt of red, at the top. Weaving is an exclusively feminine occupation, and traditionally every young girl is supposed to learn it. As a child she helps turn the wheel and prepare dyes. As a young woman she weaves while being courted. Married, she weaves so that she, her husband, and her children may have the most attractive wearing apparel possible, for Laotians take pride in their appearance. Carving, in either wood or ivory, in addition to being a major form of architectural decoration, is used to adorn objects in everyday use. Pirogues are handsomely carved for prestige reasons, although no one considers that they should be preserved for posterity. Skills are passed on from one generation to another, but the objects are allowed to disintegrate without regret. Performing Arts Instrumental music holds an honored place in Laos. Musical pieces are usually composed of folksong elements but are frequently important parts of religious ceremonies. The people have no system of musical notation, and musicians, whose skills are primarily the result of aural training and native musical intelligence, play from memory. Compositions are simple and few in number, and their structure consists primarily of the repetition of short musical phrases. Lao music has a range of seven tones. This range corresponds to the scale of the khene, the most popular and distinctively Laotian instrument. The khene, a wind instrument fashioned from bamboo, has some of the tonal qualities of both an accordion and a harmonium. The size of the khene can vary. It is made by attaching from four to sixteen medium-sized bamboo canes of different lengths together. Other instruments are: the so, a two-stringed viol instrument; the khuy, a flute; the nangnat, a xylophone; and the khong vong, sixteen cymbals arranged on a semicircular frame of wood or cane. There are two types of orchestras; the composition of each is determined by its function. The seb noi orchestra is made up of the khene, the so, the nangnat, and the khong vong. It functions as a muted accompaniment to choral or solo vocal music. Music for royal or religious processions is performed by the seb gnai orchestra, which is exclusively instrumental. It uses a clarinet-like instrument and large drums but no khene or string instruments. The Mon-Khmer peoples are fond of a battery of gongs of different sizes and timbres. They also have flutes, clarinets, xylophones, and single-string viol instruments. Loud music is employed to gain the favor of the spirits when illness strikes a household. The selection and training of musicians in the country seem to be closely connected with the traditional propitiation of spirits. A musically accomplished male relative will undertake to instruct a young boy in the making and playing of an instrument-for example, the khene. The apprentice will make ritual payments to his master, such as silver coins, clothing, and little horns of banana leaves filled with white flowers and candles. These offerings are given in honor of the spirits of the master artisans who passed down their techniques. They also symbolize the gratitude that the apprentice will continue to feel toward his master throughout his life. When the apprentice has perfected his art, he will set up a small altar in his own house and, without fail on the seventh and eighth days of the waxing and waning moon, will lay a small bouquet and candles on the altar dedicated to the masters. Neglect of this rite is believed to incur punishment from the spirit of the khene. The khene maker does not limit himself to his craft; he fishes and works in the fields for his livelihood and devotes his spare time to playing the khene. The master khene player is very important in ceremonies honoring spirits, who are supposedly seduced by the sweet airs. In playing he is supposedly able to put the world of man in touch with the spirit world. Dance and Theater The lamvong, a folk dance usually accompanied by the khene in which couples dance around each other with graceful arm movements, but without bodily contact, is popular among the Lao. Laotians also like to watch professional dancers. These dance groups continue the court ballets that were derived from the Indian epic Ramayana. The dance is very formal and incorporates many aspects of the ancient Indian and Siamese heritage. Popular traveling troupes perform traditional dances at pirogue regattas and festivals. Other traditional dances, celebrating or propitiating the spirit world on occasions of death, war, or holiday, are frequently performed by persons who are usually engaged in ordinary occupations but who have been trained in the particular steps and rhythms. One of the most popular forms of the performing arts among the Lao is the mohlam, a folk theater. Mohlam performances are of four types. The mohlam luang is a musical drama or opera with several performers, sometimes in costume, who in speech and song act out the parts of a play on a stage or against a painted backdrop. The mohlam khu is performed by a man and woman who engage in a verbal flirtation involving clever repartee. Mohlam chote is performed by two persons of the same sex and is a verbal duel, in which each issues a challenge to the other, such as answering a question or finishing a story the other has begun. In mohlam dio there is one performer who sings or narrates. His subject may be morality, politics, religion, communism, or any other subject. This type of performance is commonly used by the government to disseminate information to the people. As in all mohlam, the mohlam dio employs highly informal, colloquial language, making use of the many opportunities the Lao language provides for play on words. Earthy language is expected by the audience and brings a cheer when used. In areas controlled by the Lao People's Liberation Army, performing arts are also used for dissemination of information and propaganda. A foreign observer in such an area in 1969 attended an evening gathering at which various persons stood up and improvised verses to traditional melodies. The origin of the song was announced in each case-for example, "Phong Saly Province" or "Meo minority of a certain district"-but the texts tended to consist of political commentaries. Lengthy plays, epics, religious stories, tales of war and romance, and ancient legends make up the repertory of the more formal Laotian theater. Cambodian and Siamese influence is strong in the drama, which interprets works taken from the Vedas, the Ramayana, or the Mahabharata, all of Indian origin. Some plays of Burmese origin are also produced. Gorgeous costumes and colored lacquered masks provide splendor to the performances. Shadow plays, in which the shadows of the silhouette puppets are thrown on a screen placed between them and the audience, are popular, as are other puppet plays. In these theatrical forms Chinese and Javanese influences are evident. Despite their foreign origin, however, the puppets represent local types and customs. Literature The country's literary heritage is derived largely from Indic sources. Buddhism dominates the strictly religious literature, but Hindu, even more than Buddhist, traditions permeate secular legends, tales, and poetry. Most of this literary legacy is preserved in written form but is usually presented orally, local variations being introduced or invented according to the inspiration of the performer. Methods of courtship provide young people with an opportunity to excel at recitation. At festivals, "courts of love" are set up in the wat courtyard in which, sitting in sex-segregated rows, the boys and girls engage in exchanges of poetry and song to demonstrate interest and affection for each other. Religious literature is divided into canonical and extracanonical works. Canonical works derive directly from Indian sources. The major formal work is the Tripitaka, composed of dogmatics, rules for the sangha, disciplines, and sermons of the Buddha. The Tripitaka was originally written in Pali, a middle Indian language related to Sanskrit, which is the sacred language of the Theravada Buddhists. It was later transcribed into Tham, a special Lao Sacred language with a script resembling that of Burmese. The Jatakam, a collection of 550 tales of the former lives of the Buddha in the various cycles of his reincarnation from animal, human, and other forms of existence, is the central core of Buddhist literature. Through oral transmission, it is also the most familiar to the majority of the people. The tales are moral, satirical, allegorical, and comical and are always highly entertaining as well as instructive. The last ten of these tales, called the Sip Xat, are the major source for edifying sermons. The Jatakam has also been transcribed in Tham. Readers of Tham, which is taught only by the sangha, number in the thousands. Another canonical text, the Paritta, consists of Pali verses, to be recited as a litany, recommended by the Buddha as protection against all harm to human life. The sayings have been changed over time, new ones being added presumably to provide against evils and dangers not covered in the original text. Because of this the Paritta stands between strictly canonical and extracanonical texts. Extracanonical literature in Laos has been more adaptive and expressive of particularly Laotian settings and characteristics. The major portion consists of stories about the saints and gods and reflects a large element of Hindu, as well as Buddhist, thought. The Vedic god Indra is particularly popular and is invoked as a providential force to protect the good and punish the wicked. Lives of persons who have achieved a high level of Buddhist sanctity provide a rich source of edifying tales. Hymns, chants, and "sermon songs" constitute minor religious literature. In all of these, poetry is regarded as a kind of word magic used to expel or cajole recalcitrant spirits. The sermon songs of the Buddhist monks, which developed and flourished in the sixteenth century, were probably an outgrowth of the spiritually mechanistic verse formulas found in the canonical Paritta. In these, the old forms persisted, but the content and purpose changed. Thus, whereas the ancient use of verse had been to ward off evil, the sermon songs tended to admonish or instruct the hearer. Secular literature had its beginning in epics dating from the thirteenth century, but little is known of these works, and in the sixteenth century they gave way to folklore from Indic sources. The classical period of epic poetry in Laos, from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, was characterized by epics that were almost all religious and of purely canonical inspiration. As written verse, they were quite rigid in form, and the rules of Indian poetry were strictly adhered to. These poems were taken up by minstrels and gradually modified into a more Laotian setting. Both the Sanskrit Hindu epic Ramayana and the Panchatantra (a collection of animal fables) are popular in Laos, but in the course of time they have acquired distinctly Laotian embellishments. The greatest Laotian poem, one known by every literate Laotian, is the Sin Xay. Taken from the Indic Pannasajataka, it has been preserved in its entirety in fifteen chapters and is noted for its philosophical and literary excellence. The poems and songs popular in twentieth-century Laos are still imbued with strong Brahmanic and Buddhist overtones, but the settings and characters are Laotian. The people are more given to singing than to recitation. Their songs deal with legendary heroes and with love. Some of the verse legends also comment wittily on the discrepancies between social ideals and practices. "Brother Seven Jars," for instance, is full of grotesque and marvelous exploits, through which the laxity of the monks, the naivete of the peasants, and the avarice of the upper classes are held up to derision. The witty, rebellious character common in Southeast Asian literature, in Laos known as Xieng Mieng, is very popular in the country. Despite the smiling satire with which his pranks are recounted, neither the existing social order nor the Indian and Laotian heritage is challenged; it is merely gaily and astutely commented upon. All classes of society are touched upon, but certain concepts, such as respect of the servant for his master and the authority of the king, are outside the target area of this satire. Where no such restrictions prevail, however, the wit is biting. This spontaneous comic verse is untarnished by the bitterness that often characterizes Western European social criticism. The difference seems to lie in the fact that the Laotian accepts the failings of his social order as a matter of course. The most modern Laotian literature is derived from prose novels based on Buddhist writings. The form of the novels, however, was changed to verse in the nineteenth century. The main theme is love, and characters frequently encountered in these romances are a brave hero, a beautiful and faithful heroine, a benevolent magician hermit, and a ferocious giant monster called Yak. The almighty Vedic god Indra acts as a deus ex machina, intervening for the hero's benefit. These novels apparently are highly stylized and, in them, social structures or relationships are not questioned; rather, man is viewed as a constant, and the various components of existence play around him and affect the conditions of his life but do not actually modify his personal characteristics. There is no development of character as in Western fiction, and events have no catalytic effect. The external situations change, instead of the attitude of the hero toward them, and even the external conditions change only within set limits. Historical writing consists of anonymous chronicles in Pali. The most famous of these is the Nilam Khun Borom (History of King Borom), which relates the history from the foundation of the kingdom of Lan Xang to the end of the reign of Praya Sen in the late sixteenth century. Many of the other Laotian annals were destroyed by the Siamese. The general level of educational development as of 1971 appeared to have provided for only limited scientific inquiry and research. As the educational system, as well as specialist training, develops, however, application of scientific knowledge to specific problems, such as agriculture and animal husbandry, will probably produce a body of Laotian writing in various scientific fields (see ch. 5, Health, Education, and Welfare; ch. 6, Religion).